Cell and Tissue Characteristics

Chapter 4: Cell and Tissue Characteristics 1

I. Cell
A. Smallest functional unit necessary for life
B. Can organize into larger units (tissues) based on embryonic origin  then
into body structures  organs
C. Exchange materials, obtain NRG from organic nutrients, synthesize complex
molecules, replicate themselves
D. Understanding of cell process is crucial to understand of disease process
because most disease processes are initiated at cellular level ***  diseases
affect
1. Single organ
2. Particular tissue type
3. Entire organism
II. Functional components of cell
A. Protoplasm: internal matrix of cell
B. Composed of
1. Water (70‐85%)
2. Proteins (10‐20%): cell structures, enzymes for cell reactions,
nucleoproteins, glycoproteins, lipoproteins
3. Lipids (2‐3%): phospholipids, cholesterol for cell membrane and
membranous barriers that separate different cell compartments; fat cells
can have 95% triglycerides occupying the cell mass for stored energy that
can be mobilized and used whenever needed
4. Carbohydrates: few found in cell, serve primarily as rapid source of
energy vs. fats
5. Electrolytes: cell metabolism, transmission of electrochemical impulses in
nerve and muscle cells
a. Intracellular  potassium, magnesium, phosphate, sulfate,
bicarbonate
b. Small intracellular: Sodium, chloride, calcium
C. 2 distinct regions
1. Cytoplasm: outside the nucleus
2. Karyoplasm / nucleoplasm: inside nucleus
III. Nucleus
A. Control center of the cell; contains most of the hereditary material
B. All eukaryotic cells at least have one nucleus, prokaryotic have none
C. Contains DNA genes that encode necessary information for synthesis of
proteins, enzymes, carbohydrates, lipids, and individual units of inheritance
that transmit transformation from one generation to another
D. Site for synthesis of 3 types of ribonucleic acid (RNA) that move to cytoplasm
and carry out the actual synthesis of proteins
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) copies and carries the DNA instructions for
proteins synthesis to cytoplasm
2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is the site of protein synthesis
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA) transports amino acids to the site of proteins
synthesis for incorporation into protein being synthesized

Eina Jane & Co. 2009.


E. Chromatin: term indicating the complex structure of DNA and DNA‐
associated proteins dispersed in the nuclear matrix
1. Heterochromatin: condensed inactive form of chromatin
2. Euchromatin: extended more active form of chromatin
3. Heterochromatic regions of nucleus stain more intensely compared to
euchromatin, nuclear staining can be a guide to cell activity
F. Nuclear envelope: surrounds nucleus
G. Formed by (outer and inner) nuclear membranes containing a perinuclear
cisternal space between them
1. Inner nuclear membrane supported by rigid network of protein filaments
that bind to chromosomes and secure their position in nucleus
2. Outer nuclear membrane resembles membrane of endoplasmic reticulum
and is continuous with it
H. Contains many structurally complex circular pores where the two
membranes fuse to form a gap filled with a thin protein diaphragm
1. Molecules: fluids, electrolytes, RNA, some proteins, hormones can move
in both directions through nuclear pores
2. Pores regulate the bidirectional exchange of molecules between the
cytoplasm and the nucleus
IV. Cytoplasm and Its Organelles
A. Cytoplasm
1. Surrounds the nucleus; where the work of the cell takes place
2. Colloidal solution of water, electrolytes, proteins, fats, glycogen
3. Pigments: melanin (skin), bilirubin (bile  excess skin, sclera 
jaundice)
4. Embedded in cytoplasm are organelles  organs of the cell: ribosomes,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, mitochondria, lysosomes
B. Organelles
1. Ribosomes
a. Site for protein synthesis; small particles of nucleoproteins (rRNA and
proteins) held together by strand of mRNA to form polysomes
(polyribosomes) that exists as isolated clusters of free ribosomes
within cytoplasm or attached to membrane of endoplasmic ER
b. Free ribosomes: involved in synthesis of proteins, enzymes aid in
control of cell function
c. Attached to ER: translate mRNAs that code for proteins secreted from
cell or stored within cell
2. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
a. Extensive system of paired membranes and flat vesicles that connects
various parts of inner cell  between ER membranes is a fluid‐filled
space called matrix
i. Matrix connects membranes of nuclear envelope, cell membrane,
and various cytoplasmic organelles
ii. Functions as tubular communication system for transporting
various substances from part of the cell to another



