Handbook For Building Homes of Earth

By LYLE A. WOLFSKILL WAYNE A. DUNLAP and BOB M. GALLAWAY

TEXAS TRANSPORTATION INSTITUTE Bullein No. 21 E 14 '3

This report was prepared for the

Agency for International Development under the technical supervision of the

Office of International Housing

Housing and Home Finance Agency

TEXAS TRANSPORTATION INSTITUTE A Part of Texas A&TM Uni-versity College Station, Texas

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter I - Introduction-Types of Earth Houses .......

3 1)
4.4.....

Chapter 2 - Soils and What Can Be Done With Them..-Chapter 3-Soil Stabilizers ........ Chapter 4. . . . ..

Site Preparation ........................................................

55
CO

Chapter 5-Foundations ...............................................................

Chapter 6-Lightweight Roofs ....................................................

72

Chapter 7-Getting the Soil Prrp-red ...................... 74 81 Chapter 8- Making Adobe Blocks............................................ Chapter 9-Making Pres.w-I Earth Blocks .................................... Chapter 10- Making Walls ol Pressed Blocks ........................ Chapter II
-Making

Be 98 113

Walls of Rammed Earth .....................

Chapter 12'- Roofs for Earth Houses........................129 Chapter 13-Floors for Earth Houses .......................................... Chapter 14 - Surface Coatings .......................................................... 134 137

Ch"pte I INTRODUCTION
Probably one of the first homes man lived in after he came out of a cave. wat made of eatth. To he sure, the earliest known kinds of earth construction were very crude by our standards today. Primitive mas did little more than stick mud on poles woven closely together. But even with this, he found shelter that was better than anything else he had except his cave. lie also had the advantage of being able to move around. He could live wherever he wanted to. Gradually. he learned that some kinds of mud mtade hetter houses than others. And some of tl e best ones lasted his whole lifetime. Today, there are plenty of earth dwellings in maty parts of the world that are centuries old. Man discovered that the earth homes that have lasted best were in areas where not much rain falls. A wet climate is the worst enemy of an earth house. Today, with the advances made in the science of soil mechanics, what soils will do under many different conditions can be predicted anud controlled. It is possible. even with little &kill. today to build beautiful, inexpensive and durable homes using the oldest construction material known, the earth atound us. Strangely enough, it is the scientific road builders who have learned most about the way many kinds of soil will behave under a wide variety of conditions. .Thcse scientists know, for examnple, how to take soils that for centuries were considered usele!, for an1ythiog and. by combining theis with materials called stabiliiers, imake thent ito iixtres that ate excellent for earth colsStructioss.
kswolsctlge, much As its most imuportant discoverics, this stems

of it learned since World War II, was found b work done in laboratories by highly trainsed technical men. It sow remains to make these new techniqses. available to the pcolme who need themn most and cats us them to their advantage: the inanv
people in the world who nei-a gooxd, lastitig homes and who

cat.or afford to spentl

a lot of moncy to hui them. or who

manufactttured materials. Earth

do not have access to itodert

is e.er) where. One of the great aims of the Agent) for International DevelopMC'nt Is to belp (ulfill' this "oc'ed: Under its Self-llelp Program. which tlte All) feels gives the most help while allow. Ing those aided to keel ) their dignity and pride, tomes this nanual as oste of AII)'s many technical services. This siall book tries to take the newest techuLJques de. veloped ilt tmlderlt soil mechanics and put then% into simple 3

terms so that almost an)one, anywhere, can have the benefit of the great amount of work that has been done by the scientists. The AID authorized and pas for 3 research project by the Texas AOI Research Foundation, at tollege Station. Texas. to: I. gather and study all available infonmation on building homes with earth; 2. do new research in areas where tot enough was known about what can Ie slone with earth, and 3. bring this inormtation together and present it in a form most useftul for nmost people. Information came front many countries and from all kinds of sources. These included books, articles, tednical reports aid even newspapers. More that) 3W0 such sources were studiedl. fi addition, soil engineers at Texas A&tM Uniersity worked in their own laboratories and made tests of the materials they had and added the knowledge they dcveloped thenselves. This manual tric to ipreietit its itformations inl the simplest way 1xisille. iecause many things %ary greatly even in one country. it is inpOt.MilaI to say all tlings to one person and hase all that infornation apply It the place lie lives. "'he tmany kinds of climate that exist all over the .vorld, plus the tnch greater numnber ofL kinds of soils that are found, make tIIe problemt 4." explatinia just lie11 to luild a house difficult. For example, iu the State of Texas. alone, what would be best IOl do in the castern past wolhI not be at all the same in tle western part of the state. What would Ilc fine its parts of the R; , Grande %'alley and the Texas (;ilfCoast in the south par- would not be best iU the Panhandle in the north. So. this manual describes broadly the kinds of soil that are found in various parts of the world and tells what can be expected of them. It then tells what is best to do with each of them, alone or its combination with others, to make them good enough to use or tiake them better with the use of stabilizers. Anids then it explains which of the three general kinds of earth clnstruction is best for us with the kinds of soil available. It also de. ,ribes silnple tests anyone catl perform that tell the builder how well lie is succeeding itt what he is trying to do. After chiapters ot1'pickitg outiplaces to build. how to make a good foundation for any kind of houst and how to build a roof, the manual has separate chapters otladobe, rammted eath and pressed block constiuction. Because conditiots and available mate ;1s c;Iange so much in differetnt places, the builder often will want to tue his own good judgmnent. It is therefore itportat, in order to get the best value out of this manual, that lie read at least the early

chapters careful before drciliu g K how best to solve his own problem. As in any craft, the gtxxl workmva1 has "the feel" of his job before he tries to go too far with it. This lUaallal. it is holed, will gie hill Illat feel."

Types of Earth Houses

*re are three tain ielKs of catth Ilois that tle builder
fail select:

I. Adobe. 2. Ranmiaed carth.

3. Pressed for Worlka.i.uale) hoL. *Iwo other nietlhods that call hI tI1cl ate "cob" a11'i "wattle atil daub." bilt slai lal IleM do Iot lke ihe ,aimt Iooses. ADlOIEF ILI.OCK.'-WaIlls male from adolic blohhks are prob. 1 ably tle most Ipopialar an1idalt of the oldest forltas of earth llousiug. AdMic hloks are tladie hIt plating a let mud ill Iomxe called "frllla." The foulls arc iat, l el a siort tle after the hilrok are mtade atil tie ailo1wl Ibl cks ate allowed to ild (or tore) for a hot a iaa oth before tihe% are lived to build a wall. "T1e bhlk% are hchl together in tile wall with a "1lalrlar" which talk lie the .%1a11e1Iod tsed for taking the bloks. The a11ain1 ailalt;age ;,lithe has tser tle other l'.cthlls is that it is tle siplest Uitltul. alil a satifactors dwelliug call be lIilt with tile h'ast auliollnl (if coosarUctioll slill. Dto it right. atid %il call iale sartltg talls that arc rclalisel% free frolml crarks. YVo ca'l also 111ake all i tihe I)haxks il %oa spare lic ati ld storc thct tiil iti are ladat to tise thtll.

ild
Figure I. This livable home, built by Lton Watson and Anmclates, in Albuquerque, New %,exito, .deitonstrates the quality and statural beauty of adobe architecture of the South. western United States.

Adobe has several disadvantages. Adobe hlo,.ks are likely to be "rough looking" .nd chip easily. Adobe is usually not suited to climates that have more than 25.30 inches of rainfall a )-ar. Walls made from adobe blocks are usually as attractive or more so than rammed earth but ike rammed earth, adobe often requires surfacing for a good Pppearance. Adobe walls probably require less work than do rammed earth walls. The attractive house shown in figur- I is an adobe house covered with stucco. RAMMED EARTHI-lt this method, continuous walls are built by ramming moist soil into position between heavy wooden forms. When a short section of wall is completed the forms are moved upwards or sideways and the process is repeated until the walls are completed. The ramming may be done with either hand or pneunalic tampers, but either way the soil has to be rammed until it becomes dense and extremely firm. Pneumatic tampers require more skill for successful use than do hand tampers. A well made rammed earth wall is otne of the most durable earth walls that can be made. Some have lasted for centaries. Unskilled labor can do the ramming. Rammed earth has the following disadvantaget: 1. It is not eaiy to do well. 2. The heavy wocdten forms take time, money and some skill to build.

Figure 2. $

Rammed earth conitruction requires the most careful selec. tion of the soil type, or the walls will shrink and crack alter they dry. The amount of water used in the soil during the ramming must be carefully controlled to &:t proper ramming of the soil. If carefully done, the finished wall may look well without any coating. But. it is common practice to stucco or paint the finished wall to produce a pleasing finish. Bonding of stucco or paint to the wall may present a problem if special surface preparation is not carried uut. A rammed earth house is shown in Figure 2. MACHINE-MADE OR PRESSED EARTH BLOCKS-Re. cently. several simple and inexpensive machines have been made for pressing soil into bricks or blocks. Thew earth blocks have many advantages. They have a, proximately the strength &nd durability of rammed earth. Some blocks which have had stabilizers (or chemicals) added to them are nearly as satisfac. tory as burnt brick, lumber, or certain other building materials. At the same time, walls can be builr as easily as adobe block walls. The pressed blocks dry and shrink in the sun before they are laid so that walls essentially crack free, can be built even with soils that shrink a little. Walls made of presswd blocks have a very pleasing appear. ance (Figure 3) and it is not nert.ary to use surface coat'ngs as long as the right soils are used. It nevertheless must be remembered that muih hard work is required for handling and mixing the soil and tramspurting the finished blocks.

lgure 3. Machine.made blocks form the walls of this house. 7

The next two methods are not recommended for a house )ou want to last a long time. WA,,TTLE AND DAUB-In tI.'s methol, a vertical frame. work of posts and poles is first constructed. Then reeds. branches, etc., are woven among the poles to form a base for a mud "plaster" which is Applied to boil sides of the framework. Another way is to make a double wall of poles arid reeds and fill the space between with mud also. Figure 4 shows a wattle and daub house. Shrinkage cradks often occur in walls of this t)pe. and constant maintenance is likcly to be necessary. For sick people. and some elderly people, this metholl of construction is not practical Ibcause a wattle altd .'aub house might need repairs when they can least afford to do it. In many cases this is a disathantage of tihe other methods already mentioned. The method is not very practical in areas where durable Species Of Wood are riot available. COD-In the c.)hI mehol of construction, stiff mud Is solded into balls sormewhat larger than a perion's head. These balls are then piled tip in thick lacrs to form the wall directly without the use of any kiml of forms. The mud must be stiff enough so that it will not hase a tendecncv to slump. If senie
sluimpig or spreadiog does oKcur. tile nuid is put back in place with a trowel or else the excess anun. is sliced off and placed Oil t1i1). The wall must be coostructed slowly so that each la.er has a, chance to harden hethrc Osore ntd is stackel oi tal of it. Workers usually stanatl or sit astride the walls so that scaffuldiig is riot ticcded.

1 he onl advantages that cub hotuses hase are that they littl cclst rlaift ion equiliment. to build aad octal tr% Iloweer. shrinkage cracks cars usually be expected aid they a1.a% ie serious.
are eas

Figure 4. The right hall of this residence in Greece shows the

wattle in place. Daub wiill follow.

Chapter 2 SOILS-AU4D WHAT CAN BE DONE WITH THEM Not all soils can be used successfully for earth houses. A

few of them will be good in nearly any type of climate. Some of them will be good only in dry climates. .Manv soils can be made more suitable with "stabilizers," substances that hold them together or make thei water resistant. The sarious kinds of soils, how to tell them apart, and how to find oL, what they will do, will be discussed in this chapter.

Kinds of Soils
Broadly speaki:lg. there are fihe kinds of soils: gravels. santls, silts, clays, and organic soils. Gravel consi-ts of coarse pieces of rock %ar.Gig in) sie froin t/" across to 3*. (Anfthilng larger than 3 iicles is called a boulder.) (;ravel can be any shape-rotold , flat or angularand it Cal be any ti pe of" rock-granite, linestone. Inliallle. etc.

If it falls apart or esen gets soft after being under water for
24 hours, it is not grascl.

(,rasel is flotn in the lied,; of fast-flowing streams, its areas once coseretl I%glatier- ant arontd ntiltaills. It saries iii siue frin IA inch to abllot tie siallest grain )ou cats see with the nakcd ese. Separate grains tlo siall to see
are eilher silt fir cla. Sand is fountd ill the bells of Ioist flowing ones.n lilt eaches. dleserts, and in glaciers. .Silt is rot'k ground t) soi fine ion grains wil I te naked cSc. Silt will eiill wet antl cotllres~tsd. Too tith isiaitr streatits. exept slowl arcas oIte cotercd bi cannti see illdihidual to hIll toget her wlIel .ald consists of fine grains of %ariolls rocks. niostll quart.

irasi tnake it spltlg. but it does tIot get sery sticky. Silt may he tlollldCearly all% plate: ill the llCde sils tol slowly flowinig streams. il% tl c'lilks" olored sircails conting
from glaciers ot monitains or wIet e dust biliwn is wilds has

settled.

Chi is itat a tal. earth Ioiaerial that is stitk% when wet ll.tt lai l Wil'u tili% Sepitrate gra is aie'to *i f lit lie SetI Witi tire lnl illed e. 'I hc re ate tit iny di ffeteiit kiliils of clay; sUc ill thitI still shriilk aitil swell gltll% Willi lillg atnd Wetlling, sllilC tlS will not.

(:2lA al be filllnd ill tire sallCeis Where slOW-ilio illg 5talAS and it el s flow, ill m aslal lailts, iii the fatishapell delsils at the Ioill litm of's ll lllailt. Orgopic soils lime a s,iogy. or sltilgy aplesraice. The organic iatter inta be filitous, rotted or pattiallI lotted ege.

tation. sch as peat. Organic soils are *.ery spongy when moist ani hase an odor of .et. decaying wood In nature, they will tiarlo alwavs - ntain a lot of water. They are dark-colored, ranging from light brown to black. Organic $oils are usually found where water has been standing for long periods, for example, in swamp areas. The dark-colored topsoil found in many areas owes its color to organic matter.
The tihe ipcs of suils are seldom found separately. Instead. you will find mixtures of them. such as a mixture of sand and silt. or silt and clay, and so forth. By combining the names o different soil t.pes you can des:ribe most of the properties of a soil nixture. For example, a soil with mostly sand and a little silt woutld be called a "silty sand." If it is mostly silt with a small amount of sand, it would bI: ;; "sandy silt." Some common examples Are: sandy clay, clayey gravel, silty clay. sandy grasel, etc.

What Type of Soil Is Best for Earth Houses

The t pe of earth house you build, or whether you build air earth hottse at all, will be affected by the type of soil avail. able and by the climate. Grvels by themsch, are not %cry good for earth houses becatuse the particles wilt not pack down and hol together. (.raselly soils can he used if the rocks are not too large and it there is sonmethi11g to hold the rocks together such as a little ilay. (:layty grascls often work out well. Sands arc about the same as grasels. Since they wi!l not hold together b% themselses, something clscsuch as clay must lic adl led. Infact, jolie jrndy cli' s (tid clay'y sands wake the brst railh honwr3. li tire absence if god clay to mix with the sand. lo11tlaml coinent makes aitexcellent sta ilicr. Ailts hI tlicinwhes are not goxl for walls of earth houses. .hhotigh li t will hiol together, tile, are nit senr strong soils. I it's are dliilittilt to compact ali! should not he tised for raillitil earth (itp cssid hlock walls. Sills also !ose strcngth al InISiit sill ss li (tey gCt wct, II wtet Ireuling weather thts swcll -tillose their strciglhi. i lS l seiIs'a Ic slahi litel to iiike a fairly goxl bihilding Ins.tenia. PotI laI cim t 1 is gotsl for SAIt,:y silts and lime works tim (lait sills. Asphalt etmulsim or ally chiiiicals that siattrpI <if sIlull sijill will do.jistas well.

tl ill lii, k dlon %ell if they hate the right amount If Isatlt iII them. lin rit%scathel, though, they will shrink Od IIL alll il set sesl ticr they' will a hsoh water causing sstlling at hI.Is (if legtil. They wolhl work well it extremely ilts linairtes hetaisc they are %cry strong heoIkept tIny; but, tltsutll, Ilis ate not found in sery dry climates.
10

A few kinds of clays like the red iron. and aluminum. bearing clays found in the tropics (sometimes called laterites) are very stable clays. It is common practice in these areas to cut blocks of clay right out of the ground and stack them ,1p to make earth walls. Experience of one's neighbors with this method will tell whether it is suitable in your area. Many other clays can be made suitable with sabilizers. One of the best stabilizers for clay is lime. There are some clays that should never be used in earth houses. They just will not last. Organic soils cannot be used to make a good earth wall. For one thing, they are too spongv. Soil that contains decom. posing plant life continues to decompose and thus will never "set" right or hold together over a long period of time. A good rule to follow is this: if the soil is good for growing things, it will not be good for building. Remember that the best patural soil you can use for making earth walls is a sandy clay or a clayey sand. If you happen to have such a soil, you have as good a natural building material as can be found. Without the addition of anything more than water, some kinds of sandy clays or clayey sands can be made into walls that will last a lifetime-or esen longer. If you do not have this kind of soil, ,ou might be able to make it. If you happen to have mostly sand, maybe you can find some clay to mix with it. or if )ou have clay, you might find sand to mix with it. WHERE TO LOOK-Often you will find a situation like this: beneath the organic topsoil, you will find a layer of sand. Below this is often found a layer (if clay. By mixing the sand and clay together you might make a good sandy clay. Also, remember that on the top of rolling hills (not mountains) or ridges you are more likely to find clays, and sands will be most common at the bottom. Probably j'ast %';iat you need, a mixture of both, can be discovered somewhere betwecs. If you are fortunate and have (or can make) a good sandy clay mix, a wise choice may be to build )our house of pressed blocks which will last as long as any of the other wall types and ns"abe easier to do. tlowever, with a good supply of sandy clay available, both rammed earth and adobe can also be built very satisfactorily. If the . niy material you can find is very dayey, probably you should build as adobe house. The clay causes the soil to shrink when it dries but since )ou let adobe blocks dry in the sun before you lay thet in the walls, the shrinkage will nut bother you too much. The sext best thing to use is presed blocks, since they also are dried before they are used. Rammed earth dries after it has been compacted in the wall and the shrinkage caused by too much clay will snake the walls crack. I

If your material has Ioo much clay in :t, and not enough aand is availabl., the only thing to do is add sabilizers. II your soil is e.-andy, with only a little clay in it. you will not be able to ouili any type of earth hou.se without adding some sort of stabiliur to it. You can probably get by with the least amount of stabilizer by making pressed blocks. Next would be rammed earth. Probably the most difficult type of house to select a soil for is rammed earth. If the soil has a little too much clay in it. this will cause shrinking and cracking of the rammed earth walls when they dry. If it has a little too much sand it it. the walls might not hold up even during construction because the shocks from ramming might cause it to crainable. If %-on do find a soil that will be gtood for rammed earth, it will aI.m be good for pressed bloks or adobe. Then. %ou catl choose the t)pe of constrttiut %l.it want based or, which method s ants to be easiest for )oi and gies the bl.st looking house. No inatter what kinl of soil %oli hare, it is well to bear lit naind that the drier the climate %ear aroio.d, the mtore satisfactor. tie biilag will be. and the easier it will he to
hbil well. is s thject to lIig thaltges it tle wtea t her fhl Idte by'fIe,cs. whid twcaII int llUch (iftile "letiltetpie /iat. otr areas that hate defiatite stet :ail Iltl Nv mt.t11% %11(t1 .11 are tcttlltltlln in tlie "I'ltiC Zittte. tati lltl %I' *lht',t%,ails (ata lie uateaVwithaat stahili/t's. Itl areas where ucaeihe

c .,ise (of a %car, sithiI as It

All Ila% ait's aitt atteatO, lI.ta'ter. hlat g(axl earth hlotases e bilt hht ilt Ua' illiditta for wherle' great halgi's in tetlatl)eratttae attii" it jsasi aa.natis thlat mller ihe' cattlitiiOlit tatatC tate Mst lit , list-Al ill (l itaitg tile "raw taltials" attal giratlr alltilitllt llt li h gi%(,al lta rla Ie atf stahilicers alndl ill ( ma illalttg .
Iani

IXDIJX(; O(' .4101T i" )IT) SOI-his is alite (iftile ala. It %aut litake a iitiuakte titt itttt iwltt joblts%at Itae tol mouw. it still c;tatt. %lilt tItalah.le liter. iti examtl. if %lit tlie(ite .atsU lite a gtim l %tltll ai l s.silh 4I1ii iianl it later 1la11a1 tlilt ta lIx tlint lsh sandal, %lilt still ls l a 1i ,(1thl extla iotit f ir slahiliiets that %loll hil itlit Itlailtll ftil.
l'atlst:ilL ptladi slat a iatsr .%oauril tsa lait' ' as chle as i)itSiltl Ito %4-at1a ht411s1W.

ft

*l}

ltl;tc

TllE FIRST TI"1.\'; 71f() % ' (i; ".7 .I1OM .%,1I'I.IS OF.T E SOIL IN YOUR .IIEA-l-creis tlhe eqtipttemt tlhal will h1ep o loIaliis. (.%eaI'igteid 5.) 1. A (ilt atger to drill huoles il the grottad is irlcal. Post go xxl , tsl.teriall ) if %tat ill alat plan tlt hole alipgers are als I ga %ery leep.

12

Figure 5. Tools for soil selection and sampling. 2. Pipe extenssons for the dirt auger. These are necessary only if )ou want to look at the soil at a depth greater than I or 5 feet. 3. Two pipe wrenches. Use these for adding the extensions
to the dirt augcr.

4. Shovels. If you don't hase a dirt auger y-oil can use anr ordinary shovel.
5. Pick-Axes or suattocks. that will 6. A supply of sitall bags (cloth, if possible) hold 10.30 pounds of soil. 7. P. 9. 10. A ball of twine. A 6-ft. iuicr. Paper and pencils. One or more large pieces of iansas about (6'x6) for

soil samples.

The dlipth to which, Nin are ging to exilihie 'our" soil lepenid a lot oil how )ou are going to dig the soil for your hotsc later. If )oil are going to dig by hand, )oil probably will 1.: want to dig mlote than 3 to 5' feet deep. It %oursoil will be dug by machine. )ou will Wanst to eXantine the $oil as deep as the machite will dig. perhaps S. 10 or ntore feet deep. First, dig out and toss aside the orgatit topsoil. It desert
will areas, there will be little or ito topsoil as stch. In wet. tropka areas, the top soil may be s esral feet thick. On( %io , ar

13

Figure 6. through the topsoil. start collccting thc soil. The soil may change several dilfrest times. ecn at shallow depths. For this reason, you should separate each type of soil by putting it in a different pile. Ustlally, hut not always, a change in color of the soil will mean a change ia soil t~pc. The best way to tell whether you are changing soil types is to use the simple tests dcscriled ila the aext t.ction. Tlhese tests require iso equipmet atl can be done as you dig the soil. Here is a tqpical situation. Below the topsoil you might run ioto. a .laycr of sasd. Save all of this sand assd put it in a sirtgle pile. Then )ou conse to a layer of clay.' Put all of the clay into another pile. nald so on. When you are finished, you may have ssc ral piles of different soils. Fgure 6 shows
how this is dote.

As )ou dig, write dowa the thickness of each layer, the color and type of soil, atd an accurate description of the location of the hole. Soils can vary widely even within a small area. For this season. do not be satisfied with what you find its a single hole. Instead, dig several holes in an area that is big enough to supply all of the soil you want. If all of the holes produce

14

the tame kinds of soil. combine the same tpes into separate piles, such as all the sand samples together, and all the clay sanples together. After making some quick tests, you may decide that a mixture of what you have should work out well. Since you have saved all of the soil from (he hales, you might find you have the right mixture simply by mixing the sand and clay into one pile. But at the - ;inning. *- rate 311the different kinds first until you are suta of what you hase. When you are satisfied that you have examined an area completely, put each soil type in - Arate bags. Label each bag with the hole (or holes) and th. depth that it came from. These hags of soil will be used for the tests that will decide the type of soil you hate and the type of house yot should build. How to Identify Soils Ifere are sonic simple tests that will tell you what kind of soil you hase. l)o all of them on all your sample'. Be sure that the samples that .ou test accurately represent the soils you will use in building. If you are testing sams or grasels, first dry the soil by heating or .3prCaditlg a sample its the sun. Make it into a coneshaped pile, and carefully divide it into four equal samples as shown in Figure 7. Combine two opposite portions into one sample and set aside the other two. Vou should end til) with about a sho elfttl of soil. If there is too much soil after one such separaio,, repeat the process of dividing and discarding until a suitable sih soil sample remaits.

Figure 7.

is

VIUA
sorngr ra

TFT-h:Apaac

Ofar4
o t't, Frtsra .~

a
te d

t
id

o
si

~ ~ ~ ~ ~
t:hl ss

'rp

he IUlTFT

anc a'oi appearavlsiesby

el

-~

~-down: tothe.-smallest-that
-uf-snd-;pavel

Do this by punting all ofltthe particles front thc largest

'

.,. -

you can see o ith: the unaided. e)c--'~~ in one pile. This will be the sands and graiels, lMhat is left no~irmallyd his.wili be 1ery finepoic liehaeias~wl e t he silts and cia~i If ihersilt 'and 'clay pile Is larger than theli pile, call the siliiI silt-clay for. now and rrememlgiber-- -this. ,Other tests, described later, will t.-II )oil whiich is.' Ih e sand anl'dr gravelpiles together are bigger, jou ha~e I~f, a sani&Or' a-gra~rl. I)--le lhich it 'is1-b-pttuing all ofA the particles.12rgmrthali 1I/4" 4graicls) itt one~pileand .eli cathe--* smaller, particles i n inr another ric Thle -wl is gracil A If tile irasel pile Ihggest and sandy If the sand Pile is biggest,-;

'--'

~~
------

~
>"--I

-~

S Here Is whaut %(i do If )oil have a sandy or, r32ellA l,. Iak a'j sildl handlful of tile entire U'niple t(not jict tile -sand and graiely; get It~ntoisu-hbt n awl py, squeeze itlotlora lill, and -kt it drylin stil~l. f1falls .apart as ~It dries, call It -dejo Ela winkand gril: age not C 11111niable Ijir e.aaili houv~i onlei thic~ ia.nki~ed ithi othecr
-

$m

.,4A(

IILHere Is whaut ou elo'If)) Ii t. e S1 h

I) iiI,

Narl' ad-or

>

~smaller
A

llctt 4ll of unlC.V)I that 11~2 inithol sand )h by6sifting titroujgh a '->me~%ry- fine Isweii or:,-.t-grv s oat -ioh-l t~'v .he tests' Z~~~i - deslcribltledboh shouid bse nuade ith (Iis fine miaterial,-than

TAC~I lie: f 4 jtiesampk .a 11

4Af

AA

AAA -~'-

-A, '

A A A '~

~ ~~~A
AA,7 -.

A~~-The7

a ball, tile site of a small lien'svgg aeniimlit-ii~ it iwitls iater bali should base just elnugh walvi Ill Iton that It il-

A A

A, -~

ld-wchrhtutsi'audr-foifin)otr palie And thale tile ha ll liguitilsly. lte hA I i l:A: l----r 4 A done by jarring tile- hand -agalnotnelic filut ijec v or agains the oilier hand tantI'-tAhcshiaknItilngi i av ett utile surface~A~A

,slightly

A '

~ ~':7~;,

~A ~~1A
'

'->-

'~

~~appearalite stae this laWl1fi1n ou m~d"eeCe Glekig for~is -to .%cc flow' (it thac water comles Its tile silte ande givstilelivery'.ia~a Tlr wineiueie 'tamp~le IK b1w.eco )Ou r hthavlban ,IA tte t Aivle r m(i water ds
A A -

>>*-

"A

AapiWas,

rA

'A

'

-Ij

T-~he fellostilig Arte (tnis1141 niil

e~seithilng thee sPatI

Ai

A'

'~-&

--

-rn-"-'the -saw ie should cjos-e the' water it) disgjppe~r Itmmediately~

so the surface looks dull. Opening the hand quickly should accomplish the same rsult. Continued pressure causes the sample to crack and finally crumble. This type of reaction is tipical of very fine sands and coarse silts. Even a little bit of clay will kep the reaction hrom being rapid. 2. Sluggish (or V'ow) Reaction-Wien it takes 20 to 30 taps to bring the wal.r to the surface, you have a sluggish reaction.

