Sexual harassment is bullying or coercion of a sexual nature, or the unwelcome or inappropriate [1] promise of rewards in exchange for sexual

favors. In most modern legal contexts, sexual harassment is illegal. As defined by the US EEOC, "It is unlawful to harass a person (an applicant or employee) because of that persons sex." Harassment can include "sexual harassment" or unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical harassment of a sexual nature. The legal definition of sexual harassment differs by jurisdiction. Sexual harassment is subject to [2] a directive in the European Union. Where laws surrounding sexual harassment exist, they generally do not prohibit simple teasing, offhand comments, or minor isolated incidents. In the workplace, harassment may be considered illegal when it is so frequent or severe that it creates a hostile or offensive work environment or when it results in an adverse employment decision (such as the victim being fired or demoted, or when the victim decides to quit the job). The legal and social understanding of sexual harassment, however, varies by culture. The harasser can be the victim's supervisor, a supervisor in another area, a co-worker, or someone who is not an employee of the employer, such as a client or customer and harassers or victims can be either [3] male or female. It includes a range of actions from mild transgressions to sexual abuse or sexual assault. Sexual harassment is a form of illegalemployment discrimination in many countries, and is a form of abuse (sexual and psychological) and bullying. For many businesses and other organizations, preventing sexual harassment, and defending employees from sexual harassment charges, have become key goals of legal decision-making.
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Harassment situations[edit]
Sexual harassment may occur in a variety of circumstances - in workplaces as varied as factories, [8][9][10][11][12][13][14] academia, Hollywood and the music business. Often, but not always, the perpetrator is in a position of power or authority over the victim (due to differences in age, or social, political, educational or employment relationships) or expecting to receive such power or authority in form of promotion. Forms of harassment relationships include: The perpetrator can be anyone, such as a client, a co-worker, a parent or legal guardian, relative, a teacher or professor, a student, a friend, or a stranger. The victim does not have to be the person directly harassed but can be a witness of such behavior who finds the behavior offensive and is affected by it. The place of harassment occurrence may vary from school, university, workplace and other. There may or may not be other witnesses or attendances. The perpetrator may be completely unaware that his or her behavior is offensive or constitutes sexual [3] harassment or may be completely unaware that his or her actions could be unlawful.

The incident can take place in situations in which the harassed person may not be aware of or understand what is happening. The incident may be one time occurrence but more often it has a type of repetitiveness Adverse effects on the target are common in the form of stress and social withdrawal, sleep and eating difficulties, overall health impairment, etc. The victim and perpetrator can be any gender. The perpetrator does not have to be of the opposite sex. The incident can result from a situation where the perpetrator thinks they are making themselves clear, but is not understood the way they intended. The misunderstanding can either be reasonable or unreasonable. An example of unreasonable is when a woman holds a certain stereotypical view of [15] a man such that she did not understand the mans explicit message to stop.

With the advent of the Internet, social interactions, including sexual harassment, increasingly occur online, for example in video games.

Varied behaviors[edit]
One of the difficulties in understanding sexual harassment, is that it involves a range of behaviors. In most cases (although not in all cases) is difficult for the victim to describe what they experienced. This can be related to difficulty classifying the situation or could be related to stress and humiliation experienced by the recipient. Moreover, behavior and motives vary between [citation needed] individual cases. Dzeich et al. has divided harassers into two broad classes: Public harassers are flagrant in their seductive or sexist attitudes towards colleagues, subordinates, students, etc. Private harassers carefully cultivate a restrained and respectable image on the surface, but when alone with their target, their demeanor changes.
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Langelan describes three different classes of harassers.

Predatory harasser who gets sexual thrills from humiliating others. This harasser may become involved in sexual extortion, and may frequently harass just to see how targets respond. Those who don't resist may even become targets for rape. Dominance harasser: the most common type, who engages in harassing behavior as an ego boost. Strategic or territorial harassers who seek to maintain privilege in jobs or physical locations, for example a woman's harassment of male employees in a predominantly female occupation. Street harasser: Another type of sexual harassment performed in public places by strangers. Street harassment includes verbal and nonverbal behavior, remarks that are frequently sexual in nature and [17] comment on physical appearance or a persons presence in public.

