Pocket Emergency Paediatric Care

Pocket Emergency
Paediatric Care
Shafique Ahmad
and
David Southall
BMJ Books
Pocket
Emergency
Paediatric
Care
Contents
Preface vii
Acknowledgements ix
UNCRC standards xi
Section 1: Life-threatening emergencies 1

Essential knowledge 3
Triage 7
Resuscitation at birth 9
Paediatric life support 11
Recognition of the sick child 16
The shocked child 22
The unconscious child 26
Allergic reactions and anaphylactic shock 35
Status epilepticus 37
Poisoning 39
Section 2: Neonatal emergencies 47

Fluid and electrolyte balance in the ill neonate 49
Hypoglycaemia in the neonate 51
Hypoglycaemia in the ill neonate 52
Jaundice in the ill neonate 54
Respiratory problems in the neonate 57
Neonatal infections 59
Neonatal seizures 62
Neonatal hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy (HIE) 64
Section 3: Specific emergencies 65

Respiratory and cardiovascular 67
Gastrointestinal/liver/renal 75
Neurological 98
vi POCKET EMERGENCY PAEDIATRIC CARE
Endocrine and metabolic 104

Infectious diseases 111
Environmental emergencies 127
Trauma and surgical emergencies 136
Section 4: Procedures and equipment 149
Section 5: Appendices 169
Index 195
Preface
This book is designed to fit into a handbag or shirt pocket. It
contains material which is usually required in a hurry when
treating a critically ill or injured infant or child. In addition to
information relevant to emergency care, there are what we
hope will be useful pages of data on subjects which without a
photographic memory would normally require reference to a
paediatric text book. Examples include a weight for height
chart, normal values for common biochemical tests, normal
developmental profiles and normal ECG measurements.
Finally, this book is meant to be used by paediatricians and

nurses working in hospitals all over the world. The authors
recognise that in many poorly resourced States the standards
required to achieve the levels of critical care outlined here
will not always be practical. However, our view is that all
children are entitled to minimum standards of care, as
outlined in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of
the Child (see page xi) and that advocacy to achieve these
might be aided by this publication and by the actions of the
healthcare workers who use it.
SECTION 1
Life-threatening emergencies
Essential knowledge
Weight: (1 kg = 2·2 lb)
Infant: 0–1 years = 3–10 kg
5 months: double birth weight
12 months: treble birth weight
After 1 year: wt in kg = 2 (age + 4)
2 years: quadruple birth weight.
Airway and breathing (endotracheal

intubation) − under 25 kg = uncuffed
Full term infant = 3·0–3·5 mm ID
Infant < 1 year = 4·0–4·5 mm ID
Child > 1 year = age/4 + 4 ID.
Age + 12 cm for oral tube
Length of tube = [ [2 + 14 cm for nasal tube
Circulation (dehydration treatment: deficit in

ml = % dehydration × weight in kg × 10)
Blood pressure systolic = 80 + (age year × 2) Cuff must be
two-thirds size of upper arm and the largest that will fit
Capillary refill = 2 seconds or less after 5 seconds pressure
(sternum)
Drip rates for clear fluids: (standard giving set)
20 drops = 1 ml
ml/h divided by 3 = drops/min
Minimum urine output: > 1 ml /kg/h in children, > 2 ml/kg/h
in infants
Insensible losses: 300 ml/m2/24 h or
4 POCKET EMERGENCY PAEDIATRIC CARE
12 ml /kg/24 h if > 1 year

15 ml/kg/24 h if an infant
24 ml /kg/24 h if preterm
increased if in hot climate by around 50%
increased if fever by 50%
Fluid management
Blood volume is 100 ml/kg at birth falling to 80 ml/kg at
1 year. Total body water varies from 800 ml/kg in the neonate
to 600 ml/kg at one year and thereafter. Of this about two
thirds (400 ml/kg) is intracellular. Clinically, dehydration is
not detectable until >5% (50 ml/kg).
Fluid requirements:
1. Replace insensible losses through sweat, respiration,

gastrointestinal loss etc.
2. Replace of essential urine output, the minimal urine output
to allow excretion of the products of metabolism etc.
3. Extra fluid to maintain a modest state of diuresis.
4. Fluid to replace abnormal losses such as blood loss,
severe diarrhoea, diabetic polyuria losses etc.
Normal fluid requirements
Fluid requirement Fluid requirement

Body weight per day per hour
First 10 kg 100 ml/kg 4 ml/kg

Second 10 kg 50 ml/kg 2 ml/kg
Subsequent kg 20 ml/kg 1 ml/kg
Examples: 6 kg infant would require 600 ml per day

14 kg child would require 1000 + 200 = 1200 ml per day
25 kg child would require 1000 + 500 + 100 = 1600 ml per day.
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE 5
Electrolyte contents of body fluids

Fluid Na (mmol/1) K (mmol/l) CI (mmol/l) HCO3 (mmol/l)
Plasma 135–141 3·5–5·5 100–105 24–28

Gastric 20–80 5–20 100–150 0
Intestinal 100–140 5–15 90–130 15–65
Diarrhoea 7–96 34–150 17–164 0–75
Sweat <40 6–15 <40 0–10
Normal water, electrolyte, energy and protein requirements

(provided excessive loss is not present)
Body Water Sodium Potassium Energy Protein

weight (ml/kg/day) (mmol/kg/day) (mmol/kg/day) (kcal/day) (g/day)
First 10 kg 100 2–4 1·5–2·5 110 3·00

Second 10 kg 50 1–2 0·5–1·5 75 1.50
Subsequent kg 20 0·5–1·0 0·2–0·7 30 0·75
Essential drug doses

Aminophylline: IV loading dose 5 mg/kg over 20 minutes
(max = 250 mg) then 1 mg/kg/h by IV infusion
Benzyl penicillin: 50 mg/kg IV 4–6 hourly
Cefotaxime: IV 50 mg/kg 6 hourly
Diazepam IV or IO 100–250 micrograms/kg or rectal 500
micrograms/kg (max = 10 mg)
Lorazepam IV or IO 50–100 micrograms/kg
Paraldehyde rectal or IM 0·4 ml/kg (max 10 ml rectal, 5 ml IM
at one site)
Epinephrine (adrenaline): 10 micrograms/kg (0·1 ml/kg 1 in
10 000 or 0·01 ml/kg of 1 in 1000)
Epinephrine: 1 in 1000 = 1 mg/ml: 1 in 10 000 = 100
micrograms/ml
Fluid resuscitation: 20 ml/kg 0·9% saline or colloid or blood
(10 ml/kg in neonate)
Frusemide: 1 mg/kg IV
Glucose: 5 ml/kg of 10% IV (0.5 g/kg)
Mannitol: 250–500 mg/kg IV over 20 minutes

Morphine: IV 100 micrograms/kg over 5 minutes (50–100
micrograms/kg in the neonate)
Salbutamol: 100–1000 micrograms inhaler (1–10 sprays) or
nebuliser (dose 2·5 mg < 5 years and 5 mg > 5 years)
Salbutamol: IV loading dose = 4–6 micrograms/kg over
15 minutes monitor ECG and ensure K+ normal
Sodium bicarbonate: 1 mmol/kg (= 2 ml/kg of 4·2%).
Disability
Assessment of neurological function (AVPU) (see page 29 for
modified Glasgow Coma Scale)
A = alert, V = responds to voice, P = responds to pain, U =
unresponsive.
Pupillary size and reaction, posture, muscle tone, presence
of convulsive movements.
Normal values for paediatric vital signs in patients

who are not crying
Age Heart rate Systolic blood pressure Respiratory rate
< 1 year 120–140 70–90 30–40

2–5 years 100–120 80–90 20–30
5–12 years 80–100 90–110 15–20
Triage
Seeing the sickest first: triage
Triage is an important component of critical care, especially in
resource poor settings.
Cards given to parents containing their triage classification and
timing of assessment can be useful. Different colours and time
codes can be an easy way of efficiently scoring the patients.
Urgent signs from one such triage system are illustrated
below.
Emergency signs, assessment and treatment

(adapted from WHO)
Treatment
If any sign positive or
coma or convulsing:
give treatment(s), call for
help, draw emergency
bloods (glucose, malaria
smear, Hb, electrolytes)
Area of then assess response
assessment Clinical signs Result to initial treatment
1. Assess • Obstructed ANY SIGN • Manage airway

airway and breathing or POSITIVE • Give oxygen
breathing • Central cyanosis or • Make sure child is warm
• Severe respiratory
distress
2. Assess Shock ANY SIGN • Stop any bleeding
circulation • Capillary refill POSITIVE • Give oxygen
→ > 2 s after • Make sure child is warm
5 s pressure IF NO SEVERE
on sternum MALNUTRITION:
• Cold/pale/sweating Check for • Insert IV line and give
• Weak and fast pulse severe 10–20 ml/kg 0·9% saline
• Bradycardia? malnutrition or colloid as rapidly as
(Listen with possible. If not able to
stethoscope) insert peripheral IV line,
insert external jugular,
Continued
Treatment
If any sign positive or
coma or convulsing:
give treatment(s), call for
help, draw emergency
bloods (glucose, malaria
smear, Hb, electrolytes)
Area of then assess response
assessment Clinical signs Result to initial treatment
femoral venous, long

saphenous cut-down or
intraosseous line
IF SEVERE
MALNUTRITION:
• Give IV glucose 5 ml/kg
10%
• Proceed to full
assessment and
treatment (see
page 79)
3. Assess IF COMA OR • Manage airway
neurological • Agitated or CONVULSING • Position child
state depressed • Give O2
→ consciousness • If convulsing, give
• Coma or Check for diazepam rectally
• Convulsing (now) head/neck (500 micrograms/kg)
trauma before 2·5 mg if < 1year,
treating child— 5 mg if 1−3
stabilise neck years and 10 mg
if cervical > 3 years
spine injury • If no response give IV
possible (see lorazepam
page 138) 100 micrograms/kg or
IV diazepam
250 micrograms/kg
• Give IV glucose 5 ml/kg
10% or 2 ml/kg of 25%
• Make sure child is warm
Resuscitation at birth
Dry, cover and keep warm
Initial assessment: note time (start clock)
• Colour (pink, blue, white)
• Tone
• Breathing (?apnoea)
• Heart rate (with stethoscope).
Ifnot breathing CONTROL AIRWAY

• Neutral position of neck/head
• Towel under shoulders
• SUPPORT BREATHING
• 5 breaths of 2–3 seconds duration (blow off valve set at
30–45 cmH2O)
• CONFIRM RESPONSE
• Visible chest movement or HR increases and improvement
in colour.
If no response
• Check head position, try jaw thrust
• Repeat 5 breaths.
If no response
• Inspect airway, observed suction (ideally with laryngoscope)
• Insert oropharyngeal airway
• Consider intubation
• Repeat 5 breaths.
If chest expands: check heart rate.
If HR < 60 and not increasing give chest compressions

(one-third depth)
• Confirm chest expansion
• 3 chest compressions to one inflation.
Reassess: if no response consider venous access and drugs.

Drugs: IV, UVC

Epinephrine (adrenaline): 10 micrograms/kg (0·1 ml/kg 1 in
10 000 or 0·01 ml/kg 1 in 1000)
Epinephrine: 1 in 1000 = 1 mg/ml; 1 in 10 000 = 100
micrograms/ml
Glucose: 5 ml/kg of 10%
Sodium bicarbonate: 1 mmol/kg (2 ml/kg of 4·2%)
Fluid resuscitation: 10 ml/kg 0·9% saline or colloid or blood.
Only epinephrine: 100 micrograms/kg, can be given via

endotracheal tube (that is 1 ml/kg of 1 in 10 000).
Paediatric life support
Safe approach
Shout for help
Approach with care (safety for yourself)
Free from danger (safety for your patient)
Evaluate ABC.
Check responsiveness – “Are you all right?”

Airway opening (neutral position for infant: sniffing for
child = neck extended, nasal orifices to vertical).
LOOK, LISTEN, FEEL – for respiration for 10 seconds.
Give 2–5 rescue breaths if breathing absent or ineffective.
Check pulse – brachial in infant, carotid in child and/or heart
rate with stethoscope for 10 seconds. Look for “signs of
life”, for example movement, breathing. Check time (start
clock).
First priority – establish airway and ventilation

Open airway – head tilt (neutral – infant towel under
shoulders; sniffing – child), chin lift and jaw thrust (beware
of cervical spine injury: if suspected use jaw thrust without
head tilt).
Only do suction if airway blocked or filled with blood or
vomit – thin secretions not important: use Yankauer suction
catheter. Provide 5 initial breaths with self-inflating bag with
reservoir and 100% oxygen.
In absence of severe upper airway obstruction, adequate
ventilation should be obtained.
After 2–5 rescue breaths, do pulse check and support
circulation if required (i.e. don’t stick to A and B for 5
minutes and forget pulse).
If unable to inflate chest – check airway position.
Still unable to inflate chest – try oro-pharyngeal airway.
Still unable to inflate chest – consider intubation:
ET tube size in full-term newborn infant: 3–3·5 mm
ET tube size in child ± 0·5 = (age/4) + 4 mm.

ET tube size in infant < 1 year: 4–4·5 mm.
Depth of insertion: 3 × internal diameter = length at lips in
centimetres, add 2 cm at nares.
Uncuffed tube under 25 kg.
Ensure tube is passed only 2–3 cm below vocal cords – the
black line on the ET tube should just pass through the
cords.
After intubation check that lung inflation is occurring and that

chest wall expansion is adequate and equal. Chest movement
is the most useful sign. Auscultate in axillae and over
epigastrium. Ensure no air bubbling up from mouth or heard
in neck with stethoscope. Ventilate approximately every 2
seconds. Don’t forget mouth to mouth/mouth and nose, or
mouth to mask if self-inflating bag unavailable.
CXR to check endotracheal tube position – if prolonged
ventilation needed. Failure to ventilate effectively may be due
to incorrectly placed tube (oesophagus or right main
bronchus) or consider pneumothorax.
Second priority – establish cardiac output

Cardiac massage (ratio of compression to ventilation: 3 : 1 in
neonates, 5 : 1 in infants and children): 5 : 2 in older children
where both hands are needed for compressions.
Firm surface (board, floor, examination couch).
Infants: two fingers, one finger breadth below the internipple
line or use thumbs with hands encircling the chest wall.
Small children (< 8 years): use one hand to depress the sternum,
one finger breadth above xiphisternum.
Larger children (> 8 years): heels of both hands are used to
depress the sternum two finger breadths above xiphisternum.
Compress by one-third of AP diameter of chest. Effective

massage produces femoral pulses. Rate 100/min
PAEDIATRIC LIFE SUPPORT 13
Usual reason for ineffective massage is insufficient

compression. Tamponade is a rare cause.
Third priority – attach to ECG monitor, if available
Fourth priority – establish intravenous access

Peripheral, intraosseous, femoral/internal jugular, cut down
long saphenous.
Consider correctable factors:
Severe dehydration/shock: start 0·9% saline 20 ml/kg boluses
syringe in quickly.
Haemorrhage: start O rhesus negative blood 20 ml/kg initially
IV/IO.
Drug therapy
Epinephrine (adrenaline)
Give 10 micrograms/kg (0·01 ml/kg of 1 in 1000 solution) IV
or intraosseous (IO) and flush with 3–5 ml 0·9% saline or give
100 micrograms/kg( 0·1 ml/kg of 1 in 1000 solution) via ET
tube. For subsequent doses multiply the IV/IO dose by 10
(i.e. 0·1 ml/kg of 1 in 1000) in cases where shock caused the
cardiac arrest.
Sodium bicarbonate
When pH < 7·0 or cardiac output compromised, use
1 mmol/kg (2 ml/kg of 4·2%). Do not use intratracheal
route. Bicarbonate must not be given in same IV line as
calcium. Sodium bicarbonate inactivates epinephrine and
dopamine, therefore flush line with 0·9% saline if these drugs
are subsequently given.
Protocol for cardiac asystole
Continuous and effective life support
Ventilate 100 % oxygen

IV or IO access
Intubate
Epinephrine: 10 micrograms/kg (0·01 ml/kg of 1 in 1000 or

0·1 ml/kg of 1 in 10 000) IV or IO or 100 micrograms/kg down
ET tube.
Give 3 minutes of cardiopulmonary resuscitation cycles
Consider IV fluid bolus (20 ml/kg of 0·9% saline) and sodium

bicarbonate 1 mmol/kg = 2 ml/kg of 4·2% IV or IM (never
intratracheally)
Repeat epinephrine 10–100 micrograms/kg (0·1 ml/kg of 1 in 10000 or 1000) IV or IO

Repeat 3 minutes of cardiopulmonary resuscitation cycles
Repeat cycle of last two lines in box
Protocol for pulseless electrical activity (PEA)

(ECG looks normal or bradycardia but no palpable pulse)
Ventilate 100% oxygen

IV or IO access
Intubate

0·1 ml/kg of 1 in 10 000) IV or IO or 100 micrograms/kg
down ET tube.
Fluids: IV bolus of 20 ml/kg.
Protocol for cardiac asystole
Ventilate 100 % oxygen

IV or IO access
Intubate

0·1 ml/kg of 1 in 10 000) IV or IO or 100 micrograms/kg down
ET tube.
Give 3 minutes of cardiopulmonary resuscitation cycles
Consider IV fluid bolus (20 ml/kg of 0·9% saline) and sodium

bicarbonate 1 mmol/kg = 2 ml/kg of 4·2% IV or IM (never
intratracheally)
Repeat epinephrine 10–100 micrograms/kg (0·1 ml/kg of 1 in 10000 or 1000) IV or IO

Repeat 3 minutes of cardiopulmonary resuscitation cycles
Repeat cycle of last two lines in box
Protocol for pulseless electrical activity (PEA)

(ECG looks normal or bradycardia but no palpable pulse)
Ventilate 100% oxygen

IV or IO access
Intubate

0·1 ml/kg of 1 in 10 000) IV or IO or 100 micrograms/kg
down ET tube.
Fluids: IV bolus of 20 ml/kg.
use a broad tourniquet rather than a narrow one

place as close to the amputation as possible
pneumatic tourniquets or a BP cuff are best – inflate to
above arterial pressure.
• Always record time of tourniquet inflation/application.
Check every 10–15 mins: if bleeding controllable with
pressure, release tourniquet. Never use tourniquet for
> 2 hours.
• Good rapid fluid resuscitation is necessary.
• Urgent orthopaedic or plastic surgical help is necessary.
• Adequate analgesia, usually an opiate.
• Reimplantation of amputated limb may be possible.
• Amputated limb viable for 8 hours at room temperature.
• Amputated limb viable for 18 hours if kept sterile and in ice
(avoid direct contact between ice and skin).
• Amputated limb and child must be transported in the
same vehicle.
Gunshot wounds
Initial measures
Similar to those for any severe injury:
• General assessment and resuscitation, addressing
potentially life-threatening conditions according to ABC
priorities (airway, breathing, stopping haemorrhage).
• Application of dressings to open wounds.
• Emergency splintage of fractures.
• Obtaining intravenous access.
• The degree to which fluid resuscitation should be carried
out is controversial. Advanced trauma life support (ATLS)
teaching recommends an initial bolus of 20 ml/kg, after
which the child should be carefully monitored with respect
to the adequacy of organ perfusion and the response to
this initial fluid challenge.
• Analgesia as required.
• Antibiotics – the ICRC recommend benzylpenicillin IV at
a dose appropriate to the size of the child. (50 mg/kg IV
6 hourly).
Recognition of the sick child
Early recognition and management of potential respiratory,
circulatory, or central neurological failure will reduce
mortality and secondary morbidity.
The sections below describe the signs used for rapid

assessment of children as part of the primary assessment:
Airway
Breathing
Circulation
Disability.
Primary assessment of airway

Vocalisations, such as crying or talking, indicate ventilation
and some degree of airway patency.
Assess patency by:
looking for chest and/or abdominal movement

listening for breath sounds
feeling for expired air.
Reassess after any airway opening manoeuvres
In addition, note other signs which may suggest upper airway

obstruction:
the presence of stridor

evidence of suprasternal recession (“tug”).
Primary assessment of breathing

Assess:
Effort of breathing
RECOGNITION OF THE SICK CHILD 17
Beware exceptions (fatigue, poisoning, neuromuscular diseases)

Efficacy of breathing
Effects of respiratory failure.
Effort of breathing
• Respiratory rate:
tachypnoea – from either lung or airway disease or
metabolic acidosis
bradypnoea – due to fatigue, raised intracranial
pressure, or pre-terminal.
• Recession:
intercostal, subcostal or sternal recession shows
increased effort of breathing
particularly seen in small infants with more compliant
chest walls
degree of recession indicates severity of respiratory
difficulty
in the child with exhaustion, chest movement and
recession will decrease.
• Inspiratory or expiratory noises:
stridor, usually inspiratory, indicates laryngeal or
tracheal obstruction
wheeze, predominantly expiratory, indicates lower
airway obstruction
volume of noise is not an indicator of severity.
• Grunting:
seen in infants and children with stiff lungs to prevent
airway collapse
it is a sign of severe respiratory distress
it may also occur in intracranial and intra-abdominal
emergencies.
• Accessory muscle use:
in infants, the use of the sternomastoid muscle creates
“head bobbing” and is ineffectual
flaring of nasal alae.
Exceptions
Increased effort of breathing DOES NOT occur in three
circumstances:
exhaustion
central respiratory depression, for example from raised
intracranial pressure, poisoning, or encephalopathy
neuromuscular disease, for example spinal muscular atrophy,
muscular dystrophy or poliomyelitis.
Efficacy of breathing
• Breath sounds on auscultation:
reduced or absent
bronchial.
• Symmetrical or asymmetrical chest expansion – (most
important)/abdominal excursion.
• Pulse oximetry. Normal SaO2 in an infant or child at sea
level is 95–100%. In air, this gives a good indication of the
efficacy of breathing. SaO2 at altitude may be lower.
Effects of respiratory failure on other physiology

• Heart rate:
increased by hypoxia, fever, or stress
bradycardia is a pre-terminal sign.
• Skin colour:
hypoxia first causes vasoconstriction and pallor (via
catecholamine release)
cyanosis is a late and pre-terminal sign
some children with congenital heart disease may be
permanently cyanosed and oxygen may have
little effect.
• Mental status:
hypoxic or hypercapnic child will be agitated first,
subsequently drowsy and then unconscious
pulse oximetry may be difficult to achieve in the agitated
child due to movement artefact.
Primary assessment of the circulation

Assess:
Circulatory status
Effects of circulatory inadequacy on other organs
Cardiac failure.
Circulatory status
• Heart rate.
• Pulse volume:
absent peripheral pulses or reduced central pulses
indicate shock.
• Capillary refill:
pressure on the centre of the sternum or a digit for
5 seconds should be followed by return of the
circulation in the skin within 2 seconds
may be prolonged by shock or cold environmental
temperatures
neither a specific nor sensitive sign of shock
should not be used alone as a guide to the response
to treatment.
• Blood pressure:
cuff should be more than two thirds of the length of the
upper arm and the bladder more than 40% of the
arm’s circumference
hypotension is a late and pre-terminal sign of circulatory
failure
expected systolic BP = 80 + (age in years × 2). (see
Appendix, p 189)
Effects of circulatory inadequacy on other

organs/physiology
• Respiratory system:
tachypnoea and hyperventilation occurs with acidosis.
• Skin:
pale or mottled skin colour indicates poor perfusion.
• Mental status:
agitation, then drowsiness leading to unconsciousness.
• Urinary output:
< 1 ml/kg/h (< 2 ml/kg/h in infants) indicates inadequate
renal perfusion.
Features suggesting cardiac cause of circulatory inadequacy:

cyanosis, not correcting with oxygen therapy
tachycardia out of proportion to respiratory difficulty
raised jugular venous pressure
gallop rhythm/murmur
enlarged liver
absent femoral pulses.
Primary assessment of disability

Always assess and treat airway, breathing, and circulatory
problems before undertaking the neurological assessment.
Respiratory and circulatory failure will have central

neurological effects.
Central neurological conditions (for example, meningitis,

raised intracranial pressure, status epilepticus) will have both
respiratory and circulatory consequences.
Neurological function
Respiratory effects
Circulatory effects
Neurological function
Conscious level – AVPU (a painful central stimulus may be
applied by sternal pressure or by pulling frontal hair):
Alert
responsive to Voice
responsive to Pain
Unresponsive.
• Posture:
hypotonia
decorticate or decerebrate postures (may only be elicited
by a painful stimulus).
opisthotonus for meningism or upper airway obstruction
• Pupils:
pupil size, reactivity and symmetry
dilatation, unreactivity or inequality indicate serious
brain disorders.
Respiratory effects
Raised intracranial pressure may induce:
Hyperventilation
Cheynes–Stokes breathing
Slow, sighing respiration
Apnoea.
Circulatory effects
Raised intracranial pressure may induce:
Systemic hypertension
Sinus bradycardia.
The shocked child
Key features from a focused history
• Diarrhoea, vomiting = fluid loss either externally (for
example, gastroenteritis, especially infants) or into
abdomen (for example, volvulus, intussuception, initial
stage of gastroenteritis).
• Fever and/or purpuric rash = septicaemia.
• Urticaria, angioneurotic oedema, and allergen exposure =
anaphylaxis.
• Cyanosis unresponsive to oxygen with heart failure in a
baby < 4 weeks = duct-dependent congenital heart
disease.
• Heart failure in an older infant or child = severe anaemia or
cardiomyopathy.
• Sickle cell disease, recent diarrhoeal illness, and very low
haemoglobin = acute haemolysis.
• An immediate history of major trauma points to blood loss
and, more rarely, tension pneumothorax, haemothorax,
cardiac tamponade, or spinal cord transection.
• Severe tachycardia and abnormal rhythm on ECG =
arrhythmia.
• Polyuria, acidotic breathing, high blood glucose =
diabetes.
• Possible ingestion = poisoning.
Specific examination of cardiovascular

status
Heart rate
Tachycardia common. Bradycardia results from hypoxaemia
and acidosis and is pre-terminal.
THE SHOCKED CHILD 23
Pulse volume
Poor pulse volume peripherally or, more worryingly, centrally.
In early septic shock sometimes a high output state with
bounding pulses.
Capillary refill
Slow capillary refill (> 2 seconds) after blanching pressure for
5 seconds on skin of the sternum. Mottling, pallor, and
peripheral cyanosis also indicate poor skin perfusion. Difficult
to interpret in patients exposed to cold.
Blood pressure
Blood pressure difficult to measure and interpret especially
in young infants. Normal systolic BP = 80 + (2 × age in
years). Hypotension is a late and often sudden sign of
decompensation.
Effects of circulatory inadequacy on other organs
Acidotic sighing respirations.