.,,! Figure I. Rapid reaction to the shaking tit. 17

....

'

4.

.-L.

4 ,

* .

Figure 8h. Sluggi.h reaction to the shaking test. samiple after ithas bcn shaakcn will not caUw, SqLLiCing tile
of

it to cinaL andacrublile. Instead. it will flat ten out like a ball soil has sonie c ay ini it. lw1t). '[Iis sho"s Ihat tile op No Itearlion-Some oils will not show .lom 3. I'ery
ant%sactiinto the shaking test. no matter how long you shake more clay thenm. The longer it takes to show a reaction, tile

Is

the soil contains. Theft soils will require the other testa decribed below before you can tell much about them. TIRFAD TFST-To a lump of soil almout the of an olive. mix just cuough water so the lump cdan be cal,:size 7 molded in your hauds. but is uiot stice. Next, (m a flat C(can surface roll out the soil iuto a thread. Usc the paint of ye:ir hand or fingers and exert just v.ough pressure to make the soil thread

.ammmm ml

..

.S;

igure Sc. A soil that did not react to tIte shaking lest. II

",:

,:

I41
,

. ....
"

..

AA.
. F igure 9. 'The -thread test. (See Figuire 9.) If it breaks before )ou get confleoally smaller.

roll It citt to a /s" diameter thread, it is too dry and you need iore water to it. When the soil is at the right to add sie

moisture content, the thread will begit to crumble into several It the small pieces just when )ou get it to a diameter of t". ", lump it together thread ol s not crumble and break at aitin, Wead it into one Iunip. aol icp[eat the tolling proc s

20

until the thread crumbles at t/" diameter. (The thread will eventually crumble because it dries as you keep rolling it out.) As oon as the thread crumbles, re-mold the azmple into a ball and see how much pressure it takes to squeeze the ball between your thums and forefinger. Thi test gives an idea of how also what type of clay itis. If much clay Is in a soil and the you cannot roll the soil into a thread soil crumbles easily and at any moisture content, it means that the soil does not have any clay in it. Here are some of the other reactions you can expect: I. Tough Thread-If the remolded hall can be deformed only with a lot of effort .And it does you do it. your soil has a lot of not crack or crumble when clay in it. It probably will not be good for earth walls unless you use a stabilizer. 2. Medium Strength Thread-This kind of soil can be remolded into a ball, but when the ball fingers, it will crack and easily crumble. is squeezed between the This soil may be good but may require some stabilization for certain areas. Check Table I to be sure.
3. Weak Thread-When the soil has a lot of silt or sand and very little clay, )ou will find that the threads cannot be lumped together in a ball without completely breaking up or crumbling. This soil may be good for earth walls; check Table I to be sure. 4. Soft, Spongy Thiread-Sometimes you will find that the threads and the ball that yoil make with them will be spongy and soft. You can squeeze the ball between %our fingers, but it acts like a sponge and bounces back. When this happens, the soil is organic and it's not suitable for building earth houses. RIBBON TEST-This test gives about the same kind of information that tie thread test gives. It helps to do both tests. One checks out the other. Take enough soil to form a roll about the size of a cigar. The roll should not be sticky, but wet enough to permit being rolled into a t/," diameter thread without crumbling, as in the thread test. Put the roll in the palm of )our hand and, starting at one end, flatten the roll by squeezing it between the thumb and forefinger to form a ribbon between !.' and '" thick. (See Figure 10.) Handle the soil %ery carefully to form the .maxiinutn length of ribbon that the soil will supp6rt. See how long the riblmon will hold together without breaking. 'he reactions )ou cati expcct ate described below. I. Long Ifibbos-With some soils the ribbon will hold together for a length of 8 to 10 inches without breaking. This means that the soil ha a lot of clay in it. Soils of this t~pe will make long-lasting earth walls only if they are stabilized. 2. Short Ribbons-If you can-with some difficulty-ribbon the soil into short lengths of about 2 to 4 inches, the soil has

21

Figure 10. The.ribbonl test. a medium to small amounit of clay in it. It will be about the same as the soils that give a medium or weak thread in the thread test. This soil will make goxl walls in manty cases but to be sure (heck Table I. S. Will Not Ribbon-Some soils cannot ie formed into ribbons at all. This means that they contain either a very small amount of clay or none at all. Lich soils with a little 22

clay may make good rammed earth walls. If the soil is all sand It Is not suitable unless stabilized heavily with portland cement; tr be sure, check 'rable J.
DRY STRENGTH TEST-This is another simple test that will help you determine ho much clay .ou hase in the soil. Prepare two or three wet pats of the soil about 1/2" thick and I" to 21 wide. Use enough water to make the soil quite soft but still strong enough to hold its shape when you form it into pats. Then allow the pats to dry in the suitor in an oven until they are dry all the way through. Break the soil pat and then try to powder it between )our thumb and forefinger. Htere is what )ou are looking for: I. Iligh Dry Slrength-lf the sample has high dry strength It will be very difficult to break. When it does break it will snap sharply, like a crisp cookie. You will not be able to powder the soil between )our thumb and forefinger. You may dou't confuse be able to crumhle it a lit with .our lingers, bilt this with powdering the soil. Soils with this reaction hase a lot of clay in them. and thei will be satisfactory only if stabilized. 2. Medin Dry !1rength-WhenI a soil has a medium dry strength, it will not be too hard to break the soil pat. With a little effort )oi will be able to powder the soil down to its separate grain sises etween lur tunbl anid forelinger. This soil is goext but may iequire a stabilier to reduce shrinkage; check Table I. " 3. Low Pry Strength-A pat with %crv little clay will break without any trouble. It will powder easily. Pats of %cry sandy soils will crumble in %our hauld before %o ilhiae a charce to powder them. Btefore a final decision on the use of this soil, check 'lable I. The four tests described abuse are the most important ones and it will pay .on to.os. thean all in finding out about )our that will also aid )ou. soil. These are sMIlie i her simple Itsis Use them if )ou tired to. They are gisen below. ODOR TET-Organic soils hae a musty odor, especially when freshly dug. You get the same odor for dry organic soils ion' t use these soils in by wetting ainlthin lic'atinjg them. earth walls. lITE TISTS-This is a quick iand useftl way of identifying sand. silt, or clay. Take a small pinch of the soil and grind it lightly between )our tceth. Identily the soils as follows: I. Sandy Soili-The sharp, hard particles of sand will grate ill create at) objectionable feeling. Even between the teeth and sv very fise sands will do this. 2. Silty Soil%-Silt grains are mitch smaller than sand

particles and although they will still grate between the teeth, 23

Names of Soil Very fine aands. silty fine sands, clayy fine sands. clayey ilts Silt. very

Relrtle" to Wet Shakitg Test May be ra;ld to sluggish, but never vry low

TABLE I SILT-C'LAY SOILS It the sll-elay pile .u larger thaa the sand gravel puse tortie. then use the Table eowle0 to determaire -hot kind of oWl it Ia. Dry Strength Thread Ribbon Addltional Suitability Test Test Test Tests for Earth Low to none: usually none Weak thread to no strengtLh in throad dn-lcular Short ribbons. nmay not ribbon at all Washe- off handos eaily, Will nt stainh.,.da Usually suitable for all typv. y ad',b. if saibilizedl

Stabillrs

Camam-

Portland cement Most suitable. As.halt emulsions R60 work As

May be affected by frut

May be anythint frm sluacisb u, tonone

May In. Icw to, medium

Weak 3 medium. strmnrh at.e th-..od

Short ribbons

do most - .terroofrera Shold nut ho luctband ud ft ePntn used if P_ -/ment. sile. Stabilize a:i.halt h.avily if emulsiona
nrtnesary to if suil is

Will usually Will ur. reqluire aur far, coafting In addition tstabiliera

u'.e Gravelly clay,

sandy clay,

nt t.o mticky Lime Sand Gravel Can be very good if anont or sand or gravel
1. higth

May be very stow.to none

May be medium to

Medium -trrngth
hra

sity clay

lr high tclysuitable

Short to long rilbo:ns

Wilt usually Mturv stabi. is most for

rammed earth

thread

Clays. fat clas

! ,no

High to very high

Tough th .,d

Lang riblom.

Very sticky when wet. difficult to wash off of hands

and pressed blocks Should never Ie used fur earth houses

Organic sillt. organle slty

Slgih

clays

L.. to medium

Weak th e.ad 8ert ribbons and feels or may not spongy ribbon at aiL Spongy feel

A pat of moist oil hs a mushy odor when heated A liat of moist soIl has . mushy
odor when

Should aever be used io earth houses

OrganIc slts. oiganic slays

Maybe very a'- to none

Medium to high

Weak to medium. Thres feel

soImngy

Short ribbons. spongy feel

Should never be used for earth houses

h,.sted GRAVEL SOILS If the gr'avel pile ws hrler than th, sand pile. thieseisa Table below is decide what hind *f gravel it is. Silty graves. .4 snd-siltgravel mixtures Rapid Low to none: ususlly none No strengrth of thned Will not rilbon t Fine material ath. soff eosily. Will not tain hands

the Portland cement most suitable, Asphalt emulsions may alwork. May be Affseted by frost

Usually suit. able if it is first atabllived. If almost a "clron" gravel It may be nfe t.ary to first add Smo

fines fe

Clayery gravels, cravel-sndclayur mixtures

Sluggish to very slow

Medium

Medium strenith thread

Short ribbons. Fin..r msy be long mw,,erial l w..hed1 off of hands

M.y IWvery suitable fur tylem of earth house. If almost clean, it may be n r-a ry to odd s e fines

Lime moat sultale. Portland rement may work if satl ml,. -ily

Nam" ef

soil

Clean Ctravn

Reiction to Wet Shaking Test

Dry Strength Test

Thread Test

TABLE I (C(utd) Ribbon Additional Test Tests gravels

Not necessary to run these test, on cles.

Suitability for Ea.-h Homes Nt suitable forearth

bouse. Can be mised with fines Isllt or clay) to make suit. able . .it .or earth houses

Stabillars

Carmil If well graded, will

be very -tood for agregzate in concrete for foundations

SAND SOILS If the sand pile wuas larger than the wravel pile. then msa the Table below to decide what kind at usd it Ia. Silty. sands Rapid* Low to none. usually none No xtrenxth of thread Will i~t ritibon Fine material washes off eaily. Will not stain hnds Usually suitPortland able if stahlcement lased. If almost is IeaL a *clean- sand Asphalt it may be eoulsions necessary to may work add more fines cl yey fines Clayey sandis Slugglih to ery slw Medium Medium Short ribbons but may be ln! Fine material not easily washed off of hands Usually very suitable for all ty-es of eAlth houses If almost clean. may add some clayey fines Not necesaary to run the.- tests on clean sands Not suitable for earth hou.es unless mixed with fines Lime is best. Portland cement will work If soil mixes easily May be affected by frust

Clean sands

Clarey fines

If well-graded will be good for alrregate in concrete for foundationa

they are not particularly objectionable. They feel a lot smoother than sands. 3. Clayey Soils-The clay grains are not gritty at all. Instead, they feel smooth and powdery like flour between tie teeth. You will find that a dry pat of soil with a lot of clay in it will tend to stick when lightly touched to your tongue. SHINE TEST-Take a pat of either dry or moist s' and rub it with your fingernail or the flat side of a knife blae. If the soil contains silt or sand-eseu with the remainder being clay-the surface will remain dull. A soil that has a lot of clay In it will become quite shiny. TRY WASHING YOUR HANDS-You can tell a lot about a soil in the way it washes off of your hands. Wet clayey soils &el soapy or slick, and they are hard to wash off. Silty soils feel powdery like flour, but they are not too difficult to wash off. Sandy soils rinse off easily. Color is important in classifying soils. Olive.greenish and light brown to black colors may mean organic soils. Red and dark brown colors may corne from iron in the soil. Soils with a lot of coral. limerock, gypsum, and cliche may be white or some shade of gray. After you have done all of the tests gisen above and base decided what the reactions to them are, voul are ready to use Table I. It will tell %ou exactly what kind of soil %ou have and what kiud of house %on can build with )oni soil. liere is the way to use Table I: Sttplose Iou found that your soil was a graselly soil. Ihis means that the sand and gravel piles together were larger than the .ilt.clav pile. and the gravel pile was larger than the sand pile. Use the grasel chart in Table I-this is for the grasels. Suppose the tests you did on the part that passed the fly screen showed )our soil reacted rapidly to the shaking test, had weak soil threads anti 'ow dry strength. Theti your soil would be a silty gravel. sery It would not be suitable for earth houses without stabiliiation. Getting More Exact
Of course, the tests just described ate pretty crudc acco.. ing to the staludasls of a soils engincer. Itit niCe son hase performed then a few times :-ml "ge't the feel" of )our soil they will gise.()tt the infostnlttion %P0 .nes. Ifos'eser. in order that )ou night know what a soils engineer would ido. following is a list (if tests that lie woul perform (or )o couhl do )outrself if ,n hail tile cqutipment). If )oil can ilsi the tests )ottsclf. or hase stinteonc do them for )ou. tables-similar to Table 1-can be usesd to determine more accurately the type of soil yosu hias and what cats be done with it. The tests are described ii detail in Appendix A. 27

I. Gradation lests will tell you more exactly about the size of soil particles. There are two techniques of doing this, a simple method which uses little equipment, and a more complicated method involving special equipment. 2. Lineal shrinkage tests are a fairly accurate and simple way of telling how much clay your soil contains and how the clay will act as far as shrinking and swelling is concerned. S. Atterberg limits give you much the same Information that the lineal shrinkage test does, but more accurately.

Tests on Blocks
The simple field tests you have done tell you much mote than you knew about )our soil before. But these tests alone can't tell you everything you need to know about your soil. For this you must do some more tests. These tests will require you to make some actual blocks of the type of construction recommended for your soil in Table 1. It takes about a month to make, cure and test the samples, but it is worthwhile. Your house, well made, will last a lifetime. It is best to use actual size blocks as test samples. but if you are teting many different soils, or one soil with several stabilizers, this may require a .large quantity of soil. Then. you can make smallcr test samples roughly this size: 6x3x2 inches. You will need 7 test blocks of each soil. This will take about 4 shotelfuls of soil for these blocks. If Table I shows that iour soil might work with more than otC type of earth construction. then the best thing to do is to make 7 test samples of each t)pe recommended, test the samples, and then decide on the type of construction to use. When you have doue all the tests and finally decided on your soil and type of construction you will use, it is a good idea to tnak', a few actual size blocks (if you used 6x3x2.inch blocks in your evaluation tests) and test them just to make sure they act like the smaller blocks. Hiere is what you (to for the different type (Afearth consirtiction..
. . .

ADOBE-First. see how water doesn't mix casily into a smooth everything including )our mixing factory adobe house. (It contains

mixes with your soil. If it mud. but instead sticks to tools, it won't make a satis. too much clay.)

If you still would like to use adobe construction anryway, )ou will have to add a stabilizer. There are several, as you will see from Chapter 3. but let's suppose you've decided to use lime. For one test block mixture, add one part of lime to 50 prrts of soil, for another, add one part line in 25 parts soil, and for another, one part lime in 17 parts soil. Make enough

28

low

Figure II. of each of these nmixtures to make 7 blols. Mix the soil and stabilizers togclher intil soil get a uniform color. Mixing is very itmportant; so, dlo it well. I hen-whether your soil has stabiltrer in it or not-gradu. ally add water until iou hase a .thick mul.. You can tell when it is right by running a pointed stick through it. If lie bottom of the groove barely closes due to its. own weight, it is right. Place )otur wet soil inix in a form box. Figure II shows a fortm box for small samples that has enough space for eight blocks, 6x3x2 inches.
You can be sure the forms are properly filled by working the tild around a hit with your hands until there are no more air pockets. Scrape the excess mixture from the top of the form with a board or the edge of your shovel.

21

Innch.

lt the foriqetalbonat fifteena mip-nett up thtat it fail Ie lifid off the bloks without the blocks losing their shape very
If ther b arki s.ioa/a n, Wa+ile. .o1 hasve addled tao ItitlC

waler and you should Isegill again.

Alter a few das. turn the blocks on dge a341 let th.m Cure. Iet ueltablili:ed hlcks cure in the slun for Jiur weeks.

If the test hloclak cntain a stalilier. they shtull Ie slo;akllel fr at hIasthe first week. or else kept folly covered Ita keep +hiin inlois. Blocks should Ive protected butti rains stila auPthing flhat will ketep the water off them. At all times. Itaaaac,,r. air shtull be alie to get to ,htu.
iot1

While the lbel s are cnring, if large. oop.t cracks aalvear,

cail tell witlhout waiting for fotar weeks lhat the contain

taoo futnsi clay. Fu.ll site adobe blocks shounld 1tt have nlorc lhaw 2 or 3 narloa sacacks and these should nt ga. comnpletel lritaugh tite block. The smnall 6xU2-inlth bhloks shoull noty have aaai cracks at all. It the blocks can be cruanleil easily
after a ise.k or %i. lite soil is tao sanly.

Whean the adlobc be tetad,

locks are fully cured the) are ready to

I'IUAS.EI) ItI.OCKS AnD t.0,l.1El'D IIl''-f)ne of the liffettates ltctweela anaking adole block and lpiessoa block tr rallntll eaIi lit's inthe allaaaaallt of water tasad inprpatiag tlhe soil. Alobe. we will call "wet": tle othars shouhl ony be
"lllt1ist." It is inlalmttat Ito get l'e right alnaa01all

in flhe moil.

a0. aaatcislar

l'ipper and oncl)lte atixing is alsoj esselatial.

To check tle InaistlUac conatenat take a handfl (if mtoist soil andl snake a ball with ouira hatnls almut the site of a small

otralnge. Ptess it towllaci as firtaltl n as %ilt can. Thea drop it ollt a hiail staliite illn lr leiglht. If it sliatters into piets st that it is atlita the wa it as before )ou'nmoldled it, I t iisttre s a ilttnl is righlt. II it breaks int a few large pieces ir flalteas alait. it is too wet. If it is lifficul Itt apies itt ta a Ii Onta hlll tIogether, orl f calli a ialt ('aa it easily Iteltei aatr fiagelt- it is tasi i ry. "liis test will appllY wheat her
Ih, viil is ,stalilitel itit, . . , 1)at the. moisfare cottent ,is-cr ctl. )los are eatly Io mnake trial itresel blocks air ratatUfed earth.

Ilse it. If sota hlt anl, a ou will netl a nhold such a slhown in Figutre 12 alil solic aeatns of appaitng pressure to comnpiacet the soils. You shouhl aplly abouat 500 poundll for esery square inch

Of colarse. if %il have a machine for 1atakitag lull site blocks.

oif block surface so the nalls hill have to be ahle to witlhstand a hit of presstre. Male acth of the trial blocks exactly the same wa).

Renmove each block from the 11old and allow it to cure the Sille way as the adilbe, for four weeks. Look for cracks itt the

30

VON

blocks during the curing period. if full size blocks contain smore than one najrrow crack in them, zhey will not be suitable.

Rammed Earth
Make a form as shown its Figurme 13. abiout line folit oneC foot iy eight hinces deep inside. It should be made by of seasonsed lumbiter that will tnot sh rinik, amid it sisoum It be coated

31

figure 13. Iih oil IIIl'

iII' UiIIh.

11.iaalt I pilv v oil "'(1

iIili9 it 111 0' I"IiL if tdlloe.tr for ramlilin %k %ill, 1 c U~lIaI)(r call It[ I1lll 1) l. i tairlilg .a Isla%y, (11 It' a oicl of piil. (ecV Figure 7je.)

endlt

Fill gt' . Ill (ollt includillg elsl' collar) almutit , full of I(lowt I I ii, 4l so il ali1 raill it 50 lios. iTise pUll the Same .2110ll is lit ell ln agail. and1l ram it 50 limes. You should
IlI; %%ti lilt lit k-maIliI) (if 2J

Iz.

ei-slilihlly

moIre

than

6 in.lit
tji ilse

ici. 1't I knife or (Iilt piece of SICel Ia smolh tlie of Il hh ljlt. lIe sUtiCI hat %ol ram each of Ihe Irial blocks % civai~ ( as all tile thiers.

Remove the form from all blocks except the last one made and cure the blocks the same as adobe. The la block should be carefully cured in the form. If the soil shrinks away from the form as it dries, it will not be suitahle for rammed ezrth. TESTS ON BLOCKS-After all test blocks have cu-d for at least four weeks, the test described below can begin. blocks will soak up water and whether the water will cause
them to swell. It should be (lone on evcry soil you intend to use in earth walls, regardles of the t)pc of construction used. If you have several soils available and are -rying to decide which one to use. this test can help you decide. Equipment and supplies needed: I. Two of )our seven blocks of each soil mixture. 2. A shallow pan that will hold water at least 1 deep. and large enough to hold several blocks at once. Use heavy wire gating or mesh to fit in the pan for the samples to rest on. The grating should be placed in the pan so tie samples will be in nV- of water. Support the wire grating in several places so it will not collapse when several samples are placed on it. Make a hole in the side of the pan at the c4 rect level so that the water will not get higher than " on the samples. Then. by letting a sulall antount of water irip in the pan and run out of the hole )ou can be store that the samples will alwa)s be exactly yi/ deep in water. Figure 14 shows how one of th e pans looks. ABSORPTION TFST-Thii test tells you how fast your

Figure 14. Laboratory facilities provide close control of special soil tests such as the absorption test above. This test may be performed in the field with minor modification.

33

D IS TA C CRU S HING DISTANCE I

DISTANCE

130 Lb. MAN

ROP'!, CHAIN,

Figure IS. Simple leer test for determining strength of block@ (we Table 2). 3.' Fine wire screen (liki fly screen) tobe placed between the blocks and the wire grating to keep weak samples from falling through the wire grating. 4. A I-ft. ruler divided to 1/16ths inch with at least I inch disided into 1/32nds inch. 5. Wax paper or plastic sacks. if available. (;et the right size to fit ioowely over the samples. These sacks ate not absolutely necesary bt they will make )our test nlore accurate because they keep water from evaporating from the samples. They are mo3t useful when the test is perfonned it hot. dry weather. 6. A supply of clean water. 7. A clock or watch. . *A "form such is showns 6sn page 37. The test starts as soon as the block touches the water. Blocks am stood in exactly '/." of water. As they soak up the water, you will see a wet line extending around them. After 5 minutes. with )our rider measure the height of the water line above the bottom of the block. Often this line will not be straight and level. Measure the best average height you can get to the nearest 1/16". Measire again atthe following times: I. 2. 4,8,24 hours, ant once each day thereafter or untl the

34

water reaches the top of the block. The heights that you Also, write measure should be written down on your fusrt. down , e time when the water rise to the top of the block all of the block is wet. !!I,. If you have a scale, weighing the blocks each time you measure heights will give a better idea of when the hlock stops absorbing water. There is a space for the weights on the form.
To chck whether the block swells, measure the longest side of the block to the nearest 1/32' before the test starts. At the end of the test measure the block again at exactly the same place. There is also a place fur these measurenicrits on the form. A good time to test your blocks for strength is at the end of the absorption test, because they are in their weakest condi. tion then. Test them as soon as the water line reaches the top of the block ant call this the "wet" strength of the block. TEST-The strength of soils is tdetermined STRENGTI by crushing (compressive strength) rather than by pulling apart (tensile strength) . This tcst is very important for earth houses and shotld be done with a great deal of care. Equipment and supplics needed: I. Two of )our dried. cu..d blocks plius the two alswsrption test blocki. The site and shape of the blocks is very important

Figure 16. In the laboratory a universal testing snathine can be used to determine the unconfited compresshe strength of a sample. The sample being tested is a CINVA.Ram block.

31

X0

'

Figure 17. when testing a soil to determine its compreuive strength. They should be toughly twice as long as they are wide. Your 6x3x2Inch blocks are ideal, but the rammed earth blocks should be trimmed to size first. Do this carefully so the blocks are not damaged. 2. A way to apply and measure the load to crush the blocks. In fommercial laboratories they use a machine such as sL:wn in Figure 16. Another way is to use a hydraulic jack

36

with a gage on it Usat will accurately Measure the crushing load. You can also make an attachment for the CINVA-Ram block.maklng machine as shown in Figure 17 that will break the blocks. Note. that in this figure the block is not in the correct position for a compression test. You can also make a simple. lever type machine such as the one shown in Figure 15. 3. 4. A I-ft. ruler ditided to 1/16th inch. A copy of the form shown on page 37.

The methods discussed here will he easy ones which require little or no equipment. If .ou have any of the better equip. ment mentioned above, the test procedure will be about the same. The results will be more accurate, of course. The blU'cks should be tested Piy loading them in the direction of their longest dimension. Make sure that the top and bottom arc square so the block does not tilt during loading. The exact area of the block is important. "ro get it, measure the exact dimensions of the crushing face, and multiply them together. Write this lown on )otur form.
TEST FORM Bell Infermation

Lo~atlon of Soil
Depth

..............

.
.............

.............

Type of Test Illock lCircle One) Adobe Pressed Block Rammed Earth Amount and Type of Stabilizer -.............. . Absorption Test Ifigfht of Weixht of leight of Weight o' Water Line Hi.k Water Line Block Time
0

No. I No. 2

No. I No. 2

Time
2 days

No. I No. 2

No. I No. 2

5 mins.
I he. t

3 days
4 days

hr. Id ays 4 hr. days a hr. 7 days 24 hr. Time for water to reach top of block ................. ,ength of block befnre start of test. .....
Length of block at end of test ........ ... ............. Strength Test

Dry Blocks Block I Areaofblock. Ara

square inche

Wet Blocks
Block 2 Block I Block 2

of hrok,
squ'a re inches

Crushing distance. ft. Crushing

strenrth

Crushing distance, fti.Crushing

strength

"Simple" Strength Test Block I (circle one)Very soft, Block 2 (eircle one)Ver7 soft. soft. soft, medium, medium, stiff. stiff, very stiff, very stiff, hard hard

Depth of Pits Remarka

Spray Test Block I

Block I

37

Using the lever arrangement shown in Figure 15, place the block under the lever and apply the load. Figure 15 shows a 15-.pound man sitting on the lever, but you could also hang a bucket of stones or water (or anything weighing 130 pounds) from the lever. Start with the man or weight close to the block and move slowly outward to the end of the lever until the block breaks. Then measure the distance from the end (or chain) to the weight. Call this the Ireaking Distance. From Table 2. you can find the crushing strength of the block. For in-between dimensions not shown in the Table, you can estimate with good accuracy. Even if you cannot make the lever machine shown in Figure 1.5,you can still estimate the wet strength of blocks followig the absorption test. (All dry blocks will be hard. and it would be difficult to even estimate the difference in strength between seseral blocks without some sort of equipment.) For this, use the "simple" strength below: can "Simple" STRENGTH TEST-The reactions that )oul expect to this test are as follows: Very olt-The block can be easily pinched apart with only the thumb and forefinger or it may even slump under its own weight. Soil-If the block can uc easily penetrated sceral inches with the thumb, call it "soft." Adedium-lf the thumb will penetrate a block about I inch with moderate cfort, it is of nedium strength. Sill-Soils which are stiff can be indented with the thumb, but only with great effort. Very Stif,-The soil cannot be penetrated at all with the thumb. but it can be penetrated with the thumbnail. Hard-Very difficult to dent with the thumbtnail.
TABLE 2 Citt'SHING STRENGTH OF BLOCKS FROM SIMPLE LEVER TEST Arsof Block In Square Iches
4
I

Dist. ", "

1212"
22

"CRUIIING DISTANCE" fLength From End of Lever To Weight For Blocks of Strength Shewn)

lt 2

$5-t0"

pal 1-04-5"

Itsi

4-.tO"

'-O. 4'.40

P1 psi 156 pot '.IO" , 4'-7 4'-4 5 4-2" 5'-.5 4'.10'

31

pst e 4'7 5'-2"*

t'-5"0

1,1

22" 2 2" 12: 4 I 1 5 I1" 2 22" 6

4"

4'-2"' 5'-4" PD 5' 41.7V-3V:.t" 4'.2" 4 .tV7'-4"

-

5'-tu P-11" V/.6". -"*

5'-4"
1

6'.t4" 65.1 7..(... .'54.-.5 10p-5 55'-O"5

Meaure

is 5
Where

s1.s" 9'.2"

'''

i'-4" j;5' 5 'I'-ti

7'-2"* 7'.41"* '- * '.2*

splwors, use I mes tor 2605 welghtl on lever.

distance from point -A" of lever to r nter of the weight.

