3.

5 to 30 MHz Automatic Antenna Impedance Matching System

By William Blodgett

Senior Project ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT California Polytechnic State University San Luis Obispo August 2012

2012 William Blodgett

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................................... iv Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... v Chapter 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1 Chapter 2. Background ................................................................................................................................. 3 Chapter 3. Requirements ............................................................................................................................... 7 Chapter 4. Design.......................................................................................................................................... 9 Chapter 5. Test Plans .................................................................................................................................. 18 Chapter 6. Development and Construction ................................................................................................. 20 Chapter 7. Integration and Test Results ...................................................................................................... 36 1. Directional Coupler ............................................................................................................................ 36 2. RF Power Sensor ................................................................................................................................ 42 3. Power Supply...................................................................................................................................... 45 4. Stepper Motors ................................................................................................................................... 45 5. IMS Power Meter ............................................................................................................................... 50 6. Matching Network .............................................................................................................................. 53 Chapter 8. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 61 Chapter 9. Bibliography .............................................................................................................................. 62 Chapter 10. Appendices .............................................................................................................................. 65 Appendix A: Senior Project Analysis .................................................................................................... 65 Appendix B: Time Schedule Allocation ................................................................................................ 71 Appendix C: Parts List and Costs ........................................................................................................... 72 Appendix D: Schematics ........................................................................................................................ 74 1. DC Power Supply ........................................................................................................................... 74 2. Matching Network.......................................................................................................................... 75 3. Stepper Motors ............................................................................................................................... 76 4. Control Unit ................................................................................................................................... 77 5. Directional Coupler ........................................................................................................................ 78 6. RF Power Sensors .......................................................................................................................... 79 7. Front Panel ..................................................................................................................................... 80 Appendix E: Software ............................................................................................................................ 81

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES Table 1 - Loss Comparison of 450 Balanced Line versus 50 Coaxial Cable. ........................ 3 Table 2 - IMS Requirements and Specifications Table .................................................................. 8 Table 3 IMS System Level Functionality Table ........................................................................ 10 Table 4 IMS Subcomponent Level Functionality Table ............................................................ 11 Table 5 - 5 V DC Power Supply Requirements ............................................................................ 14 Table 6 Amateur Radio HF Bands ............................................................................................. 19 Table 7 - ATmega32 Microcontroller Pin Connections ............................................................... 26 Table 8 - IMS Power Look Up Table Calculation ........................................................................ 31 Table 9 - DC Power Supply Test Data.......................................................................................... 45 Table 10 - Power Meter Comparison ............................................................................................ 50 Table 11 - IMS Forward Power Calibration ................................................................................. 52 Table 12 - IMS Reflected Power Calibration ............................................................................... 52 Table 13 - IMS SWR Meter Comparison to VNA ....................................................................... 53 Table 14 - Results of IMS match testing into dummy load .......................................................... 54 Table 15 - IMS vs. Commercial Antenna Tuner Specifications ................................................... 61 Table 16 - Antenna Impedance Matching System Bill of Materials (Page 1 of 2) ....................... 72 Table 17 - Antenna Impedance Matching System Bill of Materials (Page 2 of 2) ....................... 73

Figure 1 - Typical Impedance Matching System (IMS) Setup ...................................................... 1 Figure 2 - Feedpoint impedance of a 100 ft long dipole antenna in free space .............................. 5 Figure 3 - Smith Chart operation and schematic for the two L network configurations. ............... 6 Figure 4 Transmission Line Loss Comparison. ........................................................................... 6 Figure 5 System Level Block Diagram, Impedance Matching System ....................................... 9 Figure 6 IMS Subcomponent Block Diagram ........................................................................... 10 Figure 7 - Directional Coupler Circuit Diagram .......................................................................... 13 Figure 8 - Power Supply Block Diagram ...................................................................................... 14 Figure 9 - 1:1 Balun Design ......................................................................................................... 15 Figure 10 - RF Power Sensor Design ........................................................................................... 16 Figure 11 Directional Coupler ................................................................................................... 20 Figure 12 - Power Supply Circuit Board ...................................................................................... 21 Figure 13 - IMS Power Supply as built ........................................................................................ 21 Figure 14 - IMS Matching Network ............................................................................................. 22 Figure 15 - Matching Network RF Switch ................................................................................... 23 Figure 16 - IMS Balun .................................................................................................................. 23 Figure 17 - RF Power Sensors ...................................................................................................... 24 Figure 18 - Bottom of Microcontroller Board .............................................................................. 25 Figure 19 - Microcontroller Module ............................................................................................. 25 Figure 20 - IMS Front Panel ......................................................................................................... 27
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Figure 21 - IMS Rear Panel .......................................................................................................... 27 Figure 22 - IMS Interior ................................................................................................................ 28 Figure 23 - Excel Sheet LCD Display Configuration ................................................................... 29 Figure 24 - LCD Display .............................................................................................................. 29 Figure 25 - Directional Coupler SWR Test Setup ........................................................................ 36 Figure 26 - Directional Coupler RF Input Port SWR ................................................................... 37 Figure 27 - Forward Coupling Factor Test Setup ......................................................................... 38 Figure 28 - Directional Coupler Forward Coupling Factor .......................................................... 38 Figure 29 - Reverse Coupling Factor Test Setup .......................................................................... 39 Figure 30 - Directional Coupler Reverse Coupling Factor ........................................................... 40 Figure 31 - Directional Coupler Directivity Test Setup................................................................ 41 Figure 32 - Directional Coupler Directivity.................................................................................. 41 Figure 33 - RF Power Sensor Test Setup ...................................................................................... 42 Figure 34 - Forward RF Power Sensor Output Voltage vs. Input Power, -80 to 13 dBm ............ 43 Figure 35 - Forward RF Power Sensor Output Voltage vs. Input Power, -40 to 13 dBm ............ 44 Figure 36 - Reflected RF Power Sensor Output Voltage vs. Input Power, -40 to 13 dBm .......... 44 Figure 37 - Stepper Motor Test Setup Block Diagram ................................................................. 46 Figure 38 - Capacitor Stepper Motor Test Setup .......................................................................... 47 Figure 39 Variable Inductor Motor Test Setup .......................................................................... 48 Figure 40 C program for stepper motor testing ......................................................................... 49 Figure 41 - IMS 0 W to 30 W Power Calibration Setup ............................................................... 51 Figure 42 - 30 W to 100 W Power Calibration Setup using Bird 43 Wattmeter .......................... 51 Figure 43 - S11 for 50 load and 4:1 Balun................................................................................ 54 Figure 44 - Dipole Antenna Location ........................................................................................... 55 Figure 45 120 ft & 140 ft Dipole Impedance ............................................................................. 56 Figure 46 120 ft Dipole S11....................................................................................................... 57 Figure 47 120 ft Dipole Impedance, 3 30 MHz ...................................................................... 58 Figure 48 - Smith Chart Plot of IMS Matching Capability .......................................................... 59 Figure 49 - IMS Project Gantt Chart............................................................................................. 71

iii

Acknowledgements
I wish to thank the following people and groups who helped me complete this project: Professor Dean Arakaki, Electrical Engineering Department, Project Adviser Professor Clark Turner, Computer Science Department, for matching network advice and antenna testing assistance Professor John Oliver, Electrical Engineering Department, for software advice Cal Poly Amateur Radio Club and members including Marcel Stieber (AI6MS), David Troy (KJ6RPX), and Shaun Koide (KH6EI), for antenna testing assistance and equipment use The American Radio Relay League (ARRL), for permission to use their published material in this report My family and friends, for their emotional support

I could not have completed this project without their support. William Blodgett, KE6RKT, August 25, 2012

iv

Abstract
Two-way communications using 3 to 30 MHz, high-frequency (HF) radio, also known as shortwave radio, provides worldwide coverage with no infrastructure required between stations. Amateur or Ham radio operators apply this advantage to long distance communications and to provide disaster relief communications. Optimum frequencies for long distance propagation are time-of-day variant necessitating an operating frequency range of 3 to 30 MHz. HF half wave dipole antenna length varies from 15 to 150 ft over this range. Fixed-length antenna impedance varies with frequency due to physical dimension dependent capacitance and inductance. Maximum transmitter to antenna power transfer occurs when the transmission line and antenna impedances are matched to the standard 50 radio impedance. For transmitter to antenna impedance matching, antenna length can be adjusted depending on frequency. Alternately, an antenna tuner utilizing a variable inductance and capacitance matching network can compensate for the frequency dependent impedance of a fixed-length antenna. A dipole antenna designed for one frequency can function over a broader frequency range with a manually or automatically adjusted antenna tuner. The project objective is to develop a microcontroller-based automatic tuner for a fixedlength dipole antenna. In high frequency transmission lines, an antenna impedance mismatch causes power reflection back to the transmitter. This corresponds to a greater than unity voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR), the ratio of maximum to minimum transmission line voltage amplitude. A directional wattmeter provides forward and reflected power values to an Atmel ATmega32 microcontroller, which calculates VSWR and adjusts a capacitor - inductor matching network using stepper motors to reduce VSWR to less than 1.5:1 (4% reflected power relative to incident). The antenna tuner system can match loads of up to 26:1 initial VSWR within a frequency range of 3.5 MHz to 30 MHz. The system was tested using a 100 W transceiver connected to a 90 ft, 450 balanced transmission line and a 120 ft dipole antenna 30 ft above ground. Commercial antenna tuners have VSWR matching capabilities from 3:1 to 100:1. [1] [2] [3]

Chapter 1. Introduction
An antenna tuner, or impedance matching system (IMS), allows use of a fixed-length antenna on a range of frequencies wider than otherwise possible. Figure 1 shows a common setup for an antenna tuner. A fixed length wire dipole is usually mounted above ground using masts. The mounting height is at least one eight wavelength above ground for the lowest operating frequency. One eighth wavelength for 3.5 MHz is approximately 30 ft. If the antenna is closer to the ground, the feedpoint impedance approaches 0 and the radiation pattern is directed upward instead of at the horizon, which is more desirable for long distance communication [4]. The dipole length is typically a half wavelength at the minimum frequency of the desired operating range. For example, if the minimum frequency is 3.5 MHz, the length is: ( )( ) ( ) [ ]

Figure 1 - Typical Impedance Matching System (IMS) Setup [5]

A typical IMS is shown in Figure 1. At power on, the IMS initializes in standby mode and measures and displays forward and reflected RF power. It calculates SWR if the RF input power is greater than 3 W. The power measurement range is 10 mW to 200 W. With the radio transceiver in receive mode, the RF power is less than 10 mW, therefore SWR calculation is not possible. Impedance matching is also important to maximize received signal strength. The user must transmit into the IMS and press the Tune button to initiate automatic impedance matching. The Tune button allows operator discretion for tuning initiation, although the IMS software could be modified to initiate tuning automatically if the VSWR exceeds 1.5:1 while
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transmitting. During automatic impedance matching, the IMS calculates VSWR and actuates stepper motors to alternately adjust a variable capacitor and a variable inductor to reduce VSWR to less than 1.5:1. The IMS then returns to standby mode. From equation (2), a VSWR of 1.5:1 corresponds to 4% reflected power. Reducing VSWR to less than 1.5:1 achieves an acceptable impedance match based on the manufacturer requirements of the transceiver used for IMS testing [6]. When transmit frequency is adjusted, an impedance mismatch will again exist requiring the operator to initiate another automatic tuning cycle to reduce VSWR.

Chapter 2. Background
Two-way communications using 3 MHz to 30 MHz, high-frequency (HF) radio, also known as shortwave radio, offers worldwide coverage with no required infrastructure between stations, making it useful for emergency communications. Worldwide range is possible due to HF radio wave refraction in the ionosphere known as skywave propagation. The ionosphere is the upper layer of Earths atmosphere where solar radiation separates electrons from (ionizes) gas molecules. This ionized gas, known as plasma, is electrically conductive, causing incident radio waves to refract (bend) back to Earth. Earths surface also reflects radio waves back to the ionosphere. Surface reflection and ionosphere refraction can occur multiple times along a radio signal path allowing the signal to propagate worldwide. The optimum frequency for long distance skywave propagation changes with time of day due to the sun's influence on the ionosphere. For transmitter to antenna impedance matching, antenna length can be adjusted depending on frequency. Half-wave dipole antenna length for HF radio varies from 15 ft to 150 ft. A 140 ft dipole antenna normally resonates at 3.5 MHz. At the resonance frequency, inductive and capacitive reactances cancel. Away from resonance, the impedance changes and power reflections caused by impedance mismatch increase. An antenna tuner can render the antenna resonant to the transmitter and eliminate reflected power by providing compensation for the impedance mismatch. Matching is possible below the resonant frequency, but the voltage can exceed the dielectric strength of the transmission line or antenna tuner components. Table 1 shows possible voltages for a 100 ft flat-top antenna [5].

Table 1 - Loss Comparison of 450 Balanced Line versus 50 Coaxial Cable [5] Table 20.1. Used with permission. Copyright ARRL.
3

Voltage amplitude increases with reflection coefficient magnitude, ||, between the antenna and transmission line and therefore increased voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR). Superposition of forward and reflected waves along the transmission line produces standing waves resulting in maximum and minimum voltage amplitude locations. VSWR is the ratio of the maximum to minimum transmission line voltage amplitude. ISWR is the corresponding ratio for current; its value is equivalent to VSWR. VSWR and ISWR are collectively referred to as SWR since they are equivalent. Equations (3) and (4) define and SWR, respectively. [6]

where is the complex antenna (load) impedance and Zo is the transmission line characteristic impedance. Zo is typically assumed purely real for commercial transmission lines.

| |

| |

| | | |

Equation (5) defines reflection coefficient magnitude. | |

where XLoad is the antenna reactance and RLoad is the antenna resistance. SWR can also be calculated from forward and reflected power using equation (2). The IMS employs forward and reflected power measurements to calculate SWR. Equation (5) shows that if the antenna reactance is much greater than the antenna resistance and Zo, the reflection coefficient, ||, approaches 1. In equation (4), as || approaches 1, SWR approaches infinity, increasing maximum transmission line voltage. Figure 2 shows that dipole antenna impedance becomes predominantly reactive below its resonant frequency of approximately 5 MHz. In [Figure 2], the y-axis is calibrated in positive (inductive) series reactance up from the zero line, and negative (capacitive) series reactance in the downward direction. The numbers placed along the curve show the frequency in MHz. [4]

Figure 2 - Feedpoint impedance of a 100 ft long dipole antenna in free space. [4] Figure 2.10. Used with permission. Copyright ARRL.

In practice, radio operators typically use antenna tuners to match antennas for frequencies above the resonant frequency. The IMS employs a balanced output design as opposed to unbalanced with unbalanced coaxial cable for both input and output. The problem with an unbalanced tuner is evident in Table 1 [7]. Terminating coaxial cable with highly mismatched loads results in undesirable power loss along the cable. A balanced transmission line, also called twin lead, conversely, exhibits lower loss when operated with mismatched loads. The IMS accepts an unbalanced line from the transceiver and internally converts it to a balanced line. The IMS to antenna transmission line is balanced. Since balanced transmission line is unshielded, unlike coaxial cable, it cannot be placed near other conductors. It must be spaced away from other conductors by at least three times the spacing between its conductors [7]. The IMS utilizes two L network matching circuit configurations. Compared to T or Pi networks, the L network uses only one combination of inductance and capacitance. This simplifies the microcontroller tuning algorithm. The disadvantage is that one L network cannot match all possible load impedances. Figure 3 shows two L network types with complimentary matching ranges on the Smith Chart. The IMS uses an RF switch to select one of the two L networks, allowing a wider matching range.

Figure 3 - Smith Chart operation and schematic for the two L network configurations [7] Figure 5.57. Used with permission; copyright ARRL. Modified from original.

Figure 4 Transmission Line Loss Comparison [9]. Used with permission; copyright ARRL.

Figure 4 compares loss for several transmission line types. The two curves near the bottom represent two types of balanced transmission line, while upper curves represent coaxial cables. The loss for Open Wire "window" line, a twin parallel conductor balanced transmission line, is less than all types of coaxial cable for frequencies less than 200 MHz.
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Chapter 3. Requirements
Table 2 defines specifications to achieve for the IMS design. IMS REQUIREMENTS AND SPECIFICATIONS Engineering Justification Specifications
1. Average setup time should not exceed 15 minutes Required connections include antenna transmission line terminals, Impedance Matching System to radio transceiver coaxial cable, and 120 V AC power. (see

Marketing Requirements
1

Figure 5) The system should begin measuring RF

power at power up. It will calculate SWR for RF input power greater than 3 W. To initiate automatic impedance matching, the user will press front panel button. 2 2. Parts cost should not exceed $1000 Similar impedance matching products range in market price from $200 to over $1000.Components required to build one unit must not exceed $1000. A preliminary parts search indicates total parts cost is less than $1000. All necessary parts are available and each can handle voltages and currents developed at 100 W RF power, the typical output power of most Amateur Radio HF transceivers. The unit will be housed in a portable (one person can carry) metal enclosure. The electronic components will be rated for commercial operating temperature range.

3.

4.

Can transfer at least 100 W of transmitter output power to a matched antenna continuously without damage. Self-contained and portable with operating temperature range of 0 C to 70 C.

5.

Antenna impedance matching range should allow matching to a dipole mounted at least 0.125 wavelength above ground and at least 0.5 wavelength long on the lowest operating frequency of 3.5 MHz.

A simple and effective portable HF antenna setup is a 140 ft wire dipole mounted 30 ft above ground. An antenna tuner should allow 3.5 MHz to 30 MHz operation on this antenna giving access to the most commonly used Amateur HF bands. One eighth wavelength for 3.5 MHz is approximately 30 ft If the antenna is closer to the ground, the feedpoint impedance approaches 0 and the radiation pattern is directed upward instead of at the horizon, which is more desirable for long distance communication.

1, 3

6.

The transmission line between the Impedance Matching System and the radio transceiver shall have a characteristic impedance of 50 5%.