Prevention[edit]
Sexual harassment and assault may be prevented by secondary school, college, and workplace [21] education programs. At least one program for fraternity men produced "sustained behavioral [19][22] change."
[18] [19][20]

Many sororities and fraternities in the United States take preventative measures against hazing and hazing activities during the participants' pledging processes (which may often include sexual harassment). Many Greek organizations and universities nationwide have anti-hazing policies that explicitly recognize various acts and examples of hazing, and offer preventative measures for such [23] situations.

Impact[edit]
Effects of sexual harassment can vary depending on the individuality of the recipient and the severity and duration of the harassment. Often, sexual harassment incidents fall into the category of the "merely [citation needed] annoying." In other situations harassment may lead to temporary or prolonged stress and/or depression depending on the recipient's psychological abilities to cope and the type of harassment, and the social support or lack of it for the recipient. Psychologists and social workers report that severe/chronic sexual harassment can have the same psychological effects as rape or sexual [24][25] assault. Victims who do not submit to harassment may also experience various forms of retaliation, including isolation and bullying. As an overall social and economic effect every year sexual harassment deprive women form active social and economic participation, and costs hundreds of millions of dollars in lost educational and professional [26] opportunities for mostly girls and women. However, the quantity of men implied in these conflicts is significant.

Coping[edit]
Sexual harassment, by definition, is unwanted and not to be tolerated but there often are a number of effective ways for offended and injured people to overwhelm harassment psychological effects, remain or return socialization, regain personal relationship feelings when they were affected by the outside relationship trauma, and regain social approval, return ability to concentrate and be productive in educational, work, etc. environments. This may include stress management and therapy, cognitive[27] behavioral therapy, friends and family support, etc. Immediate psychological and legal counseling are suggestive in the happening of the event since selftreatment may not release stress or remove trauma, and simply reporting to authorities may not have the desired effect, be ignored or may further injure the victim at its response, or may lead to harmful social circumstances in relation to creating difficulties in school or workplace, and even firing.

Study on the behaviours women use to manage sexual harassment[edit]

A 1991 study done by K.R. Yount found three dominant strategies developed by a sample of women coal miners to manage sexual harassment on the job: the "lady", the "flirt", and the "tomboy." The "ladies" were typically the older women workers who tended to disengage from the men, kept their distance, avoided using profanity, avoided engaging in any behavior that might be interpreted as suggestive. They also tended to emphasize by their appearance and manners that they were ladies. The consequences for the "ladies" were that they were the targets of the least amount of come-ons, teasing and sexual [28] harassment, but they also accepted the least prestigious and lowest-paid jobs. The "flirts" were most often the younger single women. As a defense mechanism, they pretended to be flattered when they were the targets of sexual comments. Consequently, they became perceived as the

"embodiment of the female stereotype,...as particularly lacking in potential and were given the fewest [28] opportunities to develop job skills and to establish social and self-identities as miners." The "tomboys" were generally single women, but were older than the "flirts." They attempted to separate themselves from the female stereotype and focused on their status as coal miners and tried to develop a "thick skin." They responded to harassment with humor, comebacks, sexual talk of their own, or reciprocation. As a result, they were often viewed as sluts or sexually promiscuous and as women who violated the sexual double standard. Consequently, they were subjected to intensified and increased harassment by some men. It was not clear whether the tomboy strategy resulted in better or worse job [28] assignments. The findings of this study may be applicable to other work settings, including factories, restaurants, offices, and universities. The study concludes that individual strategies for coping with sexual harassment are not likely to be effective and may have unexpected negative consequences for the workplace and may even lead to increased sexual harassment. Women who try to deal with sexual harassment on their [28] own, regardless of what they do, seem to be in a no-win situation.

Common effects on the victims[edit]

Common psychological, academic, professional, financial, and social effects of sexual harassment and retaliation: Becoming publicly sexualized (i.e. groups of people "evaluate" the victim to establish if he or she is "worth" the sexual attention or the risk to the harasser's career) Being objectified and humiliated by scrutiny and gossip Decreased work or school performance as a result of stress conditions; increased absenteeism in fear of harassment repetition Defamation of character and reputation Effects on sexual life and relationships: can put extreme stress upon relationships with significant others, sometimes resulting in divorce Firing and refusal for a job opportunity can lead to loss of job or career, loss of income Having one's personal life offered up for public scrutinythe victim becomes the "accused", and his or her dress, lifestyle, and private life will often come under attack. Having to drop courses, change academic plans, or leave school (loss of tuition) in fear of harassment repetition and/or as a result of stress Having to relocate to another city, another job, or another school Loss of references/recommendations Loss of trust in environments similar to where the harassment occurred Loss of trust in the types of people that occupy similar positions as the harasser or his or her colleagues, especially in case they are not supportive, difficulties or stress on peer relationships, or relationships with colleagues Psychological stress and health impairment Weakening of support network, or being ostracized from professional or academic circles (friends, colleagues, or family may distance themselves from the victim, or shun him or her altogether)