38

The only blocks which will be normally suitable for earth houses are those which are called "hard." -Very stifr ones may be suitable for dry areas. Remember to do the ,trength test on both the dried, cured blocks (call this the dry strength) and on wet blocks after the absorption teat (call this the wet strength). Always use at least two of your blocks to determine their strength. Use the average strength of the two blocks. SPRAY TEST-This test tells you how your block will hold up in a hard, driving rain. Most accurate results require laboratory equipment, but there is also another way that is satisfactory. Equipment and supplies needed: 1. Two of your seven blocks of each mixture. 2. A spray nouzle that can produce a hard spray all over a block. A four-inch diameter shower head is usually used. S. Some wire mesh covered with fly screen, such ;is used in the absorption test. to place your blocks on. 4. A wates supply that will deliver a fairly constant pressure for two or more hours. The water pressure usually used is 20 pounds per square inch. 5. An accurate gage for measuring water pressure. Mount the gage in the pipe supplying water to the spray nozzles at a point near the noules. 6. A copy of the form shown on page 37. A set-up for the spray test is shown in Figure 18. Place the wire mesh on L.-icks or wood blocks so it is suspended a few inches off the ground. Then put the test blocks on the mesh with their largest face square to the spray noules and exactly 7 inches from the noules. Start the water spray, keeping the water pressure as close as possible to 20 pounds per square inch. After two hours of spraying remove the blocks and examine them close Measure the depth of pitting or surface erosion. Also write dOwn the time' required for any bfocki to completely fall apart or get washed away by the spray. Be sure and write down the results of the spray test on your form with the reults of the other tests so you will haie a permanent record of all of the tests. Now that you have done these tests, you must look at the results and decide whether your blocks are suitable for making earth houses. Remember that soils vary a lot. It will be hard -even with these fine tests-to tell exactly how your soil will act. But if you use the tests wisely, and benefit from your

3"

Figure 18.

neighlxr's experience with earth houses, you should be able to build a safe house.
Start by looking at [tic results (if the spray test. If ,ou litein an arid (dhy) area-ne where the rainfall is less tia 20 inches per year-then your bricks are satisfactory if they hase some pitting, say /" to 1/g' deep. If you live in an area where tile annual rainfall is between 20 and 50 inchcs per )car, their the blocks should have only ninpr pits. less than 'A" deep. If'ou live in ans area where tile annual rainfall is greater than 50 inches per )ear, then your blocks should have no pitting at all, hut slight rougheliing of the surface is to be expected. For the requirctents ablxve, it is assumed that adequate protection from splash exists. This means that either the foundation wall is high ensough so the lowest soil layer or blocks do 'rot get slplaihted, hor' that the blocks in thse slsash regiot at the iotton are protected.

)ou must do sonnething to them if you want a long lasting

house. Here are sonie things that )ou can try: I. Change the amount of sartl in your soil itix. times more sand will help. It's worth a try. Some.

if your blocks do not meet tie requirements aboe, then

2. Try a surface coating. (See Chapter 14.) One of the main reamns for tise use of surface coatings Is to reduce the

do

spray test. When )ou test a block with the surface coating of your choice, the entire block must be coated even though you will coat only the outside face in the actual builting. 3. Try adding one of the stabilizers discussed in the next chapter. Even small amounts of lime, cement or asphalt will often increase the resistance of blocks to spray tests. In fact, you might try anything that you have in the way of waste products. hut )on should remember that tlie addition of stabilizers will also change the way the soil acts as far as strength and absorption. For example, small amounts of lime and cement may decrease the strength of the soil slightls. So when you try a stabilizer. you must also start all over again with the other tests such as the strength and absorption. The results of the absorption test are mucia harsler to analyze than those from the spray test. All soil blocks and even burnt clay bricks will al.rh some water. (In fact, during recent tests high quiality burt clay bricks absorbed as much water as pressed earih blocks.) For earth houes. voit would like to haic a soil that will absorb little water. auid which will not swell or lose strength during absorption. Unfortu. nately, this will occtr with only a few unstabilized soils. How. ever, by looking at the absorption te-t on earth blocks in connection with the strength and length changes of the blocks, You will at least be able to tell Mitch more than from Ithe absorption test alone. Blocks nade of cla.cy soils will take longer to absorb mois ;ure than sandy blocks. htt walls made frot clay blocks will absorb more moistutre 'ier a long period and the moisture will crecp higher in the wall. In d' areas-less than 20 inches of rainfall per )ear-the absorptiois of blocks can le high and they will still be satisfactory if they are strong enough when wet. On the other Inid, blocks which absorb a lot of water will not be suitable in ,cry wet areas even if they are strong. The inside of the house will be much too clamp and wet to be comfortable. Stabilizers can redhce the bsorption. Asphalt emulsions do well on sandy blocks. Lime works on cla)ey blocks and w'illalsp increase tie wet streogih and reluce the. stelling. Length chrnges during absorptins on small test blo'.5 (those less than 6 inches long) should be less than 1/32 inch. On large or full size blocks, allow no more than 1/52 inch for a block one foot long. If this amount is exceeded, it can be reduced by adding stabilizers but again this means that other properties such as strength and absorptions must be checked for the new mixture. Adding sand to claIey blocks will help, and lime and cement also do a good job of reducing the swell. ing. Unlike blocks which show too much spray loss, those which swell too msuch cannot be protected by surface coatings. 41

amount of erosion due to the weathering simulated by the

The water will eventually get through the coating and coating will crack when the blocks start to swell. Strength of your earth blocks is an important factor. Adobe and rammed earth should have a minimum dry strength of 250 pounds per square inch. Pressed earth blocks should have a minimum dry strength of 300 psi because they are used in thinner walls. Most soils will be this *.rong when dry unless they are very sandy or have a lot of organic matter in them. But the wet strength of the blocks after absorption is even more important than the dry strength. Tests have shown that the wet strengths should be at lea.t one-half of the dry strengths. 4lhis means that adobe and rammed earth should have a gjkninimum strength o 125 pounds per square inch and pr blocks should have a minimum strength of 150 pounds per square inch. In dry climates-less than 20 inches of rain per year-you can get by with 100 pounds per square inch fo.' adobe and rammed earth if you use a good surface coating and if the dry strength of your test blocks was high enough. In wet climates-more than 50 inches of rain per yearyou should try to get wet strengths which are close to the ones given above for dry strengths. This means 250 pounds per square inch for adobe and rammed earth and 300 pounds per square inch for pressed blocks. When the tests are finished, you will have one block left from the original seven. It is a spare in case one of the other blocks breaks. But you can also use it for some special tests.
TABLE a SUMMARY OF TESTS ON BLOtKS Less than meIuch" rainfall paerear Spray Test Pita Is than Mwee. 25 sad SOinche. rainfall Pff year Pita less than %-ineh deep. Minimum of 260 i'd for adobe and rammed earth, Minimum of Std psl for pressed blocks, Grate than so inches rainfall per year No pitting of sur. face, slight rough. eninlg allowable. Minimum of 60 pat for adobe and rammed earth. Minimum of go0 ps for pressed blocks.

%-Inch deep.

Dry Minimum of 250 pal Comprftlv. for adobe and Strength * rammed iarth. Minimum of B00 pai for pressed blocks,
Strength

Wet Minimum of 100 pet Minimum of 125psi Beast o41swill met Compressive for adobe ani for adobe and requirements for
rammed earth with rammed earth, dry comprmslve goo dsurface eo@A Minimum of 150 psl strength. Can be

Ines. 176 pal without surface coating.. Mini. mum of 150 pai for preed blocks. Length Change Alborption

for lpr,

ed blocks.

somewhat il.

Maximum of 1/3te Maximum of 1/32- Malimum of 5/ate for I foot block. for I foot block, for I foot bl#ck.

42

It you live in an area where it freezes a lot, try this test: Place your block on the absorption pan for 24 hours. Then remove it and freeze it for 24 hours. Let it thaw on the absorption pan for 24 hours and repeat the process as many times as possible. If )ou lie in an area where it rains almost daily, try this: Immerse the block in water halfway up its side for 5 hours. Then let it tir) ins the sun or in a war'n nen. Continue the
soaking and dr)iiig steps as many timeS as possible. Neither of thee tests will tell )ou exactly how long your earth block will last. but they will help .ou in deciding between seseral soils that .ou are thinking of using. The test results that have been discussed are briefly sum. snarized in Table 3.

42

Chapter 3 STABILIZATION OF SOILS

Many kinds of soils can be used for earth walls by adding substances known as stabili:ers. Nearly any soil can be made into a better building material with the addition of the COR. RECT stabilizer. This is what stabilizers do: 1. They cement the particles of soil together so the block or wall will be stronger. 2. They can "waterproof" the soil so that it won', absorb water. S. They can keep the soil from shrinking and swelling. Adding stabilizers--een cheap ones-to your soil means that )our house will cost more. But the natural "enemy" of earth walls is water in one form or another. Stabilizers fight that enemy. There is lcs, need for stabilizers in very dry climates. Builders inarid areas protec, against the slow weathering caused by winds and blowing sands by making the walls a little bit thicker. Sonie walls like this have lasted well over 100 years. It is important to know the experience of other builders before deciding on this method of building. Because of the many different kinds of soils and the many types of stabilizers, there is no one answer that is best in all cases. All this manual can do is tell %ou what stabilizers can be used, which ones work best on difterent kinds of soils, and approximately how much stabiliaer seems to work belt. It is up to the builder to, make trial blocks with various kinds and amounts of st-rbilizers and thcu, test them as described it Chapter 2.

Kinds of Stabilizers
Iiere are -tile' more comiotnly ysed stabilizers: I. Sand and ciny-Usually we think of soil stabilizers as something unusual and different, but ordinary sand and clay can also be used as stabilizers, If your soil is too sandy, then add a little clay to it. or add sand to a clayey soil. It's true with all stabilizers-and sand and clay are no different-that they must be mixed thoroughly into the soil before they can do the job. If you have one soil that is very sandy, and another that Is %ery cla)ey, they probably won't mix very well because the clay lumps cannot be easily pulverized. The only way to find out whether two soils will mix well is to try it. It's easier to mix a small amount than a large amount, so try to do the mixing just as you would when building a house.

2. Portland Cement-The same kind of portland cemcnt used In concrete is also one of the best soil stabilizers. The mixture is often called soil-cement. Cement works best with the sandier soils. Table I shows you which soils are stabilized beat with cement. (If your soil has been checked by the labora. tory tests described in Appendix A, you can use portland cement with any soil that has a plasticity index from 0 to about 12.) Some stabilizers mix easily with soil but this is not true of portland cement. It must be very thoroughly mixed and the soil clods should be broken down so the cement comes in contact with all of the soil. (This is one reason why cement is not reommended for clayey soils.) Cement starts to react as soon as it touches water, so do not mix it into wet soils. Mix it completely into dry soils efore adding water. Then, the moist soil-cement mixture shr.dld be formed into blocks or rammed in the wall quickly. Hfyou wait too long before doing this, the soil-cement will harden and it must be thrown away. Don't mix more than you intend to use. Cement needs water to get hard. Since it gains most of its hardness or strength in 7 da)s, you need to keep it moist this long. One way to do this is to put a watertight cover over the blocks or walls. If )ou 'cannot do this. cover them with wet urlap sacks and sprinkle the sacks often. After 7 days of this moist curing you can take the covering off but it is still a good idea to keep the blocks in the shade for another 7 days before you let them dry in the suon. The longer you keep your soil.eement blocks or walls moist, the stronger they will be. Using cement has two aisadvantages: it is expensive and It may be ha-d to get. So' try to find out first how little you have to use. You can make a portland cement yourself. To do it, though, takes a lot of heat. some crushing facilities, a source
of clay, and a source of limey material such as shells, limestone,

caliche, etc. .3.- Liie-Lime. either slaked dr unslaked. makes one of

the best stabilizers for clays. lime reacts with the clay in the

soil to form a binder. Unslaked lime is harmful to a person's skin and vital parts and must be used with great care. It is much safer to first slake the urslaked lime before using it. Table I shows the soils which work best with lime. If you use the More exa' Idboratory tests described In Appendix A, you can try lime ,ish tiearly any soil having a plasticity Index greater than about 12. Lime makes most clays less sticky, but It doesn't make all of them stronger. It will usually strengthen voltinlc clays, but with any other clayey soils, the only thing to do Is try the lime out and see how it works. Use the tests In Chapter 2.

45

Soils containing a lot of clay are usually fairly lumpy. but lime breaks the lumps dot~n and makes the roil easier to mix. In fact, lime even makes the soil look and feel different. If your soil has a lot of clay in it. here's what you should do: Add the lime to dry soil and mix with sufficient water to dampen entire mixture, then cover it for a day or two but keep It wet. After you do tilis mix the soil again to break down any remaining lumps and use it right away. Lime also needs to he kept moist to gain its strength but it takes much longer than cement to harden. Keep lime. stabilized blocks covered and moist at least 7 days, 14 days if possible. Then keep them in the shade 3t least 7 more days before exposing them to the sun. When making trial blocks with lime-stabilized soils, try to make them early enough that they will have plenty of time to cure before testing. At least one month of curing is necessary, two months are better. Lime is not as expensive as cement and you can get it nearly any place in the world. You can make lime yourself but it's not an easy job. You'll need heat and a material such as limestone, seashells or caliche, and finally a way to grind up the burnit limestone. It takes lime-stabilized soils about 6 times as long to get their full streng.' as it does soil-cement. Remember this when you are trying to compare lime and cement stabilized soils. 4. Combinations of Lime and Cement-Sometimes you'll run into a situation like this: The soil has a little too much clay in it for cement to do a good job of stabilizing. Lime will make the soil easy to work. but it won't react enough with the soil to waterproof it or make it strong. When this happens, )ou can use both lime and cement. It will cost more and take more time to add the two stabilizers, but it may he the only way to build )our house. Usually. equ'al parts of lime and cement are used. The lime is 41ways added first. Then, add enough water to make the mix moist. Cover the miv a;!dk:m it stand for I to 2 days. 'After this mix the soil well to !-rc'k 'ip any lumps and im. ss-diately add ihe' cement plus any water necessary to bring the soil to its correct water content. After thorough mixing. use the stabilized soil immediately, before the cement hardens. Cure it as you would cement. 5. Asphalt-Another stabilizer that has worked out well for earth houses is asphalt. Asphalts made especially for use in earth houses are made in plants in the United States, but they don't have to be a special kind. Natural asphalts were used thousands of )ears ago to stabilize earth blocks in Babylon. Asphalt is usually restricted to those soils that are mixed by 41

without heating, so they are often mixed with other materials to make them thinner and easier to mix. If they are mixed with water they are called asphalt emulsions. These are the best to use in earth walls because there Is no danger in handling them and they mix easily into the soil. After asphalt emulsions have been added to the soil they will separate back into pure asphalt and water-leaving the asphalt as a film on the soil grains. One that goes back to asphalt .,nd water quickly is called a "fast-breaking" or "fast-setting" emulsion. These are not good for earth houses because they may separate before th:y are completely mixed into the soil. "Slow-setting" or "slow. breaking" types are ideal for earth houses. (If you cannot find an emulsion made especially for earth houses, then get a regular emulsion, but make sure it's the "slow-setting" or "slow. breaking" type.) Other types of asphalt that have been used are called "cut. back" asphalts. These are asphalts that hase been mixed with gasoline, kerosene, etc.. to make them thinner o they can be mixed without heating then. They can be usea with soil hut they are not as good as emulsions. After a soil is treated with a cutback asphalt, it must be spread out to allow most of the gasoline or kerosene to evaporate before it can be nade into blocks. Cutback asphalts can catch fire if )uu get themi1near an open flame. Since asphalt is really a very thick oil, it will "grease" the soil grains and cause the soil to lose some of its dry strength. at least until the stabilited soil becomes a few years old and the asphalt hardens. A~phalts do a goodl job of waterproofing the grains, and the? keep the soil frjin losing strength when wet. Remember, asphal. will be %ery difficult to use when the soil has a lot of clay in it. It works out best with soils suitable for adobe blocks. 6. Strnu,-A material that has often been used in adobe blocks -is .straw, 'In the sante mannt'e, materials such as Iree bark. wood shavings. hemp and other tough fibers have been used. The only one of these that las appeared to be of much use is straw-although some people have had fair success with wood shavings. Straw doesn't react with the soil in any manner. If anything. it will make the dry block a little weaker and it will let It absorb water a little easier. Straw does provide "pipes" or exits from the inside of the block so the water can get out easier during the curing period. In clayey soils especially, this causes less cracking during curing. Straw or other fibers also 4?

"puddling." such as adobe. It is harder to mix into moist soils used for pressed blocks or rammed earth. It won't work on clayey soils because it won't mix with them. Asphalt in its natural form is too thick to be added to soils

give added strength to wet adobe blocks during the curing period. Although most old adobe houses contain straw in the blocks, modern builders do not use it. It may have some value when your soil is a little too clayey and you have so other way of stabilizing it.
7. Fly.Ash and Litte Combinations-Fly-ash is the fine dust that is given off during the burning of coal, coke, lignite. and some other solid fuels. It you live near a plant that burns these fuels a-,.I ues the fly-ash. you have a very good cheap stabilizer if )ou have lime to mix with it. The lime and fly. ash together wii, make a cement almost as good as portland cement. It can be usted on both sandy and cla)ey soils. When using lime and fly-ash together, use about 2 to 4 times as much fly.ash as lime. For example, for every bucket of lime used, add between 2 to 4 buckets of fly-ash. The only way to find out whether )ou should use 2 buckets or 4 buckets, or something in between, is to make sonic trial blocks and test them. You'll probably find that lime is more expensive than fly-ash so try to use as much fly-ash a! possible and still make a satisfactory eaIth wall. 8. Sodium jilirate-This is sometimes called "water-glas." It is asailable in many parts of the world and not expensive l hei bought in large quautities. It works best on sandy soils such as cla)ey sands and silty sands. Clays do not stahilize well with it. The best way to use sodium silicate is to coat the outside of earth blocks with it so it makes a thin "skin" of hard, stabilized soil around the blocks. (For use on walls that ar not made of blocks-such as rammed earth-see Chapter 14.) To ise it. mix one part of commercial sodium silicate with three parts of clean w.;.er. Dip the earth blocks in the solution for about one minute. Whell you remove them there will be a little solution left on thc blocks. Use a stiff brlsh to brush this into the block. Repeat this treatment a becond-time before the blocks dry. Then, let the blocks air-dry it a prutected place at least 7 days before using them. The thick solution of water and sodium silicate cat be made to penetrate dc'eper into the blocks If )ou add a very small amount of a group of chemicals known as surfactants (surface active agent). These chemicals numbering over 1500 ase sometimes classed into four groups called amphoterics, anionics, cationics a(d un-ionics. These groups include such chemicals as ol)osx)eth!lenelk)iar)lether and dodecylbeniene. sulfouic, amincs, etc.: howese:. maiy common detergents will work as well as these chemicals. There are many other stabilizers that have been used suc. cefsfully with some soils. Because there has been little written

4'

about their ue in earth houses they are discsmed only brefly below. But. don't be afraid to try them out if they ar :-,al!Able. In fact, if you have something else that you think will be a good stabilizer, try it. Sometimes a waste product that other people are throwing away may be a good stabilizer. i). Sulfite Liquor-This Is a waste product from certain paper mills. It is primarily a waterproofing agent and you shouldn't expect it to increase the dry strength of the soil. Come type- of sulfite liquors react very favorably with soils. others have a very harmful effect on them. You won't know until you try it out on your soil. The amount of sulfite liquor you should use depends on the particular paper mill you get it from, so you will have to try different amounts and select the best one yourself. 10. Aliquat 1226-A special chemical. (quaternary amine), made in the United States but available in other parts of the world. It is shipped as a very thick liquid and it must be mixed with warm water before it can be added to soils. The manufacturer will give you instructions on how to use it. Although it is expensive, it is a good waterproofer for silts and clays once the treated soil has been allowed to air-dry. It would be very good for use in the first few layers of earth blocks closest to the ground if these blocks didn't pass the require. ments of the absorption test. II. Wood ashei-In some countries, wood ashes have made very successful soil stabilizers. Probably it is the lime or calcium in them that actually does the stabilizing. Like sulfite liquor, certain wood ashes can actually be harmful instead of stabilizing the soil, so you will want to try it out on your soil. The correct amount to use will vary depending on the type of wood and how well it has been burned. The fine, white ashes from fully burned hardwood seem to work best. 12. Resins-These are made from the sap of trees. They can make very good waterproofing agents, but they probably will not add much dry strength to the soil. Some are difficult to apply to the soil because they will not dissolve in water. It is best to ask the manufacturers of the various resins how they should be applied. U1. 'Coconut Oil-This has also been used as a waterproofing agent. There is no cementing action but it will probably increase the wet strength of the soil. 14. Tannic Acid. 15. Rotted Piantain Leaves. 16. Cattle Urine. 17. Cow Dung. 19. Molasses. 19. Gum Arabic. 20. juice from Various Plants. 49

How do you know whether a stabilizer will work?

Because tW~ere are so many different kinds of soils. It Is impouible to say whether any one stabilizer will work well on any particular soil. In Table I and in the early part of this chapter. you have been given sonic idea of what type of stabilizer to use with what type of soil. But the only way to find out what is best is to try them out on your soil. Make trial blocks and test them just as you were told to do In Chapter 2. Don't use expensive stabilizers if cheap ones are asailable and your tests show that they will do the job.

Whal can you expect stabilizers to do?

You want stabilizers to increase both the dry -. nd wet strengths of your soil: to reduce the amount of water absorption. and to keep your soil from being "metced" by a water spray or rain. Some stabilizers will do only one or two of these things, a few may do all of them. For example. portland cement or lime may not decrease the water absorption, but it wottln't make much difference if the wet strength oi the block was high. Some waterproofing type stabilizers i. ay actually decrease the dry strength of the soil. tut will greatly i rcase ve wet stretgth and decrease the amount of water absorption. Naturally. then, these might be best in wet climates. Certain stabilizers-lime is a gooxl cxattlple--nAy actually cause a pressed or rammed earth block to weigh a little less. Don't let this bother )ou though becauve it won't hurt the strength of the soil. Some stabilizers-lime again is a good example-will change the best moisture content for compaction. L.imc.stabilized soils usually need more water than. the same soil unstabilized. You probably wouldn't notice this unless )ou accurately measured the amout of water neeled. You can still use the simple test described elewhere to determine whether stabilized soils for rammed earth and pressed blocks have the right amount of water in them to make the best blocks.

D6 stabilized soils "equire special handlIng?

Some types of stabilizers require special handling or they won't work at all. Remember it was mentioned varlier in this chapter that portland cement and lime needed to be moist. ctred for at least 7 (lays or they wouldn't gain strength. This I true of nearly all cementing stabilizers. Mulost waterproofing stabilizers only %ork after the soils have been dried out once. This wot't require special attention because jou dry the soils out when )ou cure them In the sun,

anyway.

so

With many stabilizers, the curing takes place after the blocks have been molded. But with asphalt emulsions, at least some of the curing has to be done while the soil is still loose unles, you are making .dobe blocks. For rammed earth and pressed blocks, spread the stabilized soil out in the sun to cure. There is no good rule to tell you when you can start using these soils and you will have to find out yourself by experience. If you can ram or press the soil and it doesn't act spongy or heave around the sides of your rammed earth tamper. it should be ready to use. Cutback asphalts-those containing kerosene, gasoline, etc.. are slow in curing. It might take several days before they are ready to be made into blocks or an earth wall. NO SIABILIZER IS GOOD UNLESS IT CONTACTS EACH PARTICLE OF SOIL. MIX THEM INTO TIlE SOIL WELL. How much stabilizer should you use? Again. It is impossible to ,ay with any accuracy just how much should be used. It depends on the type of soil you have and what you want the stabilizer to do. Sometimes you will need a lot of stabilizer-particularly with very sandy or very clayey soils. You might find a soil that is suitable in all ways except doesn't meet one requirement, for example, it absorbs that it too much water. Then. probably a very small amount of a stabilizer will be neeled. A soil that is not good enough to meet any requirements or maybe only one of them will require more stabilizer. So, you can see that the only way to find out how much stabilizer is necessary is somake some trial blocks and test them. You should make tip three trial sets of seven blocks each. If you use portland cement, trial amounts should range from 4 to 12 percent and for lime 2 to 6 percent. EACH TRIAL SET SilIOULD CONTAIN A DIFFERENT AMOUNT OF STABILIZER. RANGING FROM ABOUT TIlE LOWEST THAT MIGHT WORK TO THE LARGEST AMOUNTr YOU' CULD POSSIBLY AFFORD TO BUY. TEST THESE TRIAL BLOCKS AND SELECT TIlE i.OWEST AMOUNT OF STABILIZER THAT WILL MAKE YOUR BLOCKS GOOD ENOUGH TO SATISFY TIlE REQUIRE. MLNTS IN TABLE 3. When you have finally selected the exact amount of stabilizer that you need, there is onie more thing to consider. With trial blocks, you use a small amount of soil and it is easy to do a good mixing job. During the actual construction of your earth house, the workers will handle much larger 51

quantities of soil and the mixing will not be as good. The asiest way to take care of this is to add a little more stabilizer. All of this sounds, we realize, like a great deal of preparation and testing that needs to be done. That's the way it is intended to sound. It will be well worth your time and effort to find out for yourself what the best answers will be for you. If it takes you a couple months of preparation, remember, it's worth It. It you do your job right, your grandchildren will also have a good house to live in.

52

Chapter 4

WHERE TO JUILD
The home builder needs a good place to build. The lot should be big enough not only for the house but also for a yard and a garden. Plenty of suitable soil must be available either on the property or nearby. Other factors are important. too: The lot has to have good drainage. Standing water or muddy ground can be very destructive to earth houses. It water stands on the area after heavy rains, the lot will not be satisfactory unless trenches or ditches can be dug to carry the water away rapidly. Figure 19a shows a good site and Fikure l9b a bad one. The location of the home should also be convenient to roads, markets, or the owner's job.

4O guf 19

53

soil has Usually, old home sites work out well because tile stabilized itself or settled under the weight of the old house. of unwanted brush LEI'EI.ING TilE LOT-Clear the site
and segetation before beginning constniction. All ,egetation and the organic top soil should be removed from the area the house will occupy. All spongy or soft material should be removed down to good. firm soil. Lease enough extra space outside the limits of the house for a working area. Sase plants which will have ornamental %alue after the home is built. After the location of the house is marked on the ground, mark the outlines of the house with stringlines nailed oil stakes. Then lesrl the ground inside the stringlines. This is shown in Figure 20. Low areas may be filled in from adjacent high areas, prosided giOd soil, which will not wash awa%. is uied. Any fill mterial Jlaced inside of the string lines should he tamper to make a solid fotundntion. well pounded uitlh a hid fill material could catse cracks in Otherwise, settlement of tile the house. Extra dirt frorethe leseling job is klept for later use if it is tie kind suitable for building. FINDING TilE GIIOIND LErEl-llefore laying out tile actual outlines of the house. tie general atea it will occupy shold be fairly well graded or leseled and all accurate floor lesel should be. inatked out carefully.rhis is done easiest by drisittg stakes ito the ground. First, desired floor lecel. Protect it h% sutround. drive a stake to tile ing it with other stakes. Then, drie in other stakes around the approximate outlines of the house to exactly the salle floor be done in two wass. lc el. *ihis call correct height of the additimtal stakes, if To find tile possible, a snil*c)or's lesel should be used and the tops of all the stakes callbe accurately sighted.' (For coilsen ictce. if the sure'or'l lesel is used, make the tops of the stakes somewhat

>__

Figure 20.