Agitation or depressed conscious level.
Urinary output decreased or absent. A minimum flow of
1 ml/kg/h in children and 2 ml/kg/h in infants indicates
adequate renal perfusion.
Muscle tone: usually hypotonic.
Treatment of shock
ABC.
Oxygen 100%, reservoir mask.
IV cannula of widest bore (femoral, antecubital, or cut down
or IO).
Fluid resuscitation immediately – 20 ml/kg of crystalloid or

colloid as fast as possible. Syringe into patient. Do not use
dextrose solutions. Reassess and repeated boluses of
20 ml/kg if shock persists.
Note: very large volumes of fluid resuscitation may be

required early, especially in meningococcal infection
and Dengue haemorrhagic fever. Use either 0·9%
sodium chloride or colloid such as 4·5% human
albumin. Blood products such as packed cells, fresh
frozen plasma, and platelets may be required.
• Patients who remain shocked after 40 ml/kg colloid/

crystalloid will probably benefit from inotropic support, for
example dopamine 10–20 micrograms/kg/min IV (ideally
central vein) or epinephrine 0·05–2·0 microgram/kg/min.
• Shocked patients are at risk of pulmonary oedema as fluid
therapy increases. Ideal therapy is mechanical ventilation
with PEEP for patients receiving > 40 ml/kg fluids. If
pulmonary oedema develops (for example, tachypnoea,
hypoxia, cough and fine crackles, raised jugular venous
pressure, and hepatomegaly) further fluid withheld until
stable. Give inotropes.
• Full neurological and cardiovascular assessment with
regular (at least hourly) assessment of: pupillary responses,
conscious level, pulse, blood pressure, capillary refill time,
respiratory rate and effort (pulse oximetry if available), and
temperature.
• Regular (ideally 4 hourly initially) monitoring of electrolytes
(sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium, phosphate,
urea and/or creatinine) and glucose and replacement of
deficits. Blood gas. Severe metabolic acidosis (pH < 7·1),
which does not respond to fluid therapy, and inotropes may
require sodium bicarbonate correction. Regular blood gas
monitoring essential for ventilated patients.
• Monitor FBC and coagulation regularly if initially abnormal.
Replacement of red cells to maintain Hb around 12 g/dL.
Platelets and coagulation factors (usually FFP and
cryoprecipitate) replaced as required to prevent bleeding.
• Hydration usually IV but NG feeding if tolerated. Urine
output monitored (by indwelling catheter if conscious level
depressed). NG for gastric drainage if persistent vomiting
or decreased conscious level.
THE SHOCKED CHILD 25
• If purpuric rash or other signs of septicaemia (after blood

culture) IV antibiotic such as cefotaxime 50–100 mg/kg.
• Fluids ideally warmed, but do not delay if not possible.
Mother can place fluid bag next to her skin under dress to
warm it.
• 5 ml/kg 10% glucose IV (especially young child or infant) –
after blood glucose test if available.
• If bleeding or severe anaemia FBC, clotting, group and
cross-match, give type-specific, non-cross-matched blood
ABO and rhesus compatible (but has a higher incidence of
transfusion reactions) (takes 15 minutes) if cannot wait
1 hour for full cross-match. In dire emergencies O rhesus
negative uncross-matched.
• If shock present and secondary to tachyarrhythmia:
Identify rhythm, attach to ECG monitor, obtain 12 lead ECG if possible
SVT
High flow oxygen
Attempt vagal manoeuvres, establish IV/IO access
No effect then use adenosine 50 micrograms/kg, then 100 micrograms/kg, then
250 micrograms/kg. Give as rapid boluses with rapid saline flush.
If unsuccessful three synchronous electrical shocks at 0·5, 1·0 and 2 J/kg (following
rapid sequence induction of anaesthesia if conscious)
(VT)
If arrythmia is broad complex, pulse is present but in shock use synchronous shocks
at 0·5, 1·0 and 2 J/kg.
(A conscious child must be anaesthetised or heavily sedated first)
The unconscious child
Coma
Disorder Common causes
Trauma • Head injury, child abuse

Seizure • Overt or subclinical seizures, status
epilepticus, postictal state
Infections • Bacterial meningitis; Streptococcus
(meningo- pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae,
encephalitis) Neisseria meningitidis, streptococci (group B),
Pseudomonas species, tuberculosis
• Viruses; herpes simplex, Japanes Encephalitis
Virus (JEV) (in Asia), herpes zoster
• Mycoplasma
• Acute spirochitaemia, syphilis, Lyme disease,
leptospirosis
• Parasitic; malarial, rickettsial
• Cerebral abscess
• Fungal; Cryptococcus neoformans
Metabolic • Hypoglycaemia (malaria, sepsis in neonates,
excess insulin or metabolic disorders)
• Hyperglycaemia in diabetic ketoacidosis.
• Hypoxaemia secondary to
cardiac/respiratory/septic shock
• Electrolyte imbalance: hyponatraemia or
hypernatraemia
• Severe dehydration
• Severe malnutrition
• Organ failure: liver failure, renal failure,
Addison’s disease, respiratory failure
• Drugs: opiates, salicylates, organophosphate,
benzodiazepines, thiazides
• Others; porphyrias, Reye’s syndrome
Poisoning • Alcohol, recreational drugs,
accidental/deliberate poisoning
Tumours • Primary: medulloblastoma, astrocytoma
• Secondary: leukaemias, sarcomas
Vascular • Haemorrhage (subdural/subarachnoid),
hypertension, hypotension, thrombosis,
aortic stenosis, cardiac asystole
• Vasculitis and collagen vascular syndromes
Systematic • Sepsis, trauma, burns, peritonitis
inflammatory
response syndrome
(usually with shock)
THE UNCONSCIOUS CHILD 27
Focused history
Focus on possible cause, rate of development of
unconsciousness, extent of injury, signs of deterioration or
recovery, and past medical history.
Examination
Always consider hypoxaemia, hypovolaemia, and
hypoglycaemia initially.
Airway and breathing – look, listen, feel

• If responsive to pain only, protect airway and consider early
definitive airway to protect lower airways from aspiration.
• Give high flow oxygen.
• Respiratory pattern:
Irregular due to brainstem lesion or raised intracranial
pressure (RICP)
Rapid due to acidosis or aspirin ingestion
Slow due to opiate ingestion.
Circulation – HR, capillary refill time (CRT), BP

Pulse: bradycardia may indicate RICP or reflect the effects of
poisons or drug overdoses.
Blood pressure: hypertensive encephalopathy or RICP.
Temperature: sepsis (fever or hypothermia).
Neurological disability – AVPU, pupils, lateralising signs and

posturing, followed by specific coma score assessment
and full neurological examination
Painful stimuli: supraorbital, nail bed, or sternum.
Pupil size and reactivity: small due to opiate ingestion
large due to amphetamine or
atropine ingestion
unequal/unreactive due to RICP.
Posture/oculocephalic reflexes: abnormal in RICP.
Neurological examination to establish baseline (tone, power,
reflexes, sensation, and coordination where possible).
Identify RICP (including herniation syndromes), focal deficits
(for example, space occupying lesion (SOL)) and
lateralising signs (hemiplegic syndromes).
Further focused examination to identify cause

Skin rashes: infections, for example meningococcal
septicaemia, Dengue haemorrhagic fever.
Breath odour: diabetic ketoacidosis, alcohol ingestion, inborn
errors of metabolism.
Hepatomegaly: Reye’s syndrome, other metabolic disorders.
Fundi: papilloedema, retinal haemorrhages (?shaken baby
syndrome).
Glucostix (confirm with lab blood sugar).
Further detailed neurological evaluation

Cranial nerves:
• Pupillary reactions:
use a bright torch
consider drugs used, for example opiates.
• Ocular movements:
eyelid response
corneal response.
• Oculocephalic reflexes:
turn the head sharply to one side, eyes move to opposite
side in normal
if eyes only partly deviate or remain fixed then abnormal
check first no cervical injury.
• Oculovestibular or caloric response:
Check first no cervical injury. Ascertain the tympanic
membrane is intact and no wax.
tilt the head forward at 30°, instill ice cold water into the
ear – the eyes turn to the side of the stimulus in normal
brainstem.
Motor function:
• Motor activity, i.e. tremor, multifocal, or none
• Motor response or postures: normal, decerebrate state
(extended arms and legs), decorticate state (flexed arms,
extended legs), rigidity, hypotonia, extension or flexion of
contralateral limbs.
Glasgow Coma Scale (>
> 4 years) Adelaide Coma Scale (< 4 years)
Activity Best response Score Activity Best response Score
Eye opening Spontaneous 4 Eye Opening Eyes open spontaneously 5

To verbal stimuli 3 To request 4
To pain 2 To voice 3
None to pain 1 To pain 2
None to pain 1
Verbal Orientated 5 Verbal Orientated, alert 5

Confused 4 Recognisable and relevant
Inappropriate words 3 words spontaneous cry 4
Non-specific words 2 Cries only to pain 3
None to pain 1 Moans only to pain 2
None to pain 1
Motor Follows commands 6 Motor Obeys commands 6

Localises pain 5 Localises painful stimulus 5
Withdraws in response to pain 4 Withdraws from pain 4
Abnormal flexion (decorticate) Abnormal flexion to pain
to pain 3 (decorticate) 3
Abnormal extension (decerebrate) Abnormal extension to pain
to pain 2 (decerebrate) 2
None to pain 1 None to pain 1
Respiratory pattern:
• Irregular: consider seizures
• Cheyne-Stokes: RICP, cardiac failure
• Kussmaul: acidosis, central neurogenic hyperventilation,
mid-brain injury, tumour, or stroke
• Apneustic (periodic) breathing: pontine damage, central
herniation
• Signs and symptoms of RICP.
Investigations
Essential
1. Clinical chemistry: blood glucose, electrolytes, creatinine,
urea, blood gases, liver function tests
2. Blood film for malarial parasites
3. Full blood count, peripheral blood film
4. Septic screen: blood cultures; urinalysis for microscopy,
sensitivity and culture; lumbar puncture (LP) in case of
high index of suspicion of central nervous system
infection. It should be delayed if there are:
features of RICP
the child is too sick to tolerate the flexed position
needed
infection at puncture site
bleeding tendency
and rash of meningococcal septicaemia.
The child should be given antibiotics to cover the possibility

of bacterial meningitis.
5. CXR: tuberculosis, severe pneumonia. Further imaging

depending on resources available and specific indication.
CT or MRI – particularly useful in detecting
space-occupying lesions, traumatic injury, contrast dye
should be given if an infection or tumour suspected.
6. Toxicology i.e. salicylates, organophosphate, opiates,
alcohol, metamphetamines, cannabinoids.
7. Specific metabolic: plasma ammonia and plasma/ CSF
lactate; urine/plasma for organic/amino acids.
Management
Immediate (ABC)
• Support respiration if necessary (support ventilation –
maintain a PCO2 of 3·5–5·0 kPa).
• Support circulation to maintain adequate cerebral
perfusion (aim to keep systolic BP at normal values for age,
avoid hypotension).
• Maintain normo-glycaemia, if blood glucose not available
give 5 ml/kg 10% glucose IV or NG.
• Maintain electrolyte balance (avoid hyponatraemia; use
0·9% saline + added glucose NOT 1/5 N dextrose saline).
If possible keep serum sodium in high normal range
> 135 mmol/l.
• Treat seizures.
• Insert NG tube to aspirate stomach contents.
• Regulate temperature (avoid hyperthermia: that is above
37·5°C).
Treat RICP (see below for more details)

• Mannitol (250–500 mg/kg; that is 1·25–2·5 ml/kg of 20%
IV over 15 minutes, and give 2 hourly as required, provided
serum osmolality is not > 325 mOsm/L).
• Dexamethasone (for oedema surrounding a
space-occupying lesion: 500 micrograms/kg stat
and then 50 micrograms/kg every 6 h).
• Catheterisation for bladder care and urine output
monitoring.
Intermediate
• Prevent child falling out of bed.
• Nutritional support.
• Skin care, prevent bed sores.
• Eye padding to avoid xerophthalmia.
• Chest physiotherapy to avoid hypostatic pneumonia.
• Restrict fluids to 60% of maintenance if water retention.
• Prevent deep vein thrombosis by physiotherapy.
• Maintain oral and dental hygiene.

• Appropriate care for central and peripheral venous or
arterial access to avoid infection.
• Watch for nosocomial infection.
Presenting features of raised intracranial

pressure (RICP)
Infants and young children
• Abnormally rapid head growth
• Separation of cranial sutures
• Bulging of anterior fontanelle (usually closes by 18 months)
• Dilatation of scalp veins
• Irritability
• Vomiting
• Loss of truncal tone
• Fluctuating level of responsiveness
• Irregular rate and rhythm of breathing, usually with slowing
of respiratory rate and apnoeas – pre-terminal
• Irregular heart rate, usually with bradycardia but
occasionally with tachycardia
• Decerebrate attacks (distinguish from epileptic seizures; in
decerebrate extends all four limbs and trunk, whereas in
seizures flexion of the upper limbs is more usual and there
are clear tonic/clonic phases) – pre-terminal
• Unconsciousness is late, often preceded by apnoea –
pre-terminal.
Older children
• Headaches
• Vomiting
• Central ataxia
• Failing vision (indicates severe papilloedema)
• Diplopia
• Neck pain and extension — pre-terminal
• Decerebrate attacks — pre-terminal
• Irregular rate and rhythm of breathing, usually with slowing

of respiratory rate – pre-terminal
• Irregular heart rate, usually with bradycardia but
occasionally with tachycardia, and mounting
hypertension with widening pulse pressure – pre-terminal
• Diminishing level of consciousness – pre-terminal.
The absence of papilloedema does not exclude RICP; its

presence indicates risk of permanent visual loss.
Management of suspected raised intracranial pressure – RICP
THIS IS A MEDICAL EMERGENCY

• Assess ABC, give high flow oxygen (mask/reservoir 10–15 L/min), and obtain
IV/intraosseous access
• Treat shock (see above), if present, but exercise caution with fluid therapy.
DO NOT PERFORM LUMBAR PUNCTURE
• Give mannitol 250 mg/kg to 500 mg/kg IV over 15 minutes (this should be
repeated if signs of raised ICP persist). If mannitol is unavailable give frusemide
1 mg/kg IV.
If space-occupying lesion suspected give dexamethasone by slow IV injection

(500 micrograms/kg stat and then 50 micrograms/kg every 6 h)
Where signs persist despite the above therapy, ideal management would include:
• Rapid sequence induction of anaesthesia and intubation for both airway
protection (if GCS < 8 and/or child is unresponsive to painful stimuli) and
stabilisation of PCO2.
• Mechanical ventilation with optimal sedation and maintenance of PCO2 within the
normal range (ideally between 3·5 and 5 kPa).
Other useful techniques include:
• Placing patient supine with a 30° head-up position

• Avoidance of central venous catheters in internal jugular veins
• Antipyretics to prevent temperatures > 37·5°C
• Full neurological and cardiovascular assessment with regular (at least hourly)
assessment of: pupillary responses, conscious level, pulse, blood pressure,
capillary refill time, respiratory rate and effort (pulse oximetry if available) and
temperature.
Maintain normoglycaemia and serum sodium (in high normal range > 135 mmol/L)/
osmolality
Monitoring electrolytes, gases, clotting, and full blood count as recommended for
shock.
Features of a supratentorial mass lesion

• Dysphasia
• Visual field defects
• Epileptic fits
• Unilateral pupil dilatation indicates a mass ipsilateral to
dilated pupil, or on side of pupil that dilated first if
bilateral pupillary dilatation.
Management
• Definitive solution is removal of the causative lesion,
requires CT and a neurosurgical facility.
Emergency and temporary relief of RICP

As above but also consider:
Infants
Transfontanelle needle tapping of the subdural space, and if
there is no subdural effusion, then needle advanced into
cerebral ventricle.
Children
Right frontal burr-hole and ventricular drainage
If there is a history of head injury, then “blind”
burr-holes when neurosurgical expertise not available
and there are unilateral pupillary signs
Allergic reactions and
anaphylactic shock
Symptoms Signs
Mild
Burning sensation in mouth Urticarial rash
Itching of lips, mouth, throat Angio-oedema
Feeling of warmth Conjunctivitis
Nausea Red throat
Abdominal pain
Moderate
Coughing/wheezing Bronchospasm
Loose bowel motions Tachycardia
Sweating Pallor
Irritability
Severe
Difficulty breathing Severe bronchospasm
Faintness or collapse Laryngeal oedema
Vomiting Shock
Uncontrolled defaecation Respiratory arrest
Cardiac arrest
Management ABC
• Remove allergen.
• Assess Airway:
give 100% oxygen
if stridor with obstruction: 10 micrograms/kg
epinephrine IM, then 5 ml epinephrine 1 in 1000
nebulised
if stridor with complete obstruction: intubate or surgical
airway
otherwise consider intubation, call for anaesthetic/ENT
assistance.
• Assess Breathing:
if no breathing, 5 rescue breaths with 100% oxygen
if wheeze, 10 micrograms/kg epinephrine IM
salbutamol inhaled dose/either 2·5 mg < 5 years or
5·0 mg if > 5 years nebulised with 100% oxygen or

1000 micrograms via spacer (10 × 100 microgram
puffs) + repeated or continuously as required.
• Assess Circulation:
if no pulse, start basic life support, assess rhythm and
treat
if shocked, 10 micrograms/kg epinephrine IM
20 ml/kg 0·9% saline/colloid.
NB: Give epinephrine IM, unless in intractable shock or

cardiac arrest when it should be given IV or IO.
If intubated it can be given at ten times the dose down the

ET tube (that is epinephrine 100 micrograms/kg).
If boluses of epinephrine are ineffective or lasting only a short
time, infusion 0·05–2·0 micrograms/kg/min (preferably via
central vein).
Reassess ABC and continue 100% oxygen

• If airway deterioration, repeat IM epinephrine 10
micrograms/kg, consider intubation or surgical airway.
• If still wheezy:
repeat IM epinephrine 10 micrograms/kg
hydrocortisone 4 mg/kg (over 15 minutes) IV
aminophylline 5 mg/kg slow IV + 1 mg/kg/h IV infusion
or salbutamol 4–6 microgram/kg slow IV followed by
IV = 0·5–1·0 micrograms/kg/min IV infusion.
• If still shocked:
repeat IM epinephrine 10 micrograms/kg
20 ml/kg 0·9% saline colloid 4·5% albumin
inotropic infusion dopamine or epinephrine: see
page 183.
• Asymptomatic:
other than rash or itching, oral antihistamine –
chlorpheniramine 250 micrograms/kg (repeat up to
4 times in 24 hours if necessary)
oral steroids prednisolone 1·0–2·0 mg/kg total daily
dose (1 month to 12 years).
Status epilepticus
During a seizure
• Place into a left lateral decubitus position (if practical).
• Ensure the AIRWAY IS PATENT and there is ADEQUATE
RESPIRATORY function and ADEQUATE CIRCULATORY
function.
• If seizure > 5 minutes (or duration unknown)
ANTICONVULSANT treatment. Short recurrent seizures
should also be treated.
• Treat fever by exposure, tepid sponging, and rectal
paracetamol (20 mg/kg).
Investigations
Blood glucose, film for malaria parasites, urea, creatinine,
calcium, electrolytes, and full blood count. Urinalysis, BP,
lumbar puncture (when meningitis possible, particularly < 2
years), cultures of blood, urine, pharyngeal swab and CSF,
relevant X-rays.
Management
• Monitor vital signs (anticonvulsants can cause hypotension
and respiratory depression).
• If seizures not controlled by anticonvulsant, general
anaesthesia (for example, thiopentone) and muscle
relaxants with respiratory support if available.
Diazepam
Paraldehyde Lorazepam
IV/IO or or
rectal/IM dose IV/rectal/IO
100–250 micrograms/kg
0·4 ml/kg 50–100 micrograms/kg
Rectal 500 micrograms/kg
Can be repeated once Can be repeated Can be repeated once

many times and used with
diazepam/lorazepam
Seizure > 15 minutes
( > 1 year) (>1 year or on regular phenytoin)

Phenytoin Phenobarbitone
IV 18 mg/kg bolus or IV 15–20 mg/kg bolus
over 10–30 minutes over 10–30 minutes
Monitor ECG/BP Monitor respiration/BP
If no more seizures then give maintenance treatment for 48 hours (phenytoin 2·5 mg/kg
12 hourly or phenobarbitone 5 mg/kg/day as a single dose).
Seizure > 40 minutes
Admit to intensive care unit for RSI and anticonvulsant infusions

Midazolam 30–300 micrograms/kg over 5 minutes,
maintain at 30–300 micrograms/kg/h or
Thiopentone 2–8 mg/kg IV for induction then
maintain per the response 1–5 mg/kg/h or
Chlormethiazole 1–2 ml/kg (8–16 mg/kg) over 5 minutes then 0·5 ml/kg/h
IV 0·8% solution (4–8 mg/kg/h)
(8 mg/ml)
Maintenance treatment as above for 48 hours after the end of seizure or last seizure
Poisoning
Symptoms and signs
• Sudden unexplained illness in previously healthy child
• Drowsiness or coma
• Convulsions
• Ataxia
• Tachypnoea
• Tachycardia or flushing
• Cardiac arrhythmia or hypotension
• Unusual behaviour
• Pupillary abnormalities.
Management of poisoning
• Remove poison, for example, wash contaminated skin and
eyes with water, remove from enclosed space if fire.
• ABCD.
• Test for hypoglycaemia, if not possible treat 5 ml/kg of 10%
glucose IV then 0·1 ml/kg/min to keep blood glucose
5–8 mmol/L.
• Treat convulsions with diazepam 100–250 micrograms/kg IV
over 5 minutes or 500 micrograms/kg per rectum.
• If opiate overdose suspected give naloxone,
10 micrograms/kg IV repeated up to a maximum of
2 mg (has short half-life therefore infusion of
10–20 micrograms/kg/min may be required).
• Identify the substance ingested or inhaled if possible.
Questions to be asked
• What potential medicines, domestic products, berries,
plants or animals (snakes, spiders, scorpions, fish) might
the patient have had exposure to?
• How much has been taken?

• Earliest possible ingestion time?
• Is the container or a sample available?
• Are other children involved?
• What symptom(s)?
• Use National Poisons Information Centres or computer
based references to get information about the side effects,
toxicity, and treatment needed.
• Remove, absorb, or neutralise ingested substance
immediately.
If corrosive, may be serious risk of injury to the mouth,

throat, airway, oesophagus, or stomach. The most dangerous
are NaOH or KOH cleaning fluids. Others include bleach and
other disinfectants. Serious oesophageal injury with
perforations and mediastinitis and later strictures may result.
• The presence of burns within the mouth is of concern and

suggests that oesophageal injury is possible.
• Stridor suggests laryngeal damage. NO EMETIC SHOULD
BE GIVEN. MILK OR WATER GIVEN AS SOON AS POSSIBLE
WILL HELP.
If available, endoscopy may be helpful. A ruptured

oesophagus will lead to mediastinitis and should be treated
with gastrostomy and prophylactic antibiotics (cefuroxime
and metronidazole).
For all poisons except heavy metals and corrosives give

activated charcoal (1 g/kg in water). Repeat after 4 hours if a
sustained release drug has been taken. If charcoal is not
available and life threatening drug such as iron or tricyclic
antidepressant, give paediatric ipecacuanha (10 ml for those
aged 6 months to 2 years and 15 ml for > 2 years plus a glass
of water) to induce vomiting.
POISONING 41
Do not give ipecac if the child has impaired

consciousness, if corrosive solutions have been ingested,
or if kerosene, turpentine or petrol have been ingested
and could be inhaled producing lipoid pneumonia.
Gastric lavage with (15 ml/kg of water or 0·9% saline) a wide

bore orogastric tube indicated only if life threatening poison
and airway is protected. Never for hydrocarbons or corrosives.
Never give salt to induce vomiting.
• If laboratory services are available take samples of blood,

vomit, or urine for drug levels as indicated. If comatosed,
check blood glucose and blood gases.
• Give antidote if this is indicated for the specific poison.
• Admit if ingested iron, pesticides, corrosives, paracetamol,
salicylate, narcotic drugs, or tricyclic antidepressant drugs.
• Admit all who have deliberately taken poisons.
• Remember someone may have given a child drugs/poisons
intentionally.
Commonly ingested drugs

Local medicines in disadvantaged countries
Usually given for diarrhoea and vomiting. May give profound

acidosis, respiratory distress and paralytic ileus.
Treatment – treat metabolic disturbance and pass NG tube.
Iron
AIM TO REMOVE AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE BY VOMITING or
gastric lavage with wide bore orogastric tube.
Desferrioxamine 1 g < 12 years and 2 g > 12 years by deep IM
injection repeated every 12 hours until serum iron is normal.
If very ill, give IV infusion of desferrioxamine 15 mg/kg/h to a

maximum dose of 80 mg/kg in 24 hours.
Paracetamol
Give charcoal and if possible measure paracetamol level.
N acetylcysteine or methionine immediately to large overdose.
If conscious and within 8 hours of ingestion, give methionine

orally (under 6 years 1 g every 4 hours for 4 doses; > 6 years
2·5 g every 4 hours for 4 doses).
If child presents > 8 hours after ingestion or cannot be given

oral preparation, give IV acetylcysteine (initially as loading
dose 150 mg/kg in 200 ml 5% dextrose in 15 minutes, then IV
infusion of 50 mg/kg in 500 ml 5% dextrose over 4 hours,
finally 100 mg/kg in 1 litre 5% dextrose over 16 hours – that is
a total of 300 mg/kg over 20 hours).
Alcohol
ABCD
Treat hypoglycaemia and hypothermia.
Benzodiazepines
Flumazenil slow IV 10 micrograms/kg. Repeat 1 minute
intervals to max 40 micrograms/kg (total maximum
dose = 2 mg). If necessary followed by infusion
2–10 micrograms/kg/h.
Salicylates
Acidotic-like breathing, vomiting, and tinnitus with
hyperventilation if severe. Fever may occur, peripheral
vasodilatation and moderate hyperglycaemia.
Induce vomiting. There is delayed gastric emptying and

therefore induce vomiting even if > 4 hours. Also give
activated charcoal (1 g/kg and repeat after 4 hours). Sodium
bicarbonate 1 mmol/kg IV over 4 hours to correct acidosis
POISONING 43
and help excrete salicylate. Give sufficient IV fluids to

compensate for hyperventilation and give sufficient glucose to
minimise ketosis, but regularly monitor blood glucose. Watch
electrolytes carefully and avoid hypokalaemia and
hypernatraemia. Vitamin K 10 mg IM/IV. In very severe cases,
exchange transfusion or haemodialysis if available.
Tricyclic antidepressants
Drowsiness, ataxia, dilated pupils, and tachycardia. Severe
poisoning results in cardiac arrhythmias (particularly ventricular
tachycardia) and severe hypotension and convulsions. Induce
vomiting, perform gastric lavage, and administer charcoal as
above BUT CARE WITH AIRWAY IF DROWSY.
Treat convulsions. Monitor the ECG continuously. Give

bicarbonate IV. Arrhythmias can be reduced by using IV
phenytoin. Loading dose is 15 mg/kg over 20 minutes
followed after 12–24 hours by oral maintenance of 2·5–5
mg/kg 12 hourly.
Prolonged cardiac massage may keep child alive long enough
for drug to wear off.
Poisonous household and natural products

Bleach: 3–6% sodium hypochlorite
DO NOT INDUCE VOMITING
Treatment – liberal fluids and milk.
Corrosive agents
Oven cleaners (30% caustic soda), kettle descalers
(concentrated formic acid), dishwashing powders (silicates
and metasilicates), drain cleaners (sodium hydroxide), car
battery acid (concentrated sulphuric acid). Symptoms –
considerable tissue damage of skin, mouth, oesophagus, or
stomach, late strictures may occur.
Treatment – DO NOT INDUCE VOMITING, wash skin and

mouth to dilute corrosive plus milk.
Petroleum compounds such as kerosene, turpentine,

and petrol
DO NOT INDUCE VOMITING
If inhaled can produce hydrocarbon pneumonia leading to
a cough, respiratory distress with hypoxaemia due to
pulmonary oedema and lipoid pneumonia.
If ingested may cause encephalopathy.
Additional inspired oxygen and possibly steroids
(hydrocortisone 4 mg/kg IV 12 hourly).
Organophosphorus compounds
Insecticides such as DDT and lindane, malathion, chlorthion,
parathion, TEPP, and phosdrin can be absorbed through the
skin, lungs, or ingested. Symptoms resulting from excessive
parasympathetic effects due to inhibition of cholinesterase,
include excessive salivation, lacrimation, bradycardia,
sweating, gastrointestinal cramps, vomiting, diarrhoea,
convulsions, blurred vision and small pupils, muscle
weakness and twitching progressing to paralysis, loss of
reflexes and sphincter control.
Treatment aim is to get rid of poison from:

Eyes – copious irrigation.
Skin – remove contaminated clothing and wash.
GIT – induce vomiting. Give activated charcoal 1 g/kg and
repeat after 4 hours.
Admit all cases as some effects are late.
In severe cases give atropine 50–100 micrograms/kg IV or IM.

May need to be repeated every 15–60 minutes until the skin
becomes flushed and dry, the pupils dilate, and tachycardia
develops. To address neuromuscular sequelae add a specific
cholinesterase re-activator and ideally within 12 hours.
Pralidoxime 25–50 mg/kg diluted with 10–15 ml of water by

IV infusion over 30 minutes. It should produce improved
muscle power in 30 minutes. It can be repeated once or twice
as required.
POISONING 45
Lead poisoning
This is usually a chronic form of poisoning. The lead can
come from paint, from lead piping, from car batteries. In
some cultures substances containing lead can be applied for
cosmetic purposes; for example Surma in India.
Early signs are non-specific, for example vomiting, abdominal
pain, anorexia. Anaemia is usually present. Prior to
encephalopathy with raised intracranial pressure, there may
be headaches and insomnia. Peripheral neuropathy may be
present. x Rays may show bands of increased density at the
metaphyses. Harmful effects on the kidneys result in
hypertension, aminoaciduria, and glycosuria. There is a
microcytic hypochromic anaemia with punctate basophilia.
The diagnosis is made by showing a marked increase in
urinary lead after d-penicillamine and elevated blood lead
levels.
For lead encephalopathy, use IV infusion of edetate calcium

(EDTA) in 250 ml of 5% dextrose 15–20 mg/kg every 6 hours
for 5–7 days. A repeat course may be needed 2 weeks later.
Boluses of mannitol 250–500 mg/kg IV over 30–60 minutes

for raised ICP whilst the above given.
Carbon monoxide poisoning

ABC. Give 100% oxygen as soon as possible (half-life of CO is
5 hours in room air but 1·5 hours in 100% oxygen). A patient
can look pink and be hypoxaemic. Guide duration of O2 on
other clinical signs of hypoxia rather than cyanosis. Pulse
oximeters give falsely high readings. Cerebral oedema may
develop.
SECTION 2
Neonatal emergencies
Fluid and electrolyte balance
in the ill neonate
Use in-line infusion chamber/burette to avoid fluid overload
Water requirements
• Start newborn on 60 ml/kg /day of IV 10% dextrose,
increasing in daily steps of 20–30 ml/kg/day to a maximum
of 180 ml/kg/day. In the small for gestational age (SGA) baby
begin with 90 ml/kg/day to meet glucose requirements.
• Babies enterally fed but too sick or preterm to breastfeed
give breastmilk by orogastric tube:
Day 1 – 60 ml/kg/day
Day 2 – 80 to 90 ml/kg/day
Day 5 – 140 to 180 ml/kg/day.
• Monitor fluid intake by weighing daily and recording urine
output. Look for signs of fluid overload (oedema) or
dehydration. If possible measure plasma electrolytes.
Electrolyte requirements
• Sodium 2·5 mmol/kg/day in term babies. Supplement daily
IV 10% glucose allowance with 30% sodium chloride
(contains 5 mmol Na+ per ml) or 23% solution (contains
4 mmol of Na+/ml). In preterm babies much higher urinary
sodium losses may equal 10 mmol/kg/day in those of
29 weeks’ gestation or less.
• Sodium supplements commenced on second day of life but if
respiratory distress wait until diuresis on third or fourth day.
• Potassium 1–2 mmol/kg/day by adding concentrated

potassium chloride to 10% dextrose (add 5 ml of 2
mmol/ml potassium chloride (15% solution) to 1 litre of
10% dextrose or 4 ml of 20% solution (2·7 mmol K+/ml)).
Hypoglycaemia in the
neonate
Increased utilisation and/or decreased production or other
causes:
• Perinatal stress (asphyxia, sepsis, shock, hypothermia,
respiratory failure).
• Polycythaemia.
• Defects in carbohydrate metabolism (galactosaemia,
fructose intolerance, glycogen storage disease).
• Endocrine deficiency (adrenal insufficiency, hypothalamic
insufficiency, glucagon deficiency).
• Defects in amino acid metabolism (maple syrup urine
disease, proprionic acidaemia, methylmalonic acidaemia,
tyrosinaemia).
• Exchange transfusion.
• Increased utilisation of glucose: hyperinsulinism – infants
of diabetic mothers.
• Erythroblastosis fetalis.
• Islet cell hyperplasia.
• Beckwith–Weidemann syndrome.
• Insulin producing tumours.
• Maternal beta-agonist tocolytic therapy.
• Abrupt interruption of high glucose infusion.
• Malpositioned umbilical arterial catheter infusing high
concentration of glucose into coeliac or mesenteric artery
(T11–T12) stimulating insulin release.
Hypoglycaemia in the ill
neonate
Decreased production/stores:
• Prematurity
• Small/large for gestational age
• Inadequate caloric intake.
Measure blood glucose when seizures, pronounced

hypotonia, or diminished consciousness.
Beware of blaming all signs on “hypoglycaemia”.
Remember infection.
When to test
• Symptomatic infants (lethargy, poor feeding, temperature
instability, respiratory distress, new-onset
apnoea/bradycardia, jitteriness, seizures): immediately.
• Infants at risk: soon after birth (within 2 hours), then
hourly until stable at 2·5 mmol/L (45 mg/dl) or higher.
Continue to monitor until feeds well established.
• Infants with known hypoglycaemia: during treatment.
Management
Infants at risk but appearing well:
• Initiate early feeding within 1–2 hours after birth with
breastmilk or formula only if breastmilk is not available,
repeated every 2–3 hours or more often on demand.
• Feeding with 5% dextrose is not recommended in infants
with hyperinsulinism because of rebound hypoglycaemia.
• Infants of diabetic mothers are unlikely to develop
hypoglycaemia on the second day of life if tests in the first
24 hours are satisfactory.
HYPOGLYCAEMIA IN THE ILL NEONATE 53
Infants with symptomatic hypoglycaemia, or unable

to feed, or who failed correction of glucose levels
with enteral feeding
• Start IV glucose bolus 200 mg/kg over 5 minutes (2 ml/kg of
10% glucose in water). Remember excess glucose by
bolus injections can harm the brain.
• Follow with maintenance infusion of 10% dextrose at
a rate of 5–8 mg/kg/min (3–5 ml/kg/h) (occasionally 12–15
mg/kg/min).
• If further episodes occur, bolus repeated and infusion rate
increased by 10–15%.
• Exclude infection.
• When administering boluses, never use high concentrations
(> 10%) because of risk of IVH and/or cerebral oedema.
• If infusing concentration > 12·5% use a central venous line
or umbilical vein catheter.
• Always decrease IV infusion gradually.
• If no IV access, Hypostop Gel (500 micrograms of glucose
per ml) 1–2 ml to the oral mucosa.
• Refractory hypoglycaemia may respond to IV
hydrocortisone (5–15 mg/kg/day in 3 divided doses
8 hourly).
If > 7 days old and glucose infusion > 8 mg/kg/min, evaluate

for endocrine or metabolic disorder.
Treatment of hypocalcaemia in the neonate

0·1 ml/kg of 10% calcium chloride (note 1 ml of calcium
chloride 10% = 3 ml of calcium gluconate 10%).
Jaundice in the ill neonate
Jaundice in the neonate
Units (micromol/l = 17·1 × mg%)
“Physiological jaundice”
Common and does not require treatment or investigation if:
• Not present in first 24 hours
• Well, free of infection without enlarged liver or spleen
• Bilirubin < 300 micromoles/litre (approximately 17 mg/dl)
at any stage if term (lower level for preterm)
• Bilirubin peaks at 4–5 days
• Fully resolved at 14 days.
Encourage early, unrestricted demand breastfeeding.
Visual inspection (Kramer), unreliable in black babies:

