Measurement of Humidity

CHAPTER 4
measurement of humidity
4.1 General More accurate and detailed formulations of these

and other quantities may be found in Sonntag
The measurement of atmospheric humidity, and (1990; 1994). Other detailed formulations are
often its continuous recording, is an important presented in WMO (1966, introductions to tables
requirement in most areas of meteorological activ- 4.8–10) and WMO (1988, Appendix A).
ity. This chapter deals with the measurement of
humidity at or near the Earth’s surface. There are
4.1.2 Units and scales
many different methods in use, and there is exten-
sive literature on the subject. An old but still useful The following units and symbols are normally used
wide-ranging account of the techniques is given in for expressing the most commonly used quantities
Wexler (1965). associated with water vapour in the atmosphere:
(a) Mixing ratio r and specific humidity q
(in kg kg–1);
4.1.1 Definitions
(b) Vapour pressure in air e’, e’w , e’i and pressure
The definitions of the terms used in this chapter p (in hPa);
follow those given in the WMO Technical Regulations (c) Temperature T, wet-bulb temperature Tw,
(WMO 1988, Appendix B), the text of which is dewpoint temperature Td, and frost-point
reproduced in Annex 4.A. temperature Tf (in K);
(d) Temperature t, wet-bulb temperature t w,
The simple definitions of the most frequently used dewpoint temperature td, and frost-point
quantities in humidity measurements are as temperature t f (in °C);
follows: (e) Relative humidity U (in per cent).
Mixing ratio r: The ratio between the mass of
water vapour and the mass of dry air;
4.1.3 Meteorological requirements
Specific humidity q: The ratio between the mass
of water vapour and the mass of moist air; Humidity measurements at the Earth’s surface are
Dewpoint temperature Td : The temperature at required for meteorological analysis and forecast-
which moist air saturated with respect to water at a ing, for climate studies, and for many special
given pressure has a saturation mixing ratio equal applications in hydrology, agriculture, aeronautical
to the given mixing ratio; services and environmental studies, in general.
Relative humidity U: The ratio in per cent of the They are particularly important because of their
observed vapour pressure to the saturation vapour relevance to the changes of state of water in the
pressure with respect to water at the same tempera- atmosphere.
ture and pressure;
Vapour pressure e’: The partial pressure of water General requirements for the range, resolution and
vapour in air; accuracy of humidity measurements are given in
Saturation vapour pressures e’w and e’i : Vapour pres- Part I, Chapter 1, and in Table 4.1 below. The achiev-
sures in air in equilibrium with the surface of water able accuracies listed in the table refer to good
and ice, respectively. quality instruments that are well operated and
maintained. In practice, these are not easy to
Annex 4.B provides the formulae for the computa- achieve. In particular, the psychrometer in a ther-
tion of various measures of humidity. These versions mometer shelter without forced ventilation, still in
of the formulae and coefficients were adopted by widespread use, may have significantly lower
WMO in 1990. They are convenient for computa- performance.
tion and sufficiently accurate for all normal
meteorological applications (WMO, 1989a).
Adopted by the Fourth Congress through Resolution 19
(Cg-IV).
The corrigendum to WMO (1988), issued in 2000, contains

Adopted by the Executive Council at its forty-second session a typing error; the correct formulation is given in WMO
of through Resolution 6 (EC-XLII). (1966).
I.4–2 Part I. Measurement of meteorological VARIABLES
Table 4.1. Summary of performance (a) Protection from direct solar radiation,
requirements for surface humidity atmospheric contaminants, rain and wind;
(b) Avoidance of the creation of a local microcli-
Wet-bulb Relative Dewpoint mate within the sensor housing structure or
Requirement
temperature humidity temperature
sampling device. Note that wood and many
At least 50 K in
synthetic materials will adsorb or desorb
Range –10 to 35°C 5 to 100% the range –60
to 35°C
water vapour according to the atmospheric
humidity.
1% high
Target accuracya 0.1 K high RH 0.1 K high RH
RH
(uncertainty) 0.2 K mid RH
5% mid RH
0.5 K mid RH Exposures appropriate to particular instruments are
Achievable observing
described in sections 4.2 to 4.7.
uncertaintyb 0.2 K 3 to 5%c 0.5 Kc
Reporting code 4.1.4.3 Sources of error: general comments
resolution 0.1 K 1% 0.1 K
Sensor time-
Errors in the measurement of humidity may be
constantd 20 s 40 s 20 s caused by the following:
Output averaging
(a) Modification of the air sample, for example,
timee 60 s 60 s 60 s by heat or water-vapour source or sink;
(b) Contamination of the sensor, for example, by
a Accuracy is the given uncertainty stated as two standard dirt, sea spray;
deviations. (c) Calibration error, including pressure correc-
b At mid-range relative humidity for well-designed and well- tion, temperature coefficient of sensor, and
operated instruments; difficult to achieve in practice. electrical interface;
c If measured directly. (d) Inappropriate treatment of water/ice phase;
d For climatological use, a time-constant of 60 s is required (for (e) Poor instrument design, for example, stem heat
63 per cent of a step change). conduction in the wet-bulb thermometer;
e For climatological use, an averaging time of 3 min is required. (f) Incorrect operation, for example, failure to
achieve stable equilibrium;
For most purposes, time-constants of the order of (g) Inappropriate sampling and/or averaging
1 min are appropriate for humidity measurements. intervals.
The response times readily available with opera-
tional instruments are discussed in section 4.1.4.9. The time-constant of the sensor, the time-averaging
of the output and the data requirement should be
consistent.
4.1.4 Measurement methods
A general review of the state of the art in the field of The different types of humidity sensors vary in their
hygrometry is given by Sonntag (1994). susceptibility to, and the significance of, each of
the above; further discussion will be found in the
appropriate sections of this chapter.
4.1.4.1 Hygrometers
Any instrument for measuring humidity is known

4.1.4.4 Gravimetric hygrometry
as a hygrometer. The physical principles most
widely employed for hygrometry are given in This method uses the absorption of water vapour
sections 4.1.4.4 to 4.1.4.8. More information on by a desiccant from a known volume of air (gravi-
the different methods is found in Wexler (1965). metric hygrometer; used for primary standards
The report of a WMO international comparison only). Some details are given in section 4.9.
of various hygrometers is given in WMO
(1989b). The gravimetric method yields an absolute meas-
ure of the water-vapour content of an air sample
in terms of its humidity mixing ratio. This is
4.1.4.2 Exposure: general comments
obtained by first removing the water vapour from
The general requirements for the exposure of the sample. The mass of the water vapour is deter-
humidity sensors are similar to those for tempera- mined by weighing the drying agent before and
ture sensors, and a suitably positioned thermometer after absorbing the vapour. The mass of the dry
screen may be used for that purpose. Particular sample is determined either by weighing or by
requirements include: measuring its volume.
chapter 4. MEASUREMENT OF HUMIDITY I.4–3
The method is restricted to providing an absolute surface of pure water) may be determined by using
calibration reference standard, and such apparatus empirical data relating vapour pressure to tempera-
is found mostly in national calibration standards ture for pure water and for salt solutions. The most
laboratories. frequently used salt solution for this type of sensor is
lithium chloride.
4.1.4.5 Condensation methods
This method is used for observational purposes,
especially for automatic weather stations (see
4.1.4.5.1 Chilled-mirror method (dewpoint or
section 4.5).
frost-point hygrometer)
When moist air at temperature T, pressure p and

4.1.4.6 The psychrometric method
mixing ratio rw (or ri ) is cooled, it eventually reaches
its saturation point with respect to water (or to ice at A psychrometer consists essentially of two ther-
lower temperatures) and a deposit of dew (or frost) mometers exposed side by side, with the surface of
can be detected on a solid non-hygroscopic surface. the sensing element of one being covered by a thin
The temperature of this saturation point is the film of water or ice and termed the wet or ice bulb,
dewpoint temperature Td (or the frost-point Tf ). as appropriate. The sensing element of the second
thermometer is simply exposed to the air and is
The chilled-mirror hygrometer are used to measure termed the dry bulb. This is the most widely used
Td or Tf . The most widely used systems employ a method and is described in detail in section 4.2.
small polished-metal reflecting surface, cooled elec-
trically by using a Peltier-effect device, and sense Owing to evaporation of water from the wet bulb,
condensation with an optical detector. the temperature measured by the wet-bulb ther-
mometer is generally lower than that measured by
Instruments using condensation method are used the dry bulb. The difference in the temperatures
for observational purposes and might also be used measured by the pair of thermometers is a measure
as working standards and/or reference standards of the humidity of the air; the lower the ambient
(see section 4.4). humidity, the greater the rate of evaporation and,
consequently, the greater the depression of the wet-
bulb temperature below the dry-bulb temperature.
4.1.4.5.2 Heated salt-solution method (vapour
The size of the wet-bulb depression is related to the
equilibrium hygrometer, known as the
ambient humidity by a psychrometer formula.
dew cell)
The equilibrium vapour pressure at the surface of a This method is in widespread use for observational
saturated salt solution is less than that for a similar purposes. Instruments using the psychrometric
surface of pure water at the same temperature. This method are also commonly used as working
effect is exhibited by all salt solutions but particu- standards.
larly by lithium chloride, which has an exceptionally
low equilibrium vapour pressure.
