Reading Thucydides

Reading Thucydides
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Reading Thucydides
James V. Morrison
The Ohio State University Press
Columbus
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Copyright 2006 by The Ohio State University.
All rights reserved.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data
Morrison, James V., 1956
Reading Thucydides / James V. Morrison.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-8142-1035-2 (cloth : alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-8142-1035-X (cloth : alk. paper)
ISBN-13: 978-0-8142-9112-2 (cd-rom)
ISBN-10: 0-8142-9112-0 (cd-rom)
1. Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War. 2. GreeceHistory
Peloponnesian War, 431404 B.C.Historiography. I. Title.
DF229.T6M67 2006
938'.05072dc22
2006008845
Cover design by DesignSmith.
Type set in Goudy.
Printed by Thomson-Shore, Inc.
The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the
American National Standard for Information SciencesPermanence of
Paper for Printed Library Materials. ANSI Z39.481992.
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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To the memory of John B. McDiarmid,
who taught me so much about Ancient Greece
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Contents
List of Abbreviations ix
Acknowledgments xi
Part One: Introduction
1. In Dialogue with Thucydides 3
2. The Readers Task 13
Part Two: Participatory, Punctuated, and
Retrospective History: Corcyra, Plataea, and Melos
3. The Corcyrean Conflict (1.2455) 25
4. Punctuated History: The Case of Plataea 44
5. Historical Lessons in the Melian Episode 81
Part Three: Argument and Reverberation:
Comparison, Maxim, and Metaphor
6. The Comparison of Cities and Individuals 103
7. Maxims and Assimilation in the Mytilenian Debate 116
8. Athens the Tyrant-City and the Function of
Political Metaphor 133
Part Four: Biography and Reception
9. Thucydides Life and Work 159
10. Ancient and Modern Audiences 172
Notes 199
Bibliography 259
Index Locorum 273
General Index 279
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List of Abbreviations
Journal Titles
AHB Ancient History Bulletin
AJP American Journal of Philology
BICS Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies of the University of London
BMCR Bryn Mawr Classical Review
CA Classical Antiquity
CJ Classical Journal
CP Classical Philology
CQ Classical Quarterly
CRAI Comptes rendus de LAcadmie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres
CW Classical World
GRBS Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies
HSCP Harvard Studies in Classical Philology
ICS Illinois Classical Studies
JHS Journal of Hellenic Studies
JRS Journal of Roman Studies
LCM Liverpool Classical Monthly
PCPS Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society
QUCC Quaderni Urbinati di Cultura Classica
REA Revue des tudes Anciennes
REG Revue des tudes Grecques
RM Rheinisches Museum
RPh Revue de Philologie
TAPA Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association
WS Wiener Studien
YCS Yale Classical Studies
ix
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Other Abbreviations
Ath. Pol. Athenaion Politeia (Constitutions of the Athenians)
ATL Athenian Tribute List
HCT A Historical Commentary on Thucydides
HG Historia Graeca
x List of Abbreviations
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Acknowledgments
his project began at a 1989 NEH Summer Institute led by Elaine
TFantham on The Greek Enlightenment. It was here that I was first
introduced to the ideas of Eric Havelock that have influenced this book. I
am grateful to Elaine and the other scholars from that institute; I also wish
to thank the NEH for its funding of such valuable interactions among
scholars and teachers. I am also indebted to the participants of the 2000,
2002, and 2004 Orality conferences for their ideas and probing questions.
Many people have improved the quality and clarity of my ideas about
Thucydides over the past two decades. I would especially like to mention
those who read and commented on my papers, articles, and chapters: Paula
Debnar, Stewart Flory, Michael Flower, Irene de Jong, Ludwig Koenen,
Peter Krentz, Don Lateiner, and Ruth Scodel. It has been my good fortune
to have benefited from the advice of such warm and knowledgeable friends
and colleagues.
The material in several chapters has appeared in earlier form as arti-
cles. I should like to acknowledge the kind permission to reuse such
material from the Johns Hopkins University Press for material in chap-
ters 5 and 6: Historical Lessons in the Melian Episode, TAPA 130
(2000): 11948 and A Key Topos in Thucydides: The Comparison of
Cities and Individuals, AJP 155.4 (1994): 52541; from the University
of California Press for material in chapters 2 and 3: Preface to
Thucydides: Rereading the Corcyrean Conflict (1.2455), Classical
Antiquity 18 (1999): 94131; and from Brill Publishing for material in
chapters 9 and 10: Memory, Time, and Writing: Oral and Literary
Aspects of Thucydides History, ed. C. Mackie, Oral Performance and its
Contexts (2004): 95116.
Many friends and relatives have supported me over the past sixteen
years in the making of this book. I especially appreciate the tolerance of
my wife, Ruth, who endured the anarchy of notes, files, and books that pro-
liferated throughout our houseperhaps the written word does have its
xi
Morrison_FM_3rd.qxp 9/28/2006 2:42 PM Page xi
drawbacks. I would also like to thank Eugene OConnor who initially
expressed an interest in this book and has always been supportive.
My first contact with Thucydides in Greek was at the University of
Washington in a class taught by Merle Langdon. After Pericles Funeral
Oration we focused on book four and the topography of Sphacteria. There
have been many rereadings since, but I am grateful to Merle for his spirit-
ed introduction to an often difficult author. It was also in Seattle that I
studied with John B. McDiarmid, who was my first mentor in the myster-
ies of the Pre-Socratic philosophers, Aeschylus, Pindar, and Aristotle. He
was a wonderful teacher who is sorely missed. It is to his memory that I ded-
icate this book.
xii Acknowledgments
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PART ONE
INTRODUCTION
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1
In Dialogue with Thucydides
ften when reading Thucydides, I ask myself: what does Thucydides
Ohimself think? Does he endorse this argument? Should I compare
these two situations? Why has he withheld his own judgment? The
premise of this book is that these reactions are the result of deliberate
strategies on the part of Thucydides. Of course, at times Thucydides is at
the readers side, explaining, judging, tying together passages, events, and
arguments (1.1.1, 1.23.6, 1.55.2, 2.65, 3.8283). But the reader also
encounters a reticent and less intrusive side of Thucydides as this author-
itative presence recedes.
The goal of this book is to examine Thucydides techniques of presenta-
tion and the effects of those techniques on the readers experience. Indeed,
it will be valuable to approach the History in part from the perspective of the
readers experience, for the History is an interactive work in which
Thucydides invites the reader to juxtapose one argument with another,
compare speech and narrative, and test maxim against a particular episode.
There is what we might call a dialogic quality to his presentation that is
found not only in the pairs of speeches which respond to one another; the
narrative itself raises questions and encourages the reader to pursue multiple
lines of possible action and consequence. The History lives as an interactive
text by putting the reader in a position to confront arguments, make con-
nections, andvicariouslydecide the best course of action. There are four
main features to this books analysis: Thucydides method of presenting
speech and narrative, the readers experience, Thucydides view of history,
and Thucydides position in the context of oral and written culture. In this
introductory chapter, I would like to present these areas of inquiry before
turning in the second chapter to a more in-depth examination of
Thucydides narrative techniques and the readers tasks.
The first feature in the History to be explored is Thucydides presentation
of speech and narrative. This general approach has been labeled narratol-
ogy (with its attendant narrator, narratee, analepsis, prolepsis, etc.),
3
but regardless of the terminology, the focus is upon the method of presenta-
tion of the history. There is nothing revolutionary about observing the
effect of the narrator conveying certain information or of a figure such as
Pericles interpreting past events or anticipating the future. This approach
basically examines how the author presents events and speeches to the
readers of the text. Such analysis means paying attention to who perceives
or interprets an eventwho focalizes it. The narrator may recount what
happens, a character may describe something, but sometimes within the
narrative, events are presented from the perspective not of the narrator, but
from the perspective of one of the characters. When the narrator presents
events through a characters perceptions, thoughts, emotions, or words,
this is referred to as embedded focalization. Narrative analysis also stud-
ies many other features, such as the ordering of events, the juxtaposition
of speech and narrative, and flashbacks and foreshadowings that link ear-
lier and later events to the situation being described.
The second feature I explore is the effect of Thucydides presentation
on the reader. That is, we may approach the History on the one side in
terms of the narrators decisions to present, withhold, and comment, and
from the opposite perspective we may explore the reactions and experi-
ences of the reader. Thucydides often encourages his reader to adopt the
position of figures within the work and to view matters from several per-
spectives. To the extent that readers are able to view past events in this
manner, the overall effect is a feeling of open-endedness in terms of possi-
ble responses, and alternative argument and action.
The reader then encounters an interactive, participatory type of litera-
ture in which Thucydides expects his reader to play an active, intellectu-
al role. White comments:
The text is like the world itself . . . Thucydides purpose . . . [is not] to pre-
sent a narrative of events and to explain them . . . [but] by reduplicating
them in clarified and intensified form will force upon the reader the diffi-
culties Thucydides himself faces . . . the experience of this text is like an
experience of the world.
1
Thucydides appeals to the readers involvement by bringing written liter-
ature as close as possible to the live, extemporaneous, face-to-face debate
of Greek politics. The audience is engaged in a unique way that we might
term dialogic rather than dogmatic.
At several points in this book, I have found it profitable to compare
Thucydides and Plato: this is the first occasion. What Thucydides has
4 Chapter 1
accomplished is analogous to Plato with respect to the function of the
work itself. The works of Plato, in particular, the early, aporetic Platonic
dialogues, are left in an important sense without resolution. If Euthyphros
definitions of piety are inadequate, for example, the reader is implicitly
invited to join in and continue that search. The History and the Platonic
dialogues share this special quality of eliciting the readers engagement.
Thucydides presents an implicit model for thinking about one of the
readers most important tasks. At pivotal points in the History
Thucydides emphasizes the activity by statesmen and historians of jux-
taposing, comparing, and extrapolatingcaptured by the Greek term
eikazein (1.910, 1.138, 4.36). Thucydides also claims that in the future,
events comparable to those from the past may take place (1.22.4).
Passages such as these offer a model for the engaged reader: just as states-
men, historians, and citizens must draw connections between past events
and the present or between argument and possible courses of action,
Thucydides encourages his readers engagement in extrapolation and
conjecture (eikazein) with respect to both past and future: readers must
project themselves into the past and view what is past to them as part of
an indeterminate future.
2
At some level, the reader knows that every-
thing described in the History has already taken place. Nevertheless, we
may distinguish between the retrospective reader who understands
where various events are leading and the engaged reader who experi-
ences an atmosphere of contingency.
A possible motivation for the ultimate form of Thucydides project
especially his means of presentationwas that he was striving to produce
an alternative way to address his fellow Athenians, for participation in
civic affairs was no longer available to him.
3
When Thucydides was sent
into exile in 424 BCE, he could no longer point out the proper course of
action or warn of mistaken policy in the assembly. Exile cut him off from
these opportunities for civic engagement. Yet even in exile Thucydides
strove to engage his fellow citizens and his fellow Greeks, but now it was
no longer in a living, face-to-face conversation; rather it was in a written
medium, aimed at both a more immediate audience (Athenians and other
Greeks ca. 400 BCE) and a more distant audienceas suits a possession
forever.
4
I will explore the events of Thucydides life and their possible
effects on his work more fully in chapters 9 and 10.
The third feature is Thucydides view of the past which grows out of this
atmosphere of open-ended contingency. I will argue that because the read-
er is encouraged to adopt the position of figures within the History and view
what has already happened as part of an indeterminate future, we come to
5 In Dialogue with Thucydides
appreciate the radical nature of Thucydides non-teleological history.
Thucydides repeatedly indicatesboth implicitly and explicitlyhow
events might have taken another direction: there is nothing inevitable
about the course of history. A consequence of Thucydides sort of presen-
tation is that readers may also view the past from this perspective.
Alternative scenarios proliferate in Thucydides work. The History is
continually raising possibilities, revealing alternatives, and considering
hypothetical situations in order to emphasize the contingent nature of the
events of the Peloponnesian War. Thucydides presentation reveals that
events are not governed by divine guidance; history has no ultimate goal
(we might contrast both Homer and Herodotus).