Some of the psychological and health effects that can occur in someone who has been sexually harassed as a result of stress and humiliation: depression, anxiety and/or panic attacks, sleeplessness and/or nightmares, shame and guilt, difficulty concentrating, headaches, fatigue or loss of motivation, stomach problems, eating disorders (weight loss or gain), alcoholism, feeling betrayed and/or violated, feeling angry or violent towards the perpetrator, feeling powerless or out of control, increased blood pressure, loss of confidence and self-esteem, withdrawal and isolation, overall loss of trust in people, traumatic stress, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), complex post-traumatic stress disorder, suicidal [29][30][31][32][33] thoughts or attempts, suicide.

Post-complaint retaliation and backlash[edit]

Retaliation and backlash against a victim are very common, particularly a complainant. Victims who speak out against sexual harassment are often labeled troublemakers who are on their own power trips, or who are looking for attention. Similar to cases of rape or sexual assault, the victim often becomes the accused, with their appearance, private life, and character likely to fall under intrusive scrutiny and [34] attack. They risk hostility and isolation from colleagues, supervisors, teachers, fellow students, and [29] even friends. They may become the targets of mobbing or relational aggression. Women are not necessarily sympathetic to female complainants who have been sexually harassed. If the harasser was male, internalized sexism, and/or jealousy over the sexual attention towards the victim, may encourage some women to react with as much hostility towards the complainant as some male [35] colleagues. Fear of being targeted for harassment or retaliation themselves may also cause some [36] women to respond with hostility. For example, when Lois Jenson filed her lawsuit against Eveleth Taconite Co., the women shunned her both at work and in the communitymany of these women later [37] joined her suit. Women may even project hostility onto the victim in order to bond with their male [36] coworkers and build trust. Retaliation has occurred when a sexual harassment victim suffers a negative action as a result of the harassment. For example, a complainant be given poor evaluations or low grades, have their projects sabotaged, be denied work or academic opportunities, have their work hours cut back, and other actions against them which undermine their productivity, or their ability to advance at work or school, being fired after reporting sexual harassmentor leading to unemployment as they may be suspended, asked to resign, or be fired from their jobs altogether. Retaliation can even involve further sexual [35][36] harassment, and also stalking and cyberstalking of the victim. Moreover, a school professor or employer accused of sexual harassment, or who is the colleague of a perpetrator, can use their power to see that a victim is never hired again, or never accepted to another school. Of the women who have approached her to share their own experiences of being sexually harassed by their teachers, feminist and writer Naomi Wolf writes, "I am ashamed of what I tell them: that they should indeed worry about making an accusation because what they fear is likely to come true. Not one of the women I have heard from had an outcome that was not worse for her than silence. One, I recall, was drummed out of the school by peer pressure. Many faced bureaucratic stonewalling. Some women said they lost their academic status as golden girls overnight; grants dried up, letters of recommendation were no longer forthcoming. No one was met with a coherent process that was not weighted against them. Usually, the key decision-makers in the college or

universityespecially if it was a private universityjoined forces to, in effect, collude with the faculty member accused; to protect not him necessarily but the reputation of the university, and to keep information from surfacing in a way that could protect other women. The goal seemed to be not to provide a balanced forum, but damage control."
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Another woman who was interviewed by Helen Watson, a sociologist, reported that, "Facing up to the crime and having to deal with it in public is probably worse than suffering in silence. I found it to be a lot [39] worse than the harassment itself."