4.1.4.7 Sorption methods
An aqueous salt solution (whose equilibrium vapour Certain materials interact with water vapour and
pressure is below the ambient vapour pressure) may undergo a change in a chemical or physical property
be heated until a temperature is reached at which its that is sufficiently reversible for use as a sensor of
equilibrium vapour pressure exceeds the ambient ambient humidity. Water vapour may be adsorbed
vapour pressure. At this point, the balance will shift or absorbed by the material, adsorption being the
from condensation to evaporation and eventually taking up of one substance at the surface of another
there will be a phase transition from the liquid solu- and absorption being the penetration of a substance
tion to a solid hydrate (crystalline) form. The into the body of another. A hygroscopic substance is
transition point may be detected through a charac- one that characteristically absorbs water vapour from
teristic decrease in the electrical conductivity of the the surrounding atmosphere, by virtue of having a
solution as it crystallizes. The temperature of the saturation vapour pressure that is lower than that of
solution at which the ambient vapour pressure is the surrounding atmosphere. For absorption to take
reached provides a measure of the ambient vapour place, a necessary condition requires that the ambient
pressure. For this purpose, a thermometer is placed vapour pressure of the atmosphere exceeds the
in good thermal contact with the solution. The saturation vapour pressure of the substance. The
ambient dewpoint (namely, with respect to a plane following are two properties of sorption:
(a) Changes in the dimensions of hygroscopic mate- specific to water-vapour absorption, along the path
rials: Certain materials vary dimensionally with between a source of the radiation and a receiving
humidity. Natural fibres tend to exhibit the great- device. There are two principal methods for
est proportional change and, when coupled to a determining the degree of attenuation of the
mechanical lever system, can be incorporated radiation, namely:
into an analogue linear displacement trans- (a) The transmission of narrow band radiation at
ducer. Such a transducer may be designed to a fixed intensity to a calibrated receiver;
move a pointer over a scale to provide a visual (b) The transmission of radiation at two wave-
display, or be an electromechanical device lengths, one of which is strongly absorbed
which provides an electrical output. by water vapour and the other is either not
Human hair is the most widely used material for absorbed or only very weakly absorbed.
this type of humidity sensor. Synthetic fibres
may be used in place of human hair. Because of Both types of instruments require frequent calibra-
the very long lag time for synthetic fibres, such tion and are more suitable for measuring changes
sensors should never be used below 10°C. The in vapour concentration rather than absolute levels.
hair hygrometer is described in section 4.3. Their use remains restricted to research activities; a
Goldbeater’s skin (an organic membrane brief account of these instruments is given in
obtained from the gut of domestic animals) section 4.7.
has properties similar to those of human hair
and has been used for humidity measure-
4.1.4.9 Time-constants of humidity sensors
ments, though most commonly in devices for
taking upper-air measurement. The specification of the time-constant for a humid-
(b) Changes in electrical properties of hygroscopic ity sensor implies that the response of the sensor to
materials: Certain hygroscopic materials a step change in humidity is consistent with a known
exhibit changes in their electrical proper- function. In general usage, the term refers to the
ties in response to a change in the ambient time taken for the sensor to indicate 63.2 per cent
relative humidity with only a small tempera- (1/e) of a step change in the measurand (in this case
ture dependence. Commonly used methods humidity), and assumes that the sensor has a first-
making use of these properties are described order response to changes in the measurand (namely,
in section 4.6. the rate of change of the measurement is propor-
Electrical relative humidity sensors are increas- tional to the difference between the measurement
ingly used for remote-reading applications, and the measurand). It is then possible to predict
particularly where a direct display of relative that 99.3 per cent of the change will take place after
humidity is required. a period of five time-constants in duration.
Properties commonly exploited in the measure-
ment of relative humidity include sensors made Table 4.2 gives 1/e time-constant values typical for
from chemically treated plastic material having various types of humidity sensor.
an electrically conductive surface layer (electri-
cal resistance) and sensors based upon the
4.1.4.10 Maintenance: general comments
variation of the dielectric properties of a solid,
hygroscopic material in relation to the ambient The following maintenance procedures should be
relative humidity (electrical capacitance). considered:
(a) Cleanliness: Sensors and housings should
be kept clean. Some sensors, for example,
4.1.4.8 Absorption of electromagnetic
chilled-mirror and hair hygrometers, may
radiation by water vapour
be cleaned with distilled water and this
(ultraviolet and infrared absorption
should be carried out regularly. Others,
hygrometers)
notably those having some form of elec-
The water molecule absorbs electromagnetic trolyte coating, but also some with a poly-
radiation in a range of wavebands and discrete meric substrate, may on no account be
wavelengths; this property can be exploited to treated in this way. The provision of clear
obtain a measure of the molecular concentration of instructions for observers and maintenance
water vapour in a gas. The most useful regions of staff is vital;
the electromagnetic spectrum for this purpose lie in (b) Checking and calibration of field instru-
the ultraviolet and infrared regions, and the ments: Regular calibration is required
principle of the method is to determine the for all humidity sensors in the field. For
attenuation of radiation in a waveband that is chilled-mirror psychrometers and heated
Table 4.2. Time-constants for humidity sensors for sensor and interface which are individually
within specification may be outside the specifica-
85 per cent relative humidity 1/e time-constant (s) tion for the ensemble.
Sensor type 20°C 0°C –20°C Detailed maintenance requirements specific to each
Ordinary human hair 32 75 440 class of hygrometer described in this chapter are
included in the appropriate section.
Rolled hair 10 10 12
Goldbeater’s skin 10 16 140 4.1.4.11 Protective filters
Electrical capacitance 1–10 1–10 1–10 A protective filter is commonly used to protect a
humidity sensor from contaminants that may
Electrical resistance 1–10 — — adversely affect its performance. Where a sensor
Assmann psychrometer is not artificially aspirated, the use of a filter
tends to slow the response rate of the sensor by
Condensation hygrometers 30–50 30–50 30–50 preventing the bulk movement of air and by
Electrolytic hygrometers relying upon molecular diffusion through the
Optical hygrometer < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 filter material. Although the diffusion of water
vapour through some materials, such as some
cellulose products, is theoretically more rapid
Note: The first-order relation does not hold particularly well than for still air, porous hydrophobic membranes
for sorption sensors since the forcing agent for vapour equilibrium, achieve better diffusion rates in practice. The
the local gradient of vapour pressure, is dependent upon the local pore size should be sufficiently small to trap
migration of water vapour molecules within the body of a solid harmful aerosol particles (in a maritime environ-
humidity element. In general, a first-order response will be most ment sea-salt particles may be present in
closely exhibited by those sensors having a thin active element. significant quantity down to a diameter of
0.1 µm) and the porosity should be sufficient to
“dewpoint” hygrometers, which use a allow an adequate diffusion rate.
temperature detector, the calibration of
the detector can be checked whenever the The size of the filter, as well as its porosity, affects
regular maintenance routine is performed. the overall diffusion rate. Diffusion will be
A comparison with a working reference enhanced by aspiration, but it must be remem-
hygrometer, such as an Assmann psychrom- bered that this technique relies upon maintaining
eter, should also be performed at least once low air pressure on the sensing side of the filter,
a month. and that this can have a significant effect on the
measurement.
Saturated salt solutions have applications with
sensors that require only a small sample volume. A Non-aspirated sensors should, in general, be
very stable ambient temperature is required and it protected using a hydrophobic, inert material.
is difficult to be confident about their use in the High-porosity polymer membranes made from an
field. expanded form of polytetrafluoroethylene have
been used successfully for this purpose in a variety
The use of a standard type of aspirated psychrome- of situations and are fairly robust.
ter, such as the Assmann, as a field reference has the
advantage that its own integrity can be verified by Sintered metal filters may be used, but they should
comparing the dry- and wet-bulb thermometers, be heated to avoid problems with condensation
and that adequate aspiration may be expected from within the material. This is not normally appropri-
a healthy sounding fan. The reference instrument ate for a relative humidity sensor, but is quite
should itself be calibrated at intervals that are acceptable for a dewpoint sensor. Sintered metal
appropriate to its type. filters are robust and well suited for aspirated appli-
cations, which allow the use of a filter having a
It is important to check the calibration of electrical large surface area and, consequently, an acceptably
interfaces regularly and throughout their opera- small pressure differential.
tional range. A simulator may be used in place of
the sensor for this purpose. However, it will still be Where diffusion is not enhanced by artificial aspira-
necessary to calibrate the ensemble at selected tion, the relation of the surface area of the filter to
points, since the combination of calibration errors the volume of the air being sampled by the sensor
must be considered. In the case of a typical sorption (termed the ventilation rate), and the air tempera-
sensor composed of a flat substrate, a flat membrane ture and its humidity. At low rates of ventilation,
positioned close to the sensor surface will provide A depends markedly upon the ventilation rate.
the optimum configuration. In the case of a cylin- However, at ventilation rates of 3 to 5 m s–1 (for
drical sensing surface, a cylindrical filter is thermometers of conventional dimensions) or
appropriate. higher, the value of A becomes substantially inde-
pendent of the ventilation rate and is practically
the same for well-designed psychrometers. The
4.2 The psychrometer value of A does not, then, depend very much on
temperature or humidity and its dependence on
these variables is usually considered unimpor-
4.2.1 General considerations
tant. A is smaller when the wet bulb is coated
with ice than when it is covered with water.
4.2.1.1 Psychrometric formulae and tables
The following paragraphs summarize the existing The formulae and coefficients appropriate for the
practice in drawing up psychrometric tables. various forms of psychrometer are discussed in
the following sections.