b. 2 forms of ER: rough and smooth
i. Rough: studded with ribosomes attached to specific binding sites
on membrane  proteins produced by RER become components
of lysosomes and other organelles
ii. Smooth: free of ribosomes, continuous with RER; does not
participate in protein synthesis
o Enzymes involved in lipid molecules, regulation of intracellular
calcium, metabolism and detoxification of hormones and drugs
(smoother ER of liver involved in glycogen storage and
metabolism of lipid‐soluble drugs)
o Site of lipid, lipoprotein, steroid hormone synthesis
3. Golgi Complex aka Golgi apparatus
a. Stacks of thin, flattened vesicles or sacs found near nucleus and
function in association with ER  large proteins are modified by the
Golgi complex and packages them into secretory/smaller granules or
vesicles
b. Insulin, synthesized as a large, inactive proinsulin molecule that is cut
apart to produce a smaller, active insulin molecule within the Golgi
complex of the beta cells in the pancreas
c. Produce large carbs + proteins from rough ER = glycoproteins
d. Can receive proteins and other substances from cell surface by
retrograde transport mechanism  retrograde pathway has been
exploited by several bacterial toxins, such as Shiga and cholera toxins,
and plant toxins, such as ricin, that have cytoplasmic targets
4. Lysosomes and Peroxisomes
a. Lysosomes
i. Digestive system of the cell; small, membrane‐enclosed sacs that
contain powerful hydrolytic enzymes
ii. Break down excess and worn‐out cell parts as well as foreign
substances that are taken into the cell
iii. All lysosomal enzymes are acid hydrolases = require acidic
environment  Maintain pH of 5 in their interior  pH of
cytoplasm 7.2, serves to protect other cellular structures from
acidity
b. Peroxisomes
i. Smaller than lysosomes, spherical membrane‐bound organelles
ii. Contain special enzyme that degrades peroxides (e.g. hydrogen
peroxide)
iii. Unlike lysosomes, peroxisomes are not formed by the Golgi
apparatus
o Peroxisomes are self‐replicating like mitochondria and are
initially formed by proteins produced by free ribosomes
o Function in the control of free radicals



 Unless degraded, these highly unstable chemical
compounds would otherwise damage other cytoplasmic
molecules
 For example, catalase degrades toxic hydrogen peroxide
molecules to water
o Peroxisomes also contain the enzymes needed for breaking
down very‐long‐chain fatty acids, which mitochondrial
enzymes ineffectively degrade
 In liver cells, peroxisomal enzymes are involved in
formation of bile acids
5. Mitochondria
a. Power plants of cell  transform organic compounds into energy that
is easily accessible to the cell
b. Do not make energy, but extract it from organic compounds  store
energy as high‐energy phosphate bonds such as ATP
c. Contain enzymes needed for capturing energy in food and converting
it into cellular energy  multistep process known as cellular
respiration that requires oxygen
d. Mitochondria contain own DNA and ribosomes and are self replicating
 mtDNA inherited matrilineally (from the mother) which provides
basis for familial lineage studies
V. Cell (Plasma) Membrane
A. One of the most important parts of the cell  semi‐permeable structure that
separates intracellular and extracellular environments
1. Provides receptors for hormones and other active substances
2. Participates in electrical events that occur in nerve and muscle cells
3. Aids in regulation of cell growth and proliferation
B. Dynamic and fluid structure consisting of lipids, carbohydrates and proteins
1. Main structural component: lipid bilayer
a. Phospholipids, glycolipids, cholesterol
b. Basic fluid structure of membrane and serves as relatively
impermeable barrier to all but lipid‐soluble substances
2. Approx 75% of lipids are phospholipids, each with hydrophilic (water‐
soluble) head and hydrophobic (water‐insoluble) tail
3. Phospholipid molecules with glycolipids are aligned such that their
hydrophilic heads face outward on each side of the membrane and their
hydrophobic tails project toward the middle of the membrane
a. Hydrophilic heads retain water  help cells stick to each other
b. At normal body temp, viscosity of lipids of membrane is the same as
olive oil  presence of cholesterol stiffens the membrane
C. Proteins carry out specific functions
1. Integral proteins span entire lipid bilayer
a. Essentially part of membrane
b. Also called transmembrane proteins because most of integral proteins
pass directly through the membrane