5
This, of course, does not
mean that certain things are not likely to take place, but the open-ended-
ness of Thucydides has not, in my view, been sufficiently recognized.
Flory notes that explicit counterfactual hypotheses occur with compa-
rably high frequency only in the work of Homer and Thucydides, and
thinks these hypotheses mark Thucydides style of speculation as a signif-
icant peculiarity of the History. Flory concludes that Thucydides:
shows us that, in fact, the sequence of events is not inevitable, for the out-
come of a battle often hinges upon tiny and unpredictable accidents.
When Thucydides looks back on the war that Athens lost, he sees that
defeat might have been only the result of a concatenation of trivial
mishaps beyond human control.
6
At times authorial comment and foreshadowing indicate the ultimate
direction of eventsor indeed the outcome of the war itselfyet along the
way Thucydides constantly emphasizes choices and decisions which may
have led to other outcomes. While Flory analyzes explicit hypotheses
expressed in the historians own voice, Thucydides utilizes diverse means
for suggesting alternative scenarios in both speech and narrative. We have
much to learn about Thucydides view of history by applying Florys
insights more broadly.
7
Up to now I have been speaking about the readers experience and the
readers engagement, but the matter is not so simple. The fourth and final
feature for examination is Thucydides special role in the transition from
a predominantly oral culture in fifth-century Athens to a more literate
culture. The issue here is in part that of reception: how Thucydides work
would have been made accessible to other Greeks. Thucydides History
may be regarded as a pivotal work that seeks to recreate the earlier world
of spoken argument, yet it does so as a text that may be read and reread.
6 Chapter 1
While the History may be explored in terms of narrative analysis, this
method needs to be adapted to a work that, in part, may have been heard
rather than read. Ultimately I will argue that Thucydides intended audi-
ence includes both readers and auditors.
In order to locate Thucydides position on the oral-written continuum
in terms of sources, composition, and reception, I would like to provide a
brief sketch of orality and literacy in ancient Greece. There are three sig-
nificant stages for our survey: primary orality (pre-750 BCE), various
stages of proto-literacy (750400 BCE), and the period of alphabetic
dependency (400 BCE and after). The first period, often called the Dark
Ages of Greece, was a 450-year period (1200750 BCE) when no system
of writing existed. Greeks still spoke about the past, but they did so in part
by means of an oral poetic tradition handed down from one generation of
singers to the next. This was a tradition in which the composition, per-
formance, and reception of heroic stories was undertaken without the aid
of any system of writing. This does not mean that the tales told were unso-
phisticated, yet these stories are lost to us because they were never written
downthe technology of writing simply did not exist.
8
In Archaic Greece (beginning in the eighth century BCE), the Greek
alphabet was invented (based on the Phoenician syllabary). This writing
system has continued in use till today (including the Romans adaptation
of it that pretty much constitutes our familiar 26-letter alphabet).
Although from the mid-700s BCE the alphabet existed in the ancient
Greek world (extending in the east to coastal Asia Minor and in the west
to Italy and Sicily), scholars have distinguished between different stages of
literacy. For example, even though the alphabet existed in Homers own
lifetime (during the 700s), the Iliad and the Odyssey are very much prod-
ucts of that oral tradition from the Dark Ages (whether Homer himself was
literate or not remains a controversial question).
9
This second stage might be characterized as a mixed period distinguished
by various degrees of proto-literacy that lasted until about 400 BCE.
10
The
alphabetic system was employed for dedicatory, proprietary, legal, and funer-
ary inscriptions as well as for the recording of epic, lyric, and dramatic verse.
In the fifth century the Athenians large maritime empire required extensive
use of documents, including correspondence, record-keeping, and court
business (among Athenians and also between Athenians and their subject
city-states).
11
Yet even though a new technologythe alphabetic writing
systemexisted throughout this period (750400 BCE), the culture
remained a predominantly oral culture. That is, the mindset of poets, politi-
cians, and thinkers remained to a large degree an oral mindset for 350 years
or more. While the songs of Homer, Sappho, and Pindar were recorded
written down by someone on papyrusthe primary access to these works by
the vast majority of the population was by the ear (they heard them) rather
than by the eye. This was also true of the tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles,
and Euripides that were performed at the festival of Dionysus as well as the
speeches of the Athenian statesman Pericles, heard live and out loud in the
Athenian assembly.
The third stage, beginning right around the year 400 BCE, has been
called the era of alphabetic dependency or alphabetic literacy. For the first
time poets and thinkers composed works that were intended to be read by
their audiences (readers) rather than heard. We see this new sensibility
also reflected in the court system in which written documents of a witness
testimony supplanted the spoken words of that witness; also lawsuits had
to accord with written law. Robb concludes: By the early fourth century,
writing and documents manifestly are becoming a presumption of the daily
functioning of the courts and of legal procedures.
12
Robb also argues that in Aristotles Lyceum in the mid-fourth century
educational activity . . . indisputably centered around its characteristic
texts.
13
By this time the transition to a book-reading public (however
elite) was complete. There is much else to be said, but I trust that this
admittedly sketchy and simplified survey provides a context for the inno-
vations of Thucydides.
A pivotal work analyzing the transition from the second stage of proto-
literacy to the third stage of alphabetic literacy is Preface to Plato (1963)
by Eric Havelock whose interest lies in the classical period (fifth and
fourth centuries BCE). Havelock argues that it was not until Plato in the
fourth century that someone recognized the potentialand the prob-
lemsof writing for a reading public. Although forty years ago this was an
extremely controversial idea, it has now become largely accepted that dur-
ing this second period from roughly 750400 BCE there was a long, grad-
ual shift from an audience that learned by hearing, memorizing, and
reciting spoken discourse to a perhaps relatively select audience that
would read and reread written texts.
Plato grew up in a fifth-century oral culture, but he augurs a new era by
his reflections on written literature. Allow me to briefly describe the situ-
ation Plato faced. Someone would ask a question: Is Pericles wise? The
answer given might well be based on a recollection of earlier literature,
often a passage from Homer (what Havelock calls the Homeric encyclo-
pedia). In Platos Republic (from the second quarter of the fourth centu-
ry), the figure of Socrates is still complaining that Homer educated Hellas
8 Chapter 1
. . . and people live their entire lives according to this poet (Rep. 606e).
Havelock argues that the cultural situation described by Plato is one in
which oral communication still dominates all the important relationships
and valid transactions of life.
14
According to Havelock, part of Platos
response to this situation was a new type of discourse (dialectic), but he
also developed his philosophy of the forms (ideai). The true realitythe
formswas unchanging, immaterial, and knowable, unlike the words of
the poets that could be twisted to suit a particular context. Platos ideas
were fixed and absolutelike writingand provided a new way for think-
ing about the world. Robb describes Platos role:
To appreciate Plato in the context of his time requires our seeing him as
both the great heir of a still dominantly oral culturein place by habit or
preference, not technological necessityand simultaneously its destroyer.
. . . [Plato] finally destroyed the cultural situation in which for most peo-
ple, high and low, important knowledge was transmitted across genera-
tions orally, in performances.
15
But was Plato the first to recognize the drawbacks of a primarily oral cul-
ture? Was he the first to anticipate the potential of writing? I would like to
go back one generation to that of Thucydides. The dates of the composition
of Thucydides History are certain: 431ca. 400 BCE (1.1, 5.26). In view of
this fact, the intellectual climate of Thucydides lifetime may help us to posi-
tion the History in its cultural context. Thucydides (465?ca. 400 BCE) was
also raised in fifth-century Athens which consisted primarily of an oral cul-
ture. In the law courts and political assemblies, at the dramatic festivals,
even encountering Socrates in the agora, intellectual exchange took place
orally in a live, face-to-face, and often spontaneous manner. The Sophists
dazzled the public by presenting display pieces; they also offered instruction
for how to be successful in public speaking contests. This was very much a
performance culture. Yet in the fourth century, we find the beginnings of
a reading culture, in which literature and ideas were composed in writing for
a reading audience. Thucydides sits on the cusp of that transition from a
predominantly oral culture to the beginnings of a new self-awareness for lit-
erature that was meant to be read.
One of the fascinating aspects of Thucydides History is that it is a writ-
ten text, yet it still recreates the dynamism of oral exchange.
16
The quali-
ty of engagement found in Thucydides work mentioned above derives
in part from the innovative nature of this work. That is, this work still
retains the habits and practices of the oral culture Thucydides grew up in
yet he, like Plato, also had a sensitivity and self-awareness of written liter-
atures potential. Thucydides was, I believe, engaged in a projectanalo-
gous to what Plato did for philosophyby challenging the ways in which
Greeks thought about the past. And like Platos creation of a literary
Socrates, Thucydides has recreated the political arena in Greece with
respect to fifth-century oral debate and to military strategy and battle.
17
Both Thucydides and Plato, the first two great authors of Attic prose, were
responding to the same conditions of restricted literacy in essentially the
same period. Thucydides obviously intended his written work to address a
contemporary audience in some manner and he seems to have anticipat-
ed, at least in part, an audience of listeners.
By exploring the History from this perspective, I hope to bring
Thucydides into the debate surrounding the long transition from orality to
literacy in Ancient Greece. Thucydides deserves greater attention for his
self-conscious reflections on the issues of oral and written sources, presen-
tation, and reception. Preceding Plato by a generation, he grandly pro-
nounces that his work will be a possession for all time (1.22.4). This
suggests an awareness of the capacity of a written work to transcend the
moment in ways that ephemeral speech and performance cannot.
18
The
result is that my method of exploring Thucydides presentation of speech
and narrative is basically a narratological approach but we must under-
stand the unique features of its compositional structure in terms of the cul-
ture of the historians own time and place. The reception of Thucydides
workby both readers and auditorswill be addressed in the final two
chapters.
These are the four features I will explore: the presentation of speech and
narrative, the readers experiences, Thucydides view of history, and
Thucydides as a transitional figure between oral and literary culture. I am
not advancing a single overarching thesis. One thing I have learned is that
it is a mistake to try to reduce Thucydides complex work to a single argu-
ment. In fact, Thucydides himself apparently delights in setting up a the-
sis and then later undermining that argument by showing its weaknesses
and inconsistencies. Whatever success I have had in grappling with
Thucydides has come when I have focused on particular problems or spe-
cific events: this is the path I will follow in this book.
Many scholars have influenced my interpretation of Thucydides. I have
already mentioned Havelock, Flory, and Robb. Regarding Thucydides narra-
tive, works by Connor, Hornblower, de Jong, Rood, and Stahl have also been
especially valuable.
19
Provocative work on Platos dialogues by Blondell and
Hershbell offers many insights relevant to the interactive, dialogic nature
10 Chapter 1
of Thucydides work.
20
Concerning contingent historyand against seeing
the past as inevitableFlory is joined by Bernstein, Ferguson, Gould, Stahl,
and Varnadoe.
21
Regarding oral culture and literacy in antiquity, I should
mention the scholarship of Edmunds, Harris, Ong, and Thomas.
22
In addition to such scholarly works, a major influence upon my analy-
sis has been my own personal experience, in reading, probing, and teach-
ing Thucydides. As teachers know, the words of Thucydides (and Platos)
textsboth in substance and styleare ideal prompts for discussion that
can lead to conflicting interpretations of what Thucydides is up to. This is
no accident; rather, Thucydides has adopted a means of presenting the war
so that the reader plays a role in testing, analyzing, and extrapolating.
The organization of this book is as follows. Chapter 2 presents a fuller dis-
cussion of how Thucydides techniques force readers to become active partic-
ipants in assessing and anticipating events. These basic techniquesmultiple
perspective, authorial reticence, and episodic structureengage both the ret-
rospective reader and the engaged reader, who is encouraged to relive the
past as though the outcome were still in doubt.