50 is the standard antenna jack impedance on Amateur Radio HF transceivers and accompanying coaxial transmission lines. Coaxial transmission lines are unaffected when routed near metal; they can be used for outdoor unit to radio transceiver connections. The Impedance Matching System will automatically match the antenna impedance to 50 . Dipole, loop, and Yagi antennas are efficiently connected using a balanced transmission line with low loss in the 3.5 to 30 MHz range (see Figure 4) even when operated with unmatched loads. See Table 1, Columns 4 and 5 Maximum power consumption occurs during matching attempts involving stepper motor operation. Stepper motor and control electronics power consumption should be below maximum of 1800 W for a 120 V AC outlet.

7.

The Impedance Matching System to antenna connection shall use terminals for a 300 to 600 balanced transmission line. Operate using a standard 120 V AC wall outlet

1,2

8.

9.

Must weigh less than 40 pounds

Similar products already on the market typically weigh less than 20 pounds. The weight must be less than 40 pounds for safe, single person lifting. The actual weight as built is 26 pounds.

1, 3

10. The system should warn the user if it is unable to reduce the standing wave ratio (SWR) to below 1.5:1.

Amateur Radio HF transceivers typically cannot operate with SWR greater than 2:1. Under these conditions, transceivers typically self-protect by reducing output power. The IC-706 HF transceiver manual [6] recommends less than 1.5:1 SWR. Transceivers have internal SWR meters to detect high SWR. Reflected power can increase thermal stress on the transceivers internal power amplifier.

Marketing Requirements 1. Easy to set up and use 2. Affordable 3. Usable with most standard Amateur Radio HF transceivers 4. Works with many types of antennas Table 2 - IMS Requirements and Specifications Table [8], Chapter 3

Chapter 4. Design
The initial IMS was designed for an outdoor matching unit with an indoor status display and control unit. The outdoor unit simplifies routing the balanced transmission line away from metal objects as routing it inside a building is not required. Coaxial cable connects the IMS outdoor unit to the indoor radio position. This configuration exceeded cost and system complexity beyond the scope of the Senior Project. The outdoor unit requires an indoor status display unit with a separate microcontroller. Therefore, the design was revised to a self-contained indoor system with front panel status display and control. Indoor permanent installation is recommended. The location should allow balanced transmission line routing away from metal objects and ground. Figure 5 defines the System Level Block Diagram. Inputs include electrical power and radio frequency power from the transceiver via coaxial cable. Outputs include status indicators and a balanced transmission line to the antenna. Table 3 provides additional details. While the coaxial cable and balanced transmission line are labeled input and output, they perform opposite functions when the transceiver is in receive mode.

Figure 5 System Level Block Diagram, Impedance Matching System

Table 3 IMS System Level Functionality Table Module: Input Impedance Matching System (IMS) 1. 2. 3. Output 1. 2. Power: 120 V AC at less than 10 A 50 Coaxial Cable from Transceiver: Carries 3.5 to 30 MHz transmit signal from the transceiver to the IMS. User pushbuttons Balanced Transmission Line to Antenna: Carries transmit signal from the IMS to the antenna. Status Indicators: An LCD provides user with current value of Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR), , forward and reflected power, inductor & capacitor relative positions (i.e. minimum and maximum inductance or capacitance), and RF Switch Position.

Functionality

Senses greater than 1.5:1 VSWR during transmit and adjusts internal reactance to match antenna transmission line impedance to the 50 transceiver coaxial connection.

Figure 6 defines the IMS Subcomponent Block Diagram.

Figure 6 IMS Subcomponent Block Diagram

Table 4 describes subcomponent inputs, outputs, and functionality.

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Table 4 IMS Subcomponent Level Functionality Table Module Forward/Reflected RF Power Sensor Input Output Functionality Directional Coupler Input Output Functionality Balun Input Output Functionality Variable LC Matching Network Input Output Functionality Microcontroller Input Output Functionality DC Power Supply Input Output Functionality Stepper Motor Drivers (3) Input Output Functionality L and C Stepper Motors Input Output Functionality LCD Status Display Input Output Functionality 1. 2. 1. Description Radio Frequency Power from Directional Coupler. 5 V DC Power DC Voltage Proportional to RF Power

Produces two DC voltage outputs: one proportional to the forward RF power and one proportional to reflected RF power. 1. RF Power from Transceiver 1. RF Power to LC matching network 2. Forward Power Sample to Forward RF Power Sensor 3. Reflected Power Sample to Reflected RF Power Sensor Provides 30 dB reduced samples of the forward and reflected RF power to allow RF power sensor power measurement 4. RF power via unbalanced coaxial transmission line 1. 1. 2. 1. RF power via balanced transmission line RF power from Directional Coupler Mechanical Actuation from Stepper Motors RF Power to Balun A Balun is a transformer that converts an unbalanced line to a balanced line.

The LC Matching network is a shunt variable inductor and a series variable capacitor that each provide the necessary reactance to achieve an impedance match. A single pole, double throw RF switch places the shunt inductor on either side of the capacitor to match a wider range of impedances. 1. DC Voltage Proportional to RF Power 2. DC Power 3. User Pushbutton Controls 1. Stepper Motor Drive Commands 2. Data to LCD Status Display The microcontroller measures DC voltage from the RF power meter and issues motor drive commands to adjust the LC network for an impedance match. It also provides serial data to display RF power level and tuning status. 1. 120 V AC power 1. DC power: 12 V at 2 A and 5 V at 1 A. Converts 120 V AC to 12 V and 5 V DC power for the circuitry and stepper motors. 1. Motor Drive Commands from Microcontroller 2. DC Power 1. Motor Drive voltage Provides motor power based on commands received from the microcontroller. 1. 1. Motor Drive Power Mechanical Rotation

There are three stepper motors: The L and C motors adjust the variable inductor and capacitor, and a linear actuator motor controls the RF switch in the matching network 1. Data from microcontroller 2. DC Power 1. Display information The Status Display Unit displays forward and reflected power and tuning status received from the microcontroller.
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Directional Coupler A directional coupler is an RF power measurement device with four ports: RF input, RF output, forward coupled (or sampled), and reflected (or reverse) coupled. A directional coupler samples a portion (coupling factor) of RF power in the forward and reverse directions. The coupling factor (separate values for forward and reverse directions) is the ratio of actual to sampled RF power. The RF input and output ports are connected by a main (through) line and the forward and reflected coupled ports are connected by a coupled line. A portion of the main line RF power is diverted to the coupled line where it is attenuated by a fixed value known as the coupling factor (ratio of actual to sampled RF power). The coupling factor is high, ~1000 or 30 dB, to minimize main line power loss. The forward coupled port power is coupled in phase with the main line forward power and out of phase with main line reflected power, further attenuating reflected power by a factor known as directivity. The opposite case is true for the reflected coupled port. The directivity is the power ratio of the forward to reflected coupled ports with the through port terminated in a matched ( = 0) load. Directivity is ideally infinite since there should be no reflected coupled power for a matched load at the through port. The directional coupler allows transmission line forward and reflected power measurement using sensitive low power electronics while minimizing main line power loss. The IMS employs a directional coupler for forward and reflected power measurement and SWR calculation. The directional coupler enables 200 W power measurements using the AD8307 logarithmic detector IC, which has a +17 dBm (50 mW) maximum power input. [10] A directional coupler design by W. T. Kaune [11] shown in Figure 7 utilizes inexpensive components.

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Figure 7 - Directional Coupler Circuit Diagram [11]

Ferrite toroids wound with AWG 26 wire and surrounding two 2 sections of RG-8 50 coaxial cable form the coupling transformers. The shield conductor of the coaxial cable through the toroids prevents capacitive coupling between the transmission line and windings. Double sided circuit board provides additional shielding to prevent unwanted RF coupling. Directivity is the ratio of forward to reflected coupled power when the directional coupler is terminated with matched (=0) loads. Ideally, directivity approaches infinity since the reflected coupled port power should be zero for a matched load. Commercial HF directional couplers offer directivities from 15 to 44 dB. [12] [13] Kaune [11] claims a directivity of 35 dB at 3.5 MHz and 28 dB at 30 MHz. RF power levels, in W and dBm (dB referenced to 1mW) are defined in equations (6) and (7). [ ] [ [ ]

The directional coupler provides a forward coupled power output 30 dB less than the forward transmitter power. For 100 W (50 dBm from equation (6)) forward power, the forward coupled power should be 20 dBm. With 28 dB of directivity, the reflected coupled port is: 20 dBm -28 dB = -8 dBm = 0.16 mW
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(8)

Using equation (2) to calculate SWR from forward and reflected power, the SWR measured using this directional coupler is 1.08 and 1.03 for 28 dB and 35 dB of directivity, respectively.

Power Supply Four devices require power: the microcontroller, the power sensors, the LCD, and the stepper motor drivers. The stepper motor drivers require 12 1 V at 1 A. Table 5 defines the 5 V supply requirements. 5 V DC Power Supply Requirements Device Voltage Range, V ATmega32 Microcontroller [14] 4.5 to 5.5 AD8307 Power Sensor, Quantity 2 [10] 2.7 to 5.5 LCD [15] 4.7 to 5.5 Power Supply Requirement 4.7 to 5.5 Maximum Current, mA 200 20 165 385

Table 5 - 5 V DC Power Supply Requirements

The supply current capability is increased to 1 A for the 5 V supply and 2 A for the 12 V supply for improved reliability. A power supply providing half its current capability will outlast one supplying full capacity.

Figure 8 - Power Supply Block Diagram

Figure 8 shows the power supply conceptual block diagram. A 120 V/25.2 V 2 A center tapped transformer was selected. The center tap provides (25.2 V)/2 or 12.6 V AC RMS. Though only a 2 A rectifier was required, a 4 A bridge rectifier was selected for reliability. Fixed voltage linear
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three terminal regulators were selected: ST Microelectronics L78S12 12 V, 2 A regulator [16] and Texas Instruments TL780-05 5 V, 1.5 A regulator [17]. Both feature short circuit and thermal overload protection. The filter capacitance was determined as follows. The transformer peak voltage output is:

Assuming 2 x 0.7 V diode voltage drop, the bridge rectifier output is 17.8 V - 1.4 V = 16.4 V The L78S12 voltage regulator IC has a required minimum input voltage of 14.5 V. Thus, the maximum voltage ripple is 16.4 V 14.5 V = 1.9 V. Assuming maximum supply current of 2 A; equation (10) gives the required capacitance.

Thus, two 4700 F capacitors in parallel form the filter capacitor. Balun A balun transforms a balanced line to an unbalanced line. The IMS input and matching network are unbalanced, meaning one terminal is at ground potential. The balun at the IMS output enables balanced transmission line use for the IMS to antenna connection. The ARRL Handbook [7] provides a suitable balun design shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9 - 1:1 Balun Design [5] Figure 20.23A. Used with permission; copyright ARRL
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The design calls for 12 bifilar turns of AWG 14 enamel insulated wire on a 2.4 inch outer diameter mix type 31 or 43 ferrite toroid. A 1:1 balun does not transform impedance. With the balanced terminals connected to a 50 load, the unbalanced terminal impedance is also 50 . RF Power Sensor An RF power sensor design by W. T. Kaune [11] , shown in Figure 10, utilizes the Analog Devices AD8307 Log Amp Detector IC, which outputs a DC voltage proportional to RF input power from -75 dBm to +17 dBm. Equation (11) yields this relation. [10] ( )

Figure 10 - RF Power Sensor Design [11]

Microcontroller The Atmel Atmega32 microcontroller IC was selected due to previous experience in CPE-329. It features 32 programmable I/O pins, 32 kB non-volatile program memory, and an eight channel, 10 bit analog to digital converter (ADC). The internal ADC allows direct connection of the RF sensor output.

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LCD A two line by 16 character LCD displays forward & reflected power in W, SWR, inductor & capacitor positions, and RF switch position. The LCD requires 11 connections to the microcontroller. Stepper Motors The stepper motors were the largest available from Sparkfun.com, with 125 oz.-inches of torque [18]. They are rated at 2 A at 3 V. The torque required to rotate the capacitor and inductor was unknown since a measurement device was not available. Therefore, motor adequacy was determined by actuating the capacitor and inductor components. A third stepper motor is a linear actuator that controls the matching network RF switch [19]. Novel/Innovative Features The matching network features a switch to select one of two possible L network configurations: series C shunt L and shunt L series C. The switch places the shunt inductor on either the source or load side of the capacitor. One L network configuration can only match half of all possible loads. The switch enables matching all possible loads by allowing both L network configurations. While the switch could have been implemented using a relay, this option requires power to maintain the relay in its default position. Latching relays, which remain in either set position with power removed are available, but a linear actuator stepper motor was already on hand. The linear actuator positions a rod in one direction or in the opposite direction. Its rotor shaft is a threaded tube with a threaded rod inserted. If the threaded rod is prevented from spinning with the rotor shaft, the rotor threads the rod in one direction depending on the rotation direction. The rod is attached to the switchs moving contact positioning it to connect to either stationary contact. Stepper Motor Driver The Big Easy Driver [20] operates bipolar stepper motors up to 2 A and 8 30 V. Microcontroller interfacing requires three output pins to control three functions: Step, Dir, and Enable. Enable turns on the driver and applies motor drive current. Step rotates the motor one step for each rising edge. Dir defines Step rotation direction; clockwise or counterclockwise.

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Chapter 5. Test Plans

Directional Coupler Test 1: The directional coupler should not present greater than 1.5:1 SWR at its RF input with its outputs terminated in 50 ( = 0) loads. Measure RF input SWR using a vector network analyzer over the 3.5 to 30 MHz frequency range with all outputs terminated in 50 . Test 2: The coupling factor (ratio of actual to sampled RF power) should be 301 dB [11]. Connect an RF signal generator set to 0 dBm to the RF input port and measure the forward coupled port output power using a spectrum analyzer to determine the coupling factor. Ideally, the coupling factor should not vary by more than 1 dB from 3.5 to 30 MHz. Test 3: Minimum directivity, equation (12) below, is 28 dB [11]. Connect an RF signal generator set to 0 dBm to the RF input port and terminate the RF output port in 50 . Measure the RF power at the forward and reflected coupled ports using a spectrum analyzer. [ ] [ ]

Minimum directivity is 28 dB over 3.5 to 30 MHz range. RF Power Sensor Verify that the DC output voltage conforms to equation (13) from -75 dBm to +17 dBm. ( ) (13)

Where A = 23 27 mV/dB and B = 1.9 2.2 V [10] Connect an RF signal generator to the sensor RF input and measure the DC output voltage for power levels from -75 dBm to +17 dBm at 3.5, 15, and 30 MHz. DC Power Supply Test power supply for output voltage regulation under no load and full load conditions. Full load is 0.5 A and 1 A for the 5 V and 12 V supplies, respectively. Apply 120 V AC input power and measure the 5 V and 12 V supply output voltages for the no load condition. Connect a 10 , >2.5 W resistor to the 5 V output and a 12 , >12 W resistor to the 12 V output. Measure the 5 V and 12 V supply output voltages for the full load condition. The no load and full load voltages should not exceed the voltage regulator datasheet specifications of 0.05 V and 0.6 V for the 5 V and 12 V supplies, respectively. [16] [17].

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Stepper Motors Rotate the variable capacitor and inductor using the stepper motors. Rotation will not occur if the required torque exceeds the 125 oz/inch motor rating. LC Matching Network Connect a 50 dummy load to the matching network output and a 3.5-30 MHz transmitter and SWR meter to the input. Manually tune the matching network from 3.5 to 30 MHz. The matching network should achieve maximum 1.5 SWR matching from 3.5 to 30 MHz. Microcontroller The microcontroller IC is tested using the Atmel STK-600 microcontroller development board. The USB powered STK-600 has a plug in socket for the microcontroller IC. The microcontroller pins are routed to pins on the board which can be connected to onboard LEDs and switches. The STK-600 can also program the microcontroller via the USB connection. The microcontroller is programmed to illuminate the LEDs to verify all the port pins. The IMS microcontroller circuit board is tested with the same LED blink program. LCD A program displaying upward counting numbers verifies LCD functionality. Automatic Impedance Matching The impedance of a 120 ft dipole antenna connected using 90 ft of 450 balanced transmission line is measured from 3.5 to 30 MHz using a vector network analyzer. With the IMS connected to the dipole, attempt automatic impedance matching for center and edge frequencies in all Amateur radio bands from 3.5 30 MHz. Table 7 lists the bands.
Table 6 Amateur Radio HF Bands

Amateur Radio HF Bands Approximate Wavelength, M Frequency, MHz 80 3.5 4.0 40 7.0 7.3 30 10.1 10.15 20 14.0 14.35 17 18.068 18.168 15 21.0 21.450 12 24.89 24.99 10 28.0 29.7

Dipole impedance values for frequencies where maximum 1.5 SWR matching is achieved are plotted on a Smith chart. The impedance range for maximum 1.5 SWR matching is determined using the Smith chart.
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Chapter 6. Development and Construction

Chassis The main chassis was salvaged from a General Electric Mobile Radio MastrII Base Station power supply [21]. The chassis provides interior dimensions of 15.5 x 10.25 x 6. All interior components were removed. For easier drilling, the steel front and rear panels were replaced with 0.125 thick aluminum sheets matching the dimensions of the original panels. A 14.5 x 9.25 aluminum panel was bolted to the interior bottom to serve as an attachment point for all IMS components. Mounting holes were drilled and tapped in this panel allowing all component mounting screws and bolts to be threaded directly into the sheet. Rubber bumpers were bolted to the chassis underside to prevent sliding and scratching of tables and counter tops. Directional Coupler Figure 11 shows the completed directional coupler. Except for copper tape used to secure the circuit board shields, it was built as specified by Kaune [11].

Figure 11 Directional Coupler

Power Supply All power supply components were grouped in the rear left corner to minimize space. The power switch and fuse holder were salvaged from the General Electric power supply [21]. The power supply circuit board, shown in Figure 12, was mounted to the rear panel with the voltage regulators bolted to the panel for improved heat dissipation.

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Figure 12 - Power Supply Circuit Board

Figure 13 shows the complete power supply. The power switch, fuse holder, and AC power cord plug (male IEC plug) were mounted to the IMS rear panel. Heat shrink tubing and liquid electrical tape on 120 V AC wires and terminals mitigate electrical shock and short circuit hazards. The transformer is bolted to the chassis bottom plate.