64

Figure 21. higher than floor level and later measure down from each stake to the desired floor level.) If a surveyor's level is not available, an ordinary clear translucent plastic water hose will work just as well. Fill or all but about a foot of the hose witl, water. By adjusting the water level at one end of the hose to the exact floor level indicated by the first guide stake, then all of the other stakes may be driven to the proper level by matching the tops of those stakes with the water level at the other end of the hose. The water hose method is shown In Figure 21. By driving the first stake into the ground at what you judge to be the highest point of your lot, all of the other stakes, tin, will stick out of the ground a little higher. If it turns out that the guide stake is lower than the ground level at other stake points, drive another stake next to the guide stake leaving enough length above the ground for later measurements. For example, have this added stake exactly one foot higher than the guide stake. Then drive the other stakes to match it. desired level can be determined by measuring one foot The down from the tops of these stakes or to such level as to have the lowest cor.ier above grade. The water hose also can be useful at other times during construction. It can be used as an accurate means of finding

other levels or elevations. It Is useful in finding the correct height of footings and foundation walls, checking to see that blocks are being laid level or even checking the top layer of blocks before the roof is placed. It is a good idea to have orta or plugs to stop up the ends of the hose to keep the water from running out when the hose Is "'t being nsed. LAYOUT OF THE CONS TRiUCTION-The nex step Is to mark the exact location of the. exterior walls on the ground.

65

Figure Z. The proper dimensions and shape are included in the houe plans. Keep in mind which way you want your home to face. An architect can be very helpful. Consider such things u prevailing breees, direction of sun, appearance, distance from street and property lines, etc. After the location has been selected, the nxt step is to erect batter boards. These boards., Figure 22. should be at least 5 fett long'so' that adjustments -can be made after ate placed in the ground. A set of batter boards shouldthey be placed at exch corner of the exterior walls of the house. The batter boards at the corner where the ground is the highest should be set about 10 inches above the ground. Those at the other comers should he set at the same level (in other words they will be higher above !he ground). They must be sturdy enough to hold the tight string lines which will be stretched from them to define the wais of the house. Square corners can be made and checked simply. To make a square, take three boards, exactly 3, 4 and 5 units long and nail the ends together asshown in Figure 23a.

llguee.mg The angle between the 3-unit and the 4.unit boards will be 90 degrees or a "square" angle. By aligning the strings along these two boards as in Figure 23b, two sides of the house can be properly positioned. To begin the layout of the house, a stake should be driven about three feet inside one set of batter boards to form the tint exterior comer. The right angle of the square is then located properly at this stake and all meuurements begin from here. The stake would be placed just below where the atrings cross In Figure 23b. 57

Figure 24. String lines are then stretched between batter boards to mark the direction and length ot sides of the walls. This procedure of measuring and laying out square corners is con. tinued around the outline of the house until the task has progressed back to the starting po,'it. -If the house outline is in the shape of a square or a rectangle, the alignment can be checked by measuring the diagonals-the length between opposite corners. If the outline has been properly laid out, and the corner angles are square. the length of the two diagonals will be exactly the same. If these lengths are not equal. adjustments should be made until they are by moving the positions of the strings on the batter boards. These diagonals are shown as heavy lines in Figure 24. Even when a square is not available, ar accurate layout can be made. To do this, mark oil two corners of the house at the proper distance apart to establish a side of the house in the desired direction. Then, as closely as you can estimate their positions, lay out with strings the twd sides that lead from the first side you have established. These sides should be of proper length. When this has been done. check the diagonals. It they are not exactly equal, the Jast two cornrs.should be moved until the diagonals match each other. This will assure an accurate square or rectangle. It is best to use more than one set of siting lines to mark the dimensions of the building. The first set of lines marks the location of the outside edge of the walls of the building. However, the limits of the excavation for the footings (which are discussed In the next chapter) and foundation wall will usually be outside of the location of the walls. In this case. I

additional string lines are placed on the outside of the first set to mark the limits of the hole to be dug. . Once the string lines for the excavation have been placed. the limits of the excavation should be properly marked on the pound so the workmen will dig along the proper lines. This can be (lone by driving guide st.ake directly beneath the string lines marking the excavation, or by spreading a thin line of lime beneath the string lines. In either case. the string lines should be removed during the excavation so they will not be broken by the workmen. Be sure to mark the location of the string lines on the hatter hoards so they can be put back in exactly the same place after the excavation is complete. DRAINAGE-If the house is to be built on nearly flat pround. drainage of the lot away from the house should now be considered. Any lines of wash, or gullies that cross the construction site should be turned away by digging new ditches away from the house and lilling in the ditches with tamped soil. It is also important that the ground level next to the building be higher than the rest of the lot so that water will drain away from the building. A cr'al or ditch several feet away from the foundation mr y be necessary to carry away excess water during heavy rainfall.

S.

Chaptw 5 FOUNDATIONS
The foundation is that part of the house that is built below the ground surface and supports the house. A properly built foundation will keep the house from being damaged or twisted out of shape due to settlement of the earth, high winds. or frost action. A good house must have a good foundation; it Is the most important part of the house. TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS- -House foundations may con. slat of separate piers or footings, which receive the load of the house through heavy beams that rest on them, or they may be continuous footings that run under all outide %als and load-bearing partitions. For earth walls, continuuus footings are most commonly used. A foundation wall rests on the footing and extends upward and supports the walls. A typical continuous footing and foundation wall is shown in Figure 25. Not all such construction requires reinforcing steel. FOOTINGS-Footings have three purposes: (I) to provide a solid, level base for the foundation walls; (2) to hold the weight of the house it supports on the earth to that the load will not be too great at any point for the soil to support;

7.

as.

:2
* *

Fiur
.so

.
NO

(3) to resist the "lifing" forcs of hurric..,ie or high winds which can tip a houe over or move it off of its foundztion. T',, size and depth of footings depend on: the type of material used to make them: the weight they must support: the load the soil will support, and. to some extent. the weather conditions of the area.
DEPTH OF FOOTINGS-In arem where freezing weather occurs. footings must be placed in the ground at least as deep as frost is ever found. Otherwise. the footing will shift and crack the house during or after freezes. The frost line is shown in Figures 26a and 26b as a heavy dash line. Figure 26b shows what can happen if the footing is too shallow. If no other means of knowing this depth is available. it can be roughty estimated on the basis of the resistance to digging during particularly long and severe winters. Ice particles can be seen in the soil. The footing should be placed below where ice is found. In warmer climates, the footing depth needs to extend deep enough to reach good. solid earth free from vegetation (roots. et .) and deep enough to prevent washing out or shifting due * rain and flooding. Usually, this depth asera.-' from 12 to il inches. An exception to this is where the soil shows considerable shrinking and swelling as it dries and becomes wet during the year.' If this is the case. the footing should extend to a depth where seasonal changes it) moisture are minor. Sometimes this can be estinatedl b the appear.mce of tihe soil. The soil is usually very crumbly in the arca where the moisture changes seasonally amd it takes (in a mure solid appearance below this depth. The best and easiest way to find out the proper depth of footing is to se what depth was used for similar houses in your area. If the houses are holding up well amid hate not settled or cracked. the foiting depth usl for them will do for )our house. If you have any doubt, go deeper. SIZE OF FOOTING-The size of the footing will depetd upon time strength of the soil and the weight (of the house. As a general rule. most shallow clals and shallow silty soils should not be loaded ahove 2,000 prodtls i.t sqiuare foot of footing area.' Firn sandy arid gritelly soils nay carry from 4,000 pounds to 6.000 pounds per square fot. If there is any) question about the %alueof the soil, a loading test should be performed. A simple loading test is lescribed in Appendix A. Use it if you can. If )ou can't, then the strength of the soil cati be very generally estimated using the "simple strength test" gisen in Appendix A. Once the bearing value or strength of the soil is know. and the weight of the house hals been determined, the width and thickness of the footing can be easily determined from Table 4. Tihe dimensions riven In Table 4 can be varied II

~LINE

FROST

Figure 26.

somewhat depending on local experience but do not reduce any satlfactory valses you find. The building in Figure 27 shows the eff.ct on an earth wall of an under-designed foundation. MATERIALS FOR TILE FOOTINGS-Since the footings are burled In the %oil, they should con$lt of materials that . e damaged by decay or Insect attacks. Use concrete. atone, brick, concrete block and similar materials. Recendt, some footings have been made with stabilized soil. However,

-..

-.

Figure 27. A soil bearin, failure has caused structural cracks in the foundation fooling wall and the adobe wall in this large community building. they have not been in place long enough to determine how suitable they might be. On the basis of what is now known. it is better to asoid the use of stabilized soil for footings except in arid or semi-arid regions.
CONCRIETE FOO TINGS-Footings made from poured con-

crete are the mint popular type because they are easy to make and work very well; however, they will probably he the most expensive type. Usually famin are not needed: as a trench can

TI____

I-i
(Ie Table 4.)

63

TABLK 4 FOOTING WIDTHS AND THICKNESSES FOR CLAY FOUNDATION EGILS IF SOIL -STRENGTH I USK W AND T Kiad of H.. One Story- 4 One Story- S On. Stoy- I One Story- S One Stor-I2 On* Story-l2 One StrT-15 One Story-IS Two Story- 9 Two Two Two Two 9 StorStory-12 Stor-12 Stor7-15 .. W A T W a T W C T W D T W I I T V T

Inch Inch inch inch Inch

thick thick thick thick thick

walls-Licht wall--Earth walls-Light wails--Earth waens-Light

Roof Roof Roof Roof Roof

18" 27 36.

7S 8.

121 i163 1s

a. o 5.

121

i. 10p 111

liit 12.

g10, 11.

1212" 311

1. 10 11.

Ig111111

S. 10, 111

12-

inch thick Inch thick inch thick inch & 6

walls-Eart Roof wols-1.lght Root wlm-Earth Roof inch walls-Light Roof walls-Earth wlls--LIght walls-Earth walls-Licht Roof Roo( Roof Roof

36. 3636" 16. No* No No No No No No

a. 8%'. 9"

1" 2124' 2427' so33, 36' No* No No

10 10l0

10 9. .. 9. 10-

10IlIs, 10' 1 i 2124 2427SO$4 36-

12 1III1is 1s 11w 10' !.111 10 it11"

12Il1s1s 1l 2124w III 50I3

12' 1215. l12, 1210111 111 1212-

1l

1t

1Z1

1&1
is1 16. 1" is2. 2427-

121is12.

1413 i la12, itis15 111 ll2124-

11 1212. 121 2 1si1s 14 1413'

inch & 6 inch inch & 9 inch inch & 9 Inch inch & 12 Inch

13. 1is 11 is1S IS'

Two Stor--15 inch & 12 inch wall-Earth ROOf Two Story-18 Inch & ia Inch walls-Light Roof Tweo Story-18 Inch & 15 inch wdls-Earth Roof -Do Not Build on Foundation Soil V7th Soft.

be dug to the correct depth and width of the footing and the concrete can be poured directly into the trench to form the required footing thickness. (See Figure 28.) If the soil is sandy or tends to slide or cave in, then simple forms are required to insure that the footings are wide enough and that the soil does not fall in the freshly poured concrete. These forms may consist of boards with width equal to the thickness of the footing and held in place by enough wooden stakes to keep the boards frori moving or bowing. The fornm should alwuy be removed, but not earlier than 48 hours after the concrete has been poured. It is best to cure the concrete for several days by covering it with wet sacks. leaves, etc. When digging for footings it is always better to dig the "safe" side. that is. too deep, rather than too shallow. on If the excavation is too deep it can be filled with extra concrete, sand or earth, but the sand and earth must be tamped in and not just loosely placed. Concrete footings do not always require reinforcing arel but it is better to have them lightly reinforced to resist cracking that occurs with changes in temperatufe. Conditions where reinforcing is considered absolutely necessary include occasional .soft" spots in the bottom of the trench, and areas subject to earthquakes, hurricanes, or swelling of the soil. Reinforcing is also needed if the footing projects beyond the foundation wall more than 2/3 of its thickness, In these cases, it desirable to seelk the services of an engineer or architect is for advice concerning the kind. size and location of reinforcement.

igure

The concrete for the footing should have enough water to be workable but at the same time it should not be so wet that the mortar tends to flow away And leave only the larger rocks. A good concrete mix for the footing uses: I part portland cement 3 parts clean washed sand 4 parts clean gravel about 5 to 7 gallons of water for every 94 pound bag of cement A good way to estimate whether or not )ou have the correct moisture is to place some of the mix in a bucket and rod it about 23 times with a smooth steel or wood rod. Then from a height of 6 inches above the surface. drop a smooth round rock about 4 incites in diameter into the mix. If it dents the mix about l'a inches. the water content of the concrete is about right. If reinforcing rods are used. they are p:aced in the excavation and jrcurrdysupported at the proper height before the concrete is poured. The top finish of the footing is left very rough to provide a good bond for the foundation wall. It is usually a good idea to leave a small channel or groove in the center of the footing as shown in Figure 28 to provide addi. tional bond between the footing and the foundation wall if the footing is mad- of concrete. If at all possible in earthquake
areas. short lengths of steel reinforcing iod should be placed in the footing so they will project into the foundation wall and tie it securcly to the footing. This usually requires careful spacing of these rods. Sometimes the amount os concrete for the foundation can be greatly decreased by placing large stories in the trench and pouring the concrete arond them to form the footing. It the stories are large it is a good idea to make the footings somewhat thicker than for regular concrete footings. Roughly, the thickness should ie about H/ times the size of the largest stones. For example, if 6" stones are used, the thickness should be 9.

MASONRfY FOOTINGS-icks. concrete blocks, or rubble

stone laid in mortar also make good footings. When using bricks. conicrete blocks, or any regslarly shaped materials, it It lecessary that the Iottinsi of the trench e leveled accurately; otherwise, the foundation wall anal )e unlevel. Either tamped sand can be tsed to lesel the bottom of the trench or a thin bed of concrete can le pottdl. For rsbble stone footings, the trench does not hase to be as level, but care must be taken to sring the height (if the stones tip so th.t the final surfaceafter being covered with a thirs la).-r nf morlar-will be level. Figure 31 shows a itiblile stonse footing. Masonry footings may olten be much cheaper to omnttuct than roncLtae footings, since less cement is required. ilowever,

6S

they are harder to lay and require more t: ne to complete. Also, It is difficult to properly reinforce them. For this reason, they are not usually recommended for areas of hurricanes, high winds, and where the soil tends to swell. Mortar used in the masonry or rubble footings should be of a high grade that will not fall apart with time. The following mix works well: 4 parts portland cement I part lime 12 parts clean saund sufficient clean water to form workable mix If masonry cement is available, use one part masonry ce. ment, three parts sand and sufficient clean water to form a workable mix. FOUNDATION IVALLS-The foundation walls, which rest on the footings and support the walls of the house, strong, have a flat surface to start the earth wall on, be must be straight and they must be level. Poured concrete, concrete blocks, burned brick, structural clay tile, or stones laid in mortar all make good foundation wall materials. Again the most suitable, but probably the most expensive foundation wall is made from poured concrete. In earthquake or hurricane areas or where the soil swells considerably, it is advisable to reinforce the foundation walls in the same footings are reinforced. The amount, size and spacing wa,, as of the steel reinforcing should be determined by a competent engi. neer or architect. Well-stabilized earth, either in the form of blocks or rammed-in-place earth, may al%o be used. Since experienice with these materials is limited, however, It is recommended that they be used only in areas of light rainfall and on aites that are well sloped to drain water away from the footings. SIZE OF FOUNDATION WALLS-In constructing the foundation wall, two things must be considered-the thickness of the wall, and the height of the wall above the ground level. Foundation walls shotuld be made at least as thick as the earth walls ,that they support. Sometimes they are thicker,.but. this is true only when they will be used to support other loads, such as the interior floors. The height of the foundation wall should be sufficient so that rain splash will not reach the earth blocks and cause them to erode or wash out. This height dep-nds on the amount of rainfall and width oi roof overhang. For dry areas (rainfall less than 15 inches per year) and wide roof overhangs, the foundation walls should extend 8 inches above the ground surface. For high rainfall areas and small roof overhang, I inches above the ground is required and under normal rainfall conditions, 12 inches is required. Even when a stucco or sur67

Figure 29. face finish is used over the earth walls, the foundation wall should extend to the heights given above. CONCRETE FOUNDATION IVALLS-When using poured
concsete for the foundation walls, use forms (shuttering)

hold the.concrete until it hardens. These forms are set directly on top of the footing and must be solidly braced against the walls of the trench or at the ground surface to prevent movement when the concrete is poured. They should also be thick enough and braced well enough to prevent bulging. Wood sheathing IA to 2 inches thick and braced about every 6 feet wor, s well, or 1" tongue.and-groove boards braced
every 21/ feet.

to

is satisfactory. A typical wood forn is shown in Figure 29. Constructing wood forms is a misleading job. They always seem too strong, and therefore wasteful, while they are being built. Once the concrete is poured, it is too late to correct the mistake of not making them strong enough. A bulging form is difficult or impossible to repair. Do not try to save money by making the forms too weak. ' The concrete foimns'should be'carefully placed in the correct position and then well braced to prevent movement as shown in Figure 29. Once the forms have been braced, the top of the foundation wall should be located by driving nails and drawing lines on the inside of the forms. This can be done accurately using the water hose method given in Chapter 3. This height should be marked on the forms I' the way around the house as shown in Figure 30. If reinforcing steel is to be placed in qhe foundation wall, it Is easier to act only one side of the forms first (usually the

If plywood is used, a thickness of Ve" to s/4

68

doe

Figure 30. Inside form), mark the correct height of the wall on the form and then place and tie all of the reinforcing steel before erecting the r-maining forms. This helps to line up the steel and get It to the correct height. Alter the forsiss have been placed and checked for correct alignment and strength, thefooting inside of the form should be swept clean, then lightly sprinkled. It is a good plan to Leave a few small openings igo the bottom of the forms so trash an be swept out, lie saure to cloe these openings before the concrete is poured. To keep the concrete from sticking to the forms, they should be wetted with water just before the coy crete is poured, or better still, mopped with light oil before the forms are erected, not after. Once the concrete fouring begins, it mnut be continued until the entire foundation wall is completed. Othewise, undesirable joints in the concrete will be formed. The concrete should be "rodded" or samped into the forms with a smooth steel or wood rod to pack it (town solidly. Otherwise. you might get air pockeut which weaken the wall seriously. Proper rodding is important over the entire foundation wall, but it is especially important on the outside face because not enough sodding can result in holes that look bad. The concrete mix

69

can be the same as that used for the footing with perhaps a little more water to make it easier to work. Placing ease may be estimated by the method outline! earlier under "concrete footings." If you use the inethl outlined e'arlier under "con. crete footings." the rock should dent the tnix about 2.21/ inches. The gravel in the concrete should not be too large or it will get wedged between the Form and the reinforcing steel. The largest size stone in the concrete should be about 1 of the ditance from reinforcing bars to the edge of the form or between adjacent reinforcing bars, whicheser is smaller. Remove the forms two days after the wall is pcured. Keep the concrete moist by sprinkling or cosecring with wet sacks for a few more (lays. If there are an% %oids in the concrete, patch them as soon as the fornss are rensom l. Use a grout or mortar mixture anid smooth it out with a trowel or straight stick. MASONI)' FOUXD. TION IIAI.LS-Requirments for masonry foundation walls are the same as for poured concrete walls; that is, lthe walls should be straight, level and strong. For laying the walls, a good, strong mortar should be used. The following mix has beens found to be good: 4 parts cement I part lime 12 parts clean sand sufficient water to make a wotkable mix. The way to lay the blocks or bricks is the same as de. scribed ill Chapler 10 (page l(EI for lasing earth blocks. Use the string lines on the batter boards it guide %ou it obtaiusing straight walls. The water howe ntethcnd should be used to make sure that each tours of blocks or bricks in the wall remains level during constructin. If it is ahsolutels necessary to use masonry foundalits walls in earthquaLe or hurricane areas, they cart be reinforced by using itesh esiecialli made for this ptirpssse, heasy wbsvc feunce wire, or eseni stoall' tss or less) reinforcing bars. The reinforcing is placed bltwen htnriontal joists aid sislli. cinntly protected with nnnrar to prest'nt rusting. Againi, a cotpeteit architect or eoginc'er should design tie correct mont, t|pe, atnd placemenst of tne reiii fnrcing. Also. if hollnw lile or blocks ate us'd, it is a guixl idea to fill nattv (imen. tines all.) o5.1 f Iholes with tUollar tio ohtains extra "ircigth. broken Irick, or other sitiable materials is asailable or biihlIng a rubble lindation. ' his ts. (ifmfuntidalicin w rks well and is economical, alntngh it is iamder tnoreinforce. Itstead of bu'ling a foistllg ainsi ftttld.ntim wall. thle ru1hhile fou0itU. ' linli .1 be cinstructcd as one solid piece whihIptrs np so that it . tihe withtn of tine eath wall at tie tp. iSee Figure 31.) 'lihe width at the bt titm is determined ini the sa e way as fat fcutigs tnsitg 'ratle 4. Ontly hard, ditatle materials should Ie used its a rubble founlallosu. Mortar o tile xallIC tpC describd fiu ItiaSuily
70 RUIiLE FOU DATIOA:-'O)fteo, a large Stilteli
tf stnue,

MV.

foundation wall @Ismitable for holding the rocks together. Often, during the clearing of the site and digng for the foun. dation, suitable rocks and other materials can be aved for con.rUction of the rubble foundation. Construction requires patience and it Is more difficult to obtain the correct level and straightneu using rubble. The largest stones available should be plce', at the bottom of the foundation and the top should be covered with a thin layer of mortar to provide a smooth, level surface for the firt layer of the wall. . BACKFILLUNG TJIE" FOOTING EXCA'ATION-Since the excavation for the foundation vail and footing is wider than the foundation wall, it must be backfilled. Preferably, the backfill material should be the native earth -emoved from the excavation. It should be placed back into the excavation as close as possible to the same moisture content and compactness of the surrounding, undisturbed soil. This always means tamp. ing the lil back in place. Tamp it in thin, equal layers on both sides of the foundation wall sn that there is no possibility of damaging or forcing the wall to lean. You can use the same kind of tamper described elsewhere for rammed earth.

71

Chapter 6 LIGHTWEIGHT ROOFS

Unless the roof of the house is to be made of heavy ma. serial, such as earth, you can build the roof right after the foundation has been completed. It the roof is built before the walls. it needs to be sup. ported by temporary or permanent studding of heavy upright timbers or. if available. any one of several kinds of metal uprights. There are several practical lightweight roofing materials, Among them are corrugated asbestos sheeting, corrugated metal sheets, lightweight tile or thatch. If ansy of thewe are to be used. there are a number of adsantages to building the roof right after the foundation has been completed. Here is why a roof in place can be of great advantage to the builder before the walls ;-re built: I. The shelter makes a good curing space for building blocks or bricks. 2. It provides desi-ihle shade for curing earth walls. 3. It makes a good work area and provides shade for the builders. espvc alll iii warmer climates. 4. Tools and materials c t be kept unler the roof to pro. seet theis from weather damage.

Figure 32.

72

5. It can eten provide temporary living space. This method has the following disadvantages: I. It is harder to do than building the roof after the walls are completed. 2. Exita material is needed for the roof supports. In many cases, these supports can he left permanently in place. If they are not left standing after the walls are finished, of course, these timbers can be used again for something else. Figure 32 shows the roof of a Korean house in place before the walls were constructed. Full details on how' to build roofs are coicicd in Chapter 12.

Once you have your source of soil and have experimented with itenough to that you know how to use it best, the next step is to work out a careful and orderly plan, step by step,
of what you are going to do with it. To build a house of earth blwxks or rammed earth means that you will have to: I. Move several tons of soil. 2. Have . source of water handy. 3. Prepare your soil mix (adding stabilizers if necesary). 4. Set up a block-making or ramming operation. To do these tIings efficiently, you must have what you need where you need it. For example, if you plan to build a house of blocks, they should be completed and stacked for curing as close as possible to where they will be used in the walls of the house. It the roof has been built beforehand, as suggested in Chapter 6. the block making operation should be set up under it. The roof will provide shade in sunny weather and will permit work to go on if the weather is bad. In planning the location of each step, study the order shown in Figure 33. DIGGING THE SOIL-It does not matter how the soil is dug and moved to the place where it will be used. There are. however, some points to remember whether the soil is duk by machinery or by men with picks and shovels. Machine dug soil usually is lumpy. It is important that all clods or lumps are completely broken up before mixing in the water and stabilizer. If the soil Is lumpy, you should provide a space to break it up so that it will not be mixed with the freihly dug earth. If the soil -is dug with picks and shovels in the first place, you will find that very little brea' ng up will be needed. Often, you will be mixing two or more soils together to make your best possible mix. If you do, bring your soils to your building site and keep the different kinds into different piles. When you blend them later, you can make the mixture you found to be the best from your earlier testing. Often, the builder will find a situg:ion like this: a layer of top soil about a foot or more thick: then a couple of feet of und under that, and beneath the sand, a layer of clay or sandy clay. If the builder will first get rid of the top soil, he can make his building mixture as he gues along by digging down the sides

Chapter 7 PREPARING THE SOIL

78

11141

SAADDING

WATI

PININ

ADOC& ISlOLOS

AMI

AN

of the hole through the la)ers. It he is able to do this, then. he does not have to spend a lot of time later on ' aking his proper blend. lie can do all tIis as h digs by pa),ng attention to the amotlnts of the different kinds of soil he digs. Do It this way it %ou can. of court.. instead of removing the soil by digging out cacti la~er al st ckpiling it separately. AtOIATi'I COXTE'%'T-Thie moisture content of the oil as )otil dig might be rie, cOne to the right amount nettded for best (oeipa.unp1t . (See pg. 30 to deterine whether you hate

7S

the right amount of water.) if it is. you can put your mix directly into the block-making machine or in the forms for rammed earth, unle, of courw. you are going to mix stabilien in the soil. It the soil type is just right, as it sometimes is, but the mixture is too dry, the pit can be sprinkled with water before the earth is dug out. A little experience will quickll tell the builder just how moist the soil should be and how deep the water will penetrate into the sides of the pit. For adobe construction, it is better to add water while the digging is going on. In this case. the mixing is also done in tie pit. Rut if dry or powdered stabilizers are being added. they must be added to fairly dry soil first because it is difficult to flix them evenly into wet or muddy soil. PREPARI'G TIlE AIX-if )our soil mix is made up of two or more separate soils, here are some rules to follow in order to get best results: I. Get rid of undesirable material. Be sure to remove all roots, leaves. trash and any other organic material. 2. Break the soil down to proper size before blending. 3., Sjones larger than I t/2 should be gotten out. 4. After all dirt clods ha%e been broken up and crushed. put the soil through a scieen with openings between 1/ and

11

Flguse 54.