In Part Two. Participatory, Punctuated, and Retrospective History:
Corcyra, Plataea, and Melos, chapters 3, 4, and 5 will examine how
Thucydides presentation of particular city-states encourages different
sorts of participation on the readers part. Chapter 3 analyzes participato-
ry history, in which Thucydides encourages the reader to consider events
in the Corcyrean conflict from the perspective of the participants
involved; indeed, we come to appreciate how Thucydides presents actions
and argument in such a way that the reader may re-experience them and
become engaged with questions, such as the inevitability of the war. In
chapter 4, the city of Plataea offers an excellent example of punctuated
presentation, as Thucydides links speech and narrative across separate
episodes. Especially important are the ways in which early action leads to
later consequences and the manner in which speakers reinterpret past
events. Chapter 5 argues that the true significance of Athens conflict
with Melos may be best understood in terms of retrospective engage-
ment, for the reader is led back to earlier juxtapositions of speech and
event which offer lessons pertinent to this particular conflict. Each
cityCorcyra, Plataea, and Melosoffers a different sort of challenge to
the reader. Certainly Part Two is not comprehensive: I have selected what
I believe to be representative examples of Thucydides presentation of
cities arguments, actions, and the consequences of those actions.
23
In Part Three. Argument and Reverberation: Comparison, Maxim,
and Metaphor, chapters 6, 7, and 8 explore how rhetorical language pre-
sents a different sort of challenge to the reader. Chapter 6 explores the
comparison between cities and individuals that raises questions about the
behavior, character, and interaction of cities. In chapter 7, we find that
maxims often bridge the gap between domestic politics and international
conflict. Chapter 8 focuses on Thucydides use of metaphorical phrases,
such as Athens, the tyrant-city, which suggest comparisons for the read-
ers investigation. Thucydides work as a wholeeven though indis-
putably unfinishedachieves a kind of unity due to these recurrent
comparisons, maxims, and metaphors.
In Part Four. Biography and Reception, chapter 9 considers
Thucydides explicit claims and probable motivations for his work, while
reflecting upon the events in his own life. Chapter 10 explores the recep-
tion of his work, for both readers and auditorsancient and modernare
addressed by the History. In chapters 3 through 8, I refer to Thucydides
reader and the sort of engagement available to a reading audience. Since
this may differ from how Thucydides envisioned the reception for his
work, these final chapters examine the ways in which Thucydides, while
privileging his own work as writtenand therefore superior to oral dis-
courseinvites the engagement of both readers and auditors.
My intended audience includes scholars and specialists in ancient his-
tory, philosophy, politics, and literature, yet I hope that my discussion will
also interest those studying the transition from orality to literacy in the
ancient world. I have attempted to shed new light on many important pas-
sages and themes in Thucydides so that undergraduate and graduate stu-
dents in history and classics may find particular chapters useful to their
study and research. With these readers in mind, all passages are presented
either in English (with key Greek phrases inserted) or in Greek with an
English translation following.
While exploring Thucydides presentation and his techniques, I hope
to offer a greater appreciation of his innovations. Thucydides reveals his
own awareness of doing something novel. Indeed, he presents a new way
of viewing the past, seeks to present accurately speeches and events,
claims everlasting value for his work, and suggests the advantages of writ-
ten over oral communication. Thucydides recognized that it is possible to
transcend ones own immediate circumstancesthe here and nowbut it
is impossible to do so if you go to the agora, the Pnyx, or the Theater of
Dionysus. To transcend the moment with words, you must use words that
will live beyond your own lifetime. Thucydides phrase, a possession for-
ever (kth=ma& te e0j ai0ei/1.22.4), suggests a broad conception of his tar-
get audience, not limited to the immediate postwar Greek world. He
includes us, too, as modern readers.
24
12 Chapter 1
2
The Readers Task
he goal of this chapter is to examine in greater depth how Thucydides
Tunusual sort of presentation forces readers (and auditors) to become
active participants. Thucydides achieves this effect by using several inter-
related techniques, in particular, multiple perspective, authorial reticence,
and episodic structure. The major effects are a balanced presentation and
the absence of rhetorical and military closure that induce the reader to take
on an active role. Before turning to techniques and effects, I will speak
briefly about focalization and the reader, who is encouraged to engage in
extrapolation and conjecture (eikazein) with respect to both the past and
future. Subsequent chapters will present detailed analyses of specific con-
flicts and arguments. My larger goal in this book is to understand
Thucydides authorial strategies and to recover the experience of reading
the History, though I reiterate that in the final two chapters I will consid-
er the reception by both readers and auditors.
In the introductory chapter I mentioned the value of the concept of
focalization. In general terms, focalization means that Thucydides
chooses to present actions or experiences from a particular point of view.
Primary focalization refers to the presentation of events through the per-
spective of the narrator. Yet frequently Thucydides introduces secondary
(or embedded) focalization when events are seen through the eyes of those
involved.
1
Thucydides may explicitly signal such secondary focalization by
indicating an intellectual or emotional experience of an individual or
group within the History: they noticed, wanting . . . , fearing . . . ,
etc. To be sure, at times Thucydides merely describes what someone does
or what happens and there is no heightened sense that we are meant to
view that event from the point of view of someone involved. Such passages
often convey a more objective and distant feel. Quite frequently, howev-
er, Thucydides chooses to invite us to view the action from the point of
view of a particular figure or group; indeed, his success in engaging his
reader in large part derives from such embedded focalization.
2
13
Morrison_CH2_3rd.qxp 9/28/2006 2:43 PM Page 13
It may be useful to distinguish such intellectual or psychological
focalization of perception and emotion from what we might call rhetori-
cal focalization. When Thucydides presents speeches (or speeches report-
ed in the third person), he is also offering us the perspective of those
involvedthat is, it is a type of secondary focalization. Yet a speech is a
more public way of presenting someones perspective and contrasts signif-
icantly with the more private and internal perceptions and emotions men-
tioned above. When speeches present a point of view, there is an
objectivity to the words spokenwhether the report is direct or indi-
rectwhile with psychological focalization, Thucydides allows us to get
into the characters head with more private intellectual and emotional
focalization.
3
In addition to discussing focalization, I should consider the readers
task. For the purposes of analysis in chapters 38, I will limit my discussion
to the hypothetical reader constructed from Thucydides text. This read-
er, implied by the History, reads the narrative and speeches as Thucydides
has structured them. While it is possible to distinguish a first-time reader
from a re-reader or a modern reader from an ancient one, I would like to
employ the idea of a double perspective for this implied reader.
4
On one
side, it is possible for the reader to enjoy a leisurely, distant view by look-
ing at events in retrospect: this first perspective is that of the distant or
retrospective reader, who knows the course of the war in outline, with
the Athenian defeat in 404 providing the terminus towards which events
are headed. There is, however, a second viewpoint: the engaged perspec-
tive. We find Thucydides employing techniques that produce a vivid, par-
ticipatory experience for the engaged reader.
5
From this perspective, the
reader must respond actively in contemplating past possibilities and
potential future events.
I acknowledge that retrospective readers may still be engaged in some
sense and that readers with a more immediate perspective may still ana-
lyze the situation. And at some level, every reader is simultaneously aware
of both aspects. Nevertheless, the distinction between the distant and
engaged reader may prove useful, provided we remain cognizant of how the
reader is led to switch back and forth between these two perspectives.
6
At
times, Thucydides encourages a more distant or passive mode by overtly
connecting one sequence, episode, or event with another, but much more
commonly finding those connections and juxtaposing relevant passages
remains the task of the reader.
7
This forces the reader to participate active-
ly in creating the meaning of the History. For example, when Cleon says
that the Athenian empire is a tyranny, the reader should hear the near-echo
14 Chapter 2
of Pericles (3.37.2; cf. 2.63.2). Because of the interruption (3 years and
some 50 pages)and Thucydides failure in book 3 explicitly to highlight
this echowhen this significant reminiscence occurs, it is the readers
task to connect the two sections, compare the contexts, and judge whether
the same idea is being expressed and how such a metaphor might apply to
the new situation.
8
In the Corcyrean conflict (1.2455) explored in chap-
ter 3, the reader may juxtapose ideas and themes from this episode
with (a) earlier sections of the History (the Preface, Archaeology and
Methodology1.123); (b) later sections of book 1 and the war books
(28); and (c) the circumstances of the readers own experience and world.
9
As I have mentioned above, in chapters 38 when I refer to Thucydides
and the reader (or auditor), strictly speaking I mean the narrator and the
implied or hypothetical reader. I limit my initial analysis to contemplating
the implied readers experience in order to lay the basis for our apprecia-
tion of Thucydides History. I am not overly fond of jargon (narratee still
makes me wince), and my feeling is that theoretical distinctions are valu-
able only as a means to an end. Yet positing an implied reader with a dou-
ble perspective and employing the concept of focalization will bring us
closer to our goal. The important point is that when Thucydides and read-
ers (or auditors) are mentioned in chapters 38, these entities are recon-
structions based on the text. Having said this, I am extremely interested
in the historians life and times and in actual readers, both ancient and
modern. I will turn to the historians biography and the experience of actu-
al flesh and blood readers in chapters 9 and 10. But until then I believe
analyzing the experience of the hypothetical reader implied by the text will
be a productive way to approach the diverse challenges of Thucydides
History.
10
Without being too loose in terminology, I will do my best to
write in a reasonable and accessible way.
To return to the double lens of the reader: when Thucydides demands
an engaged, participatory attitude on the part of the reader, in a sense, he
is asking the reader to suspend previous knowledge of subsequent events.
The effect is that readers at some level are able to project themselves into
the past situation as constructed by Thucydides. Thucydides can be espe-
cially effective in recreating past events, offering the reader an opportuni-
ty to relive that particular situation. Connor describes this aspect of
Thucydides text as experiential or participatory, and characterizes
him as a writer who keeps drawing his readers into the narrative of events
until they feel they are themselves present, actually experiencing them.
11
Of course, such an experience is vicarious; nevertheless, this is a deliber-
ate effect of Thucydides techniques.
15 The Readers Task
The best model for both engaged and distant readers may be found in
Thucydides description of what historians and politicians are able to do.
Concerning the engaged reader, Thucydides praises statesmen who have
the capacity to see likenesses, extrapolate from present evidence and cir-
cumstances, and attempt to foresee the probable course of events. He
uses the word eikazein and related words: to compare and to make
conjectures on the basis of comparisons.
12
For example, the statesman
Themistocles successfully looks to the future, anticipating the impor-
tance of walls for Athenian autonomy (1.9091), the potential for the
Piraeus as a port (1.93.3), and the link between sea power and Athenian
dominance (1.93.34). Summing up his ability, Thucydides calls
Themistocles the finest at forecasting (opioo, ti|ooq,1.138.3).
13
To the extent that engaged readers project themselves into the situations
Thucydides presents, they too can extrapolate from past contexts and
anticipate later events.
14
Alternatively, in contemplating our task as retrospective readers, we
should note that in some situations the readers labor is not unlike that of
the historian. In the Archaeology, Thucydides reasons that accounts of
the Greeks journeying to Troy might serve as a basis for approximating the
scope of previous expeditions. We must make reasonable conjectures
[ti|otiv t _pq ] from this expedition about other expeditions before that
time (1.9.4).
15
In this instance the historian uses Homeric evidence to
establish a view of the capabilities of military ventures in early Greece.
Surely in the year 431 Thucydides himself engaged in the process of con-
jecture (eikazein) toward the future. At the start of the war, he expected
(elpisas) the war would be great and more noteworthy to record (axiologo-
taton) than previous wars (1.1.1). In a sense, Thucydides has challenged
his reader to take on the labor which he, as historian, has taken up in
attempting to discover what actually happened. Thucydides address to
the reader in 1.22 (with its many purposes) follows his discussion of the
historians labor to find the truth in spite of bias and inaccuracy. Others,
such as poets and political orators, do not rigorously examine accounts of
the past. For his part, Thucydides has found that participants in recent
events do not say the same thing due to favoritism or (lapses of) memory
(tuvoio, q vqq,1.22.3). An awareness of inconsistent accounts,
untested variants, and the labor necessary to uncover the truth offers a pic-
ture of what the historian must contend with. By the same token, the
History we encounterwith its multiple perspective and other chal-
lengesforces the reader to negotiate some of the same problems which
the historian has had to confront.