Figure 13 - IMS Power Supply

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Matching Network Figure 14 shows the complete matching network. The variable capacitor was salvaged from a manual antenna tuner and the inductor was purchased new. The inductor and capacitor motor mounts were fabricated from an aluminum project box. Motor positioning was critical to ensure alignment with the inductor and capacitor rotation axis preventing wobble during rotation. One inductor terminal is grounded to the chassis at its mounting bracket. The other terminal connects to the movable contact of the RF switch.

Figure 14 - IMS Matching Network

Figure 15 shows the RF switch built for the matching network.

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Figure 15 - Matching Network RF Switch

The switch has two stationary contacts connecting to either the load side or source side of the capacitor. A threaded nylon spacer connects the push rod to the movable contact insulating the contact from the grounded rod.

Balun The 1:1 balun was built as shown in Figure 9. Figure 16 shows the completed balun.

Figure 16 - IMS Balun

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The wire is Teflon insulated to prevent arcing. A square polycarbonate sheet insulates the balun from the rear panel and a round sheet serves as a washer to hold the balun in place. Nylon washers, a bolt, and a nut fasten the balun to the rear panel.

RF Power Sensors The two RF power sensors, forward and reflected, were built on pre-fabricated PCBs from Far Circuits [22]. A shielded box was constructed using copper clad PCB to minimize RF interference to the sensors. Figure 17 shows the completed RF power sensors in the shielded box. The box lid attaches with four screws and is removed for the photo.

Figure 17 - RF Power Sensors

The RF power sensor module is attached to the bottom of the microcontroller module using screws and nuts. The power, ground, and sensor voltage wires route inside the microcontroller module where they are soldered in place. The microcontroller and RF sensor modules are removable from the IMS as one unit.

Microcontroller Module The microcontroller circuit was built on a prototyping perf board. A 40 pin IC socket was soldered to the board to facilitate microcontroller replacement. Figure 18 shows the bottom of the microcontroller circuit board and the solder connections.
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Figure 18 - Bottom of Microcontroller Board

Header pins were wired to the microcontroller I/O pins providing connection points for system development. Permanent I/O connections use wire wraps to the header pins. To allow software modification, a 2 row by 3 pin male header plug was installed on the circuit board and connected to the microcontroller In System Programming (ISP) interface. A computer USB interface allows microcontroller software programing. Figure 19 shows the completed microcontroller module.

Figure 19 - Microcontroller Module

25

The microcontroller board is attached to the floor of an aluminum project box using screws and 0.5 standoffs. The three stepper motor drivers are mounted along one wall in the box. Connectors installed on the box interface the module to the IMS. A DB25 connector connects to the IMS front panel LCD and buttons. A DB15 connector connects all three stepper motors. 12 V and 5 V DC power are supplied to the module via RCA connectors. Table 7 lists all connections made to the microcontroller pins.
Atmega32 Microcontroller Pin Connections Pin Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 Pin Name Port B - 0 Port B - 1 Port B - 2 Port B - 3 Port B - 4 Port B - 5 Port B - 6 Port B - 7 RESET VCC GND XTAL2 XTAL1 Port D - 0 Port D - 1 Port D - 2 Port D - 3 Port D - 4 Port D - 5 Port D - 6 Port D - 7 Port C - 0 Port C - 1 Port C - 2 Port C - 3 Port C - 4 Port C - 5 Port C - 6 Port C - 7 AVCC GND AREF Port A - 7 Port A - 6 Port A - 5 Port A - 4 Port A - 3 Port A - 2 Port A - 1 Port A - 0 Input/Output Output Output Output Input Input Input Input Output Input Output Output Output Output Output Output Output Output Output Output Output Output Output Output Output Output Input Input (ADC1) Input (ADC0) Destination Front Panel LCD Via DB25 Pin 24 Front Panel LCD Via DB25 Pin 23 Front Panel LCD Via DB25 Pin 22 Front Panel Via DB25 Pin 12 Front Panel Via DB25 Pin 11 and ISP SS Pin Front Panel Via DB25 Pin 10 and ISP MOSI Pin Front Panel Via DB25 Pin 9 and and ISP MISO Pin Inductor Motor Driver DIR Pin and ISP SCK Pin MCU Circuit Board Reset Pin `+5 V DC Supply Ground 16 MHz Crystal 16 MHz Crystal Front Panel LCD via DB25 Pin 21 Front Panel LCD via DB25 Pin 20 Front Panel LCD via DB25 Pin 19 Front Panel LCD via DB25 Pin 18 Front Panel LCD via DB25 Pin 17 Front Panel LCD via DB25 Pin 16 Front Panel LCD via DB25 Pin 15 Front Panel LCD via DB25 Pin 14 Inductor Motor Driver STEP Pin Inductor Motor Driver ENABLE Pin Switch Motor Driver DIR Pin Switch Motor Driver STEP Pin Switch Motor Driver ENABLE Pin Capacitor Motor Driver DIR Pin Capacitor Motor Driver STEP Pin Capacitor Motor Driver ENABLE Pin +5V DC Supply Ground 100 nF Capacitor - Internal Reference Selected Not Connected Not Connected Not Connected Not Connected Not Connected Not Connected Reflected RF Power Sensor Voltage Forward RF Power Sensor Voltage Use LCD Register Select (RS) LCD Read/Write Select (R/W) LCD Enable ('E) "Select" Button "Select + " Button and ISP "Select - " Button and ISP "Tune Start/Stop" Button and ISP Inductor Motor Direction Select and ISP Resets Microcontroller Microcontroller DC Power Input Microcontroller Clock Reference Microcontroller Clock Reference LCD Data Buss 0 (DB0) LCD Data Buss 1 (DB1) LCD Data Buss 2 (DB2) LCD Data Buss 3 (DB3) LCD Data Buss 4 (DB4) LCD Data Buss 5 (DB5) LCD Data Buss 6 (DB6) LCD Data Buss 7 (DB7) Inductor Motor Step Inductor Motor Power Enable Switch Motor Direction Select Switch Motor Step Switch Motor Power Enable Capacitor Motor Direction Select Capacitor Motor Step Capacitor Motor Power Enable ADC Power Supply ADC 2.56 V Bandgap Voltage Reference

ADC input from Reflected Pwr Sensor ADC input from Forward Pwr Sensor

Table 7 - ATmega32 Microcontroller Pin Connections

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Front Panel The front panel LCD and buttons are connected to the microcontroller module via a 25 conductor cable. At the front panel, the cable wires are soldered to the buttons and LCD pins. The other end of the cable has a male DB25 connecting to the microcontroller module female DB25 allowing quick module removal. The LCD backlight requires 4.2-4.6 V DC power. To get this voltage, a 1N4001 diode was soldered in series with +5V DC wire and the backlight power pin. Assuming a minimum 0.5 V diode voltage, 4.5 V is supplied to the backlight. Figure 20 shows the complete IMS front panel.

Figure 20 - IMS Front Panel

Rear Panel Figure 21 shows the IMS rear panel.

Figure 21 - IMS Rear Panel

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Ceramic insulators isolate the balanced antenna transmission line terminals from the panel. A ground terminal provides an earth ground connection point for the chassis. The ground and antenna terminals use wing nuts allowing connection without tools. The IMS connects to a transmitter or transceiver via an SO-239 connector. The rear panel also contains the IMS power switch, power supply fuse holder, and 120 V AC connector.

Complete IMS Figure 22 shows the IMS interior with all hardware construction complete. All internal RF connections on the source side of the matching network were made using RG-58 50 coaxial cable. Copper tape covers the LCD backside for RF shielding.

Figure 22 - IMS Interior

Software The software was written after all hardware construction was complete. The completed software is shown in Appendix E. One feature at a time was enabled in the following order: 1. 2. 3. 4. LCD Status Display Manual Stepper Motor Control via Front Panel Buttons Forward and Reflected Power Measurement and SWR Calculation Automatic Impedance Matching
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A more detailed software development discussion for these four features follows. LCD Status Display The LCD displays two lines of data with 16 characters each. Excel was used for display design. Figure 23 shows the Excel sheet.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 F _ _ _ R _ _ S W R _ _ . _ L _ _ _ _ C _ _ _ S C S L

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 F _ _ _ R _ _ S W R _ . _ > L _ _ _ _ C _ _ _ S L S C
Figure 23 - Excel Sheet LCD Display Configuration

A software function named Update_Display was written to write data to the display. LCD display software functions previously developed in the CPE-329 course were incorporated into the program. Figure 24 shows the actual display.

Figure 24 - LCD Display

On the display, the number following F is the measured forward power in W. The number following R is the reflected power in W. SWR is calculated from the forward and reflected power and the result is displayed after the letters SWR. The number of motor steps counting up from minimum inductance and capacitance values are displayed after L and C, respectively. One of two possible RF switch positions, SCSL and SLSC, is displayed in the

29

lower right. The two possible positions are Series C-Shunt L, and Shunt L-Series C. This refers to the shunt inductor (L) being either on the source or load side of the series capacitor.

Manual Stepper Motor Control via Front Panel Buttons A function named check_buttons was written to allow user manual stepper motor control. This allows user selection and actuation of individual stepper motors for the adjustable inductor or capacitor, or the RF switch. The front panel Select button selects which motor to control. The greater than symbol ( > ) appears on the LCD indicating the selected motor. If the user presses the select button once, the > symbol appears in front of L indicating that the inductor motor is selected. Pressing Select again places > in front of C which indicates capacitor motor selection. Pressing Select a third time moves > in front of the SLSC/SCSL switch position indicating that the switch motor is selected. Pressing Select a fourth time removes > from the display indicating that no motor is selected. When each motor is selected, the ENABLE line to the respective motor driver transitions from logic high (5 V) to low (0 V) causing the motor driver to apply power to the motor. With motor power applied, 12 V DC supply current is 1 A. To reduce power consumption, the software has a timer which de-selects a selected motor if no button has been pressed for ten seconds. With either the capacitor or inductor motor selected, the user presses the Select + button to increase capacitance or inductance. The Select button decreases inductance or capacitance. With the switch motor selected, pressing Select + toggles the switch position and the SCSL/ SLSC display indication. As the inductor or capacitor changes position, the displayed relative position values update. These values indicate the number of motor steps counting up from the minimum inductance and capacitance positions. The inductor value range is 0 to 8500 and the capacitor range is 0 to 1660. Initial stepper motor testing determined 3200 steps per revolution rather than 200, the datasheet-specified number of steps per revolution. The motor driver instruction manual specifies that the drivers default to 1/16th step increments and that three pads on the driver require grounding to attain full steps. (16 * 200 steps/rev = 3200 steps/rev). Matching network testing determined optimum values of 200 steps/rev for the inductor and 3200 steps/rev for the capacitor. Initially, the system did not recall motor position following a power cycle. The system must record position to avoid exceeding mechanical limits. Software functions were written to store the position values in the ATmega32 non-volatile EEPROM memory. EEPROM cells have a lifetime of 100,000 writes before failure; therefore the program must reduce EEPROM writing. The program writes values 10 seconds after the user has pressed any button and only if the values differ from those previously stored.
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Forward and Reflected Power Measurement and SWR Calculation A function named Calculate_SWR was written to obtain forward and reflected power values from the analog to digital converter (ADC) and convert them to power in W and SWR. Equation (14) [10] yields the RF power sensor output voltage for a given input power in dBm, Pdbm.

For a 10 bit ADC, the number of possible output values is 210 or 1024 numbers from 0-1023. Equation (15) gives the ADC decimal output value based on the ADC input voltage, Vin, and the ADC reference voltage, VREF. [14] [ ]

The ADC input voltage is the power sensor output voltage from equation (14). The reference voltage, VREF, was set to the ATmega32 internal 2.56 V bandgap voltage reference. ADC VIN = power sensor Vout. A microcontroller limitation is the inability to perform floating point math; only integer numbers can be processed. To overcome this limitation, a lookup table (LUT) was created. Table 8 shows the spreadsheet used to calculate the LUT values.
IMS Look of Table Calculation Dir Coupler Vref, (V) = 2.560 Factor (dB) = 50.00 AD8307 Yintercept, (V) = 2.000 AD8307 Slope, (V/dB) = 0.025 Dir Coupler AD8307 AD8307 input Input Power, Dir Coupler LUT Value, ADC Vout, (V) power, dBm dBm Input Power, W 100*W 0 0.000 -80.0 -30.0 0.0000010 0 1 0.003 -79.9 -29.9 0.0000010 0 2 0.005 -79.8 -29.8 0.0000010 0 3 0.008 -79.7 -29.7 0.0000011 0 600 1.500 -20.0 30.0 1.0000000 100 1023 2.558 22.3 72.3 16982.4365246 1698244
Table 8 - IMS Power Look Up Table Calculation

31

The AD8307 Vout is calculated for each possible ADC value from 0-1023 using equation (16). [ ]

AD8307 input power, PIN, in dBm, is calculated using equation (17). [ [ ] ] [ ]

The directional coupler input power is calculated by adding the 50 dB coupling factor to the AD8307 input power. The directional coupler input power is converted to W using equation (7). The ATmega32 microcontroller cannot perform the equation (7) exponential function since it requires a floating point operation. This necessitates the LUT. The LUT contains pre-calculated results of the equation (7), (16), and (17) math functions. The LUT shares 32 kB memory with the 8 kB software program limiting its size to 24 kB or 1536 values at 16 bits each. 16 bit values can represent integers up to 216 or 65,536. Since the microcontroller cannot work with fractional numbers, they must be converted to whole integer numbers by multiplying up to larger value numbers, performing the required calculations, and then using integer division to obtain the final result. This method preserves some of the accuracy that would otherwise be lost if all numbers were rounded to whole numbers. All digital systems have accuracy limitations since values between consecutive binary values cannot be defined. In contrast, analog systems can process an infinite number of values. For example, if a 10 bit digital system must represent a voltage range from 0 to 1 V, it can only represent 210 or 1024 possible values between 0 and 1 V. In an analog system, the voltage can assume an infinite number of possible values between 0 and 1 V. The designer must use a system with enough bits to ensure the required accuracy. The IMS minimum power measurement required is 10 mW or 10 dBm. At the lowest IMS RF input power of 3 W, 10 mW reflected power gives 1.12 SWR using equation (2). If the minimum measurable power is limited to 10 mW, the IMS could attain a minimum SWR of 1.12, which is less than the IMS matching capability requirement 1.5 SWR or less. Since the IMS maximum power requirement is 100 W, its power measurement ability must be greater than 100 W. A maximum of 200 W was arbitrarily chosen. Therefore, the total required measurement range is 10 mW 200 W or 10 dBm to 53 dBm. From Table 8, the power values are in 0.1 dB steps. With a 43 dB measurement range, the required LUT size is 430 values. With a start value of 0.01 W, the LUT values must be multiplied by 100 to convert all values to integers. The system divides the values by 100 to get the power in W prior to displaying on the LCD.
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From equation (14), -80 dBm corresponds to 0 V power sensor output. With the IMS power measurement range limited from 10 dBm to 53 dBm, the first LUT value corresponds to 10 dBm. From equations (16) and (17), the corresponding ADC value is 400. The LUT is written in a C programming structure called an array, which is a programmable number of memory locations storing the same data type under the same variable name. Array values are accessed by inserting a reference number in brackets following the array name. For the array named Power_LUT, the program accesses the first value using Power_LUT[0]. With the LUT size set to 430, the last value is accessed using Power_LUT[429]. The IMS LUT table converts ADC values to power in W. The LUT begins at an ADC value of 400. The ADC results are stored in a variable named power_index, which then has 400 subtracted from it. It is then used to select values in the LUT. ADC values below 400 are set to zero; therefore the IMS registers power below 10mW as 0W. The following code shows how the LUT power value is assigned in the C program. Comments in green explain each line of code.
Power_index = ADC; if (Power_index < Power_index = else Power_index = Forward_Power 400) 0; // store ADC converted value to Power_index variable // this makes any power less than offset = 0 W

Power_index - 400; // index of proper value in LUT = Power_LUT[Power_index]; //store power to Forward_Power variable

The IMS power meter can be calibrated in software. If the measured power is a constant dB value off from the actual power over the full measurement range, the 400 offset value can be changed to reference offset power values in the LUT. Since each consecutive LUT value is a 0.1 dB change, the dB adjustment value required for calibration multiplied by 10 is the required offset change. For example, if the indicated power is 50W when the actual power is 100W, a 3 dB difference, then the 400 offset must be changed by 30. Changing the offset number from 400 to 370 corrects the 3 dB error by referencing 3 dB higher values in the LUT. If the power measurement error is not a consistent dB value, there is a slope error. For example, the power is 3 dB off at 10 W and 6 dB off at 100 W. This error requires recalculating the LUT using a different slope in equation (17).

Automatic Impedance Matching To develop the IMS automatic impedance matching ability, three algorithms were written and tested First algorithm: 1. For RF input power 5 W or greater, begin automatic tuning when Tune button is depressed 2. Measure and record current SWR 3. Rotate inductor one step in increasing direction 4. If SWR decreased, repeat 2. 5. If SWR increased, rotate inductor one step in decreasing direction 6. If SWR decreased, further decrease inductance
33

7. When SWR minimum is determined, repeat 1 through 5 for the capacitor. 8. If SWR is greater than 1.5:1, repeat for the inductor and then capacitor up to 3 times. 9. Stop automatic tuning attempt if the Tune Button is pressed again or if RF input power falls below 5 W.