• Any jaundice detectable: > 90 micromoles/L
• Head and neck only: 70–130 micromoles/L
• Trunk, elbows and knees: 190–310 micromoles/L
• Hands and feet jaundiced: > 300 micromoles/L.
In prolonged jaundice (> 14 days) measure conjugated

bilirubin level.
Pathological jaundice
• Preterm delivery: lower treatment thresholds.
• Haemolytic disease. Isoimmune (for example, Rh (Rh −ve
mother, Rh +ve baby in second or subsequent pregnancies))
or ABO incompatibility (Mother O, baby A, B, or AB) or due
to red cell disorders (for example, hereditary spherocytosis
or G6PD deficiency).
• Infection. Acquired and congenital infection (for example,
rubella, CMV infection), congenital also has rash,
hepatosplenomegaly, thrombocytopenia, and some
conjugated bilirubin.
JAUNDICE IN THE ILL NEONATE 55
• Rarely inborn errors of metabolism (galactosaemia) and

congenital hypothyroidism.
• Obstructive jaundice. Rarely < 7 days.
Investigation of jaundice
Jaundice < 24 hours most likely infection or haemolytic
disease. Has mother borne previously affected babies or a
hereditary haemolytic disorder? Signs of sepsis, hepatomegaly,
or haemolytic disease?
• Mother’s and baby’s ABO and Rh. Save serum to
cross-match if exchange transfusion required.
• Direct Coombs’ test (if positive = an isoimmune
haemolytic anaemia).
• G6PD level.
• FBC and reticulocytes.
• Peripheral blood smear (abnormal red cell morphology
and/or fragmented red cell forms suggest a red cell
disorder and/or haemolysis).
• Thyroid function and urine for non-glucose reducing
substance (possible galactosaemia).
Treatment
In a sick, acidotic baby intervene about 40 micromoles/L below
the indicated line.
In infants < 31 weeks initiate phototherapy when the bilirubin

approaches 85 micromoles/L per kg birth weight and consider
exchange for levels above 170 micromoles/L per kg birth
weight.
Phototherapy chart (31–34 weeks)
300 Exchange level
250
Phototherapy level
200
150
Time of birth:
Mother’s group:
100 Baby’s group:
Coombs’:
50 Ethnic origin:
G6PD:
Other:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Phototherapy chart (> 34 weeks)
Exchange level
300
250 Phototherapy level
200
150
Time of birth:
Mother’s group:
100 Baby’s group:
Coombs’:
50 Ethnic origin:
G6PD:
Other:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Respiratory problems in the
neonate
Evaluate work, effectiveness, and adequacy
of breathing
• Tachypnoea – respiratory rate > 60/min
• Retractions (recession)
• Grunting
• SaO2 will be < 94% in air.
Causes of early < 12 hours respiratory

distress
• “Transient tachypnoea” delay in clearing fetal lung fluid
(low section Caesarean section (LSCS)).
• Congenital pneumonia or sepsis (often prolonged rupture
membranes > 18 hours).
• Surfactant deficiency (also known as “respiratory distress
syndrome”).
• Pneumothorax.
• Meconium aspiration.
• Congenital abnormalities of the lung or airways (including
diaphragmatic hernia).
• Congenital heart disease does not cause early respiratory
distress. Cyanosis is the more usual presentation;
respiratory distress associated with heart failure normally
occurs after the first week of life in association with
tachycardia, pallor, sweating, hepatomegaly, and excessive
weight gain.
Principles of treatment
• Assess oxygenation and give oxygen until pink and SaO2
94–98%. Avoid hyperoxaemia.
• Arterial blood gas.
• Blood culture and IV antibiotics given. Ampicillin/penicillin
and an aminoglycoside (or a third generation
cephalosporin).
• Chest x ray.
• Avoid oral feeding: IV 10% glucose (60 ml/kg/day) is safest,
peripheral vein or if not possible UVC. If no facilities for IV,
breastmilk or 10% glucose (up to 60 ml/kg/day) by
orogastric tube.
• Early continuous positive airways pressure (CPAP).
• Intermittent positive pressure ventilation (IPPV).
Causes of neonatal apnoea

• “Apnoea” of prematurity (idiopathic).
• Hypoglycaemia, temperature instability, and anaemia.
• Pulmonary parenchymal disease.
• Airway obstruction (for example, hyperflexion or
hyperextension of the neck), especially in premature
infants. Congenital airway anomalies (for example, trans-
oesophageal fistula (TOF) or “vascular sling”).
• Infection. Antibiotics until excluded.
• Seizures.
• Maternal narcotics. Reversed by naloxone (100
micrograms/kg, usually IM), but not if chronic narcotic
dependency in pregnancy.
Neonatal infections
• Subtle, non-specific changes in feeding pattern, emesis,
irritability, pallor, diminished tone, and/or decreased skin
perfusion
• Lethargy, apnoea, tachypnoea, cyanosis, petechiae, and
early jaundice
• Fever uncommon, especially with bacterial infection
< 7 days
• Temperature instability/hypothermia
• Hypoglycaemia and/or metabolic acidosis.
Maternal risk factors for early onset sepsis

• Maternal chorioamnionitis
• Intrapartum maternal fever (especially 38°C or greater)
• Premature rupture of membranes
• Prolonged rupture of membranes (18 hours or greater)
• Preterm labour
• Maternal bacteriuria (especially β-haemolytic streptococcus)
• Prior infected infant.
Laboratory tests
• Blood culture (about 1ml venous blood)
• WBC and differential poorly predictive of infection. Normal
< 48 hours 10−30 × 109. If <5 × 109 or elevated ratio band
forms to total neutrophil (mature neutrophils plus bands)
(0·3 or greater) supports infection
• Chest x ray
• Lumbar puncture (cytology and culture)
• MSU or suprapubic urine (if onset > 48 hours)
• Blood glucose
• Serum bilirubin if jaundiced.
Management
Stabilise cardiovascular and respiratory systems. Immediate
administration of antibiotics (after blood culture):
• Betalactam plus aminoglycoside (ampicillin + gentamicin).
Penicillin if ampicillin not available, OR
• Cefotaxime or ceftriaxone (especially gram −ve) some
gram +ve need a penicillin derivative.
• Increasing multidrug resistance (ciprofloxacin may be
needed).
• Flucloxacillin (IV or oral) if paronychia, septic spots or
umbilical infection.
• Give all unwell neonates 1 mg vitamin K IM/IV.
Meningitis
Presenting features
Include lethargy, irritability, hypotonia, seizures, generalised
signs of accompanying sepsis, and a bulging or tense
anterior fontanelle. Always measure and note head
circumference.
Investigations
Lumbar puncture essential. Elevated CSF leucocyte count >
25 cells/mm3 with a pleocytosis is characteristic. CSF protein
in neonatal meningitis may be > 2·0 g/L in a term baby
(normal values = < 0·5 g/L) and CSF glucose is typically low
(< 1·0 mmol/L or < 30% of blood glucose value). The gram
stain may reveal bacteria.
The CSF in preterm babies with IVH can confuse: sometimes

there is a mild reactive pleocytosis present for the first few
weeks of life. Treat as bacterial meningitis until cultures
negative.
NEONATAL INFECTIONS 61
If a “bloody tap” is obtained treat as infected and repeat the

lumbar puncture after 24 hours.
If a CSF pleocytosis but no organism consider imaging to rule

out a parameningeal focus, especially if seizures or focal
neurological findings.
Treatment
Betalactam plus aminoglycoside or third generation
cephalosporin. Treat for 14 days for gram + ve and 21 days for
gram −ve bacteria.
Necrotising enterocolitis
• Treat shock.
• Stop all enteral feeds and provide IV fluids, typically 120
ml/kg/day of 10% dextrose with added electrolytes.
• Orogastric tube on low-pressure continuous suction, if
available, or leave the tube open with intermittent gastric
aspiration (every 4 hours) to keep intestines decompressed.
• Parenteral broad spectrum antibiotics, usually with
ampicillin, gentamicin and metronidazole (especially if
pneumotosis, perforation, or evidence of peritonitis).
• 1mg vitamin K IV/IM and if bleeding fresh frozen plasma
10 ml/kg.
• Treat for 10–21 days.
• Ideally parenteral nutrition. Enteral feeds (breastmilk)
reintroduced slowly at end of therapy (20–30 ml/kg/day)
with monitoring of abdomen.
Neonatal seizures
Often subtle (for example, staring, lip smacking/grimacing,
deviation of the eyes, cycling movements of limbs); or
obvious tonic (extensor) posturing or clonic movements.
Bulging anterior fontanelle suggests intracranial haemorrhage

or infection. Measure head circumference.
Differential diagnosis
• Hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy
• Intracranial haemorrhage and cerebral infarction. Always
give 1 mg vitamin K IV
• Infection. Exclude/treat meningitis
• Metabolic causes:
hypoglycaemia
hypocalcaemia
hyponatraemia – uncommon unless Na < 120 mmol/L
hypernatremia – may produce cavernous venous
thrombosis. IPA rapid fall or rise in Na more injurious
pyridoxine dependency (give 50 mg pyridoxine IV during
a seizure)
• Kernicterus
• Other rare inborn errors of metabolism (for example, urea
cycle defects, non-ketotic hyperglycinaemia) – measure
serum amino acids, urine fatty acids, serum lactate and
pyruvate, and blood ammonia
• Maternal substance abuse, particularly opiate withdrawal.
Investigations
• Lumbar puncture and blood culture
• Blood glucose, calcium, urea, and electrolytes; blood
ammonia if available (arterial)
NEONATAL SEIZURES 63
• Arterial blood gas

• Cranial ultrasound
• Intracranial imaging (head CT if available)
• EEG
• Save urine, plasma, and CSF for metabolic studies.
Treatment
• Stop feeds and give fluids IV.
• Start antibiotics.
• Treat hypoglycaemia if present.
• Monitor heart and respiratory rate, oxygenation (ideally
with pulse oximetry), and blood pressure. Treat low SaO2
or cyanosis with oxygen.
• Consider anticonvulsant therapy: the earlier fits appear, the
more frequent they are (more than 2–3/hour), and the
longer they last (more than 3 minutes), the more likely this
will be required. Fits which interfere with respiration need
to be treated. Anticonvulsants can be given as follows:
Phenobarbitone (1st line): 20 mg/kg IV; an additional 10 mg/kg may be required if

seizures persist or recur
Phenytoin (2nd line): give 20 mg/kg loading dose by slow infusion and monitor for
hypotension and cardiac arrhythmia
Paraldehyde: rectal, IV or IM 0·2–0·3 ml/kg loading dose and repeat once 4–6 hours
later
Clonazepam infusion: 100–200 micrograms/kg loading dose (maximum 0·5 mg) then
10–30 micrograms/kg/h as an infusion (intensive care will be required)
Sodium valproate: 20 mg/kg then 10 mg/kg 12 hourly
Carbamazepine: 2·5 mg/kg 12 hourly
Pyridoxine 100 mg IV (then if seizures stop immediately 50 mg 4 hourly).
Neonatal Hypoxic Ischaemic
Encephalopathy (HIE)
Fetal distress such as abnormal cardiotachograph (CTG),
cord pH < 7·2, low Apgar score (3 or less at 5 minutes)
despite appropriate resuscitation. Multiorgan dysfunction
such as oliguria, haematuria (signifying acute tubular necrosis
(ATN)), increased transaminase levels (hepatic necrosis),
myocardial dysfunction.
Sarnat’s clinical grading may help to guide treatment and aid

prognosis.
Sarnat stage
Mild (stage 1) Moderate (stage 2) Severe (stage3)
Conscious Hyperalert Lethargic Stuporose

level
Muscle tone Normal Hypotonic Flaccid
Seizures Rare Common Severe
Feeding Sucks weakly Needs tube feeds Needs tube feeds
Respiration Spontaneous Spontaneous Absent
Prognosis Good Guarded Very bad
Treatment
• Maintain blood gases, blood pressure, and fluid balance.
• Avoid hyponatraemia.
• If acute renal failure (ARF) restrict fluids to 40 ml/kg/day
(to reflect insensible losses) and avoid potassium.
• Treat seizures.
SECTION 3
Specific emergencies
Respiratory and
cardiovascular
Upper airway problems
Emergency treatment of croup
• Patient will be frightened, so do not stick instruments
in throat or cause pain from repeatedly trying to insert a
venous cannula. Crying increases oxygen demand and
laryngeal obstruction. Keep child on mother’s lap. Ask
mother to alert staff if child breathes more quickly or
worse sternal recession develops.
• Encourage oral fluids.
• If cyanosed or SaO2 < 94% in air give high flow humidified
oxygen through nasal cannulae or a facemask held just
below nose/mouth by parent. Do not use nasopharyngeal
catheters.
• Oral paracetamol for pain.
• Dexamethasone 0·6 mg/kg orally. If vomits same dose IM.
Alternative nebulised budesonide 2 mg in 2 ml. It may be
repeated 30–60 minutes later.
• If severe obstruction, nebulise epinephrine
(5 ml of 1 in 1000) with oxygen. If effective, repeat 2 hourly
as required. Produces improvement for 30–60 minutes.
• Arrange urgently ENT surgeon and anaesthetist.
• If intubated, 1 mg/kg prednisilone every 12 hours reduces
duration of intubation.
• Severely ill, toxic or with measles, consider bacterial
tracheitis and antibiotic against Streptococcus pneumoniae,
Haemophilus influenzae,
and Staphylococcus aureus. If available, cefuroxime
150 mg/kg/day in 4 doses IV or cephalexin orally 25 mg/kg
6 hourly. Chloramphenicol 25 g/kg IV or orally 6 hourly
is alternative.
Acute epiglottitis
DO NOT DO
Examine the throat Reassure and calm the child
Lie child down Attach pulse oximeter and give warm
x Ray neck humidified O2 if SaO2 < 94% by mask
Perform invasive procedures held below nose/mouth by mother
Use nasopharyngeal tube O2 Call ENT surgeon and anaesthetist
Upset child by trying to gain Gain venous access after
venous access airway has been protected
Management
• Elective intubation under GA. Diagnosis confirmed by
laryngoscopy just prior to intubation (“cherry-red epiglottis”).
• Whilst anaesthetised: do blood cultures, throat swab, IV
line.
• Recommended antibiotics: chloramphenicol or cefuroxime
or cefotaxime or ceftriaxone immediately IV.
• Following intubation breathe humidified air (or air plus
oxygen) spontaneously with CPAP. Sedation (discuss with
anaesthetist) to prevent self extubation. Alternatively child’s
arms held onto thorax using a bandage. Most ready for
extubation after 48 hours.
Contrasting features of croup and epiglottitis
Feature Croup Epiglottitis

Onset: Over days Over hours
Preceding coryza: Yes No
Cough: Severe, barking Absent or slight
Able to drink: Yes No
Drooling saliva: No Yes
Appearance: Unwell Toxic, very ill
Fever: < 38·5°C > 38·5°C
Stridor: Harsh Soft
Voice: Rasping Reluctant to speak, muffled
Intubation needed in: 1% 80%
Continued
Boys’ weight (kg) Girls’ weight (kg)

−4 SD −3 SD −2 SD −1 SD Length −1 SD −2 SD −3 SD −4 SD
60% 70% 80% 90% Median (cm) Median 90% 80% 70% 60%
8·3 9·4 10·5 11·7 12·8 88·0 12·5 11·4 10·3 9·2 8·1
8·6 9·8 10·9 12·1 13·3 90·0 12·9 11·8 10·7 9·5 8·4
8·9 10·1 11·3 12·5 13·7 92·0 13·4 12·2 11·0 9·9 8·7
9·2 10·5 11·7 13·0 14·2 94·0 13·9 12·6 11·4 10·2 9·0
9·6 10·9 12·1 13·4 14·7 96·0 14·3 13·1 11·8 10·6 9·3
9·9 11·2 12·6 13·9 15·2 98·0 14·9 13·5 12·2 10·9 9·6
10·3 11·6 13·0 14·4 15·7 100·0 15·4 14·0 12·7 11·3 9·9
10·6 12·0 13·4 14·9 16·3 102·0 15·9 14·5 13·1 11·7 10·3
11·0 12·4 13·9 15·4 16·9 104·0 16·5 15·0 13·5 12·1 10·6
11·4 12·9 14·4 15·9 17·4 106·0 17·0 15·5 14·0 12·5 11·0
11·8 13·4 14·9 16·5 18·0 108·0 17·6 16·1 14·5 13·0 11·4
12·2 13·8 15·4 17·1 18·7 110·0 18·2 16·6 15·0 13·4 11·9
Notes:
1. SD = standard deviation score or Z-score; although the interpretation of a fixed percent-of-median value varies across age and height,
and generally, the two scales cannot be compared, the approximate percent-of-median values for −1 and −2 SD are 90% and 80% of
median, respectively (Bulletin of the World Health Organisation, 1994, 72:273–283).
2. Length is measured below 85 cm; height is measured 85 cm and above. Recumbent length is on average 0·5 cm greater than
standing height, although the difference is of no importance to the individual child. A correction may be made by deducting 0·5 cm from
all lengths above 84·9 cm if the standing height cannot be measured.
• IV salbutamol (loading dose 5 micrograms/kg over

5 minutes, followed by 1–5 micrograms/kg/min) by IV
infusion. Severe and life-threatening hypokalaemia may
occur with IV salbutamol, potentiated by steroids. Monitor
the ECG and if available check K+ regularly (minimum
12 hourly). Ensure maintenance K+ intake is given.
or
• Aminophylline (loading dose 5 mg/kg over 20 minutes,
followed by 1mg/kg/h by IV infusion). Monitor rhythm with
ECG.
Heart failure
Signs
Tachycardia
Raised jugular venous pressure (often not seen in infants)
Lung crepitations on auscultation (most basal)
Gallop rhythm
Enlarged liver
Management
• Beware IV fluids (especially Na+)
• Give calorie supplements + NG feeding if inadequate
oral intake.
• Bed rest, semi-upright, legs dependent.
• Oxygen if respiratory distress or hypoxaemia due to
pulmonary oedema (SaO2 < 94% sea level).
• Relieve fever if > 38°C.
• When pulmonary oedema, frusemide 1 mg/kg IV should
produce diuresis in 2 hours. If ineffective, give
2 mg/kg IV and repeat after 12 hours if necessary
• Then oral frusemide 1 mg/kg once, twice, or three times
per day. Dose frequency to control symptoms, PLUS
• Spironolactone 1 mg/kg once, twice, or three times per day
matching the dose frequency of frusemide to enhance
diuresis and prevent frusemide related hypokalaemia.
RESPIRATORY AND CARDIOVASCULAR 71
• If frusemide without spironolactone, oral potassium

3–5 mmol/kg/day should be given.
• Captopril up to a maximum of 1 mg/kg × 3/day (following
100 micrograms/kg test dose) if more than twice daily
diuretics are needed.
Endocarditis prophylaxis
See table on page 72. If allergic to penicillin or the child has had
more than one dose of penicillin in the last month substitute
another antibiotic in place of amoxicillin, for example:
• 50 mg oral clindamycin for every 250 mg oral amoxicillin
that would have been given
• 75 mg of IV clindamycin for every 250 mg of IV amoxicillin
that would have been given or
• 20 mg/kg IV vancomycin (max. 1 g) in place of IV
amoxicillin.
Management of acute rheumatic fever

• Bed rest during acute phase.
• Eradicate streptococcal infection (oral penicillin V
12·5 mg/kg 6 hourly for 10 days).
• Commence aspirin 90−120mg/day in 4 divided doses.
Reduce the dose to two-thirds when clinical response.
When the creative protein (CRP)/erythrocyte
sedimentation rate (ESR) normalises, taper the aspirin
dose over 2 weeks.
• Give prednisolone 2 mg/kg/day (max. 60 mg/day) in place
of aspirin if carditis or pericarditis. Give for 3 weeks then
taper dose over a further 2–3 weeks. As prednisolone dose
falls, commence aspirin 50 mg/kg/day in 4 divided doses
and stop aspirin 1 week after prednisolone is stopped.
• Treat heart failure.
Urgent valve replacement sometimes required.
• Endocarditis prophylaxis is needed after carditis.

• For chorea, haloperidol (12·5–25 micrograms/kg twice
daily – maximum 10 mg/day < 12 years, 6o mg/day
> 12 years).
< 5 years old 5–10 years old < 10 years old
Dental or surgical Oral amoxicillin 750 mg Oral amoxicillin Oral amoxicillin

procedures under 1 hour before procedure 1·5g 1 hour before 3 g 1 hour before
local anaesthetic procedure procedure
Dental or surgical IV amoxicillin 250 mg IV amoxicillin 500 mg IV amoxicillin 1 g
procedures under on induction + oral on induction on induction
general anaesthetic amoxicillin 125 mg + oral amoxicillin 250mg + oral amoxicillin
6 hours later 6 hours later 500 mg
6 hours later
High risk cases IV amoxicillin 250 mg + IV IV amoxicillin 500 mg + IV amoxicillin 1 g
(prosthetic gentamicin 2 mg/kg IV gentamicin 2 mg/kg + IV gentamicin
valve/previous on induction (max 120 mg) on 2 mg/kg
endocarditis/ + oral amoxicillin 125 mg induction (max 120 mg) on
genitourinary 6 hours later + oral amoxicillin induction + oral
procedure) 250 mg 6 hours later amoxicillin
500 mg 6 hours later
RESPIRATORY AND CARDIOVASCULAR 73
To prevent recurrence IM benzathine penicillin 1·2 MU once a

month or oral penicillin V or erythomycin up to 1 year
62·5 mg, 1–5 years 125 mg, 6–12 years 250 mg and > 12 years
500 mg ALL twice per day after the acute attack (for life).
Features suggesting cause of central cyanosis

in an infant
Cardiac Respiratory
Term baby Premature
Mild tachypnoea but no respiratory distress Respiratory distress
May have cardiac signs on examination Chest x ray: abnormal lung fields
Arterial blood gas PO2 ↓, PCO2 ↓ or normal Arterial blood gas PO2 ↓, PCO2 ↑
or normal
Fails hyperoxia test Passes hyperoxia test
The hyperoxia test
• Ensure good IV access

• Monitor oxygen saturations continuously
• Give 100% oxygen for 10 minutes
• Take an arterial blood gas in the right arm (preductal)
• If PO2 < 20 kPa (150 mmHg), a cardiac cause of cyanosis is likely (the test is
“failed”)
• If PO2 > 20 kPa (150 mmHg), a respiratory cause of cyanosis is likely (the test is
“passed”)
• SaO2 (pulse oximetry) < 80% baseline and SaO2 < 90% after 10 minutes in 100%
O2 suggests cyanotic heart defect
• Oxygen rarely closes arterial duct, precipitating profound hypoxaemia
• Prostaglandin E (which opens the duct) should be available
(starting dose = 10 nanograms/kg/min)
Features that help to distinguish the three types of

cyanotic heart defect
Low pulmonary Complete transposition Common mixing
blood flow of great arteries (TGA) lesion
PO2 at rest Often ≤ 35 mmHg Often ≤ 35 mmHg Often ≥ 45 mmHg

SaO2 at rest < 80% < 80% 80–90%
PO2 hyperoxia test Often ≤ 50 mmHg Often ≤ 50 mmHg 75–200 mmHg
SaO2 hyperoxia < 90% < 90% 90–100%
Chest x ray Reduced pulmonary Normal or increased Normal or increased

vascular markings pulmonary vascular pulmonary vascular
markings ± narrow markings
mediastinum
Gastrointestinal/liver/renal
Acute gastroenteritis
Signs – unreliable in severe malnutrition
No dehydration Mild Moderate Severe

(< 3% weight dehydration dehydration dehydration
loss) (3–5% weight (6–9% weight +% weight
(10+
loss) loss) loss)
Increased Loss of skin More pronounced

thirst turgor, tenting effects seen than in
when pinched moderate dehydration
Lack of urine output
Slightly dry Sunken eyes Hypovolaemic shock,

NO SIGNS mucous Sunken including: a rapid and
membranes fontanelle in feeble pulse (the radial
infants pulse may be
undetectable), low or
Restless or undetectable blood
irritable pressure (very late
behaviour sign), cool and poorly
perfused extremities
Dry mucous Over sternum,
membranes decreased capillary
refill > 2 seconds, and
peripheral cyanosis
Rapid, deep breathing
(acidosis)
Altered consciousness
or coma
• Weigh child or use child’s age to estimate dehydration.