16 Chapter 2
The readers reward will be a type of wisdom. Yet if my work is judged use-
ful (ophelima) by as many as wish to look clearly at both past events and
those in the future which, in accordance with human nature, will be sim-
ilar and will resemble past events, that will suffice. (1.22.4)
Thucydides suggests that his retrospective reader may gain a clear under-
standing of the past, and that this understanding offers something useful:
he postulates the idea of repetition of the same sorts of events in the
future. But the apprehension of such similar situations requires a facility
for judgment and comparison (eikazein)the same intellectual and imag-
inative capacity Thucydides has implied is necessary for historians. The rel-
evance for us is that Thucydides has set up a dynamic situation and
challenged his readers to engage in the activities of extrapolation, conjec-
ture, and predictionboth from the engaged perspective (that of the par-
ticipants) and from the distant perspective (that of the historian).
16
I now turn to the techniques found in the History which offer this spe-
cial type of experience for the reader. A number of features are essential
for constructing what I broadly call the recreation of the political arena of
fifth-century Greece. First, we find that Thucydides employs multiple per-
spective in both speech and narrative. In the Corcyrean conflict (1.2455),
for example, both Corcyra and Corinth present arguments; as the internal
audience, the Athenians offer a third perspective. The reader is implicitly
asked to view that conflict from these three points of view and needs to be
critical of what is said in speeches, evaluating whatever claims are made.
We find speech and narrative structured in such a way as to encourage us
to adopt diverse points of view: actively from Corcyrean and Corinthian
perspectives and deliberatively from the position of Athens.
In thinking about the experience of reading this text, I have found use-
ful Yunis notion of instructional rhetoric, which, Yunis argues, renders
the governing body capable of autonomous, conscientious decision-mak-
ing.
17
This political exchange suggests a model for reading the text of
Thucydides. A politician may instruct his citizens concerning the best pol-
icy; so, according to Yunis, Thucydides instructs his readers about
Athenian policy through Pericles speeches.
18
The readers critical evalu-
ation of the speeches will lead to a more knowledgeable position from
which to think about politics, conflict, and war. By actively analyzing the
speeches, the reader may be in a better position (like Themistocles or
Pericles) to judge what can or should be done in a particular situation.
Evidently Thucydides has decided that to achieve such an appreciation,
the reader must be exposed to more than one viewpoint.
19
17 The Readers Task
We also find multiple perspective in Thucydides presentation of action
in the narrative. He frequently switches points of view, allowing the read-
er to see how the battle of Sybota (1.4455), for example, was experienced
by several of the participants through the use of secondary or embedded
focalization. I would suggest that the equivalent of the viewpoints offered
in paired speeches (rhetorical focalization) is the multiple perspective on
action found in the narrative (intellectual or emotional focalization). One
of the ways in which Thucydides makes his history useful (opheli-
ma1.22.4) for his reader is by refraining from offering a single, authorita-
tive account of events.
20
Thus in both speech and narrative the reader is
invited to see events from the point of view of the participants: speakers,
audience, soldiers, politicians, and others.
Simply offering multiple perspectives by itself does not guarantee the
readers active involvement; such engagement is also promoted by author-
ial reticence. It has been noted that Thucydides frequently refrains from
commenting upon or judging speech and narrativehe is very sparing in
intruding his opinions.
21
He generally does not actively promote one group
over another. He tells us The Plataeans spoke . . . , The Thebans spoke
. . . , The Athenians made the following decisions. . . . Yet he neither
openly condemns either set of speakers for inconsistent or fallacious argu-
ments, nor does he explicitly endorse, say, the voting of the Athenians. As
a result, the feature of multiple perspective coupled with authorial reti-
cence activates the evaluative capacities of his audience; the reader must
step in to assess the validity of claims and to judge the diplomatic and mil-
itary strategies employed. In fact, Thucydides audience would be familiar
with such authorial reticence, for it is also found in Homer. As Aristotle
says in the Poetics:
Among Homers many other laudable attributes is his graspunique
among epic poetsof his status as a poet. For the poet himself should
speak as little as possible, since when he does so he is not engaging in
mimesis . . . Homer, after a short preamble, at once brings onto stage a
man, woman, or some other figure. (Poetics ch. 24, 1460a511)
22
Although at times Thucydides goes a long way toward distancing himself
from poets (e.g., 1.21; cf. 2.41.4), both Homer and Thucydides exemplify
the principle articulated by Aristotle regarding restraint in explicit autho-
rial commentary.
One effect of Thucydides use of multiple perspective and authorial ret-
icence is what might be called a balanced presentation. Because Thucydides
18 Chapter 2
offers differing perspectives, the reader gets the impression of an equitable
presentation. This does not mean that Thucydides is totally disinterested;
he does not objectively present only the events themselves. There is, of
course, a careful process of selection and placement that creates a variety
of intellectual and emotional experiences for the reader. In many conflicts,
however, we are told both sides motivations before argument and action;
each side is given equal opportunity to put forward an argument; battles
are viewed from the perspectives of the various sides involved.
Thucydides section on methodology anticipates such an equitable
approach. Flory has argued that when Thucydides characterizes his histo-
ry as lacking what is often translated as the romantic element or the sto-
rytelling element (o uot,1.22.4), we should understand the
expression in a political sense. In this context, o uot, means patri-
otic stories, stories which exaggerate and celebrate the glories of war.
23
If
this interpretation is right, Thucydides is warning us early on that he will
be avoiding chauvinism; he will offer no biased or exaggerated stories of
Athenian patriotismor of any other city-state. By using multiple per-
spective and reining in his own opinions, Thucydides strives to achieve an
evenhanded presentation.
Another effect of Thucydides type of presentation is a lack of closure in
rhetorical and military conflict. In speech, the arguments do not general-
ly achieve a satisfying conclusion. While some decision is reached (to
make an alliance, to declare war, etc.), the issues brought up are not dealt
with definitively. One such issue is the relevance of morality to foreign pol-
icy. The Athenians consistently argue against cities acting justly toward
one another and de Ste. Croix endorses this view as revealing Thucydides
own beliefs.
24
This viewpoint, however, is only a part of a dialogue. The
historian allows opposing viewpoints to be expressed, but seldom passes
judgment in his own voice. From a sophistic point of view, it is possible to
argue persuasively both sides of the argument, and it may well be true that
a fixed, authoritative perspectivea single viewwould oversimplify
such complex situations.
25
This is in the nature of dialogue, at least in
Thucydides use of it. My point is that because such issues are not resolved
wholly one way or the other, because Thucydides refrains from comment-
ing on the validity of these arguments, the reader is forced to consider
both arguments, to inspect the consequences of following one course of
action rather than the other, and ultimately is left with a deeper under-
standing of the complexities of the political situation and the rhetoric
which attempts to describe it. If there is to be any resolution, it is the read-
er who must provide it.
26
19 The Readers Task
We find a similar situation regarding the narrative, although here we
must assess this lack of closure from both a local and a more distant per-
spective. From a local perspectivein the context of each narrative
episodewhen Thucydides offers no commentary, it is the reader who must
assign significance to the various events presented. Of course, Thucydides
implies that certain facts are significant by including those facts and not oth-
ers, but seldom will he remark this is important, or the significance of the
following is . . . .
27
Lack of closure may here be better recast as lack of guid-
ance on Thucydides part. Again the reader must actively evaluate. From a
more distant perspectivewhen an episode is set in the broader context of
the entire Historywe find a different type of absence of closure, one that
requires a different sort of involvement for the reader. Thucydides generally
does not make explicit connections between one episode and a later one
even one deserving comparison because of cause and effect, the same par-
ticipants, or similar (or significantly reversed) contexts. In chapter 4, I will
examine how the four separate episodes involving Plataea present many
challenges to the reader, in part due to Thucydides lack of guidance con-
cerning the significant connections between these episodes. The Corcyrean
conflict is unusual in that Thucydides explicitly links this dispute to the out-
break of the war, that is, Thucydides tells us how this section relates to the
war which book 2 presents (1.23.6, 1.55.2; cf. 1.146). Still in 1.2455 the
speeches and narrative are typical in that Thucydides does not draw explic-
it connections between a particular argument or strategy in this episode and
other parts of the History, even though such features reverberate in a vari-
ety of ways throughout this work.
28
Another way to describe the History is to characterize it as episodic or
punctuated, deriving from the entrances and exits of the major partici-
pants, central issues, and striking metaphors in various conflicts. By episod-
ic I do not mean the sort of thing Aristotle discusses in the Poetics where
he criticizes the lack of unity in many works (see Poetics ch. 17, 1455b13; cf.
ch. 8, 1451a1635). The extraordinary thing about Thucydides Historyin
spite of the fact that it is clearly unfinished and does not bring us down to
the end of the war in 404is that its design is immensely rich because of
the way it engages the reader by building links from early sections to later
ones: echoes and reminiscences are integral to the ethos of the work, regard-
less of the abrupt end in the year 411. Given the often pejorative sense of
episodic (and annalistic does not do much better), perhaps a better label
is punctuated history: Thucydides presents one episode after another, each
as a discrete point or unit (punctum), yet each is related to other events and
ideas in a multitude of ways.
29
20 Chapter 2
With regard to figures and city-states, the larger movement of
Thucydides History follows what we might call presentation, interruption,
and resumptionthat is, punctuated history. After key figures or cities
appear and play their roles on center-stage (presentation), Thucydides then
shifts his attention to a new context without telling us, for example, the
aftermath in Corcyra (interruption). The chronological framework that fol-
lows winter and summer, year by year, inevitably makes the reading experi-
ence fragmentary or punctuated in this sense. Only in reaching the events
of the year 431 or 427 do we learn what happened in Corcyra after 433
(resumption).
The effects of this strict chronologyan organizational decision on
Thucydides partare tremendous. Each figure, each city, each idea
once introducedis not kept continually before our eyes. Due to the fact
that so many of these figures, cities, and themes inevitably return at some
later point in the History, each episode retains a to-be-continued feel. It
is incumbent upon the reader to keep track of the details and circum-
stances. The issues raised in the speeches, and the strategies and maneu-
vers described in the narrative will reappear with relevance outside the
original context. Although in a local sense rhetorical and military conflicts
receive some sort of provisional pause, the figures and ideas return later in
the work in other situations: the reader must be in a position to juxtapose
those later sequences with the earlier episodes. Now that we have consid-
ered Thucydides techniquesmultiple perspective, authorial reticence,
and episodic structure (or punctuated presentation)and the common
effects of balanced presentation and avoidance of closure, let us examine
specific conflicts involving Corcyra, Plataea, and Melos.
21 The Readers Task
Notes
Chapter One
1. White (1984), 88. Kitto (1966, 298) labels this Thucydides method of
immediacy. Connor (1984, 16) adds that readers had to be led to reexperience
the war, to live through it again. Orwin (1994, 4) remarks on the vicarious expe-
rience of the events that he describes.
2. As Connor (1985, 12) puts it: The historians job is to investigate, com-
pile, select, edit and present. The readers half, the greater half, is to react, to assess,
and thereby to learn. Kitto (1966, 349) describes the readers task as kind of col-
laborative, less purely intellectual and more imaginative.
3. I recognize that Thucydides began his enterprise while still in Athens and
that he lived as a citizen (and general) for seven years before his exile (1.1.1,
4.1048, 5.26). The question I am raising is whether the ultimate form of the
History may reflect the motivations suggested here. Pondering Thucydides possi-
ble motivations is certainly a speculative venture and brings us dangerously close
to the question of composition, which I will not address.
4. Here, too, we may find shared ground with Plato and what led him to com-
pose written dialogues. After Socrates was condemned to death by a democratic jury
in 399 BCE, Plato left Athens, his polis, to go to Megara. When he returned to the
city, he may well have felt thatgiven the consequences for Socratesit was too
dangerous to engage in the sort of dialogue and aggressive interrogations Socrates
practiced upon his fellow citizens. However much Plato may have emulated
Socrates, it was clearly risky to do what Socrates had done. Plato was no longer in
exile, but he did set up his school outside the walls of the city, apart from where the
courts and the assembly met. This is not where Socrates engaged his fellow
Athenians (see Phaedrus 230d). Plato distanced himself geographically from the cen-
ter of politics and of power. He also distanced himself by using written dialogue
rather than spoken conversation to engage his fellow citizens outside the Academy.
When the world had changed in ways beyond their control, both Plato and
Thucydides turned instead to a larger audience and to later generations.