This first algorithm adjusts inductance and capacitance based on SWR increase or decrease. This approach assumes that inductor or capacitor value variations in one direction consistently increase or decrease the SWR until the minimum is reached. This may hold true for an average over several SWR samples. In actuality, due to measurement noise or random fluctuation, the SWR may increase for small adjustments even if the adjustments are in the correct direction to achieve an impedance match. A second algorithm was written using a different approach as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Measure and store current SWR as minimum SWR. Set the inductor motor direction to increase inductance. Change inductance by one motor step Measure SWR. If the new SWR is less than the stored minimum value, store the new value as the minimum SWR and store the inductor position. 6. If the SWR increased, increment a counter tracking the number of times the SWR increased. 7. Repeat Steps 3 through 6 until the number of steps for which the SWR increased exceeds a set value (increasing SWR step count, optimum value determined through trial and error). Change the motor direction to decrease inductance. 8. Repeat Steps 3 through 6 after the Step 7 direction change until the increment counter exceeds the set value (increasing SWR step count, optimum value determined through trial and error). 9. Return the inductor to the minimum SWR position. 10. Repeat Steps 1 through 9 for the capacitor. 11. Repeat Steps 1 through 10 up to 4 times or until the SWR decreases below 1.5. 12. If the SWR is still greater than 1.5, stop the tuning process. This algorithm failed as it would only attain an impedance match if the required inductor and capacitor positions were within the set number of increasing SWR steps. Setting the increasing SWR step count to higher values, from 20 to 200, improved match success rate. However, the full range is 1660 steps for capacitance and 3500 steps for inductance. These full ranges must be searched to find the optimum match values. The inductor has a full range of 8500 steps, however for all loads tested, the inductor never required a setting beyond 3500. Therefore, the inductance search range was set to 0-3500. A third and final algorithm was written: 1. Set the inductor to minimum inductance position and the capacitor to maximum capacitance position.
34

2. Measure and store current SWR as minimum SWR. 3. Increment the inductor from minimum to maximum value. For each motor step: a. Measure SWR. b. If the new SWR is less than the stored minimum value, store the new value as the minimum SWR and store the inductor position. 4. Once the maximum inductance is reached, return the inductor to the location of minimum SWR. 5. Repeat steps 2 through 4 for the capacitor, stepping from maximum to minimum capacitance. 6. If the SWR is still greater than 1.5, perform Steps 7 through 17. 7. Measure and store current SWR as minimum SWR. 8. Set the motor direction to increase inductance. 9. Change inductance by one motor increment. 10. Measure SWR. 11. If the new SWR is less than the stored minimum value, store the new value as the minimum SWR and store the inductor position. 12. If the SWR increased, increment a counter tracking the number of times the SWR increased. 13. Repeat Steps 9 through 12 until the number of increments for which the SWR increased exceeds a set value. Change the motor direction to decrease inductance. 14. Repeat Steps 3 through 6 after the direction change in Step 13 until the increasing SWR increment counter exceeds the set value (increasing SWR step count, optimum value determined through trial and error). 15. Return the inductor to the minimum SWR position. 16. Repeat Steps 7 through 15 for the capacitor. 17. Repeat Steps 7 through 16 up to four times or until the SWR decreases below 1.5. 18. If SWR is not below 1.5, stop the tuning process. Steps 1 through 5 perform low resolution (coarse) tuning and Steps 7 through 17 perform fine tuning. Optimum settings determined through trial and error: Inductor step angle: 1.8/step, or 200 steps/revolution Capacitor step angle: 0.1125/step, or 3200 steps/ revolution Inductor increasing SWR step count: 110 Capacitor increasing SWR step count: 250 Inductor coarse tuning step time interval: 2 ms Capacitor coarse tuning step time interval: 10 ms Inductor fine tuning step time interval: 13 ms Capacitor fine tuning step time interval: 10 ms
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Chapter 7. Integration and Test Results

1. Directional Coupler The following equipment was used for directional coupler testing: Vector Network Analyzer, HP8753A Spectrum Analyzer, Agilent N9000A RF Signal Generator, Fluke 6060B Attenuator, Coaxial 200.2 dB fixed, 50 , 0.5 W, DC 2 GHz, Mini-Circuits HAT-20+, Quantity: 2 50 termination, Anritsu

Test 1: RF Input Port S11 The first test performed was input port S11 measurement to ensure that the directional coupler would not present high standing wave ratio (SWR) values to a connected transmitter. The directional coupler input SWR was measured using the Figure 25 setup.

Figure 25 - Directional Coupler SWR Test Setup

The 20 dB attenuators served as 50 terminations.

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Directional Coupler RF Input SWR

1.30 1.25 1.20 SWR 1.15 1.10 1.05 1.00 0 5 10 15 Frequency, MHz 20 25 30

Figure 26 - Directional Coupler RF Input Port SWR

Figure 26 shows the RF input port SWR measured using the VNA. The worst case SWR for 3.5-30 MHz is 1.07 at 3.5 MHz. The directional coupler SWR must be less than 1.5 for the IMS to meet its matching requirement of 1.5 SWR or less.

Test 2: Coupling Factor The forward coupling factor is the dB difference between the power measured (dBm) at the incident (RF input) port and forward coupled port. This was measured using the Figure 27 setup.

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Figure 27 - Forward Coupling Factor Test Setup

The spectrum analyzer was set for 1 31 MHz span and placed in max hold mode. The signal generator was set to 0 dBm and the frequency was swept from 1 31 MHz. The spectrum analyzer max hold mode captured the power measured from the forward coupled port. With the signal generator set to 0 dBm, equation (18) yields coupling factor.

Figure 28 - Directional Coupler Forward Coupling Factor

38

Figure 28 shows the spectrum analyzer forward coupling factor measurement. The forward coupling factor is approximately 30 dB and varies by less than 0.5 dB from 1 31 MHz. This is the expected result per Kaune [11]. The reflected coupling factor is the dB difference between through port and reverse (reflected) coupled port power. This was measured using the setup shown in Figure 29 using the same procedure for the forward coupling factor measurement.

Figure 29 - Reverse Coupling Factor Test Setup

39

Figure 30 - Directional Coupler Reverse Coupling Factor

Figure 30 shows the spectrum analyzer reverse coupling factor measurement. The reverse coupling factor is approximately 30 dB and varies by less than 0.5 dB from 1 31 MHz. This is the expected result per Kaune [11]. Test 3 Directivity The directional coupler directivity is the dB difference between forward and reflected coupled powers with power applied at the incident port and the through port terminated in 50 . The reverse coupled port power with power applied at the incident port was measured using the Figure 31 setup. The signal generator was again set to 0 dBm and swept from 1 31 MHz.

40

Figure 31 - Directional Coupler Directivity Test Setup

The directivity was calculated by subtracting the Figure 31reverse port power measurement from the forward port power measurement. The resulting directivity is plotted in Figure 32.

Directional Coupler Directivity

40 35 Directivity, dB

30

25

20

15 0 5 10 15 Frequency, MHz 20 25 30

Figure 32 - Directional Coupler Directivity

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The worst case directivity for 3.5 30 MHz is 26.56 dB at 29.65 MHz. Kaune claimed a worst case directivity of 28 dB [11]. Directivity is ideally infinite. For 100 W (50 dBm) forward power and 30 dB coupling factor, the forward coupled power is 20 dBm or 0.1 W. With 28 dB of directivity, the reflected coupled port power is: 20 dBm -26.56 dB = -6.56 dBm = 0.22 mW (19)

Using equation (2) to calculate SWR from forward and reflected coupled power, the SWR measured using this directional coupler is 1.1. The IMS power measurement limit is determined as follows: Given: Directional coupler coupling factor = 30 dB Maximum RF power sensor input power = 17 dBm Maximum Directional Coupler Input Power = 17 dBm + 30 dB = 47 dBm (50 W) Add 20 dB , 0.5 W (27 dBm), attenuators at forward and reflected coupled ports: Maximum Directional Coupler Input Power = 27 dBm + 30 dB = 57 dBm (500 W) RF sensor input power at 500W = 57 dBm 20 dB 30 dB = 7 dBm The IMS maximum RF power requirement is 100 W.

(20)

(21) (22)

2. RF Power Sensor
The forward and reflected RF power sensors were tested for DC voltage output linearly proportional to RF power input using the test setup shown in Figure 33.

Figure 33 - RF Power Sensor Test Setup

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The AD8307 datasheet [10] specifies a measurement capability of -75 dBm to +17 dBm. The sensors were tested in this range, but the voltage output was non-linear below -50 dBm as shown in Figure 34. The Fluke 6060B signal generator maximum output power is 13 dBm.

3 2.5 Output Voltage, V 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 -80

Forward RF Power Sensor Output Voltage vs. RF Input Power

3.5 MHz 15 MHz 30 MHz Linear (3.5 MHz) -60 -40 -20 0 20

RF Input Power, dBm Figure 34 - Forward RF Power Sensor Output Voltage vs. Input Power, -80 to 13 dBm

The IMS minimum power measurement is 10 mW. At minimum IMS RF input power of 3 W, 10 mW reflected power yields 1.12 SWR using equation (2). If the minimum measurable power is limited to 10 mW, the IMS could calculate a minimum SWR of 1.12, which is less than the IMS matching requirement of 1.5 SWR or less. For 10 mW (10 dBm) reflected power, RF power sensor input is -40 dBm after 30 dB directional coupler coupling factor and 20 dB attenuator. Therefore, the minimum RF sensor measurement is -40 dBm. The power sensors were tested from -40 dBm to +13 dBm at 3.5, 15, and 30 MHz. Figure 35 and Figure 36 show forward and reflected power sensor output voltage responses, respectively.

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2.6 2.4 2.2 Output Voltage, V 2

Forward RF Power Sensor Output Voltage vs. RF Input Power y = 0.0254x + 2.1765

1.8 1.6

3.5 MHz 15 MHz

1.4 1.2 1 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 RF Input Power, dBm 0 10 20

Figure 35 - Forward RF Power Sensor Output Voltage vs. Input Power, -40 to 13 dBm

Reflected RF Power Sensor Output Voltage vs. RF Input Power

2.6 2.4 2.2 Output Voltage, V 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 RF Input Power, dBm Figure 36 - Reflected RF Power Sensor Output Voltage vs. Input Power, -40 to 13 dBm
44

y = 0.0272x + 2.2065

3.5 MHz 15 MHz

The curve-fit equations shown in Figure 35 and Figure 36 are linear fit relations for the data. The equation slope is the AD8307 datasheet parameter Logarithmic Slope in units of V/dB. The measured forward and reflected slopes are 25.4 mV/dB and 27.2 mV/dB, respectively. The datasheet specifies 23 27 mV/dB from -75 dBm to + 17 dBm. The equation Y-intercept should be 1.9 2.2 V [10].

3. Power Supply
Table 9 shows the power supply voltages tested as specified in the Chapter 6 Test Plan. DC Power Supply Test Data Output Voltage, V No Load Full Design Datasheet Specification [16] Load Requirement [17] 5.031 5.028 4.7 to 5.5 50.05 12. 07 11.94 11 to 13 120.6

5 V, 0.5 A DC Supply 12 V, 1 A DC Supply

Table 9 - DC Power Supply Test Data

The supply voltages were measured at the microcontroller module power connectors with applied system power. With all stepper motors off, the 12 V and 5 V supplies measured 12.070 V and 5.028 V, respectively. With the inductor motor on, the 12 V and 5 V supplies measured 11.940 V and 5.028 V, respectively. These voltages are still within the datasheet specifications for the 5 V and 12 V regulators [16] [17].

4. Stepper Motors
Figure 37 shows the stepper motor test setup. This test determined whether the motor produces the
torque required for variable inductor and capacitor rotation. Since the motor successfully rotated the capacitor and inductor, the required torque was less than the maximum rated motor torque of 125 oz-inch. A method to measure the actual required torque was not available.

45

Figure 37 - Stepper Motor Test Setup Block Diagram

The STK600 Development board provides power, clock signal, and programming interfaces to the microcontroller. It also provides large pin breakouts for all input and output ports allowing solderless connections. The stepper motor driver provides the required power waveforms to the stepper motor. The two motor coils, A and B, must be driven by 90 out of phase square waves. The motor drive waveforms rotate the motor one step for each rising edge, 0 V to 5 V, of a digital signal applied to the STEP input. This simplifies the microcontroller program used to control the stepper motor. The DIR input controls rotational direction; high (5 V), counterclockwise, low (0 V), clockwise. [20] Stepper motor specifications give motor current for a specified voltage. The IMS motors are rated for 2 A 3 V DC [18]. The motor can function with higher voltage at a proportionally lower current (V*I = 6 W maximum). For the test, the voltage was set to 12 V, requiring 0.5 A. When power is applied to the driver, the motor draws the same current regardless of whether it is moving or stationary. This maintains mechanical loads that rotate away from the required position. Since the variable capacitors and inductors remain stationary due to static friction, the motors can be powered down when no adjustments are required, saving power. The initial lack of clarity on this stepper motor aspect caused some confusion as to whether there was a driver malfunction or incorrect driver to motor wiring.

46

Figure 38 shows the capacitor stepper motor test setup. The motor was mounted using a makeshift setup
for testing purposes. A permanent mounting fixture was fabricated for installation in the antenna tuner. The capacitors full value range is spanned in a half revolution. At the top motor speed tested, the capacitor is actuated through its full range in less than one second.

Figure 38 - Capacitor Stepper Motor Test Setup

In Figure 38, the motor driver DC power supply leads and the STK600 USB cable are not yet connected. Two variable capacitors are attached to a common frame. Only one is required for the IMS. The stepper motor is unipolar; each coil has three leads: two outer leads and a center tap. The motor is unipolar because the power supply current does not change polarity. Positive supply voltage is connected to the center tap and the driver grounds either outer lead depending on the required winding field direction. [23] Bipolar motors have two leads for each coil. The driver reverses coil voltage polarity to change the field direction. The motor driver, while designed for bipolar motors, can drive unipolar motors if the center tap leads are not connected. [20] Figure 39 shows the unconnected white and yellow center tap motor leads.

47

Figure 39 Variable Inductor Motor Test Setup

Figure 39 shows the variable inductor drive test configuration. At the maximum motor speed setting, the
inductor travels through its full range in approximately 20 seconds. Full range traversal requires 43 shaft revolutions.

48

Figure 40 C program for stepper motor testing

Figure 40 shows the C program written for microcontroller motor testing. Comments in blue text explain the function of each line. Basic functions include motor rotation using one button (or momentary switch) and rotation direction selection using a second button. Two IF statements accomplish these two functions. The first IF statement steps the motor continuously when Button 7 is pressed. The _delay_us(x) function defines a software delay of x microseconds. The delays in the first IF statement set the motor speed. Increasing the delay decreases motor speed. The second IF statement changes the motor direction each time Button 6 is depressed. The button numbers are labeled on the STK600. Since the motor can drive the capacitor and inductor directly, gear reduction is not required. The inductor drive speed rotates the antenna tuner at slower rates than relay selected fixed inductor designs. Turning the inductor faster may increase wear, decreasing component life.
49

5. IMS Power Meter

The Impedance Matching System (IMS) requires power measurements and SWR calculation to achieve an impedance match. Uncalibrated, the IMS indicated 2:1 SWR for a matched load. Calibration requires comparison to measurement devices of known accuracy. The most accurate power meter available is the Agilent N9000A Signal Analyzer, with specified amplitude accuracy of 0.5 dB [24]. Its +30 dBm maximum input power limits usefulness for calibrating a 100 W (50 dBm) power meter. A 30 W, 30 dB attenuator allows power measurements to +44.8 dBm (30 W). Since power levels greater than 30 W could damage the attenuator and the N9000A, a different power meter was required for 30 W to 100 W calibration. Three wattmeters with 100 W ratings or greater are available: A Bird 43 analog wattmeter with a 2 MHz -30 MHz, 250 W element; a Motorola R22 0.1 to 1000 MHz Communications Service Monitor (measures up to 100 W); and a Daiwa CN-801 1.8 to 200 MHz, 2000 W analog wattmeter. These wattmeters were compared to the Agilent N9000A spectrum analyzer in power measurements up to 30 W in Table 10. The 30 dB attenuator was connected to the N9000A RF input for protection.
Transmitter Agilent Motorola R22 Power N9000A Bird Bird & Spec. Communications Motorola & Daiwa Daiwa & Setting (0 to Spec. An., N9000 A Spec. Wattmeter, Bird, An, dB Service Monitor, Motorola R22, Spec. An. Db Wattmeter, Daiwa, Spec. An. 10 scale) W An. , dBm W dBm difference W dBm difference W dBm dB diff 0 3.5 35.5 3 34.8 -0.7 3.2 35.1 -0.4 2.8 34.5 -1.0 1 5.6 37.5 5 37.0 -0.5 6.4 38.1 0.6 4 36.0 -1.5 2 9.5 39.8 10 40.0 0.2 11 40.4 0.6 7.2 38.6 -1.2 3 17.0 42.3 14 41.5 -0.8 14.9 41.7 -0.6 14 41.5 -0.8 4 25.7 44.1 25 44.0 -0.1 20.4 43.1 -1.0 21 43.2 -0.9

Table 10 - Power Meter Comparison

The Bird wattmeter was the most accurate with a maximum 0.8 dB difference from the N9000A. This unit was used for power calibration from 30 W to 100 W. The IMS power meter was calibrated using the setup shown in Figure 41 for 0 W to 30 W calibration and Figure 42 for 30 W to 100 W calibration. To calibrate the reflected power measurement, the directional coupler RF input and output ports were interchanged; RF power was applied to the output port.

50

Figure 41 - IMS 0 W to 30 W Power Calibration Setup

Figure 42 - 30 W to 100 W Power Calibration Setup using Bird 43 Wattmeter

51

Initially, the IMS forward power indication averaged 2.5 dB less than spectrum analyzer measurements. Since each consecutive value in the IMS LUT represents a 0.1 dB power increment, an offset number of 25 (25 * 0.1 dB = 2.5 dB) was added to the power_index variable in the C program as described in Chapter 6. The IMS reflected power was an average of 3.6 dB less than SA values; an offset of +36 was used. After comparing the IMS power meter to the SA, it was compared to the Bird wattmeter. The Bird wattmeter scale increments are 5 W for the 250 W element. Estimating the halfway point between increments allows 2.5 W measurement certainty. Therefore, the IMS power meter displays values within 2.5 W of the Bird wattmeter. and Table 12 show power measured by the Agilent N9000A spectrum analyzer (SA) compared to IMS measured power after calibration. The SA measured power was adjusted by 30 dB to account for the 30 dB attenuator. Since the IMS can only display whole number power values, due to LCD character limit, the values in the IMS measured power column are shown to zero decimal places. As Tables 10 and 11 show, the IMS power is a maximum of 0.66 dB off from the SA measurement.
Table 11

Forward Power Transmitter Pwr Setting IMS (0 to 10 Spec An Spec An Indicated IMS Indicated dB diff, Spec scale) Pwr, dBm Pwr, W Pwr, W Pwr, dBm An & IMS 0 5.43 3.49 3 34.77 -0.66 1 8.44 6.98 6 37.78 -0.66 2 10.3 10.72 10 40.00 -0.30 3 11.51 14.16 14 41.46 -0.05 4 14.22 26.42 27 44.31 0.09
Table 11 - IMS Forward Power Calibration

Reflected Power Transmitter Pwr Setting IMS (0 to 10 Spec An Spec An Indicated IMS Indicated dB diff, Spec scale) Pwr, dBm Pwr, W Pwr, W Pwr, dBm An & IMS 0 5.4 3.47 3 34.77 -0.63 1 8.72 7.45 7 38.45 -0.27 2 10.61 11.51 11 40.41 -0.20 3 11.91 15.52 15 41.76 -0.15 4 13.87 24.38 25 43.98 0.11
Table 12 - IMS Reflected Power Calibration

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Table 13 compares SWR values measured using the Anritsu vector network analyzer and the IMS SWR meter. SWR Measurement: IMS versus Anritsu Network Analyzer Anritsu MS4622B VNA IMS SWR Meter 1.08 1.06 2.00 1.94 3.02 3.08 4.01 4.12 5.01 5.25 24.7 24
Table 13 - IMS SWR Meter Comparison to VNA

6. Matching Network
To test automatic matching ability, a test of five trials was conducted for 8 different frequencies using the following settings: The test was performed using a 50 resistive dummy load and 4:1 balun at the impedance matching system antenna connector. Figure 43 shows S11 for the dummy load and balun combination from 10 MHz to 30 MHz.