The usual practice is to derive the vapour pressure e’
under the conditions of observation from the
4.2.1.2 The specification of a psychrometer
following semi-empirical psychrometric formulae:
The equipment used for psychrometric observa-
e’ = e’w (p,Tw) – Ap (T – Tw) (4.1) tions should, as far as practicable, conform with
the following recommendations (see sections
and: 4.2.3 and 4.2.6):
(a) At sea level, and in the case where the ther-
e’ = e’i (p,Ti) – Ap (T – Ti) (4.2) mometers are of the types ordinarily used
at meteorological stations, air should be
where e’w is the saturation vapour pressure with drawn past the thermometer bulbs at a rate
respect to water at temperature Tw and pressure p of of no less than 2.2 m s–1 and no greater than
the wet bulb; e’i is the saturation vapour pressure 10 m s–1. For appreciably different altitudes,
with respect to ice at temperature Ti and pressure p these air speed limits should be adjusted
of the ice bulb; p is the pressure of the air; T the in inverse proportion to the density of the
temperature of the dry bulb; and A is the psychrom- atmosphere;
eter coefficient. (The latter is preferred to the term (b) The wet and dry bulbs must be protected
“psychrometer constant”, which is a misnomer.) from radiation, preferably by a minimum
of two shields. In a psychrometer with
The wet-bulb thermometer temperature Tw for forced ventilation, such as the Assmann, the
most instruments is not identical to the thermo- shields may be of polished, unpainted metal,
dynamic wet-bulb temperature, defined in Annex separated from the rest of the apparatus by
4.A, which depends only upon p, T and r (the insulating material. Thermally insulating
humidity mixing ratio). The temperature meas- material is preferable in principle and must
ured by a practical wet-bulb thermometer depends be used in psychrometers which rely on
also upon a number of variables that are influ- natural ventilation;
enced by the dynamics of heat transfer across a (c) If the psychrometer is exposed in a louvred
liquid/gas interface (in which the gas must be screen with forced ventilation, separate
characterized in terms of its component laminar ventilation ducts should be provided for the
and turbulent layers). The description of a satis- two thermometers. The entrance to the ducts
factory thermodynamic model is beyond the should be located so as to yield a measurement
scope of this publication. The inequality of the of the true ambient temperature, and the air
thermodynamic and measured wet-bulb tempera- should be exhausted above the screen in such
tures is resolved in practice through the empirical a way as to prevent recirculation;
determination of the psychrometer coefficient A (d) The greatest care should be taken to
(see section 4.2.6). prevent the transfer of significant amounts
of heat from an aspirating motor to the
In general, the coefficient A depends upon the thermometers;
design of the psychrometer (in particular the wet- (e) The water reservoir and wick should be
bulb system), the rate of air-flow past the wet bulb arranged in such a way that the water will
reach the bulb with sensibly the wet-bulb be taken to form only a thin layer of ice on the
temperature, so as not to affect the tempera- sleeve. It is an absolute necessity that the thermom-
ture of the dry bulb. eters be artificially ventilated; if they are not, the
management of the wet bulb will be extremely
difficult.
4.2.1.3 The wet-bulb sleeve
The wet bulb usually has a cotton wick, or similar The water should, as far as possible, have a tempera-
fabric, fitting closely around the sensing element in ture close to freezing point. If a button of ice forms
order to maintain an even covering of water, which at the lowest part of the bulb, it should be immersed
is either applied directly or by some form of capillary in water long enough to melt the ice.
feed from a reservoir. The wick commonly takes the
form of a sleeve that has a good fit around the bulb The time required for the wet bulb to reach a
and extends at least 2 cm up the stem of the steady reading after the sleeve is wetted depends
thermometer. on the ventilation rate and the actual wet-bulb
temperature. An unventilated thermometer usually
The fabric used to cover the wet bulb should be thin requires from 15 to 45 min, while an aspirated
but closely woven. Before installation, it should be thermometer will require a much shorter period. It
washed thoroughly in an aqueous solution of is essential that the formation of a new ice film on
sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), at a dilution of 5 g the bulb be made at an appropriate time. If hourly
per litre, and rinsed several times in distilled water. observations are being made with a simple
Alternatively, a solution of pure detergent in water psychrometer, it will usually be preferable to form
may be used. If a wick is to be employed, it should a new coating of ice just after each observation. If
be similarly treated. the observations are made at longer intervals, the
observer should visit the screen sufficiently in
Any visible contamination of the wick or the wet- advance of each observation to form a new ice film
bulb sleeve should be considered an absolute on the bulb. The wet bulb of the aspirated and
indication of the necessity for its replacement. Great sling psychrometers should be moistened immedi-
care should be exercised in handling the sleeve and ately before use.
wick to prevent contamination from hands. Distilled
water should be used for the wet bulb. The evaporation of an ice film may be prevented or
slowed by enclosing the wet bulb in a small glass
The proper management of the wet bulb is particu- tube, or by stopping the ventilation inlet of the wet
larly important. Observers should be encouraged to bulb between intervals. (Note that the latter course
change the wet-bulb sleeve and wick regularly. These should not be taken if the circumstances are such
should be replaced at least once a week for all that the ventilating fan would overheat.)
psychrometers that are continuously exposed. At
places near the sea and in dusty or industrialized The effect of supercooled water on the wet bulb
districts it may be necessary to replace these items may be dealt with in two ways:
more frequently. The water supply should be checked (a) By using different tables when the wet bulb
frequently and replaced or replenished as required. is coated with ice and with supercooled
water, respectively. To find out which table
Under hot, dry conditions, it can be an advantage should be used, the wet bulb should be
to wet the covering with water from a porous touched with a snow crystal, a pencil or
vessel. This will cause the water to be pre-cooled other object, just after each observation is
by evaporation from the porous surface. The vessel completed. If the temperature rises towards
should be kept in the shade, but not in the imme- 0°C, and then commences to fall again, it
diate vicinity of the psychrometer. can be assumed that the water on the wet
bulb was supercooled at the time of the
observation;
4.2.1.4 Operation of the wet bulb below
(b) By using a table appropriate for an ice-
freezing
covered wet bulb and inducing the freezing
The psychrometer is difficult to operate at tempera- of supercooled water in the same way as for
tures below freezing, but it is used in climates where method (a). In order to save time and to
such temperatures occur. A wick cannot be used to ensure that the wet bulb is ice-covered, the
convey water from a reservoir to the wet-bulb sleeve observer should make a point of initiating
by capillary action when the wet-bulb temperature the freezing of the water at each observa-
is below 0°C. Under these conditions, care should tion as soon as possible after moistening the
bulb. From the behaviour of the wetted ther- 4.2.1.7 Sources of error in psychrometry
mometer at the freezing point it may usually
be determined whether the bulb is covered by The following main sources of error must be
ice or by supercooled water. The recommended considered:
procedure, however, is to initiate the freezing (a) Index errors of the thermometers: It is very
of the water at each observation when the important in psychrometric measurements that
wet-bulb temperature is assumed to be below the index errors of the thermometers be known
0°C, regardless of whether the behaviour of over the actual temperature range and that
the thermometer after moistening has been corrections for these errors be applied to the
observed or not. readings before the humidity tables are used.
Any other errors in the wet-bulb or ice-bulb
Although the first method is usually the quickest, it temperature caused by other influences will
requires two tables and this may cause some appear in the same way as index errors.
confusion. Table 4.3 shows the error in relative
humidity (U), derived from wet- and ice-
bulb measurements having errors (tx),
4.2.1.5 General procedure for making
where x is water for t > 0°C and ice for
observations
t < 0°C, respectively of 0.5 and 0.1 K, for
The procedures outlined in Part 1, Chapter 2, for a relative humidity U of 50 per cent and a
the measurement of temperature should be range of true air temperatures (where the
followed, in addition to the following procedures: dry-bulb reading is assumed to give the true
(a) If the wet-bulb sleeve, wick or water has to air temperature).
be changed, this should be done sufficiently
in advance of the observation. The period Table 4.3. Error in derived relative humidity
required for the correct wet-bulb temperature resulting from wet- and ice-bulb index errorsε
to be attained will depend upon the type of (tx) for U = 50 per cent
psychrometer;
(b) The thermometers should be read to the near- Error in relative humidity, ε (U) in
Air temperature
est tenth of a degree; per cent due to an error in wet- or
in °C
(c) When making an observation, the readings of ice-bulb temperature
the two thermometers should, as far as possi- (tx) = 0.5 K (tx) = 0.1 K
ble, be taken simultaneously, and it should
be ascertained that the wet bulb is receiving a –30 60 12
sufficient water supply.
–20 27 5
4.2.1.6 Use of electrical resistance –10 14 3

thermometers
0 8 2
Precision platinum electrical resistance thermom-
eters are widely used in place of mercury-in-glass 10 5 1
thermometers, in particular where remote read-
ing and continuous measurements are required. 20 4 0.5
It is necessary to ensure that the devices, and the
interfacing electrical circuits selected, meet the 30 3 0.5
performance requirements. These are detailed in
Part I, Chapter 2. Particular care should always be 40 2 0.5
taken with regard to self-heating effects in electri-
cal thermometers. 50 2 0
The psychrometric formulae in Annex 4.B used

for Assmann aspiration psychrometers are also (b) Thermometer lag coefficients: To obtain the
valid if platinum resistance thermometers are highest accuracy with a psychrometer it is
used in place of the mercury-in-glass instruments, desirable to arrange for the wet and dry bulbs
with different configurations of elements and to have approximately the same lag coef-
thermometers. The formula for water on the wet ficient; with thermometers having the same
bulb is also valid for some transversely ventilated bulb size, the wet bulb has an appreciably
psychrometers (WMO, 1989a). smaller lag than the dry bulb.