• Look for abdominal mass or distension.
• In neonate beware sepsis.
• Be aware typhoid, surgical conditions (for example,
intussusception), antibiotic associated colitis, and irritable
bowel disease (rare).
Management
Two phases: rehydration and maintenance. In both, excess
fluid losses must be replaced continuously.
Fluid deficit
No signs of dehydration: < 5% fluid deficit = < 50 ml/kg
Some dehydration: 5–9% fluid deficit = 50–90 ml/kg
Severe dehydration: > 10% fluid deficit = >100 ml/kg.
Rehydration therapy based on degree of dehydration. USE

ReSoMal (lower Na content) instead of standard ORS (oral
rehydration solution) in children with severe malnutrition.
Mild dehydration (3–5% fluid deficit)

• Commence ORAL REHYDRATION with 50 ml/kg over
2–4 hours.
• Parent gives small amounts (for example, one teaspoon) of
solution containing 50–90 mEq/L of sodium (for example,
oral rehydration solution (ORS)) frequently.
• Gradually increase amount, as tolerated, using teaspoon,
syringe, medicine dropper, cup, or glass.
• REASSESS HYDRATION after 2–4 hours, then progress to
the maintenance phase or continue rehydration.
Moderate dehydration (6–9% fluid deficit)

ORS 100 ml/kg, given over 2–4 hours.
Severe dehydration (≥ 10% fluid deficit, shock)

• IV REHYDRATION IMMEDIATELY. Give ORS enterally (oral
or N/G) until drip set up (2 IV lines if possible) or even cut
down, femoral venous or intraosseous lines.
• Give boluses 10–20 ml/kg IV of Hartmann’s solution (page
187) (Na = 131 mmol/L; K = 5 mmol/L; HCO3 = 29 mmol/L;
Ca = 2 mmol/L) until pulse, perfusion (CAPILLARY REFILL),
and mental status return to normal. The concentration of
potassium is low and there is no glucose to prevent
hypoglycaemia. This is especially important in infants and
young children and can be corrected by adding 100 ml of
GASTROINTESTINAL/LIVER/RENAL 77
50% glucose to 500 ml of Hartmann’s giving approximately

a 10% glucose solution (adding 50 ml gives a 5% solution).
If Hartmann’s is not available, 0·9% saline. However it does

not contain a base to correct acidosis and does not replace
potassium losses (therefore add KCl 5 mmol/L). Also add
dextrose as above.
• DO NOT USE hypotonic IV solutions such as 5% glucose or

0–18% saline plus 4% glucose WHICH ARE DANGEROUS IF
GIVEN QUICKLY (HYPONATRAEMIA AND CEREBRAL
OEDEMA).
• Usually 100 ml/kg of IV replacement fluids (Hartmanns or

0·9% saline plus KCl) is required and usually given as
follows:
Age First give 30 ml/kg in Then give 70 ml/kg in
Infants (under 1 hour* 5 hours

12 months)
Older child 30 minutes* 2·5 hours
* Repeat once if shock is still present.
• When level of consciousness normal, give remaining deficit

enterally as ORS.
• Reassess regularly.
• Continue breastfeeding.
All children should start to receive ORS solution (about

5 ml/kg/h) when they can drink without difficulty, which is
usually within 3–4 hours (for infants) or 1–2 hours (for older
patients). This provides additional base and potassium, which
may not be adequately supplied by IV fluid.
Hypernatraemia (Na >150 mmol/L)

Results from child given hypertonic drinks with too high
sugar (for example, soft drinks, commercial fruit drinks) or
salt. Thirst out of proportion to other signs of dehydration.
Convulsions when Na > 165 mmol/L, and especially when IV

therapy. Seizures less likely when treated with ORS. IV
rehydration must not lower Na too rapidly. Correct over at
least 48 hours. IV glucose solutions are particularly
dangerous: can result in cerebral oedema.
Hyponatraemia (Na < 130 mmol/L)

From child being given mostly water, or watery drinks
containing little salt. Common in shigellosis and severe
malnutrition with oedema. Causes lethargy and, less often,
seizures. ORS solution is safe and effective for hyponatraemia:
except in malnutrition/oedema, where standard ORS contains
too much sodium; use ReSoMal if available or diluted ORS.
Hypokalaemia (K < 3 mmol/L)

Inadequate replacement of K especially in malnutrition. Causes
muscle weakness, paralytic ileus, impaired kidney function, and
cardiac arrhythmias. Hypokalaemia is worsened when base
(bicarbonate or lactate) is given to treat acidosis without
simultaneously providing potassium. Deficit corrected by ORS
and foods rich in potassium during diarrhoea and after it has
stopped (bananas, coconut water, dark green leafy vegetables).
If K+ < 2·0 mmol/L or ECG signs (= flat T waves) then give IV

infusion of KCl carefully at a rate of 0·2 mmol/kg/h with serum
K+ checked after 3 hours. Potassium for injection MUST be
diluted before use and thoroughly mixed before being given.
The maximum infusion rate is 0·5 mmol/kg/h of potassium.
Injectable KCl usually contains 1·5 g, that is 20 mmol of

potassium in 10 ml, and can be given orally. The daily
requirement of K+ is 2–3 mmol/kg.
Replacement of ongoing fluid losses

10 ml/kg or in older children a cup or small glass of ORS for
each watery or loose stool passed, and 2 ml/kg of fluid for
each vomit.
USE either low-sodium ORS (containing 40–60 mEq/L of

sodium) or ORS containing 75–90 mEq/L of sodium with an
additional source of low-sodium fluid (for example,
breastmilk, formula, or clean water).
Oedematous eyelids usually indicate over-rehydration but may

indicate malnutrition. If this develops, stop ORS, and give
breastmilk, plain water, and food. Do not give diuretic. When
the oedema has gone, resume ReSoMaL or low Na+ ORS.
WHO ORS Low Na+ ORS

bicarbonate solution (for
solution example Dioralyte) ReSoMal
Na+ 90 60 45
K+ 20 20 40
Cl− 80 60
HCO3− 30
Citrate 10
Glucose 111 90 125 mmol/L
Home made ORS: to 1 litre clean water, add

8 level teaspoons sugar
1 level teaspoon salt
Fruit juice for taste
Severe malnutrition
Principles of treatment
Phase 2 (usually
Phase 1 (1–7 days) Transition (3–4 days) 14–21 days)
Treat or prevent
dehydration,
hypoglycaemia,
hypothermia
Treat infection Treat helminths
Continued
Phase 2 (usually
Phase 1 (1–7 days) Transition (3–4 days) 14–21 days)
Correct electrolyte
imbalance
Do NOT give iron Do not give iron Correct nutrient
deficiencies and
iron deficiency
DIET: maintenance Moderate intake High food intake
intake
Stimulate child Stimulate child Stimulate child
Provide physical
activities
Prepare for
discharge
General points
• Protect from infections in warm room (25–30°C) without
draughts.
• Wash minimally and with warm water and immediately dry.
• Mother to stay with child, especially at night.
• Avoid IV infusions as high risk of heart failure. Only
indication is unconsciousness due to circulatory collapse.
Only indication for blood transfusion is when anaemia is
life threatening.
• IV cannulae removed immediately after treatment.
• NG feeding if:
anorexia with intake of < 70 kcal/kg
severe dehydration with inability to drink
cannot drink and eat because of weakness or clouded
consciousness
painful or severe mouth or oesophageal lesions (herpes,
candida, cancrum oris)
repeated, very frequent vomiting
try not to tube feed for > 3–4 days; try to breastfeed or
feed by mouth as much as possible.
Dehydration with severe malnutrition

Not the same as in non-malnourished child (with exception of
cholera).
Signs to assess dehydration unreliable in severe malnutrition.

Assume all children with acute watery diarrhoea have some
dehydration.
Specifically:
• history and observation of frequent WATERY diarrhoea

• history of recent sinking of the eyes: the eyes appear “staring”
• History of not passing urine for 12 hours
• History and observation of thirst.
Reduced skin turgor and sunken eyes (longstanding) are

features of malnutrition. Similar appearance can be caused by
toxic shock with dilatation of blood vessels – these patients
should not be treated as simply dehydrated.
Standard WHO-ORS solutions have too high sodium and

too low potassium for children with severe malnutrition.
Use ReSoMal (rehydration solution for malnutrition).
Children with watery diarrhoea in an adequate clinical state:

At admission, one dose of ReSoMal orally or NG and feed
with phase 1 diet. Further ReSoMal after each stool or vomit.
50 ml for children less than 85 cm in length (approximately

< 2 years)
100 ml for children over 85 cm in length (> 2 years).
If ReSoMal not available modify ORS as below.
Children with watery diarrhoea in a poor clinical state:

ReSoMal 10 ml/kg per hour for first 2 hours and then 5 ml/kg
per hour until rehydration is complete. (Slower than normally
nourished children.)
ReSoMal
Na = 45 mmol/L
K = 40 mmol/L
Mg = 3 mmol/L
Glucose = 125 mmol/L
Rehydration is complete when child is alert, no longer

thirsty, and has passed urine. There should be less sunken
eyes and fontanelle and improved skin turgor (note: loss of
sunken eyes may be a sign of overhydration, development
or exacerbation of oedema is sign of excess fluid
administration).
70 ml of ReSoMal per kg of weight per day is usually enough

to restore hydration. However, rehydration can quickly lead
to fluid overload with cardiac failure or sudden death.
Malnourished children cannot excrete excess sodium. Assess
every 30 minutes during the first 2 hours then every hour.
weigh twice daily.
Mark edge of liver on the skin with marker pen at start of

rehydration.
ReSoMal should also be stopped immediately if:
Body weight increases by 10% or more

Liver edge increases > 2 cm
Respiratory or pulse rate increase
Jugular veins become engorged
Oedema appears or eyelids become puffy.
Breastfeeding should continue during rehydration. Phase 1

diet should start immediately when child is alert. If severe
dehydration, feeding should start as soon as alert and treated
(2–3 hours).
When no commercial ReSoMal is available:
To 2 litres of clean boiled/filtered water add:
1 bag of Standard ORS (WHO)

50 g of sugar
1 dose of mineral/vitamin mix (6·5 g)
(note this is double the quantity of water that is normally

used – 2 litres so solution is half strength).
Emergency treatment of severe dehydration by IV infusion

Only where shock clouds consciousness: alert children should
never get infusion.
Severe dehydration and septic shock are difficult to

differentiate.
• Eyelid retraction with history of diarrhoea is sign of severe
dehydration. In septic shock eyelids droop.
• If unconscious (or asleep) without eyelids together,
dehydration or hypoglycaemia (a sign of excess adrenalin)
is present.
• Superficial veins may be dilated in septic shock: always
constricted in severe dehydration.
Immediate treatment:
• Give 15 ml/kg IV over 1 hour of Hartmann’s solution with
5% glucose, or 0·9% saline with 5% glucose.
• At same time, insert NG tube and give ReSoMal 10 ml/kg
per hour.
• Monitor carefully for overhydration: check respiratory rate
every 15 minutes.
If after 1 hour the child is improving but still severely

dehydrated continue NG ReSoMal 10 ml/kg/h for up to
5 hours.
If after 1 hour the child has not improved assume septic

shock and treat.
Electrolyte problems in severe malnutrition

All have deficiencies of potassium and magnesium which
may take > 2 weeks to correct. Do not treat oedema with
diuretic.
Excess body sodium exists even though the plasma sodium

may be low. Do not give high sodium loads. Prepare food
without adding salt.
• Give extra potassium (3–4 mmol/kg daily)
• Give extra magnesium (0·4–0·6 mmol/kg daily).
Infection in severe malnutrition

Presume all have infection. Clinical signs may be absent.
Give broad spectrum antibiotics to all plus specific antibiotics
for identified organisms.
No specific infection and no suspected

septic shock
Give broad spectrum antibiotics according to local resistance
on admission to all children with severe malnutrition.
• amoxicillin/ampicillin (50 mg/kg IV 6 hourly for 2 days
then orally 50 mg/kg 6 hourly for 5 days) plus gentamicin
7·5 mg/kg IV once daily for 7 days.
If fails to improve after 48 hours:

• Add chloramphenicol 50 mg/kg load then 25 mg/kg
6 hourly IV/IM/oral, or
• Cefotaxime 50–100 mg/kg IV/IM 8 hourly or ceftriaxone
50–100 mg/kg IV/IM 24 hourly.
• Metronidazole 7·5 mg/kg orally 8 hourly for 7 days is
frequently also given.
Septic shock: emergency treatment

• Clouding of consciousness
• Rapid respiratory rate:
> 50 breaths/min for children from 2 to 12 months
> 40 breaths/min for children from 12 months to 5 years
• Rapid pulse rate
• Cold hands and feet with visible subcutaneous veins
• Signs of dehydration but without a history of watery
diarrhoea
• Hypothermia or hypoglycaemia
• Poor or absent bowel sounds
• An abdominal splash when the child is shaken.
Difficult to distinguish between severe dehydration and

septic shock in severe malnutrition
If circulatory collapse
Give 20 ml/kg IV of 0·9% saline then treat as for severe
dehydration by IV infusion of 15 ml/kg Hartmann’s with 5%
glucose over 1 hour.
• Broad spectrum antibiotics (ampicillin + gentamicin)
immediately (see above)
• Warm the child to prevent or treat hypothermia
• Feeding and fluid maintenance by NG or orally.
Hypothermia: prevention and treatment

Rectal or oral < 35·5°C (with low reading thermometer).
In severe malnutrition thermoneutral air temperature is
28–32°C. At 24°C can become hypothermic. Those with
infection or extensive skin lesions at particular risk. A
hypothermic, malnourished child should always be assumed
to have septicaemia.
Prevention
Cover with clothes and blankets plus warm hat.
Ensure mother sleeps with child. Do not leave child alone in
bed at night.
Keep the ward closed during night.
Avoid wet nappies, clothes, or bedding.
Do not wash very ill children. Others to be washed quickly
with warm water and dried immediately.
Feed frequently. Ensure feeds occur during the night.
Avoid medical examinations that leave the child cold.
Emergency treatment
Immediately place on the caretaker’s bare chest or abdomen
(skin to skin) and cover both of them. Give mother a hot
drink to increase her skin blood flow.
If no adult available clothe well (including head) and put near
a lamp/heat source.
Immediately treat for hypoglycaemia and then start normal
feeds.
Give broad spectrum antibiotics.
Monitor rectal temperature until normal (> 36·5°C).
Hypoglycaemia: prevention and treatment

Blood glucose < 3·0 mmol/L. If cannot be measured, assume
hypoglycaemia:
• Lethargy, limpness, loss of consciousness, or convulsions
• Drowsiness/unconsciousness with the eyelids partly open,
or retraction of the eyelids
• Low body temperature (< 36·5°C).
Sweating and pallor do not usually occur.
Prevention
Frequent small feeds (day and night)
Feeding should start while child is being admitted
Treat infections.
Emergency treatment
If can drink give therapeutic milk or 50 ml of glucose 10%,
or 50 ml of drinking water plus 10 g of sugar (1 teaspoon of
sugar in 3·5 tablespoons of clean water). Follow this with the
first feed as soon as possible. If achievable, divide first feed
into 4 and give half hourly. If not, give whole feeds every
2 hours during day and night.
If unconscious or convulsing give 5 ml/kg glucose 10%

IV and/or if IV is not possible give 5 ml/kg of glucose 10% by
NG tube. Continue frequent feeding. Give broad spectrum
antibiotics. If convulsions exclude cerebral malaria,
meningitis/encephalitis, thiamine deficiency, hypernatraemic/
hyponatraemic dehydration (especially in hot dry
climates). If blood glucose available and is low, repeat
after 30 minutes.
Congestive heart failure (see page 70)

Common and dangerous usually several days after admission.
During early recovery from severe malnutrition, sodium
mobilised from tissues before kidney recovers to excrete
excess. All blood transfusions must therefore be done as soon
as possible (within 1–2 days of admission).
Usually caused by
• Misdiagnosis of dehydration with consequent inappropriate
“rehydration”.
• Very severe anaemia.
• Overload due to blood transfusion (consider exchange
transfusion).
• A high sodium diet, using conventional ORS, or excess
ReSoMal.
• Inappropriate treatment of “re-feeding diarrhoea” with
re-hydration solutions.
Excess weight gain is the most reliable sign – daily weights

should be taken on all malnourished children. If weight rises,
especially if > 5%, diagnose heart failure, if weight is lost
diagnose pneumonia.
Signs
• Fast breathing
> 50 breaths/min for children from 2 to 12 months
> 40 breaths/min for children from 12 months to
5 years
• Lung crepitations
• Respiratory distress
• Tachycardia
• Engorgement of the jugular veins
• Cold hands and feet
• Cyanosis or SaO2 < 94% in air at sea level
• Hepatomegaly (see above) or increase in liver by > 2 cm.
Emergency treatment
Stop all intake and IV fluid. No fluid until cardiac function
improved, even if takes 24–48 hours. Frusemide IV
(1 mg/kg). If potassium intake assured (F100 has adequate
potassium) then give single dose of digoxin ORALLY
(20 micrograms/kg).
Measles: prevention and treatment in

severe malnutrition
All > 6 months vaccinated on admission, second dose at
discharge.
Isolate any suspected cases.
Review vaccination status of all patients in the ward.
Give two doses vitamin A (see below) separated by
1 day.
Micro-nutrient deficiencies in severe malnutrition

Daily multivitamin supplement.
Zinc 2 mg/kg/day, copper 0·3 mg/kg/day combined with
potassium and magnesium to make an electrolyte/
mineral solution which is added to ReSoMal and
to feeds.
AVOID iron during the first 2 weeks until the child is gaining
weight.
In goitrous regions, potassium iodide should be added to
mineral mixture (12 mg/2500 ml) or give Lugol’s iodine
5–10 drops per day.
Vitamin A deficiency: prevention and treatment

Routine preventive treatment
One dose of vitamin A.
Weight Dose at admission
< 6 kg 50 000 IU once

6–10 kg 100 000 IU once
> 10 kg 200 000 IU once
Treatment of xerophthalmia or measles

Three doses of Vitamin A treatment given.
Weight Dosage
Day 1 Day 2 Day 14
< 6 kg 50 000 IU 50 000 IU 50 000 IU

6–10 kg 100 000 IU 100 000 IU 100 000 IU
> 10 kg 200 000 IU 200 000 IU 200 000 IU
If eyes inflamed or ulcerated:

• Instil chloramphenicol or tetracycline eye drops, 2–3 hourly
as required for 7–10 days.
• Instil atropine eye drops, 1 drop 3 times daily for 3–5 days.
• Cover with saline-soaked eye pads.
• Bandage eye(s).
Note: Children with vitamin A deficiency are photophobic

and have eyes closed. Examine very gently to prevent
corneal rupture.
Iron deficiency and anaemia treatment

5 mg of folic acid on admission, then 1 mg/day. Iron should
never be given during phase I or transition phase. Oral iron
supplement should start 14 days after admission. One
crushed tablet of ferrous sulphate (200 mg) to 2 litres of
therapeutic milk or ferrous sulphate 3 mg/kg/day.
Emergency treatment of very severe anaemia

Blood transfusion is potentially dangerous. Aim for partial
exchange transfusion.
Indicators:
• Hb < 4 g/100 ml
• With signs of heart failure due to anaemia (at immediate
risk of death).
Transfuse 10 ml per kg of packed cells (or whole blood).

Continuously observe cannula in an artery or central vein,
possibly also a vein in the antecubital fossa.
2·5 ml/kg of anaemic blood is first removed and then 5 ml/kg
of appropriately screened and cross-matched blood is
transfused, 2·5 ml/kg is again taken and the cycle repeated.

If partial exchange not possible and heart failure present,
give 10 ml/kg ideally as packed cells otherwise as whole
blood. Transfuse over 4 hours and give IV frusemide
1 mg/kg at the start of the transfusion. Monitor carefully
for worsening heart failure.
Try not to transfuse again until at least 4 days have passed.
Intestinal parasites
Routine deworming > 1 year but only in phase 2 or transition
phase.
Mebendazole 1 tab = 100 mg.
Single dose Dose over 3 days
> 1 year of age 500 mg 100 mg twice daily for 3 days
Dermatosis of kwashiokor
• Leave area exposed to dry.
• Apply barrier cream (zinc and castor oil ointment) or
petroleum jelly or tulle grasse to the raw areas and gentian
violet or nystatin cream to the skin sores.
• Broad spectrum antibiotics.
• Do not use plastic pants or disposable nappies.
• Give zinc supplements.
Continuing diarrhoea
Giardiasis and mucosal damage are common causes. Where
possible, examine stools by microscopy. If cysts or
trophozoites of Giardia lamblia are found, give
metronidazole (5 mg/kg 8 hourly for 7 days).
Diarrhoea is rarely due to lactose intolerance. Only treat for

lactose intolerance if the continuing diarrhoea is preventing
general improvement. Starter F-75 is a low-lactose feed.
In exceptional cases:
• Substitute milk feeds with yoghurt or a lactose-free infant

formula.
• Reintroduce milk feeds gradually in the rehabilitation
phase.
Osmotic diarrhoea
If diarrhoea worsens substantially with hyperosmolar F-75 and
ceases when the sugar content and osmolarity are reduced. In
these cases:
• Use a lower osmolar cereal-based starter F-75 or, if
available, use a commercially prepared isotonic starter F-75.
• Introduce catch-up F-100 gradually.
Malaria: treatment and prevention

In endemic areas, a rapid malaria smear on admission. Give
standard local treatment. Sleep under impregnated nets in
the wards.
Tuberculosis
TB can be a cause of failure to gain weight.
Children with TB should not be isolated.
Dietary treatment in phase 1

Principles
Feeding:
• Should start quickly during the admission process.
• Should be divided into many small meals to prevent
hypoglycaemia and hypothermia.
• Encourage but not force to eat. Use a cup or a bowl or a
spoon or syringe to feed weak children. If takes < 70% of
prescribed diet, NG tube.
• Always continue breastfeeding; after breastfeed give
scheduled amounts of starter formula.
• Night feeds are essential.
• 100 kcal/kg/day.
• Protein: 1–1·5 g/kg/day.
• Liquid: 130 ml/kg/day (to all children no matter what their

state of oedema is).
A recommended schedule is as follows:
Days Frequency Vol/kg/feed Vol/kg/day
1–2 2 hourly 11 ml 130 ml

3–5 3 hourly 16 ml 130 ml
6 onwards 4 hourly 22 ml 130 ml
Special milk for phase 1 is F-75 has: 75 kcal/100 ml:

• 0·9 g of protein/100 ml (around 5% kcal provided by
protein)
• 2 g of fat/100 ml (around 32% of kcal provided by fat)
• 13 g of carbohydrate/100 ml (around 62% of kcal provided
by carbohydrates)
F-75: 133 ml = 100 kcal.

Do not exceed 100 kcal/kg/day in this initial phase.
Home made phase 1 diet

Note: commercial F-75 starter mix is much better than home
made because contains maltodextrin instead of sugar
and does not have high osmolality of home made
preparation, which can cause an osmotic diarrhoea.
Alternatively 35 g/L of starch can be added and the
sugar reduced to 70 g/L.
Food item Quantity
Dried skimmed milk (DSM) 25 g

or boiled full cream milk 300 ml
Vegetable oil 27 g (30 ml)
Sugar 105 g
Water (boiled) Add water to make 1 litre of preparation
CMV* 20 ml (should be added after the water)
* Minerals and vitamin mix.

Acute liver failure

Grades of hepatic encephalopathy
Grade Symptoms
I Irritable. Inappropriate behaviour. Difficulty in writing

Lethargy. Mildly depressed awareness
Tremor or flap (slow wave in outstretched extended hand)
II Aggressive outbursts. Bad language
Unable to stay still
Pulling at IV cannulae/plaster, etc.
III Mood swings
Irritable, odd behaviour (can be associated with raised
intracranial pressure (RICP))
Not recognising parents (can be associated with RICP)
Flapping tremor
Photophobia
IV a Mostly sleeping but rousable (can be associated with RICP)
Flapping tremor (can be associated with RICP)
Incoherent, sluggish pupils, hypertonia
± Clonus, extensor spasm
IVb Absent reflexes
Irregular gasps with imminent respiratory failure (can be
associated with RICP)
Bradycardia
Unresponsive to painful stimuli
• If encephalopathy, nurse head elevated at 30° in neutral

position.
• Sedation worsens encephalopathy: do not give sedation.
• Aim for two-thirds maintenance fluid intake.
• Maintain blood glucose between 4 and 9 mmol/L using
minimal fluid volume, typically 40–60 ml/kg/day of
crystalloid (0·9% saline or Hartmann’s) with high glucose
concentrations, for example 10% (100 g/L – add 200 ml of
50% glucose to a litre of 0·9% saline) or 20% (200 g/litre –
add 400 ml of 50% glucose to a litre of 0·9% saline). The
20% solution is irritant to peripheral veins and is best
given orally or via NG tube or, if not tolerated, into a
central vein.
• Hypoxaemia prevented with O2 by nasal cannulae or

facemask.
• Strict monitoring of urinary output and fluid balance. Aim
for urine output of not < 0·5 ml/kg/h (determined by
weighing nappies or measuring output). Allow for hot
climate and 10% extra fluid for each degree of fever.
• Daily weights.
• If possible insert central venous line and aim for CVP of
6–10 cm H2O. Increased CVP may be required to compensate
for an increased cardiac output or to treat reduced cardiac
performance seen as liver failure progresses.
• Manage hypotension with IV colloids and possibly
dopamine and epinephrine infusions.
• Inotropes for cardiogenic shock.
• Give no potassium whilst anuric. Metabolic alkalosis may
cause hypokalaemia which worsens encephalopathy –
correct enterally or IV.
• Stop oral protein initially and during recovery gradually
reintroduce 0·5–1 g/kg/day oral or NG.
• A high energy intake, predominantly of dietary
carbohydrate.
• Lactulose 5–10 ml 2–3/day to produce between two and
four soft and acid stools per day (omit if diarrhoea).
• Maintain normo-thermia by environmental measures (NOT
with paracetamol).
• Give 1 dose of IV or IM vitamin K (300 micrograms/kg aged
1 month to 12 years: 10 mg for > 12 years).
• If bleeding (GIT or other) fresh frozen plasma or
cryoprecipitate at 10 ml/kg IV.
• Prophylactic H2 blocking agent (for example, ranitidine
2 mg/kg twice daily IV plus oral antacid (for example,
sucralfate 250 mg four times a day 1 month to 2 years,
500 mg four times a day 2–12 years, 1 g four times a day
12–18 years) to prevent gastric/duodenal ulceration.
• Broad spectrum antibiotics, for example, a cephalosporin
plus amoxicillin or penicillin plus gentamicin. Treat any
confirmed sepsis aggressively.
• Systemic fungal infection may require IV amphoterin B

(250 micrograms to 1 mg/kg/day) or oral fluconazole
(5 mg/kg × 2/day).
• Prophylactic oral nystatin mouthwashes (100 000 IU
(1 ml) × 4/day).
• N-acetylcysteine 100 mg/kg/day as continuous infusion in
all forms of liver failure.
If paracetamol overdose is suspected or ascertained,

(see p 42), N-acetylcysteine immediately, whatever time since
overdose. 150 mg/kg over 15 minutes as a loading dose then
100 mg/kg over 12 hours then 100 mg/kg/day as a continuous
infusion until international normalised ratio (INR) is normal.
Acute renal failure (ARF)

Prerenal (shock induced)
If fractional excretion of sodium (FENa) < 1%, renal tubules
alive and responding to shock by reabsorbing sodium. (see
Appendix, p 188)
Treatment
• Give 10–20 ml/kg 0·9% saline or colloid as rapidly as
possible, and repeat if necessary.
• Then 0·9% saline to fully correct the fluid deficit within
2–4 hours. The deficit in ml = child’s weight × %
dehydration × 10 (for example, a 6 kg infant 10%
dehydrated is deficient of 600 ml). Would receive between
60 and 240 ml of colloid very rapidly, and the rest of the
600 ml as 0·9% saline.
• Once rehydration begun, frusemide 2 mg/kg orally or IV.
• If shock remains after rehydration, it may be cardiogenic;
consider inotropes.
Established ARF
FENa > 2%. Trial of frusemide 2 mg/kg orally IV.
Management of persistent ARF

Meticulous fluid balance measuring all intakes and losses,
especially if oliguric (< 1 ml/kg/h). Insensible water loss =
300 ml/m2 (12 ml/kg/24h in > 1 year and 15 ml/kg/24 hr in
infancy) in temperate conditions, and higher in hotter
climates, at low humidity and with fever.
Weigh twice daily.
Nutrition, fluid and electrolyte balance:

• Difficult in oligo-anuric ARF. Solid food is best. Provide
calories from carbohydrates and fats, and limit protein to
1 g/kg/day.
• Limit salt intake to prevent sodium retention and
hypernatraemia (leads to insatiable thirst) and fluid
overload.
• Provide some sodium as bicarbonate to prevent acidosis =
1 mmol/kg/day (1 ml of 8·4% sodium bicarbonate
solution = 1 mmol, and 1 g of powder = 12 mmol).
• Dietary potassium must be restricted.
• Dietary phosphate restricted by giving calcium carbonate
with the food (for example, 0·5–2 grams with each meal).
Also prevents hypocalcaemia.
Dialysis for prolonged oligo-anuria, hyperkalaemia, severe

metabolic acidosis due to difficulty of giving bicarbonate,
hypoglycaemia, clinical uraemia (> 40 mmol/L), and need for
other fluids such as platelets.
Hyperkalaemia
Causes arrhythmias, especially in ARF where other metabolic
changes such as hypocalcaemia. Keep K below 6·5 mmol/L in
older child and below 7·0 mmol/L in neonates.
• Reduce effects on heart by increasing plasma Ca. Give 0·5
ml/kg (0·1 mmol/kg) of 10% calcium gluconate.
• Remove K+ from body by calcium resonium 1 g/kg orally or
rectally, and repeat 0·5 g/kg 12 hourly.
• Push K+ into cells. Lasts only a few hours:
• Using salbutamol. Nebulise 2·5 mg for children under

25 kg, and 5 mg in larger children, or give
5 micrograms/kg IV over 5 minutes.
• Infuse a high concentration of glucose (5 ml/kg 10%
glucose over 20 minutes). Monitor plasma glucose and
infuse insulin at 0·05 units/kg/h if it exceeds 12 mmol/L.
It is unsafe to mix the glucose and insulin and infuse
together as may cause hypoglycaemia.
• Give 2·5 mmol/kg of NaHCO3 over 15 minutes. If 8·4% is
used, containing 1 mmol/ml, will increase plasma Na by
approximately 5 mmol/L very quickly. Better to use a
solution of 1·26% which is isonatraemic, but requires
17 ml/kg to be infused, adding to fluid overload.
Neurological
Bacterial meningitis
• Older child: fever, neck stiffness, vomiting, headache,
altered consciousness, and possibly seizures.
• Neonates: signs more subtle and non-specific and include
poor feeding, hyper- or hypothermia, convulsions, apnoea,
irritability, and a bulging fontanelle.
• Contraindications to lumbar puncture are raised
intracranial pressure, too sick to tolerate flexed position,
infection at puncture site, bleeding tendency, or rash
suggesting meningococcal disease. Antibiotics started and
lumbar puncture delayed until safe.
• In malarial areas undertake blood smear and treat if
suspicion.
• Consider TB meningitis if no response to initial antibiotics
and if two or more present from:
History > 7 days
HIV known or suspected
Patient remains unconscious
CSF continues to have high WBC count (typically
< 500 × 109/l mostly lymphocytes, elevated protein
(0·8–4 g/L), and low glucose (< 1·5 mmol/L)
CXR suggesting TB, optic atrophy, focal neurological
deficit, or extrapyramidal movements.
• HIV prone to meningitis and septicaemia from
Streptococcus pneumoniae and salmonella.
• Listeria monocytogenes headache but little neck stiffness.
• Fungal infections in HIV, severe headache without neck
stiffness.
• Antibiotic choice depends on known local effectiveness,
CSF penetration, cost and availability, and local patterns of
antibiotic resistance. Treat according to age group.
NEUROLOGICAL 99
Third generation cephalosporins drugs of choice for

Haemophilus influenzae and meningococcus organisms
although, if precluded on cost, chloramphenicol acceptable
alternative. Pneumococci resistant to penicillin and to
chloramphenicol are widespread, and third generation
cephalosporins are then drugs of choice. However,
pneumococcal resistance to third generation cephalosporins
is found requiring addition of vancomycin or rifampicin to
third generation cephalosporins. In neonates ceftazidime
which is active against pseudomonas is useful.
• Give antibiotics in neonates 14–21 days; children 10 days
for pneumococcal and haemophilus, 7 days for
meningococcal infections.
• Dexamethasone 150 micrograms/kg 6 hourly for 2 days.
First dose with or max. 4 hours after first antibiotic dose.
• In TB meningitis dexamethasone 150 micrograms/kg
6 hourly for 2–3 weeks, tailing down the dose over a
further 2–3 weeks.
• Do not use steroids in: the newborn, suspected cerebral
malaria, or viral encephalitis.
Typical findings in CSF

See table on page 100.
Supportive care
• Fluids: correct shock or dehydration initially IV later by NG
tube or orally. Avoid overhydration by careful fluid balance
and in particular avoid IV fluids with low sodium levels
such as 5% dextrose. Use 0·9% saline plus 10% glucose.
Maintain serum Na+ high normal range > 135 mmol/L. NG
tube if unconscious or vomiting to protect airway. Milk
(1 ml/kg/h) to prevent gastric erosions and improve bowel
function. Urine output monitored, particularly if
unconscious.
White cell count Glucose
Condition (×
× 109/L) Cell differential Protein (g/L) (mmol/L)
Normal 0–5 PMN ≤ 2 < 0·5 2/3 blood

< 22 in full term, < 15 neonate glucose
< 30 in preterm
Acute bacterial 100 − >300 000 Mostly PMN > 1·0 < 2·5
meningitis* Monocytes in Listeria sp.
Tuberculosis 50–500 Lymphocytes but PMN early > 1·0 < 2·5, usually 0
meningitis sometimes higher
Herpes encephalitis Usually < 500 Mostly lymphocytes > 0·5 Normal
PMN early in the disease
Cerebral abscess 10–200 PMN or lymphocytes > 1·0 Normal
Traumatic tap WBC and RBC RBC/WBC = 500/1 ↑ by 0·001 g/L Normal
per 1000 RBC
*Bacterial meningitis can occur without pleocytosis and partial treatment will alter findings.
PMN = polymorphonuclear granulocytes
NEUROLOGICAL 101
• Seizures: controlled with anticonvulsants, but not

prophylactic.
• Temperature control: if high fever (> 38°C) apply
temperature reduction including paracetamol.
• Glucose control: regularly monitored particularly infant
and young child. Hypoglycaemia considered in seizures or
altered consciousness and corrected as follows: 5 ml/kg of
10% glucose IV and recheck blood glucose 30 minutes
later. If remains low (< 2·5 mmol/L) repeat.
• Nutritional support: NG if unable to feed after 48 h.
Continue expressed breastmilk or give milk feeds 15 ml/kg
every 3 hours.
• Turn unconscious child 2 hourly, keeping dry, and prevent
overheating.
Antibiotic therapy: depends on local resistance, national

guidelines and availability
Give all IV for at least 72 hours or longer if unwell or fever
continues.
See table on page 102.
Organism Antibiotics of choice Alternative antibiotics Duration
Haemophilus Ceftriaxone or cefotaxime Chloramphenicol plus 10–14 days

influenzae ampicillin
Streptococcus Chloramphenicol 10–14 days
pneumoniae Ceftriaxone or cefotaxime plus benzyl penicillin
Neisseria Chloramphenicol 7 days
meningitidis Ceftriaxone or cefotaxime plus benzyl penicillin
Gram negative bacilli Gentamicin plus ampicillin Chloramphenicol plus At least 21 days, repeat LP
or ceftriaxone/cefotaxime ampicillin or ceftazidime to ensure CSF response
Salmonella As for gram negative bacilli Meropenem or At least 21 days, repeat LP
enteritides plus IV ciprofloxacin chloramphenicol plus to ensure CSF response
ampicillin
Listeria Ampicillin plus gentamicin 10–14 days
monocytogenes
Group B Benzylpenicillin plus gentamicin 10–14 days
streptococcus or ceftriaxone or cefotaxime
Staphylococcus spp. Gentamicin and flucloxacillin Chloramphenicol* plus 10–14 days
flucloxacillin
*Chloramphenicol with caution < 3 months – monitor levels.