5. Yet Homers narrative may not be wholly consistent: on the inevitability
of events, see Morrison (1992, 1997); on causation in Herodotus, see Lateiner
(1989, 189210).
6. See Flory (1988, 49, 55). From the number of these hypotheses and the
high degree of speculation, Flory infers Thucydides sensitivity to possible alter-
native sequences. See also Stahl (2003, especially 9093).
199
Morrison_Notes_3rd.qxp 9/28/2006 2:46 PM Page 199
7. It is notable that in the past decade some fascinating work along these lines
has explored more recent events under the rubric virtual history. Ferguson
(1997) speaks of thinking counterfactually by imagining possible alternatives to
what has actually happened in the past. In his introductory essay, Ferguson seeks
to limit counterfactual thinkingand the idea of virtual historyto those cases
where options and data were actually available to figures in question at the time
and only when explicit mention is made of such a possibility in contemporary doc-
uments (12). For example, in the early days of World War Two, individualsand
the governments of several countriesanticipated a successful German invasion
of England: see Roberts and Ferguson, Hitlers England in Ferguson (1997,
281320). As Ferguson notes, a classic essay of this sort is Bury (1964).
8. There were actually two systems of writing; before the alphabet in the
eighth century, there was a syllabic system used by the Mycenaean Greeks in the
Bronze Age (16001200 BCE). By the 1950s scholars had deciphered these linear
B tablets as Greek. Its use was evidently restricted to a group of professional scribes
who kept palace inventory accounts. With the collapse of Mycenaean civilization
(after 1200 BCE), this system of writing vanished.
9. Three types of evidence endorse this view of Homers epics as growing out
of an oral tradition: internal evidence such as scenes in the Odyssey of singers
(Phemius and Demodocus) performing before audiences; stylistic evidence, such as
Parrys work on noun-epithet pairs (see M. Parry 1971); and modern comparative
studies of twentieth-century oral (often illiterate) singers; see Lord (2000).
10. See Robb (1994, 253).
11. Nicias letter sent to the Athenian assembly (7.815) is discussed in chap-
ters 9 and 10. On the interconnections between literacy and education and law,
see Robb (1994). Certainly many fascinating questions arise concerning the Greek
alphabet, literacy, and the development of democracy (the alphabet is easily
learned with its small set of letters and the fact that it is phonetic); for an inter-
esting argument in this regard, see Steiner (1994).
12. Robb (1994, 140); see 209 n8. Havelock (1963, 4748) distinguishes
between non-literacy (primary orality), craft literacy, semi-literacy, and full literacy.
13. Robb (1994, 253).
14. Havelock (1963, 38).
15. Robb (1994, 218).
16. In fact, Havelock (1963, 123) claims that Thucydides project requires a
shift in consciousness, for in an oral culture, strictly speaking, an historical time
sense is impossible. Havelock (1986, 17) posits that by the time of the fourth cen-
tury, not only had Greek literacy changed . . . the means of communication, but
also the shape of the Greek consciousness. These claims regarding a different sort
of consciousness must remain speculative. Havelock (1982, 10) also remarks that
the speeches in Thucydides provide a fascinating study of the interweave between
oral and written styles of vocabulary and syntax. He then asserts that Thucydides
confirms by his position in the chronology of the transition the thesis that Athens
was becoming literate only as late as the period of the Peloponnesian War (21).
17. Robb (1994, 23536) says that the Platonic dialogues should be thought
of as textbooks which put students in direct contact with the methods of
Socrates and notes that the dialogues might be seen as transitional texts.
200
Notes to Chapter 1
Nightingale (1995, 5) argues that Plato is introducing and defining a radically dis-
cursive practice, which he calls philosophy. Havelock (1963, 56 n16) remarks
that Thucydides was the first Attic author to extrapolate written memoranda into
continuous written discourse, just as Plato and Isocrates were the first to adapt sus-
tained oral teaching to the same end. He also argues that Thucydides remark at
1.22.4 about his possession forever, surely identifies the permanent influence of
a manuscript stylistically composed for readers, as against the more ephemeral
effects of a composition designed for recitation at an oral competition (54 n8).
Havelock (1986, 16) speculates about the historians whose methods of managing
prose surely offered an alternative, and perhaps a rival, to Platos own type of dis-
course. See Turasiewicz (1990, esp. 85) on Thucydides nouvelle forme de
prsentation.
18. Havelock (1963, 46) argues that it is roughly down to the death of
Euripides [406] that Greek poetry enjoyed an almost unchallenged monopoly of
preserved communication, noting that the first magisterial composition in Attic,
equaling in length the achievements of epic poetry, was the history of Thucydides.
Thus, while the last half of the fifth century begins to see the acceptance of prose
as a viable means of publication, acceptance does not become complete until the
fourth. Platos work comes at a time when Greek orality was giving way to Greek
literacy and . . . an oral state of mind was to be replaced by a literate state of mind
(Havelock [1986], 8). More recently Thomas (1993, 2000, 2003) has explored
these problems with respect to Herodotus and his contemporaries. For proposed dif-
ferences between oral and written discourse, see Ong (1982, 3177).
19. Especially valuable have been Connor (1984, 1985), Gribble (1998),
Hornblower (1994), and Rood (1998a). I will make references to Stahl (2003), the
revised and somewhat expanded English version of Stahl (1966, 1973). Work by
de Jong (1987, 1997, 2001, 2002), while directed at Homer, Herodotus, and Greek
tragedy, has also suggested application to Thucydides work. (For a fuller bibliog-
raphy on narratology applied to ancient literature, see de Jong and Sullivan [1994],
28283.) Because my approach focuses on the readers experience, I have also
found reader-response criticism such as Iser (1974) valuable (full bibliography in
de Jong and Sullivan [1994], 28485).
20. Blondell (2002), Hershbell (1995).
21. In addition to Flory (1988), see also Bernstein (1995), Cowley et al.
(1998), Ferguson (1997), Gould (1989), Kagan (1995), Stahl (2003), and
Varnadoe (1990). Some of my own work on Homeric epic along these lines has
guided the current exploration; see Morrison (1997). There is also the What If
history series; see Cowley (2001), for example.
22. Recent work offering a broader view of literacy in the ancient world
includes W. V. Harris (1989), Robb (1994), and Thomas (1989, 1992, 1993,
2003). For the issue of literacy in Thucydides, see Loraux (1986b), Edmunds
(1993), Marincola (1997), and Morrison (2004). Also valuable have been the vol-
umes from the biennial Orality meetings that began in 1994, e.g., Mackay (1999)
and Mackie (2004).
23. While I do explore several passages from book 6 in chapters 9 and 10, the
Sicilian Expedition is intelligently discussed by Stahl (2003, 173222).
24. Havelock (1982, 148) reminds us that the historian of the Peloponnesian
201 Notes to Chapter 1
War, while still a bard in the sense that he is a celebrant of the great deeds of
heroes, is himself modernized and literate, a singer no more but now a self-styled
writer. While Havelock (1963, 186) also comments, it is only the reflective mind
of the sophisticated reader, who rereads and reviews the text, I will attempt to
modify this view in chapters 9 and 10.
Chapter Two
1. Hornblower (1994, 134) defines focalization as different perspectives or
points of view from which events are viewed [or more generally, I would add, are
experienced] or interpreted. The point here is that we are given a view or per-
spective from someone other than the narrator, Thucydides, although we do
encounter a complicated situation in book 4 where Thucydides the historian (nar-
rator and primary focalizer) may present events through the perspective of an indi-
vidual involved, namely, Thucydides the general (4.1028).
2. De Jong (1987, esp. 38110), refers to embedded focalization (or sec-
ondary focalizationshe uses both expressions interchangeably) which in her
scheme includes perception, thoughts, emotions, feelings, and indirect speech.
Schneider (1974) does a superb job of showing how the report of perceptions,
thoughts, and intentions constitute a uniform principle of Thucydides narrative
(28). For an interesting parallel situation in the history of Polybius, see Davidson
(1990, 13), who says, Polybius, then, can be seen writing through the eyes of oth-
ers. . . . These different views of the same episode . . . take their own place as events
within the history he is composing.
3. I fully agree with de Jong (1987, 113) that the narrator-text does not con-
sist of a succession of events only, but is interspersed with short peeps into the
minds of the characters participating in those events. For her discussion of indi-
rect speech, see 114 ff. We may also distinguish between explicit and implicit
focalization; de Jong (1987, 118) remarks that implicit embedded focalization is not
marked by a verb of perceiving, thinking, or feeling.
4. Of course, it is possible to construct the readership Thucydides had in
mind by considering the information he chooses to include. For example, a broad
readership is implied by his decision, in ignoring parochial state calendars, to base
his chronology on the natural division of summer and winter. In identifying
Athenians by his use of patronymics rather than demotics, he reaches out to non-
Athenian readersas well as by including other information. All this indicates a
vision of his audience as Greeks of the post-war period, not limited to the princi-
pal cities of Athens and Sparta. See Gomme HCT 1: 108 on chronology and the
lack of demotics, though Gomme notes the lack of explication for Athenian con-
stitutional practice which suggests that Thucydides expected his readers to be
familiar with such institutions (2425). Ridley (1981, 41) sees the information on
Western Greece and Chalcidike as possibly reflecting where Thucydides own
interests or expertise lie; still, he argues that Thucydides was writing for all of
Greece. Hornblower (1994, 164) points out that since Thucydides calculates the
beginning of the war from the Spartan invasion of Athens, this would be an exam-
ple of Athenian focalization.
202
Notes to Chapter 2
5. This has been noted by ancient critics as well; on such vividness
(enargeia), see Walker (1993).
6. According to Davidson (1991, 1516), reading Polybius offers a very sim-
ilar experience. He distinguishes two general tendencies. One the gaze of
ouy|pioi,, or comparison, takes a remote view of things, assessing, contrasting,
and placing into a context . . . The other tendency of the gaze shares a lot with the
gaze of comparison, but its process is much more involving, entailed the projec-
tion (totptooi) of the sufferings of others onto ones own circumstances.
7. Thucydides explicitly connects the Corcyrean conflict with the outbreak
of war and compares the battle of Pylos with that of Syracuse: 1.23.6, 1.55.2 (cf.
1.146), 7.71.7.
8. The phrase significant reminiscence comes from Macleod (1983, 146)
where he discusses the literary technique of echo and reminiscence which draws
attention to causes and motives as well as pointing up ironies. Hornblower
(199196, 2: 16) calls these deliberate cross-references. Kitto (1966) says that
Thucydides expects his readers to see the parallels for themselves (285) and must
seize on the significance of such to and fro references (349). Connor (1984, 12)
describes this as the activation of the readers own evaluative capacities. Farrar
(1988, 136) says that the many echoes and recurrent patterns . . . [are meant to]
. . . challenge [the reader] to assess the genuine differences and similarities between
two contexts, to think historically. Arnold (1992) comments: The reader . . . is
not likely to be allowed to remain a passive eavesdropper on historical debates
(45); Thucydides places his readers on guard and challenges us to integrate, as he
himself has, the ioyoi and t pyo. Although we stand as rational and objective
judges of arguments in the debates, the active, intellectual involvement demand-
ed by the style of Thucydidean speeches requires us to become more participants
in and less passive witnesses of not only the debates, but also the historians analy-
sis of the war (57).
9. That is, the reader may also find significant parallels in more recent his-
tory and in contemporary events. We might distinguish three types of analysis:
local, distant, and extra-textual. For local analysis, the focus is limited to the pas-
sage or episode in question. At this level, we wish to understand the pastwhat
happened, why, and how it is significantand to see how events may have been
experienced from the perspectives of the participants involved. Distant analysis
involves juxtaposing the issues, ideas, and events from the local passage with other
sections of the History. Extra-textual analysis leads to setting the problems raised
in the text with other contexts, including the readers own world. This book focus-
es primarily on local and distant analysis; still it is valuable to ponder the play
between a particular episode and extra-textual political phenomena (see chapter
10).
10. Rabinowitz (1987, 22) uses the concept of the authorial audience that
comes close to the sense of my implied, hypothetical reader. His hypothetical
authorial audience allows us to treat the readers attempt to read as the author
intended . . . [by] the joining of a particular social/interpretive community . . . to
read in a particular socially constituted way that is shared by the author and his or
her expected readers.