(c) Errors relating to ventilation: Errors due to psychrometer in the field may be as good as the
insufficient ventilation become much more achievable accuracy stated in Table 4.1, and with
serious through the use of inappropriate great care it can be significantly improved.
humidity tables (see sections covering indi-
vidual psychrometer types). Annex 4.B lists standard formulae for the computa-
(d) Errors due to excessive covering of ice on tion of measures of humidity using an Assmann
the wet bulb: Since a thick coating of ice will psychrometer, which are the bases of some of the
increase the lag of the thermometer, it should other artificially ventilated psychrometers, in the
be removed immediately by dipping the bulb absence of well-established alternatives.
into distilled water.
(e) Errors due to contamination of the wet-bulb
4.2.2.2 Observation procedure
sleeve or to impure water: Large errors may be
caused by the presence of substances that alter The wick, which must be free of grease, is moistened
the vapour pressure of water. The wet bulb with distilled water. Dirty or crusty wicks should be
with its covering sleeve should be washed at replaced. Care should be taken not to introduce a
regular intervals in distilled water to remove water bridge between the wick and the radiation
soluble impurities. This procedure is more shield.
frequently necessary in some regions than
others, for example, at or near the sea or in The mercury columns of the thermometers should
areas subject to air pollution. be inspected for breaks, which should be closed up
(f) Errors due to heat conduction from the ther- or the thermometer should be replaced.
mometer stem to the wet-bulb system: The
conduction of heat from the thermometer The instrument is normally operated with the ther-
stem to the wet bulb will reduce the wet-bulb mometers held vertically. The thermometer stems
depression and lead to determinations of should be protected from solar radiation by turning
humidity that are too high. The effect is most the instrument so that the lateral shields are in line
pronounced at low relative humidity but can with the sun. The instrument should be tilted so
be effectively eliminated by extending the that the inlet ducts open into the wind, but care
wet-bulb sleeve at least 2 cm beyond the bulb should be taken so that solar radiation does not fall
up the stem of the thermometer. on the thermometer bulbs. A wind screen is neces-
sary in very windy conditions when the rotation of
the aspirator is otherwise affected.
4.2.2 The Assmann aspirated
psychrometer
The psychrometer should be in thermal equilibrium
with the surrounding air. At air temperatures above
4.2.2.1 Description
0°C, at least three measurements at 1 min intervals
Two mercury-in-glass thermometers, mounted should be taken following an aspiration period.
vertically side by side in a chromium- or nickel- Below 0°C it is necessary to wait until the freezing
plated polished metal frame, are connected by ducts process has finished, and to observe whether there is
to an aspirator. The aspirator may be driven by a water or ice on the wick. During the freezing and
spring or an electric motor. One thermometer bulb thawing processes the wet-bulb temperature remains
has a well-fitted muslin wick which, before use, is constant at 0°C. In the case of outdoor measure-
moistened with distilled water. Each thermometer ments, several measurements should be taken and
is located inside a pair of coaxial metal tubes, highly the average taken. Thermometer readings should be
polished inside and out, which screen the bulbs made with a resolution of 0.1 K or better.
from external thermal radiation. The tubes are all
thermally insulated from each other. A summary of the observation procedure is as
follows:
A WMO international intercomparison of Assmann- (a) Moisten the wet bulb;
type psychrometers from 10 countries (WMO, 1989a) (b) Wind the clockwork motor (or start the elec-
showed that there is good agreement between dry- tric motor);
and wet-bulb temperatures of psychrometers with (c) Wait 2 or 3 min or until the wet-bulb reading
the dimensional specifications close to the original has become steady;
specification, and with aspiration rates above (d) Read the dry bulb;
2.2 m s–1. Not all commercially available instruments
fully comply. A more detailed discussion is found in
Recommended by the Commission for Instruments and
WMO (1989a). The performance of the Assmann Methods of Observation at its tenth session (1989).
(e) Read the wet bulb; with sensibly the wet-bulb temperature and in
(f) Check the reading of the dry bulb. sufficient (but not excessive) quantity. If no wick
is used, the wet bulb should be protected from
dirt by enclosing the bulb in a small glass tube
4.2.2.3 Exposure and siting
between readings.
Observations should be made in an open area with
the instrument either suspended from a clamp or It is recommended that screen psychrometers be
attached using a bracket to a thin post, or held with artificially aspirated. Both thermometers should
one hand at arm’s length with the inlets slightly be aspirated at an air speed of about 3 m s–1. Both
inclined into the wind. The inlets should be at a spring-wound and electrically driven aspirators
height of 1.2 to 2 m above ground for normal meas- are in common use. The air should be drawn in
urements of air temperature and humidity. horizontally across the bulbs, rather than verti-
cally, and exhausted in such a way as to avoid
Great care should be taken to prevent the presence recirculation.
of the observer or any other nearby sources of heat
and water vapour, such as the exhaust pipe of a The performance of the screen psychrometer may
motor vehicle, from having an influence on the be much worse than that shown in Table 4.1, espe-
readings. cially in light winds if the screen is not artificially
ventilated.
4.2.2.4 Calibration
The psychrometric formulae given in section
The ventilation system should be checked regularly, 4.2.1.1 apply to screen psychrometers, but the
at least once per month. coefficients are quite uncertain. A summary of
some of the formulae in use is given by Bindon
The calibration of the thermometers should also be (1965). If there is artificial ventilation at 3 m s–1
checked regularly. The two may be compared or more across the wet bulb, the values given in
together, with both thermometers measuring the Annex 4.B may be applied, with a psychrometer
dry-bulb temperature. Comparison with a certified coefficient of 6.53 · 10–4 K–1 for water. However,
reference thermometer should be performed at least values from 6.50 to 6.78 · 10–4 are in use for wet
once a year. bulbs above 0°C, and 5.70 to 6.53 · 10–4 for below
0°C. For a naturally ventilated screen psychrome-
ter, coefficients in use range from 7.7 to 8.0 · 10–4
4.2.2.5 Maintenance
above freezing and 6.8 to 7.2. 10–4 for below freez-
Between readings, the instrument should be stored ing when there is some air movement in the
in an unheated room or be otherwise protected screen, which is probably nearly always the case.
from precipitation and strong insolation. When However, coefficients up to 12 · 10–4 for water and
not in use, the instrument should be stored indoors 10.6 · 10–4 for ice have been advocated for when
in a sturdy packing case such as that supplied by there is no air movement.
the manufacturer.
The psychrometer coefficient appropriate for a
particular configuration of screen, shape of wet
4.2.3 Screen psychrometer
bulb and degree of ventilation may be determined
by comparison with a suitable working or refer-
4.2.3.1 Description
ence standard, but there will be a wide scatter in
Two mercury-in-glass thermometers are mounted the data, and a very large experiment would be
vertically in a thermometer screen. The diameter necessary to obtain a stable result. Even when a
of the sensing bulbs should be about 10 mm. One coefficient has been obtained by such an experi-
of the bulbs is fitted with a wet-bulb sleeve, which ment, the confidence limits for any single
should fit closely to the bulb and extend at least observation will be wide, and there would be little
20 mm up the stem beyond it. If a wick and water justification for departing from established
reservoir are used to keep the wet-bulb sleeve in a national practices.
moist condition, the reservoir should preferably
be placed to the side of the thermometer and with
4.2.3.2 Special observation procedures
the mouth at the same level as, or slightly lower
than, the top of the thermometer bulb. The wick The procedures described in section 4.2.1.5 apply
should be kept as straight as possible and its to the screen psychrometer. In the case of a
length should be such that water reaches the bulb naturally aspirated wet bulb, provided that the
water reservoir has about the same temperature as 4.2.5.1 Description

the air, the correct wet-bulb temperature will be
attained approximately 15 min after fitting a new Air is drawn into a duct where it passes over an
sleeve; if the water temperature differs substantially electrical heating element and then into a
from that of the air, it may be necessary to wait for measuring chamber containing both dry- and
30 min. wet-bulb thermometers and a water reservoir. The
heating element control circuit ensures that the
air temperature does not fall below a certain level,
which might typically be 10°C. The temperature
The exposure and siting of the screen are described of the water reservoir is maintained in a similar
in Part I, Chapter 2. way. Thus, neither the water in the reservoir nor
the water at the wick should freeze, provided that
the wet-bulb depression is less than 10 K, and
4.2.4 Sling or whirling psychrometers
that the continuous operation of the psychrometer
is secured even if the air temperature is below
4.2.4.1 Description
0°C. At temperatures above 10°C the heater may
A small portable type of whirling or sling be automatically switched off, when the
psychrometer consists of two mercury-in-glass instrument reverts to normal psychrometric
thermometers mounted on a sturdy frame, which operation.
is provided with a handle and spindle, and located
at the furthest end from the thermometer bulbs, Electrical thermometers are used so that they may
by means of which the frame and thermometers be entirely enclosed within the measuring chamber
may be rotated rapidly about a horizontal axis. and without the need for visual readings.
The wet-bulb arrangement varies according to A second dry-bulb thermometer is located at the
individual design. Some designs shield the ther- inlet of the duct to provide a measurement of the
mometer bulbs from direct insolation, and these ambient air temperature. Thus, the ambient relative
are to be preferred for meteorological meas- humidity may be determined.
urements.