2. Peripheral proteins bound to one or the other side of the membrane
a. Does not pass into the lipid bilayer
b. Removal of the peripheral proteins from the membrane damages the
membrane
D. Manner in which proteins are associated with the cell membrane often
determines their function
1. Peripheral proteins associated with functions involving inner or outer
side of membrane where they are found
2. Several peripheral proteins serve as receptors or are involve in
intracellular signaling systems
3. By contrast, only transmembrane proteins can function on both sides of
membrane or transport molecules across it
E. Glycocalyx
1. Fuzzy‐looking layer surrounding the cell surface; the cell coat
2. Consists of long, complex carbohydrate chains attached to protein
molecules that penetrate the outside portion of the membrane
(glycoproteins); outward‐facing membrane lipids (glycolipids);
carbohydrate‐binding proteins called lectins
3. Participates in cell‐to‐cell recognition and adhesion
a. Contains tissue transplant antigens that label cells as self or nonself
b. Cell coat of red blood cell contains the ABO blood group antigens
4. An intimate relationship exists between the cell membrane and the cell
coat. If the cell coat is enzymatically removed, the cell remains viable and
can generate a new cell coat, but damage to the cell membrane usually
results in cell death
VI. Integration of Cell Function and Replication
A. Cell Communication: important to coordinate function and control growth
1. Direct communication between adjacent cells through gap junctions,
autocrine and paracrine signaling, endocrine, synaptic signaling
2.



3. Autocrine signaling: cell releases chemical into extracellular fluid that
affects its own activity
4. Paracrine signaling: enzymes rapidly metabolize the chemical mediators,
and therefore they act mainly on nearby cells.
5. Endocrine signaling: relies on hormones carried in the bloodstream to
cells throughout the body
6. Synaptic signaling occurs in the nervous system, where
neurotransmitters act only on adjacent nerve cells through special
contact areas called synapses
7. In some parts of the body, the same chemical messenger can function as a
neurotransmitter, a paracrine mediator, and a hormone secreted by
neurons into the bloodstream
B. Cell Receptors
1. Signaling systems consist of receptors that reside in cell membrane
(surface receptors) or within cells (intracellular receptors)
2. First messengers: receptors activated by variety of extracellular signals
 neurotransmitters, proteins hormones, growth factors, steroids,
chemical messengers
3. Second messengers: additional intracellular mechanisms in the pathway
 many molecules involves in signal transduction are proteins 
proteins can change their shape which allows them to change their
functions in the cell  proteins often accomplish these conformational
changes through enzymes called protein kinases that catalyze the
phosphorylation of amino acids in the protein structure
C. Cell Surface Receptors: G‐protein linked, ion‐channel linked, enzyme linked
1. Number of proteins increase or decrease according to the needs of the
cells
a. Down regulation: when excess chemical messengers are present, # of
active receptors decrease
b. Up regulation: when there is a deficiency, # of active receptors
increase
2. G‐Protein‐Linked Receptors
a. Largest family of cell surface receptors
b. Rely on the intermediary activity of a separate class of membrane‐
bound regulatory proteins to convert external signals (first
messengers) into internal signals (second messengers)
c. Because these regulatory proteins bind to guanine nucleotides such as
guanine diphosphate (GDP) and guanine triphosphate (GTP), they are
called G proteins. G‐protein‐linked receptors mediate cellular
responses for numerous types of first messengers, including proteins,
small peptides, amino acids, and fatty acid derivatives such as the
prostaglandin
d. All have a ligand‐binding extracellular receptor component, which
functions as a signal discriminator by recognizing a specific first