Antibiotic Route Dose
Ampicillin IV 100 mg/kg 6 hourly (max. single dose 3 g)

Benzylpenicillin IV 50 mg/kg 4 hourly
Cefotaxime IV 50 mg/kg 4 hourly (max. single dose 4 g)
Ceftriaxone IV/IM 80 mg/kg 24hours once daily* (max. single dose 4 g)
Chloramphenicol IV 25 mg/kg 6 hourly (after loading dose of 50 mg/kg)
Oral 25 mg/kg 6 hourly †
IM Oily prep. in doses of 50–100 mg/kg 12 hourly with a max. dose of 3 g
Ciprofloxacin IV 10 mg/kg 12 hourly (5 mg/kg 12 hourly in neonate)
Flucloxacillin or IV 50 mg/kg 6 hourly (max. dose 8 g/day)
cloxacillin
Gentamicin IV or IM 1 month to 12 years 6 mg/kg once daily,‡ > 12 yrs 4–5 mg/kg once daily
Meropenem IV 40 mg/kg 8 hourly (max. single dose 2 g) slow IV over 5 min (>12 years 600 mg once daily)
Vancomycin IV 15 mg/kg loading dose and then 10 mg/kg 6 hourly ‡
*Ideally 80 mg/kg 12 hourly should be given for the first 3 doses followed by 80 mg/kg per 24 hours.
†
Not recommended in children less than 3 months old or in malnourished children.
‡
Monitoring levels important.
Endocrine and metabolic
Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)
Suspect if:
• Dehydration:
• Abdominal pain
• Ketone smell on breath
• Acidosis with acidotic breathing
• Unexplained coma.
In DKA death is from hypokalaemia or cerebral oedema.

Cerebral oedema is unpredictable, and is more frequent in
young and new diabetics.
Emergency management of children > 5%

dehydrated and clinically unwell
1. General resuscitation:
ABCD.
2. Confirm diagnosis:
History : polydipsia, polyuria
Clinical : acidotic respiration; dehydration; drowsiness;
abdominal pain/vomiting
Biochemical : high blood glucose on finger-prick; ketones
or glucose in urine.
3. Investigations:
Weigh or estimate from centile charts (then twice daily)
Blood glucose
Urea and electrolytes and blood gas
PCV and full blood count
Blood culture
Urine microscopy, culture and sensitivity
ECG to observe T waves (hypokalaemia = flat T waves;
hyperkalaemia = peaked T waves).
ENDOCRINE AND METABOLIC 105
Other investigations if indicated, for example chest x ray,

CSF, throat swab, etc. (DKA may be precipitated by sepsis,
and fever is not part of DKA.)
Assess and record

1. Degree of dehydration:
< 5%: dry mucous membranes
6–9%: as above plus sunken eyes and reduced skin turgor,
plus restless and irritable
≥ 10%: as above plus shock: severely ill with poor
perfusion (capillary return > 2 sec) thready rapid pulse,
reduced blood pressure, rapid deep breathing, altered
consciousness or coma.
Strict fluid balance essential.
2. Conscious level:
Assess AVPU (Alert; responds to Voice; responds to Pain;
Unresponsive)
Institute hourly neurological observations. If less than
Alert on admission, or deterioration, record Glasgow
Coma Score and transfer to ICU. Consider cerebral
oedema management.
Cerebral oedema – irritability, headache, (late signs = slow
pulse, high blood pressure, and papilloedema).
Management
1. Fluids:
If shocked, resuscitate by restoring circulatory volume
with bolus of 20 ml/kg 0·9% saline.
It is rare to need > one 20 ml/kg fluid bolus for
resuscitation – too much fluid too quickly can cause
cerebral oedema.
Requirement = Maintenance + Deficit

Deficit (in ml) = % dehydration ×
body weight (kg) × 10
Avoid overzealous fluid replacement, which risks cerebral

oedema. Calculate deficit to a maximum of 8%
dehydration. Ignore fluids given to resuscitate.
Add maintenance and deficit and give total evenly over

24 hours.
Glucose > 12 mmol/L – give 0·9% saline

Glucose < 12 mmol/L – give 0·45% saline + 5% dextrose
Sodium 135–155 correct over 24 hours

Sodium > 155 correct over 48 hours using no lower concentration than 0·45% saline
Expect the sodium to rise initially as glucose falls and water is removed from
circulation*
*To prevent cerebral oedema, if Na is falling, change from 0·45% to 0·9% saline.
2. Bicarbonate:
Rarely, if ever, necessary. Only if profoundly acidotic
(pH < 7·0) and shocked with circulatory failure, to
improve cardiac contractility. Half-correct acidosis over
60 minutes:
Volume (ml 4·2% NaHCO3) = 1/3 × body weight (kg) ×

base deficit (mmol/L) = half-correction.
3. Potassium:
Give immediately unless anuria, peaked T waves on ECG
or K + > 7·0 mmol/L.
Always massive depletion of total body potassium
although initial plasma levels may be low, normal, or
even high. Levels will fall once insulin is commenced.
Add 20 mmol KCl to every 500 ml unit of fluid given.
Check urea and electrolytes (U&E’s) 2 hours after
resuscitation, then 4 hourly, alter K + input accordingly.
Observe ECG frequently.
4. Insulin:
Continuous low dose IV is the preferred method. No
initial bolus.
Make 1 unit per ml of human soluble insulin (for example, Actrapid) by adding
50 units (0·5 ml) insulin to 50 ml 0·9% saline. Attach using a Y-connector to IV fluids
already running.* Do not add insulin directly to fluid bags. Solution should then run
at 0·1 units/kg/h (0·1 ml/kg/h).
If rate of blood glucose fall exceeds 5 mmol/L per

hour, reduce insulin infusion rate to 0·05 units/kg/h.
Once blood glucose is < 12 mmol/L, and
glucose-containing fluid started, consider reducing
insulin infusion rate.
Do not stop insulin infusion while glucose infused.
If blood glucose < 7 mmol/L, consider adding extra
glucose to infusion.
If blood glucose rises re-evaluate (? sepsis or other
condition), and consider re-starting protocol.
*If no syringe pump, give SC boluses of actrapid 6 hourly

at 0·6 units/kg/dose (that is 0·1 units/kg/h). Give half dose if
the blood sugar falling too fast.
Cerebral oedema in DKA

Signs and symptoms
Headache Confusion
Irritability Reduced conscious level

Fits Small pupils
Increasing BP, slowing pulse Possibly respiratory impairment
Management
• Exclude hypoglycaemia.
• Give mannitol 250–500 mg/kg (1·25–2·5 ml/kg mannitol 20%)
over 15 minutes as soon as suspected.
• Restrict IV fluids to two-third maintenance.
• Intubate and ventilate; keep PaCO2 to 3·5–5·0 kPa. Keep Na

> 135 mmol/L. Keep head in midline and 30 degrees
elevated. Avoid fever > 38·0° C.
• Repeat mannitol every 4–6 hours to control ICP.
Adrenal crisis
Diagnosis
• Most in neonates with congenital adrenal hyperplasia
(CAH) or hypopituitarism (virilisation in the female with
CAH and micropenis and cryptorchidism in male with
hypopituitarism).
• Those receiving long term steroid therapy or adrenal
destruction secondary to autoimmune process or
tuberculosis.
• Suspect in severely ill with:
• Acidosis
• Hyponatraemia
• Hypotension
• Hyperkalaemia
• Hypoglycaemia
• And in child receiving long term steroid therapy
Replacement hydrocortisone up to 15 mg/m2/day replicates

natural secretion. Therapy with hydrocortisone > 15
mg/m2/day produces suppression related to dose and
duration. (1 mg prednisolone = approx. 3 mg
hydrocortisone).
In patients on steroids, for emergency stress, the dose of oral

is usually three times replacement dose. If given parenterally
as treatment for operative cover or illness associated with
vomiting = hydrocortisone (12·5 mg for infants, 25 mg for
children, 50 mg for older children, and 100 mg for adults
given 4–6 hourly IV or IM).
Management
• ABCD and treat hypoglycaemia.
• Continue 0·9% saline to correct deficit and for
maintenance.
• Give hydrocortisone IV 4 hourly as follows: dose: 12·5 mg
for neonate and infant; 25 mg for 1–5 years, 50 mg for
6–12 years, and 100 mg for 13–18 years.
• If diagnosis established, continue maintenance
hydrocortisone 15 mg/m2 per day in 3 divided doses and, if
salt loss demonstrated, fludrocortisone 150–250
micrograms/m2/day once daily with sodium chloride 1G/10
kg/day (60 mg =1 mmol).
Hypoglycaemia
Treatment of hypoglycaemia
• Symptoms non-specific, always consider blood glucose.
• Treat any ill child with suspicious symptoms: fits,
encephalopathy, or condition associated with
hypoglycaemia, such as severe malnutrition or malaria.
• Give glucose orally if safe (0·5–1·0 g/kg). If conscious and
able to eat, give food or sugary fluids.
• Otherwise 2–5 ml/kg 10% dextrose IV over 3 minutes.
Never use stronger glucose solutions. Continue with
0·1 ml/kg/min 10% dextrose to maintain blood sugar
5–8 mmol/L.
• If hypoadrenalism/pituitarism is suspected give
hydrocortisone (see above).
• If IV access lost give glucagon IM 20 micrograms/kg
(max. 1 mg as single dose) (especially if on insulin).
Hypokalaemia
Treatment of severe hypokalaemia
High potassium IV infusions.
Maximum concentration IV 4 mmol/100 ml (either 5% glucose or 0·9% saline)

At a rate of not exceeding 0·5 mmol/kg/h ideally with ECG monitoring
If acidotic, bicarbonate should only be given if serum K >3 mmol/L
Watch serum magnesium levels if possible
A urine K+ > 25 mmol/L confirms renal potassium loss
Infectious diseases
Diphtheria
• Admit to isolation to be cared for by immunised staff.
• Protect airway if possible by intubation/tracheostomy.
• Dexamethasone (0·6 mg/kg 12 hourly IV or oral) for
airway obstruction and neck swelling.
• Benzylpenicillin 50 mg/kg 4 hourly IV or erythromycin
10 mg/kg 6 hourly (max. 2 g/day) IV.
Antitoxin
Administer immediately after test dose, dependent on severity:
nasal and tonsillar (mild disease) 20 000 units IM
laryngeal with symptoms (moderately severe)
40 000 units IM/IV
nasopharyngeal (moderately severe) 60–100 000 units IV
combined sites/delayed diagnosis (malignant disease)
60–100 000 units IV.
In practice 60 000 units to all with visible membrane and
neck swelling.
Antitoxin is horse serum: test dose 0·1 ml of 1 in
1000 dilution in saline given intradermally.
Positive reaction is 10 mm erythema occurring within
20 minutes.
If no reaction, give full dose IV/IM as appropriate.
Have epinephrine 1 in 1000 available to give IM if anaphylaxis
(10 micrograms/kg).
Desensitisation
Give graduated doses of increased strength every 20 minutes
commencing with: 0·1 ml of 1 in 20 dilution in saline SC
followed by 1 in 10 dilution, 0·1 ml of undiluted SC then
0·3 ml and 0·5 ml IM. Then 0·1 ml undiluted IV.
• O2 if cyanosed or SaO2 < 94%. Use nasal cannulae or
facemask held close to child’s face by the mother. DO NOT
use nasopharyngeal catheters as can precipitate complete

airway obstruction. Be aware O2 does NOT compensate for
hypoventilation which if severe will require intubation or
surgical airway. Laryngoscopy may dislodge membrane
producing complete airway obstruction.
Bed rest and observation
• Monitor cardiac function for 2–3 weeks.
• Serial ECGs for arrhythmias – pacemaker may be needed.
• For cardiac failure give captopril 100 micrograms/kg
as test dose supine and monitor BP carefully then
100–200 micrograms/kg 8 hourly.
• Prednisolone 1·5 mg/kg/day for 2 weeks may reduce
incidence of myocarditis.
• NG feeds if palatal or bulbar paralysis.
Meningococcal disease
• Give IV/IM benzylpenicillin before transfer to hospital:
< 1 year = 300 mg
1–10 years = 600 mg
> 10 years = 1·2g.
• On admission benzylpenicillin plus cefotaxime IV are most

appropriate antibiotics (see Table for doses and other
antibiotics).
• Treat shock and raised intracranial pressure (see pages 22
and 31).
• Treat any coagulopathy with vitamin K, FFP, cryoprecipitate
and platelets as required.
• Do not undertake LP.
• Prophylaxis to contacts.
Dengue haemorrhagic shock

Treat shock and other effects (such as bleeding disorder) as
for meningococcal septicaemia.
Antibiotic doses in meningococcal disease
Antibiotic Route Dose
Benzylpenicillin IV 300 mg/kg 24 h in 6 divided doses

Cefotaxime IV 200 mg/kg 24 h in 4 divided doses (max. single dose 4 g)
Ceftriaxone* IV/IM 80 mg/kg 24 h once daily* (max. single dose 4 g)
Chloramphenicol IV 100 mg/kg 24 h in 4 divided doses†
Oral 100 mg/kg 24 h in 4 divided doses‡
IM IM preparation of oily chloramphenicol in single dose of 50–100 mg/kg
with a maximum dose of 3 g; only if more suitable alternatives are
unavailable
* Ideally 12 hourly for first 3 doses.

†
Chloramphenicol with caution in infants < 3 months.
‡
Oral only after 72 hours of IV/IM.
Tetanus
• Secure and maintain airway. Ensure adequacy of
ventilation.
• Pharyngeal spasms/upper airway obstruction best managed
with a tracheostomy.
• Intubation difficult because of pharyngeal/laryngeal spasm
and often a mini-tracheostomy without prior intubation
may be appropriate, providing experts on the procedure
and on anaesthesia are present.
• Benzylpenicillin 50 mg/kg every 6 hours IV or, if not
possible, IM for 48 hours and then oral penicillin 12·5 mg/kg
6 hourly for 7 days. Metronidazole may be useful.
• Anti-tetanus human immunoglobulin 5000–10 000 units
immediately by IV infusion over 30 minutes.
• Alternative equine immunoglobulin 500–1000 units/kg IM
(max. dose 20 000 units): risk of anaphylaxis (epinephrine
10 micrograms/kg immediately available).
• If in acute spasm, diazepam by bolus IV infusion over
15 minutes (dose 200 micrograms/kg) or rectally
(500 micrograms/kg). Ensure IV diazepam is diluted to
100 micrograms/ml and that extravasation does not occur.
Give every 3–6 hours or continuous infusion of midazolam
(30–100 micrograms/kg/h). But doses needed to control
spasms almost invariably cause some degree of respiratory
depression so patient MUST be observed continuously.
• If this is not possible, NG diazepam 250–500 micrograms/kg
6 hourly alternating with chlorpromazine 500 micrograms/kg
6 hourly. The first dose of chlorpromazine can be given as
a bolus IM if spasms are severe.
• Alternative treatments for spasms:
baclofen for children > 1 year (start at 750 micrograms/
kg/day and increase to 2 mg/kg/day in 3 divided doses)
phenobarbitone (15 mg/kg in 1 or 2 divided doses as a
loading dose and then 5 mg/kg/day)
paraldehyde (0·4 ml/kg rectally in olive oil or 0·9% saline
repeated 4–6 hourly).
INFECTIOUS DISEASES 115
• Paracetamol 25 mg/kg 6 hourly for pain (20 mg/kg in the

neonate). If this is insufficient the WHO pain ladder
approach should be adopted (see page 176). Oral or IV
morphine (100 micrograms/kg or 50 micrograms/kg in
neonates as loading dose may be needed).
• NG fluids, food and drugs with minimal disturbance.
Feeds need to be given frequently (ideally hourly) in small
amounts due to reduced gut motility.
• Any wound debrided and cleaned and ill-advised sutures
removed.
• In severe cases mechanical ventilation. Infusions
morphine and midazolam, alongside muscle relaxants,
minimise suffering.
• Good nursing and frequent monitoring with particular
attention to suction of secretions from the airway,
maintenance of adequate hydration, mouth hygiene,
turning to avoid orthostatic pneumonia and bed sores,
will reduce complications.
• Keep mother with child all the time.
• Quiet environment with low level lighting. Sudden loud
noises avoided. Invasive procedures minimum and
preceded by appropriate analgesia/sedation. Must be
CONTINUOUS observation by experienced personnel.
• Monitor ECG to detect toxin-induced arrhythmias and
autonomic instability. If present sedate with morphine.
• Associated septicaemia common in neonates (broad
spectrum antibiotics will be needed as well as treatment for
tetanus).
Typhoid fever
Diagnosis is clinical.
Suspect if high grade fever for > 72 hours with anorexia,

vomiting, hepatosplenomegaly, diarrhoea, toxicity, abdominal
pain, and pallor especially with no localising upper
respiratory signs or meningitis or malaria. Leucopenia
(WCC < 4 × 109/L) with left shift; but in a third of infants

leucocytosis.
Treatment
Early diagnosis.
• Soft, easily digestible diet continued unless abdominal
distension or ileus when clear fluids only.
• If no drug resistance in region start with oral
chloramphenicol and/or oral amoxicillin/ampicillin (initially
IV if vomiting). If drug resistance use cefotaxime,
ceftriaxone, or ciprofloxacin.
• If poor response after 72 hours, imipenem.
• In severely ill and toxic, dexamethasone IV (200 micrograms
8 hourly 6 doses).
Duration
Drug Route Dose (frequency) (days)
Chloramphenicol Oral 60–75 mg/kg/24 hours q 6 hourly 14 days

Ampicillin/amoxicillin IV/oral 100 mg/kg/24 hours q 6–8 hourly 14 days
Ciprofloxacin Oral/IV 20 mg/kg/24 hours q 12 hourly 7–10 days
Ceftriaxone IV/IM 65 mg/kg/24 hours once daily 7–14 days
Cefixime Oral 15 mg/kg/24 hours q 12 hourly 14 days
Imipenem IV 60 mg/kg/24 hours q 8 hourly 10–14 days
Measles
Clinical features
• Prodromal priod (3–5 days): acute coryza with fever, cough,
and conjunctivitis. Febrile seizures may occur.
• Koplik’s spots by second to fourth day.
• Maculopapular rash (fourth day), on face and neck, behind
ears and along hairline and becomes generalised after
3 days. Fades after 5–6 days in order of appearance,
developing brownish colour and often scaly. If severe
petechiae and ecchymoses.
• Fever after third day of rash = complications.
HIV infection with limited access to laboratory in endemic area
Common in HIV positive

Specific to HIV Uncommon in HIV negative and ill non HIV infected
Pneumocystis Molluscum contagiosum with multiple lesions Persistent diarrhoea (> 14 days)
pneumonia
Oesophageal candidiasis Oral thrush (especially after the neonatal Failure to thrive (especially in
period, without antibiotic, > 1 month or recurrent) breastfed infants)
Herpes zoster Persistent cough (> 1 month)
Lymphoid interstitial pneumonia Generalised pruritic dermatitis Generalised lymphadenopathy
Kaposi’s sarcoma Recurrent severe infections (three or more in 1 year) Hepatosplenomegaly
Chronic parotid enlargement Persistent and/or recurrent fever lasting > 1 week
Neurological dysfunction (progressive neurological
impairment)
Clinical features of severe measles
Signs Complications
Cough, tachypnoea, or chest Pneumonia

indrawing
Stridor when quiet Croup, necrotising tracheitis
Severe diarrhoea Dehydration
Recent severe weight loss Malnutrition
Corneal damage or Bitot spots Blindness
Ear discharge Otitis media, deafness
Lethargy, convulsions Encephalitis
Inability to drink or eat Dehydration, malnutrition
Blood in the stools Dysentery, haemorrhagic measles
Severe stomatitis Cancrum oris
Management
• Vitamin A capsule 200 000 IU (> 1 year) or 100 000 IU
(< 1 year). Give second dose after 24 hours.
• Oral hygiene; 1% gentian violet to mouth sores. Treat oral
thrush.
• If mouth ulcers infected, use antibiotic (penicillin or
metronidazole) orally for 5 days.
• If mouth too sore to feed or drink, NG tube.
• Ocular hygiene for purulent conjunctivitis, daily washings
(with sterile 0·9% saline or boiled water using cotton wool
swabs and tetracycline eye ointment 3 times daily). NEVER
USE TOPICAL STEROIDS. Consider protective eye pads.
• Oral rehydration solution for diarrhoea; ReSoMal if severe
malnutrition.
• Antibiotic, oxygen if pneumonia.
• Rapidly spreading pulmonary tuberculosis may occur.
• Croup (see page 67).
• Otitis media. Antibiotics and regular aural hygiene. Screen
for hearing impairment during follow-up.
• Xerophthalmia – protective eye pad, give vitamin A capsules
(see above).
• Malnutrition (see pages 79–92).
• Encephalopathy (see pages 31–34).
Rabies
Risk of exposure to rabies
• Is bite with broken skin? Have mucous membranes or
existing skin lesion been contaminated?
• How did the animal behave? An unprovoked attack by
frantic or paralysed dog or unusually tame wild mammal
high risk.
• Is biting animal a local rabies vector, or could it have been
infected?
• If possible have the animal’s brain examined for rabies.
Alternatively animal kept under safe observation, and stop
vaccine treatment if healthy after 10 days.
Post-exposure treatment (very urgent)

1. Wound care
Scrub and flush lesion with soap or detergent and
water. Remove foreign material. Local analgesia may be
necessary.
Apply povidone iodine (or 70% ethyl alcohol, but is
painful).
Do not suture wound; delay it.
Tetanus immunisation.
Treat bacterial infection of wounds with oral antibiotic.
2. Rabies vaccine: three post-exposure regimens
A. Standard IM regimen
One ampoule (1 ml or 0·5 ml) IM into the deltoid, or
anterolateral thigh in small children, on days 0, 3, 7, 14,
and 28, a total of 5 doses. Do not inject into the buttock.
B. Economical eight-site intradermal (ID) regimen

(Use vaccines containing 1 ml per ampoule. Total of less
than 2 ampoules needed.)
Day 0: draw up 1 ml of vaccine into 1 ml (Mantoux
type) syringe. Inject 0·1 ml ID into each of eight sites
(deltoid, thigh, suprascapular and lower anterior

abdominal wall) using all the vaccine.
Day 7 give 0·1 ml ID into four sites (deltoid and
thighs).
Days 28 and 90, 0·1 ml ID at one site.
(This regimen is the treatment of choice when RIG is not

available.)
C. Economical two-site ID regimen

Dose: 0·1 ml for purified vero cell vaccine (PVRV) and
0·2 ml for all other vaccines.
Days 0, 3 and 7, give ID into two sites (deltoids).
Days 28 and 90, ID dose at one site.
Regimens B and C: Take care that ID injections raise

a papule. If vaccine subcutaneous, repeat injection
nearby.
If treatment delayed > 48 hours after bite, or

immunosuppression suspected (for example, severely
malnourished, AIDS, or corticosteroids therapy), give the first
dose of an IM course ID at eight sites (see B above), or for
two-site regimen (C), double the first dose. No change in
dosage for the eight-site regimen.
3. Rabies immunoglobulin (RIG)

Plus vaccine following all contacts with suspected rabid
animals where skin broken or mucous membranes
contaminated.
Vital for bites on head, neck, hands, or multiple bites.
Dosage: equine RIG (40 IU/kg) or human RIG (20 IU/kg)
infiltrated into and around wound on day 0. If not
anatomically possible (for example, on a finger) inject any
remainder IM, at a place remote from vaccine site, but not
into the buttock.
Epinephrine 10 micrograms/kg IM to be available.
Postexposure treatment for previously vaccinated

patients
One dose of vaccine IM or ID on days 0 and 3. RIG is not
necessary. Treatment and thorough wound care is still
urgent.
Malaria
Clinical features
• Typical features include high grade fever alternating with
cold spells, rigors, chills, and sweating. There are usually
associated myalgias and arthralgias.
• < 5 years non-specific with fever, vomiting, diarrhoea,
abdominal pain main symptoms.
• In older immune individuals only symptoms may be fever
with headache and joint pains.
So all fevers in endemic area due to malaria until proven

otherwise.
Diagnosis
Blood smear for malaria; thick slide for diagnosis, thin slide
to confirm type of malarial parasite. Typically ring forms
inside RBCs are seen but there may also be gametocytes.
Level of parasitaemia usually scored as 1–4 + (if ≥ 3 =
parasitaemia).
Severe malaria
• Child is febrile and has a positive blood smear.
• As temperature fluctuates, a single reading may be normal.
• Vomiting, diarrhoea, or cough.
• Conscious state altered, history of convulsions.
• Hypoglycaemia and acidosis or severe anaemia, jaundice, or
generalised weakness (unable to sit up).
Cerebral malaria
Due to Plasmodium falciparum. Altered consciousness,
severe anaemia, acidosis, or any combination of these. In
endemic areas, commonest cause of coma; especially age
1–5 years.
Coma develops rapidly, within 1–2 days of onset of fever,
sometimes within hours. Convulsions are usual and may be
repeated. Clinical features suggest a metabolic
encephalopathy, with raised intracranial pressure.
Opisthotonos, decorticate, or decerebrate posturing,
hypotonia, and conjugate eye movements are common.
Oculovestibular reflexes and pupillary responses usually
intact. Papilloedema in a minority.
Hypoglycaemia, acidosis, hyperpyrexia, and convulsions

(sometimes undetectable without EEG) are common.
Other causes of coma, such as meningitis, must be sought,

and if necessary treated.
Investigations
Thick and thin films for malarial parasites.
Blood glucose.
Lumbar puncture if meningitis suspected – contraindications
include: Glasgow Coma Scale < 8, papilloedema or
suspicion of raised intracranial pressure including a tense
fontanelle in infants, or respiratory difficulty. In such a
situation, give IV antibiotics as well as anti-malarials (see
page 98).
Management of severe malaria

• Treat convulsions (see page 37).
• Treat hypoglycaemia (< 2·5 mmol/L in well nourished;
< 3·5 mmol/L in malnourished children; see page 86).
• Treat shock and dehydration.
• Initiate antimalarial therapy (pages 22 and 75):
If blood smear not immediately available and no other
obvious cause treat as malaria. In Africa and many other
regions quinine is drug of choice for severe malaria. In

SE Asia and Amazon basin quinine is no longer always
effective. Initially give treatment IV, if possible; if not, IM.
Change to oral therapy as soon as possible.
First line – quinine IV

• Give 20 mg salt/kg in 20 ml/kg of 5% dextrose over
4–6 hours. Use an in-line infusion chamber (100–150 ml) to
ensure that the loading dose does not go in too quickly.
There is a major risk of cardiac side effects if this happens. If
safe control over rate of infusion of IV quinine not possible,
give IM (10 mg/kg load and then 10 mg/kg at 4 hours).
• Then 10 mg/kg in 10 ml/kg fluid every 12 hours for
24 hours or longer if child remains unconscious. These
latter doses can be given over 2 hours.
• Never give bolus infusion.
• As soon as able to take orally, switch to quinine tablets
10 mg/kg every 8 hours for 7 days.
• For IM injections, dilute quinine solution for better
absorption and less pain.
Side effects:
Common: cinchonism (tinnitus, hearing loss, nausea and
vomiting, uneasiness, restlessness, dizziness, blurring of
vision).
Uncommon: hypoglycaemia, although a common
complication of severe malaria.
Serious cardiovascular problems (QT prolongation) and
neurological toxicity are rare.
If overdosed by mistake with quinine tablets: give activated
charcoal orally or by NG tube as a suspension in water
(DOSE = 1 g/kg).
Second line antimalarials