7'

ilgure 3. ilifil. "t Itig"lt. 31 for sclec t'i hat |Ide wtic JLr mI,If1. Allslhillg thalt|(' jo s o ull() l ql.lhll IR dliwaralt~l t Crolslledl more.l

~ll|

(ki

IK, It)

il

~~ ~
or

I.

tileItileI

cloligh~l

I bis la te . dirt are t' {;+ lllclc.% lo+t , . If lJafl' (Io(, idle iol tle ll1i., W +a (t lllA ) lo "I I' t l ilt, I I li l , I A l sC F, +'A l l til ea%all IPCl il s wiakedt b) raiii, tile clllIs mi.++sv~tll andm is i lee ujil, 01 tihev Cou'ld %ash oit and sa l hle itt thlat A-Acii.le Ih ulitole. Wheli'l It~u ill someIt soils ate" toJ I .' llole, for example, pphill Illse) tolme,ic lollltIVI pill, it it liesI to Sicke thrill iseparalcl ) aol kset-l Ihs'm tItlrmera pile's. lIc Ahsnih+ it ii l i l e li o m ix l th e mlh t t ' l t er. i l es ( r ut l blc odlc a n b e-i c+_ a t tled oll 5414h as t ' pai .IVA o l1ii soil sol im+(pails of lhal wi1," Cie. "lhis olitralioto is slittroll ill likuta 31,. We'ighling Ilise sw'arale s i l s dc h es a m u s e al+" i loll j h , b ou t i t i l s oJ t a i l s m o t~ h | l l log e . A ile |ractic.- %ill tra(It tile builcr Ito makellti blcioh AIItlalCl') C110119h 14) thai %('iglhill it 1l1lI4'01 l 7

allow tile' site %ooII "Jl l IlII ll ti go lh11r ll|l, lot +x l t ai + lt Ise Iw e o l ti lt w e l it lh1j t ( jh ll o fI

l oUod ll r ~ lllt ~ 4ssclt+ bhII(llh ~ ~ ~,l|sslh

of li~

lt

a~

'fl

' bg I

Figu. c 36.
Durig the blending operaston. be sure the right mixture is kept the same. If it is a 2-1 mix. be sure it is always two to ne. ,MIXING TilE SOl-This is one of the most important steps in the whole operation. .Mixing with the tight amount of water isabsolutely essential. The quali) of a finished wall depends on good mixing and the right moisture (ontent at the time the soil is being pressed into bloKks or into a wall. There are three methotls for mixing the soil .nn can use: I. A motor.powered mixer. 2. A manual or airnal.powcredl mixer. 3. Ot a mixing board aid sloel,. It available. a rnoor.powered mixer can sase )ou a lot of time on a large project hut )ou must ha%e the right kind of mixer. Mixers which hase paddles attached to the drun so that drum anti paddles rotate as one piece (such as in an bridinarl cohcrte" ritiixct) will not be 'saiv actory for mixing soil for pressed hloks or rammcd earth unless the soil is %ery sandy. "Ihe best i)pe to nise is one that has paddles or teeth that rotate in a satjrrary tlrunt or sontainer. If yo, are making adobe, a concrete mixer will work fine because an adobe -.Ax Is much welter. Several conitnerc(ial nixers ate asailalie but a homemade mechanically powered mixer can Ie built if soie t)pc of motor is available. For small mixers. a gasoline Cngine of approxi. mately 5 horseprw.r works well. rtattors (ir automobiles may be modified so that a belt or chain drise take-off can Ie used. 71

N4 .,.

,
5

.,, a

'

'.

p,

Figure 37.
A 55.galloat oil drum makLes a good cnntainer for mixing. Figure 36 shows a succesilial mixer that you , in make yourself. A 23. or 30.gallomi oil dium can be used to make a smaller hand or animal powered mixer. le sure you hair mixer large enough for the job. For a single house project, the cheapest and easiest method for mixing soils is by hand. All you nred is a flat surface and a shoel or a hoe. The floor of the house, if concrete, nakes an excellent surface if you hate built it beforehand.

79

To male sure that all b.tches of mix are the same, soil, water and stabilizers (if you are using them) must be measured accurately. The best way to do this is to lay out a long row of soil, about lB inches wide. Then use a template as shown in Figure 37 to level off the row to the right height, maybe six inches or a foot. Fill in the low spots and level again with the board. For every batch of mix, be sure that the rows are the same length and all are of the same width and thickness. If you are using stabilizers, sprinkle the right amount on top of the row. Pour a little water at a time and use the shovel to turn the material oser and work it toward the center of the row. An ordinary garden sprinkling can is ideal for adding the water. But be sure to add the same amount of water and stabilizer (when used) to each batch. If )ou make each tow the same way esesy time and use the same amount of water for each row. each batch of mix will be the same. Do not tnix more soil than you can we at one time. There is one exception, however. In cases where you are using lime with soil containing a lot nl clay, thoroughly m~ix about hall of the lime required and then add the water and allow it to "season" for a day or two. While it is seasoning, cover the mix with wet sacks or leaves so the soil will not dry out. During this seasonin tine, the lime will react with the soil to break down any clods or lumps that clay has. Alter the mix has seasoned, work it again carefully with shovels, add the rest of the lime, nuix and add a little more water, if needed. Then, it is teatly to be made into blocks or rammed into a wall.

Chapter 8 MAKING ADOBE BLOCKS

The art of making adobe earth blocks is ancicnt-and the old haul.mixed methods work as well today as they ever did. But, it )ou have some machinery to help mix the soil and move it. oni call make good blocks a lot faster. MANUAL (Oil OLD) METh1OD OF MI.4ING ADOBE BLOCKS-Whcns a lot of cheap labor is available. use it. All )ou need are forms for molding the I)l(ks anti simple tools for
mixing and mosing the earth.

The forms may he made for single blocks. but two- or four-block forisn are better. Strong, long-lasting forms can be nmade from 2-inch thick planks. When the forms do not hase to last a long time, I-inch thick planks or 1IA-inch thick plswood Call be nsct. TbC forms will rcccise a lot of wear, so make
strong ones. Use ple'v of nails or bolts or. better %et. reinforce

them with strips f ni.al at the corners. Since tiey will be wet mu h tIhe tint, it helps to soak tie forms in oil for a while before %ou start to ue them. Sonic people line the insides with metal so the forms hill last longer and the blocks call Come 0111 casier. Adobe blocks can be inaie almost any size, hut they sliou ld be kept sutall enough so that one man calllift then) a!l laV long withut tiring tot inuch. Ali aSerage worknais call do this if the blocks weigh about 50 pounds or less. Adobe blocks are comnmonly inade 4 to 6 inches thick. "the width of the block matches the desired thickness of the wall. between 9 and 18 inclhes. 'The length, then. ii controlled by the weight of the block. ". wo tpi(Jl sizes of blocks that hase been uscd are :1lO%2 inches (weglht about 55 pounds) aiid 4%1'-'lI incIes (wright about 50 pounds).

figure 38. Preparing the soil mix.

It

Figure ?9. Charging the forms.

The manual method is most efficient when four workers are used. Two men prepare and mix the soil while the other two mold and remoe the lorks, then, clean the forms. The

dry soil is prepared as explained in Chapter 7. Then it is

mixed with water as showin in Figure 38 uitil the soil barely flows -when lightly kneadci. A go( way to estimate whether enough water has been added is to use a stick to make a 3.inch deep, V.shaped groose in the soil mix. The mix is wet enough If the sides of the grooe bulge and just begin to flow together. Bituminous emulsions or other liquid stabilizers are added to the soil mix at the same time as the water. )ry or powdered stabilizers are nsixed in before the water is added.

Figure 40.

Kneading and leellng the blocks.

12

Figure 41.

Lifling the forms from frcohly made hlotL.

After thorough niiig., the adlobe mn ix is placcd in tlie |lotols as showl) ini Figure 39. It helps to drop or hi ow (lie mix ill tile forms so it packs tiglly. The mix is Ohen kncaded 1h hanld as shnsin ill rigiie l0I I) fill all of tile corlcis and iclinlse all air IIbles. If thie kiie;iliiig job is dle well, ihe a.iole hh.li will ie solid and hlis strogl corners and edges.After kilin g. a al l ihAut~ or tit%%sst'l is tim-ld to (it off the ilra somiland alloth the top cilge if the mtn!i.,1 block. A little hater sprinkled on Iop of the bllk ill N' ipi ,.liellting it oil. AS moon ai Ii.psillle tile for.is arc lifted fI,,
madce block
ili.o to tenise

. ith. freshllv
!-f L.iiig
slllij or

as shiosi

ill ligui

41.

The oily iv.

it. If the

tlie forsi

is to Iry

ihi(ii.S

bulge to ti ltth, or the mix is

thme are

cit hr tile flOt ti

;tie (iI

btiig

reoscovlI too s Ols

lo

ie.

If tlhe mix sti(ki to tle

is to lrl tile filntiis hiAs

s whlel
tint lieeii

InIosill, it

Oile I tiighih. With s me soils -'e forns Iiiia lie icit'nled imniediatel.. With otlher soils su mas l.ise t,, wait lotiger.
w After rtnmoshig io lii tile l % icate ashvi as slown ins Fi uii e .12 adl retl n1el Ito tle cailiig bed for tile giet hatch.

FIgure 42.

Washi.g forms for next ctle.

13

Figure 43. Front end loader i6 used to nix soil with water in large sump.
,fECIIA.IC..IL MITIIOD OF MAKI.G 44DOIEI BLOCKS The mechanical mcthod of making adobe blocks is not much hiiig nadiiner' to mix diffcrent front the Iald n,.tlml. ltv and dump the soil lou car male blocks faster, but .ou need bigger foim and morc of tni .A larger casting bed is also rt~lliim(l. The site of thc adlbc blocks ik thc same as those made birlil siould fir big ctiough eitlhm]. but I]|e to makc. 12 to 16 bhlki at olice. for t.se bigger foums. use '.-im tl Iitk lumber. It ctoulgh water -iidcatli arc asai-ble It)to 50 lil ill ls, aS malts as LV to kLep Rise tnil\ig p)l(Kc%

by the manl1l

611ll11% Il11.%Iw. use.'.

I. leaheKI,two 01 1IirCc wil LCr$ mUY Lsill I 111C it11ic,11 leC iiatioler ustil I f1 t t vi hAlIm 1J111 e(i)uS rat IW e.itimigh. 011 11

Figure 44. fornm.

Mathine

prepared %oil mis tr.an mparts

it mtll.

such as shown in Figure 4.

He digs the soil if necessary. mixes

up without chippiag (ir breaking. place tlem on edge to finish curing. At this little any hoose saitiI or other material clittgitg to ithe blotk is scraped off with a smnall stick (see ligure 45). Curing uill take blout a Ionth, bi it icl ,ttds a loti oa tihe weather and tle of st: s '"ier in the block.

up and drops It in the foms. This operation is shown in Figure 44. "The other men knead the mix into the forms and lift tire large forms from th. molded blocks at the proper time. This method will oary depending on the type of mechanical equipment that is available. The front-end loader was used ,only as anl example. CURING .4DOiBE ILOCKS-Adobe blocks must be cured or sun-dried Ibcforc they can be used. The usual way of curing the blocks is as follows: I. After the mold is retoseil front the newly made blocks. kase them ill place two to fotur dats without being disturbed. (ang mod Ilita) he used with a pallet to slied this operation. The :nolil all be resinteil after ite soil m1asq has set sufficietliv so hold its shape and the ,.aimlet with blocks call be set aside out of tile wal vlaile cilring takes place. 2. As soln as the blocks atr stroltg entiogh to be picked

the soil and water in a large pit and then scoops the soil mix

rv

3. If stahilicrs slh a s little er ctrotwt are m.d. (ter . tile block witt ovcr cloth (or strawi. as s n a% lite molds arc te omld. Keep tlicisi tloist for ,sen .I.1%s anl thell tli their) oil edge to coinlctlt tile tintg. (See 'igtue 5(1,Chaliter 9.)

4. At the enld (if lilt- ttiiig pli l, lite lhiks ate slacked onl edge as shltowt inl ligtla I; so the) will take up less rcstns. Iecauase of tile luig (uioig lirtiol lisr atlohe blo Itk, a large coring area slntast Ie .1%ailahilh. l)nuiog 14s. int sca-usns they catt (tare stht allat a litattic roof. Int if it is apt to winh

Figure 45. U'ntabilred block is turned on edge to dry after

Isbo to four da)s.

Figure 46.

Adob

block is stackl alter a month of curing.

(liutilig il e curinig 1k.il. a pilote'Clic tcocriog will lie eedtled. The bloicks slown ill Fig re 47 we e rin(.d I%rain before thy hall a ttlall(C to cure. Au examiple of all iiici lisi e shed used for e ring lohks iguii 57 ii Ch.el)tcr 9. Iot all t. les (if coeiilng is shown ii llttlli allow hlieair to dlCilt att iiid tihe blocks or the% %ill take too loing to ctze. Some btildcis base laid adol.e blocks befoire they 1a12C h if the lihcks do ot shrink cicer (tiipltels. This cal l b uln+ ter being laid ati if thes are st rolg cgtioglh to Ie hanIllcd withoilt bleak ilig. ilie sas igs ill [tit lla llot jsislif% this I)a) Uiicurcd Mcks. procedure. howlescr. It is reAill ltter Il oI OF IOI.FACK%-Ciii rolliig the QUL.IT.YI. CIECKIN( quality of adobe blocks diniog clmintsirtion is not a% dilficult lt.esca illisture coinlnt is not as it is for lirtisedl earth lils so imporlant. It still should Ie d11C. thotigh. Yot caii loake quick Achts l ioit as tile reaction .lihakiiig. tiry streili. ic... tnin" whether outr soil inixtire iivie explained ii Chalter 2 tol has cianged. %'tilshotld als, make esits on the cored blotks to determie whether the coirrect u .l is bcin R sctil anid whelher ile correcI aliouli of stabiliter is being addted. '1lie fol.lusig tesls are i ulliinelided. I. Strength tesis of tile Culted hbcks should Ibe iiiaC oiliei using the procetuis gioco ii Chililer 2. Frot the flirt .(i) blocks made. tso or three blocks shld Ie selected for strength tesLs. I.ater it is sullicient to check One block out ol citery ISO to 200 blitks.

NI

Figure 47. Inadequate protection of blockL during curing schedule may result in a loss such as occurred here after a rainstorm. 2. Spray testing is an easy way of checking the quality of adobe.blocks and assuritig. uniformity. Thew tests should be peiformed on cured blocks using the procedure described in Chapter 2. The number of tests to be performed is the same as for the strength tests. S. Absorption test as described in Chapter 2 is one of the easiest ways of checking uniformity of the blocks. Check the same number of blocks as for the strength test. All of the control tests should be done on blocks which have cured for the same amount of time. If tests are performed on blocks which have cured for one week and then other tests are performed on blocks that have cured three weeks., you could not expect the results of the tets to be the Same,

1?

As mentioned earlier. machine-made or pressed earth blocks combine the advantages of both rammed earth and adobe, but require less technical skill than ramnmed earth. For this reamon, several hand- and power.drisco machines have been dcclopcd In recent %cars to make pres.wil )locks. Four ,nachimics known to Texas Ak..1I are I.ancrtet. Winget. Elisim and CINVA.Rain. either by iexis. . or y the Age cv for Imlntriatioial Dcelopnicrt. LA.VDCli TE-Ihc L.andcrcte press is inaumufactreml by .,lcssrs. L.anlslmoromgh amd Finidlay (%otlh Africa) 1Id., Johani-s. bturg, .oth .Africa. (ligure -18.) It is a hand-ope atcd press which was dchclopmd especiallv for making blocks aid bricks front stabilizel soil. It is a well-dIsigned machine, very slturdily built, amid easv to 1w,. The Inallofactuler claims that tlie handipcrated loiathille ill Imake IIx) to 150 blocks lier hour. por-dri he, model is also a%ailal)le ihich will make 500 blricks ipr haiir. The machinme sciglhs tro much to Ile easily mined.
The mentlon of these inaciimmcs (lM..s siot implv endorsement

Chapter 9 MAKING PRESSED EARTH BLOCKS

alrms sitlapes of blocks wh icIin1;u1l molied wi I li IImhills: illostratcmd ill Figuie 19. Thtm mii.imis asiulalllc slhlwpes allow lo$ks for liiaLilmg courners. itiiiir iiiltitois amid iillmli, olier ,lKiaI uses. laulIlcrte blinks limJ+C aim iii met I li lug kature Ithich aids in la; imuglilt-ill. II'I.\G/.T-The Wilt iilhime (F'iglme 50) is a h dra mmal

licall%.-lnerilctl lno(k l)is limistrt-1 ht% a small gamsmlime enlille. It is Ilmalintf.mlculicl If 'i vi l. I It.,Rochester, E-iglaid. I

IN..
Figure 43.

Figure 49. The iariot %hip" of hliks produced h the Land. cTete hlo(L-enAling .na(hi,e Allow rigid bonstrutiion of corners

and tes.

Figure 50. This Wingel rotary block.making machine Is being used in the Briish Casncroons. Is

Figure 51. The compression and ejection stroke with this Vision block-making machine consumed 1.4 seconds by stop watch. contains a rotating table with three operating positions-one position each for filling the mold, pressing the block, and ejecting the block. The table, itself, must be rotated by hand so that the rate of proluction is still controlled by the operators. Due to the high pressure which can be obtained with the press. the quality of the block is good. The machine is not easily transportable due to its %eight. ELLSON PLOCK,.IASTER-The Ellson Blockmaster is a manually-operated block (or brick) mnaking machioe manu. factured by Ellson Equipments (Pty.) Ltd., 283 Fox Street. Johannesburg. South Africa. (Figure 51.) The machine operates on a lever system with a constant length of stroke so that the block thickness is alwas the ume. The high lever ratio (500.1) makes a %ery dense, solid block. Different mo!ds can produce blocks 9xl2x4 inches or 6xl2x4 inches. Other molds and attach. memts are available to form interlocking blocks, 4Vyx9x4 inch bricks ot 18x9x4 inch hollow blocks. The tmanufacturer claims a production rate of 900 to 1100 blocks pei d hour day with an increased rate up to 1400 to 1500 blocks per dsy with a semi-automatic loader attached. If the 41/x9x4 inch bricks are made, the rate is approximately doubled since two bricks are made in one operation. Two men wou~d be required to operate the machine and two or three more to prepare the soil. CINl'A.RAM-The CINVA-Ram (Figure 52) was developed by the Inter.American Iousing and Plaiming Center (CINVA) at Bogota, Colombia. in 1952. It is opc.ated by manually applying pressure on a long lever arm. It produces blocks which are llJx Ax3 inches (either hollow or slid) and will also ptxluce llss5 sl inch tiles for roofs or floors. ihe long lever arm arrangement psoduces dense, high.quality blocks. The CINVA-Ram is presently distributed by Mesalibec Ltda,Apartado Aeto 233.NAL 157, Bucaramanga. Columbia, South America,

so

ituclililig pmcin"g. Iitiig. mjlili,,g. tic.. sliIhl make 300 blocks a ,Ia.a i. e wionk Lr , a iliaLe (AJ per uIA%I,% dikid.

Figure 52. Ili cr li(eii ,e 1a11 I I "lhe niia{liiie h-r(igl% .r,ill ,(;. i Jli 'l (: 'mk. I'.S l-Ili A. '.N w lilil(,,l) i ',thc Iililllr , l liel 'o r lladlille , w'oliiulieI h,l ((i l Ihre %r. noii, doingi all of Ilhe wurk he j,,h1.

ing

S.UMARIf Y Of ll.0 CAl.,.I:/.\'(; .IACIIINF8-A of lhe Imachin(s diuied al,,oe make hig.h-qUialito earth hloks. Each lllachille (rialil) foal il, whallge: and liucdialages and crlain mad Isjioe,; hill I1w auailable in u one arcas "of Ihe world where collieis %%ill not. J here arc p.obhlik otlher gwool mach ines that ill Iake g ea:lthri hI,:L%. i, itsic 10 practical in ihis inallual 14 dis, un all t,( ihcm. We Will tist the CINVA. Ram wahiie I(# iliotuos Ihe. lpsi:hlute for making. liliwLs. 9I.oCA '..f.4AlN(" ()Pl.I/ol,',. icim of five or six 1m horkilig Wilh oliC in ibiiche achic'Ics the best pioduclion. *Ih cs inc handle ilic digisig a0s pim -iiirg, while thwo men e operole the iatIic mood moti be hlmss. Ao404ther man may fie u3 l go stuck 5 he blhls lfur turiiirg PI.ACIVG ,%II. IN, IN .1CllAT-With molt of the blk.liimakhig iachiics (pjrliculArl wilh CINVA.Ram) it Is necessary in get She t(rrte(i amount (i til t , ix in lhe machine each lime. Ital. simple Weighing equipment can be used, but

I!

Figurec'"

or 1*1.l1 scoop %ill do .alinoil as well. A scoop lot the CINVA-Ran is shoii in ligure !-3. A oriker cat| scoop into a lIxii pile of prepainl soil mix. wtape ofl the excess material' with a piee ol %iraigiht wl or shect nictal, and then dump this mrasuie amoort directly into the machine. rthe site of the sco p is dretinsel iby the coirect amount of mix to make a dense block. Another %ay is to use oniy one site scoop but use an adjuslable sctalcr as shown in liiure 53.

A Wr-d

BDefun: each scoop (fmix isplaced in the CINVA-Ram. a light coat of oil should be brushed on the sides and bottom of the molding box. A mixture of I part engine nil and one part of kerosene is fie. The oil coatiog Leeps the blocks from sticking to the sides of the niild anid males them easier to force our. The scoop of soil mix is then placed in the oiled mold box. (Figure 54.) For nial ,soils, a i-cuiphu1 (if loose matcrial will iot completely fill 'lie moldI bt and the cos.r cai lIe easily closed. Stoe soils.in, hnccr, hate a tenlic| it) "flill" when moist (UStiJit l% thc satilsh ltati s dlo thisi and mlhey must 1e lightly pfrme-d iriosi b hand lihefore thr iilhl cier can be closed. It has aim) Imrei hnid that nally1 hCLhs are nor compressdl tightl at tIne cornir and thcse corners will lat.r c hip Ofr Weal, l dmiog h hamllig. 'ihis does rot alfect

I.

FIgure 54.

ChargIng mold box sith oIl mi. '3

Figure 55.

Pressure stroke.

the overall strength of the block but can spoil the looks of the wall later on. To avoid this problem, loose mix in the corners can be pressed down tightly by hand or a little excess soil mix can be placed in each of the corners. PRESSING TME BLOCK.S-The worker who fills the mold box iIi, .s the cover on. His partner applies the pressure on he lever. (Figure 55.) This is a most important part of the operation and requires practi:e to do well. The CINVA-Ram was developed so that as little as 70 pounds of force applied to the end of the lever produces a block dense enough to be satisfactory. However, it has been proved that denser blocks are much stronger and more weather.resistant. So, it is recommended that at least 130 pounds of force be applied to the k vr arm: that is, a man weighing about 130 pounds %hould be able to apply all his weight to bring the lever down to a
level position.

A good block depends on the correct arbount of soil In the mold box. If the leer arm can be pushed to the level position without pressing hard, then not enough soil has been placed in the mold and the block will 1int be dense. If too much soil has been placed in the mold, then the lever arm cannot be.broughtsdown to tI-e level position, even with considerable force. The hloi. produced in an overfilled mold still will not be dense enugh. The builder can judge when he has the correct ainount of mix in the box. lie will feel the greatest force when the end of the lever lacks about one foot from being level. If weighing equipment is available, you should determine the density of )our blocks h measuring their weight and volume. 'he best blocks are the heatiest or most dense ones. '4

EJECTING BLOCK. -ln the CINVA.Ram. blocks are pressed out of the mold by lifting the leer .,rm and swinging It to the other side of th. mold box. (Figure 56.) After extruding, the block should be transferred to a suitable place for curing. If the top of the block bows or cracks during this extruding process. the soil mix was probably too wet. These blocks will be weak and should not be used. Newly-made soil blocks conlainiitg clas can be handled with little fear of break. ing. New sandy blocks may crumble when hamdled, so they should be moved on a wood or metal piece called a pallet. Some fresh blocks must remain oii pallets until they are strrng enough to be moved. It may be neces.iry to have enough pallets on hand to handle an entire da)'s production of biloks. The only way to know whether pallets are required is to maV.?

Figure 56. Extrusion of finished block and remoal to curing

Is

Figure 57.

strength, partirularl% if ihir" contain cemrntitg stabilizers. ISee. Chapter 2.) During the uct-ruling period. blocki should

blocl and we how lhte" hold together hrn they come out of the machine. CURING lBLOCAS-%lile curing. blolki should be stored in a place i'hCrC il('' %ill not be dlotrlihd and close to where they Will be ud. ctiling is comleted w hen lhe witer umsd for molding is dried ot. The%. will (fr% otll faster in tire son. If the area reccised a lot of rain, dr Ihcn out tinder a co ering or cheap stied as shown in Figury 57. If lhe roof o the house was built first. dr) ihm under the roof. .A wrt rtile period is necstary for tabili:rd Ul ks to gain

~ripe

be stond on rnd and cosercad with wet sacking. lcascs, or other material as show+n in tigure 58 so the catl be kept moist. After

-. *

..

F'gure 5S.

curing. the covering is removed an i the blocks are stacked while they dry. Some builders do not wait until the bluc.ks are completely dry before laying them in the wall. This does no harm za long as the blocks do not crack when being laid and do not shrink later. But. let them cure for at least a week before using; the longer the better. CHECKING Q UALITY OF BLOCKS-When a large number of blocks is being made, a few bad ones are bound to turn up. Sometimes, even a whole batch of blocks will be of por quality because somebody did something wrong. Mistakes happen, and the builder can guard against them by performing occasional cox-ol tests. The type and number of tests that should be performed depend on the size of the job and type of construction. For pressed earth Hocks the following tests are recommended: I. The moisture content of each separate mix sLouid be checked before blocks are molded. It the mixes are small, lou can check "noisture by making a ball of the moist mix as described in Chapter 2 and dropping it on a hard surface. For large mixes tr) to use the more exact tests for moisture described in Appendix B. Use soil samples weighing I to 2 pound-. ". Spray tests should b. performed occasionally to see if the resistance to weathering is as good as expected. These tests should be performed on cured blocks using the procedure described in Chapter 2. If the job is just starting then 2 or $ (or even more) bricks out of the first 100 bricks should be checkr '. Later it is sufficient to check one brick out of every 150-200 bricks made. S. The strength of the block should also be checked often to make sure that the block will be as strong as expected. These tests should be performed on cured blocks using the procedurm given in Chapter 2 or Appendix A. The number of tests that should be performed is the same as given above for the spray tests. 4. Absorption tests can be easily performed on cured blocks using the procedure given in Chapter 2. Make an *absorption test each time you do a spray test. 5. Density tests to detenimrle whether yo'.- blocks are being pressed enough should be done if weighing equipment is available. Remember thkt the heaviest blocks are the best ones. If the blocks do not pass these control tests. block-making should be stopped immediately until the trouble is located.

'7

Chapter 10
MAKING WALLS WITH EARTH BLOCKS
E ath bl6Ls. whetlhr adole or pressed. are laid it level la)crs (tir coums') just like ,tsli-ary burnt bricks. Each course is offset oine-half of the width osf the block as shown itt Figure 59 up that the vertical joints arc tnt contitutous. "The blcks are joined together with a mortar to give a unsiformly strong wall. Some bhrxki-niaking machines prml'ce blocks with ittcrlocking gnrn es ant ridgcs so the blocks bond togethcr without ising mortar. This type of bond is ot v.ery satisfactory. partictalar!y for areas subject to earthquakes or high winds. The -vlection of a ,'urrect nmrtar is an impo)rtait step, ansI the fi.f, ation givc b, low should be Closely studicl hefore
a mortar is eIcItled.

,lOndTAS FOR PI'R.S.S.D EARTH II.fOCKS-The mortar used for presetd earth hhks may be one of high-quality like that used otr burntt bricks. or it may be made from the same soil mix used for the earth blocks. lIlee is one high quality mortar that has been succmsftlly used with mansy diffcrent typ.s of eatth blocks: I pal pitltlasdl ctteltst. I part lite. 6 parts Cleans saul (particle uite lsis tIhan u/g). Sufficieit cleas water to m,.ke a workable mix. If "Itasrsty 'cemenut is aailalblc, lrc one part masonry centt, ttree parts sast atd enough water to fo-rm a workable
mix.

If soil ustl' is usel for the mortar it shoul be ote low in clay content to aoild shtinkage cracks. Since the mortar is not

Figure 59.