53

Figure 43 - S11 for 50 load and 4:1 Balun.

shows results for all test trials. The transmitter power was set at 10 W. SWR was measured using the IMS internal SWR meter.
Table 14 Frequency, MHz 3.500 7.100 10.125 14.250 18.127 21.200 24.930 28.850 Trial 1 1.46 1.04 1.43 1.24 1.27 1.43 1.43 1.19 SWR results for IMS Dummy Load Matching Ability Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 1.35 1.40 1.40 1.04 1.43 1.29 1.35 1.19 1.29 1.29 1.35 1.32 1.35 1.22 1.15 1.22 1.10 1.22 1.29 1.43 1.15 1.19 1.24 1.32 Trial 5 1.46 1.15 1.19 1.40 1.24 1.29 1.17 1.24

Table 14 - Results of IMS match testing into dummy load

As shown in Table 14, the system provided SWR values of less than 1.5:1 for 100% of the trials at all frequencies. The IMS was then tested for dipole antenna matching ability. The dipole used for testing utilizes the Cal Poly Amateur Radio Club antenna tower for the dipole center support approximately
54

40 ft above ground. The dipole ends are tied off using nylon rope to points on the EE building roof and are approximately 25 ft above the ground. Figure 44 shows the dipole location.

Figure 44 - Dipole Antenna Location

The dipole is connected to the IMS using 90 ft of 450 balanced transmission line. Balanced transmission line is available with 300 , 450 , and 600 characteristic impedance and 450 line was an arbitrary choice. The dipole length was originally 140 ft but was reduced to 120 ft in an attempt to reduce resistance and reactance in the 14 MHz Amateur radio band. This is the most heavily used band during daylight hours. The IMS requirement was ability to match a dipole for all HF frequencies above its half-wave resonant frequency. Under this requirement, antenna length adjustment should not be necessary. Testing determined that this requirement would not be attainable with the system as designed. Operation on 14 MHz was desired so an attempt was made to adjust the antenna length to allow matching in this band. Figure 45 compares the dipole impedance for 120 ft and 140 ft lengths. The length adjustment lowered the 14 MHz resistance and reactance.

55

120 ft & 140 ft Dipole Impedance

2000 120 ft Resistance 120 ft Reactance 140 ft Resistance 1500 140 ft Reactance

Resistance or Reactance,

1000

500

-500

-1000 10 12 14 16 18 20 Frequency, MHz Figure 45 120 ft & 140 ft Dipole Impedance 22 24 26 28 30

Figure 46 shows the Smith chart plot of the 120 ft dipole impedance measured with an HP8753A VNA. The figure shows impedance mostly inside the r = 1 circle. Impedance outside the r = 1 circle is mostly capacitive allowing use of the Series C Shunt L matching circuit. From 7.3 to 8 MHz, the impedance is outside r = 1 and inductive, requiring the Shunt L Series C circuit.

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Figure 46 120 ft Dipole S11

Figure 47 shows the 120 ft dipole impedance from 3 30 MHz.

57

120 ft Dipole Impedance

1500 Resistance or Reactance, 1000 500 0 -500 -1000 3 8 13 18 Frequency, MHz Figure 47 120 ft Dipole Impedance, 3 30 MHz 23 28 Resistance, Reactance,

To find the IMS matching capability range, the operating frequency was set to several frequencies within all Amateur Radio bands from 3 30 MHz, shown in Table 6. Automatic tuning was attempted on each frequency. If the IMS achieved a match of <1.5 SWR, the dipole impedance for that frequency was marked with an X on the Smith Chart of Figure 47. A green border encloses the matching capability impedance range.

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Figure 48 - Smith Chart Plot of IMS Matching Capability

59

Commercial automatic tuner manufacturers give tuning range specifications either in maximum SWR matching capability or impedance magnitude,| Z|, range. Equation (23) yields impedance magnitude from complex impedance, R+jX. | |

Commercial automatic tuners have SWR matching ranges from 3:1 to 32:1. Impedance magnitude matching range is 4 1600 [1] [2] [3] [25]. The IMS matching range is 26:1 SWR and 40-520 impedance magnitude. Since the IMS is not capable of measuring load impedance, it cannot determine the required L network configuration. The matching network switch was designed with the assumption that the IMS can match any possible load. Since that is not possible, automatic switch actuation is not enabled. If enabled, the system could fail at a matching attempt for a load impedance inside the r = 1 circle and attempt to find a match using the other network configuration, which would also fail. The tuning cycle takes approximately 100 seconds to reach the failed attempt. With automatic switching enabled, the cycle becomes 200 seconds.

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Chapter 8. Conclusion
The IMS met all but one requirement specified in Table 2. It cannot match a 140 ft dipole for all frequencies between 3.5 to 30 MHz. The antenna impedance for a given frequency must fall within the range shown in Figure 48. The minimum SWR matching technique does not work for all possible load impedances since this method does not move the impedance to the r = 1 circle with subsequent capacitance adjustment to obtain the match. In Figure 48, for cases where the capacitor reactance is set ~ 0, adjusting inductance for minimum SWR places the source side impedance on x = 0 line. With x = 0, adjusting capacitance moves the impedance along constant r circle, keeping resistance constant and changing reactance. For this case, the impedance can never reach = 0. The inductor must be set so the impedance approaches the r = 1 circle. The L network as constructed is capable of providing matching on all frequencies if manually tuned by trial and error. Suggested improvements include operating frequency and complex load impedance measurement. With these abilities, the tuner could attain an impedance match with only two motor adjustments. It would adjust the required element to reach the r = 1 or g = 1 circle by measuring the resistance and stopping where it equals 50 , then adjust the other element to reach the match. At 40 to 100 seconds, the IMS tuning method is slow compared to commercial tuners which work in less than 15 seconds [25]. This requires the lowest possible transmitter power of 3 W to minimize amplifier heating from reflected power. The IMS does allow dipole use over a wider frequency range than otherwise possible making it a useful device for HF radio operation. Table 15 compares IMS specifications to commercial tuners.

IMS vs. Commercial Antenna Tuner Specifications Commercial Tuners [1] [2] [3] [25] Maximum SWR Impedance Magnitude Range Tuning Time 3:1 to 100:1 4 1600 0.5 15 seconds IMS 26:1 40 520 40 100 seconds

Table 15 - IMS vs. Commercial Antenna Tuner Specifications

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Chapter 9. Bibliography
[1] LDG Electronics, "LDG Electronics Autotuner User Selection Chart," 24 Jan. 2012. [Online]. Available: http://www.ldgelectronics.com/assets/documents/LDGComparison.pdf. [Accessed 24 Aug. 2012]. PALSTAR INC., "HF-AUTO RF Network Technical Manual," 15 Apr. 2012. [Online]. Available: http://www.palstar.com/manual_hf-auto-1.0.pdf. [Accessed 24 Aug. 2012]. Yaesu , "FC-30 Automatic Antenna Tuner Installation Instructions," 22 Sept. 2003. [Online]. Available: http://www.yaesu.com/downloadFile.cfm?FileID=3161&FileCatID=158&FileName=FC %2D30.pdf&FileContentType=application%2Fpdf. [Accessed 24 Aug. 2012]. The American Radio Relay League, Inc., The ARRL Antenna Book for Radio Communications, 22nd ed., H. W. Silver, Ed., Newington, CT: The American Radio Relay League, Inc., 2011. "Icom IC-725 HF Transceiver for Sale," [Online]. Available: http://rigradio.net/2008/12/icom-ic-725-hf-transceiver-for-sale.html. [Accessed 7 Nov. 2011]. Icom Inc., "Icom IC-706MkIIG HF/VHF/UHF All Mode Transceiver Instruction Manual," [Online]. Available: http://www.icomamerica.com/en/downloads/DownloadDocument.aspx?Document=16. [Accessed 17 Aug. 2012]. The American Radio Relay League, Inc., The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications 2012, 89th ed., H. W. Silver, Ed., Newington, CT: The American Radio Relay League, Inc., 2011. R. M. Ford and C. S. Coulston, Design for Electrical and Computer Engineers, Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2007. The American Radio Relay League, Inc., The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications 2000, 77th ed., R. D. Straw, Ed., Newington, CT: The American Radio Relay League, Inc., 1999.

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10] Analog Devices, "AD8307 Data Sheet Rev D," [Online]. Available: http://www.analog.com/static/imported-files/data_sheets/AD8307.pdf. [Accessed 16
62

August 2012]. [11] W. T. Kaune, "A Modern Directional Power/SWR Meter," QST Magazine, pp. 39-41, Jan. 2011. [12] Mini-Circuits, "Directional Couplers Coaxial 6 to 30 dB Coupling 5 kHz to 2000 MHz," Mini-Circuits, 18 Aug. 2012. [Online]. Available: http://www.minicircuits.com/products/dc_coax_6_30.shtml. [Accessed 18 Aug. 2012]. [13] Werlatone, Inc., "Broadband RF Components Dual, Uni & Bi Directional High Power RF Couplers, Werlatone:," Werlatone, Inc., 18 Aug. 2012. [Online]. Available: http://www.werlatone.com/directional-couplers. [Accessed 18 Aug. 2012]. [14] Atmel Corporation, "ATmega32(L) 8 Bit AVR Microcontroller Datasheet," 2011. [Online]. Available: http://atmel.com/dyn/resources/prod_documents/doc2503.pdf. [Accessed 19 Aug. 2012]. [15] XIAMEN OCULAR, "GDM1602K Specifications of LCD Module," 5 Dec. 2012. [Online]. Available: http://www.sparkfun.com/datasheets/LCD/GDM1602KExtended.pdf. [Accessed 25 Aug. 2012]. [16] ST Microelectronics, "L78Sxx 2A Positive Voltage Regulators," May 2012. [Online]. Available: http://www.st.com/internet/com/TECHNICAL_RESOURCES/TECHNICAL_LITERATU RE/DATASHEET/CD00000449.pdf. [Accessed 20 Aug. 2012]. [17] Texas Instruments, "TL780 SERIES POSITIVE-VOLTAGE REGULATORS," 15 Jul. 2011. [Online]. Available: www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/tl780-05.pdf. [Accessed 20 Aug. 2012]. [18] Sparkfun Electronics, "Stepper Motor - 125 oz.in (200 steps/rev)," 29 Aug. 2012. [Online]. Available: https://www.sparkfun.com/products/10847. [Accessed 29 Aug. 2012]. [19] Sparkfun Electronics, "Stepper Motor - 29 oz.in (200 steps/rev, Threaded Shaft)," 29 Aug. 2012. [Online]. Available: https://www.sparkfun.com/products/10848. [Accessed 29 Aug. 2012]. [20] B. Schmalz, "Big Easy Driver User Manual," 8 May 2011. [Online]. Available: http://www.schmalzhaus.com/BigEasyDriver/BigEasyDriver_UserManal.pdf. [Accessed 20 Aug. 2012]. [21] General Electric, "MastrII Maintenance Manual," [Online]. Available:

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http://www.repeater-builder.com/ge/lbi-library/lbi-4806e.pdf. [Accessed 20 Aug. 2012]. [22] F. REIMERS, "Far Circuits," 9 Aug. 2012. [Online]. Available: http://www.farcircuits.net/. [Accessed 22 Aug. 2012]. [23] D. W. Jones, "Control of Stepping Motors, A Tutorial," 1998. [Online]. Available: http://homepage.cs.uiowa.edu/~jones/step/. [Accessed 3 Aug. 2012]. [24] Agilent Technologies, "N9000A CXA X-Series Signal Analyzer Datasheet," 6 Jan. 2012. [Online]. Available: http://cp.literature.agilent.com/litweb/pdf/5990-4327EN.pdf. [Accessed 22 Aug. 2012]. [25] MFJ Enterprises, Inc, "MFJ-926B Remote Auto Tuner," 27 Aug. 2012. [Online]. Available: http://www.mfjenterprises.com/Product.php?productid=MFJ-926B. [Accessed 27 Aug. 2012]. [26] E. Williams, "Environmental impacts in the production of personal computers," in Computers and the Environment: Understanding and Managing Their Impacts, Boston, Kluwer Academic, 2003, pp. 41-72. [27] United Nations University, Institute for Sustainability & Peace (UNU-ISP) , "StEP Solving the E-Waste Problem," 2011. [Online]. Available: http://www.stepinitiative.org/initiative/what-is-e-waste.php. [Accessed 31 Oct. 2011]. [28] IEEE, "IEEE Code of Ethics," 2011. [Online]. Available: http://www.ieee.org/about/corporate/governance/p7-8.html. [Accessed 28 Nov. 2011]. [29] J. R. Hallas, The ARRL Guide to Antenna Tuners, 1 ed., Newington, CT: The American Radio Relay League, Inc., 2010. [30] M. Iskander, Electromagnetic Fields and Waves, Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, Inc., 2000. [31] J. R. Hallas, "A New Generation of Balanced Antenna Tuners," QST Magazine, pp. 60-66, Sept. 2004. [32] MFJ Enterprises Inc., "MFJ-974HB Balanced Line Tuner Instruction Manual," 2011. [Online]. Available: http://www.mfjenterprises.com/pdffiles/MFJ-974HB.pdf. [Accessed 3 Dec. 2011].

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Chapter 10. Appendices

Appendix A: Senior Project Analysis
Project Title: 1.8 to 30 MHz Automatic Balanced Transmission Line Antenna Impedance Matching System Students Name: William Blodgett Students Signature:

Advisors Name: Professor Dean Arakaki

1. Summary of Functional Requirements The Impedance Matching System (IMS) connects in line with the transmission line between a radio transmitter and the antenna. It allows antenna use over a wider bandwidth than otherwise possible. It senses reflected power due to transmitter-antenna impedance mismatch and varies its internal impedance to achieve a match, thereby minimizing reflected power.

2. Primary Constraints One challenge is minimizing project cost. There are not many part sources due to the parts specialized nature such as high voltage variable capacitors. Due to lower economy of scale, these parts are very expensive. A second challenge is the overall project complexity and required knowledge in subject areas beyond the Cal Poly EE curriculum. Subject areas include transmission line power measurement and stepper motor control systems. Fortunately, the curriculum provided enough basic knowledge to begin design and development.

3. Economic The IMS required approximately 300 man-hours to design and build. The project also resulted in increased activity of more people than simply the person designing and building it. The parts require manufacturing, sales, and delivery. Others are involved in the production of raw
65

materials required to make the parts such as metals, silicon, and plastic, which are also natural capital. The IMS benefits people who use it by facilitating their radio communications efforts. The project involved money exchange between the project owner, parts distributers, and manufacturers. If the project will be marketed to consumers, money exchange will be involved there as well. The project required various manufactured capital items such as tools, electronic test equipment, vehicles for transportation, and computers. A vector network analyzer is the most useful tool for testing the IMS. A VNA costs $10,000 or more. Fortunately, the university makes them available for student use. A 100 W HF transceiver, typically around $1000, was used for operational testing. An accurate inline power meter ($150) was required for IMS internal power meter calibration. All development costs accrued between September 2011 and May 2012. Manufacturing costs will accrue after this timeframe. The project owner pays these costs. See Appendix B for a Gantt chart detailing the project schedule and Appendix C for a detailed listing of parts and development costs. Since the IMS is an electronic device with moving parts, it will not continue to work indefinitely. Based on personal experience, the IMS is estimated to operate from 2 to 20 years before failure. This depends on many variables, the most important; how often moving parts operate. The IMS requires some periodic user maintenance, such as lubricating moving parts. Even after the IMS is no longer sold to consumers, the manufacturer should maintain support and replacement parts for the product.

4. If manufactured on a commercial basis: An order of magnitude estimate for unit sales per year is 1000 based on 2 million licensed amateur radio operators worldwide. However, a small percentage would likely find the IMS affordable and would choose to buy it. As detailed in Appendix C, the cost estimate for a prototype is $716 for parts and required approximately 300 hours to develop. At $25/hour labor, the total development cost is $8216. With the working prototype developed, the time to assemble one unit could decrease to five hours. Assuming a fixed parts cost of $716, the estimated total manufacturing cost for one unit is $841 based on $25 labor cost. Similar antenna tuner products sell for $1500. If the IMS sells for this price, the profit is $659 per unit. The estimated gross profit per year is $659 x 1000 = $659,000. Subtracting development cost results in $650,784. This does not include all other business costs such as
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taxes, insurance, employing additional workers, property, and other expenses. A true profit estimate requires a more detailed analysis far beyond the scope of this report. The primary operating cost for the IMS is electricity. A rough estimate of the average IMS power consumption is 15 W. The California Public Utilities Commission website (http://www.cpuc.ca.gov) shows the current average electricity rate at $0.16/kWh. The electricity cost for operating the IMS is approximately 16 cents for 67 hours of operation.