Second line drugs include pyrimethamine with sulfadoxine
(Fansidar), amiodaquine, metakelfin, and halofantrine.
Artemether and mefloquine are currently designated as
reserve drugs for multidrug resistant malaria.
Always check local guidelines on drug sensitivities

• Prevent hypoglycaemia with a 10% glucose infusion
IV (add 10 ml 50% glucose to 90 ml of 5% glucose
solution).
• Treat hypoglycaemia with 5 ml/kg of 10% glucose solution
IV. Recheck blood glucose after 30 minutes and repeat
glucose bolus if blood glucose is still low. If no IV access,
give via NG.
• Treat severe anaemia: blood transfusion if Hb < 5 g/dl
or Hct < 15% or evidence of cardiac failure OR if Hb
> 5 g/dl (Hct > 15%) but very heavy parasitaemia and
falling Hb.
• Give packed cells 10 ml/kg or fresh whole blood 20 ml/kg
over 3–4 hours. If severely malnourished, circulatory
overload is more likely and give packed cells if possible or
partial exchange transfusion (see page 89), if not give IV
frusemide (1–2 mg/kg) with 10 ml/kg of whole blood.
Diuretics are not normally needed unless there is evidence
of fluid overload.
• If unable to swallow NG feeds. When a gag reflex is present
introduce oral fluids.
• Nurse in recovery position and turn 2 hourly. Do not allow
child to lie in a wet bed and provide special care to
pressure points.
• Check blood glucose 4–6 hourly and Hb/Hct daily.
• Watch urine output – aim at 1 ml/kg/h. If despite
rehydration urine output is < 4 ml/kg/24 h give IV
frusemide 2 mg/kg. If no response double dose at hourly
intervals to a maximum of 8 mg/kg.
• Monitor coma score 4 hourly.
• Treat convulsions, hypoglycaemia, hyperpyrexia (> 39°C).
• Shock is unusual in malaria. If present treat with IV boluses
of colloid/crystalloid 20 ml/kg and consider septicaemia.
Take blood cultures, and start broad spectrum antibiotics IV
(penicillin and chloramphenicol OR cefotaxime or
ceftriaxone) in addition to antimalarials.
• If there is deep or laboured breathing suggestive of

acidosis, give extra IV fluid to correct hypovolaemia.
• During rehydration examine frequently for fluid overload
(increased liver, gallop rhythm, fine crackles at lung bases,
distended jugular venous pressure).
• Always in infants use an in-line infusion chamber for
rehydration IV. If not available and supervision poor,
consider NG rehydration.
Helminth infections – “worms”

Adult worms in intestine
Symptom/sign: Suggests this worm infection:

Short stature, not growing Trichuris or hookworm
Mild/moderate muscle wasting Trichuris or hookworm
Anaemia, microcytic hypochromic Hookworm or severe trichuriasis; not Ascaris
Hypoproteinaemia, possible Hookworm or severe trichuriasis or
oedema disseminated strongyloidiasis; not Ascaris
Pica, especially eating soil (geophagia) Any or all helminths
Colicky abdominal pain Ascaris: common but a weak correlation
Intestinal obstruction Ascaris: quite common surgical emergency
Jaundice and/or pancreatitis Ascaris: uncommon
Laryngeal obstruction Ascaris: rare
Vomiting up worms Ascaris: common
Chronic diarrhoea Trichuris or severe hookworm or
strongyloidiasis
Defaecating during sleeping hours Trichuris
Blood and mucus in stool Trichuris
Rectal prolapse Trichuris
Finger clubbing Intense trichuriasis or hookworm; not Ascaris
Perianal itching Enterobius
Vulvovaginitis Enterobius
Illness due to “larvae” rather than adult worms
Symptom/sign: Suggests this worm infection:

Larvae in viscera
Cough and wheeze Toxocara canis/cati
(dog/cat roundworm) and also Ascaris and
hookworm
Hepatomegaly Toxocara
Lymphadenopathy Toxocara
Leucocytosis with extreme eosinophilia Toxocara
Epilepsy/encephalopathy Toxocara (rare)
Uveitis or proliferative retinitis Toxocara (younger children escape in
endemic areas: naive strangers are more
susceptible)
Larvae in/under skin

Itchy area with red wiggly line, moving Ancylostoma braziliensis (dog hookworm)
from day to day, often with pyoderma
Investigation for migrating larvae

Eosinophilia is characteristic but is a useless diagnostic
marker for intestinal infection.
The chest x ray may show a flaring shadow spreading out

from the hila.
Treatment
Mebendazole and albendazole are drugs of choice for
ascariasis, hookworm infection, trichuriasis, and enterobiaisis
in children > 2 years. For children < 2 years of age piperazine
45–75 mg/kg once daily for 3 days.
Mebendazole: 100 mg and 500 mg tablets, 20 mg/5 ml liquid.

Standard treatment for Trichuris infection or symptomatic
hookworm infection is 100 mg twice daily for 3 days.
Albendazole: Superior efficacy to mebendazole in systemically

invasive conditions: more effective against migrating larvae 200
mg tablets or 200 mg/5 ml liquid. Standard treatment for
Trichuris infection is 400 mg daily for 3 days.
Environmental emergencies
Envenoming
Consider with unexplained illness, particularly if severe pain,
swelling, or blistering of limb, or if bleeding or signs of
neurotoxicity.
Snakebite
Local effects
Pain, swelling or blistering of the bitten limb. Necrosis at site
of the wound.
Systemic effects
• Non-specific symptoms:
vomiting, headache, collapse
painful regional lymph node enlargement indicating
absorption of venom.
• Specific signs:
non-clotting of blood: bleeding from gums, old wounds,
sores
neurotoxicity: ptosis, bulbar palsy, and respiratory
paralysis
rhabdomyolysis: muscle pains and black urine
shock: hypotension, usually due to hypovolaemia.
First aid
• Reassure. Many symptoms due to anxiety.
• Immobilise and splint the limb. Moving the limb may
increase systemic absorption of venom.
• Wipe site with clean cloth.
• Avoid cutting/suction/tourniquets.
• Apply a pressure bandage especially if bite from snakes that
cause neurotoxicity. Apply a crepe bandage over the bite
site and wind firmly up the limb.
• Transport to hospital as soon as possible.

• If snake killed, take it to hospital.
Diagnosis and initial assessment (think of envenoming

in unusual cases)
• Examine bitten limb for local signs.
• Watch for shock.
• Look for non-clotting blood. 20 minute whole blood
clotting test (WBCT20) on admission and repeat 6 hours
later.
Place a few millilitres of freshly sampled blood in a new clean dry glass tube or bottle.
Leave undisturbed for 20 minutes at ambient temperature. Tip vessel once.
If blood is still liquid (unclotted) and runs out, patient has hypofibrinogenaemia
(“incoagulable blood”) as a result or venom-induced consumption coagulopathy.
• Look for signs of bleeding (gums/old wounds/sores).

Bleeding internally (most often intracranial) may cause
clinical signs.
• Look for early signs of neurotoxicity; ptosis (children may
interpret this as feeling sleepy), limb weakness, or
difficulties in talking, swallowing, or breathing.
• Check for muscle tenderness and myoglobinuria in
seasnake bites.
• Take blood for:
Hb, WCC and platelet count
prothrombin time, activated partial thromboplastin time
(APTT), and fibrinogen levels
serum urea and creatinine
creatine phosphokinase (CPK) (reflecting skeletal muscle
damage)
• ECG
• Observe for at least 24 hours, even if there are no signs of
envenoming initially. Review regularly; envenoming may
develop quite rapidly.
ENVIRONMENTAL EMERGENCIES 129
• Avoid IM injections and invasive procedures.

• Give tetanus prophylaxis. Routine antibiotic prophylaxis
not required unless necrosis.
Antivenom
For systemic envenoming or in severe local envenoming if
swelling extends more than half the bitten limb or local
necrosis. Monospecific (monovalent) antivenom may be used
for a single species of snake, polyspecific (polyvalent) for a
number of different species. Children require same dose as
adults (depends on amount of venom injected, not
bodyweight).
• Dilute antivenom in 2–3 volumes of 0·9% saline and infuse
over 1 hour. Infusion rate should be slow initially and
gradually increased.
• Have epinephrine ready in a syringe (10 micrograms/kg).
• Observe closely during antivenom administration for
adverse reaction. Common early signs urticaria and itching,
restlessness, fever, cough, or feeling of constriction in the
throat.
• Patients with these signs should be treated with
epinephrine 10 micrograms/kg IM and if a nebuliser is
available, 5 ml 1 in 1000 adrenaline. An antihistamine, for
example chlorpheniramine (250 micrograms/kg IM or IV)
also given.
• Unless life-threatening anaphylaxis has occurred, antivenom
cautiously restarted.
• Monitor response to antivenom. In presence of
coagulopathy, restoration of clotting depends upon hepatic
re-synthesis of clotting factors. Repeat WBCT20 and other
clotting studies if available, 6 hours after antivenom; if
blood is still non-clotting, further antivenom is indicated.
After restoration of normal clotting, measure clotting at
6 hourly intervals as a coagulopathy may recur due to late
absorption of venom from bite.
• Response of neurotoxicity to antivenom is less predictable. In

species with predominantly postsynaptically acting toxins,
antivenom may reverse neurotoxicity; failure to do so is an
indication for further doses. However, response to antivenom
is poor in species with presynaptically acting toxins.
Other therapy
• Excise sloughs from necrotic wounds. Skin grafting may be
necessary. Severe swelling may lead to suspicion of a
compartment syndrome. Fasciotomy if definite evidence of
raised intracompartmental pressure (> 45 mmHg) if
measurable, and any coagulopathy corrected. Note: clinical
assessment often misleading following snakebite, therefore
objective criteria necessary.
• Blood products are not necessary to treat a coagulopathy if
adequate antivenom has been given.
• Endotracheal intubation/tracheostomy if bulbar palsy
develops; difficulty in swallowing leads to pooling of
secretions.
• Paralysis of intercostal muscles and diaphragm requires
artificial ventilation. If ventilator not available this can be
performed by manual bagging (mask or ET tube) and may
need to be maintained for days, using relays of relatives if
necessary.
• Anticholinesterases may reverse neurotoxicity following
envenoming by some species.
• Maintain careful fluid balance to treat shock and prevent
renal failure.
• Some cobras spit venom into the eyes of their victims.
Rapid irrigation with water will prevent severe
inflammation. 0·5% epinephrine drops may help to reduce
pain and inflammation.
Scorpion stings
Severe pain around bite for many hours or days. Systemic
envenoming is more common in children and may occur
within minutes of a bite. Major clinical features are caused by
activation of the autonomic nervous system.
Clinical features
Tachypnoea Muscle twitches and spasms

Excessive salivation Hypertension
Nausea and vomiting Pulmonary oedema
Lacrimation Cardiac arrhythmias
Sweating Hypotension
Abdominal pain Respiratory failure
Severe hypertension, myocardial failure, and pulmonary

oedema are particularly prominent in severe envenoming.
Management
• Hospital immediately; delay is a frequent cause of death.
• Control pain with infiltration of 1% lidocaine (lignocaine)
around wound or IV morphine.
• Scorpion antivenom is available. Give IV/IM in systemic
envenoming.
• Prazosin is effective for treating hypertension and cardiac
failure (5–15 micrograms/kg 2–4 times a day increasing to
control blood pressure to a maximum of 500
micrograms/kg/day). Lie down for first 4–6 hours of
treatment in case of sudden fall in BP.
• Severe pulmonary oedema requires aggressive treatment
with diuretics and vasodilators.
Spider bites
Widow spiders (Latrodectus spp.)
Severe pain at bite. Rarely systemic envenoming with
abdominal and generalised pain and other features due to
transmitter release from autonomic nerves. Hypertension is
characteristic (prazosin – see above). Antivenom is available.
Opiates and diazepam for pain.
Recluse spiders (Loxosceles spp.)

Bites in which pain develops over a number of hours. A white
ischaemic area gradually breaks down to form a black eschar
over 7 days or so. Healing may be prolonged and occasionally

severe scarring occurs.
Banana spiders (Phoneutria spp.)

Severe burning pain at bite may cause systemic envenoming
with tachycardia, hypertension, sweating, and priapism.
Polyspecific antivenom available.
Marine envenoming: venomous fish

Systemic envenoming is rare. Excruciating pain at site of sting
is the major effect. Regional nerve blocks and local infiltration
of 1% lidocaine may be effective. Most marine venoms are
heat labile, immersing in hot water is effective in relieving
pain. Care to avoid scalding; the envenomed limb may have
abnormal sensation. Clinicians check water temperature and
patient immerse the non-bitten limb as well.
Jellyfish
Rubbing sting will cause further discharge and worsen
envenoming. In box jellyfish stings, pouring vinegar over the
sting will prevent discharge of nematocysts. For most other
jellyfish, seawater should be poured over stings and adherent
tentacles gently removed. Ice is useful for pain relief. Box
jellyfish stings occasionally rapidly life threatening. Antivenom
is available IM.
Near drowning
• Toddlers can drown in small volumes of water, for example
in a bucket or shallow pool.
• Not all drowning is accidental (abuse/neglect).
• Other injuries may be present.
• Other illnesses may have resulted in the drowning, for
example epilepsy.
• Water can be fresh (hypotonic) or salt (hypertonic).
• Water can conceal hidden dangers: trauma, entrapment,
tide and flow, contamination.
• Water can act as a solid at high impact velocity.

• Water may be only one of several problems afflicting the
victim:
Alcohol, drugs, child abuse, epilepsy, trauma, etc.
Problems which may be present

• Hypothermia
• Hypoxia/pulmonary oedema/adult respiratory distress
syndrome (ARDS)
• Hypotension/ventricular dysrhythmias/cardiac arrest
• Cerebral depression/coma/hypoxic ischaemic brain injury
• Other injuries, especially spinal and head injuries
• Electrolyte disturbances
• Ingestions such as alcohol, anticonvulsant drugs
• Pre-existing epilepsy.
Assessment and resuscitation

Airway and cervical spine control, gastric decompression.
Breathing – intubation (with PEEP), high concentration O2.
Circulation and control of external haemorrhage:
feel for brachial/carotid pulse
capillary refill time (difficult if hypothermia)
Disability and mini neurological examination (AVPU)
Exposure and temperature control – core temperature
measurement (best 10 cm into rectum).
REWARMING – Beware rewarming shock; do not allow temp to

rise > 37°C. Prevent further heat loss: remove cold wet clothes.
External rewarming if > 32°C with radiant heater, dry warm

blankets.
Core rewarming if < 32°C:

Warmed IV fluid to 39°C
Gastric lavage with 0·9% saline at 42°C
Heated humidified oxygen (42°C).
Resuscitation should not be discontinued until the core

temperature is > 32°C or cannot be raised.
Hyper- and hypothermia

Heat stroke
Clinical signs
• Confusion
• Tachycardia
• Fever (> 40°C)
• Hot dry skin
• Tachypnoea
• Hypotonia.
Treatment
Urgent cooling
• Aim to cool within 30 minutes (especially head). Remove

clothes, spray with cool water, fan if available, ice packs to
neck, axillae, and groins.
• Provide system support as necessary.
• Give fluids IV, especially if respiratory failure.
• Give oxygen.
Hypothermia in infants
Cold environment, malnutrition, or serious infection
(low reading thermometer core (rectal) < 32°C = severe;
32–35·9°C = moderate). Alternatively if axillary temperature
< 35°C or does not register assume hypothermia.
• WARM: kangaroo care with mother given warm drink or
thermostatically controlled heated mattress (37–38°C) or
air-heated incubator 35–36°C.
• If mother not available hot water bottle in cot removed
before infant.
• Cover the head/dress in warm DRY clothes. Keep nappy dry.
• When examining do not allow temperature to fall (ideally

room temperature should be > 25°C and no draughts).
• Feed 2 hourly and feed during the night (4 hourly).
• Avoid washing.
• Sleep with mother.
Trauma and surgical
Acute abdomen
Appendicitis
Clinical presentation
• Very variable.
• Pain always and first symptom. Early visceral pain non-
specific in epigastric or umbilical region and only later
localises over appendix. Pain with pelvic appendix delayed.
Pain of retrocaecal appendix in flank or back.
• Anorexia, nausea, and vomiting within a few hours.
• Diarrhoea more frequently in children may indicate a pelvic
abscess.
• Child lies in bed with minimal movement.
• Fever and tachycardia.
• There may be localised tenderness at McBurney’s
point.
• Auscultate chest (CXR) to exclude pneumonia.
• Single most important issue is serial examination by
same person.
• Increase in WBC but is unreliable.
• Ultrasonography effective.
Intussusception
• Infant aged 4–12 months suddenly disturbed by violent
abdominal pain which is intermittent, builds up with
spasms, draws up knees, screams, becomes pale, sweats,
and vomits. Seems to recover immediately and may resume
normal eating habits, until stricken by another bout.
• Classically fresh bloodstained stool.
• Pain + vomiting + blood only in a third of patients.
1 in 10 have diarrhoea.
• Pallor, persistent apathy, and dehydration are common.
TRAUMA AND SURGICAL 137
• Emptiness in right lower quadrant and sausage-shaped

mass in the right hypochondrium extending along line
of transverse colon. Absence does not rule out
intussusception.
• Fever and leucocytosis, tachycardia and hypovolaemia.
• Abdominal x ray/mass across central abdomen with dilated
loops of bowel.
• Ultrasonography reliable.
Intestinal obstruction
• Extrinsic: incarcerated hernia and vascular bands,
intussusception, anomalies of rotation (volvulus and Ladds
bands, paraduodenal and paracaecal hernias),
postoperative adhesions.
• Intrinsic: inspissation of bowel contents (meconium ileus,
distal intestinal obstruction syndrome in cystic fibrosis
(CF), roundworm obstruction. Peristaltic dysfunction –
Hirschsprung’s disease. Inflammatory lesions –
tuberculosis, Crohn’s disease.
• Cramping abdominal pain with anorexia, nausea, and
vomiting which progresses to bile stained
• Abdominal distension (greater more distal the obstruction)
• Tachycardia and dehydration
• Tenderness and hyperactive bowel sounds.
Chest and abdominal films are taken to confirm the diagnosis

of obstruction and rule out the presence of free air.
Treatment
• Relieve obstruction before ischaemic bowel injury occurs.
• IV access and baseline bloods collected for baseline
investigations including a full blood count, urea, creatinine
and electrolytes and cross-match.
• 0·9% saline with 10% glucose 4 ml/kg/h for the first
10 kg, 2 ml/kg/h for the next 10 kg and 1 ml/kg/h for
subsequent kg.
• Potassium added, once good urine output (> 1 ml/kg/h

in child and > 2ml/kg/h in infant).
• Some may need one or more IV boluses (10–20 ml/kg) of
0·9% saline/4·5% albumin for resuscitation.
• NG tube for decompression.
Broad spectrum IV antibiotics such as:

• Cefuroxime 50 mg/kg 8 hourly or 12 hourly in the neonate
and metronidazole 7·5 mg/kg 8 hourly given IV over
20 minutes or
• Benzylpenicillin 50 mg/kg 6 hourly plus gentamicin:
1 month to 12 years (6 mg/kg once daily), 12–18 years
(5 mg/kg once daily) plus metronidazole.
Once patient adequately resuscitated and fluid and electrolyte

imbalance safe, laparotomy is performed and the cause
treated.
At all times adequate analgesia.
Life-threatening trauma
Primary survey
A Airway with cervical spine control
B Breathing and ventilation
C Circulation and haemorrhage control
D Disability assessment
E Exposure
Airway with cervical spine control

• Clear, unobstructed airway.
• High concentration O2 through reservoir mask or, if
breathing needs support, through self-inflating bag + O2
reservoir.
• Where cervical spine at risk, head and neck in neutral
alignment. Immediately by manual in-line immobilisation.
A correctly fitting hard collar, side-supports, and head

blocks then maintain immobilisation until spine cleared.
Manual in-line method resumed if airway manoeuvres such
as intubation. Normal x rays do not exclude spinal cord
injury.
Signs of airway obstruction:

• Rapid rate
• Noisy breathing (total obstruction may be silent)
• Recession/paradoxical breathing
• Cyanosis
• Agitation or drowsiness
• Decreased or absent breath sounds on auscultation.
The airway should be cleared of debris and careful jaw thrust

applied. If no improvement oropharyngeal airway inserted.
If still obstructed: orotracheal intubation under

direct vision with manual in-line stabilisation of the
cervical spine
• Pre-oxygenation with 100% oxygen with manual lung
inflation if required
• Administration of a carefully judged, reduced dose of an
anaesthetic induction agent
• Application of cricoid pressure
• Suxamethonium 1–2 mg/kg
• Intubation with a correctly sized tracheal tube
• Replacement of the collar and blocks after confirming tube
placement and relaxing cricoid pressure.
Confirmation of correct placement of the tube

Most important see tube pass through vocal cords. The
correct size is tube placed easily through cords with small
leak. Place tube 2–3 cm below cords and note length at teeth
before check by auscultation. If orotracheal intubation not
possible, needle cricothyroidotomy or in > 11 years surgical
cricothyroidotomy.
Breathing – assessment of adequacy of respiration

• Rate
• Chest expansion
• Recession
• Use of accessory muscles
• Nasal flaring
• Inspiratory or expiratory noises
• Breath sounds
• Heart rate
• Colour
• Mental state
• Pulse oximetry.
Examine trachea, neck veins, and chest for pleural collections

of air or blood. Tension pneumothorax treated immediately
with needle thoracocentesis in 2nd intercostal space on
affected side in midclavicular line, followed by tube
thoracostomy.
Circulatory assessment
• Capillary refill
• Skin colour
• Temperature
• Systolic blood pressure
• Mental state
• Respiratory rate.
The blood pressure is initially well maintained despite

continuing bleeding, due to child’s exceptional ability to
vasoconstrict. As indicator of haemorrhage, normal BP can be
falsely reassuring; a tachycardia more revealing. For obvious
external haemorrhage controlled manual pressure.
• Cannulate peripheral vein
• Intraosseous infusion
• Femoral vein catheterisation avoid if pelvic/
• Venous cutdown (saphenous vein) abdominal injury
• Jugular or subclavian vein catheterisation.
Blood typing, cross-matching, haemoglobin and full blood

count, glucose and electrolytes.
Bolus of 20 ml/kg of warmed 0·9% saline or Hartmann’s.
Repeat twice, after this consider surgical intervention and
transfusion. The most important aspect of fluid
resuscitation is the child’s response to the fluid
challenge. Improvement is indicated by:
• Decrease in heart rate
• Increase in skin temperature
• Quicker capillary refill
• Improving mental state
• Increase in systolic blood pressure
• Satisfactory urine output.
If fail to improve carry out urgent search for chest,

abdominal, or pelvic haemorrhage.
Give initial fluid bolus by attaching warmed fluid bag to IV

cannula via three-way tap and 20 mL syringe and administer
sequentially the same number of syringe-fulls (as the number
of kg body wt of child)
Disability
AVPU plus pupil size and reactivity and Glasgow Coma Scale.
Exposure
Undress (use scissors to cut clothes) for anatomical search
for injuries. Avoid prolonged exposure.
At end of primary survey, the severely injured child should

have:
Clear airway, breathing 100% oxygen

Cervical spine immobilisation in blunt trauma cases
Adequate respiration, achieved by manual or mechanical ventilation and chest
decompression when indicated
Venous access and an initial fluid challenge if indicated on circulatory assessment
Blood sent for typing and cross-matching

The potential need for immediate life-saving surgery considered and preparations
underway
The following life-threatening conditions excluded or

identified and treated:
Treatment
Airway obstruction Intubation or surgical airway
Tension pneumothorax Needle thoracocentesis, chest drain
Open pneumothorax Chest drain, 3 sided dressing
Massive haemothorax Chest drain/blood transfusion
Flail chest Intubation if large
Cardiac tamponade Pericardiocentesis
Adjuncts:
ECG/oxygen saturation/blood pressure monitoring

Gastric and urinary catheters
X rays of the chest and pelvis – and cervical spine
Ultrasound scan of the abdomen
Adequate pain control
Careful titration of IV opioids (GREAT CARE IF HEAD INJURED)
Secondary survey
Examination head-to-toe, including the back, avoiding spinal
movement (by log rolling). Document all injuries.
• Thorough re-examination of the chest front and back, using
the classical inspection–palpation–percussion–auscultation
approach, is combined with a chest x ray.
• Symmetry of chest movement and breath sounds, presence
of surgical emphysema, and pain or instability on
compressing the chest.
• Tracheal deviation and altered heart sounds are noted.
• On log-rolling reconsider flail chest as a posterior floating

segment is often poorly tolerated.
Abdomen is silent area. Must be actively cleared of injury.

Cardiovascular decompensation may occur late and
precipitously.
• Thorough history taking and a careful examination of the
abdomen may give clues to the origin of bleeding or
perforation.
• Gastric distension may cause respiratory embarrassment
and a gastric tube should be placed.
• In a severely injured child, a urinary catheter should be
inserted, unless there is pelvic injury, examining first urine
for red blood cells.
• Abdominal ultrasound and CT scanning.
Management of spinal cord injuries (SCI)

• Contain “biomechanical instability” by preventing
movement at fracture.
• Dexamethasone in all acute SCI (500 micrograms/kg stat
then 50 micrograms/kg every 6 hours for 48 hours).
• “Rehabilitation” as soon as possible.
Emergency treatment of traumatic

amputation
• Partial or complete amputation.
• Greater blood loss with partial amputation – partially
transected blood vessels do not go into spasm (as do
transected vessels).
• A thorough history concerning bleeding from the limb is
crucial.
• Control of exsanguinating haemorrhage is essential
if local pressure + elevation unsuccessful, apply a
tourniquet
• Tetanus toxoid and antitetanus serum.

• Appropriate radiographs of the injured areas.
Wound excision
Removal of any dead and contaminated tissue which if left
would become a medium for infection.
Management of burns
• Protect airway.
• Consider other injuries?
• Expose and assess burn area. (See figure below.)
• If > 10%, establish IV line and give IV analgesia (morphine
100 micrograms/kg loading dose).
• Commence 0·9% saline or Hartmann’s at 2–4 ml/kg per %
burn for first 24 hours, backdated to time of burn. Half (in
hourly divided doses) during the first 8 hours, and second
half in next 16 hours (in hourly doses) adjusted to urine
output and cardiovascular response.
• Assess area of burn and draw on chart.
• It is common to overestimate the size of burn.
• Erythema MUST NOT be included – fluid is not lost.
• An overestimation will mean that far too much fluid given.
First aid – cold water

Seconds count. Except with electricity, cold water/milk
applied immediately and for 10 minutes before clothes
removed. Then cover with clean dressings or cling film.
Following above, avoid hypothermia, especially in babies.
ABC
• In severe burns all vascular bed leaky.
• If < 10% replace orally. If vomiting IV fluids. If safe IV
access is not available, then burns of up to 25% can be
managed with increased oral fluids. Small regular doses.
• For oral fluids, ORS ideal
A A
1
1
2 2 2 2
13 13
112 112 112 112
112 112 112 1

212 2 2 112
1
B B B B
C C C C
112 112 112 112
% surface area
Age 0 1yr 5yr 10yr 15yr
A 9·5 8·5 6·5 5·5 4·5

B 2·75 3·25 4·0 4·5 4·5
C 2·5 2·5 2·75 3·0 3·25
• Hot water burns (scalds) may be superficial or deep

dermal. Flame or hot fat almost always deep.
• The appearance can be altered by first aid treatments.
• First – assess capillary return.
• Second – test sensation. Is it increased (in a superficial
partial thickness burn), reduced (in a deep dermal burn),
or absent (in a full thickness burn). Sterile hypodermic

needle. Difference between sharp and blunt ends. In young
children when sleeping.
• Many superficial burns become deeper during first 48 hours.
Intravenous fluids
• Ideally by peripheral vein; in emergency, intraosseous, or
central venous lines may be needed but increase risk of
infection.
• DO NOT USE long lines – increased risk of septicaemia.
• 0·9% saline is the best IV fluid plus 5–10% glucose in child
< 2 years.
Natural colloids, i.e. 4·5% albumin, plasma, and blood,
artificial colloids, i.e Haemaccel and Gelofusine plus
crystalloids can be used. Excessive IV fluid may lead to
pulmonary and/or cerebral oedema, together with excessive
extravascular deposition of fluid including “compartment
syndrome”.
• Fluid loss decreases 48–72 hours after injury.
• Accurate and updated fluid input and output charts are
kept + daily weighing.
• For > 30% burns hourly haematocrit (or haemoglobin) and
urine outputs (ideally > 1 ml/kg/h) are helpful in the first
24 hours and then decreasing afterwards. For burns
between 10% and 30% hourly tests.
• > 30% burns and involving the genitalia and in young
normally incontinent female children, a urinary catheter is
essential. In males, a urinary bag can be used.
Enteral fluids
• For 5–10% burns, daily requirement increased by 50% to
allow for the burn (given on an hourly basis).
• The normal oral requirement of a child can be calculated
as 100 ml/kg for the first 10 kg, 50 ml/kg for the next 10 kg,
and 20 ml/kg for any weight up to the total weight of
the child per 24 hours.
• This may need to be increased by 10% or 20% in hot

climates.
• For example, in a child of 1 year old where the daily
requirement is 800 ml, add 400 ml (i.e. 50% extra) for the
burn making 1200 ml, divide by 24 and thus give 50 ml
orally per hour.
• Use ORS or diluted milk or water.
• Early feeding reduces gastric ulcer formation. A thin bore
NG tube can be used to give milk or other similar high
protein foodstuffs.
• IV feeding is strongly contraindicated.
Dressings
• Establish and update antitetanus status.
• Consider an escharotomy.
• Dress the burned areas, or treat any area which is going to
be kept exposed (give adequate analgesia: morphine,
ketamine or entonox).
• Burn wound is usually sterile.
• Hands washed and sterile gloves used by all members of
the team. Ideally plastic aprons.
Dressings used:
To maintain sterility
To relieve pain
To absorb fluid produced by the burn wound
To aid healing
• The layer of the dressing closest to the wound should

contain an antiseptic: chlorhexidine or iodine.
• On top of this dressing should be placed a layer of gauze
and then sterile cotton wool to absorb fluid.
• The whole to be held in place by a bandage.
SECTION 4
Procedures and equipment