The psychrometric thermometer bulbs are axially
The psychrometric formulae in Annex 4.B may be aspirated at an air velocity in the region of 3 m s–1.
used.
A heated psychrometer would be suitable for auto-
The following guidelines should be applied: matic weather stations.
(a) All instructions with regard to the handling
of Assmann aspirated psychrometers apply
also to sling psychrometers;
(b) Sling psychrometers lacking radiation The instrument itself should be mounted outside a
shields for the thermometer bulbs should thermometer screen. The air inlet, where ambient
be shielded from direct insolation in some air temperature is measured, should be inside the
other way; screen.
(c) Thermometers should be read at once after
aspiration ceases because the wet-bulb
4.2.6 The WMO reference psychrometer
temperature will begin to rise immediately,
and the thermometers are likely to be subject The reference psychrometer and procedures for its
to insolation effects. operation are described in WMO (1992). The wet-
and dry-bulb elements are enclosed in an aspirated
shield, for use as a free-standing instrument. Its
4.2.5 Heated psychrometer
significant characteristic is that the psychrometer
The principle of the heated psychrometer is that coefficient is calculable from the theory of heat and
the water-vapour content of an air mass does not mass exchanges at the wet bulb, and is different
change if it is heated. This property may be exploited from the coefficient for other psychrometers, with a
to the advantage of the psychrometer by avoiding value of 6.53 · 10–4 K–1 at 50 per cent relative humid-
the need to maintain an ice bulb under freezing ity, 20°C and 1 000 hPa. Its wet-bulb temperature is
conditions. very close to the theoretical value (see Annex 4.A,
paragraphs 18 and 19). This is achieved by ensuring which is particularly relevant for use at low air
that the evaporation at the wet bulb is very efficient temperatures. This procedure also results in a more
and that extraneous heating is minimized. The linear response function, although the tensile
nature of the air-flow over the wet bulb is control- strength is reduced. For accurate measurements, a
led by careful shaping of the duct and the bulb, and single hair element is to be preferred, but a bundle
by controlling the ventilation rate. The double of hairs is commonly used to provide a degree of
shield is highly reflective externally, and blackened ruggedness. Chemical treatment with barium (BaS)
on the inside, and the thermometer elements are or sodium (Na2S) sulfide yields further linearity of
insulated and separated by a shield. The shields and response.
the wet-bulb element (which contains the ther-
mometer) are made of stainless steel to minimize The hair hygrograph or hygrometer is considered to
thermal conduction. be a satisfactory instrument for use in situations or
during periods where extreme and very low humid-
The procedures for the use of the reference ities are seldom or never found. The mechanism of
psychrometer ensure that the wet bulb is completely the instrument should be as simple as possible,
free of grease, even in the monomolecular layers even if this makes it necessary to have a non-linear
that always arise from handling any part of the scale. This is especially important in industrial
apparatus with the fingers. This is probably the regions, since air pollutants may act on the surface
main reason for the close relation of the coefficient of the moving parts of the mechanism and increase
to the theoretical value, and its difference from the friction between them.
psychrometer coefficients of other instruments.
The rate of response of the hair hygrometer is very
The reference psychrometer is capable of great accu- dependent on air temperature. At –10°C the lag of
racy, 0.38 per cent uncertainty in relative humidity the instrument is approximately three times greater
at 50 per cent relative humidity and 20°C. It has than the lag at 10°C. For air temperatures between
also been adopted as the WMO reference thermom- 0 and 30°C and relative humidities between 20 and
eter. It is designed for use in the field but is not 80 per cent a good hygrograph should indicate
suitable for routine use. It should be operated only 90 per cent of a sudden change in humidity within
by staff accustomed to very precise laboratory work. about 3 min.
Its use as a reference instrument is discussed in
section 4.9.7. A good hygrograph in perfect condition should be
capable of recording relative humidity at moderate
temperatures with an uncertainty of ±3 per cent. At
low temperatures, the uncertainty will be greater.
4.3 The hair hygrometer
Using hair pre-treated by rolling (as described
above) is a requirement if useful information is to
be obtained at low temperatures.
Any absorbing material tends to equilibrium with
its environment in terms of both temperature and
4.3.2 Description
humidity. The water-vapour pressure at the surface
of the material is determined by the temperature The detailed mechanism of hair hygrometers varies
and the amount of water bound by the material. according to the manufacturer. Some instruments
Any difference between this pressure and the water- incorporate a transducer to provide an electrical
vapour pressure of the surrounding air will be signal, and these may also provide a linearizing
equalized by the exchange of water molecules. function so that the overall response of the instru-
ment is linear with respect to changes in relative
The change in the length of hair has been found to humidity.
be a function primarily of the change in relative
humidity with respect to liquid water (both above The most commonly used hair hygrometer is the
and below an air temperature of 0°C), with an hygrograph. This employs a bundle of hairs held
increase of about 2 to 2.5 per cent when the humid- under slight tension by a small spring and
ity changes from 0 to 100 per cent. By rolling the connected to a pen arm in such a way as to
hairs to produce an elliptical cross-section and by magnify a change in the length of the bundle. A
dissolving out the fatty substances with alcohol, pen at the end of the pen arm is in contact with a
the ratio of the surface area to the enclosed volume paper chart fitted around a metal cylinder and
increases and yields a decreased lag coefficient registers the angular displacement of the arm.
The cylinder rotates about its axis at a constant the tensioning spring. However, the effect of
rate determined by a mechanical clock movement. hysteresis may be evidenced in the failure of the
The rate of rotation is usually one revolution pen to return to its original position.
either per week or per day. The chart has a scaled
time axis that extends round the circumference of
4.3.4 Exposure and siting
the cylinder and a scaled humidity axis parallel to
the axis of the cylinder. The cylinder normally The hygrograph or hygrometer should be exposed
stands vertically. in a thermometer screen. Ammonia is very destruc-
tive to natural hair. Exposure in the immediate
The mechanism connecting the pen arm to the hair vicinity of stables and industrial plants using
bundle may incorporate specially designed cams ammonia should be avoided.
that translate the non-linear extension of the hair
in response to humidity changes into a linear When used in polar regions, the hygrograph should
angular displacement of the arm. preferably be exposed in a special thermometer
screen which provides the instrument with suffi-
The hair used in hygrometers may be of synthetic cient protection against precipitation and drifting
fibre. Where human hair is used it is normally snow. For example, a cover for the thermometer
first treated as described in section 4.3.1 to screen can be made of fine-meshed net (Mullergas)
improve both the linearity of its response and the as a precautionary measure to prevent the accumu-
response lag, although this does result in a lower lation of snow crystals on the hairs and the bearing
tensile strength. surfaces of the mechanical linkage. This method
can be used only if there is no risk of the net being
The pen arm and clock assembly are normally wetted by melting snow crystals.
housed in a box with glass panels which allow the
registered humidity to be observed without
4.3.5 Sources of error
disturbing the instrument, and with one end open
to allow the hair element to be exposed in free space
4.3.5.1 Changes in zero offset
outside the limits of the box. The sides of the box
are separate from the solid base, but the end For various reasons which are poorly understood,
opposite the hair element is attached to it by a the hygrograph is liable to change its zero. The
hinge. This arrangement allows free access to the most likely cause is that excess tension has been
clock cylinder and hair element. The element may induced in the hairs. For instance, the hairs may
be protected by an open mesh cage. be stretched if time marks are made in the direc-
tion of increasing humidity on the chart or if the
hygrograph mechanism sticks during decreasing
4.3.3 Observation procedure
humidity. The zero may also change if the hygrog-
The hair hygrometer should always be tapped lightly raph is kept in very dry air for a long time, but
before being read in order to free any tension in the the change may be reversed by placing the instru-
mechanical system. The hygrograph should, as far ment in a saturated atmosphere for a sufficient
as possible, not be touched between changes of the length of time.
charts except in order to make of time marks.
4.3.5.2 Errors due to contamination
Both the hygrometer and the hygrograph can
of the hair
normally be read to the nearest 1 per cent of rela-
tive humidity. Attention is drawn to the fact that Most kinds of dust will cause appreciable errors in
the hair hygrometer measures relative humidity observations (perhaps as much as 15 per cent rela-
with respect to saturation over liquid water even tive humidity). In most cases this may be
at air temperatures below 0°C. eliminated, or at least reduced, by cleaning and
washing the hairs. However, the harmful substances
The humidity of the air may change very rapidly found in dust may also be destructive to hair (see
and, therefore, accurate setting of time marks on section 4.3.4).
a hygrograph is very important. In making the
marks, the pen arm should be moved only in the
4.3.5.3 Hysteresis
direction of decreasing humidity on the chart.
This is done so that the hairs are slackened by the Hysteresis is exhibited both in the response of the
displacement and, to bring the pen back to its hair element and in the recording mechanism of
correct position, the restoring force is applied by the hair hygrometer. Hysteresis in the recording
mechanism is reduced through the use of a hair The hair should be washed at frequent intervals
bundle, which allows a greater loading force to using distilled water on a soft brush to remove
overcome friction. It should be remembered that accumulated dust or soluble contaminants. At no
the displacement magnification of the pen arm time should the hair be touched by fingers. The
lever applies also to the frictional force between bearings of the mechanism should be kept clean
the pen and paper, and to overcome this force it and a small amount of clock oil should be applied
requires a proportionately higher tension in the occasionally. The bearing surfaces of any lineariz-
hair. The correct setting of the tensioning spring ing mechanism will contribute largely to the total
is also required to minimize hysteresis, as is the friction in the linkage, which may be minimized
correct operation of all parts of the transducing by polishing the surfaces with graphite. This
linkage. The main fulcrum and any linearizing procedure may be carried out by using a piece of
mechanism in the linkage introduce much of the blotting paper rubbed with a lead pencil.
total friction.