messenger, and they all undergo conformational changes with
receptor binding that activates the G protein
e. All G proteins are found on the cytoplasmic side of the cell membrane,
and all incorporate the GTPase cycle, which functions as a molecular
switch that exists in two states. In its activated (on) state, the G
protein has a high affinity for GTP, and in its inactivated (off) state, it
binds GDP
3. Enzyme‐Linked Receptors
a. Transmembrane proteins with ligand‐binding site on outer surface of
cell membrane
b. Enzyme‐linked receptors mediate cellular responses such as calcium
influx, increased sodium‐potassium exchange, and stimulation of
glucose and amino acid uptake
c. Signaling cascades generated by the activation of tyrosine kinase
receptors are also involved in the function of growth factors  signals
cell replacement and cell growth  cytokines for immune system,
colony‐stimulating factor for WBC and RBC  growth factors
stimulate the transcription of many genes that were silent in resting
cells, and they regulate the entry of cells into the cell cycle and their
passage through the cell cycle
4. Ion‐Channel‐Linked Receptors
a. Involved in rapid synaptic signaling between electrically excitable
cells  neurotransmitters
b. Transiently opening or closing ion channels formed by integral
proteins in cell membrane involved in transmission of impulses in
nerve and muscle cells
D. Intracellular Receptors
1. Messengers (thyroid and steroid hormones) that do not bind to
membrane receptors but move directly across lipid layer of cell
membrane and are carried to cell nucleus, where they influence DNA
activity
2. Bind to cytoplasmic receptor  receptor‐hormone complex is carried to
nucleus  binds to DNA  increasing transcription of mRNA  mRNA
translated in ribosomes, with production of increased amounts of
proteins that alter cell function
VII. Cell Cycle and Cell Division
A. Cell cycle: life cycle of the cell  five phases  G0, G1, S, G2, M
1. G0: state of inactivity  leave the cell cycle or reenter cell cycle any time
 cancer has no G0, keeps growing nonstop
2. G1: prepares for mitosis  DNA and protein synthesis, increase in
organelle and cytoskeletal elements
3. S: synthesis phase  DNA replication, centrioles replicate
4. G2: premitotic, similar to G1 in terms of RNA activity and protein synthesis
5. M: cell mitosis occurs; 1‐3 hours followed by cytokinesis or cell division;
P, prophase  M, metaphase  A, anaphase  T, telophase



B. Nondividing cells, such as neurons and skeletal and cardiac muscle cells, have
left the cell cycle and are not capable of mitotic division in postnatal life
C. Mitosis: cell division, process when parent cell divides and each daughter cell
receives a chromosomal karyotype identical to parent cell
1. Replaces cells that have limited life
2. Increases tissue mass during periods of growth
3. Tissue repair and wound healing
4. Divided into 4 stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
a. Interphase: phase cell not undergoing division
b. Prophase: chromosomes become visible, increased coiling of DNA,
microtubles of mitotic spindle appear between 2 pairs of centrioles;
later in prophase, nuclear envelope and nucleolus disappear
c. Metaphase: organization of chromosome pairs in midline of cell and
formation of mitotic spindle compose of microtubules
d. Anaphase: separation of chromosome pairs, microtubules pulling one
member of each pair of 46 chromosomes toward opposite cell pole
e. Telophase: mitotic spindle vanishes, nuclear membrane develops,
encloses each complete set of chromosomes, cell division/cytokinesis
occurs
VIII. Cell Metabolism and Energy Sources
A. Energy = ability to do work
B. Cells use oxygen to breakdown products of foods into energy
C. Energy metabolism = processes by which fats, proteins, and carbohydrates
from foods we eat are converted into energy in the form of ATP
1. Catabolism: breaking down stored nutrients and body tissues to produce
NRG
2. Anabolism: constructive process in more complex molecules are formed
from simpler ones
D. ATP = carrier for cellular energy; adenosine triphosphate, high energy
E. Two types of energy production: anaerobic and aerobic
1. Anaerobic: without oxygen, glycolytic pathway
a. Glycolysis: NRG from glucose, important for cells that lack
mitochondria, or when oxygen delivery is impaired
b. Converts glucose  pyruvate  ATP from ADP  one glucose, 2 ATP
2. Aerobic: with oxygen, involves mitochondria
a. Mitochondria + citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) + electron transport
chain
b. Carbon compounds from fats, proteins, carbohydrates from diet are
broken down to form CO2 + H2O + NRG
IX. Movement Across Cell Membrane and Membrane Potentials
A. Cell membrane = barrier; controls which substances enter and leave the cell
B. Passive Movement
1. Directly influenced by chemical or electrical gradients and does not
require an expenditure of NRG