PROCEDURES AND EQUIPMENT 151
AIRWAY
Intubation
• Uncuffed < 25 kg. Larynx narrowest at cricoid ring.
• Correct tube is that which passes easily through the glottis
and subglottic area with a small air leak detectable at 20 cm
water (= sustained gentle positive pressure).
• Size of tube is one that can just fit into the nostril.
• In preterm neonates 2·5–3·5 mm internal diameter.
• In fullterm neonates 3·0–4·0 mm internal diameter.
• In infants after neonatal period 3·5 to 4·5 mm internal
diameter.
• In children over 1 year = age/4 + 4 internal diameter in mm.
• Length of tube in cm = age (in years)/2 plus 12 for oral
tube, = age (in years)/2 plus 15 for nasal tube.
Aids to intubation
• Laryngoscope: blade (straight for neonates and infants,
curved for older children), check bulb and handle
• Magill forceps
• Introducer (not further than end of tube itself)
• Gum elastic bougie (over which tube can pass)
• Cricoid pressure (can help visualisation of larynx)
• Suction.
Predicting difficulty
Likely to be difficult: Difficulty in opening mouth

Reduced neck mobility
Laryngeal/pharyngeal lesions
Congenital: Pierre–Robin, mucopolysaccharoidoses
Acquired: Burns, trauma
Look from side: small chin = difficult
• Choose appropriate tube size with one size above and below.
• Get tape ready.
• Suction.
• Induce anaesthesia and give muscle relaxant unless
completely obtunded.
Do not attempt in semiconscious child
Procedure
Position
• > 3–4 years: “sniffing” position (head extended on
shoulders, flexed at neck, pillow under head).
• < 3 years (especially neonates and infants): neutral position
(large occiput).
• Keep in neutral position with in-line immobilisation if
unstable cervical spine (trauma, Down’s).
Oxygenate child
• Introduce laryngoscope into right side of mouth.
• Sweep tongue to the left.
• Advance blade until epiglottis seen.
• Curved blade: advance blade anterior to epiglottis;
lift epiglottis forward by moving blade away from
own body.
• Straight blade: advance blade beneath epiglottis, into
oesophagus; pull back, glottis will “flop” into view.
Straight blade Curved blade
Vellecuta
Epiglottis
Recognise glottis
• Insert endotracheal tube gently through vocal cords.
• Stop at predetermined length (2–3 cm in).
Confirm correct placement

• Chest moves adequately and each side equally with
ventilation.
• Listen to breath sounds in axillae and anterior chest wall.
• Confirm no breath sounds in stomach. Confirm no air
bubbling back through throat.
• Oxygen saturations do not go down.
• Carbon dioxide measured from expired gases (ideal).
• CXR
Secure tube
Proceed to nasal intubation if skilled (for long term
ventilation). Two strips of sticky zinc oxide tape to reach
from in front of ear across cheek and above upper lip to
opposite ear.
• If available, apply benzoin tincture to cheeks, above upper
lip, and under chin (to make tape stick better).
• Start with the broad end of the tape: stick this onto the
cheek, then wrap one of the thinner ends carefully around
the tube. It is useful still being able to see the ET tube
marking at the lips.
• The other half gets taped across philtrum to the cheek.
• The second tape starts on the other cheek, and the thinner
half gets stuck across the chin, the other half also wrapped
around the tube.
Emergency surgical airway

< 12 years needle cricothyroidotomy; > 12 years surgical
cricothyroidotomy.
In a small infant, or if foreign body below cricoid, direct

tracheal puncture using the same technique.
Needle cricothyroidotomy (sterile technique)

• Attach cricothyroidotomy cannula-over-needle (or IV
cannula and needle 16–18G) size to 5 ml syringe.
• Supine.
• If no risk of cervical spine injury, extend neck, with roll
under shoulders.
Thyroid
cartilage
Cricothyroid
Cricoid membrane
cartilage
Thyroid
Trachea
Thyroid
cartilage Cricoid
cartilage
Cricothyroid membrane
• Identify cricothyroid membrane by palpation between

thyroid and cricoid cartilages.
• Stabilise the cricothyroid membrane.
• Insert cannula through cricothyroid membrane at
45 degree angle caudally, aspirating as advanced.
• When air aspirated advance cannula over needle, care with
posterior tracheal wall. Withdraw the needle.
• Re-check air can be aspirated.
• Attach cannula to an oxygen flowmeter via a Y-connector.
Oxygen flow rate (in litres) set to age (in years).
• Ventilate by occluding open end of Y-connector with thumb
for 1 second. If chest does not rise increase oxygen flow
rate by increments of 1 litre, and the effect of 1 second’s
occlusion of the Y-connector reassessed.
• Allow passive exhalation (via the upper airway) by taking
the thumb off for 4 seconds.
• Observe chest movement and auscultate breath sounds to
confirm adequate ventilation. Check the neck to exclude
swelling from injection of gas into tissues.
• Proceed to tracheotomy.
Important notes
Not possible to ventilate with self-inflating bag. The maximum
pressure from bag is 45 cmH2O (the blow-off valve pressure),
which is insufficient to drive gas through a narrow cannula.
Expiration cannot occur through cannula. Expiration must
occur via the upper airway, even if partial upper airway
obstruction. Should upper airway obstruction be complete,
reduce gas flow to 1–2 L/min to provide oxygenation but little
ventilation.
Surgical cricothyroidotomy
• > 12 years.
• Supine position.
• If no risk of neck injury, extend the neck. Otherwise,
maintain neutral alignment.
• Identify cricothyroid membrane.

• Prepare the skin and, if conscious, local anaesthetic.
• Stabilise the cricothyroid membrane.
• Small vertical incision in the skin, and press the lateral
edges of the incision outwards, to minimise bleeding.
• Transverse incision through the cricothyroid membrane,
being careful not to damage the cricoid cartilage.
• Insert tracheal spreader, or use handle of scalpel by
inserting it through the incision and twisting it 90 degrees
to open the airway.
• Insert endotracheal or tracheostomy tube (slightly smaller
than used for oral or nasal tube).
• Ventilate patient and check effective.
• Secure tube.
BREATHING
Emergency Needle Thoracocentesis
Followed by chest drain (sterile technique).

• Large over-needle IV cannula (16G or 20–22G in preterm).
• Identify 2nd intercostal space (ICS) in midclavicular line
(MCL) line on side of pneumothorax (opposite side to
direction of tracheal deviation).
• Attach the syringe to the cannula.
• Insert the cannula vertically into chest wall, just above
surface of the rib below the 2nd ICS, aspirating all the time.
• If air aspirated, remove needle, leave cannula, tape in

place, and proceed to chest drain insertion.
If needle thoracocentesis is attempted, and tension

pneumothorax not present, the chance of causing
pneumothorax is 10–20%. Perform CXR.
Insertion of chest drain (sterile

technique/local anaesthesia
and morphine)
Largest size drain that passes between ribs.
Procedure
• Prepare underwater seal and take sterile end, ready
to connect to chest tube once inserted.
• Cover underwater end of tube by no more than 1–2
cmH2O.
• Insertion site (usually 4th–5th ICS in anterior or midaxillary
line).
• Make 1–3 cm skin incision along the line of ICS,
immediately above the rib below to avoid damage to
the neurovascular bundle which lies under the inferior

edge of each rib.
• Bluntly dissect using artery forceps just over top of the rib
below, and puncture parietal pleura with the tip of the
forceps.
• Put a gloved finger into the incision and clear the path into
the pleura (not possible in small children).
• Holding the chest drain about 1 cm from the end pass it
into the hole you have made – it should thread in easily.
• Pass about 3 cm, more if bigger child and draining
haemothorax, connect to underwater seal.
• Ensure tube is in pleural space by listening for air
movement, and by looking for fogging of the tube during
expiration.
• Secure the tube using a suture passed through the skin at
the incision site (ensure adequate local anaesthetic) and
tied around the tube.
• Cover the puncture site in the chest wall with a sterile
dressing and tape the chest tube to the chest wall – cotton
gauze under “Opsite” may provide an optimal occlusive
dressing.
• CXR.
If the chest tube is working, occasional bubbles will pass

through the underwater seal. The water level in the tube may
also rise and fall slightly with the respiratory cycle.
Pleural tap for effusion

CXR. If confirms – diagnostic tap.
• Child on mother’s lap, facing her, held tightly in bear hug.
• 5th intercostal space on the superior aspect of the 6th rib
in the mid-axillary line just below nipple level.
• 20g needle on syringe and three-way tap, below where
percussion note becomes dull. Just above the rib (to avoid
blood vessels) and aspirate all the time. Avoid liver.
• Send for microscopy, protein level, cell count, gram and

Ziehl–Neelsen stain, and culture for bacteria including TB.
Aspirate as much fluid as possible. Ensure air does not
enter.
Chest drain for empyema

Insert as sterile procedure:
• Position child and locate empyema.
• Use sufficient 1% lidocaine (lignocaine).
• Make incision in skin, stretch it to accommodate tube
size firmly, and part underlying muscle with artery
forceps.
• Avoid neurovascular bundle on inferior part of the rib and
pass drain on top of rib.
• Puncture the pleura with forceps and thread the largest
chest drain that will go between ribs. Do not use trochar as
this can damage lung and large vessels.
• Ensure all drain holes of catheter are inside chest.
• Fix drain with gauze dressing, tape, and a suture.
• Connect to underwater seal. Fluid will flow out and level
will “swing” with respiration.
CIRCULATION
External jugular vein (sterile technique)

• Place in 15–30° head-down position.
• Turn head away from site of puncture. Restrain with
blanket below neck.
• External jugular vein passes over sternomastoid junction
middle and lower thirds.
• Assistant places finger at lower end of visible part of the
vein just above the clavicle.
External
jugular vein
Subclavian
vein
Femoral cannulation (sterile technique)

• Supine leg slightly abducted. Towel under buttocks.
• Find femoral artery 2 cm below midpoint of inguinal
ligament. Femoral vein lies immediately medial to artery.
Infiltrate the skin with local anaesthetic.
• With finger on femoral artery introduce needle with syringe
attached at 45 degrees to the skin along line of vein
pointing towards umbilicus. Advance needle whilst
aspirating.
• When blood “flashes back” into syringe remove syringe
from needle, feed Seldinger guidewire through the needle
holding wire at all times.
Internal jugular (sterile technique)

Head down increases vein distension and reduces risk of air
embolism.
• 30 degrees head down, and turn head to left hand side for
the right sided approach which avoids lymphatic duct.
Place towel under shoulders to extend neck.
• Identify apex of triangle formed by two heads of the
sternomastoid and clavicle and infiltrate local anaesthetic
(if conscious). Alternatively identify carotid medial to
sternomastoid at level of lower border of thyroid cartilage,
vein is just lateral to this (usually); aim needle at 30 degrees
to skin and towards the ipsilateral nipple (in infants neck is
very short and vein is superficial). Estimate the length of
catheter from the skin entry to the nipple.
• Direct needle at 30 degrees to the skin pointing towards
the ipsilateral nipple and puncture the skin at the apex of
the triangle.
Internal
jugular vein
Subclavian
vein
• Advance needle, aspirating. If blood “flashes back” stop

advancing, remove syringe. (If you do not cannulate vein,
withdraw the needle (but not out of the skin) and advance
again slightly more laterally.)
• Feed the Seldinger guidewire through the needle, always
holding end of wire.
• Do not leave catheter open – risk of air embolism.

• CXR to check for a pneumothorax catheter tip at the
SVC/RA junction, but not in RA.
Subclavian (sterile technique)

• Place supine, turn head to contralateral side, roll under
shoulders to extend neck, identify midpoint clavicle.
• Aim for suprasternal notch, pass needle just beneath
clavicle at midpoint (more medial in older child), vein lies
anterior to the subclavian artery and is closest at the medial
end of the clavicle.
• Subclavian artery puncture not uncommon (cannot
compress to stop bleeding but rarely problem unless
coagulopathy).
Cut down venous cannulation

(sterile technique)
Procedure
Identify landmarks.
Brachial
Infant – one finger breadth lateral to the medial epicondyle of
the humerus.
Small child – two finger breadths lateral to the medial
epicondyle of the humerus.
Older child – three finger breadths lateral to the medial
epicondyle of the humerus.
Saphenous
Infant – half a finger breadth superior and anterior to the
medial malleolus.
Small child – one finger breadth superior and anterior to the
medial malleolus.
Older child – two finger breadths superior and anterior to the
medial malleolus.
• Apply tourniquet at pressure between venous and

arterial.
• Local anaesthetic after marking site of vein (if conscious).
• Incise perpendicular to long axis of vein.
• Bluntly dissect subcutaneous tissues with curved artery
forceps (tips pointing downwards) parallel to the vein.
With tips pointing up scoop up the tissues and open the
forceps – you should have picked up the vein. Clear
2 cm of vein from surrounding tissue.
• Pass proximal and distal ligature around vein. Tie the distal
ligature and use for traction.
• Make small hole in vein with scalpel proximal to tied
ligature and feed catheter into the vein proximally (ideally
to hub). Tie proximal ligature around vein and catheter.
• Aspirate blood (if blood does not aspirate you may be
against vein wall so pull back a little and repeat) and flush
with normal saline. Release tourniquet.
• Close incision with interrupted sutures, place antiseptic
ointment (for example, iodine) over wound, and suture the
catheter to the skin (ensure local anaesthetic at suture site
if conscious). Cover with dressing.
Umbilical vein catheterisation (sterile

technique)
Possible < 7 days of age.
5FG (8FG in full term) umbilical catheter (sterile feeding tube

may be used but first measure length. Cannulae for UVC
usually marked every 5 cm).
Umbilical Umbilical arteries

vein
Procedure (aseptic)
• Assemble the syringe, three-way tap, and catheter. Flush
and fill catheter with sterile 0·9% saline and close tap to
prevent air embolus.
• Clean the umbilical cord and surrounding skin with 0·5%
chlorhexidine or 10% povidone-iodine. Tie cord
ligature/tape loosely round base of cord.
• Cut back cord to about 1–2 cm from base (clean stroke of
scalpel not sawing).
• Hold cord near vein with artery forceps.

• Identify the vein – usually gaping, larger, and well separated
from the two small thicker-walled arteries. Grip wall of vein.
• Hold the catheter approximately 2 cm from the end with
forceps and insert tip into vein. Gently advance the catheter
which must pass easily. Insert for 4–6 cm for resuscitation
or exchange transfusion.
• For long term use place above diaphragm at SVC/RA
junction ((2 × weight in kg) + 5 + length of stump in
centimetres (length usually equal to distance of umbilicus
to internipple line)). Check draw back blood easily – if not
withdraw slightly until blood flows.
• Ideally CXR to check position; must not be in liver.
• Occasionally umbilical vein is kinked and advance of
catheter is blocked at 1–2 cm beyond the abdominal wall.
Gentle traction on the cord usually relieves this.
• If obstruction occurs at > 2 cm, catheter probably wedged
in portal system or coiled up in the portal sinus. Withdraw
part way and re-insert.
• Secure by placing two silk stitches into cord, tie, then cut
5 cm long. Line up with catheter and tape (see figure above).
• After removal apply pressure to umbilical stump for
5–10 minutes.
Exchange transfusion (sterile technique

essential)
Use O −ve or blood cross-matched against maternal
antibodies use fresh whole blood < 48 hours. Ideally warm
blood (especially for low birthweight or preterm infants).
• Check blood glucose before and during exchange. Take
blood for Coombs’ and G6PD level.
• Although K+ level in transfused blood = 8–10 mmol/L,
does not usually cause significant hyperkalemia.
• Plan 2-hours + observer to monitor baby and record each
aliquot withdrawn and replaced.
• Connect three-way tap to the umbilical vein catheter –

syringe on one, one to donor blood infusion set and
another to waste bottle.
• Exchange volumes:
< 1500 g 5 ml
1500–2500 g 5–10 ml
> 2500 g 10–15 ml
aim for double volume exchange: 80 ml/kg × 2
aim for end Hb of 15 g/dl.
• For small aliquots remember allowance for “dead space” in
tubing between the syringe and the baby.
• Draw out each aliquot over 2–3 minutes and replace over
3–4 minutes.
• First aliquot for bilirubin, electrolyte, and calcium.
• Halfway through the procedure check the blood glucose,
calcium, and potassium concentrations.
• Measure them again, + bilirubin, at end.
Intraosseous needle insertion (sterile

technique essential)
• Flat anteromedial surface of tibia, 2–3 cm below tibial

tuberosity or anterolateral surface of femur, 3 cm above the
lateral condyle. (Avoid bones with fractures proximal to the
insertion site.)
• Position knee flexed at 30 degrees over a towel. Grasp the
limb firmly.
• Insert needle 90 degrees to skin with rotating action. Feel

sudden “give” as enter medulla. The needle should stand
up by itself.
• Withdraw trochar and aspirate with 5 ml syringe to confirm
position. Send aspirate for cross-matching of blood if
needed. Flush with 0·9% saline to expel clots and observe
for subcutaneous swelling. Infuse fluid boluses with 20 ml
syringe.
• Secure IV access. Remove as soon as possible.
Needle pericardiocentesis (sterile technique

and local anaesthetic if needed)
• Supine and attach ECG.
• Attach 16–20G cannula to the syringe. Insert cannula just
below and to left of xiphoid process. Angle needle
45 degrees to skin and point to tip of left scapula.
• Advance needle, aspirating and watching cardiac monitor.
As enter distended pericardial sac, fluid flows back into
syringe. If myocardium is touched ECG pattern will
change (arrhythmia, ectopics, “injury” pattern). If aspirate
bright red blood entered ventricle; therefore withdraw
slightly.
• If successful, cardiac function should improve. Withdraw

needle, attach three-way tap and secure cannula for further
aspiration.
Defibrillation
Basic life support interrupted for shortest possible time
(5–9 below).
1. Apply gel pads or electrode gel

2. Select correct paddles (paediatric paddles for < 10 kg)
3. Select energy
4. Place the electrodes and apply firm pressure
5. Press charge button. Wait until charged
6. Shout “Stand back!”
7. Check other rescuers are clear
8. Deliver shock.
One paddle over apex in midaxillary line, other to right of

sternum, immediately below clavicle. Good paddle contact:
gel pads or electrode gel (if gel, care not to join two areas of
application). Firm pressure to paddles.
Correct energy selection: 2 J/kg for first 2 shocks and

then 4 J/kg.
SECTION 5
Appendix
Adapted from WHO/NCHS normalised reference weight-for-length (50–84 cm)
and weight-for-height (86–110 cm), by sex
Boys’ weight (kg) Girls’ weight (kg)

−4 SD −3 SD −2 SD −1 SD Length −1 SD −2 SD −3 SD −4 SD
60% 70% 80% 90% Median (cm) Median 90% 80% 70% 60%
1·8 2·2 2·5 2·9 3·3 50·0 3·4 3·0 2·6 2·3 1·9
1·9 2·3 2·8 3·2 3·7 52·0 3·7 3·3 2·8 2·4 2·0
2·0 2·6 3·1 3·6 4·1 54·0 4·1 3·6 3·1 2·7 2·2
2·3 2·9 3·5 4·0 4·6 56·0 4·5 4·0 3·5 3·0 2·4
2·7 3·3 3·9 4·5 5·1 58·0 5·0 4·4 3·9 3·3 2·7
3·1 3·7 4·4 5·0 5·7 60·0 5·5 4·9 4·3 3·7 3·1
3·5 4·2 4·9 5·6 6·2 62·0 6·1 5·4 4·8 4·1 3·5
4·0 4·7 5·4 6·1 6·8 64·0 6·7 6·0 5·3 4·6 3·9
4·5 5·3 6·0 6·7 7·4 66·0 7·3 6·5 5·8 5·1 4·3
5·1 5·8 6·5 7·3 8·0 68·0 7·8 7·1 6·3 5·5 4·8
5·5 6·3 7·0 7·8 8·5 70·0 8·4 7·6 6·8 6·0 5·2
6·0 6·8 7·5 8·3 9·1 72·0 8·9 8·1 7·2 6·4 5·6
6·4 7·2 8·0 8·8 9·6 74·0 9·4 8·5 7·7 6·8 6·0
6·8 7·6 8·4 9·2 10·0 76·0 9·8 8·9 8·1 7·2 6·4
7·1 8·0 8·8 9·7 10·2 78·0 10·2 9·3 8·5 7·6 6·7
7·5 8·3 9·2 10·1 10·9 80·0 10·6 9·7 8·8 8·0 7·1
7·8 8·7 9·6 10·4 11·3 82·0 11·0 10·1 9·2 8·3 7·4
8·1 9·0 9·9 10·8 11·7 84·0 11·4 10·5 9·6 8·7 7·7
Continued
APPENDIX 173
Estimating body surface area
weight kg SA m2 weight kg SA m2 weight kg SA m2
0⋅7 0⋅07 12⋅0 0⋅56 38⋅0 1⋅23

1⋅0 0⋅10 13⋅0 0⋅59 40⋅0 1⋅27
1⋅6 0⋅14 14⋅0 0⋅62 42⋅0 1⋅32
2⋅0 0⋅16 15⋅0 0⋅65 44⋅0 1⋅36
2⋅6 0⋅19 16⋅0 0⋅68 46⋅0 1⋅40
3⋅0 0⋅21 17⋅0 0⋅71 48⋅0 1⋅44
3⋅6 0⋅24 18⋅0 0⋅74 50⋅0 1⋅48
4⋅0 0⋅26 19⋅0 0⋅77 52⋅0 1⋅52
4⋅5 0⋅28 20⋅0 0⋅79 54⋅0 1⋅56
5⋅0 0⋅30 22⋅0 0⋅85 56⋅0 1⋅60
5⋅5 0⋅33 24⋅0 0⋅90 58⋅0 1⋅63
6⋅0 0⋅35 26⋅0 0⋅95 60⋅0 1⋅67
7⋅0 0⋅38 28⋅0 1⋅00 65⋅0 1⋅76
8⋅0 0⋅42 30⋅0 1⋅05 70⋅0 1⋅85
9⋅0 0⋅46 32⋅0 1⋅09 75⋅0 1⋅94
10⋅0 .0⋅49 34⋅0 1⋅14 80⋅0 2⋅03
11⋅0 .0⋅53 36⋅0 1⋅19 90⋅0 2⋅19
Mid Upper Arm Circumference

• Non-stretchable tape midway between elbow and shoulder
• The tape tightened but not compress underlying tissues
• Child 1–5 yrs little increase. Normal 14–16 cm.
Moderate Malnutrition 12·5 to 14 cm.

Severe Malnutrition < 12·5 cm.
Management of Pain
Strong Opioid for

moderate to
severe pain
+/− Non-opioid
Weak Opioid for mild +/− Adjuvants
to moderate pain
+/− Non-opioid
+/− Adjuvants STEP 3
Non-opioid
+/− Adjuvants STEP 2
STEP 1
WHO three-step analgesic ladder
Side effects of morphine

• Respiratory depression.
ALERT MEDICAL STAFF AND ENSURE NALOXONE IS

AVAILABLE
Monitor SaO2 with pulse oximeter as appropriate (SaO2

SHOULD NOT BE < 94% IN AIR)
• Constipation therefore use prophylactic DOCUSATE
SODIUM or other laxative
CAUTION with head injuries/liver/renal impairment.
Naloxone to reverse respiratory depression =

10 micrograms/kg immediately available. (Neonatal ampoule
40 micrograms/2 ml OR adult ampoule 400 micrograms/1 ml.)
Give IV (SC or IM if not possible). Repeat after 2–3 minutes if
no response when second dose may need to be much higher
(up to 100 micrograms/kg). An IV infusion may be needed if
protracted depression of respiration occurs.
Oral analgesia for mild or moderate pain
Drug Preparation Comments
Paracetamol Oral suspension The maximum daily dose should not be given for > 3
120 mg/5 ml days
ORAL loading dose 25 mg/kg 250 mg/5 ml
Maintenance dose 20 mg/kg 6 hourly Caution with liver impairment
Maximum dose 80 mg/kg/24 h (60 mg/kg < 3 months) Tablets/soluble 500 mg
RECTAL loading dose 40 mg/kg (20 mg/kg if < 3 months) Suppositories

Maintenance dose 20 mg/kg 6 hourly (15 mg/kg if < 3 months; 60, 125, 250, 500 mg and 1 g
8 hourly if > 36 wks and 12 hourly if < 36 wks gestation)
Maximum dose – 80 mg/kg/24 h (60 mg/kg if < 3 months)
Ibuprofen Oral suspension Do not use if less than 1 year old
4–10 mg/kg every 6–8 hours 100 mg/5 ml
Tablets 200 mg and 400 mg
Diclofenac Tablets 25 mg and 50 mg CAUTION in asthmatics and patients with renal
500 micrograms to 1 mg/kg every 8–12 hours Suppositories impairment
12·5 mg, 25 mg, 50 mg, Contra-indications:
100 mg SHOCK
Bleeding disorders and hypersensitivity to aspirin
Dihydrocodeine Tablets 30 mg CAUTION with liver impairment and head injuries
500 micrograms/kg/dose 4–6 hourly Elixir 10 mg/5 ml May lead to constipation.
Consider prophylactic lactulose
Codeine phosphate Tablets 15 mg, 30 mg
500 micrograms to 1 mg/kg/dose 4–6 hourly Elixir 25 mg/5 ml CODEINE MUST NOT BE GIVEN IV AS IT CAN REDUCE
CARDIAC OUTPUT THROUGH HISTAMINE RELEASE
NSAIDs/dihydrocodeine/paracetamol can be used in combination

Oral morphine for severe pain in infants and children
Drug Preparation
ORAMORPH
1–12 months Mixture 10 mg/5 ml

100 micrograms/kg every 4 hours
Maximum of 5 doses in 24 hours
1–12 yrs Tablets:

200–500 micrograms/kg/ 10 mg, 20 mg
dose every 4 hours
Over 12 yrs
10–15 mg. every 4 hours
Single dose prior to painful procedure

may be useful
For long term severe pain, give slow Slow release tablets:
release as the total daily dose of short 5 mg, 10 mg, 30 mg,
acting in 2 divided doses (usually 60 mg, 100 mg
200–500 micrograms/kg every 12 hours) Slow release suspension:
Sachets 20 mg, 30 mg,
60 mg, 100 mg, 200 mg
Subcutaneous intermittent morphine

Technique Dose
22/24 gauge subcutaneous Morphine:
cannula 100–200 micrograms/kg × 3 hourly
Suitable sites: Uppermost arm Maximum 6 × /24 h
abdominal skin.
Give dose slowly over 5 minutes.
Flush with 0·3 ml 0·9% saline
(can be sited at the time of surgery)
Intermittent IV bolus morphine in infants and children
Age Loading dose Subsequent doses (GIVE SLOWLY OVER 10 MIN)

1–3 months 100 micrograms/kg over 30 min 25 micrograms/kg/dose × 6 hourly
1–12 yrs 100–200 micrograms/kg over 5–20 min 100–200 micrograms/kg × 4 hourly
> 12 yrs 2·5 to 10 mg over 5–20 min 2·5–10 mg × 4 hourly
Intravenous infusion of morphine in infants and children

Morphine dose 1 mg/kg made up to 50 mls 0·9% saline.
Then 1 ml/h = 20 micrograms/kg/h, 2 ml/h = 40 micrograms/kg/h,
3 ml/h = 60 micrograms/kg/h, etc.
Loading dose Technique Continuous infusion
1–12 months
100 micrograms/kg Use dedicated 10–40 micrograms/kg/h
over 30–60 minutes cannula
> 1 year
100 to 200 micrograms/ Requires one to For most situations start
kg over 5–20 minutes one nursing. Monitor at 10 micrograms/kg/
the following: hour and increase in
Syringe movement 5 micrograms/kg/h units
Signs of inflammation
at site of infusion Major surgery: Start at
Urinary retention 20 micrograms/kg/h adjust
according to pain control
Local Anaesthesia issues

Maximum doses lidocaine = 3 mg/kg (7 mg/kg with 1 in
200 000 epinephrine)
Vasoconstrictors must not be used in tissues with end arteries
for examples: finger, toes, penis
Toxicity
• Related to dose
• If accidentally administered IV, therefore drawback before
infusing and ensure needle is not in a vein
• Can be absorbed through mucous membranes in sufficient
concentrations to be toxic.
• Systemic effects
neurological: nausea, restless, convulsions,
cardiovascular: bradycardia, hypotension
• Earliest sign = tingling of lips
• For IM induction use 5–10 mg/kg

• For infusion purposes aim to make up a solution of 1mg/ml
(for example 500 mg in 500 ml bag of 5% dextrose or 0·9%
saline)
• Adjust to response. Infuse IV at 10–45 micrograms/kg/min
Marked tachyphalaxis can occur with infusions lasting

> 30–60 minutes.
Drug infusions in severely ill or injured children
Aminophylline: 5% dextrose or 0·9% saline

Loading dose (do not give if theophylline has been received
in the last 24 hours) IV infusion over 20–30 minutes. 5 mg/kg
for < 12 years and 250–500 mg in total if > 12 years
Then 1 mg/kg/h if < 12 years and 500 micrograms/kg/h if > 12
years: this is equivalent to 50 mg/kg in 50 ml run at 1 ml/hour
for < 12 year and 0·5 ml/hour for > 12 years.
Atracurium: 0·9% saline

500 micrograms/kg initial loading dose then
200 micrograms/kg supplements as required or
200–600 micrograms/kg/h
Maximum concentration 500 micrograms/ml
Diamorphine: 0·9% saline or water; use within 24 hours

Intravenous 10–30 micrograms/kg/h: this is equivalent to
2 mg/kg in 50 ml run at 0·25–0·75 ml/h
Subcutaneous 20-100 micrograms/kg/h: this is equivalent to
2 mg/kg in 50 ml run at 0·5–2·5 ml/h
Dobutamine: 5% dextrose or 0·9% saline. Do not mix with

bicarbonate
2–20 micrograms/kg/min: this is equivalent to
30 mg/kg in 50 ml run at 0·2–2 ml/hour (maximum
concentration of 5 mg/ml)
APPENDIX 181
Dopamine: 5% dextrose or 0·9% saline or neat (ideally via a

central line). Do not mix with bicarbonate.
Can be mixed with dobutamine.
2–20 micrograms/kg/min (renal = up to 5 micrograms/kg/min):
this is equivalent to
30 mg/kg in 50 ml run at 0·2–2 ml/h
Epinephrine: 5% dextrose or 0·9% saline. Do not mix with

bicarbonate.
0·05–2 micrograms/kg/min: this is equivalent to
0·3 ml/kg of 1:1000 (300 micrograms/kg) in 50-ml run at
0·5–20 ml/h
As short term measure, place 1 mg (1 ml of 1 in 1000
epinephrine) in 50 ml 0·9% saline. Give 2–5 ml (40–100
micrograms) in a child (depending on size) and 1 ml
(20 micrograms) to an infant < 1 year. Give IV slowly.
Repeat as required (ideally with ECG monitoring).
Fentanyl: 5% dextrose or 0·9% saline or Neat

1–8 micrograms/kg/h: this is equivalent to
200 micrograms/kg in 50 ml at 0·25–2 ml/h
or Neat (50 micrograms/ml): run at 0·02–0·16 ml/kg/h
Ketamine: 5% dextrose or 0·9% saline

10–45 micrograms/kg/min this is equivalent to
50 mg/kg in 50 ml run at 0·6–2·7 ml/h (maximum
concentration 50 mg/ml)
Midazolam: 5% dextrose or 0·9% saline or neat

1–6 micrograms/kg/min (60–360 micrograms/kg/h): this is
equivalent to 6 mg/kg in 50 ml run at 0·5–3 ml/h
or Neat: (5 mg/ml): run at 0·012–0·072 ml/kg/h
Morphine: 5% dextrose or 0·9% saline

10–60 micrograms/kg/h: this is equivalent to
Nitroprusside: 5% dextrose only Protect infusion from

light. Discard after 24 hours
Propofol: Neat (Beware use in older children > 3 years only).