With proper care, the hairs may last for several
Hysteresis in the hair element is normally a short- years in a temperate climate and when not subject
term effect related to the absorption-desorption to severe atmospheric pollution. Recalibration
processes and is not a large source of error once and adjustment will be required when hairs are
vapour pressure equilibrium is established (see replaced.
section 4.3.5.1 in respect of prolonged exposure
at low humidity).
4.4 The chilled-mirror dewpoint

4.3.6 Calibration and comparisons
hygrometer
The readings of a hygrograph should be checked
as frequently as is practical. In the case where
wet- and dry-bulb thermometers are housed in
the same thermometer screen, these may be used
4.4.1.1 Theory
to provide a comparison whenever suitable steady
conditions prevail, but otherwise field compari- The dewpoint (or frost-point) hygrometer is used
sons have limited value due to the difference in to measure the temperature at which moist air,
response rate of the instruments. when cooled, reaches saturation and a deposit of
dew (or ice) can be detected on a solid surface,
Accurate calibration can only be obtained through which usually is a mirror. The deposit is normally
the use of an environmental chamber and by detected optically. The principle of the measure-
comparison with reference instruments. ment is described in section 4.1.4.5 and below.
The 100 per cent humidity point may be checked, The thermodynamic dewpoint is defined for a
preferably indoors with a steady air temperature, plane surface of pure water. In practice, water
by surrounding the instrument with a saturated droplets have curved surfaces, over which the
cloth (though the correct reading will not be saturation vapour pressure is higher than for the
obtained if a significant mass of liquid water plane surface (known as the Kelvin effect).
droplets forms on the hairs). Hydrophobic contaminants will exaggerate the
effect, while soluble ones will have the opposite
The ambient indoor humidity may provide a low effect and lower the saturation vapour pressure
relative humidity checkpoint for comparison (the Raoult effect). The Kelvin and Raoult effects
against a reference aspirated psychrometer. A (which, respectively, raise and lower the apparent
series of readings should be obtained. dewpoint) are minimized if the critical droplet
size adopted is large rather than small; this
Long-term stability and bias may be appraised by reduces the curvature effect directly and reduces
presenting comparisons with a reference aspi- the Raoult effect by lowering the concentration
rated psychrometer in terms of a correlation of a soluble contaminant.
function.
4.4.1.2 Principles
4.3.7 Maintenance
When moist air at temperature T, pressure p and
Observers should be encouraged to keep the mixing ratio rw (or ri) is cooled, it eventually reaches
hygrometer clean. its saturation point with respect to a free water
surface (or to a free ice surface at lower tempera- The mirror should be equipped with a (preferably
tures) and a deposit of dew (or frost) can automatic) device for detecting contaminants
be detected on a solid non-hygroscopic surface. that may increase or decrease the apparent
The temperature of this saturation point is dewpoint (see section 4.4.2.2), so that they may
called the thermodynamic dewpoint temperature be removed.
T d (or the thermodynamic frost-point tempera-
ture T f ). The corresponding saturation vapour
4.4.2.2 Optical detection assembly
pressure with respect to water e’w (or ice e’i ) is a
function of Td (or Tf ), as shown in the following An electro-optical system is usually employed to
equations: detect the formation of condensate and to provide
the input to the servo-control system to regulate
r⋅p
ew’ ( p, Td ) = f ( p ) ⋅ ew (Td ) = (4.3) the temperature of the mirror. A narrow beam of
0.621 98 + r light is directed at the mirror at an angle of inci-
dence of about 55°. The light source may be
incandescent but is now commonly a light-emit-
r⋅p
ei’( p, T f ) = f ( p ) ⋅ ei (T f ) = (4.4) ting diode. In simple systems, the intensity of the
0.621 98 + r directly reflected light is detected by a photode-

tector that regulates the cooling and heating
The hygrometer measures T d or T f . Despite the assembly through a servo-control. The specular
great dynamic range of moisture in the tropo- reflectivity of the surface decreases as the thick-
sphere, this instrument is capable of detecting ness of the deposit increases; cooling should cease
both very high and very low concentrations of while the deposit is thin, with a reduction in
water vapour by means of a thermal sensor reflectance in the range of 5 to 40 per cent. More
alone. elaborate systems use an auxiliary photodetector
which detects the light scattered by the deposit;
Cooling using a low-boiling-point liquid has been the two detectors are capable of very precise
used but is now largely superseded except for very control. A second, uncooled, mirror may be used
low water-vapour concentrations. to improve the control system.
It follows from the above that it must also be Greatest precision is obtained by controlling the
possible to determine whether the deposit is mirror to a temperature at which condensate
supercooled liquid or ice when the surface temper- neither accumulates nor dissipates; however, in
ature is at or below freezing point. practice, the servo-system will oscillate around
this temperature. The response time of the mirror
The chilled-mirror hygrometer is used for mete- to heating and cooling is critical in respect of the
orological measurements and as a reference amplitude of the oscillation, and should be of the
instrument both in the field and in the order of 1 to 2 s. The air-flow rate is also impor-
laboratory. tant for maintaining a stable deposit on the
mirror. It is possible to determine the tempera-
ture at which condensation occurs with a
4.4.2 Description
precision of 0.05 K.
4.4.2.1 Sensor assembly
It is feasible, but a time-consuming and skilled
The most widely used systems employ a small task, to observe the formation of droplets by
polished-metal reflecting surface, cooled electri- using a microscope and to regulate the mirror
cally using a Peltier-effect device. The sensor temperature under manual control.
consists of a thin metallic mirror of small (2 to 5
mm) diameter that is thermally regulated using a
4.4.2.3 Thermal control assembly
cooling assembly (and possibly a heater), with a
temperature sensor (thermocouple or platinum A Peltier-effect thermo-junction device provides
resistance thermometer) embedded on the under- a simple reversible heat pump; the polarity of
side of the mirror. The mirror should have a high direct current energization determines whether
thermal conductance, optical reflectivity and heat is pumped to, or from, the mirror. The
corrosion resistance combined with a low perme- device is bonded to, and in good thermal contact
ability to water vapour. Suitable materials used with, the underside of the mirror. For very low
include gold, rhodium-plated silver, chromium- dewpoints, a multistage Peltier device may be
plated copper and stainless steel. required.
Thermal control is achieved by using an electrical set the flow at a rate that is consistent with the
servo-system that takes as input the signal from stable operation of the mirror temperature servo-
the optical detector subsystem. Modern systems control system and at an acceptable rate of
operate under microprocessor control. response to changes in humidity. The optimum
flow rate is dependent upon the moisture content
A low-boiling-point fluid, such as liquid nitrogen, of the air sample and is normally within the range
may be used to provide cooling, but this tech- of 0.25 to 1 l min–1.
nique is no longer widely used. Similarly, electrical
resistance wire may be used for heating but has
now been superseded with the advent of small
Peltier devices. The correct operation of a dewpoint hygrometer
depends upon achieving an appropriate volume
air-flow rate through the measuring chamber. The
4.4.2.4 Temperature display system
setting of a regulator for this purpose, usually a
The mirror temperature, as measured by the throttling device located downstream of the
electrical thermometer embedded beneath the measuring chamber, is likely to require adjust-
mirror surface, is presented to the observer as the ment to accommodate diurnal variations in air
dewpoint of the air sample. Commercial temperature. Adjustment of the air-flow will
instruments normally include an electrical disturb the operation of the hygrometer, and it
interface for the mirror thermometer and a digital may even be advisable to initiate a heating cycle.
display, but may also provide digital and analogue Both measures should be taken with sufficient
electrical outputs for use with data-logging time in order for a stable operation to be achieved
equipment. A chart recorder is particularly useful before a reading is taken. The amount of time
for monitoring the performance of the instrument required will depend upon the control cycle of
in the case where the analogue output provides a the individual instrument. The manufacturer’s
continuous registration of the mirror thermometer instructions should be consulted to provide
signal but the digital display does not. appropriate guidance on the air-flow rate to be set
and on details of the instrument’s control cycle.
4.4.2.5 Auxiliary systems
The condition of the mirror should be checked
A microscope may be incorporated to provide a frequently; the mirror should be cleaned as neces-
visual method to discriminate between super- sary. The stable operation of the instrument does
cooled water droplets and ice crystals for mirror not necessarily imply that the mirror is clean. It
temperatures below 0°C. Some instruments have should be washed with distilled water and dried
a detector mounted on the mirror surface to carefully by wiping it with a soft cloth or cotton
provide an automatic procedure for this purpose dabstick to remove any soluble contaminant.
(for example, capacitive sensor), while others Care must be taken not to scratch the surface of
employ a method based on reflectance. the mirror, most particularly where the surface
has a thin plating to protect the substrate or
A microprocessor-based system may incorporate where an ice/liquid detector is incorporated. If an
algorithms to calculate and display relative air filter is not in use, cleaning should be
humidity. In this case, it is important that the performed at least daily. If an air filter is in use, its
instrument should discriminate correctly between condition should be inspected at each observa-
a water and an ice deposit. tion. The observer should take care not to stand
next to the air inlet or to allow the outlet to
Many instruments provide an automatic proce- become blocked.
dure for minimizing the effects of contamination.