2. Difference in # of particles on either side of membrane creates a chemical
gradient and difference in charged particle or ions creates an electrical
gradient
3. Electrochemical gradients: linked chemical and electrical gradients
4. Diffusion: small molecules substances move from area of higher to lower
concentration via spontaneous kinetic movements
5. Osmosis: diffusion of water through semi‐permeable membrane from
higher to lower concentration gradient
6. Facilitated Diffusion: occurs through a transport protein that is not linked
to metabolic energy
a. Some substances, such as glucose, cannot pass unassisted through the
cell membrane because they are not lipid soluble or are too large to
pass through the membrane's pores
b. These substances combine with special transport proteins at the
membrane's outer surface, are carried across the membrane attached
to the transporter, and then released on the inside of the membrane
c. In facilitated diffusion, a substance can move only from an area of
higher concentration to one of lower concentration
d. Rate depends on difference in concentration between 2 sides of
membrane and availability of transport proteins and how fast they
can bind and release the substance being transported
C. Active Transport
1. Uses energy to go uphill or against concentration gradient
2. Sodium‐potassium pump
a. Sodium from inside cell to extracellular region, where concentration is
14x greater than inside
b. Returns potassium to the inside, where its concentration is 35x
greater that outside the cell
3. Primary active transport: source of energy is used directly in transport of
substance
4. Secondary active transport: mechanisms harness energy derived from
primary active transport of one substance, for the cotransport of a second
substance
a. Cotransport or symport: sodium ion and solute transported in same
direction
b. Countertransport or antiport: sodium ion and solute transported in
opposite direction
D. Endocytosis: process by which cells engulf materials from their surroundings
1. Pinocytosis: “cell‐eating”; ingestion of small solid or fluid particles into
small, membrane‐surrounded vesicles for movement into cytoplasm 
transport of proteins and strong solutions of electrolytes
2. Phagocytosis: “cell‐eating”; involves the engulfment and subsequent
killing or degradation of microorganisms or other particulate matter 
phagocytic vesicle or phagosome is formed where it breaks away from



cell membrane and moves into cell membrane into cytoplasm, fuses with
lysosome to be ingested by enzymes
E. Exocytosis: mechanism for the secretion of intracellular substances into the
extracellular spaces  important in removing cellular debris and releasing
substances, such as hormones, synthesized in the cell
X. Ion Channels
A. Highly selective; sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride ions  specific
interactions between ions and the sides of channels produce extremely rapid
rate of ion movement between negative and positive charged ions
B. Plasma membrane contains two basic groups of ion channels: leakage
channels and gated channels
1. Leakage channels open in unstimulated state, whereas gated channels
open and close in response to specific stimuli
2. Three main types of gated channels
a. Voltage gated: electrically operated channels that open when
membrane potential changes beyond certain point
b. Ligand gated: chemically operated and respond to specific receptor‐
bound ligand, such as neurotransmitter acetylcholine
c. Mechanically gated: open or close in response to mechanical
stimulations as vibrations, tissue stretching, pressure
XI. Membrane Potential
A. Electrical potentials (measured in volts) exist across membranes of most
cells in the body
B. Changes in the membrane potential are necessary for generation and
conduction of nerve impulses and muscle contraction
C. Resting membrane potential = necessary for electrical excitability = present
when cell is not transmitting impulses
1. Maintained by sodium potassium pump which pumps out 3Na+ and 2K+
in
2. This will lead to a slight negative charge around the cell membrane inside
and a slight positive charge around the cell membrane outside
XII. Body Tissues
A. Cell differentiation: process controlled by a system that switches genes on
and off
1. Embryonic cells must become different to develop into all of the various
organ systems, and they must remain different after the signal that
initiated cell diversification has disappeared
2. Process of cell differentiation is controlled by cell memory, which is
maintained through regulatory proteins contained in the individual
members of a particular cell type
3. Cell differentiation normally moves forward, producing cells that are
more specialized than their predecessors  not revert to an earlier stage
of differentiation
B. Stem cells are still capable of cell division and serve as a reserve source for
specialized cells throughout the life of the organism