5. Environmental Manufacturing the IMS requires natural resources such as metals, silicon, and petroleum products such as plastic. Gathering these resources requires burning fuel, which contributes to air pollution. Mining and drilling for oil can also cause water pollution and disturb natural habitats for many species. An example is the 2010 BP Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill. Manufacturing and use of the IMS also requires electricity. Generating electricity creates air pollution and requires mining and drilling for fuel sources. As detailed in the book Computers and the Environment: Understanding and Managing Their Impacts, a microchip, for example, requires 2.9 kWh of electricity and 970 grams of fossil fuel to produce. [26] 6. Manufacturability Material expenses for IMS construction could be less if more of the parts, such as variable capacitors, were built in-house instead of ordered from a third party. However, building a variable capacitor from metal stock could require a significant initial investment in tools such as a stamp press to cut metal plates. If all parts including printed circuit boards are sourced from third parties, manufacturing would only involve simple soldering and machining using consumer level tools.

7. Sustainability Initially, recyclable parts and materials may not be selected. This contributes to unsustainable consumption of raw material resources. Manufacturing could make use of innovative techniques to support sustainability. The challenge is that there are not many practices fully in place to make electronic devices fully recyclable. E-waste programs are ubiquitous to keep electronics out of landfills, but full recycling may require several years. According to the United Nations initiative, Solving the E-waste Problem (http://www.step-initiative.org/):

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Because of this complex composition of valuable and hazardous substances, specialized, often high-tech methods are required to process e-waste in ways that maximize resource recovery and minimize potential harm to humans or the environment. Unfortunately, the use of these specialized methods is rare [27] Based on this, the IMS may not be 100% recyclable and sustainable until the electronics industry as a whole makes further progress toward full sustainability.

8. Ethical The IEEE Code of Ethics [28], the Golden Rule, and Kants Categorical Imperative provide guidance in considering ethical implications involving the IMS project. One possible unethical use of the IMS involves unlicensed or otherwise unlawful radio transmissions. There have been many cases of individuals deliberately engaging in malicious activities involving radio equipment. For example, people have deliberately used radio equipment to cause harmful interference or jam law abiding radio users. Unfortunately, there are no laws in place to stop such individuals from gaining possession of radio equipment. Fortunately, these individuals are often caught using radio direction finding equipment. Malicious radio jamming clearly violates the Golden Rule and, more universally speaking, the Categorical Imperative. If all radio operators jammed everyone else on the radio, then radio would not be a useful communications tool. Jamming also violates Rules 1 and 9 of the IEEE Code of Ethics. It is injurious to others and can endanger safety, health, and welfare of the public by interfering with public safety communications. [28] An ethical implication involving IMS design is intellectual property use. Since the IMS design incorporates unoriginal circuitry, in actuality, it will never be sold for profit since it would be unethical to profit from others intellectual property without their consent. The Golden Rule applies since most people would not choose to allow others to profit from their ideas. Rule 7 of the IEEE Code of Ethics says to credit properly the contributions of others. [28] A positive ethical IMS aspect is its utility for emergency and international communications. As described in the Social and Political Section, it could facilitate disaster communications and communications across borders, which support IEEE Code of Ethics Rule 1 and the Golden Rule. Last, but not least, in accordance with IEEE Code of Ethics Rules 1 and 9 and the Golden Rule, the chief consideration in the IMS design will be safety. Hazards such as fire and electric shock will be mitigated to the fullest extent practical.

68

 9. Health and Safety IMS manufacture could potentially expose workers to hazardous materials such as solder fumes, particulate matter from machining, and chemical solvents used for removing solder flux. Proper ventilation and appropriate personal protective equipment such as safety goggles and dust masks help mitigate these hazards. Using the IMS poses some electrical hazards. It requires 120 V AC household power, which is lethal. The closed chassis protects users from this hazard provided that they do not open the chassis while the IMS is energized. The radio frequency energy from a 100 W transmitter also poses a hazard. RF energy is known to cause burns. The exposed balanced transmission line terminals on the exterior of the chassis carry RF energy at high voltage. The user and others must avoid touching them during transmitter operation.

10. Social and Political The IMS could greatly benefit disaster affected communities. Major disasters often damage, overload, or otherwise limit the public telephone network availability. This hinders relief efforts. Two-way radio often provides the most reliable communications system in such situations. If the disaster is widespread, the only way to relay communications into and out of a region may be via satellite or HF radio. The IMS can facilitate disaster communications by allowing a user to set up one simple wire antenna and operate on multiple frequency bands. In everyday Amateur Radio use, it can facilitate international communication between operators. Open dialog between people in different countries benefits international relations because people are able to understand and relate to each other better when they talk to each other rather than blindly speculate about each other. Inequities are created because few people can afford such a device and its associated radio equipment. Also, raw materials are often produced in third world countries where workers may not profit fairly compared to the companies taking advantage of their low-cost labor.

69

 11. Development As mentioned in the Primary Constraints section, this project required advanced electrical theory beyond that taught in the Cal Poly EE curriculum. For example, the project required research into techniques and circuitry used to measure power on a transmission line. A common circuit for power measurement is a directional coupler, which provides a proportionally reduced transmission line energy sample measured using sensitive low power devices such as diodes. An additional circuit produces a DC voltage linearly proportional to forward and reflected power detected using a non-linear diode described in the ARRL Handbook [7]. Kaune [11] provides a simplified technique using an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC). Analog Devices produces a logarithmic amplifier, the AD8307, which produces a DC output voltage linearly proportional to an input radio frequency signal in dBm up to 500 MHz. These are circuits which are not included in Cal Poly EE coursework, will be very useful to the project.

70

Appendix B: Time Schedule Allocation

Figure 49 shows the overall IMS project schedule presented in Gantt chart form.
William Blodget

Impedance Matching System Project Plan

May Mar Nov Aug Dec Apr Sep Feb Oct Jun Jan Jul

EE460 Senior Project Proposal Design & Build Design Consideration Parts Research & Ordering Directional Coupler Construction Power Sensor Construction Power Supply Construction Microcontroller Module Construction Chassis Contruction Write Microcontroller C Program System Integration and Testing Final Testing Report Write and Submit Revised Proposal Write First Draft of Final Report Advisor Review Advisor Comments & Finalize Report Submit for Final Advisor Grading

Start End days 9/18 12/5 78 9/18 12/5 78 12/6 12/6 12/6 2/13 4/10 4/23 5/7 4/10 6/10 6/10 8/10 6/1 6/1 7/22 8/21 8/29 8/31 8/17 4/10 4/10 2/20 4/23 5/7 5/31 5/31 8/10 8/10 8/17 8/31 6/22 8/21 8/29 8/31 8/31 255 126 126 7 13 14 24 51 61 61 7 91 21 30 8 2 0

Figure 49 - IMS Project Gantt Chart

9/19 9/26 10/1 10/3 10/10 10/17 10/24 10/31 11/1 11/7 11/14 11/21 11/28 12/1 12/5 12/12 12/19 12/26 1/1 1/2 1/9 1/16 1/23 1/30 2/1 2/6 2/13 2/20 2/27 3/1 3/5 3/12 3/19 3/26 4/1 4/2 4/9 4/16 4/23 4/30 5/1 5/7 5/14 5/21 5/28 6/1 6/4 6/11 6/18 6/25 7/1 7/2 7/9 7/16 7/23 7/30 8/1 8/6 8/13 8/20 8/27 8/31

Impedance Matching System Design and Construction Schedule

71

Appendix C: Parts List and Costs

Part name 19" Rack metal enclosure 1/8" Aluminum Sheet Metal , Cut to size ROLLER INDUCTER, 33uH 700 pF Variable Capacitor Insulator, ceramic feedthrough ATmega32 microcontroller, 40 PDIP 40 pin DIP IC Socket PC Board, 2-3/4x3-1/16 Crystal Oscillator kit (used 16 MHz, Radial Lead) resistor, axial lead, 10k , 1/4W, 5% resistor, axial lead, 330, 1/4W, 5% capacitor, ceramic, 22 pF, radial lead capacitor, ceramic, 100 nF, radial lead ferrite beads, for #20 AWG wire, 12 pack header pins, breakaway, male, 2x40, 0.1" header pins, breakaway, male, 1x40, 0.1" Stepper Motor Driver Heatsink, for Stepper Motor Driver IC, 5 pack Stepper Motor, 2 Amp Stepper Motor, 700 mA, linear actuator 16x2 Character LCD Display potentiometer, 10k diode, silicon, rectifier, 1N4001 DB-15 Male Connector DB-15 Female Connector DB-25 Male Connector DB-25 Female Connector DB-15 Connector Metal Hood Power Transformer, 2 Amp, 120V/25.2CT Voltage Regulator, 5 V, 1.5 A Fixed, TL780-05 Voltage Regulator, 12 V, 2 A Fixed, L78S12 Capacitor, 4700 uF, 50 V Rectifier, Bridge, 4 A, 400V PIV, TL404G Fuse, 1 Amp, glass, 5 pack plug, RCA phono, male, 4 pack PC Board, 1-27/32x2-27/32" capacitor, ceramic, 1 nF, radial lead capacitor, ceramic, 220 nF, radial lead Switch, pusbutton, normally open, 4 pack AD8307 surface mount log amp 100 uH RF Choke Inductor Resistor, SMT, 52.3, 1W, 1%, 2512 Size PCB, RF Power Sensor Capacitors, SMT, kit for RF Sensor BNC female PCB connector AWG#14 Magnet Wire 12 gauge Teflon tubing 8"x10" x 0.93" Polycarbonate Sheet Mix 31 2.4 Inch Toroid bolt, nylon, 5/16" x 2" Nut, nylon, 5/16" Washer, nylon, 5/16" Spacer, nylon, 5/16" Impedance Matching System Bill of Materials Purpose Manufacurer Source chassis Salvaged Front, rear, bottom Panels McCarthy Steel matching network MFJ MFJ matching network Salvaged antenna terminals DX Engineering DX Engineering System Control Atmel Digikey Microcontroller mounting Sparkfun Sparkfun Microcontroller mounting Radio Shack Radio Shack Microcontroller Clock Sparkfun Sparkfun MCU reset Pull Up Digikey MCU reset current limit Digikey Microcontroller Clock TDK Digikey MCU & Power Supply TDK Digikey Microcontroller RFI Suppr. Philmore Fry's Electronics Control Unit Molex Mouser Control Unit Sparkfun matching network control Sparkfun Sparkfun matching network control Sparkfun Sparkfun matching network control Sparkfun Sparkfun matching network control Sparkfun Sparkfun System Status Display Sparkfun Sparkfun LCD Contrast Control NTE Fry's Electronics LCD Backlight Volt. Regul. Radio Shack Radio Shack control unit Radio Shack control unit Radio Shack control unit Radio Shack control unit Radio Shack control unit Radio Shack Power Supply Radio Shack Power Supply TI Mouser Power Supply ST Mouser Power Supply Nichicon Mouser Power Supply HSC Power Supply Buss Home Depot Power Supply Radio Shack Radio Shack Power Supply Radio Shack Radio Shack Power Supply TDK Digikey Power Supply TDK Digikey control Radio Shack Radio Shack RF Power Sensor Analog Devices Digikey RF Power Sensor Mouser RF Power Sensor Digikey RF Power Sensor Far Circuits Far Circuits RF Power Sensor Far Circuits Far Circuits RF Power Sensor TE Connectivity Digikey balun Amidon Amidon balun Amidon Amidon balun Home Depot balun KF7P KF7P.com balun Ace Hardware balun Ace Hardware balun Ace Hardware balun Ace Hardware Part Number Quantity 1 1 404-1052 1 1 DXE-9551 2 ATMEGA32-16PU 1 PRT-07944 1 276-158 1 COM-09994 1 CF14JT10K0 1 CF14JT330R 1 FK18C0G1H220J 2 FK11C0G1H104J 8 86-157 1 10-89-7801 1 PRT-00116 1 ROB-10735 3 PRT-10746 1 ROB-10847 2 ROB-10848 1 LCD-00255 1 500E-0201 1 276-1101 1 1 1 1 1 276-1508 1 273-1512B 1 1 1 UVZ1H472MRD 2 1 1 274-0319 1 276-149 1 FK14C0G2E102J 1 FK28X5R1E224K 1 275-1547 1 AD8307ARZ-ND 2 2 PT52.3AFCT-ND 2 1 1 1-1634612-0 2 20 20 1 1 1 1 2 3 Each $ $ 54.51 $ 59.00 $ 20.00 $ 11.95 $ 8.80 $ 0.95 $ 3.19 $ 4.95 $ 0.08 $ 0.08 $ 0.20 $ 0.76 $ 0.99 $ 6.12 $ 1.50 $ 22.95 $ 7.95 $ 24.95 $ 29.95 $ 13.95 $ 2.99 $ 1.29 $ 2.29 $ 2.29 $ 2.29 $ 2.29 $ 3.19 $ 12.99 $ 0.77 $ 0.78 $ 1.78 $ 1.90 $ 1.85 $ 3.19 $ 2.19 $ 0.29 $ 0.34 $ 3.69 $ 13.16 $ 0.18 $ 0.94 $ 25.00 $ 3.00 $ 2.62 $ 0.40 $ 0.70 $ 3.98 $ 7.95 $ 0.50 $ 0.50 $ 0.25 $ 0.25 Extended $ $ 54.51 $ 59.00 $ 20.00 $ 23.90 $ 8.80 $ 0.95 $ 3.19 $ 4.95 $ 0.08 $ 0.08 $ 0.40 $ 6.08 $ 0.99 $ 6.12 $ 1.50 $ 68.85 $ 7.95 $ 49.90 $ 29.95 $ 13.95 $ 2.99 $ 1.29 $ 2.29 $ 2.29 $ 2.29 $ 2.29 $ 3.19 $ 12.99 $ 0.77 $ 0.78 $ 3.56 $ 1.90 $ 1.85 $ 3.19 $ 2.19 $ 0.29 $ 0.34 $ 3.69 $ 26.32 $ 0.36 $ 1.88 $ 25.00 $ 3.00 $ 5.24 $ 8.00 $ 14.00 $ 3.98 $ 7.95 $ 0.50 $ 0.50 $ 0.50 $ 0.75

Table 16 - Antenna Impedance Matching System Bill of Materials (Page 1 of 2)

72

Part name PL-259 Male UHF Coaxial Connector Reducer, PL-259 for RG-58/U RG-58 Coaxial Cable BNC Male Clamp Connector 20 dB Attenuator RG-8 Coaxial Cable SO-239 Chassis Mount Connector BNC Female Chassis Mount Conn. Double Sided Copper Clad PCB (6"x9") Enamel Wire AWG# 26 0.25lb spool FT-82-67 ferrite torriod Aluminum Box 2-56 Machine Screws, assorted length, 42 pack 2-56 Hex Nuts, 40 pack 4-40 Machine Screws , assorted length, 42 pack 4-40 Hex Nuts, 31 pack 6-32 Machine Screws 6-32 Machine Nuts Washers, flat, assorted Standoff, aluminum, 4-40 threaded, 3/8", 10 pack #30 Wrapping Wire SPST Pushbutton Switch, 4 pack Threaded Rod, #10-24, 3 foot long #10-24 Nuts, 100 Pack #10 Flat Washers, 100 Pack Screws, Pan-Head Sheet-Metal, 35 pack Rubber Grommets, Assorted, 31-Pack Polypropylene Cable Clamps, 18-Pack Copper Tape, 2" x 50 ft rod, round, aluminum, 1/8" x 12" tube, round, aluminum, 1/4"x0.035"x12" standoff, nylon, 4-40 threaded, 1" long Screw, 4-40 x 0.5", Nylon Washer, flat, 4-40, Nylon angle stock, aluminum, 0.5"x0.75"x36" SO-239 to SO-239 Chassis feedthrough connector Screw-Cap Panel-Mount Fuse Holder Plug, male, power, IEC C14 Switch, DPST tube, round, aluminum, 3/8"x0.049"x12" bumper, rubber, screw in, 4 pack Screw, brass, 8-32 x 2" Nut, brass, 8-32 Washer, brass, 8-32 nut, wing, 8-32

Purpose RF cabling RF cabling RF cabling RF cabling Directional Coupler Directional Coupler Directional Coupler Directional Coupler Directional Coupler directional coupler directional coupler RF Sheilding chassis chassis chassis chassis chassis chassis chassis control unit & pwr supply control unit Front Panel Buttons chassis chassis chassis chassis wire feedthrough front panel cable RF Sheilding RF switch RF switch RF switch RF switch RF switch mounting brackets Rear Panel RF connector Rear Panel Fuse Rear Panel AC Plug Rear Panel power switch motor shaft coupler chassis feet Antenna & GND terminals Antenna & GND terminals Antenna & GND terminals Antenna & GND terminals

Manufacurer

Belden RF Industries Mini-Circuits Belden RF Parts Injectorall Amidon Amidon Radio Shack Radio Shack Radio Shack Radio Shack Radio Shack Radio Shack Radio Shack Radio Shack Radio Shack Radio Shack

Radio Shack Radio Shack Radio Shack

Pan Radio Shack salvaged salvaged

Source RF Parts RF Parts RF Parts RF Parts Mini-Circuits RF Parts Newhamstore RF Parts Digikey Amidon Amidon Radio Shack Radio Shack Radio Shack Radio Shack Radio Shack Radio Shack Radio Shack Radio Shack Sparkfun Radio Shack Radio Shack Ace Hardware Ace Hardware Ace Hardware Radio Shack Radio Shack Radio Shack Sparkfun Ace Hardware Ace Hardware Ace Hardware Ace Hardware Ace Hardware Ace Hardware Fry's Electronics Radio Shack

Part Number UG175/U-S RFB-1100-2ST HAT-20

RFB-1115 PC53-ND

270-238 64-3010 64-3017 64-3011 64-3018 64-3012 64-3019 64-3022 PRT-10739 278-502 275-1547

64-3016 64-3025 64-3028 PRT-11081

UHF-7625P 270-367

Ace Hardware Ace Hardware Ace Hardware Ace Hardware Ace Hardware Ace Hardware

Quantity 3 3 20 4 2 1 2 4 1 1 2 3 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 5 15 3