This may be a regular heating cycle in which For readings at, or below, 0°C the observer should
volatile contaminants are evaporated and determine whether the mirror condensate is
removed in the air stream. Systems with a wiper supercooled water or ice. If no automatic indica-
to automatically clean the mirror by means of a tion is given, the mirror must be observed. From
wiper are also in use. time to time the operation of any automatic
system should be verified.
For meteorological measurements, and in most
laboratory applications, a small pump is required An uncertainty of ±0.3 K over a wide dewpoint
to draw the sampled air through the measuring range (–60 to 50°C) is specified for the best
chamber. A regulating device is also required to instruments.
4.4.4 Exposure and siting the mirror temperature is below 0°C the deposit
should be inspected visually, if this is possible, to
The criteria for the siting of the sensor unit are simi- determine whether it is of supercooled water or
lar to those for any aspirated hygrometer, although ice.
less stringent than for either a psychrometer or a
relative humidity sensor, considering the fact that A useful check is to compare the mirror tempera-
the dew or frost point of an air sample is unaffected ture measurement with the air temperature while
by changes to the ambient temperature provided the thermal control system of the hygrometer is
that it remains above the dewpoint at all times. For inactive. The instrument should be aspirated, and
this reason, a temperature screen is not required. the air temperature measured at the mouth of the
The sensor should be exposed in an open space and hygrometer air intake. This check is best performed
may be mounted on a post, within a protective under stable, non-condensing conditions. In bright
housing structure, with an air inlet at the required sunshine, the sensor and duct should be shaded
level. and allowed to come to equilibrium. The aspiration
rate may be increased for this test.
An air-sampling system is required. This is normally
a small pump that must draw air from the outlet An independent field calibration of the mirror ther-
port of the measuring chamber and eject it away mometer interface may be performed by simulating
from the inlet duct. Recirculation of the air-flow the thermometer signal. In the case of a platinum
should be avoided as this represents a poor sampling resistance thermometer, a standard platinum resist-
technique, although under stable operation the ance simulation box, or a decade resistance box and
water-vapour content at the outlet should be effec- a set of appropriate tables, may be used. A special
tively identical to that at the inlet. Recirculation simulator interface for the hygrometer control unit
may be avoided by fixing the outlet above the inlet, may also be required.
although this may not be effective under radiative
atmospheric conditions when a negative air temper-
ature lapse rate exists.
4.5 The lithium chloride heated
An air filter should be provided for continuous condensation hygrometer
outdoor operations. It must be capable of allowing (dew cell)
an adequate throughflow of air without a large
blocking factor, as this may result in a significant
drop in air pressure and affect the condensation
temperature in the measuring chamber. A sintered
4.5.1.1 Principles
metal filter may be used in this application to
capture all but the smallest aerosol particles. A The physical principles of the heated salt-solution
metal filter has the advantage that it may be heated method are discussed in section 4.1.4.5.2. The
easily by an electrical element in order to keep it equilibrium vapour pressure at the surface of a
dry under all conditions. It is more robust than the saturated lithium chloride solution is exceptionally
membrane-type filter and more suited to passing low. As a consequence, a solution of lithium chloride
the relatively high air-flow rates required by the is extremely hygroscopic under typical conditions
chilled-mirror method as compared with the sorp- of surface atmospheric humidity; if the ambient
tion method. On the other hand, a metallic filter vapour pressure exceeds the equilibrium vapour
may be more susceptible to corrosion by atmos- pressure of the solution, water vapour will condense
pheric pollutants than some membrane filters. over it (for example, at 0°C water vapour condenses
over a plane surface of a saturated solution of
lithium chloride to only 15 per cent relative
4.4.5 Calibration
humidity).
Regular comparisons against a reference instrument,
such as an Assmann psychrometer or another A thermodynamically self-regulating device may be
chilled-mirror hygrometer, should be made as the achieved if the solution is heated directly by passing
operation of a field chilled mirror is subject to a an electrical current through it from a constant-
number of influences which may degrade its voltage device. An alternating current should be
performance. An instrument continuously in the used to prevent polarization of the solution. As the
field should be the subject of weekly check meas- electrical conductivity decreases, so will the heating
urements. As the opportunity arises, its operation at current, and an equilibrium point will be reached
both dew and frost points should be verified. When whereby a constant temperature is maintained; any
cooling of the solution will result in the condensation solution of lithium chloride, sometimes combined
of water vapour, thus causing an increase in with potassium chloride. Bifilar silver or gold wire
conductivity and an increase in heating current, is wound over the covering of the bobbin, with
which will reverse the cooling trend. Heating equal spacing between the turns. An alternating
beyond the balance point will evaporate water electrical current source is connected to the two
vapour until the consequent fall in conductivity ends of the bifilar winding; this is commonly
reduces the electrical heating to the point where derived from the normal electrical supply (50 or
it is exceeded by heat losses, and cooling ensues. 60 Hz). The lithium chloride solution is electri-
cally conductive to a degree determined by the
It follows from the above that there is a lower concentration of solute. A current passes between
limit to the ambient vapour pressure that may be adjacent bifilar windings, which act as electrodes,
measured in this way at any given temperature. and through the solution. The current heats the
Below this value, the salt solution would have to solution, which increases in temperature.
be cooled in order for water vapour to condense.
This would be equivalent to the chilled-mirror Except under conditions of extremely low humid-
method except that, in the latter case, condensa- ity, the ambient vapour pressure will be higher
tion takes place at a lower temperature when than the equilibrium vapour pressure over the
saturation is achieved with respect to a pure water solution of lithium chloride at ambient air
surface, namely, at the ambient dewpoint. temperature, and water vapour will condense
onto the solution. As the solution is heated by
A degree of uncertainty is inherent in the method the electrical current, a temperature will eventu-
due to the existence of four different hydrates of ally be reached above which the equilibrium
lithium chloride. At certain critical temperatures, vapour pressure exceeds the ambient vapour pres-
two of the hydrates may be in equilibrium with sure, evaporation will begin, and the concentration
the aqueous phase, and the equilibrium tempera- of the solution will increase.
ture achieved by heating is affected according to
the hydrate transition that follows. The most seri- An operational equilibrium temperature exists for
ous ambiguity for meteorological purposes occurs the instrument, depending upon the ambient
for ambient dewpoint temperatures below –12°C. water-vapour pressure. Above the equilibrium
For an ambient dewpoint of –23°C, the potential temperature, evaporation will increase the
difference in equilibrium temperature, according concentration of the solution, and the electrical
to which one of the two hydrate-solution transi- current and the heating will decrease and allow
tions takes place, results in an uncertainty of ±3.5 heat losses to cause the temperature of the
K in the derived dewpoint value. solution to fall. Below the equilibrium
temperature, condensation will decrease the
concentration of the solution, and the electrical
4.5.1.2 Description
current and the heating will increase and cause
The dew-cell hygrometer measures the temperature the temperature of the solution to rise. At the
at which the equilibrium vapour pressure for a satu- equilibrium temperature, neither evaporation nor
rated solution of lithium chloride is equal to the condensation occurs because the equilibrium
ambient water-vapour pressure. Empirical transfor- vapour pressure and the ambient vapour pressure
mation equations, based on saturation vapour are equal.
pressure data for lithium chloride solution and for
pure water, provide for the derivation of the ambi- In practice, the equilibrium temperature meas-
ent water vapour and dewpoint with respect to a ured is influenced by individual characteristics of
plane surface of pure water. The dewpoint tempera- sensor construction and has a tendency to be
ture range of –12 to 25°C results in dew-cell higher than that predicted from equilibrium
temperatures in the range of 17 to 71°C. vapour-pressure data for a saturated solution of
lithium chloride. However, reproducibility is
sufficiently good to allow the use of a standard
4.5.1.3 Sensors with direct heating
transfer function for all sensors constructed to a
The sensor consists of a tube, or bobbin, with a given specification.
resistance thermometer fitted axially within. The
external surface of the tube is covered with a glass Strong ventilation affects the heat transfer char-
fibre material (usually tape wound around and acteristics of the sensor, and fluctuations in
along the tube) that is soaked with an aqueous ventilation lead to unstable operation.
In order to minimize the risk of excessive current A current-limiting device should be installed if not
when switching on the hygrometer (as the resist- provided by the manufacturer, otherwise the high
ance of the solution at ambient temperature is current may damage the sensor when the instru-
rather low), a current-limiting device, in the form ment is powered-up.
of a small lamp, is normally connected to the
heater element. The lamp is chosen so that, at
normal bobbin-operating currents, the filament
resistance will be low enough for the hygrometer The hygrometer should be located in an open area
to function properly, while the operating current in a housing structure which protects it from the
for the incandescent lamp (even allowing effects of wind and rain. A system for providing a
for a bobbin-offering no electrical resistance) is steady aspiration rate is required.
below a value that might damage the heating
element. The heat from the hygrometer may affect other
instruments; this should be taken into account
The equilibrium vapour pressure for saturated when choosing its location.
lithium chloride depends upon the hydrate
being in equilibrium with the aqueous solution. The operation of the instrument will be affected by
In the range of solution temperatures correspond- atmospheric pollutants, particularly substances
ing to dewpoints of –12 to 41°C monohydrate which dissociate in solutions and produce a signifi-
normally occurs. Below –12°C, dihydrate forms, cant ion concentration.
and above 41°C, anhydrous lithium chloride
forms. Close to the transition points, the opera-
4.5.4 Sources of error
tion of the hygrometer is unstable and the
readings ambiguous. However, the –12°C lower An electrical resistance thermometer is required
dewpoint limit may be extended to –30°C by the for measuring the equilibrium temperature; the
addition of a small amount of potassium chloride usual sources of error for thermometry are
(KCl). present.