1. Major source of cells that make regeneration possible in some tissues
2. Stem cells of the hematopoietic (blood) system have the greatest
potential for differentiation  recreate blood and immune system, bone
marrow transplants
C. Organization of Cells into Tissues
1. Cells with a similar embryonic origin or function are often organized into
larger functional units called tissues, and these tissues in turn associate
with other, dissimilar tissues to form the various organs of the body
2. Four types:
a. Epithelial: every lining in body, skin
b. Connective: bones, joints
c. Muscle
d. Neural
3. Epithelial tissue
a. Forms sheets that cover the body's outer surface, lines internal
surfaces, and forms glandular tissue
b. Supported by a basement membrane
c. Avascular, and must receive nourishment from capillaries in
supporting (underlying) connective tissues
d. Classified according to number of layers present: simple, stratified,
pseudostratified
e. Classified according to shape: squamous, cuboidal, columnar
4. Connective tissue
a. Most abundant tissue of the body
b. Found in a variety of forms, ranging from solid bone to blood cells that
circulate in the vascular system
c. Types
i. Loose or areolar: soft and pliable; supports epithelial tissues and
provides means by which these tissues are nourished
ii. Adipose: fatty tissue; shape body, thermal insulation, keeps
organs in place
iii. Reticular: network of fibroblasts that synthesize type III collagen
fibers and macrophages
iv. Dense
o Irregular: consists of the same components found in loose
connective tissue, but exhibits a predominance of collagen
fibers and fewer cells. This type of tissue can be found in the
dermis of the skin (i.e., reticular layer), the fibrous capsules of
many organs, and the fibrous sheaths of cartilage (i.e.,
perichondrium) and bone (i.e., periosteum). It also forms the
fascia that invests muscles and organs
o Regular: rich in collagen fibers; form the tendons and
aponeuroses that join muscles to bone or other muscles and
ligaments that join bone to bone



5. Muscle tissue
a. Contains actin (thin filaments) and myosin (thick) filaments
b. Allow it to contract and provide
i. Locomotion and movement of skeletal structures (skeletal
muscle)
ii. Pumping of blood through the heart (cardiac muscle)
iii. Contraction of blood vessels and visceral organs (smooth muscle)
c. Three types: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
i. Skeletal (40‐45%) and cardiac = striated muscles  actin and
myosin are arranged in large, parallel arrays in bundles, giving
muscle fibers a striped or striated appearance = no mitosis
ii. Smooth muscle lacks striations = involuntary muscles = can
undergo mitosis
6. Nervous tissue
a. Consists of two cell types
i. Nerve cells or neurons
o Consist of 3 parts
 Soma: cell body
 Dendrites: multiple elongated processes, receive and carry
stimuli from the environment, from sensory epithelial cells,
and from other neurons to the cell
 Axon: single cytoplasm‐filled process, is specialized for
generating and conducting nerve impulses away from the
cell body to other nerve cells, muscle cells, and glandular
cells
o Classified as afferent and efferent neurons according to their
function
 Afferent or sensory neurons carry information toward the
CNS  involved in the reception of sensory information
from the external environment and from within the body
 Efferent or motor neurons carry information away from the
CNS  they are needed for control of muscle fibers and
endocrine and exocrine glands
ii. Glial or supporting cells
o Form myelin, and have trophic and phagocytic functions
o Four types of neuroglia are found in the CNS: astrocytes,
oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ependymal cells
b. Distributed throughout the body  serves as the body's
communication system
c. Nervous system is divided anatomically into the central nervous
system (CNS), which consists of the brain and spinal cord, and the
peripheral nervous system (PNS), which is composed of nerve tissue
outside the CNS


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Chapter 4: Cell and Tissue Characteristics 1

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