Can be diluted with 5% glucose.
Neat (10 mg/ml): run at 0·2 ml/kg/h (= 2 mg/kg/h) increase as
required (maximum 10 mg/kg/h)
Prostacyclin (Epoprostenol): 0·9% saline only. Incompatible

with glucose.
5–20 nanograms/kg/min: this is equivalent to
12 micrograms/kg in 50 ml run at 1·25–5 ml/h
Prostaglandin E2 (Dinoprostone): 5% dextrose or 0·9%

saline. Use separate IV line
5–10 fold higher doses of prostaglandin E2 have been used
to re-open the ductus arteriosus but this commonly causes
apnoea
5–20 nanograms/kg/min: this is equivalent to
12 micrograms/kg in 50 ml run at 1·25–5 ml/h
Salbutamol: 5% dextrose or 0·9% saline

Thiopental – reconstituted with water to give 25 mg/ml

Can be further diluted with 5% dextrose or 0·9% saline
2–8 mg/kg/h this is equivalent to
25 mg/ml: run at 0·08–0·32 ml/kg/h
Vecuronium: 5% dextrose or 0·9% saline

1–3 micrograms/kg/min: this is equivalent to
3 mg/kg in 50 ml run at 1–3 ml/h
APPENDIX 183
Blood transfusion
Only when essential
Warm pack contact with mother’s skin
Do not use blood stored for > 35 days at 2–6 degrees C or out
of fridge for > 2 hours or visibly spoiled (plasma must not be
pink, redcells not purple or black) or bag open or leaking.
Check correct group and patient’s name and numbers and
blood group are identical on label and form
Needle/catheter 22 gauge or larger to prevent clotting
If heart failure give 1 mg/kg of frusemide IV at start of
transfusion unless hypovolaemic shock is also present.
In severe malnutrition consider partial exchange
(see page 89).
Record baseline temperature and pulse rate
Do not allow single unit to go in > 4 hours
Infants or those in heart failure, control flow with in-line
burette
Record observations every 30 minutes looking for heart
failure and transfusion reactions
Record quantities given
Indications:
• Severe anaemia (Hb < 4 g/dl)
• Impending or overt cardiac failure if Hb < 6 g/dl
• Hyper-parasitaemia in malaria if Hb < 6 g/dl
• In sickle cell disease
a) if Hb < 5 g/dl or severe infection present
b) Cerebrovascular accident (CVA) (regardless of Hb)
c) Priapism (regardless of Hb)
• Children in cardiac failure from severe anaemia (gallop,
enlarged liver, raised JVP and fine basal creps from
pulmonary oedema)
• Severe chronic haemolytic anaemia such as Thalassaemia
Major
• Following acute severe blood loss when 20–30% of the total

blood volume of 80 ml/kg is lost and bleeding is
continuing – remember Hb can initially be normal
Acute blood loss

Give 10–20 ml/kg of whole blood through wide bore cannula
or central venous line.
Estimate infusion rate for continuing transfusion using:-
• an estimate of blood lost

• an estimate of continuing loss
• vital signs
Top-up Transfusion for severe anaemia

WHOLE BLOOD: 20 ml/kg (increases Hb by 25% as
blood volume 80 ml/kg) or
required volume (ml) = weight (kg) ×
4 × desired rise in Hb (g/dl).
PACKED RED CELLS: 15 ml/kg or required volume (ml) =
weight (kg) × 3 × desired rise
in Hb (g/dl)
Blood giving set = 15 drops/ml

Thus mls/hour divided by 4 = drops/min
Use a burette in infants or where too rapid infusion could be
dangerous (incipient or actual heart failure).
Commonly available crystalloid fluids
Fluid Na + (mmol/l) K + (mmol/l) Cl − (mmol/l) Energy (kcal/l) Comments
Isotonic crystalloid fluids

Saline 0·9% 150 0 150 0
Saline 0·18%, dextrose 4% 30 0 30 160
Dextrose 5% 0 0 0 200 278 mosm/l
Hartmann’s solution (Ringer’s lactate) 131 5 111 0 Lactate: 29 mmol/l
Calcium: 2 mmol/l
Hypertonic crystalloid solutions
Saline 0·45%, dextrose 5% 75 0 75 200
Dextrose 10% 0 0 0 400 555 mosm/l
Commonly available colloid fluids
Duration of action
Colloid solutions Na + (mmol/l) K + (mmol/l) Ca + + (mmol/l) (hours) Comments
Albumin 4·5% 150 1 0 6 Protein buffers

Gelofusin 154 <1 <1 3 Gelatine
Haemaccel 145 5 12·5 3 Gelatine
Pentastarch 154 0 0 7 Hydroxyethyl
starch
Some useful information

1. Percentage solution = grams in 100 ml e.g. 10%
dextrose = 10 g in 100 ml
2. 30% NaCl = 5 mmol/ml each of Na and Cl
0·9% NaCl = 0·154 mmol/ml each of Na and Cl
15% KCl = 2 mmol/ml strong KCl
(15 g/100 ml)
10% Ca Gluconate = 0·225 mmol/ml
(10 g/100 ml)
8·4% NaHCO3 = 1 mmol Na and HCO3/ml
1 ml/h 0·9% saline = 3·7 mmol Na in 24 hours
3. Serum Osmolality = 2 (Na + K) + glucose + urea
(normally 276–295 mosm/l)
FENa (fractional excretion of sodium)
Urinary and plasma sodium and creatinine concentrations of

a spot sample distinguish pre- from established renal failure
and diagnose hypovolaemia (check plasma and urine
creatinine are in the same units)
FENa (%) = U/P sodium × P/U creatinine × 100
Systolic blood pressures at different ages (mm Hg)
1 month 1 year 5 years 10 years 15 years
Mean 60 80 90 105 115

Upper limit of normal 80 100 110 120 130
needs urgent treatment 110 130 140 150 160
Normal values for laboratory measurements
Haemoglobin
Age Hb g/dl
1–3 days 14·5–22·5
2 weeks 14·5–18·0
6 months 10·0–12·5
1–5 years 10·5–13·0
6–12 years 11·5–15·0
12–18 years (male) 13·0–16·0
12–18 years (female) 12·0–16·0
Platelets
Age Platelets 109/llitre

Newborn 84–478
Child 150–400
ESR
All ages 0–10 mm/hr
Total WBC
Age x 109/litre
1–2 days 9·0–34·0
Neonates 6·0–19·5
1–3 years 6·0–17.5
4–7 years 5·5–15·5
8–13 years 4·5–13·5
Lymphocytes
>1·year Median 4·1–6·0 × 109

Normal development
Age Normal achievements in development
Birth Focuses with eyes and responds to sound

4–6 weeks Social smile
6–7 months Sits without support, transfers objects
9–10 months Gets to sitting position, pulls to stand, pincer grasp, waves good bye
12 months Stands, walks with one hand held, 2–3 words, stranger anxiety
15 months Walks, drinks from cup
18 months Walks upstairs, 10 words, feeds with spoon
2 years Runs, draws straight line, 2 word sentences
3 years Draws circle, draws cross, dresses in simple clothes without assistance
4 years Hops on one leg, draws cross, fluent speech
Warning signs in development
Age Warning sign
10 weeks Not smiling

3 months Not responding to noises or voice, not focusing on face, not vocalising, not lifting up head
when lying prone
6 months Not interested in people, noises, toys, does not laugh or smile, squint, hand preference, primitive
reflexes still present
9–12 months Not sitting, not saying “baba”, “mama”, not imitating speech sounds, no pincer grasp
18 months Not walking, no words, still mouthing, no eye contact, not naming familiar objects, not interested
in animals, cars and other objects, passive – no moving about exploring, running, climbing,
excessive periods of rocking and head banging
3 years Unaware of surroundings, not imitating adult activities, little or no speech, long periods of
repetitive behaviour, unable to follow simple command
4 years Unintelligible speech
At any age Parental concern, regression of acquired skills
Blood Chemistry
Substance Age Value range
Albumin Pre term 18–30 g/l

Full term (< 1 week) 25–34 g/l
<5 years 39–50 g/l
5–19 years 40–53 g/l
Amylase All ages 30–100 units per litre
Bicarbonate All ages Arterial: 21–28 mmol/l
Venous: 22–29 mmol/l
Bilirubin conjugated > 1 year 0–3·4 micromol/l
Calcium Total Ionised
0–24 h 2·3–2·65 mmol/l 1·07–1·27 mmol/l
24 h–4 days 1·75–3·0 mmol/l 1·00–1·17 mmol/l
4–7 days 2·25–2·73 mmol/l 1·12–1·23 mmol/l
child 2·15–2·70 mmol/l 1·12–1·23 mmol/l
Chloride Neonate 97–110 mmol/l
Child 98–106 mmol/l
Creatinine Neonate 27–88 micromol/l
Infant 18–35 micromol/l
child 27–62 micromol/l
Continued
Continued
Substance Age Value range
Glucose Preterm 1·4–3·3 mmol/l

0–24 h 2·2–3·3 mmol/l
Infant 2·8–5·0 mmol/l
Child 3·3–5·5 mmol/l
Magnesium 0–7 days 0·48–1·05 mmol/l
7 days–2 years 0·65–1·05 micromol/l
2–14 years 0·60–0·95 mmol/l
Osmolality Child Serum 276–295
mosmol/l
Alkaline phosphatase < 9 years 145–420 units per litre
Inorganic phosphorus 0–5 days 1·55– 2·65 mmol/l
1–3 years 1·25–2·10 mmol/l
4–11 years 1·20–1·80 mmol/l
12–15 years 0·95–1·75 mmol/l
Potassium < 2 months 3·0–7·0 mmol/l
2–12 months 3·6–6·0 mmol/l
>1 year 3·5–5·0 mmol/l
Substance Age Valu range
Sodium Newborn 134–146 mmol/l

Infant 139–146 mmol/l
Child 138–146 mmol/l
Retinol/vitamin A 1–6 years 0·70 – 1·5 micromol/l
7–12 years 0·9 – 1·7 micromol/l
13–19 years 0·9 – 2·5 micromol/l
Urea Child 2·5–6·6 mmol/l
Zinc Child 9·8–18·1 micromol/l
Paediatric electrocardiography
Heat rate and rhythm
Atrial hypertrophy P wave in lead II > 0·28 mV
PR interval, > 0·12 seconds infancy and > 0·16 seconds in
childhood = prolonged
Mean frontal QRS axis : Superior axis = QRS forces in AVF
negative
: Mean 135° day 1, 110° neonatal, 65°
child
RVH: Positive T wave in V4R, V1V2 from 7 days of life
until puberty
LVH: Inverted T waves V4, V5, V6
RVH: R waves in V4R > 15 mV < 3 months of age
> 10 mV > 3 months
LVH: R waves in V6 > 20 mV < 3 months
> 25 mV > 3 months
3 patterns: neonatal = R > S in V4R, V1
= S > R in V5, V6
Infant = R > S in V4R or V1 and V6
Adult = R < S in V4R or V1
= S > R in V6
Biventricular hypertrophy = R + S in V4 = >70 mV
Index
Abbreviations; ICP, alcohol poisoning 42
intracranial pressure. allergic reactions 35–6
aminophylline 5, 180
ABC(DE) see airway; amputation, traumatic
breathing; circulation; 143–4
disability; exposure; life anaemia
support blood transfusion 88–9,
abdomen, acute 136–8 184
accessory respiratory muscle iron–deficiency 88–9
use 17 analgesia see pain relief
Adelaide Coma Scale 29 anaphylactic shock 35–6
adrenal crisis 108–9 anthelmintics 90, 126
adrenaline see epinephrine antibiotics
airway endocarditis prophylaxis
assessment and 71, 72
management 16, intestinal obstruction 138
151–7 malnourished child 84
allergic/anaphylactic meningitis 61, 98–9, 101,
reactions 35 102–3
intubation see meningococcal disease
endotracheal 112, 113
intubation neonatal infections 60,
in life support 9, 11–12 61, 99
primary assessment 16 tetanus 114
procedures/equipment typhoid 116
151–7 anticonvulsants 63
trauma cases 138–9 status epilepticus 37, 38
in triage 7 antidepressant poisoning 43
unconscious child 27 antimalarials 122–4
emergency surgical 154–6 antitoxin
obstruction, signs 139 diphtheria 111–12
upper, problems 68–9 venoms 129–30, 131, 132
see also respiratory apnoea, neonatal 58
disorders appendicitis 136
albendazole 126 arrhythmias 14–15
defibrillation 168–9 effort/work of breathing

shock secondary to 25 17–18, 57
asthma, acute 69–70 intubation see
asystole 14 endotracheal
atracurium 180 intubation
atropine 44 in life support 9, 11
AVPU response 6, 20–1 neonatal 9, 57
diabetic ketoacidosis 105 primary assessment 16–18
unconscious child 27 procedures/equipment
156–8
benzodiazepine poisoning 42 trauma cases 140
bicarbonate see sodium in triage 7
bicarbonate unconscious child 27
bleach ingestion 43 see also respiration
blood cell values 188 burns 145–8
blood chemistry 191–3 corrosive chemical 40
blood loss see haemorrhage
blood pressure, systolic 7, 187 caloric response 28
assessment 19 cannulation see vascular
in shock 23 access
blood transfusion 183–4 capillary refill 19
in anaemia 88–9, 184 in shock 23
exchange 165–7 carbamazepine, neonatal 63
in malaria 124 carbon monoxide
bowel see intestine poisoning 45
brachial vein cannulation 163 cardiovascular system see
brain (incl. cerebrum) circulation; heart
malaria 122 catheterisation see
oedema 107–8 vascular access
supratentorial mass 34 cerebral disorders see brain
see also encephalopathy cerebrospinal fluid analysis
breastmilk, orogastric 49 (lumbar puncture)
breathing (assessment and 60–1, 98, 99, 100
management) 16–18, cervical spine, trauma cases
156–8 138–9, 139
allergic/anaphylactic chest compression 12
reactions 35–6 neonatal 9
efficacy/effectiveness chest drains 157–8
18, 57 empyema 159
INDEX 197
chloral hydrate 179 defibrillation 168–9

chloride, requirements/ dehydration 3–4
body fluid contents 5 in diabetic
chlormethiazole 38 ketoacidosis 105
circulation septic shock v 83
assessment and in severe malnutrition
management 19–20, 80–3
159–69 treatment see fluid
in allergic/anaphylactic management
reactions 36 dengue haemorrhagic
in dehydration 3–5 disease 112
primary assessment development
19–20 normal 189
procedures/equipment warning signs 190
159–69 dexamethasone, raised ICP
in shock 22–3 31, 33
in trauma 140–1 dextrose see glucose
in triage 8 diabetic ketoacidosis 104–8
in unconscious child 27 dialysis 96
collapse, management 85 diamorphine 180
inadequacy, effects on diarrhoea 90–1
other organs diazepam 5
19–20, 23 status epilepticus 38
raised ICP effects on 21 tetanus 114
clonazepam, neonatal 63 diclofenac 175
codeine phosphate 175 diet see nutritional support
cold water on burns 145 dinoprostone 182
colloid fluids 185 diphtheria 111–12
coma 26 disability (neurological)
scales 28 assessment 6, 20–1
convulsions see seizures diabetic ketoacidosis 105
cooling, urgent 134 primary assessment
corrosive chemicals 40, 43 20–1
cranial nerve assessment 28 trauma 141
cricothyroidotomy 154–6 triage 8
croup 67, 68 unconscious child 27
crystalloid fluids 185 see also mental status;
cut down, venous 162–3 unconscious child
cyanotic heart disease 73–4 dobutamine 180
dopamine 181 envenoming 127–32

dressings, burns 148 environmental emergencies
drugs 174–82 126–35
essential 5–6, 180–2 epiglottitis, acute 68
doses 5–6 epilepsy, continuous (status
neonatal life support 10 epilepticus) 37–8
paediatric life epinephrine (adrenaline) 5
support 13 allergic/anaphylactic
overdose/poisoning 41–3 reactions 36
see also specific (types of ) asthma 69
drugs life support 13, 14, 15
neonates 10
ECG see electrocardiography severe illness or
electrocardiography trauma 181
(ECG) 194 epoprostenol 182
life support 13 erythrocytes (red cells)
electrolytes packed 184
body fluid contents 5 sedimentation rate 188
disturbances (and their exchange transfusion 165–7
correction) expiratory noises 17
in gastroenteritis 77–8 exposure, trauma 141
in malnutrition 83 eye movements/responses
in renal failure 96 (unconscious child) 28
requirements 5, 49–50 in coma scales 29
empyema, drainage 159
encephalopathy F–75 92
hepatic 93–5 feeding see nutritional
neonatal hypoxic support
ischaemic 64 femoral artery cannulation
endocarditis prophylaxis 160
71, 72 fentanyl 181
endocrine disorders 104–10 first aid
endotracheal intubation burns 145
(incl. orotracheal snakebite 127–8
11–12, 151–3 fish, venomous 132
dimensions 3, 11–12, 151 fluid management (incl.
trauma 139 rehydration) 20–1, 185
energy requirements 5 asystole 14
enterocolitis, necrotising 61 burns 147–8
INDEX 199
commonly available grunting 17

fluids 185 gunshot wound 144–5
dehydration 4
in gastroenteritis 76–7, haemoglobin concentrations
78–9 188
in severe malnutrition haemolytic disease, neonatal
80–3 54
diabetic ketoacidosis haemorrhage/blood loss
105–6 transfusion 184
meningitis 99 trauma case 140
pulseless electrical haemorrhagic disease,
activity 14 dengue 112
renal failure 95, 96 heart
shock 23–5 asystole 14
trauma 141 disease/disorders
see also water circulatory inadequacy
fluid requirements 4, due to 20
5, 49 congenital 57, 73–4
failure 70–4, 86–7
gastroenteritis 75–9 massage see chest
gastrointestinal disorders compression
75–92, 90–1, 136–8 output, establishing 12
helminths 90, 125 rate
neonatal 61 normal 7
Glasgow Coma Scale 29 in respiratory failure 18
glucose in shock 22
administration (incl. see also arrhythmias
dextrose) helminths 125–6
diabetic ketoacidosis intestinal 90, 125
107 hepatic failure,
hyperkalaemia 97 acute 93–5
hypoglycaemia 52, HIV–related disorders 117
53, 86, 109, 124 hydrocortisone, adrenal
meningitis 101 crisis 108, 109
neonates 52, 53 hyperkalaemia 96–7
blood 192 hypernatraemia 77–8
low see hypoglycaemia hyperthermia 134
great arteries, transposition hypoglycaemia 109
74 malaria 124
malnourished child 86 intestine 61, 136–8

neonatal 51–3 parasites 90, 125
hypokalaemia 109–10 intracranial pressure (ICP),
diabetic ketoacidosis 104 raised 27, 32–4
gastroenteritis 78 effects/presentation 21,
hyponatraemia 78 32–3
hypopituitarism 108 management 31,
hypothermia 33–4, 34
infants 134–5 intraosseous needle 166–7
malnourished child 85 intravenous access
hypoxic ischaemic see venous access
encephalopathy, intubation see endotracheal
neonatal 64 intubation
intussusception 136–7
immunisation, rabies iodide supplements 88
119–21 ipecac 40–1
immunoglobulin iron
rabies 120 deficiency 88–9
tetanus 114 poisoning 41–2
infants see also neonates
hypothermia 134–5 jaundice, neonatal 54–6
raised intracranial jellyfish stings 132
pressure relief 34 jugular vein cannulation
infections (incl. sepsis) external 159
59–61, 111–26 internal 161–2
malnourished child 84
meningeal 60–1, 98–102 kerosene ingestion 44
neonatal 54, 59–61 ketamine 179–80, 181
respiratory 67–8 ketoacidosis, diabetic 104–8
unconscious/comatose kidney failure, acute 95–7
child 26 kwashiorkor, dermatosis
screening for 30 of 90
see also septic shock
injury see trauma laboratory tests and values
inspiratory noises 17 188–93
insulin neonatal infections 59
diabetic ketoacidosis normal values 188
106–7 lactose intolerance 90
meningitis 97 laryngoscope 151, 152
INDEX 201
lead poisoning 45 missile wounds 144–5

lidocaine 178 morphine 6, 174–8, 181
life support (incl. ABC of motor function/response
resuscitation) 11–13 (unconscious child) 28
neonatal 9–10 in coma scales 29
drugs 10
see also specific conditions naloxone 174
listeriosis, headaches 98 nasogastric feeding 80
liver failure, acute 93–5 near drowning 132–4
local anaesthetics 178 necrotising enterocolitis 61
lorazepam 38 needle cricothyroidotomy
lumbar puncture, 154–5
60–1, 98, 99, 100 needle pericardiocentesis
lymphocyte count 188 167
needle thoracentesis 156–7
malaria 91, 121–5 neonates 47–64
cerebral 122 life support see life support
malnutrition 79–92 meningitis 60–1, 99
mannitol 6, 31, 33, 107, 108 neurological assessment see
measles 88, 88–9, 116–19 disability assessment
mebendazole 90, 126 neurological infections see
meningitis 60–1, 98–102 malaria; meningitis
meningococcal disease 112 nitroprusside 182
mental status nutritional disorders 79–92
in circulatory nutritional support
inadequacy 20 (feeding/diet)
in respiratory failure 18 malnutrition 80, 82, 91–2
see also disability meningitis 101
assessment; neonatal respiratory
unconscious child distress 58
metabolic disorders 104–10 renal failure 96
coma 26
neonatal seizures 62 ocular movements see eye
micronutrient deficiencies 88 movements
midazolam 179 oculocephalic reflex 28
severe illness/trauma 181 oculovestibular
status epilepticus 38 response 28
mid upper arm oedema, cerebral 107–8
circumference 173 opiate/opioids 174–8
overdose 39 potassium
organophosphorus administration 109–10
poisoning 44 in diabetic ketoacidosis
osmotic diarrhoea 91 106
oxygen, allergic/anaphylactic body fluid contents 5
reactions 36 in colloid/crystalloid
fluids 185
pain relief 174–6 requirements 5, 50
tetanus 115 see also hyperkalaemia;
paracetamol 175 hypokalaemia
poisoning 42, 95 pralidoxime 44
paraldehyde propofol 182
neonatal 63 prostacyclin 182
status epilepticus 38 prostaglandin E2 182
parasites see helminths; protein requirements 5
malaria pulmonary blood flow,
pericardiocentesis, low 74
needle 167 pulseless electrical
petroleum compounds, activity 14–15
ingestion 44 pulseless ventricular
phenobarbitone tachycardia 15
neonatal 63 pulse volume 19
status epilepticus 38 in shock 23
phenytoin pupillary reactions 21
neonatal 63 unconscious child 28
status epilepticus 38
phototherapy 55, 56 quinine 123
pituitary hypofunction 108
platelet counts 188 rabies 119–21
pleural empyema, recession (chest) 17
drainage 159 red cells see erythrocytes
pleural tap 158–9 renal failure, acute 95–7
pneumococcus ReSoMal 81, 82
(S. pneumoniae) 98, 99 respiration
poisoning (toxicology) raised ICP effects 21
39–45 trauma cases 140
paracetamol 42, 95 unconscious child 28–30
unconscious child 30 see also breathing
see also envenoming respiratory disorders 67–70
INDEX 203
neonatal 57–8 in respiratory failure 18

respiratory distress, neonatal, kwashiorkor 90
causes 57 snakebite 127–30
respiratory failure, sodium
physiological effects 18 body fluid contents 5
respiratory rate in colloid/crystalloid
abnormal 17 fluids 185
normal 7 fractional excretion 186
resuscitation see airway; requirements 5, 49
breathing; supplements 49
circulation; disability; see also hypernatraemia;
exposure; life support hyponatraemia
rewarming see warming sodium bicarbonate 6
rheumatic fever, acute 71 in diabetic ketoacidosis
106
Safe approach 11 in hyperkalaemia 97
salbutamol 6, 70, 182 in life support 13, 14, 15
salicylate poisoning 42–3 sodium valproate,
saphenous vein cannulation neonatal 63
163 spasms, tetanus 114
scorpion stings 130–1 spider bites 131–2
sedation 179 spinal cord injury 143
seizures/convulsions spine, cervical, trauma cases
hypoglycaemic child 86 138–9, 139
meningitis 101 status epilepticus 37–8
neonatal 62–3 steroids
repeated (status adrenal crisis 108, 109
epilepticus) 37–8 raised ICP 31, 33
septic shock 84 Streptococcus pneumoniae
severe dehydration v 83 (pneumococcus)
see also infections 98, 99
shock 22–5 subclavian vein cannulation
anaphylactic 35–6 162
malaria 124–5 supraventricular tachycardia,
septic see septic shock shock secondary to 25
skin surface area, body,
colour estimation 173
in circulatory systolic blood pressure see
inadequacy 19 blood pressure
tachycardia/tachyarrhythmia intraosseous 166–7

shock secondary to 25 in life support 13
ventricular see ventricular vecuronium 182
tachycardia venoms 127–32
tetanus 114–15 venous access 159, 161–5
thiopental 182 in life support 13
thiopentone 38 ventilation 12
thoracentesis, needle 156–7 see also breathing
toxicology see antitoxin; ventricular tachycardia
poisoning pulseless 15
tracheal intubation see shock secondary to 25
endotracheal intubation verbal response in coma
transposition of great scales 29
arteries 74 vital signs, normal values 7
trauma/injury 138–48 vitamin deficiency and
drug infusions 180–2 supplementation 88–9
triage 7–8 vomiting, induced 40–1
tricyclic antidepressant
poisoning 43 warming/rewarming 134–5
tuberculosis (TB) 91 near drowning 133–4
meningeal 98–9 water (fluid) requirements
turpentine ingestion 44 4, 5, 49
typhoid fever 115–16 see also fluid requirements
weight 3
umbilical vein catheterisation body surface area and 173
164–5 for length and height
unconscious child 26–34 171–2
hypoglycaemia 86 white cell count
see also disability blood 188
assessment; mental CSF 100
status worms see helminths
UNCRC standards xi
urinary output in circulatory xerophthalmia 88–9, 119
inadequacy 20, 23
zinc supplements 88
vaccine, rabies 119–20, 121
vascular access 159–65

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What is the purpose and intended use of this book?

What is the purpose and intended use of this book?

What topics are covered in the book?

What topics are covered in the book?

Pocket Emergency

Section 1: Life-threatening emergencies 1

Section 2: Neonatal emergencies 47

Section 3: Specific emergencies 65

Endocrine and metabolic 104

Section 4: Procedures and equipment 149

Section 5: Appendices 169

Finally, this book is meant to be used by paediatricians and

Airway and breathing (endotracheal

Circulation (dehydration treatment: deficit in

12 ml /kg/24 h if > 1 year

1. Replace insensible losses through sweat, respiration,

Normal fluid requirements

Fluid requirement Fluid requirement

First 10 kg 100 ml/kg 4 ml/kg

Examples: 6 kg infant would require 600 ml per day

Electrolyte contents of body fluids

Plasma 135–141 3·5–5·5 100–105 24–28

Normal water, electrolyte, energy and protein requirements

Body Water Sodium Potassium Energy Protein

First 10 kg 100 2–4 1·5–2·5 110 3·00

Essential drug doses

Mannitol: 250–500 mg/kg IV over 20 minutes

Normal values for paediatric vital signs in patients

Age Heart rate Systolic blood pressure Respiratory rate

< 1 year 120–140 70–90 30–40

Emergency signs, assessment and treatment

1. Assess • Obstructed ANY SIGN • Manage airway

femoral venous, long

Ifnot breathing CONTROL AIRWAY

If chest expands: check heart rate.

If HR < 60 and not increasing give chest compressions

Reassess: if no response consider venous access and drugs.

Drugs: IV, UVC

Only epinephrine: 100 micrograms/kg, can be given via

Check responsiveness – “Are you all right?”

First priority – establish airway and ventilation

ET tube size in full-term newborn infant: 3–3·5 mm

ET tube size in child ± 0·5 = (age/4) + 4 mm.

After intubation check that lung inflation is occurring and that

Second priority – establish cardiac output

Compress by one-third of AP diameter of chest. Effective

Usual reason for ineffective massage is insufficient

Third priority – attach to ECG monitor, if available

Fourth priority – establish intravenous access

Protocol for cardiac asystole

Continuous and effective life support

Ventilate 100 % oxygen

Epinephrine: 10 micrograms/kg (0·01 ml/kg of 1 in 1000 or

Give 3 minutes of cardiopulmonary resuscitation cycles

Consider IV fluid bolus (20 ml/kg of 0·9% saline) and sodium

Repeat epinephrine 10–100 micrograms/kg (0·1 ml/kg of 1 in 10000 or 1000) IV or IO

Repeat cycle of last two lines in box

Protocol for pulseless electrical activity (PEA)

Continuous and effective life support

Ventilate 100% oxygen