OR

pressed like the blocks, it will require some -sort of stabilizerusually portland cement or lime-so it will have approximately
the same strength as the blocks. Research has shown that mortar for stabilited pressed blocks should contain about twice Ls much stabilizer as the blocks to be as strong as the blocki. In other words, double the amount of stabilizer you t,,ed for your blocks when making a stabilized soil mortar. The soil mix or sand to be used in the mortar should be sieved through a small screen. SELECTING THE BEST MORTAR FOR PRESSED EARTH ILOCKS-There are some simple tests that can be used in selecting a good mortar. Before making these tests. it is first necessary to know something about laying blocks. Since pressed earth blocks are usually dried before they are laid, they ae likely to absorb some of the water from the wet mort;r. If they absorb too mnuch water from it. the mortar will dry out too fast. Then it will be weak ai~d will not form a good bond with the block. A simple way to determine if this will happen is to dw.w a I-inch diameter circle on the surface of a block with a wax pencil or crayon. Using some sort of dropper, rapidly place 20 drops jf water inside the circle. If the block completely absorbs the water in .ss than 11/ 2 mir.utes, the blocks need to be wetted. This can be done by completely immersing stabilized blocks in water for a minute or two. Unstabilized blocks can be thoroughly sprinkled with water. Allow the surface water to be absorbed into the blacks before it - mortar is applied. After the blocks have been properly wetted, two or tatore of them are joined together with each of the proposed mortar mixes using the same thickness of mortar joint that will be used in the wall. It is important that the consistency ("wetness") of the mortar mix be the same as if it were being used in a wall. The excess mortar is removed or "struck off" and the mortar joint allowed to dry at least one day. The mixes are judged from the appearance of cracks in the mortar. A mortar is unsuitable if it contains open cracks that will allow surface water to enter the joint. line hairline cracks in the surface are usually not damaging. Mixes that have damaging cracks need either more sand or more stabilizer. If the test joint yo made shows no cracks, set the test blocks aside in a protected area for at least 7 days. If portland cement or lime is used as a stabiliuing agent th-.y should receive P wet cure for .the first day. At the end of the 7-day drying period, drop t'.e joined blocks on a hard surface from shoul,:r height so as to land on the corner of one of the blocks. The fragments are inspectet: to determine if the cracks follow the joints or cr( q the joints through the blocks. Any mortar that is strong enough to hold the bloc'- together so that some of the cracks arc through the blocks is a strong. durabe ,nortae.

If the cracks are all in the mortar joints, the mortar may be suspected as being too weak for successful use. Some blocks are extremely strong and may not crack through the block. In such cases, the only thing to do is to estimate by some other means the force required to pull the blocks apart. MORTARS FOR ADORE BLCLKS-Tests have shown that the mortar for adobe blocks should have about the same strength as the blocks themselhes. If the mortar is imuch stronger than the blocks, it could cause the blocks to track when it shrinks. For this reason, it is usually best to use the same soil mix
tincluding stabilizer) as was used for the blocks. This mix should be put through a line scrcc to remote large particles which are never desirable in the mortar. It the mortar does not sati.factorilv bond the blocks, it may help to wet the blocks first by sprinkling them. Adding a small amount of stabilizer might also help. However. as a general rule. very little trouble is experienced with mortars for adobe blocks. SETTING DOOR FRAMES-Before the block.laying begins. all door openings should be accurately located and marke' on top of the fonndatlon wall. Sometimes the door frames are set in place before laying the blocks. Another satisfactory method. otcn used with adobe construction, is to leave an accuraZely measured opening for the door frame to be placed aP.tcr the block laying is completed. If the door frames are placed first. g.at care should be taken to make sure that they are in the correct position. They should be perfectly plutb and then solidly braced. The frames should be perfectly square (do this by measuring across the diagonals) and then braced diagonally also. TERMITE PROTECTION-In certain areas of the world, especially in tropical climates, termites or white ants are so bad that they will ce~n burrow in earth blocks. If the house is being built in such an area, special precautions must be taken. The ommon method is to use a thin metal shield which is placed on top of the foundation wall and have it project out and down front the wall at least three inches. It may also be advisable to treat the soil and lumber with suitable insecticides to minimize attack by tcrnmites. LAYING TIlE BLOCKS-After the correct mortar mix has been selected and the termite shields and door frames are in place, .tbe blocks .a-e ready. to be laid. The usual procedure is to place the first I'a)er of blocks around at least most of the house as shown in Figure 60b. ILave space for the mortar In the joints, but do not put it in. This step provides the correct block spacing for the remaining courses. When proper spacing has been obtained by trial the blocks are then laid with mortar.

100

Vlpsre60a.

Fire 60.

Figuse 6kc. Then several courses of blocks are carefully laid at the
corners and at the door frames as shown in Figure 60c. These provide a guide for laying the remaining blocks, so they should be layed level and correctly spaced. String lines are then stretched between comers of the building'as shown in Figure 61 or between a corner and a door frame. The string line should be placed so that it will just be level with the top of the next tow of blocks to be laid anti checked to see if it is level. If an adjustment is needed, it should be made. It is best spaced a small distance out from the outside edge of the wall (usually about I inch). In this manner, the person laying the blocks knows exactly how far the block should be from the string line to give a straight, wall. (It may be haudy for him to have a small block of wood of just the correct thickness so that he can measure the distance from the string line to the face of the block.) The string line is moved tip to the next course after a course is completed. In this manner the courses are brought up to the level of the window sills. Then the block laying is stopped while the window frames are set in place. Adobe" block's have rougler iurfaces "anil it will be a little harder to lay them to a straight line but it can be done. A house with crooked walls will not look as good, so check often to be sure that your walls are going up plumb (vertical). Use a level or plumb bob to check them. i01

Figtore 61. ikoo Ilais l, (oir lhla-lII) shmoilil 11- III~l toI) kccP '*Iut d4LS(it litteiCII) aiiil to ligijitl, to stli1 ltle elloiligli 111413113 t all aW113(1 il itlm Ito11 bl C33Ik a3'. keep a stopplly iii1(3( cjiI for Ili$ jl . a lWre ntO)IS 'i le 111334111fledtile li forIc lijIsom. 31111 IeIl. atoll %mall1 trol . a jollIltilg 113411. iailnr.
it' iowt 'tlew niortar is plated ton toop --f tile Illks' wt the jnt oilmiowi iin Figurv 62. Siilliim mintir is tisul to gi'.e a '111V iA'.Oii 0l0i pills joill '41111VWIIJI thliCker I11311 (IC.ilt-l. plate. Lsiit 1110113 tonI L'(i coldi tit .. iv 11113(1and1 slts itil oLi inlto Ilhc exact tile inilwvd lair~. lie liglith tall iii 11 11101 at whvichl ha%. heeli e eeuucs (li rkl JH'uihillI allot thlemlle

.4C

igure b2. 102

squeezed out of the joints. After the mortar has become slightly hardened (in about 30 minutes) the mason finishes the mortar joints. This is done with a rounded tool called a jointing tool, which slightly lnc:nts the joints and removes rough edges. i "h serves to pack the mortar tightly in the joints ;..d also makes the joint more waterproof. The mason's helper should occasionally sprinkle the fresh joints with water to keep them from drying too fast. When the mason needs hall blocks at

4.

t
Figure 63. The mechanical bond of plaster to the adobe wall was enhanced by the early builders of Ft. Davis, Texas, by ineting rock chips in the fresh mortar. 103

r_4

LAV

PLY PcOvW/GNMEL

il

A.

AL *ass

Sau

PA

_'-,WYK or 3-2"*#

-OUBLugo

SAI.

;c

GG

[ SILL

]-.-BRK* StusT"ua

Cotes

4"1i4, eoc, S"raI " q .LO Stu AFtuS WIT C O MCRCT

IFLt I -WA SU A R msinm

, dAM.

",."**C',.
0$ , O 0 m2*Cicf (TYPICAL)

2- .~~-.,,4P.
1

.00 I"*b. V O*' -1..

24".24" P i SCALI

--24,

V-I*

rigure 64. A builder in Albuquerque, N. M., uses this wall section for adobe walls. door frames and windows he can cut blocks by giving them a sharp tap with the edge of his metal trowel. It the block waU is going to be covered with a thick surface coating. (as cxplained ;n Chapter 15) it is not necessary" to finish the mortar joints with the jointing tool. Instead the mortar is left in a rough condition, either protruding out from the blocks or deeply indented. Some builders even omit the mortar from the vertical joints at the ends of the block. This. however, may not be a good idea but if it is done And if

104

ST=Ol \

Co"CtIII Cap

To"ERwFLL

SVWA 29"oc

"8

i BAMCM

WWoW 'SEIMT

/C4"DIET ST=OO

SALL

0-

V -4

Figure 65. This typical waill section for adobe is used by a well known Albuquerque, N. M., adobe building contractor. this space is later filled with the surface coating it provides a very strong bond between. the surface coating azid'the wall. Rock chips set in the wet mortar, also provide a good bn, for surface coating.. This method is shown in Figure 63 for an adobe house. IVINDOIVS-When the block wall has been brought up to the correct height, the window sill should be placed. This 105

Figure 66. An overhanging window sill channelizes the rain into two rivulets, easily eroding the unprotected, nonstabilized wall surface. is one of the most common places for annoying leaks to occur and great care should he taken at this stage of the conistruction. The sill should be made of a sturdy material that waill not rot. A good quality mortar can be used or preferably lightly reinforced portland cinent concrete should be formed into a

Figure 67a. This 2" x 4" wood nailer block, of the same dimen. uions as an adobe block, is inserted in place of the adobe block around windows and doors to offer an excellent, rigid hanger for the window or door !rame. 106

f.
i ; .

Figure i71,. The nailer blok k shown ill place (undrr ihe building piper) in uli rridcnce under construction i,!Albu. querqur, N. M. (Kocbcr). sill as shown ill Figiures 61 and 61. Wlhwn a wiw wI Iramei Winilow is Il lit) used. the Iiii4iolV %ill l1oiliI luol .11ils%place extenid
lime the loti i li t ewwlelii

Iiiasa1aary %ill shsild out sii, o W1oodt is finisheild oiisiile wall. Alli iseiliaigilig sill vill itaitr rllligiollg down Ihe wtiletti face of the wall aiillilw daiis liiagiiig 'rosil as slliiiw in Ji-mr' W6. .1t.anl osallaiigiiug %ill. iiscul. it should fia~c a drip gist' ili*Iali lt, pitita lm ir ,ull, i iihoiihig doun ii111c face of the h, wall. Aft'r ilil nlaviirv sill is in plact ih wiiidow fran can lbe st a l biracld iii t samel'illaiilii as the dliirs. 'lice, the blhck-I-aiiig calU cootiiiit'. O1 icourse. %(ou iiii al leave lU acicuralle liyeasurdil op, illg lir the window alnd pIlir. ii after the blocks ha blei lined. A trick oifit iiusel i)' ail hic builders

sill or lt'aLks will Ix llr. 'lhe

107

Figure 63.

and windows. Above the lintels (in the cut-out section) is shown a concrete bond b-am. when the walls will be covered with a surface coating is shown in Figure 67. Wooden nailer blocks-exactly the size of an adobe block-are placed at several points adjacent to door and window 'openings. The nailer blocks are mortared in place filled with mortar, also. Window and door and their center is frames can be nailed directly to these without fear of cracking adobe blocks. This method can also be used with pressed block walls that will receive thick surface coatings. Another and perhaps better method is to attach sheet metal strips to the frame which will extend into the mortar joints. LINTELS-The weakest spot in any house is over the doors and window.,. A beam or other rcinforcing cross piece called a lintel should always be tved above these openings as shown in Figure 68. The lintel must be strong enouglh to support construction loads as well as ti-e weight of the blocks above. A'large tiniber'or a reinforced concrete beam makes a good lintel. (Fig. 93 in Appendix A gives some thicknesses of forvarious conditions.) The lintel lintels that can be usedl the wall so that blocks laid on should be at least as thick ;,s top of it will be fully suppcted. They should also project ot on either side of the door or window for a distance at least

This slhows how timber lintels are used above doors

INg

Figure 69. A cedar post was used as a lintel in this early construction at Ysleta, Texas.
equal to the thickness of the wall so they will have plenty of surface to rest oil.
. drip barrier should be cut in all lintels. This harrier deep and 1/4- across) on the is a small groove (about I1/" underside of the lintel about (,tie inch from the outside edge. It will keep water from seeping jack into the wall, itself. Figure 65 shows the location: of the drip barrier.

A lintel made from a cedar post is shown in Figure 69. This method was commonly used over a hundred years ago when this building was constructed. aid it's still a good one. because they are strong Railroad ties also make good lintels and usually are ticated to resist tennites. BOND BEA3lfS-lBond beams (sometimcs called tie beams or perimeter beams) are used to reinforce the top of the earth wall againsst loads fron the roof. (See Figure 68.) The beam distributes the roof load and tics the top of the w-ls together. If a low-ceiling house is being built, the bond beam cain also serve as the lintel as shown in Figure 70. Bond beams should be the same thickness as the wall and preferably be tied to the wall witn bolts or some .other, tpe of proj,:ction.. The beams may "el'her be w'ood' or reinfurced concrete. "Wooden bond beams should be placed over a thin layer of mortar on top of the last course of blocks. Cocrete bond beams (and lintels also) c-n be poured in place on top of the completed earth wall as shown in .ignie 71. Make tihe forms strong so they will not bulge. If you are using a timber frame roof. set bolts in the fresh concrete for hosldig the roof down.

109

Figure ;0. This shows a combination bond beam and lintel, made from reinforced concrete, that can be used, on low-ceiling houses. REINFORCEMEINT-The best made homes use extra re. Inforcing. In earthquake or high wind areas, reinforcing should always he used. The most common type of reinforcing used in a block wall consists of reinforcing rods or wire mesh laid in occasional horiontal joints. These rods or mesh are embedded in the mortar between blocks atId also serve to reduce shrinkage cracking. Usually this reinforcing is plared its at least one out of every six horizontal joints. Additional reinforcing is normally requirel in the horizot.tal joints immediately under window sill'. Since a window represents a weak place in the wall, most structural cracks occur at the corner of the window. Reinforcing is not required abovtilewindow if a .sturdy linl ; is use,.- . Reinforcing rods are sometimes plactd in the mortar joints at wall corners and where an inside wall joins into an outside wall. This reinforcing can be made from steel bars that are bent to form the shape of the corner of the wall junction. Additienal strength, particularly for a iwo-story building, is obtained with vertical reinforcing rods. For most block walls

Il0

.1
Figure 71.

X1

can be used to pour concrete bond Forms like this

beams and bitel% in place in the wall.

this mncans drilling a hole tirough the hlocks and grouting the rod into the block. Vertical eiruforciug is normally used only in areas subjected to scvere earthquake shocks. earthquake shocks, the following rules should he followed: I. The plan of dhe huilding shoul I.be conlpiact and rectangular in order to nfnilnize the effects of shaking. olcrie fouttdatitui laid on 2. A coiltioo1ms reiofortrl compacted or solid ground isncces-iry. than' 12. inchic ihick 3. "One-stury walls sh old nol 16 I('s for exterior walls ad 8 inches thick for interior walls. A two. story house shoold hate IH-and 12-inch thickness exterior and story and wooxl framing fur the interior walls for ih, iit ltht sccotd floor secotld story. The lighter oi-sirtuct lfion minihnics the halardis esulting from earlthquakei. 4. Reinfirce mortared joints. Reinforcing rcxls or wire mesh si uld be placed iii every fourth or fith horizontal mortar joint andl lapped over at corners. When surface coatings are used Iil EARTIQUAKE DllEJCN.i-In areas sul jected to frequIent

this method can be Improved by using a four- to six.foot width of one.inch wire mesh in every sixth joint. The extra width is turned down agai-. the face of wall and fastened to it. This provides a good bond for plaster. INSIDE WALLS-The homebuilder has several choices of materials from which to construct the Interior walls of the building. They may be made from the same soil that was used in the exterior walls. Normally they do not have to be as thick nor as strong. Also. they do not nced to be weather proof. They should, however, be resistant to abrasion, and a hard plaster coating may be desirable.

112

Chapter 1 I MAKING RAMMED EARTH WALLS

A rannucl earth wall, you might say, is a lar-e pressed earth block. Because it is much bigger than a pressed earth block anl it is nioade right oil top of the fouIdation wall, it is larler to (io well. But if you do it right, )ou will save a lot of effort. You don't have to move a lot of small blocks around and lay themst itt the wall. A rammed earth wall will make as gxixl a wall as pressed blocks will make. I)u's try to build a rantmed earth house without knowing exactly what you should do. It will be worth )our while to spetd a lot of timse stud)ing this chapter before Nou start. After fitditg the right kind of soil for rammed earth, the tost importatt thiiig to do is to build a formn or mold to rain the earth in. The next iiost inportantt thitng is to rain the elrth cor:ectly. 110" '"0 ITO I.LD flEft.0f-'ihc forms for rat11nel earth are a lot like those used fhr poured concrete. Tic. are simply rectangular boxes witholit tops ort ttons into which earth is pIutndl. 'he fuotin must be sirmtg be- tse they will have to staild a lot of abut beIfre your walls are fitished. Since
they will have to be i1tostl ofte1. they Ittst niot be too0 hCay

for a cotple of men to lift. The forils call e ltialle froi mtal I. but site mIost lbuihdrs will wa nt to ts. wollen frmins. we will talk abot tlhemt only. A simple fein.i catt be ntiade like the one shown its Figure 72. It tses 2" thick lumlbr (2"x6 . 2"xH" or 2"xlO") tisiled to 2"x"4 braces or studs spatrd 2' to 3' apart. Vou'll Ieed two panels and several long (al ott 28"-30") 5," romd bolts to hold them together. The bolts should be loig eiiogh to extendtl through the fortms aml studs with the tht adled pxrtion stickitng out a couple of inhes. Alter the biInis arc renosnd. the bolts arc drite out of the wall and the holes filled with ighltly rattiel MJil mix. The form int Figure 72 arc used for makitg straight wall se(tions. To make corner sections, itake sotne special furits from the same t)pc of wood. hul patterncd to look like thoie ils Figtte 74. insbuildiig 'a .art csarth , hwt;l..ihc bltors of the patels are claplesdt ighil ier tIte fOtildalitn' wall or a secI;,t of finaishedl wall. If the% ate the right thickness or width, the hottotis oif the forms will be right, also. To space the top of the forms, use 2"%.11 wood "spacers" clit to cxactll. the same width as the wall. To keels the carth i!rots omiitg ott ofIt he forms at the rdls, use a piece called att -'ettd gate." Fitl gates should alwa)s 113

Figure 72.

Form for ramming.

be as thick as the rest of ,he forms-2* in this rase. End gates also serve as spacer blocks at the ends of the forms so they should be as wide as the walls. In most cases end gates will be used right at the end of the forms. but they should be made so they will fit any place inside the forms in case you have to ram short wall sections. Try to space end gates so they'll be at least 8" from the nearest bolt. If you don't leave enough room, it will be difficult to ram the soil correctly. Always nail a beveled piece of wood on the end gate so that it faces the inside wall. When the earth is rammed in the forms, the beveled piece will form a groove in the eud of the wall. When the next section of-wall is rammed, the grqove will be filled with earth to frm a solid joint that bonds the sections together. The form shown in Figure 72 will be fairly heavy for two men to handle, If a smaller form is made, it will b~elighter. of course, but you will have to move it too often. Plywood. I" thick, will do as well as 2" planks, and will make lighter forms. It must be braced better, though. Use 21x4" studs spaced 18, apart in both directions. The bolts

114

should be at least 1/" in diameter. In Figures 73 and 74.

Plywood forms are shown

Plywood is easiest to use in making forms, but it is more ordinary lumber and sometimes is hard to get. It costly t:n will make nice. smooth walls, hut it gouges easily if accidcntally struck with the corner of the ramm' r.

Figure 73.

Straight forin'for rammed earth walls.

Figure 74.

Plywood corner form for rammed earth walls. 115

Figure 75. Thin metal strips such as thewe can be wed Instead of bolts to tie rammed earth forms together. Other thicknesses of lumber can be used, of course. Bolt and stud spacing can be hased on those shown in Figures 72. 73 and 74. lns*'d of.bolt,. which might.be hard to-get, you can use thin metal strips to hold the forms 'together. Small .'ots are cut in the forms for the metal strips to go through. Metal pep or large nails hold the strips to the forms and wedges can be driven to pull the strips tight as shown in Figure 75. Instead of pulling the metal strips out of the wall as you do with bolts. just leave them in place. If you are going to use a plaster surface coating leave them sticking out a short distance to bond the surface coating to the wall. If not, cut them off flush with the surface of the wall.

iII

*lo0&G

so

r~l

N,

SECTION ADJACENT FOAMING

Figure 76.

This il a special form that was designed to use

the metal lie strips sho%n in Figure 75. Of course, if you use strips. you will need many, but they arc not costly. They can be cut from thin pieces of sheet metal or even from heasy metal cais. A form that has been especially d.sigied to use tiltcse metal strips is shown in Figure 76.. Anot,,er type of form that has been used is shown in Figure rods are strong enough to hold the 77. The top bracing anti bottom of the form together. You'l nev only a few bolts and you don't have the bother of removing the bolts from.the wall. But the forms are harder to make antithey Also must be sturdier. Don't try then unless you are an experienced builder. 117

t F
ll'l0 'lIl
-

T--

,-.

N4

Figure 77.

Form for ramming.

llcre are some hints that might help you when you make forms: 1. Don't make your forms deeper than 2 or 21/ feet. It they. are deeper. it will. bc difficult to rain rie. earth correctly. at the bottomn of forms. 2. Use seasoned lumber for your forms. Green lumber will warp. s. Keep your forms oi with a lght-weigm oil. This will stop warping, and[ keep time soil fromt stickinug to the luiumber. 4. Whent your forms are not being tuwul, stack thein flat In a protected andi wel-drained area so they won't watp. IIl

Figure 78. 5. Make your bolts with crank.type handles as shown in Figure 78. 6. You can crank the bolts off and on faster than you can tighten the nuts with a wrench. 7. If several houses are being built, line the inside of your forms with thin sheet metal. They will last twice as long. 8. Drive a couple of trails partially in your spacer block and bend them over to fit on the bolts as shown in Figure 78. When you set the forms up, stick the bolts through the nails to hold the spacer blocks in place while you arC tightening up the bolts. 9. If you can't find suitable bolts, use heavy wire to hold the forms togither. Thread the wire 'around the studs and twist it tight with a rod or heavy nail. When the fons are removed, cut the wire off flush with the wall. 10. Every place where you have an unprotected corner. nail a small strip of wood, cut on a 45" angle, to the inside corner of the forms. This is called a chamfer strip, and it will help to "round off" the sharp corners. 113

Rammed Earth Tampers

aiAI ranllsscti carts iamapess arc thc hanad Itpc, but if you faster. an air tamp'er-whicl requires cxpcnsie taslp upil wallt Ina cqiipnetni-will Ihe ',ettr. HIAN) T.4.MPF -Thc weight of laisal tanmpers is very theifaster thc cartfcan tsan.per, icr tile llac heb , i|fapsartsaa. lal',crt cas hai(Illc es ta iniir aotnr tlvhe icas aM! rjiiiilled. So stie all day long without s.crtirisag. Snall laboarers ca11int lil ha.nd than 6-1X pi aadt fatr long withoaut cwig sisng aaaaSc i-ssillas Ina% he atil tsistwor' ( IicicIt.I %.itl Iatlla)psS fising, l.argcr int'os to 10 polndals. i'igliag 250 strilkng fale i%itugilaltat dcinwailisag I the 'Iie 5i/e of tihl Ip foillow i%this: lite ilttaaer !h*t saaIs .cr. A gaMxi fll(%%rigtla iif htic it(of aaaper fire. poalass folir sit r% sqtaa 'i asit tigla %%ia sclalal" face ilahis is tl most papular isia a 3'i" A lalliprl taaaids. tsar a 1"xl" squaare face the sin-) shialah%ciglh IIs ta aallll'l slolahl%ihigt 32iaaaati. fac.i%the lwI-I It tis. al li snikihlg .A %,lol.lanpft ' aaaai faates Iaso lot itaaac the forss tap w llier RKsllllas.-shallara as .Iact well. tidier. ta qlts pst dl as ladh a MAlle ttl%, hill fih , (.111 iaak4 a few lailtiri isith %ticial sasaptl II %ila alt Io.itlll tilte tld stih ii as aroundalal ilt a %eas. in salla aI t op Lu% fillat1asin fla th lo sass. al gas
a% iake. 1 II tIthI s is a Isattqt II tigaisse ;! Aiss'S a s11s41 aslal a liltle hardier a're fil e h ot sta l P taI I 1ast"sa t' Iail- 1 "l-11111eS

tliking faate aifisKxl t IaIIsawI.tallw Itcs a e htslk%. lh. Ilssiplma shtitat l e tictreat wilh a laice of sicial Io amif lt dst ltilliaag. Wealrtpill
t O .aa .% %iMea l IItt ilh a slacllVr ." litis %% w'eighhl Ihtal1h3l

79. 'Tis haini ser cast be sistals ilaI gtiarc usilas it'll ie isiA) is damage lite fo as is II llt'ft e iti casiact atiltt galisltl
llp +v r. 1 1 11 1t 11:i %a o net an ll la l

air-fanltar atlas laa (an lalal ip ,tail .4-C..4.1 IPI'N- WiIh all ill sne'halit ala tasnehirti ite lilC thatIae Coulh usinag a hasll
are asaille. aiss ii{ ais-tan ofI %asa saasstar. l wore sltan 25. :015taaas1sis. itaae tIhat 414K'%11'a Acigsii tilt u tatts fee '.5 tsIh ll'atlle. (4f alaai is a ttaitg.sCstlok

atln % i. . six-iit h mIat.a la illa . hill I. c (it Ill'as

~c

Getl a lig t It sltlilh Ie ll i velfu

fil"e (allhe

.o w ilts I sis

A caslalta air tlacstrv oi applaasoxisttalvI. 70 pounik ter iwr with a free air inch is nv'rcssa%. Ass air aasalro isqainc w ill i p crate ote I i sinutc lee ' per i li,srs il 21 fi ,)cs sllic la imer' TIIICK.ESS OF T.4)Ilt1lI I.AVIItS-A gaosl rsaiuit e larth La)cr wishich wall shoutl be well lasaped Itran sop Io haison. will ic loose at tie loltoma altd willwish art Ilacaid too thick Put (hirinag rainas. The tiickess of cacth loose la)er of earth

120

before tamping should oiot be more than I" more thai the width of the tamping face. For example, don't try to tamp more than 4 o loose soil with a 3"xYS square-faced tamper. After tamping, a 4" loose layer should be approximately 2/" thick.
CO STRUCTION PROCEDURE-The construction pro. cedure for rammed earth walls is %erysimilar to that used for

Figure 79a. Lift-drop Camper.

Figure 79b. Aismhled sliding %eight tamper.

121

. . .. ..

Figure 79c.