11. Connor (1985, 9). On this recreation of the historical past, see, e.g.,
Connor (1985): Thucydides creates the illusion that we are ourselves present,
witnessing events (10); he quotes Hobbes: [Thucydides] maketh his auditor a
spectator (11). Connor continues: We are as far from the historians study as we
can possibly be; we are in the war itself. We see; we hear; we even know the plans
and thoughts of the participants (15). In commenting on the vividness of the nar-
rative, Arnold (1992, 44) quotes Plutarch Moralia 346A: Thucydides tries to
transform his reader into a spectator and to let the sufferings that were so dazzling
and upsetting to those who beheld them have a similar effect on those who read
about them. Cf. Gorgias Helen 9 on the tremendous power of language (here of
poetry specifically): For those who hear poetry comes fearful fright and tearful pity
and mournful longing, and at the successes and failures of others affairs and persons
the mind suffersthrough speecha suffering of its own (t oiiopiov t poy
oov |oi oooov tuu_ioi, |oi uopoyioi, iiov i oqo io ov
ioyov totv q u_q [I include the Greek for the italicized section]). This
translation comes from MacDowell (1993).
12. Hornblower (199196, I: 33) translates eikazein as form our conjectures.
Gomme (HCT, I: 111s.v. 1.9) defines it as imaginative inference and interpre-
tation or reconstruction of the past. Hunter (1973a, 27) offers a fuller definition
for eikazein: It is the ability to relate past and present experience, find their essen-
tial similarities, and then conjecture or predict what is most likely to occur under
the given circumstances. It is reasoning based on probability (see her discussion
at 2341).
13. Cf. pooiootvo,. . .potopo (perceiving ahead of time . . . he fore-
saw1.136.1, 1.138.3). Themistocles is able to do this without preparation: note
ouoo_tiotiv o tovo (1.138.3) which Hornblower (199196, I: 223) trans-
lates: to improvize the right thing to be done. On Pericles abilities, see poy
vou,. . . potyvo (knowing in advance . . . he knew before2.65.5, 2.65.13;
cf. 2.60.1, 2.64.6). Cf. Thucydides comparison of the small and large battles of
Sphacteria and Thermopylae: . . . o, i|pov tyoio ti|oooi (in comparing
small to great4.36.3).
14. Whether Thucydides fully anticipated in 431 the scope of the coming war,
he did have reasons for suspecting a great war and cites the evidence (tek-
mairomenos) . . . (1.1.1). On contemplating the fifth century from a future (post-
404) perspective, see 1.10.2.
15. Translations throughout this book are adapted from Lattimore (1998). Of
course, future historians may makes mistakes, as Thucydides acknowledges:
Aqvoiov...iiooiov o v q v uvoiv ti|otooi oo q, ovtpo, oto,
q, oito, q toiv (one would conjecture from the visible appearance of [the
ruins of] the city that the power of Athens was double what it actually was
1.10.2).
16. It has been argued that Thucydides is writing for the politically active
reader, i.e., the statesman; see, e.g., Macleod (1983, 146): to educate future states-
men; cf. Hornblower (1987, 133); Orwin (1994, 4); and White (1984, 88).
Lessons of lasting value are offered to those like Themistocles and Pericles who
must lead their cities against the backdrop of political uncertaintyThucydides
certainly has much to teach such readersbut I would like to broaden our con-
ception of Thucydides audience to include the more general reader, or perhaps we
204
Notes to Chapter 2
should rather say the citizen, an engaged reader who is also involved in his or her
own world (outside the text) so that what Thucydides says finds a context for
application within that readers place and time.
17. Yunis (1991, 180); this argument is expanded and given a broader context
in Yunis (1996). Yunis (1991, esp. 190200) distinguishes the instructional
rhetoric of Pericles from the demagogic rhetoric of Cleon, emphasizing how impor-
tant it is that the best political leader not only recognize the best policy, but be able
to explain it (note gnonai and hermeneusai2.60.5); see Yunis (1991, 18086 and
189 n26).
18. Yunis (1991, 199). This slippage between political and literary exchange
is also found with the term exposition or demonstration (apodeixis).
Hornblower (199196, I: 148) comments that Thucydides use of apodeixis at
1.97.2 (where he begins his account of the growth of the Athenian empire) is
surely intended to recall the famous use of the word in the preface of Herodotus.
Note that the other use of the term is political, describing Pericles explanation of
policy to the Athenians (2.13.9).
19. On the importance of decision-making, see Yunis (1991, 185, 199).
Arnold (1992, 56) comments: Without directly interceding as narrator, therefore,
by including debates within the history Thucydides asks his own audience to con-
sider the factual, ethical and psychological factors that led to crucial decisions per-
taining to warfactors that were and are likely to play similar roles in the future.
Given that the readers situation is different from that of the fifth-century citizen,
we need to contemplate how the experience of a citizen living through the war,
engaged in debate, voting, and fighting, is significantly distinct from a modern
reader experiencing Thucydides work.
20. Of course, the decision to show the war from different sides may have been
reinforced by Thucydides exile and his access to sources in Sparta and elsewhere
(5.26.5).
21. At times, Thucydides is nothing if not authoritative, magisterial even, in
passing judgment, criticizing ideas, strategies, and statesmen. These well-thumbed
exceptional passages include 1.2023, 2.65, 3.8284, 5.26.
22. Translation by Halliwell (1987, 5960).
23. Flory (1990, 194). Hornblower (1987) argues that, in opposing flattering
traditions (85 n50), Thucydides may be reacting to overtly partisan use . . . of
antiquarian material (85); cf. his remark on Thucydides lack of narrow partisan-
ship or attachment to one city (27).
24. Athenian arguments maintaining the irrelevance of morality to foreign
policy are found at 1.7377, 2.6264, 5.89, 5.107; cf. Diodotus at 3.44, 3.4647
(discussed in chapter 7). De Ste. Croix (1972, 1617) maintains Thucydides view
is that in relations between states . . . moral judgements are virtually inapplicable
. . . force [is] the sole ultimate arbiter in international affairs. Still he admits that
Thucydides never makes this fundamental distinction explicit.
25. Newman (1988, 45) articulates the dialogic principle as all dogmatic and
would-be final formulations are betrayals.
26. Newman (1988, 45) remarks that twin speeches occurring in real life
called for the judgment of an audience. Set now in the record, thesis and antithe-
sis have to be synthesized by the reader for himself. Paradoxically Thucydides has
produced a possession for all time by the lack of closure for arguments which con-
tinue to sound familiar to us today.
27. On Thucydides choices for inclusion, see Hornblower (1987, 3444).
28. Although such cross-references and juxtapositions may be multiplied end-
lessly, I mention several examples. Various sections in the opening 23 chapters pre-
pare the reader for issues relevant to the Corcyrean conflict, such as sea power
(Minos, Agamemnon, and the development of the trireme at 1.4, 1.9.34,
1.1314); civil war (1.2.46, 1.12.2, 1.18.1); and motivation by fear (1.9.3; cf.
1.23.6). Looking ahead, the Corcyrean conflict anticipates the land/sea antithesis
(1.35.5noted by Hornblower [199196], II: 79); the strategic value of Italy and
Sicily (especially in books 6 and 7); and the idea of arbitration instead of armed
conflict (e.g., 1.28.45; cf. 1.71.5, 1.78.4, 1.144.21.145).
29. This of course is criticized by Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who condemns
the episodic nature of Thucydides History. In ch. 9, Dionysius asserts that
Thucydides seasonal division of the narrative has led to greater obscurity (dus-
parakolouthetotera): it is surprising how he failed to see that a narrative which is bro-
ken up into small sections (ti, i|po, |oo|tpoiotvq oo,), describing the
many actions which took place in many different places will not catch the pure
light shining from afar (a quotation of Pindar Pythian 3.75). Dionysius also
objects that many episodes have been left half finished (hemiteles), concluding
the continuity [o iqvt|t,] of the narrative is destroyed (ch. 13). Yet
Thucydides is certainly aware of how he has organized the History: he not only
defends his chronological framework (5.20.23; cf. 2.2.1); he even points out his
digressions (ekbolee.g., 1.97.2).
Chapter Three
1. For the Corcyrean conflict as programmatic, see Crane (1992b, 4). I see
the Corcyrean conflict as comparable to the programmatic encounter between
Croesus and Solon in book 1 of Herodotus work; see Shapiro (1996) with bibli-
ography. For the Archaeology as programmatic, see, e.g., Connor (1984, 27) and
Hornblower (199196, I: 8).
2. Connor (1985) and Arnold (1992). I have also found the essays on
Thucydides in Macleod (1983) extremely valuable.
3. Connor (1985, 8, 10); Arnold (1992, 45). Arnold says she will explore how
the history creates such an experience and how the demands Thucydides places
on his audience shape their reception of the text (45).
4. I owe this formulation to Rosenbloom (1995); cf. the discussion in Turasiewicz
(1990, esp. 88) on the polyphonic mix of Thucydides work.