Each $ 1.95 $ 0.55 $ 0.35 $ 3.30 $ 9.95 $ 2.15 $ 1.65 $ 3.55 $ 17.14 $ 7.95 $ 1.20 $ 3.19 $ 2.19 $ 2.19 $ 2.19 $ 2.19 $ 2.19 $ 2.19 $ 2.19 $ 2.95 $ 4.99 $ 3.69 $ 4.59 $ 7.95 $ 4.49 $ 2.19 $ 2.29 $ 2.19 $ 14.95 $ 1.29 $ 2.49 $ 0.10 $ 0.10 $ 0.05 $ 4.99 $ 2.29 $ 2.99 $ $ $ 3.99 $ 2.99 $ 0.25 $ 0.25 $ 0.10 $ 0.25 total

Extended $ 5.85 $ 1.65 $ 7.00 $ 13.20 $ 19.90 $ 2.15 $ 3.30 $ 14.20 $ 17.14 $ 7.95 $ 2.40 $ 9.57 $ 4.38 $ 2.19 $ 4.38 $ 4.38 $ 2.19 $ 2.19 $ 4.38 $ 2.95 $ 4.99 $ 3.69 $ 9.18 $ 7.95 $ 4.49 $ 2.19 $ 2.29 $ 2.19 $ 14.95 $ 1.29 $ 2.49 $ 0.10 $ 0.10 $ 0.10 $ 4.99 $ 2.29 $ 2.99 $ $ $ 3.99 $ 2.99 $ 0.75 $ 1.25 $ 1.50 $ 0.75 $ 716.16

Table 17 - Antenna Impedance Matching System Bill of Materials (Page 2 of 2)

73

Appendix D: Schematics
1. DC Power Supply

74

2. Matching Network

75

3. Stepper Motors

76

4. Control Unit

77

5. Directional Coupler

78

6. RF Power Sensors

79

7. Front Panel

80

Appendix E: Software
See Next Page

81

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84

/* * -------------------------------------------------------------------* PROGRAM DESCRIPTION * -------------------------------------------------------------------* Company: Cal Poly State University * Engineer: William Blodgett, * Create Date: 6/7/2012 5:12:49 PM * Description: This program runs in an ATmega32 MCU controlling an * automatic antenna impedance matching system, also known as an * antenna tuner. The matching network is series capacitor, shunt * inductor L network optimized for 3.5 to 30 MHz operation. The * inductor and capacitor are continuously variable and actuated * by stepper motors. The shunt inductor is switchable from the load * side to the source side providing wider impedance matching range. * The switch is thrown by a third linear actuator stepper motor. * The system uses a directional coupler and RF power * sensors for forward and reflected power measurement. It displays * this data, along with calculated SWR, inductor position, capacitor * position on a 2 line by 16 character LCD. SWR = Standing Wave Ratio. * It is a measure of impedance mismatch severity. * Higher SWR = higher impedance mismatch. SWR of 1.0 is most desirable. * The user initiates automatic tuning by first transmitting into * the tuner and then pressing the Tune button. * The system searches through the inductance and capacitance values * to find the minimum SWR and improve impedance match. It attempts to * reduce SWR to less than 1.5:1. * * ATUsysTest1.c * */ // Define CPU Clock Frequency for delay functions #define F_CPU 16000000 // EEPROM memory #define L_EEPROM #define C_EEPROM #define Z_EEPROM locations to store L, C, and Hi/Low Z Switch Settings 10 20 30

// delay time in milliseconds for while(1) loop in main function // sets display update rate and motor speed during manual control #define MAIN_LOOP_DELAY 2 #define INDUCTOR_MAX 3500 // maximum inductor position //C library files #include <avr/io.h> #include <util/delay.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> #include <avr/eeprom.h> // // // // AVR input/output library software delay functions contains itoa function AVR variable type definitions // AVR EEPROM Read/Write Functions

/* Function Prototypes*/ // LCD Display power up sequence void LCD_Initialization (); // writes ASCII strings to LCD void Write_Message (); // clears the display void clear_display (); // Sets up ADC with required settings void Initialize_ADC0( void); // checks if button has been pressed void check_buttons(void); // sets character location on LCD void set_write_location(); // updates data on display void update_display(); uint32_t isqrt32 (uint32_t n); // integer square root function // samples fwd/refl power and calculates SWR void calculate_SWR(); // performs automatic tuning void auto_tune( void); // fine tunes inductor for minimum SWR void tune_inductor(void); // fine tunes capacitor for minimum SWR void tune_capacitor( void); // returns inductor and capacitor back to start positions void return_to_start( void); void return_inductor_to_start(); // sets L to minimum void return_capacitor_to_start(); // set C to maximum void search_inductance(); void search_capacitance(); /* Strings of text char forward[3] = char reflected[3] char SWRdisp[5] = char d_point[3] char ascii_zero[3] char Ldisp[3] char Cdisp[3] = char SLSC[6] = char SCSL[6] for display */ "F"; = "R"; "SWR"; = "."; = "0"; = "L"; = "C"; "SLSC"; "SCSL";

85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168

char Select[3]

= ">";

// this Look Up Table (LUT) avoids need for floating point math // by giving pre-calculated results of math function: // (power, in watts) = [10^((power in dBm)/10)]/1000 // The power detectors output a DC voltage proportional to their // input power in dBm. // The values in this LUT are in units of Watts * 100. // Each consecutive value is 0.1 dB change in power volatile static uint16_t Power_LUT[471] = { 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 11, 11, 11, 11, 12, 12, 12, 13, 13, 13, 13, 14, 14, 14, 15, 15, 15, 16, 16, 17, 17, 17, 18, 18, 19, 19, 19, 20, 20, 21, 21, 22, 22, 23, 23, 24, 25, 25, 26, 26, 27, 28, 28, 29, 30, 30, 31, 32, 32, 33, 34, 35, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59, 60, 62, 63, 65, 66, 68, 69, 71, 72, 74, 76, 78, 79, 81, 83, 85, 87, 89, 91, 93, 95, 98, 100, 102, 105, 107, 110, 112, 115, 117, 120, 123, 126, 129, 132, 135, 138, 141, 145, 148, 151, 155, 158, 162, 166, 170, 174, 178, 182, 186, 191, 195, 200, 204, 209, 214, 219, 224, 229, 234, 240, 245, 251, 257, 263, 269, 275, 282, 288, 295, 302, 309, 316, 324, 331, 339, 347, 355, 363, 372, 380, 389, 398, 407, 417, 427, 437, 447, 457, 468, 479, 490, 501, 513, 525, 537, 550, 562, 575, 589, 603, 617, 631, 646, 661, 676, 692, 708, 724, 741, 759, 776, 794, 813, 832, 851, 871, 891, 912, 933, 955, 977, 1000, 1023, 1047, 1072, 1096, 1122, 1148, 1175, 1202, 1230, 1259, 1288, 1318, 1349, 1380, 1413, 1445, 1479, 1514, 1549, 1585, 1622, 1660, 1698, 1738, 1778, 1820, 1862, 1905, 1950, 1995, 2042, 2089, 2138, 2188, 2239, 2291, 2344, 2399, 2455, 2512, 2570, 2630, 2692, 2754, 2818, 2884, 2951, 3020, 3090, 3162, 3236, 3311, 3388, 3467, 3548, 3631, 3715, 3802, 3890, 3981, 4074, 4169, 4266, 4365, 4467, 4571, 4677, 4786, 4898, 5012, 5129, 5248, 5370, 5495, 5623, 5754, 5888, 6026, 6166, 6310, 6457, 6607, 6761, 6918, 7079, 7244, 7413, 7586, 7762, 7943, 8128, 8318, 8511, 8710, 8913, 9120, 9333, 9550, 9772, 10000, 10233, 10471, 10715, 10965, 11220, 11482, 11749, 12023, 12303, 12589, 12882, 13183, 13490, 13804, 14125, 14454, 14791, 15136, 15488, 15849, 16218, 16596, 16982, 17378, 17783, 18197, 18621, 19055, 19498, 19953 }; /* Global Variables */ // function select: 1 = L, 2 = C, 3 = Switch, 0 = standby volatile uint8_t function_select = 0; // int value of capacitor position int16_t capacitor = 1; // int value of inductor position int16_t inductor = 1; // 0 = SLSC Z, 1 = SCSL uint8_t L_Network_Select = 1; // int value of SWR uint16_t SWR = 0; = 0; // int value of Forward Power uint32_t Forward_Power // int value of Reflected Power uint32_t Reflected_Power = 0; //counter to time system standby mode entry uint8_t standby_count = 0; // true when auto tuning is enabled uint8_t tune_flag = 0; // rts_flag = 1 if return_to_start hasn't been called uint8_t rts_flag = 0; int main( void) { // Data direction register port B set for input and output, // 1=out 0=input DDRB = 0b10000111; DDRC = 0xff; // Data direction register port C set to output DDRD = 0xff; // Data direction register port D set to output // set bits 3 to 6 high for button pull up PORTB = (PORTB | 0b01111000); // initialize Port C to disable motors EN = 1 = disable PORTC = 0b10010010; // if motor is enabled, it draws full current ~1 AMP. // Can't enable all 3 motors at once. // since power supply limit is 2 amps /* Local Variables */ // counter to time LCD update rate uint8_t display_update_count = 0; Initialize_ADC0(); LCD_Initialization (); // turn on ADC // Run LCD Initialization Function

169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252

// Read EEPROM stored values to recall positions at power off // recall inductor position inductor = eeprom_read_word((uint16_t *) L_EEPROM); // recall capacitor position capacitor = eeprom_read_word((uint16_t *) C_EEPROM); // recall Switch Position L_Network_Select = eeprom_read_byte((uint8_t *) Z_EEPROM); // L_Network_Select can only be 1 or 0 if((L_Network_Select != 1)||(L_Network_Select != 0)) L_Network_Select = 1; while(1) { // continuous loop // check for button press and perform button functions check_buttons(); // if Tune button has been pressed if(tune_flag == 1) auto_tune(); // run auto tuning function display_update_count++; // update display when display_update_count reaches 50 if (display_update_count == 50) { calculate_SWR(); // get new SWR and power values update_display(); // write new values to LCD display_update_count = 0; // set count back to zero standby_count++; // standby time > // display_update_count * standby_count * MAIN_LOOP_DELAY, ms } // puts system in standby if no buttons are // pressed for standby time if(standby_count == 100) { function_select = 0; // put in standby mode PORTC = 0b10010010; // turn off motors standby_count = 0; // reset standby counter // eeprom write functions placed here to // limit number of writes eeprom update // functions only update eeprom if stored // value doesn't match value to be written eeprom_update_word((uint16_t *) L_EEPROM, inductor); eeprom_update_word((uint16_t *) C_EEPROM, capacitor); eeprom_update_byte((uint8_t *) Z_EEPROM, L_Network_Select); } // this delay along with the display_update_count // control display refresh time // this delay also sets the motor speed during // manual control _delay_ms(MAIN_LOOP_DELAY); } return(0); } /* Function Definitions */ //LCD Initialization Function void LCD_Initialization () { _delay_ms(40); // delay for LCD power on, minimum 30 ms PORTB = (PORTB & 0b11111000);// Set Enable,RS,RW Bits to Low _delay_us(1); // Delay before Enable Bit High PORTB = (PORTB | 0x04); // Set Enable Bit to High PORTD = 0x38; // Function Set - Send 00 00111000 // Hold Enable Bit to High to allow data to arrive on port _delay_us(2); // Set Enable Bit to Low, data is read PORTB = (PORTB & 0b11111000); _delay_us(50); // Delay for instruction process, minimum 39us PORTB = (PORTB | 0x04); // Set Enable Bit to High PORTD = 0x0F; // Display ON - Send 00 00001111 // Hold Enable Bit to High to allow data to arrive on port _delay_us(2); PORTB = (PORTB & 0b11111000); // Set Enable Bit to Low // Delay for instruction process, minimum 39us _delay_us(50); PORTB = (PORTB | 0x04); // Set Enable Bit to High PORTD = 0x01; // Display Clear-Send 00 00000001 // Hold Enable Bit to High to allow data to arrive on port _delay_us(2);

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PORTB = (PORTB & 0b11111000); // Set Enable Bit to Low _delay_ms(2); // Delay for Clear process, minimum 1.53ms PORTB = (PORTB | 0x04); // Set Enable Bit to High PORTD = 0x06; // Entry Mode Set-Send 00 00000110 // Hold Enable Bit to High to allow data to arrive on port _delay_us(2); //Set DDRAM Address to 0x00 to Display on First Line of LCD PORTB = (PORTB & 0b11111000); // Set Enable Bit to Low _delay_us(50); // Delay for instruction process PORTB = (PORTB | 0x04); // Set Enable Bit to High // Set DDRAM Address to 0x00, top left of display PORTD = 0x80; // Hold Enable Bit to High to allow data to arrive on port _delay_us(2); PORTB = (PORTB & 0b11111000); // Set Enable Bit to Low _delay_us(50); } // Function to write strings of ASCII characters to the LCD void Write_Message ( char* input) { char* ps = input; while(*ps != '\0') { _delay_us(10); // Set Register Select and Enable Bit to High PORTB = (PORTB | 0x05); PORTD = *ps; // Send ASCII character to input _delay_us(2); // Set Enable Bit to Low, keep Register Select High PORTB = (PORTB & 0b11111011); _delay_us(50); // Set Register Select low PORTB = (PORTB & 0b11111000); ps++; } } /* clears previously written data from LCD */ void clear_display () { PORTB = (PORTB | 0x04); // Set Enable Bit to High PORTD = 0x01; //Display Clear-Send 00 00000001 // Hold Enable Bit to High to allow data to arrive on port _delay_us(2); PORTB = (PORTB & 0b11111000); // Set Enable Bit to Low _delay_ms(2); // Delay for Clear process, minimum 1.53ms PORTB = (PORTB | 0x04); // Set Enable Bit to High PORTD = 0x80;// Set DDRAM Address to 0x00, top left of display // 0x80 because top bit needs to be "1" to set DDRAM address // Hold Enable Bit to High to allow data to arrive on port _delay_us(2); PORTB = (PORTB & 0b11111000); // Set Enable Bit to Low _delay_us(50); } // this function sets up ADC with required settings void Initialize_ADC0(void) { //MAX A/D conversion rate = (ADC Clock)/(13 clock cycles) // ADC Clock Freq = (CPU Clk Freq) / (prescaler value) ADCSRA = 0x87;//Turn On ADC and set prescaler (CLK/128=125 kHz) // Set Ref Sel for 2.56V ref, right adjust result, // select ADC channel 0 ADMUX = 0xC0; // ADMUX = 0xC1 for selecting ADC channel 1 _delay_us(260); //25 cycles or 260us (max for start-up) } /* Sets Location on LCD where data will be written */ void set_write_location( int input) { PORTB = (PORTB | 0x04); // Set Enable Bit to High PORTD = input; // Set DDRAM Address // Hold Enable Bit to High to allow data to arrive on port _delay_us(2); PORTB = (PORTB & 0b11111000); // Set Enable Bit to Low _delay_us(50); } /* This function checks for a button press and modifies current operating mode */ void check_buttons(void) {

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// temporary variable used in FOR loops int i; // if Select button is pressed if (!(PINB & 0x08)) { _delay_ms(250); // delay for button press function_select++; // increment function_select // Reset all Motor Enable Bits to 1, all motors off PORTC = (PORTC | 0b10010010); _delay_ms(250); // delay for button press // L selected if (function_select == 1) PORTC &= ~(1 << 1); // Set PC1 low, turns on L Motor // C selected if (function_select == 2) // Set PC7 low to turn on C Motor PORTC &= ~(1 << 7); // Hi/Low Z selected if (function_select == 3) // Set PC4 low to turn on Switch Motor PORTC &= ~(1 << 4); // 4 is not a valid function if (function_select == 4) // roll function select back to zero function_select = 0; if (function_select == 0) PORTC = (PORTC | 0b10010010);// Turn off All Motors standby_count = 0; // button press, reset standby count } // if Select + button is pressed if (!(PINB & 0x10)) { standby_count = 0; // button pressed, reset standby count // L selected if (function_select == 1) { // L motor driver set to full step // (200 steps/revolution) // Lmin = 0, Lmax = 8500 // set DIR high for increasing direction PORTB |= (1 << 7); PORTC |= (1 << 0); // make Step go high _delay_us(10); // delay for driver PORTC &= ~(1 << 0); // make Step go low _delay_us(10); // delay for driver inductor++; // increment position } // C selected if (function_select == 2) { // C Stepper Driver Set to 16th Step // Cmin = 0, Cmax = 1660 _delay_ms(10); // delay for motor // set DIR low for increasing direction PORTC &= ~(1 << 5); PORTC |= (1 << 6); // set Step high _delay_us(10); // delay for motor driver PORTC &= ~(1 << 6); // set Step low _delay_us(10); // delay for motor driver capacitor++; // increment capacitor position } // L network switch position selected if (function_select == 3) { if (L_Network_Select == 0) { // delay for button press _delay_ms(250); // toggle function L_Network_Select = 1; // set DIR low for increasing direction PORTC &= ~(1 << 2); // i counts from 0 to 899, number of // steps required to throw switch for (i= 0; i< 900; i++) { // delay for step speed _delay_ms(10); // set Step high PORTC |= (1 << 3); // delay for motor driver _delay_us(10); // set Step low PORTC &= ~(1 << 3); // delay for motor driver _delay_us(10); } // delay for button press _delay_ms(250); }

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else if (L_Network_Select == 1) { // delay for button press _delay_ms(250); // toggle function L_Network_Select = 0; // set DIR high for decreasing direction PORTC |= (1 << 2); // i counts from 0 to 899 for (i= 0; i< 900; i++) { // delay for step speed _delay_ms(10); // set Step high PORTC |= (1 << 3); // delay for driver _delay_us(10); // set Step low PORTC &= ~(1 << 3); // delay for driver _delay_us(10); } // delay for button press _delay_ms(250); } } } if (!(PINB & 0x20)) // if Select- button is pressed { // button pressed, reset standby count standby_count = 0; // L selected if (function_select == 1) { // Lmin = 0, Lmax = 8500 steps // set DIR low for decreasing direction PORTB &= ~(1 << 7); PORTC |= (1 << 0); // set Step high _delay_us(10); // delay for driver PORTC &= ~(1 << 0); // set Step low _delay_us(10); // delay for driver inductor--; // decrement position } // C selected if (function_select == 2) { // C Stepper Driver Set to 16th Steps // 3200 steps per revolution // Cmin = 0, Cmax = 1660 _delay_ms(10); // delay for button press // set DIR high for decreasing direction PORTC |= (1 << 5); PORTC |= (1 << 6); // set Step high _delay_us(10); // delay for motor driver PORTC &= ~(1 << 6); // set Step low _delay_us(10); // delay for motor driver capacitor--; // decrement position } } if (!(PINB & 0x40)) // if Tune/Stop button is pressed { _delay_ms(500); // delay for button press tune_flag = 1; // indicates automatic tuning selected rts_flag = 1; _delay_ms(500); } } // updates data on LCD void update_display() { // divide power values by 100 for power in Watts Forward_Power = (Forward_Power / 100); Reflected_Power = (Reflected_Power / 100); // calculate whole number part of SWR uint8_t SWR_whole = SWR/100; // calculate decimal part of SWR uint8_t SWR_decimal = SWR%100; // string for displayed ascii digits char disp_ascii[20]; clear_display (); Write_Message (forward); // Display "F" // convert int to ASCII string