Disassembled sliding weight tamper.

earth blocks. The first step is to install the termite shields, -it requirti. Bend them down so they are flat against the side of the foundation wall. Then, place the forms over the fou -]a. tion wall and draw them up tight against it with the bottom row of bolts, wires, or whatever you may be using. The end gates and spacer blocks are then inserted and the top row of bolts Is tightened. You are now ready to star, ramming. Figure 80 shows a rammed earth wall under construction. When a section Is completed, the forms are moved, fastened tightly at their new location, and ramming continues. Ram a complete section around the house before starting the next

in

Figure 80 layer. Joints bcieei la)els Ishould be staggered ptessed blocks so they do not form a single, weaklike those in line in the wall. This method is shown in Figure 81. Figure 81 also shows how the beveled piece of wood on the end gate forms a good vertical joint between sections. The fijsi sections to tic rainnmlr should be the co nels br the house, Partirmida care ihould be Wein to mahe Sure that corne, formns are perfectly plumb or ertiral. This is most inportant anil should be rheiked often. A RAMfIED EARTIf WALL TIAI IS lllT LEANING CAN NEVER BE S'IAI8 IIEED. , Use siring lines stretched beiween Ihecorners wall forms and assure straight walls. The method to line up shown in Figure 61 works well, but place the string line slighily above the tops of the forms so It will not touch the forms. 123

.Figure 81.
Protect ncwly.cnsitrutcd wall s'ciion% intil tlvy gain strength. At night andilwhci rain threatens, all walls exposed

to rain should he ptotciie(d with mats. liit clot,, or wacerprool paper. It is %cir imiiotant lha thi l iisptectioi coscr the top of tihe wall, sinc Crosion starts there first. WValls
stabilized wit;i cenfmi. Iiiie., ot ot her ccnlendg4t)li stabilizers shoiild he protected ani kept niois diuiring tlie en tire curing p)erix. Sacks or inats, moistened for this. seserl times daily are good

Sortie soils-particularly the sandier ones-may have a tend. ercy to crumble wheni the next scction is ranilcd on top of an earlier lift. It this happeniis, wait until the lower section gains enough strength to preseiti this. h-or soils having cementing-type stabllizers in them, wait 3 or 4 days If possible. In

124

general, you can ram on top of any wall section as long as it doesn't crumble or crack. Before ramming a new section, scratch the top of the lower completed section about 2" deep with a poited wood or steel stake. If the completed section is (fry. moisten the top of it slightly. This will improve the bond between sections. NUBfIER OF WORKERS NEEDED-Once the soil mix is prepared. 2 to 4 workers can be used to construct the wall. Two men can do the ramming but, if the forms are short, the work will be more efficient if only one man stands iu the forms. Otie worker is required to shovel the prepared soil mix into the forms. One worker, supplied with soil, can ram about 3 cu. ft. of soil in an hour. Since the workmen operating tatpers stand inside or on top of the forms, scaffolding or supports are not required for them. But as the wall increases in height, scaffolding may be necessary for the worker shocling soil mix inside the forms. A worker ott the ground shovels the mix onto the scaffolding. This reqtires a total of three or four workers. An alternative is for the mail tatpintg the soil to lll tip additional soil as needed in a bucket and flour it into the forms. the wall is high and the forms ist be roum.ed around. TA,%fPIA*C TIlE SOII.-RECARDI.ESS OF HOW GOOD THE SOIL MIX IS. A RAMNIEI) EARTH IOUSE WILL NOT LAST LONG UNLESS IT IS TAMI'ED 2'NOUGI! AND UNLESS THE MOISTURE CONTENT OF THE MIX IS RIGHT. The two go together. because utiless the moisture conteont is right. the carth cannot le tattmpel right. For this reason, the motisture cotttett should be checked oftet.. not only when it is mixed, but also wlten it is Ieing tamped. Mixes which are too wet or too dry should be rCltliX'd. Cementstabilized mixes which have dried nut should not be used. RAMMING SIHOULI) BE CONTINUED ON EACH LAVER UNTIL THE NOISE FROM TIlE RAMMING TOOL CHANGES FROM A I)ULL TH1UD TO A CLEAR, RINGING SOUND. Workers operating the tampers have a hard hut important. job. Their wtrk' should be chcked oftei. An easi way to check for soft spots is to shone a sturdy knife blade into various spots in the ratuncd la)cr. Soft spo;ts fottnd in this manner should be rantmcd some more. The iitportant places to check are directly against the filris. it (OMMers, and around beveled strips otil cld gates. If the soil tanper will not ring regardless of the number of taimps, thet something is wrong with the tsix. Probably it
is too wet. so check it closeiy. Scaffolding or other sutpports will also b,. neoessary whC'l

125

Figure 92.
DOOR AVD IIN.DOW OPEIl\'GS-Openings for doors

and windows can he done two ways in ramnted earth construction. )ue way is to set the door and window frames first and ram the earth around them. If this is done the frames should be solidly braced as shown in Figure 82 otherwise they will e forced out of place by the high pressures produced by ramminig. Brace dhoor and wintlow frames across the diagonals also so the openings will remain square. Franics should be as wide as the walls and should hase lies stickiug into the wall to hold thes firmly in place. The other way is to ram the earth first leaving antopening in the wall for the frames. When this method is used, the bevelhd strip is rcnto'd from th,- end gate. The cnd'gate Is then accurately positioncd at the spot where the opening is to occur. Wooden nailer blocks mtst be placed int the wall so that dour and window Iraines can be securtly attached to them. The blocks are placed oin top of a tanped layer and adjacent to the end gate. The oext layer is tightly rammed around the block lo Ihold it securely in position.. The result is shown in Figure 83. Ano)ther methox also shown in Figure '83" uses a single piece of liinslKr the fill height of the opening. Lightly tail this piece to the end gate bo the end gate can be easily removed from it after each layer is completed. When using this method. the door frame socm not have to be as wide as the wall, but the utprotected edges of the wall should be ahamfered as explained on page 119. 126

Figur, 83. Sometimes you may run into a situation like this:
You will be ramming against a short w, los of w I (say 3' long) which is adjacent to a window opening. The pressure from ramming against this short section may cause it to slide toward the open %pace. To keep this from happening, strongly brace the short section against tie wall on the opposite side of the opening or against stakes driven in the ground. If a section does slide, tcar it down and ram a new section

In place.
WINDOW SILLS-For window sills in ranmmed earth follow the same rules as for pressed blocks. (See page 105.) LINTELS AND TIE BlEAfS-Lintcls and tie beams are constructed in the same way as for pressed blocks. There is one precautiot to he noted., howeser. The pressures from ransting the earth on top of a lintel may be great enosgh to cause it to break or permanently sag. To keep this fro,,%happening. put sturdy braces beneath tie lintel during ramming as shown in 'Figire 84, or design tle building so that there is no earth wall over the door and winlow openings. This mnethol is often preferred. REINFOIRCFiIENT-Bahcd wire, woven wire or small metal reinforcing rods may be used to reinfor. A rammed earth wall. This is particularly necessary it the building is being constructed in an area that has earthquakes or high witds and

127

."K'

Figure 84. is mauie or stahilitcul earth. Reinforcing is not as effective in unsiabiliwil rarth walls as it is in stabilized materia!. Reinforce. ment arotund doir anid wilndow opening% alwas strengthens a wall. It elimiiiales damagig cracks at these points. Reinforccincit should he placel i clo er thain two inches Iron the oUlsitde of'the wVall. Iace it its'lengths a little loIngir than the foints. Turn up the extra leingth agAnsist the end gate so that it can be beit ltiwns into the new section after the end gate is removtel. Secutrely fastent the reinftcent in the new section to tl'at VxteCtl ing from the eirciiuJll) ((l ipA ctkl.WOttiun.

i28

Chapter 12
ROOFS FOR EARTH HOUSES
Any "pe of roof used on ordinary houses can also he used on earth houses. Thatch or sheet metal roofs are commonly used. But often it will be cheaper to use an earth roof on your house. Three types of earthen roofs are used: I. Bunker fill roofs 2. Arch or sault roofs 3. Frame roxofs supporting earthen tiles. These are things an earth roof must do: I. It must be strong enough to remain in place; 2. It must not leak; 3. It must proide plotection so that water running off the roof will not run down the sides of the carth wall. IUNKER FILL. ROOF-A booker fill roof is a flat roof
in which large tinibcrs. (snmtimes called "%igas" in parts of the L'.S.) so ppoi a tamplLd or comllpactel carthalrI blanket. See

F"gure 81. '1.i.c snppoils call besauedtl timbers or the trunks (f small trees, six to eight iinclies in diaumcter, spaced approximately .10 iiicl.s apat. tor large buildings. such as the school
shown in FiF.ise 86. large trunks, ten to t..else inches in diameter. can be used. A Iiic, apel~l.araie is pIxlisced by alternating tie laig aml siall enls of tile sigas. Also..uiting tle soaill c11111 all ill tle saluc diricilnn would calls& that enal

Figure 65.

The cutaway section of this bunker fill roof shows

the ha)ered structure of the roof. From the top down, the components are grasel and asphalt, building paper, earth fill, building paper, wood sheathing and supporting beams (sigas).

129

Figure 86. The Hirge and malIlends of the ceiling tinmhers (%iga%) are alternated to protide a balanced appearance. II ti. roof to lie wcak.., till or pitth ik gi%,t en to t e %igas to that the fit ti i roof will slope aloitot 1/2 inch per fotot

(if length.
Oil top uif the sigas. piat,.' suie I.pe I - coicri., to support the earth fill. This call te I" imber, soie type of reed such as hamboo. or esen small aplings as shown in Figure 87. Rin the sheathing diagonally faora center to center of the sigas. This will compeimsate fur the incenness oif the sigas. Over the sheathing, use heavy building paper or a thin layer of straw to keep the soil abose front seeping through. A conlpacted earth fill is placed o top of all this. The thickness, when tamped, should be at least four itches. )ceper fills tip to eight inches are better and will increase the life of the rtoof, reduce the amount of heat going through the roof and lessen the chances of seepage. The roof should be iilt tip in lifts and packed like rammed earth. The thickness of the loose lift placed at (one little dleplds ltt the sie anti weight of rammer used. See page 120. The sol type for bunker fill roofs shouhl be similar to that i1ed for rammed earth. Clayey s ils'will shrink anti cracl" and allow water to seep through. Often. it will pay you to ust a stabiliter in )our roof itaterial. L.itte. cement, or any walerpolMiers will do. Another way is to add oil or asphalt lo tihe lat layer of earth to Ibecompactedl After allowing a few Itinttes for the oil it penetrate, tamp it into a densC waterlighlt layer. A protectite starfating May be needed in climates tIhat get a lit of rainfall. Grasel spread ott the top of the surface lessents

130

Figure 87.

To compensate for the unesenne's of the tops of

the %igas, saplings can he

placed diagonally for sheathing.

Note the straw used in this

through the ceiling. lifting bv rain. erosion causctd los grasel in place.

ase to present the carth fill front

hold the A coat of asphalt will hell) dlaal Lull

W'ater frul tihe roof Iiust plotbe allowsed' to

the walls of thr luise. A sliott Or Cainal

liOjcIill (Olt aWa)

flon the wall will sulte the problsim .. A half smioo of split slest 112111),0 would d1o licl . r a trotulgh s..die of woml or metal would do as well. 'rhe si<uit shoull elteodl far eiouglh away from the walls Ill present erosio-at least two feet. AIICII OF VA'ULT IlOOF.S-(Sce Figure 818.) licie tspcs roofs are usesl ill areas where tintber is scarce. They require tif wme skill to build althugh ill S.otui areas suth roofs base been tlacAl masones kI'.w how to build them. used fur ccmuiics and roofs arte isalV built Of burtia sed ( l odahiiicul Arched. ,aul %%Illslabililed brick although Ilher. i, gol rteasoln o Ibeliese lhat lbe it.l. eailh blocks call l 'rhe outsile walls aif lh house iiiust be sIrong elsogh ti a saulll or dome. in maist resist she outwtSrd force taiSed Ils g on tile cases walls are made cers thick-2 to 3 fetl-epenuliun siale .dlistance Ictween walls. Io !uin cases rouins ae |platced ot side walls hill still by side it help ab%orhi lie fhRci ist tile aroulid hate to be sers thick. A reinforced colcrele hibnd beam strengIth (he top(tif ihe olside walls will add greal so sle llow. asl amaymake it pmosiIe to reduce tile wall thickaiess. l cregineer should Isign Auy such emer. a qualilil structurawalls atilt heanis. 131

Figure 88. This st)le of earth dome and vault construction was used in a reconstruction program at New (ourna, Egypt. The norrar used in lWing hrick or stabil-iing earth block in all ari. %aull o) domiie is isull) oif a (llick-scltilig tpe. Ill Iallin IlillLiiett il(0tllllik:% .1 Inollar 111:tie With p)psum ii coIIIIIIi11. If ceinclitt or lime mlllilar is used, it is IIecessary it; as a fonm to soi~ ort theInick ut iltile aiimtar sets. This is usuall I1(m) CXi)Clsisc ai1d. is atll) el .sed in small house
conust ructiont.

II )ou 5hoo li use Ihis t)pecii rofo, get met hlds aaid design from1 sc nIIieoie who has dolle it biore. 1Ii.iTII TIL.E I10G -Eallh tile hake also beena used for roofs. "114 talkheWpre'ssel il a' block making machine by

Figure 89. A that(hedearth tile roof of this design proved successful Is research studies in 1India. 132

using fillers. They can alto hicof sun.dricd adolbe but in either case it is best to stabilize the cartlh. Tlhe tils arc placed o., a
wootlcn frame jll ;I%shtingles are. lhc tiles should he II/2" to 2" thick Mid abotiit lng. (I111g l SUni dricl tiles are made

with a thatch (or grass) "tail." See Figure 89. The thatch tail helps preisit itai fronm ,rllixig Iligtebhwk, and provides insula. tioln for [fie iiisidle .)f thc hoic. The b,. earth tiles are made with stabilized soil. Lime,

cemient and asphalt work well. Sitie the are so thih, tiles shouil has' a ery high resistance to the spray test.
The rOOFframe must be built trung etaiolh to support Also. woolci strips (called stringers) must be placel ini the rxf at .co enoiugh init'rals so that each tile tests otn two stringers, either directly or indirectly. Tiles are often masle with a lip or gixisc iear the ipper edge so that they will lic securely on the stringers.

the weight.

133

Chapter 13 FLOORS
The most desirable type of floors for an earth house is. of course, a concrete slab, a wood floor or a floor surfaced with cement tile or ceramic tile. Howeser. in some areas where gooid sand and gravel are not available for concrete, and where wood is scarce and commerci- Ily made tile cannot be obtained, an earth floor can be substituted. Properly compacted earth or high strength stabilized earth tile will make a reasonably durable floor. Extra stabilizer is required if floors are to last a long time, because floors get tise hardest wear of an; part of the house. Esen the most primitise dwellings have somse type of oil or fat worked into the soil as a stabilizer. TYPE OF SOIL FOR EARTII FLOORS-For earth floors, use the same soil )ou use to build your house but add extra stabilizer. The floor must be able to withstand scrubbing and Must be tough and durable. Lime and portland cemnent make the best stabilizers. Emulsified asphalt will make gocxi floors but the dark color may be objectionable. Wiood ashes and een animal blo d have been used. TAMPED OR IAMMED EARTII FI.OORS-ilefore naking the earth floor, it is necessary to reinose all organic top;oil. or at least downm to 6 to 7 inches below the level of the finished floor. Trhen compact the top la'er (3"4") of existing soil with a tamper before the floor material is placed. In areas where swelling soils are damaging to buildings this ramuming shoulh be avoide, . Untainsped soil will swell less thsan tamped soil. The first la)er ala)se tire existing soil is filled with about four inches of clean samdy or graselly material. The purpose of this material is to strsp moistutre that may rise up from the existing soil. The sandy imaterial should ie well tansped to strengthen it and to keep it from settling. If the cxi~itilig soil is the swelling type, use about 6 inches of sandy material. .The fldor is-laid bstile tlisaslIh cotirs'e.' I'lae itin two la+. rs each about Ii/ inches thick. The lower layer ca-i contain less stabilizer than the top hsecatse it shoes not get any wear. The soil should Ir, carefully rammncil into place. Ie sure the In Chapter 2. When )ou fimish tamping, level up the area by scraping or tamping high spots. The final finished floor layer is placed next. This laser should contain enough stabilizer to make tire cured surface difficult to scratch with a iail. This might require 2 to 5 134
moisture content is correct. Check it rising the method desctb,.d

tillies as lliuh stitilier a% miiight hi. micdi in earth walli. TIest )yOilr mli'cs I 11ak illg %)Oe SoAIIIrammed ea rt h rest hl,L jtilst as sotl wtijt.i lor a raintrell carth waill. A tfirlit test blotrks h1 ase silted check them for hatlhess amldwater resistaite. After la ipiig lite lot) la ir. slmlxlh ilt alis tanper Iasks and 11eai tore the floor for seseral d-,ss. Portlald Cement aid Iiie-srahi izel flh)ts lnlliI chCrel by sprikiliug tlt fl or or ,iutliiig wet sacks on lop of it. A lhe cld of lhe cirilig periml, a thin llirtlail Cemnt shilS, made from einien s water a,.l fitle siid ,hay be applied to tlel Iir to seal ail cracks and waterproof it. (Certaiii oils will d) the same jol ll's walk sit tic floor tintil it is hard. jost as well as rammed artl. fl(o)rs. The. caii .,.ii look niter, particiularly if %uu make tiles from sneral liff.rcit tolored %oils. The ':INA-Ramn (r anither bl ik.nlakiiig machiiie that makes 11/2" lo 2" thick tiles tail he oI ul. Ist'enogh stahiliter iii the %t i so lie cured blocks arle dillilt ito stratlh withia nail. .Mfake test tiles it cht'tk the stahiliet c, u.iii. Stalhiliutel tiles shout,il lbe mist-cirel ftr (las all iliemi ,Iricil ii lie still IWtle platiiig lheim. l'repare lie floo<r area lite s.inte was %tilt wilhl for r-amnmed earth liugirs. It is %cv imitlurtait lihat" the sanl lasci lic lcl ant v% el.tompi tel, hihre platiiig tle tile. If it is.n, lc flool usill lbe lough ail lnsigIh1l.r

TL. 11.00l1--I'gecd earth tiles ilia% il

Figitre 90. 135

It is better to mortar tiles in place with a mortar of sand. portland cement and water. Carefully smooth the mortar joints to keep from having grooveq in the finished floor. Tiles can be laid without any mortar if they are placed closely together. They may rock a little or come loose, but it won't hurt if they are put back right away. Since cured tiles are used, the floor can be walked on as soon as the joints get hard. This will take 2-3 days. Oils or waxes may be used to seal the top surface of the floor. Tallow has been used, and if applied hot, beeswax may also be quite suitable. HEATING TilE iiOUSE THROUGH TilE FLOOR-You can heat )our house by heating the floor. This idea is used in the United States and other places in the world (Korea. for example) with tunnels under the floor. These tunnels ciimy heat fron a fire which is built at one of the openings. This method of heating should not be attempted unless you have someone experienced to show you how to do it.

136

Chapter 14 SURFACE COATINGS

A surface coating is a layer or film of material placed over an earth wall. This is what surface coatings do: (a) They can make some earth walls look better. (b) They can help earth walls sled rain water. (c) They can make earth walls last longer. Decide whether you want to use surface coatings when )ou are planning your house-not after it is constructed. APPEARANCE-Houses built of carefully made pressed blocks look better without surface coatings. Rammed earth walls will have a pleasing appearance if the inside of the forms is smooth and in good condition during construction. In fact, some rammed earth house owners feel that a few form marks are pleasing to an earth wall and they do not care to use surface coatings. But if the insidei of the forms were rough and in poor condition, a surface coating will probably iniprose the wall's appearance. Most adobe home owners prefer st.rface coatings on their houses. One way to decide ont a surface coating is to look at other homes in your area. See if surface coatings helped their appearance. Remember this: A cheap or poorly applied surface coating that quickly peels off looks worse than none at all. The owner must decide how often he is w;'ling to repair the surface coating to keep it looking good. Most cheap surface coatings need repairing every 2 or 3 )ears. If the owner is young and healthy anti does not mind the time and small expense of repairing the coating, a cheap surface coating may be suitable. But if the owner cannot perform frequent repair work, his walls will look bad, and they may suffer severe danage. Then a more expensive coating will be necessary. DAMFAGE FROM1 RAN II'A.TF?-if you follo* tie "iri." structions in Chapt(. 2 for selecting soils for earth houses, you won't have to worry about rain danage unless )ou hate to use very clayey soils. ' your test blocks, even when stabilized, do not pass the spray test. try a surface coating. Even the most expensive surface coatings are likely to develop cracks and let some water through them and into the wall. If )our wall contains a lot of clay. the water will cause It to swell anti crack surface coatings that are stiff. Check to se whether this will happen to your surface coating. Completely

137

Coal a few test bhKks of )piir

[he spray lest and absorpstin it-it. 1f the Mirlace oaliilg cracks or peels, the sanitc4hing will happ .i lo lour house wiein Ctiated. INCRE.SING TilE 1.1FF OF TilE I'.1II.-Otler things beside rain imay wear down al ea:th wall . ioig wiids carrying iust. childiirei throwing rocks or sticks, ain esten animals.
sar or damage earth walls-especially iinstalbili/tel ciies. onr neighliHrh(l(l or area. thei unsAlhililctl walls shouhle coated. Most stabilied walls can caln

soil mix and sithjtc't thetn

to both

f Ithese tlhings ociuir ill

tesist them. COAT OF , ,'Il"ACE COATINGS-Since most surface coaliigs Ineqilt sme e Ipe of stabilimr, Ii nou iust dctide whether it is best to uos thc slabilicr in th lie'smifate ,alitig or ill the wall itself. Surface coatings nrnially take less stanilimcr than for saihilitin the entire walls. int it also takes additinial lime

aind inoee

to appl) sfriace coatiigs and keep

Iiles )oul (all get by with a thin, cheap su1rface coling, the total tost will le ticrl tile sant uliether %on usw a sufiice toalig on stalilile tle eiiIhe Wall. OF %UVFACE CO'TIN.\(;S-Ihtc I pls 11 sirliat t falitilgs: (.i) I'laf ems

h'n repahi e.

T)PI;.

are four

maii

(in) {d)

l'ai:Is
5

p"' iaI tieiiii'a Is

0/'
ill

PhItIgil are placel (ni the wall% il lahils thik lasco-aloiI Below is a inigh-qlualit% plaster mix that hIas olked 'iell
eat Ilt.iis'e"

1 1.1pailllluell

i(nll|

4 to -1 11.11is( lean sand Sl liiilt 1%ltr to make a liii k mixnie

Add a small amoinuint of lime if time plaslter is h3a11 il sllltad.

Apl) this plascr ii tso tot al%, s eiac alboi I14" thitk. ,MoisiteIll Ie %salland Ihen Ill)% oIn "l.elaltc" tIme first (oil againm rise uall hill a large brish. "1his sill oml oolh homl tlie plitr io the wall. it ttill a it .ioligh so tile stoiid 11. ill l3,;il it; it: "Iee. page I13 %ll 21 lii 'lit ig rcmiflli[n nitciit (it lila t'ls.) (:tire this tilt at Icast I im iims lililI ' ill M11 .itlas) Ieileli almjml~inii tile Cetui1ill (oal. 'Ilie si-i l1d m.t1 illSa lie brtish'dil i almt. hit if a smlinolli sin Iue is d,htd. l1:1 it fill Willi J 1IIA'll 1101%C'l Killigh %tli .-ll jC 14-t' I eillf'l11V t' tol

hlhl anm l ti loo D ot o 'k a p pi

lil il l

sIlls .homs'. fi 1a l ;

te

elll t platt i

1n

% %,1is ll ; wa ll tl l il
it

it is shaleid. Whco a set(lill of ssall is tIpltpih.cd, ( er alhl kee1 p it moist for a d14 or In,. mnld it gainis slitlgilhi. 110

Cement plasters should be used only on stable vwalls. Remember that walls cont;ining a lot of clay will swell and crack the coating. Low-cost mud plasters call be made by combining a soil mix with water. These are called Dnggs plasters. Dagga plasters made with the right kinl of clay and having sufficient sand in them may be as goxl as any other plasters. Most good ones contain about 2 parts sand to one part lay. Dagga plasters will not last if they contain too much clay, the wrong kind of clay, or when they are too soft. The red and brown laterite clays found in the tropic zones make excellent l)agga plasters. Dagga plasters cali be improved by adding a stabilizer to them. Lime or cement work well. Try one part lime or cement to 9 parts of soil. Asphalts can also be used it l)agga plasters to waterproof them hut they will not hdrden the plaster and they may make it too dark to look goodl on a house. Many of the other stabilizers mentioned in Chapter 3 can be used. Experiment by tr)ing them out on small sections of your wall or on test blocks of your soil mix. Watch for damaging cracks as the plaster d]ies. Dagga plasters are iisually applied to a previously moistened wall with a trowel to a thickness of about /2". Roughening the dagga surface will help to keep cracks from forming when the plaster dries.
S1uroies are mixtures of cemnent or lime and water.

are brushed on the wall in thin coats like paint. Golod ones may last 5 to 10 )eats. Some of the best slurries are iiade from equal parts of cement and lime mixed with enough water to make a thick liqtid. Adding a small atnimit of clean, fine sand will give the slurry a gritty texture. Moisten the earth wall before the slurry is applied. Then brush on two coats at itmervals (f 24 hours. Keep the slurry
mixed while applying it or sile of the mmnterials may settle

They

to the bottom of the container. Slurries make ecotomniral surface coating,. bitt they must be appliedtl t ile right kind of wall. Earit walls that shrink and swell will cause themn to crack and peel off. Paints nlak" g(xl surface coatiugs lor'solne walls. Cetiment. based miasonry paiits work best. 'I hey are tougher and last longer thas plain cement sltniis. Presemnt oil-basesd house paints and alumnintm paints do inot work on earti walls. Iiowever, new mes may h desloped that work as well as ceient.based
paiits. It is tlot practical to inclunde a list of manufactured paints

that have worked on earth walls because they may not be available in )our area. If you want to try them, See the nearest 139

paint salmntan. Ask him for a demonstratilon and samples of his paints. "hcliwe how they work on test blocks of your
soil tix. Perfhrm the spray test on completely painted test block%Und if (,mit hate cnoigh time. allow hlieblocks to weather outside. 'llie perfolrnimace of these test blocks should tell you how well the paiot will work. You cail otake a eii.laseul paint bilt it takes seceral

chemicals. hiere isoltethait has bei oscil:

I part calcitm itearate (piowder .1). 2 parts calciuim chhiode (piowdcerel). 50 parts portlaild ceoiiel t. 25 parts clean. fine samI. Mix ties' ingretdients together to obtain a uiniformi mtixtture. Ttenu add 5t patti water aiiI mix with a hoe until a creamy Ijixt ure is obtailted. Poumr the moixture Ihrotigh a fly screen to teiasoe luImps anm large particles. Use white portlaind cemtt in the Imixture if a white coating is desired. For otier colors. add 3-4 parts of a powdleed. oxide pigme.i. Moisten Only Ol shady halls amd kee p fihe painted srflace slightly itoislmled A. ) lie tl ent dimes not ctie. ti()quickly. ' lie second coat shohld iimi b applied xom~r Ohn 12 hours after the first. Apply the paint iii iwo coats with a lage brush.

the cirt h wall before apl)lIitg tie fiFst coat.

la

it

O1 the secoml coal mcels to lie colored. It call also be tlhrown tii lhe strface witi a large brush or lrotm to otait a pleasinig surface texture. White.wash paints-or water oiiixted with line-can ilIpriltC the appearamce of earth walls. lItit the% ilfer little, if any, protectiom against water or wear. andtl the) oi1% last for a short ltimte. tlowetcr, they are mo coilt) and thes are easily applied with a large brusht. A whileWSsh whith oflers s(itle prottliott agailst water catl be rnade wii tise [mllowiig iiiaterials: I l/ galloins timslaked lime. S . gallons (il water. I4 pItmrl of nieltesl talhtw. Boil the water in a large can, add the lime. anl stir well. Thens add the iclIed tallow to the boi;ig mixture and stir againm. Apply the tuixtire with a large brush. if it is dilficult to spread. Add a little water

This white.wash will last about a )car it most climates. 140

Certain chemicals, applied similar to paints, will make good surface coatings. One mentioned in Chapter 3 is a mixture of I part sodium silicate (40" Baumr, and 3 parts water. The solution is brushed into the wall with a fairly stiff brush to get good penetration. Apply two coats a few mi,:utes apart. A suitable wetting agent or surfact.nt (sce Chapter 5) added to the solution will increase the pentetration of the treatment in sme walls. The only way to find out whether chemicals will work is to try them. Spray tests and weathering tests should be per. formed on treated test blocks of your soil.