5. The difficult question is: when is a detail a telling one? That is, when is a
detail intended to set up a parallel, contrast, or comparison, and when is it simply
a matter of what happened with no larger significance? Of course, Thucydides is
highly selective in using speeches as a way of highlighting certain issues or con-
flicts, but it is tougher to determine his criteria for inclusion in the narrative. For
the question of what Thucydides does not tell us, see HCT, I: 129; Kitto (1966,
25979); and Hornblower (1992b). Crane (1996) points to Thucydides elimina-
206
Notes to Chapter 3
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271 Bibliography
Aristophanes
Acharnians 53034, 251n88
Birds 1279, 249n67
Knights 732, 249n67; 111114,
245n28; 1330, 245n28; 1333,
245n28; 134044, 249n67;
Wasps 620, 245n28
Aristotle
Ath. Pol. 2728, 256n18; 2933,
256n18; 54.5, 255n8; 59.4,
253n23
Poetics 1451, 20; 1452, 214n4;
1455, 20; 1459, 246n33; 1460,
18
Politics 1253, 233n10; 1261,
233n10; 132324, 233n10
Rhetoric 1365, 155, 251n88; 1405,
246n33; 1407, 155; 1412,
245n26
Demosthenes
59.103, 216n33
Diogenes Laertius
3.35, 176; 3.37, 176
Dionysius of Halicarnassus
On Thucydides 9, 206n29; 13,
206n29; 49, 181; 50, 257n28;
51, 181
Eupolis
Demoi fr. 102, 154
Gorgias
Helen 9, 2034n11
Herodotus
1.65, 247n51; 1.8687, 214n4;
3.82, 248n61; 9.27, 220n73
Homer
Iliad 9.61314, 218n54
Old Oligarch
2.2, 247n49; 2.1416, 247n48
Plato
Parmenides 127, 176
Phaedo 97, 176
Phaedrus 230, 199n4
Republic 33236, 218n54; 364,
249n73; 36869, 120, 233n10;
43435, 233n10, 235n29;
50911, 234n14; 544, 233n10;
56061, 177; 606, 89
Plutarch
Life of Pericles 8, 251n88; 28,
251n88
Moralia 346, 2034n11
Polybius
1.4, 218n51; 3.32, 218n51
Sophocles
Antigone 821, 6
Thucydides
Book 1: 1.1, 3, 9, 16, 37, 160, 179,
273
Index Locorum
Morrison_IndexLocorum_3rd.qxp 9/28/2006 2:47 PM Page 273
196, 199n3, 204n14, 211n46,
232n76, 242n4, 249n76,
251n2, n4, n6, 254n2;
(1.12.65) 133, 135, 141; 1.2,
206n28, 207n9, 210n32,
234n16, 247n49; 1.219, 160,
236n32; 1.223, 15, 43,
210n32, n43; 1.3, 211n46,
236n32; 1.4, 206n32, 254n1;
1.5, 210n32, 211n46; 1.6,
211n46; 1.8, 211n46,
24647n46; 1.9, 16, 204n12,
206n28, 211n46, 251n6;
1.910, 5, 162; (1.10)
204n1415, 211n46, 236n32,
244n22, 251n6; 1.11, 211n46;
1.12, 206n28, 207n9, 234n16;
1.13, 138, 206n28, 244n18;
1.1314, 206n28; 1.14, 243n16;
1.15, 236n32; 1.1517, 138;
1.17, 13839, 236n32; 1.18,
207n9, 230n61, 234n18,
236n32, 243n11, 244n19; 1.20,
138, 161, 169, 174, 211n46,
243n16, 254n1, 25455n7;
1.2023, 161; 1.21, 18, 166,
174, 186, 19394, 211n46,
248n58, 252n18; 1.22, 5, 10,
12, 1619, 29, 35, 94, 114,
134, 153, 16163, 16566,
17374, 17980, 211n46,
215n13, 223n8, 230n64,
237n17, 248n58, 251n56,
254n2, 25455n7, 255n9; 1.23,
3, 20, 3738, 129, 16061,
163, 194, 203n7, 206n28,
207n9, 212n60, 232n84,
234n16, 237n8, 252n16,
254n1; 1.24, 2629, 33,
207n67, 234n16; 1.2426, 27;
1.2428, 27; 1.241.31, 2629,
210n32; 1.2455, 15, 17, 20,
2543, 67; 1.25, 27; 1.2526,
26; 1.26, 2627, 29, 207n7,
210n32; 1.2627, 28; 1.2631,
28; 1.27, 28, 208n19; 1.28, 28,
206n28, 208n20, 210n32; 1.29,
28, 207n7, 208n19; 1.2930,
28; 1.30, 207n8; 1.31, 28, 30,
207n8, 209n26; 1.3144, 26,
2939; 1.32, 3235, 97,
206n28, 210n39, 211n44, n47,
n49; 1.32ff., 207n9; 1.3236,
29; 1.33, 3233, 36, 38,
209n27, 210n35, n40, n50;
1.3343, 37, 79; 1.34, 32, 35,
209n30, 210n34, n38, 235n28;
1.35, 33, 206n28, 209n30,
210n3940; 1.36, 33, 209n27,
210n39, 21011n43, 211n50;
1.37, 30, 32, 209n31, 210n36,
n39, 211n44, 246n44; 1.38, 33,
209n31, 210n38; 1.39, 209n31,
210n34; 1.40, 3436,
210n3132, n39, 211n45,
236n5; 1.4041, 236n5; 1.41,
35, 210n34, n3940, 211n48,
236n32; 1.4143, 211n47; 1.42,
33, 36, 11718, 208n24,
210n34, n36, 211n44, 219n63,
236n7, 249n73; 1.43, 33,
210n36, 211n48; 1.44, 30, 32,
41, 79, 87, 209n27, 222n100;
1.4455, 18, 26, 3943; 1.45,
40, 210n39, 213n69; 1.46,
210n38, 212n63; 1.47, 40,
208n19; 1.4748, 41; 1.48, 40;
1.4851, 41; 1.4853, 40; 1.49,
40, 21213n65, 213n66; 1.50,
40, 210n40, 212n65, 213n67;
1.5051, 41; 1.51, 41; 1.52,
4142, 213n68; 1.53, 42,
213n70, 224n14; 1.54, 42; 1.55,
3, 20, 37, 39, 42, 203n7,
213n74, 232n84, 24647n46,
250n84; 1.56, 43; 1.63, 213n72;
1.68, 42, 104, 131, 142,
211n44; 1.69, 237n7, 246n40,
24647n46; 1.69ff., 42; 1.70,
244n22; 1.7071, 233n9,
234n17, 242n53; 1.71, 206n28,
237n15; 1.72, 246n40; 1.73,
104, 142, 219n73, 234n21,
244n22; 1.7377, 131, 205n24,
274
Index Locorum
234n21; 1.74, 244n22; 1.75,
244n22; 1.76, 118, 129, 233n9,
237n17; 1.77, 246n41; 1.78,
206n28, 209n28, 246n41;
1.8085, 94; 1.82, 1045, 109,
209n28, 235n24, 246n40; 1.83,
247n49; 1.84, 118, 246n40;
1.85, 215n16; 1.86, 219n68,
221n86; 1.87, 38; 1.88, 129,
237n11; 1.9091, 16; 1.9093,
229n55; 1.91, 24647n46; 1.93,
16, 230n61; 1.95, 243n16; 1.97,
205n10, 206n29, 251n6,
254n2; 1.98, 14344, 146,
24647n46; 1.99, 244n19;
1.101, 24647n46; 1.1012,
220n78; 1.103, 24647n46;
1.113, 24647n46; 1.118,
257n32; 1.119, 246n40; 1.120,
185, 194, 243n16; 1.121,
24647n46; 1.122, 136, 185,
194, 233n4, 234n18,
24647n46; 1.124, 105, 136,
185, 194, 233n4, 234n18,
24647n46; 1.12526, 18586;
1.126, 243n16; 1.12835,
215n19; 1.136, 204n13,
229n55; 1.138, 16, 163,
204n13, 243n6, 252n10; 1.139,
24647n46; 1.140ff., 209n28;
1.14040, 94; 1.143, 53, 80,
14445, 247n48; 1.14346, 53;
1.144, 1056, 143, 234n13,
237n9; 1.14445, 29; 1.145,
113, 143; 1.146, 20, 203n7,
232n84, 250n84
Book 2: 2.1, 254n2; 2.2, 4448,
5253, 206n29, 214n7,
234n16; 2.23, 75; 2.26, 44,
4753, 215n17; 2.3, 4849,
234n16; 2.4, 4951, 65, 78,
214n7, 215n10; 2.5, 5051, 53,
77, 94, 214n4, n7, 215n13,
243n8; 2.6, 5253, 60, 65, 78,
214n7; 2.7, 52; 2.8, 213n71,
240n42, 246n46, 252n66; (2.9)
53, 96; 2.10, 52, 215n17; 2.11,
119; 2.12, 53, 60; 2.13,
205n18; 2.14, 53; 2.16, 147,
236n31, 248n60; 2.19, 52, 147,
215n13; 2.1921, 61; 2.21, 147,
237n14; 2.2122, 53; 2.25,
213n75; 2.30, 243n16; 2.36,
248n56; 2.3646, 234n17; 2.37,
113, 14546, 248n64,
25152n7; 2.3739, 146; 2.39,
248n56; 2.40, 146, 218n54,
227n36, 248n56, 252n12; 2.41,
18, 14647, 235n22, 244n22,
248n54, 249n73; 2.42, 150,
248n56, 248n64, 25152n7;
2.43, 149, 219n64, 243n7,
249n67; 2.47, 160, 252n16,
254n2; 2.4752, 151; 2.4754,
150; 2.48, 163, 165, 250n84,
25253n19; 2.49, 165; (2.51)
165, 250n84; 2.5253, 226n28;
2.54, 166; 2.60, 204n13,
205n17, 242n6; 2.6061, 114,
248n64; 2.61, 219n75; 2.62,
148; 2.6264, 205n24, 225n26,
234n21; 2.63, 15, 137, 148,
219n64, 234n18, 237n20,
247n49; 2.64, 106, 119, 150,
16364, 204n13, 251n1; 2.65,
3, 148, 204n13, 237n9,
252n10; 2.68, 24647n46; 2.70,
172; 2.71, 5356, 6062, 68,
80, 185, 24647n46; 2.7172,
221n94; 2.7174, 217n19;
2.7175, 182; 2.7178, 44,
5361, 184, 222n102; 2.72,
5556, 66; 2.7274, 78, 94, 97;
2.73, 5758, 6062; 2.74, 5457,
61, 7778; 2.75, 5859; 2.76,
5859, 216n27; 2.77, 59, 65,
214n4, 215n18, 224n10; 2.78,
60, 221n95, 24647n46; 2.87,
237n12, 252n17; 2.103, 254n2
Book 3: 3.2, 122; 3.219, 62, 67;
3.35, 224n10; 3.4, 22122n95;
3.5, 122; 3.9, 237n20, 238n24;
275 Index Locorum
3.914, 122; 3.10, 107,
24647n46; 3.1011, 238n26;
3.11, 240n41; 3.1213, 107;
3.13, 238n24, 24647n46; 3.18,
221n95; 3.1819, 80; 3.20, 62,
64, 216n3334, 217n40,
217n50, 22122n95; 3.2024,
44, 6165, 67, 78; 3.21, 6263,
65; 3.22, 6264, 217n40; 3.23,
62; 3.2324, 62; 3.24, 6264,
78, 216n34, 22122n95; 3.25,
127, 254n2; 3.2533, 9192;
3.2535, 80; 3.2550, 62, 67;
3.26, 217n50; 3.27, 127,
221n95; 3.28, 22122n95,
24647n46; 3.32, 217n50; 3.35,
122; 3.36, 67, 122, 221n9495,
22122n96, 222n102, 241n46,
24647n46; 3.3649, 112; 3.37,
15, 12122, 137, 221n75,
238n19, n21, 239n32, 240n42,
243n13; 3.3748, 116, 224n16;
3.38, 12122, 180, 239n32,
240n42, 255n9; 3.39, 12223,
224n10, 237n17, 238n19, n22,
n27, 239n32, 240n3738,
240n42, n46; 3.40, 12224,
219n64, 221n87, n95, 232n75,
239n3132, 240n42; 3.42, 124,
248n56; 3.4248, 107; 3.43,
124, 241n44; 3.44, 67, 112,
125, 129, 205n24, 217n50,
222n96, 225n26, 239n31,
246n42; 3.4447, 225n26; 3.45,
1078, 12428, 221n87,
22122n95, 228n47, 237n17,
239n32, 240n37, 240n42; 3.46,
112, 12829, 205n24, 222n96,
224n10, 225n26, 239n31,
241n43, 246n44; 3.47, 12930,
225n26; 3.48, 130, 221n95,
239n31; 3.49, 122, 124,
216n26, 22122n95; 3.50,
221n95; 3.52, 6566, 72,
7879, 215n16, 217n41,
219n70, 235n24, 246n44;
3.5268, 6577; 3.53, 6566,
222n96, 235n24, 246n44;
3.5359, 131, 21728n48,
218n55, 236n32; 3.54, 6768,
7071, 73, 80; 3.55, 68,
218n5657; 3.56, 66, 6872,
7779, 21819n58, 219n70,
235n24, 246n44; 3.57, 68, 70,
73, 77, 219n64, 220n81,
221n88, n94; 3.58, 66, 6869,
77, 218n54, 219n60, n64,
24647n46; 3.5859, 222n89,
236n32; 3.59, 6869, 77,
217n43, 218n55, 21819n58,
218n59, n63, 22122n95,
236n32; 3.61, 7273, 76,
222n100; 3.6167, 226n31;
3.62, 7374, 219n75, 243n16;
3.63, 74, 218n53; 3.64, 73, 75,
77, 219n64, 24647n46; 3.65,
75, 94, 215n11, 220n83; 3.66,
65, 76, 218n59, 221n85; 3.67,
73, 76, 218n59, n64, 221n85,
236n32; 3.68, 45, 66, 72,
7677, 94, 217n50, 219n70,