Organizational policies and procedures[edit]

Most companies have policies against sexual harassment, however these policies are not designed and [40] should not attempt to "regulate romance" which goes against human urges. Act upon a report of harassment inside the organization should be: The investigation should be designed to obtain a prompt and thorough collection of the facts, an appropriate responsive action, and an expeditious report to the complainant that the investigation has been concluded, and, to the full extent appropriate, the action taken. Mark I. Schickman, Sexual Harassment. The employer's role in prevention. American Bar [40] Association When organizations do not take the respective satisfactory measures for properly investigating, stress and psychological counseling and guidance, and just deciding of the problem this could lead to: Decreased productivity and increased team conflict Decreased study / job satisfaction Loss of students / staff. Loss of students who leave school and staff resignations to avoid harassment. Resignations/firings of alleged harassers. Decreased productivity and/or increased absenteeism by staff or students experiencing harassment Decrease in success at meeting academic and financial goals Increased health care costs and sick pay costs because of the health consequences of harassment and/or retaliation The knowledge that harassment is permitted can undermine ethical standards and discipline in the organization in general, as staff and/or students lose respect for, and trust in, their seniors who indulge in, or turn a blind eye to, or treat improperly sexual harassment If the problem is ignored or not treated properly, a company's or school's image can suffer High jury awards for the employee, attorney fees and litigation costs if the problem is ignored or not treated properly (in case of firing the victim) when the complainants are advised to and take the issue [7][32][33][41][42][43][44] to court.

Studies show that organizational climate (an organizations tolerance, policy, procedure etc.) and workplace environment are essential for understanding the conditions in which sexual harassment is likely to occur, and the way its victims will be affected (yet, research on specific policy and procedure, and awareness strategies is lacking). Another element which increases the risk for sexual harassment is the

jobs gender context (having few women in the close working environment or practicing in a field which is [45] atypical for women). According to Dr. Orit Kamir, the most effective way to avoid sexual harassment in the work place, and also influence the publics state of mind, is for the employer to adopt a clear policy prohibiting sexual harassment and to make it very clear to their employees. Many women prefer to make a complaint and to have the matter resolved within the workplace rather than to "air out the dirty laundry" with a public [46][47][48] complaint and be seen as a traitor by colleagues, superiors and employers, adds Kamir. Most prefer a pragmatic solution that would stop the harassment and prevent future contact with the harasser rather than turning to the police. More about the difficulty in turning an offence into a legal act [49] can be found in Felstiner & Sarats (1981) study, which describes three steps a victim (of any dispute) must go through before turning to the justice system: naming giving the assault a definition, blaming understanding who is responsible for the violation of rights and facing them, and finally, claiming turning to the authorities.

Evolution of sexual harassment law in different jurisdictions[edit]

The Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women classifies violence against women into three categories: that occurring in the family, that occurring within the general community, and that perpetrated or condoned by the State. The term "sexual harassment" is used in defining violence [50] occurring in the general community, which is defined as: "Physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring within the general community, including rape, sexual abuse, sexual harassment and intimidation at work, in educational institutions and elsewhere, trafficking in women and forced prostitution." In India, the case of Vishakha and others v State of Rajasthan in 1997 has been credited with [51] establishing sexual harassment as illegal. In Israel, the 1988 Equal Employment Opportunity Law made it a crime for an employer to retaliate against an employee who had rejected sexual advances, [52] but it wasn't until 1998 that the Israeli Sexual Harassment Law made such behavior illegal. In May 2002, the European Union Council and Parliament amended a 1976 Council Directive on the equal treatment of men and women in employment to prohibit sexual harassment in the workplace, naming it a form of sex discrimination and violation of dignity. This Directive required all Member States of the European Union to adopt laws on sexual harassment, or amend existing laws to comply [53] with the Directive by October 2005. In 2005, China added new provisions to the Law on Women's Right Protection to include sexual [54] harassment. In 2006 "The Shanghai Supplement" was drafted to help further define sexual [55] harassment in China.

Varied legal guidelines and definitions[edit]

The United Nations General Recommendation 19 to the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women defines sexual harassment of women to include: "such unwelcome sexually determined behavior as physical contact and advances, sexually colored remarks, showing pornography and sexual demands, whether by words or actions.

Such conduct can be humiliating and may constitute a health and safety problem; it is discriminatory when the woman has reasonable ground to believe that her objection would disadvantage her in connection with her employment, including recruitment or promotion, or when it creates a hostile working environment." While such conduct can be harassment of women by men, many laws around the world which prohibit sexual harassment recognize that both men and women may be harassers or victims of [56] sexual harassment. However, most claims of sexual harassment are made by women. There are many similarities, and also important differences in laws and definitions used around the world.