-INt

Figure 91. 141

Figure 92. PRFPARING TH1E SURFACE-Surface coatings applied to poorly prepared walls will soon peel off. Before applying any surface coating, the entire thickness of wall must li cnmpletely dry. For properly CuRd Mlccks. this may take only a few weeks until the mortar dries. Rammed earth, wattle and daub, and eph. walls. will take much Iiger. . In rainy areas, walls -may be damaged before they gOt dry enough to apply surface coat. ings. If this is liable to happen to your wall. use the stahili er In the wall so it will be protected from the time of construction. When completely dried, the wall must be hrujshed or swept to remose dust and other loose particles. Just before slurries or plasters are applied to a wall, moisteu it slightly. Painting 142

the wall with a (hill mixture of portland cement alut water itpmses the nodbctwece the wall and surface coating.
*RiI,\tFOnCE,%I.NT-To strengthen plasters and improve %.heir hond to the earth wall, wire reinfnrcemnent should be

use t. Wo ,en wire fencing. shown in Figure 91. worlki well.

Fasten the wire securel)t tlhe top of the earlh wall by placing it in the last mortar joint or hctween the ond beai a1in tile top of tine earth wall. For houses with hunnkcr fill roofs. the wire should he attached mnar the roof fill. brought o%er tile top row of blocks, and Ient down along the wall. *lhis method is shown ill Figure 611. The reinforcemet t should extelnd into wimlow anid door opcnoingi m) tie plaster will be reinforced at all linitl. (Figure 92.) Nail it to the wall esery 6-8 inches. Special niils with toughncel surfaces work best. %%'hen two co,.Is of plaster are used, the first coat should be thrown or spattered through the wire reinforcement. 'his Improses mhe bond between wall and pslaster anl also leate' tite reinforcement approxitmately midway in the plaster coat. When wire reinfoicing is not asailable, the bonl to the , cart' wall can be inmiprovel by leasing a deep opening in the vertical mortar joints. Chips of broken rock or concrete. inserted into wet mortar, will also bond thick surface coating to the wall. (See page 102 for discussion of these methods.) For rammed earth walls, cut shallow holes 6 to R inches apart and drive snails in these holes until their heads are eves with the outside wall surfarce. Another way is to cut lonk, narrow groovs 6 to 8 itnches apart in the wall. Renetinher that the strongest plasters are reinforced with wire. Use it if you call.

143

SUGGESTED REFERENCES
Many good books are available that cover %pecial subjects on earth houses ingreater detail than can be done in this short manual. The ones listed below are some of the best ones aailal)Ie. I. ASTM Standards 1958. Part i'. American Society for Testing Materials, 1916 Race St., Philadelphia 3, Pennsylvania. 2. Burkhart. Edsel J. Investigation of Soils and Building Techniques for ln,,nmed Earth Construction, A. &- M. Coll.ge of Texas. Texas Engineering Experiment Station Research Report No. 6. College Station, Texas, May. 1949. (Out of print.) 3. Ctr)n, S. Soil Construction, State of Israel. Ministry of Labor. Housing Dikision, The Weitman Science Press of Israel. Jerusalem. 1917. 4. Earth for tHomes. Ideas antd Methods Exchange No. 22, Housing and lionte Finance Agency, Washingitsn 25, D. C., March. 1953. 3. Fitzmaurice. Robert. Manual on Stabili:ed Soil Con. stnruion for hiouting. Technical Assistance Program, United Nations. Sales No. 38.11.11.4. New York, 1958. 6. Ilartingoi, E. L. Adobe as a Canstruction Material in Texas, A. & M. College ol Texas. Texas Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin No. 90, College Station. Texas, 1915. (Out of print.) 7. lousing and To',n and Country Planning. United Naliolis Bulletin No. 4, Sales No. 19"5U.IV.G. New York, Octol)er, 1930. 8. Long. J. I). Adobe Constrrction, University of Callfoenia, Agricultial Experiment Statioi Bulletin No. 472. )asis, California, reised Noember. 1946. 9. Low Cot HIoyse. Building Resevarch Unit Bulletin No. 1. Conotcil of Scientific anlI Indtstiial Research. Roorkee. U. P.. India, September, 1949. 10. .llethods of Tests for Soil Classification and Cornpac. lion. Brifish Standards Institite. 11titish Standard 1377, British Standards Iouse. 2 Park Street. l.ond.mi, 1%.!, 1918. II. Mi illlti, G. F. aFth IWall Lonstrliction. Comnon. wealth Experintueit Builing Station Bulletin No. 5. Sidiney, 'Australia, 1952. 12. Webb, T. L., Cilliers, T. F., and Stutterheini, N. The Psopcities smf Comparcted Soil and Soil Cement Milixtures for Use in Building, National Building Research Institute, Union of South Africa. Pretoria, Seies DR2, March. 1950. 13. Wolfskill, L. A.. Iunlap, W. A.. and Gallaway, B. M. "Elth Iome Consttructioni, a Field and Library Compilation with an Annotated Bibliography" Texas Tralsportatint Insti. Ute. College Station, Texas, Bulletin No. 18, March, 1962.

144

APPENDIX A Atterberg Lmits of Soils

T e Atterberg limit tests on Soils are simple tests that v-1l tell you %ery generally whether the soils contain much clay and whether itlis clay' will be harmful in your soils. There are two tests that you must perform: the liquid limit and the plastic limit. From these %ou cals get a value called the plasticity index. (The bar shrinkage test can also be used to get the plasticity indc..) These tests require some special equipment and a little bit of expetietce. You can do them yourself if you are careful, but it is better to hase someone whc. knows how to do them. The general equipmet oou will need to do thew ie.s is lisled below. Special items needed for each test are listed with that test procelure.
General Equipmnent s ,eeded

I. Dish-A smooth.bottomed round dish about 41A inches in diameter and I 1 inches high. It is best if the inside is smooth or glazed|. The type which chemists call evaporating dishes can be used. 2. Spatula-A spatula (or pill knife) has a flexible blade about 4 inch" lmg and !, inches wide. 3. Ilahnrr-A balance or .cale that will weigh at least 100 grans and is ateurale to at leat 15.1 gutres. (An accuracy of
0.01 grats is beoter.) 4. Orn-A dsl ilig osen that will keep a temperature of 111C or 2.11". This temperatire is a little higher than the telniperallte at sllIst a tel ltoils. 1 he oClet slilIll has e torltls ill it so file hAtle air will (iiltlale. 5h. floxrs--A few lightweight nmetal fillitg stsers. Small al,,utitim or till Culiosl pisces of lhill glajs like that watthes or (lks ca l be liMil. They 21/ intch" acros. toolaitiets with tight pill oixes work well. ussl lilt large ioket shold lie allw 2 or

6. Sinev-.4 No. 40 ,nesh U.. S. Itlleal (if Stalaild siese or a No. .6 mesh Biritish Staulards siese. uti, can do without a siese. but it is leller to ase one.

7. fors,,-Write thi ili'fosmatiot )6u g;s Iron,, the test san

a form of ).uar own design.
.+;'.ille

You will teed a sample weighing ahbtt 100 grants (asmall

hand i) takei I rom the soil that %(oil want to test. All of this sample shoull pass a No. 40i mesh (or a No. 36 British Slalnl) sicse. lIhis %iese has opltings about 1 64 itu h

145

square. If you do not have one. you can pick all grains larger thans 1/64 inch out of the sample by hand. It will be easiest to do this if ,the sample is first dried in the sun and crushed up.
If you already know that you are going tu add a stahilirer to your soil. thce add the same proportion of stabiliter to )our sample as you iietd to use in your house. A. Liquid Limit Test Special Equipmeut

For this test you will neel a special tool to cut a groove in the soil. The grooving tool is carefully made in it cuts a groe exactly 2 millimeters wide with the sides of the groove sloping at an angle of 60* to the horitottal. If you cannot get oue of these grooviing tools, it is possible to use a spatula or even a knife. Procedure I. Place about three-quarters of your soil sample in the dish. Add small amounts of water to it. anl thoroughly enix tire water and soil. The water that ) u use should be of gnxl quality, such as water you might drink. Add water untie the mixture is a thick paste. Be sure that it is mixed well so it has no dry or wet spots. 2. Shape the soil mixture in the dish into a smooth layer I centimeter (approximately 'A inches) in thickness at the center, of the tfish. Divide the mixture into 2 equal portions by drawing the grooving tool down the center of the mixture. T:,.e point of the grooving tool should be placed against the bottom of the dish. Pull it through the !,oil so that it always stays at right angles (perpendicular) to the dish. leaving a V.shaped groove with a flat bottom that is 2 mm wide. Very sandy toils may be tr-n by this method. If so. cut the groove in several passes. making each pass go deeper until the clean surface of-the dish shows at the bottom of the groove. If you do not have one of the grooving tools, carefully cut a groove in the soil using a knife or spatula. Make the bottom of the groove 2 men wide and make sure that the sides slope up at an atgle of 60" with the horizontal. 3. Hiold the dish firmly in one hand with the groove in the toil pointing directly in front of you. Then tap the dish lightly With a hrizont l motion agaihst the heel of the other hand 10 times. The dish should be moved a distance of about I to IV, inches to strike it aainst the other hand which should remain still. If the amount of water is just right, the groove will flow together at the tottom for a distance of exactly $A inch. %%hen it takes more than 10 taps to make the groove flow together, the soil is too dry. Add a little water. If it flows together with less than 10 taps. it is too wet. The soil can be dried by mixing it a while, or by adding some dry toil.

148

that the groove closes for 1/2 inch after 10 taps. the soil is a( the liquid limit. With your spatula scrape a sample of the soil out of the dish at the point where the groove closed. Use a large sample if your balance is accurate only to 0.1 grams. Put this sample in one of %our containers and quickly wrigh the container and soil before the water eaporates. If your containers have lids. put them on to keep the water from evaporating durinig weighing. 5. Write the weight of the container and soil opposite WI t on )our form. Then pill the soil container in the I 101C oven until all the soil is dra,.This shold sake 8.10 hours, but flay be Is. You can check hIy weighing it sceral times. When the weight no Ionger changes. it is dIr. Now write the weight of the container and dry slil opposite W., on the form. The weight of the clean (Irv container. W. most be known also. Calculations The liquid limit is calculated as follows: weight of water Liquid limit = weight of osen-dried soil or Precautiots I. He sure to use only material passing the No. 40 mesh sieve (or smaller 11ha1n 1/64 inch) for the liquid limit test. 2. To get the best test results. thoroughly mix the soil and water. Tap the dish against the hand the same way with all types of soils. S. Do not vibrate or jar the dish after the soil is grooved and before itis tapped. 4. After the groove has been closed, lake the soil sample and weigh it quickly to prescht further loss of moisture. R. Plastic Limit Teat Special Equipment x 100

4. When the moisture in the soil has been adjusted so

Wt - W.. . W., -W

X I00

.The only special.item you.will jneed for this test-is a surface to roll a soil sample on. A glass plate or a piece of smor.. shiny paper will work well. Procedure I. Take some of your dry soil sample and add water to It. Mix it thoroughly by squeezing and kneading it with the fingers and palms of the hanIds. The moisture content is about right when the soil casl be easily shaped into a ball without sticking to the fingers. 147

2. Shape the soil mixture into a roll between the palms of your hands until it is about 2 inches long and 14 inch in diameter. Then put this roll on a glass plate or piece of paper. Using the palm or fingers of one hand roll it ,nto a thread as shown in Figure 9. If the sample sticks to the plate or paper, it is too wet and must be dried some more. Apply just enough pressure with your hands to cause the thread to get gradually smaller until it reaches i/s inch in diameter. You are looking for the thread to break or crumble just when it reaches % inch in diameter. If the thread breaks before it reaches 'A inch diameter, it is too dry. Thoroughly mix in some water -nd try again. If it can he rolled smaller than Vsinch diameter, just roll it tip into a hrge thread and start over again. It will dry gradually by rolling it out. When it is just right, the 1/9inch threads tinder your hands will crack or crumble into pieces about i/l inch long. 3. Collect the broken or crumbled soil threads and place them in one of your containers. Weigh the soil anti container. Call this weight IV and record it. Then dry the soil in the I101C oven until all the water is drisen off. Weigh the tir7 soil and container and record this weight as W.. -he weight of the clean dry container. We. must also be kn wu.
C4lCulntiosS

The plastic limit is calculated as follows: weight of water

Plastic limit = X 100

weight of oven-dried soil

IV,' I
__

W2
_

100

IV.,-W C. Plilirity Istdex

Get the plasticity index of tire soil by subtracting the plastic limit %alue front the liquid limit. It is calculated as follows: plasticity index = Liquid limit - Plastic limit
Rnr Shrintinge Test The bar shrinkage test is als Tas way tp !ind the plasticity Index of a s(;il. It will also gie you" solme other %ery goad tnforniation alxmiit .our soil. It has tite advantage: u won't need a balance to do weighing. iut. oil will neel a special piece of equipnent.
1).

.perianl Eqnilmnta

For this test %ou will ;eed a special metal mnoli shalml like a box but wt hout a tssp. lhe best site is 5 inches long and 1, inches by 1i inches square. 141

Procedure I. The sample you use for this test should be prepared exactly like (he one for the liquid limit test. It should be mixed with enough water to. make it slightly more fluid than the liquid limit. For example. cut a V-shaped groove its the soil as explained in Step 2 of the liquid limit procedure. If the groove closed with about 5 taps of the dish against the heel of the hand. the mixture is just right. 2. Place a very thin coating of grease or vaseline on the inside walls of the shrinkage mold. This will keep the soil from sticking to the mold as it dries. Place enough wet soil to fill the mold one-third full. Gently jar the mold or tap it on a stack of papers to cause the soil to flow into a smooth layer. This will also remove unwanted air bubbles in the soil. Put in more soil and jar the layers until the mold is completely filled. Scrape the excess soil from the top of the mold with a straight stick or piece ot metal. 3. Dry the soil bar. To keep it from cracking, first let it dry at room temperature for one day. Then put it in the 110*C oten until it dries completely. Very accurately measure the length of dried soil liar. Also measure the exct length of the mold .n case it is not exactly 5 inches long. Calculalions The l-..r shrinkage is calculated as follows: Bar shrinkage = (Length of it
bar)
.-

(length of dried htr)

X 100
Length of wet bar Test for Strength of Foundation Soil (Clays) How stroig is the foundation soil? How wide and how thick should the footing of portland cement concrete ibe? To get the answers to these questions we must first get some measure of the strength of the foundation soil at the site where the house is to be built. You should dig several small pits like the one insthe picture (see Figure 93) and from each ose. cut a small block of soil and trim it with a knife Fo that it will be just. the same size theti in 'the lever as slhown. ' Take she' small blocks ad stest" tester shown in Figure 94 which you cars make for this purpose. Push at Point A first with your first finger. If the soil block crushes, the foundation soii is very soft and a large house should not be built on it. If the soil does not crush when you push at A, it has sonie strength and the test should he continued. Now push at It. If you cats cruss it by pushing . with one finger at B you know that site strengtht of thc soil

140

is greater than the one that railed from pressure at A so you will look in Table 4 is the column marked A and opposite the type of house )ou plan to build to read the width and
thickness of the continuous concrete wall footing. If you cannot crush it h) pushing at B, then tr' at C. If the soil crushes at C. then use the width and depth of footing opposite B in the table and so on. You ina. find some cla,s that will not crush whesn you push oi the end of the leser. These are %ery strong soils asd )ou may use the sites shown in the table at E. You should be able to push with one finger as shown in the picture, I to 20 pounds (8 to 9 Kg.). See how much you can push by pushing on a set of scales or balances. If you push only 10 to 12 pounds then use the footing size tnext larger than you would otherwise.

BOTTOM OF FOUNDATION

Cut FOUNDATION

SOIL

TEST SAMPLE LIKE THIS AND TRIM BOTTOM AND TOP SQUARE
Figur 93.

ISO

",,V.X 4'X. 6' LONG

SIZE OF TEST SAMPLE ragure 94. Simple lever (Lter for soils.

151

APPENDIX B Useful Formulas

Area of circle (w = 3.14. r = radius) .................................... Area of triangle (h = height. b = base) ........................ 1 Area of rectangle (ab = length of sides) ............ (,r) (r'). (b) (h). ( a) (b).

Volume of block (a.bc = lengths of sides) .................... (a) (b) (c). Lnit weight of Hock (a.b.c = lengts of sides in inches) ........................ (W = weight in pounds) Volume of cqliidcr (h = height) .................................... LUidt weight of clinder (r radius in inches) (h= height in inches) ........ (%V = weight in pounds) (W) (1728) (a) (h) (c) (T) (r) (h). (IV) (1728) (r) (r') (h) p A
-

Connpressi.e strength /P = failu re load ) .................................................................. (A = cross sectional area of spelcimens) Moisture contet w (W j = wet weight of soil)................................... (W = d:y weight of soil)
Plasticity index. P.I.

W,
L.L. - P.L

(L.L. = liquid lim it) .................................................... (P.L. = plastic linsit) fxemples of Long Multplcotlio a.) 19 x 328 328 19 2952 3 8 . 6232
c.)

b.)

19 x 32.8 32.8 19 2952 32.' 623.2

1.9 x 32.8 32.8 1.9 2952 328 62.32

d.)

32.7 x 41.8 41.8 23.7 2926 1254 836

990.6
132

Exomples of Long Division

a.)

328 19 17.26 19/328.00 19 138 133 50 38 120 114 6

b.)

32.8 19 1.73 19/382 19 138 133 50 38 12

C.)

32.8 1.9 17.26 1.9/'Y2.8 19 138 133 50 38 120 114 6

d.)

41.8 23.7

237-- 1.76 A
237 I8I0 1659 1510 1482 28

Conversion of Weights and Measures

Metric I meier I meter I meter. 0.914 meter 0.305 meter I centimeter 2.540 centimeters LENGTH English 1.094 yard 3.281 feet 39.37 inches I yard I foot 0.394 inch I inch AREA 0.155 square inch I square inch 10.764 souare feet I squate foot

I square centimeter 6.452 square centimeters I square meter 0.093 square nmet..

!S3

VOLUME
I cubic centimeter 16.387 cubic centimeters I cubic meter 0.028 cubic meter 3.785 liters I liter I liter 0.946 liter 0.061 cubic inch I cubic inch 35.314 cubic feet I cubic foot I gallon (British) 0.264 gallon 1.057 quarts I quart WEIGHT 2.205 pounds I pound 00353 ounce (av) I ounce (av) English 12 inches I inch 36 inches, 3 feet 144 square inches 9 square feet 1728 cubic inches 27 cubic feet 7.481 gallons 0.1337 cubic foot 16 ounces 2000 pounds Meiric 300 centimeters, 1000 millimetes 10,00 square centimeten 100,000 cubic centimeters 1000 grams

I kilogiam 0.454 kilogram I gram 28.349 grams

I Lfot 0.0833 foot I yard I square foot I square yard I cubic foot I cubic yard I cubic foot I gallon I pound I ton (short) I I I I meter square meter cubic meter kilogram

Glossary
taking in of water or other'liquid into I. "Absorplion-the a soil mass. 2. Adobe-Any kind of clay soil which, when mixed with water to a plastic consistency (sometimes with a mechanical binder). can be made into a part of a structure. A structure, usually, a building block, made of sich clay. 3. A',,g|-The"figrC form'ed'by the intersection at a point of two lines. A right angle is such a figure in which the lines intersect at an angle of 901. 4. Aars-Split palm trunks used as earth mix reinforce. m.nt in the construction of flnors and flat or domed roofs in the arid tones of west Africa. Araras are approximately 8 feet long.

154

lines which locate the boundaries of excavation ok '.uilding. 7. Bond-A connection made by overlapping adjacent parts of a structure such as bricks. Also to hold together or solidify as a binder. 8. Bond bean-A horizontal beam. usually of concrete or wood, placed at the top of a wall to reinforce the wall. The bond beam helped to distribute the load of the rafters of the root to the walls. 9. Cajon-A type of earth wall construction in which a clay soil mix of appropriate consistency is used in the form of wall panels supported by a structural wall frame. (Spanish.) 10. Capillary rise-The tertical rise of water in a fine grain soil due to natural forces within the small pore spaces. II. Clay-The smallest grain size division of soils composed principally of fiat particles smaller than 0.002 millimcters. 12. Cob-Walls built of a fairly stiff mixture of clay soil. water and small quantities of straw or other suitable mechanical binders. This mix is applied in consecutive layers without the use of shuttering. The walls faces are pared down as the work proceeds. Cob walls have also been built of a mixture of crushed chalk and water. 13. Cohesion-The ability of two particles to stick together. 14. Conpartion-The closer packing of soil particles by mechanical means to obtain a denser mass. 15. Curing-A time period in which the action of water in a stabilized soil mass causes the mass to be cemented together by the stabilizer. 16. Dagga plaster-A mixtture of clay and sand used as a plaster to protect the walls and also as a mortar in laying up earth blocks. Often stabilizivg admixtures are added. 17. Durability-The resistance of a material to wearing down. 18. Emulsified aphalt-A mixture of finely divided asphalt suspended in water and used in liquid form as a stabilizing agent in earth blocks. 1'9. Fly sh-The smallest size particle 'of slag or clinker; a product of the burting of coal or lignite. 20. Foundation-The lowest structural part of a building that connects the walls to the ground. 21. Hydrometer-A scientific device which, floating in a liquid, is cal.brated to determine the specific gravity of the liquid.

5. Bauge-A mixture consisting of clay so:. and straw, used for building earth walls between forms (French). 6. Batter Boards-Light planks of wood nailed in a hori. zontal position to ground stakes. They are used to fix string

155

22. Impermeable-The ability of a soil material to restrict the flow or seepage of water to a negligible amount. 23. Laterite, lateritic-Clay soils formed under tropical climate conditions by the weathering o' igneous rock. They consist chiefly of stable clays and hydroxides of iron and alumi. nlum'. 24. Lintel-A small beam that is used to span across a window opening to support the wall above the opening.

USE 3 PIECES - 2"X6"X4'-4" OVER 3fOOT OPENINGS IN 6" AN. 9" WALLS.
use 4 PIECES OF THIS SIZE OVER 35

FOOT OPENINGS IN 12" AND 15" WALLS.

gi

LINTEL

3'
"L.DOOROR
WINDOW -

Figure %. Wood lintel.

Is.

25. Liquid limits-That moisture content in percent of dry *oil weight at which the soil changes from a plastic to a liquid state.
26. Mechanical analysis-The determination of the grain size distribution of a soil material. Also known as a sieve analysis. 27. Moisture content-The amount of water contained in a soil material expressed as the weight of the water divided by the weight of the dry soil material in percent. 28. Mortar-A plastic mix of sand, cement and possible clay which is used to bond together building blocks. 29. Nogging-Rough earth, brick, or concrete masonry used to fill in the open spaces of a structural frane. 30. Optitun auoiture contertl-The ninisture content for a soil mix in -. hich. for a given compactiae.effort, the densest specimen is obtained. 31. Osiera-A form of wattle made of willow branches and dry wood rods which are woven into a basket like frame to receise a plaster of plastic earth. 32. Pallet-A small flat board that ii used to carry a freshly made building block. 33. Parallel-The idea of two lines or planes that alwa)s remain an equal distaic apart. As a result, they neier cross. 34. Permeable-The through a soil mats. passage of water or other liquid

35. ,'rpindielai-lhe interscctiosn of two lines so that a right angle or 0, angle is formed between the lines. 36. Pie-.de. tere-The Frtnch tevin for rammed earth. 37. Pitch-'The angle or slope of a roof. usually expreswd as a ratio (f the %Crti(al rit to the horizontal distance such as of ce ita three. This woul mean that for every three a pitch 4 feet of horizontal distance, the niof ,01oulI rise one foot. .14. Phlttir liujit- That tniituire content in percent of dry soil weight at which the soil (laniges Iroin a solid to a plastic state. 39. PIisiiity-lhe ability of .1 moist soil to be deformed lbis ind.icates that j he soil has coliesior amid hold its thap.. anl tota its Ay particles. 40. Plntidity iidex-The numerical difference between the liqtid limit and tie plastic limit. 41. Pltlipng-A techtique foinbinig stabilized earth with earth hiv placing a thin cenent stabili/esl soil raa011111 rasieoel lt furnm work (fornming the against the Outward side t the til% exterior wall face) , the remaindcr being compacted with an IS7

ordinary unstabilited soil mix.

Plating techaniques may also be used in the mantufacture of earth bIlocks.

42. Poured adobe-A mixture of cly. soil. and water, of a fairly moist consistency enabling it to be c;-st between for1m work and then left to dry. The process of casting may either be carried out ill one operation to lull wall height, or in succeaise operatios by means of "climbing*" forn work. Rocks are often embeddel in the earth. 43. Pouolans-A mixture of fine particles which, though not a cement its itself, will combine with lime to form a cement. 44. Puddled inux-A milture of soil with enough water se that a plastic mix which easily flows is formed. This is distinguished betweei a moist mix which has just eiough water to lubricate the particles. 45. Rasyatrd earth-A mixture of sandy clay u:," auI water, of a slightls moist consistenc. enabling, it to he coinpacted hetwetes n ullcring fots monolithic walls or its molds for making indiidual blocks. Ramming ,nw 1w e carried out by either hal or machine tainpihig. 46. Reclangle-A fsur sidled figre whose opposite sides are parallel. All fOur borers are fight angles. Opposite sides are equal but aljaccuil side ate oot oetse'jrily equal. 47. Reirifsrcenetn-' e sirtig tnalterijl. usually steel rol or wire. placed its cOmtlpatiel soil io increase the strenglh of the structure. 418. . amplirg-'lhe ohiaining by digging or boring of a represeniatise aiouI of a natural soil its place. Also the separation of a small quanit is of reprcescssatise material from a larger quantity of loie soil naterial. 49. Sand-The sismallest siesl porliou of the coarse soil materials. It is that priusiu of a soil material which passes the U. S. Slassdard Siese No. It0 but is retainel otl the U. S. Sieve No. 200. 50. Shsikage-lhe decrease Ill %ohllile oft a soil material caused by esaporatiun of water. 51. Shrinkage I.imil-That moisture C,I5,'l texepressel in percent of dry soil weight below whirl: a chatnge in moisture content causes no chaige its solulte of the soil trasa. 52. Sill-The larger sited portion of t. line grain soil particle usually defitel as the material pas.ig a U. S. Standar. No. 200 Sieve down to the msinimum site of .M.5 millimeters. 53. Slur y-A mnixture with soil witlh enough water to make a very soupy liquid that will easily pour. 54. Sod house-Ilouses with walls and perhaps roofs con. structir, of close matted sod cut Into blocks. Usually laid in the wall with grassy side down. t'qed exteinsively in early days

111

of the development of the Great Plains area of the Ui.ited States of America. 55. Spedfki Grality-The ratio of the unit weigl: of a given material to the unit weight of water.
56. Slabilizitin'-The improement of soil properties by

the addition of pr , i materials which will either cement the soils, water proof te soil. or reduce volume changes.
57. Stabilizer-A material such as portland cement, lime. asphalt and many chemicals which will stabilize a soil material. 58. Strength-The ability of a material to resist applied forces. 1 he strength of soil mixes is normally considered the strength in shear stress and is expressed in pounds p.r square or kilograms per square centimeter. 59. Studding-Stuctural members such as wooden planks or poles which are set vertically in a wall to support the weight of the roof. 60. Tapia-A form of adobe used in parts of Africa and Trinidad using a strong fibrous gras., often sporobolui indicui. cut into short lengths as a mechanical binder. 61. Teroni-A form of construction s ,nilar to adobe brick anti"sodd5s* in its application in which a s"I block is cut in its natural bed in marsh lands and, after sun curing. is I .id up on a wall. 62. Torehis-A mixture conisisting of clay soil and cow hair, tsed for building daub walls. (French.) 63. Tubati-A West African term for hand made. pear shaped "bricks" made from a rnix consisting of clay soil. water, and short pieces of fresh or dried grass. Tubalis are laid with their wide '. w downward in a bed of mortar, three, four or more abreast. ConsecL'ie courses are placed with their bases interlocking between the IM)inted top of the lower course. Tubali walls are built with a lisper. 64. 'igas-PolCS used as rafters for earth roof construction. 65. Wattle and dauh-A wosen frame of small branches which is smeared or daubed with plastic earth, the operation being continued until all construclion cracks are filled.

l5,