221n95, 222n100, 224n11,
246n44; 3.70, 24647n46; 3.71,
24647n46; 3.73, 24647n46;
3.82, 108, 11011, 114,
17778, 191, 209n28, 220n83,
226n28, 227n39, 237n17,
243n7, 248n56, 250n84;
3.8283, 3, 177, 222n104;
3.8284, 205n21, 226n28; 3.88,
254n2; 3.91, 96, 224n9; 3.94,
213n75; 3.104, 138, 243n16;
3.113, 224n14; 3.116, 254n2
Book 4: 4.17, 237n15; 4.19,
237n12; 4.36, 5, 204n13,
250n84; 4.51, 254n2; 4.60,
234n17; 4.61, 237n17; 4.83,
246n40, n44; 4.9799, 224n14;
4.98, 238n25; 4.1028, 202n1;
4.103, 167; 4.104, 167, 254n2;
4.1048, 199n3; 4.106, 167;
4.116, 254n2
276
Index Locorum
Book 5: 5.3, 223n4, 24647n46;
5.9, 24647n46; 5.11, 243n7;
5.1424, 235n4; 5.17, 215n16,
217n47; 5.20, 206n29; 5.23,
24647n46; 5.24, 254n2; 5.26,
9, 16667, 199n3, 205n21,
251n2, n4, 252n16; 5.28.2, 98;
5.30, 248n56; 5.32, 223n4,
24647n46; 5.66, 252n16;
5.84, 84, 90, 9596,
224n1213, 231n68, 232n78;
5.84116, 81, 112, 184; 5.85,
84; 5.86, 83, 8586; 5.87,
8586, 91, 222n113, 228n50;
5.88, 225n21, 227n35; 5.89,
72, 84, 86, 91, 131, 184, 194,
205n24, 224n17, 224n21,
n24, 22526n26, 227n41,
235n21, 246n42; 5.90, 86, 89,
92, 229n58; 5.91, 84, 89, 184,
225n21; 5.92, 89; 5.93, 89, 93,
185, 225nn2122; 5.94, 96;
5.95, 97, 194, 229n58; 5.96,
231n74; 5.97), 90, 18485,
225n22, 231n75, n78; 5.98,
90, 92, 97, 225n22; 5.99, 90,
225n21, 232n78; 5.100, 82,
86, 91; 5.100ff., 90; 5.100111,
227n40; 5.101, 8687,
225n21, n24; 5.102, 92,
225n23, 228n46; 5.103, 92,
225n23; 5.104, 82, 86, 9192,
185, 228n46; 5.105, 86,
9193, 194, 225n21,
226n2728, 237n17; 5.106,
92, 228n46; 5.107, 91, 93,
131, 205n24, 225n22, n28,
234n21; 5.108, 92, 228n46;
5.109, 9091, 232n78; 5.110,
92, 225n21; 5.111, 87, 91,
225n2124, 227n4, 258n44;
5.112, 9192, 97, 185,
224n11; 5.113, 82, 93,
225n23; 5.114, 231n68; 5.115,
229n51; 5.116, 224n13
Book 6: 6.1, 95; 6.15, 138; 6.4,
243n16; 6.7, 254n2; 6.8, 174;
6.13, 243n7, 253n27; 6.14,
24950n76; 6.15, 243n16;
6.1618, 234n17; 6.18, 234n16;
6.24, 249n70, 253n27; 6.2728,
168; 6.53, 168; 6.5359, 138,
243n16, 245n24; 6.5361, 168;
6.54, 138, 169, 243n16,
249n70, 253n24, n27; 6.5455,
169; 6.5459, 168; 6.55,
16970, 253n24; 6.59, 224n22,
253n24; 6.60, 16869, 224n16;
6.61, 16869, 253n27; 6.62,
24647n46; 6.63, 240n41; 6.85,
108, 138, 234n18, 243n14;
6.87, 246n40, 246n42, n44;
6.89, 243n16; 6.93, 254n2
Book 7: 7.8, 170, 255n8; 7.815,
168, 200n11; 7.10, 173; 7.11,
255n8; 7.14, 170, 251n5; 7.16,
173; 7.18, 215n16, 235n24,
254n2; 7.28, 216n31; 7.2930,
232n82; 7.31, 213n75; 7.44,
213n75; 7.48, 253n28; 7.57,
213n75; 7.63, 21213n65; 7.71,
203n7; 7.75, 243n7; 7.77, 95,
250n84; 7.85, 24647n46; 7.87,
254n1
Book 8: 8.6, 254n2; 8.41, 252n16;
8.45, 248n56; 8.48, 210n40;
8.60, 254n2; 8.96, 234n17,
242n53; 8.98, 67
Xenophon
Hellenica Graeca 2.2.3, 95
Memorabilia 1.6.14, 176
277 Index Locorum
Academy, 176, 17879
accuracy, 134, 16061, 169, 251n4
alternative argument and action, 6
analysis, local, distant, and extratex-
tual, 47, 203n9
Archidamus, 5361, 94, 97, 1045,
109, 11819, 181, 185, 212n62,
215n18, 237n15
Aristotle, 8, 7677, 164, 178,
233n10, 245n26, 250n18
Athens, 2943, 5758, 6061, 72,
7475, 8099, 104115, 11732,
13356, 16471, 175, 185,
192, 202n4, 207n9, 209n2627,
216n31, 222n1, 223n4, 229n58,
235n22, 242n4, 248n54, 248n60
audience, 12, 8485, 17283,
19697, 203n10, 2045n16,
208n22
auditors, 7, 12, 15960, 2034n11
authorial reticence, 13, 1819,
2930, 82, 103, 110, 249n77
balanced presentation, 13, 1819
biography. See Thucydides
choices and decisions, 4647, 5455,
5758, 62
cities, behavior, character, and inter-
action of, 1112, 3334,
103115, 12526, 12932
Cleon, 12024, 12930, 137, 155,
180, 205n17, 219n75,
221n87, 222n1, 224n10,
232n75, 238n2029, 239n32,
256n18
comparison, 3, 1112, 15, 44, 54,
6061, 6667, 9499, 10315,
119, 12531, 13356, 18498,
222n1023, 222n4, 224n11,
225n25, 230n6061, 233n1,
233n9, 234n1314, 247n5051;
and extrapolation (see eikazein)
contingency, 5, 1011, 37
Corcyra, 11, 15, 21, 2543, 79, 87,
9799, 103, 108, 117, 131, 165,
17778, 182, 203n7, 206n28,
206n1, 2078n14, 208n17,
209n2627, 209n29, 222n100,
222n1
Corinth, 2543, 87, 1045, 117, 136,
14243, 18586, 208n16,
209n31, 222n1, 236n5, 236n7
democracy, 78, 170, 179, 19697,
202n4, 224n17, 255n11
dialogue, 35, 19, 8185, 18082,
200201n17, 205n25, 225n19,
229n53, 256n20
Diodotus, 67, 69, 78, 1078, 112,
11620, 12432, 133, 156,
219n61, 221n87, 222n1, 224n10,
22526n26, 230n59, 233n6,
239n3133, 239n35, 240n3642,
241n4445, 24142n51
279
General Index
Morrison_Index_General_3rd.qxp 9/28/2006 2:47 PM Page 279
eikazein (comparison, juxtaposition,
and extrapolation), 3, 5, 1517,
30, 3839, 44, 47, 5253, 64, 70,
80, 95, 110, 134, 14546, 15356,
159, 16364, 18283, 200n28,
203n12, 204n15, 251n6
engaged reader. See reader
engagement, 5
episodic structure, 13, 2021. See also
punctuated presentation
extrapolation. See eikazein
focalization, 4, 13, 3943, 202n1;
primary, 13; psychological (or
intellectual), 14; rhetorical, 14;
secondary (or embedded), 4,
1314, 4042, 4546, 4853,
5861, 202n23
foreign policy, 32, 78, 86, 139,
14243, 205n24
foreshadowing, 4, 6
freedom, 69, 71, 7374, 91, 97, 136,
14344, 185, 192, 194, 246n45
future, anticipation of, 5, 31, 3439,
54, 5758, 6061, 6970, 76,
8587, 89, 9598, 11213,
16164, 204n1314
goals and outcomes, 45, 54, 6566,
8384
Havelock, Eric A., 8, 10, 147,
200n12, 200n16, 200201n17,
201n18, 201202n24
hearing and rehearing, 7, 16163,
17074, 183, 255n9
history, Thucydides view of, 3, 56
Homer, 79, 147, 162, 199n5,
200n9, 201n19, 252n8
hypothetical situations, 6, 59, 199n6,
200n7, 201n21
implied reader. See reader
interactive text, 3
inevitability, 37
injustice, 32, 5557, 7475, 185. See
also justice
Iraq, 18695, 257n3638
irony, dramatic, 88
islanders (nesiotai), 53, 80, 90,
14445, 247n48
justice, 3132, 60, 6769, 7273,
7879, 8586, 89, 91, 104, 11115,
12425, 12930, 14143, 207n12,
210n34, 210n37, 22526n26,
235n30, 241n48, 246n44
juxtaposition. See eikazein
knowledge and ignorance, 4546,
6264, 6667
letters, 17071, 200n11, 253n29,
255n8
literacy, 200n16, 201n22, 25455n7
literate culture, 3, 610, 160
Lyceum, 8, 176
mainlanders (epeirotai), 53, 80, 90
maxims, 3, 12, 11632, 15051,
236n13
memory, 16566, 17071, 25152n7,
252n16
Melos, 11, 72, 8199, 103, 112, 156,
18182, 18485, 19293,
222n103, 223n4, 229n58, 232n82
metaphor, 12, 13356, 243n7,
245n26, 245n31, 24546n32,
250n7879
multiple perspective, 13, 1719,
2930, 3943
280
General Index
Mytilene, 62, 6567, 78, 92, 95, 107,
109, 112, 116, 12032, 156, 165,
216n26, 22122n95, 222n102,
232n82
narrative, 34
narrator, 4, 202n7
Nicias, 96, 168, 17073, 175,
200n11
non-teleological history, 6
oral culture, 3, 611, 160, 164,
200n16
orality, 610, 16971, 17283,
201n18, 251n1, 252n10,
25455n7, 256n18, 258n51
participatory history, 2543, 103, 159
past, interpretation of, 3439, 6774,
8994, 98, 219n62, 228n44
Peisistratids, 16870, 245n24, 249n7
Pericles, 8, 94, 1056, 113, 119,
13337, 14451, 15455, 163, 165,
205n17, 208n24, 212n62, 219n75,
227n36, 237n9, n15, 239n32,
242n12, 242n6, 247n47, 248n54,
n56, 248n6366, 249, n67, n73
Plataea, 11, 4480, 87, 9495,
9799, 103, 112, 131, 156, 181,
185, 192, 21314n1, 214n2,
220n83, 222n1023, 222n1,
224n11, 230n59, 232n77, n82
Plato, 45, 810, 109, 120, 159, 164,
17583, 196, 199n4,
200201n17, 201n18, 218n54,
233n10, 234n14, 235n29, 252n8,
256n1314
presentation, interruption, resump-
tion, 21, 80
punctuated presentation (or punctu-
ated history), 2021, 4480, 103
reader, 12, 163, 173, 202n4, 224n16,
243n8; experience of, 81, 88,
11015, 199n23, 201n19,
214n6, 215n9, n13, 217n47,
223n8, 242n5; implied, 1415;
role of engaged, 1415, 47, 88,
2045n16; role of retrospective (or
distant), 1417, 4647, 80, 83,
8788, 95, 9899, 103, 120,
212n56; tasks of, 5, 11, 1321, 26,
29, 36, 4547, 70, 8182, 9899,
103, 13435, 138, 140, 14647,
15156, 183, 203n8, 205n19,
206n3
reading aloud, 173, 17683
reception, 6, 12, 17297
Sicily, 95, 108, 138, 149, 156,
17071, 175, 201n23, 234n17,
236n31, 243n16, 247n50, 253n27
slavery, 89, 13536, 14344, 185,
243n12, 24647n46
Socrates, 93, 103, 120, 164, 17576,
199n4
sophists, 9, 164, 180, 2089n25
Sparta, 5361, 65, 6780, 9194,
9798, 1045, 107, 112, 118, 120,
127, 145, 156, 185, 202n4,
205n20, 222n1, 224n11, 229n51,
232n75, 243n11
speech, 2939
techiques, narrative, 3, 11, 13, 1721
Thebes, 6179, 87, 91, 94, 112,
222n1, 224n11
Themistocles, 16, 163, 246n6,
252n10
Thucydides, biography of, 9, 12,
15971, 19596, 208n24,
235n24, 253n28; types of realism
in, 227n34, 258n46
treaties, 31, 3334, 42, 66, 97
tyranny, 103, 111, 13839, 148, 194,
281 General Index
243n15, 243n16, 244n20, n22,
245n2628, 253n27
tyrant-city, 12, 111, 13341, 152,
15556, 185, 233n14, 243n10,
n1213, 244n17, 244n23,
25051n85, 251n92
universal principles, 11620, 124,
12627
United States, 18695, 258n46, n48
writing, 79, 160, 162, 165, 17288,
200n8, 253n24, 254n23
282
General Index

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