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itoa(Forward_Power, disp_ascii, 0xA); Write_Message (disp_ascii); // Display forward power value // set display location for reflected power set_write_location(0x85); Write_Message (reflected); // Display "R" // convert int to ASCII string itoa (Reflected_Power, disp_ascii, 0xA); Write_Message (disp_ascii); // Display reflected power value set_write_location(0x89); // set display location for SWR Write_Message (SWRdisp); // Display "SWR" // convert int to ASCII string itoa (SWR_whole, disp_ascii, 0xA); Write_Message (disp_ascii); // Display SWR whole number value Write_Message(d_point); // place decimal point // if the decimal value is less than 10 if (SWR_decimal < 10) Write_Message(ascii_zero); // place a zero in front of it itoa(SWR_decimal, disp_ascii, 0xA); Write_Message(disp_ascii); // L selected if (function_select == 1) { set_write_location(0xC0); // place select symbol at L Write_Message (Select); } set_write_location(0xC1); // set display location for L Write_Message (Ldisp); // Display "L" itoa (inductor, disp_ascii, 0xA); Write_Message (disp_ascii); // Display inductor value // C selected if (function_select == 2) { set_write_location(0xC6); // place select symbol at C Write_Message (Select); } set_write_location(0xC7); // set display location for C Write_Message (Cdisp); // Display "C" itoa (capacitor, disp_ascii, 0xA); Write_Message (disp_ascii); // Display capacitor value // Switch selected if (function_select == 3) { // place select symbol at SLSC/SCSL set_write_location(0xCB); Write_Message (Select); } set_write_location(0xCC); // set display location if (L_Network_Select == 0) Write_Message (SLSC); // Display "SLSC" if (L_Network_Select == 1) Write_Message (SCSL); // Display "SCSL" } // this function gets data from the ADC and produces SWR, // Forward_Power, and Reflected_Power global // variable results the SWR, Forward_Power, and // Reflected_Power results are 100 times higher to // preserve fractional part. For example, if the // Forward_Power result is 1020, the actual value in // watts is 1000/100 or 10.2 watts the analog voltage // converted by the ADC is the output of the // forward and reflected power detectors whose DC output // voltage is linearly proportional to their // input power in dBm void calculate_SWR() { // numerator of SWR Fraction uint32_t Reflected_Power_numer; // result of fraction used in SWR calc uint32_t SWR_fraction; // result of square root used in SWR calc uint32_t SWR_root; uint16_t Power_index;// stores ADC result and indexes Power_LUT ADMUX = 0xC0; // Select ADC0 to sample forward power ADCSRA = 0xC7; // Start ADC conversion _delay_us(120); // wait for ADC conversion Power_index = ADC; // assigns ADC converted value to variable // this makes any power less than offset = 0 Watts if (Power_index < 495) Power_index = 0; else // allow indexing of proper value in LUT Power_index = Power_index - 495; // if indicated power is reading lower than actual power // then: // decrease value subtracted from power index to correct // each incremental value of the Power_index is // approximately equivalent to 0.1 dB Forward_Power = Power_LUT[Power_index]; // assigns value in LUT to // forward power variable

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ADMUX = 0xC1; // Select ADC1 ADCSRA = 0xC7; // Start ADC conversion _delay_us(120); // wait for ADC conversion Power_index = ADC; // get value from ADC if (Power_index < 506) // any power less than offset = 0 Watts Power_index = 0; else Power_index = Power_index - 506; Reflected_Power = Power_LUT[Power_index]; // get reflected // power value from LUT /* SWR Calculation performs: SWR = [1 + sqrt((refl pwr)/(fwd pwr))]/[1 - sqrt((refl pwr)/(fwd pwr))] */ // can only calculate valid SWR if transmit power > 3 Watts if (Forward_Power > 300) { // multiply up to preserve accuracy before division Reflected_Power_numer = Reflected_Power * 10000; SWR_fraction = Reflected_Power_numer/Forward_Power; SWR_root = isqrt32 (SWR_fraction); SWR = (10000 + (100 * SWR_root))/(100 - SWR_root); // if reflected pwr > fwd pwr, SWR result negative if(SWR < 100) // reset negative values back to positive, very hi SWR SWR = 10000; } } // This function performs the automatic impedance matching routine. void auto_tune( void) { // tune_count counts number of L then C tuning iterations int tune_count = 0; // run calculate SWR function to determine if transmit power is applied calculate_SWR(); // // // // // // if the code in the following IF statement performs an initial search through entire range of inductance and capacitance to find settings for minimum SWR only proceeds if transmitter input power is greater than 3 W and SWR is high and rts_flag ensures only one search through full range of L and C (Forward_Power>300 && !(SWR >=100 && SWR < 150 ) && rts_flag == 1) { return_inductor_to_start(); // sets L to minimum return_capacitor_to_start(); // set C to maximum search_inductance(); // next search capacitance range for minimum SWR search_capacitance(); // set rts_flag to zero to ensure that entire // range of L and C only searched once rts_flag = 0; } // set DIR high for decreasing capacitance direction PORTC |= (1 << 5); // // // // if the code in the following IF statement performs fine tuning of L and C to get SWR < 1.5 only tune if transmitter input power is greater than 5 W and SWR is not between 1.0 and 1.5 (Forward_Power > 500 && !(SWR >=100 && SWR < 150 )) { // tune_flag set by button press, allows manual start/stop // tune_count set for 4 tuning attempts while (tune_flag == 1 && tune_count < 4) { calculate_SWR(); // if SWR is not between 1.0 and 1.5 if(!(SWR >=100 && SWR < 150 )) { // tune inductor // Turn off All Motors PORTC = (PORTC | 0b10010010); // Set PC1 low to turn on L Motor PORTC &= ~(1 << 1); tune_inductor(); // tune inductance

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// tune capacitor // Turn off All Motors PORTC = (PORTC | 0b10010010); // Set PC7 low to turn on C Motor PORTC &= ~(1 << 7); tune_capacitor(); // tune capacitance } tune_count++; } } else // set the tune_flag to zero to stop tuning if no RF power applied tune_flag = 0; PORTC = (PORTC | 0b10010010); // Turn off All Motors tune_flag = 0; // set the tune_flag to zero to stop tuning function } // performs fine tuning of inductor void tune_inductor(void) { // FOR loop count uint16_t i = 0; // counts number of steps for which SWR increases int8_t increasing_SWR_count = 0; // counts direction changes uint8_t toggle_count = 0; // stores minimum SWR value uint16_t minimum_value = SWR; int16_t inductor_minimum2 = inductor;// stores location of minimum SWR do { _delay_us(10); // delay for motor driver PORTC |= (1 << 0); // set Step high _delay_us(10); // delay for driver PORTC &= ~(1 << 0); // set Step low _delay_us(10); // delay for driver // if increasing direction selected if (PORTB & (1 << 7)) inductor++; // increment displayed rel. inductance value else inductor--; // decrement displayed rel. inductance value _delay_ms(20); // delay for stepper motor speed limitation //_delay_us(500); // added delay to fine tune motor speed calculate_SWR(); // get new power & SWR values // prevents passing mechanical stop if(inductor == 1) PORTB ^= (1 << 7); // toggle DIR bit to change direction // if Tune/Stop button is pressed if (!(PINB & 0x40)) { _delay_ms(500); // delay for button de-bounce // set tune flag to false to stop auto tuning tune_flag = 0; } if(SWR < minimum_value) // if new SWR < stored minimum_value { minimum_value = SWR; // set new SWR value as the minimum // save the inductor position for minimum inductor_minimum2 = inductor; } else increasing_SWR_count++; // if increasing_SWR_count reaches limit or // the mechanical limits are reached if((increasing_SWR_count>110 )||( inductor < 5)||(inductor > INDUCTOR_MAX)) { PORTB ^= (1 << 7); // toggle DIR bit to change direction toggle_count++; // count # times direction changes increasing_SWR_count = 0; // reset count } // only 2 direction changes and tuning hasn't been manually disabled } while (toggle_count < 2 && tune_flag == 1); // if current position higher than minimum SWR position if(inductor > inductor_minimum2) { // find # of steps to SWR minimum inductor_minimum2 = inductor - inductor_minimum2; // set DIR low for decreasing direction PORTB &= ~(1 << 7); // set inductor value to SWR minimum location inductor = inductor - inductor_minimum2; } else // if current position lower than minimum SWR position { // increment tune count

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// find # of steps to SWR minimum inductor_minimum2 = inductor_minimum2 - inductor; // set DIR high for increasing direction PORTB |= (1 << 7); // set inductor value to SWR minimum location inductor = inductor + inductor_minimum2; } _delay_us(10); // delay for driver // FOR loop returns inductor to location of SWR minimum for (i = 0; i < inductor_minimum2; i++) { PORTC |= (1 << 0); // set Step high _delay_us(10); // delay for driver PORTC &= ~(1 << 0); // set Step low _delay_ms(3); // delay for stepper motor speed limit } // if the SWR is still high, // point to get closer to R = if (SWR > 300) { for (i = 0; i < 51; i++) { PORTB |= (1 << 7); PORTC |= (1 << 0); _delay_us(10); PORTC &= ~(1 << 0); _delay_ms(3); inductor++; } } } // performs fine tuning of capacitor void tune_capacitor( void) { // FOR loop count uint16_t i = 0; // counts number of steps for which SWR increases uint8_t increasing_SWR_count = 0; uint8_t toggle_count = 0; // counts direction changes // stores minimum SWR value for comparison to updated SWR uint16_t minimum_value = SWR; // stores location of minimum SWR int16_t capacitor_minimum = capacitor; do { _delay_us(10); // delay for motor driver PORTC |= (1 << 6); // set Step high _delay_us(10); // delay for driver PORTC &= ~(1 << 6); // set Step low _delay_us(10); // delay for driver // if decreasing direction selected if (PORTC & (1 << 5)) capacitor--; // decrement rel. capacitance value else capacitor++; // increment capacitor position _delay_ms(16); // delay for motor speed limit calculate_SWR(); // get new power & SWR values if (!(PINB & 0x40)) // if Tune/Stop button is pressed { _delay_ms(500); // delay for button de-bounce // set tune flag to false to stop auto tuning tune_flag = 0; } // if new SWR value less than stored minimum_value if(SWR < minimum_value) { minimum_value = SWR;// set new SWR value as the minimum // save the capacitor position for minimum capacitor_minimum = capacitor; } else increasing_SWR_count++; // if increasing_SWR_count reaches limit if(increasing_SWR_count > 250) { PORTC ^= (1 << 5); // toggle DIR bit to change direction toggle_count++; // count how many times direction changes increasing_SWR_count = 0; // reset count } } while (toggle_count < 2 && tune_flag == 1); move inductor past minimum SWR 1 circle

// set DIR high for increasing direction // set Step high // delay for driver // set Step low // delay for stepper motor speed limit

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// if current position higher than minimum SWR position if(capacitor > capacitor_minimum) { // find # of steps to SWR minimum capacitor_minimum = capacitor - capacitor_minimum; PORTC |= (1 << 5); // set DIR high for decreasing direction // set position to SWR minimum location capacitor = capacitor - capacitor_minimum; } else // if current position lower than minimum SWR position { // find # of steps to SWR minimum capacitor_minimum = capacitor_minimum - capacitor; PORTC &= ~(1 << 5); // set DIR low for increasing direction // set position to SWR minimum location capacitor = capacitor + capacitor_minimum; } _delay_us(10); // delay for motor driver // FOR loop returns capacitor to location of SWR minimum for (i = 0; i < capacitor_minimum; i++) { PORTC |= (1 << 6); // set Step high _delay_us(10); // delay for driver PORTC &= ~(1 << 6); // set Step low _delay_ms(2); // delay for stepper motor speed limitation } } //Sets inductor to minimum value and capacitor to // maximum value for auto tuning start point void return_inductor_to_start(void) { int i; // temporary variable for FOR loops // int inductor2 = inductor + 1; PORTC = (PORTC | 0b10010010); // Turn off All Motors _delay_us(10); // delay for motor driver PORTC &= ~(1 << 1); // Set PC1 low to turn on L Motor _delay_us(10); // delay for motor driver PORTB &= ~(1 << 7); // set DIR low for decreasing direction _delay_us(10); // delay for motor driver for (i = 0; i < inductor; i++) { PORTC |= (1 << 0); // set Step high _delay_us(10); // delay for driver PORTC &= ~(1 << 0); // set Step low _delay_ms(2); // delay for stepper motor speed limitation } inductor = 0; // reset displayed rel. inductance value PORTC = (PORTC | 0b10010010); _delay_us(10); } void return_capacitor_to_start() { // FOR loop counter uint16_t i = 0; // 1660 = max capacitor position int16_t capacitor_minimum = 1660 - capacitor; PORTC &= ~(1 << 7); _delay_us(10); PORTC &= ~(1 << 5); // Set PC7 low to turn on C Motor // delay for motor driver // set DIR low for increasing direction // Turn off All Motors

// delay for motor driver

// set capacitor to maximum C position for (i = 0; i < capacitor_minimum; i++) { _delay_us(10); // delay for motor driver PORTC |= (1 << 6); // set Step high _delay_us(10); // delay for driver PORTC &= ~(1 << 6); // set Step low _delay_ms(2); // delay for motor speed limit capacitor++; // increment capacitor position } PORTC = (PORTC | 0b10010010); } void search_inductance() { // FOR loop counter uint16_t i = 0; // Turn off All Motors

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// run calculate SWR function to determine if // transmit power is applied calculate_SWR(); // minimum_value stores the minimum SWR value uint16_t minimum_value = SWR; // stores the inductor position for minimum SWR int16_t inductor_minimum1 = inductor; PORTC &= ~(1 << 1); // Set PC1 low to turn on L Motor _delay_us(10); // delay for motor driver PORTB |= (1 << 7); // set DIR high for increasing direction for (i=0; i<(INDUCTOR_MAX +1); i++) // search all inductor steps { _delay_us(10); // delay for motor driver PORTC |= (1 << 0); // set Step high _delay_us(10); // delay for motor driver PORTC &= ~(1 << 0); // set Step low _delay_us(10); // delay for motor driver inductor++; // increment inductance position _delay_ms(3); // delay for stepper motor speed limit calculate_SWR(); // get new power & SWR values // if new SWR value less than stored minimum_value if(SWR < minimum_value) { minimum_value = SWR; // set new SWR value as minimum // save the inductor position for minimum inductor_minimum1 = inductor; } } // find # of steps to SWR minimum inductor_minimum1 = inductor - inductor_minimum1; PORTB &= ~(1 << 7); // set DIR low for decreasing direction // set inductor value to SWR minimum location inductor = inductor - inductor_minimum1; _delay_us(10); // delay for driver // this FOR loop returns inductor to location of SWR minimum for (i = 0; i < inductor_minimum1; i++) { PORTC |= (1 << 0); // set Step high _delay_us(10); // delay for motor driver PORTC &= ~(1 << 0); // set Step low _delay_ms(2); // delay for stepper motor speed limitation } PORTC = (PORTC | 0b10010010); } void search_capacitance() { // FOR loop counter uint16_t i = 0; // stores the capacitor position for minimum SWR int16_t capacitor_minimum = capacitor; // run calculate SWR function to determine if transmit power applied calculate_SWR(); // minimum_value stores the minimum SWR value uint16_t minimum_value = SWR; _delay_us(10); PORTC &= ~(1 << 7); _delay_us(10); PORTC |= (1 << 5); // delay for motor driver // Set PC7 low to turn on C Motor // delay for motor driver // set DIR high for decreasing direction // Turn off All Motors

// this FOR loop searches entire range of capacitance for // minimum SWR capacitance for (i = 0; i < 1660; i++) { _delay_us(10); // delay for motor driver PORTC |= (1 << 6); // set Step high _delay_us(10); // delay for driver PORTC &= ~(1 << 6); // set Step low // delay for motor speed limit & SWR measurement _delay_ms(10); capacitor--; // decrement capacitor position calculate_SWR(); // get new SWR value // if new SWR value less than stored minimum_value if(SWR < minimum_value) { // set new SWR value as the minimum minimum_value = SWR; // save the capacitor position for minimum capacitor_minimum = capacitor; }

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} // find # of steps to SWR minimum capacitor_minimum = capacitor_minimum - capacitor; PORTC &= ~(1 << 5); // set DIR low for increasing direction // set the capacitor position to the minimum location capacitor = capacitor + capacitor_minimum; _delay_us(10); // delay for motor driver // FOR loop returns capacitor to location of SWR minimum // return the capacitor to the SWR minimum position for (i = 0; i < capacitor_minimum; i++) { PORTC |= (1 << 6); // set Step high _delay_us(10); // delay for motor driver PORTC &= ~(1 << 6); // set Step low _delay_ms(2);// delay for stepper motor speed limit } PORTC = (PORTC | 0b10010010); // Turn off All Motors } // integer square root function takes square root of integer // input and returns an integer // from: http://www.codecodex.com/wiki/Calculate_an_integer_square_root uint32_t isqrt32 (uint32_t n) { register uint32_t root, remainder, place; root = 0; remainder = n; place = 0x40000000; while (place > remainder) place = place >> 2; while (place) { if (remainder >= root + place) { remainder = remainder - root - place; root = root + (place << 1); } root = root >> 1; place = place >> 2; } return root; }