The equilibrium temperature achieved is

4.5.1.4 Sensors with indirect heating
determined by the properties of the solute, and
Improved accuracy, compared with the arrangement significant amounts of contaminant will have an
described in section 4.5.1.2, may be obtained when unpredictable effect.
a solution of lithium chloride is heated indirectly.
The conductance of the solution is measured Variations in aspiration affect the heat exchange
between two platinum electrodes and provides mechanisms and, thus, the stability of operation
control of a heating coil. of the instrument. A steady aspiration rate is
required for a stable operation.
4.5.2 Operational procedure
4.5.5 Calibration
Readings of the equilibrium temperature of the
bobbin are taken and a transfer function applied A field calibration should be performed at least
to obtain the dewpoint temperature. once a month, by means of comparison with a
working standard instrument. Calibration of the
Disturbing the sensor should be avoided as the bobbin thermometer and temperature display
equilibrium temperature is sensitive to changes should be performed regularly, as for other opera-
in heat losses at the bobbin surface. tional thermometers and display systems.
The instrument should be energized continu-

4.5.6 Maintenance
ously. If allowed to cool below the equilibrium
temperature for any length of time, condensation The lithium chloride should be renewed regu-
will occur and the electrolyte will drip off. larly. This may be required once a month, but
will depend upon the level of atmospheric pollu-
Check measurements with a working reference tion. When renewing the solution, the bobbin
hygrometer must be taken at regular intervals should be washed with distilled water and fresh
and the instrument must be cleaned and retreated solution subsequently applied. The housing struc-
with a lithium chloride solution, as necessary. ture should be cleaned at the same time.
Fresh solution may be prepared by mixing five parts order to avoid polarization of the electrolyte.
by weight of anhydrous lithium chloride with Low-frequency supply can be used, given that the
100 parts by weight of distilled water. This is equiv- DC resistance is to be measured, and therefore it
alent to 1 g of anhydrous lithium chloride to 20 ml is possible to employ quite long leads between
of water. the sensor and its electrical interface.
The temperature-sensing apparatus should be main-

4.6.3 Electrical capacitance
tained in accordance with the recommendations
for electrical instruments used for making air The method is based upon the variation of the
temperature measurements, but bearing in mind dielectric properties of a solid, hygroscopic
the difference in the range of temperatures material in relation to the ambient relative
measured. humidity. Polymeric materials are most widely
used for this purpose. The water bound in the
polymer alters its dielectric properties owing to
the large dipole moment of the water molecule.
4.6 Electrical resistive and
capacitive hygrometers The active part of the humidity sensor consists of
a polymer foil sandwiched between two electrodes
to form a capacitor. The electrical impedance of
this capacitor provides a measure of relative
Certain hygroscopic materials exhibit changes in humidity. The nominal value of capacitance may
their electrical properties in response to a change be only a few or several hundred picofarads,
in the ambient relative humidity with only a depending upon the size of the electrodes and
small temperature dependence. the thickness of the dielectric. This will, in turn,
influence the range of excitation frequency used
Electrical relative humidity sensors are increas- to measure the impedance of the device, which is
ingly used for remote-reading applications, normally at least several kilohertz and, thus,
particularly where a direct display of relative requires that short connections be made between
humidity is required. Since many of them have the sensor and the electrical interface to minimize
very non-linear responses to changes in humidity, the effect of stray capacitance. Therefore,
the manufacturers often supply them with special capacitance sensors normally have the electrical
data-processing and display systems. interface built into the probe, and it is necessary
to consider the effect of environmental
temperature on the performance of the circuit
4.6.2 Electrical resistance
components.
Sensors made from chemically treated plastic
material having an electrically conductive surface
layer on the non-conductive substrate may be
used for meteorological purposes. The surface Sensors based on changes in the electronic
resistivity varies according to the ambient rela- properties of hygroscopic materials are frequently
tive humidity. The process of adsorption, rather used for the remote reading of relative humidity
than absorption, is dominant because the humid- and also for automatic weather stations.
ity-sensitive part of such a sensor is restricted to
the surface layer. As a result, this type of sensor is
capable of responding rapidly to a change in
ambient humidity. The sensors should be mounted inside a
thermometer screen. The manufacturer’s advice
This class of sensor includes various electrolytic regarding the mounting of the actual sensor
types in which the availability of conductive ions should be followed. The use of protective filters is
in a hygroscopic electrolyte is a function of the mandatory. Direct contact with liquid water
amount of adsorbed water vapour. The electrolyte will seriously harm sensors using hygroscopic
may take various physical forms, such as liquid or electrolyte as a sensor element. Great care
gel solutions, or an ion-exchange resin. The should be taken to prevent liquid water
change in impedance to an alternating current, from reaching the sensitive element of such
rather than to a direct current, is measured in sensors.
length can be determined by measuring the

4.6.6 Calibration
ratio of their intensities at the receiver. The
Field and laboratory calibrations should be carried most widely used source for this technique
out as for hair hygrometers. Suitable auxiliary is a tungsten lamp, filtered to isolate a pair
equipment to enable checks by means of salt solu- of wavelengths in the infrared region. The
tions is available for most sensors of this type. measuring path is normally greater than 1
m.
4.6.7 Maintenance
Both types of EMR absorption hygrometers
Observers should be encouraged to maintain the require frequent calibration and are more suitable
hygrometer in clean conditions (see section for measuring changes in vapour concentration
4.1.4.10). than absolute levels. The most widespread appli-
cation of the EMR absorption hygrometer is to
monitor very high frequency variations in humid-
ity, since the method does not require the detector
4.7 Hygrometers using absorption to achieve vapour-pressure equilibrium with the
of electromagnetic radiation sample. The time-constant of an optical hygrom-
eter is typically just a few milliseconds. The use of
The water molecule absorbs electromagnetic radi- optical hygrometers remains restricted to research
ation (EMR) in a range of wavebands and discrete activities.
wavelengths; this property can be exploited to
obtain a measure of the molecular concentration
of water vapour in a gas. The most useful regions
of the electromagnetic spectrum, for this purpose, 4.8 Safety
lie in the ultraviolet and infrared regions.
Therefore, the techniques are often classified as Chemical agents are widely used in the measure-
optical hygrometry or, more correctly, EMR ment of humidity. The properties of such agents
absorption hygrometry. should always be made known to the personnel
handling them. All chemicals should be kept in
The method makes use of measurements of the secure and clearly labelled containers and stored
attenuation of radiation in a waveband specific to in an appropriate environment. Instructions
water-vapour absorption, along the path between concerning the use of toxic materials may be
a source of the radiation and a receiving device. prescribed by local authorities.
There are two principal methods for determining
the degree of attenuation of the radiation as Saturated salt solutions are widely used in the
follows: measurement of humidity. The notes that follow
(a) Transmission of narrow-band radiation at a give some guidance for the safe use of some
fixed intensity to a calibrated receiver: The commonly used salts:
most commonly used source of radiation (a) Barium chloride (BaCl2): Colourless crystals;
is hydrogen gas; the emission spectrum of very soluble in water; stable, but may emit
hydrogen includes the Lyman-Alpha line toxic fumes in a fire; no hazardous reac-
at 121.6 nm, which coincides with a water- tion with water, acids, bases, oxidizers or
vapour absorption band in the ultraviolet with combustible materials; ingestion causes
region where there is little absorption by nausea, vomiting, stomach pains and diar-
other common atmospheric gases. The rhoea; harmful if inhaled as dust and if it
measuring path is typically a few centime- comes into contact with the skin; irritating to
tres in length; eyes; treat with copious amounts of water and
(b) Transmission of radiation at two wave- obtain medical attention if ingested;
lengths, one of which is strongly absorbed by (b) Calcium chloride (CaCl2): Colourless crystals;
water vapour and the other being either not deliquescent; very soluble in water, dissolves
absorbed or only very weakly absorbed: If a with increase in heat; will initiate exothermic
single source is used to generate the radiation polymerization of methyl vinyl ether; can react
at both wavelengths, the ratio of their emit- with zinc to liberate hydrogen; no hazardous
ted intensities may be accurately known, so reactions with acids, bases, oxidizers or
that the attenuation at the absorbed wave- combustibles; irritating to the skin, eyes and
respiratory system; ingestion causes gastric (d) Magnesium nitrate (Mg(NO3)2): Colourless
irritation; ingestion of large amounts can crystals; deliquescent; very soluble in water;
lead to hypercalcaemia, dehydration and may ignite combustible material; can react
renal damage; treat with copious amounts vigorously with deoxidizers, can decompose
of water and obtain medical attention; spontaneously in dimethylformamide; may
(c) Lithium chloride (LiCl): Colourless crys- emit toxic fumes in a fire (fight the fire with
tals; stable if kept dry; very soluble in water; a water spray); ingestion of large quanti-
may emit toxic fumes in a fire; ingestion ties can have fatal effects (provide plenty
may affect ionic balance of blood leading of drinking water and obtain medical atten-
to anorexia, diarrhoea, vomiting, dizziness tion); may irritate the skin and eyes (wash
and central nervous system disturbances; with water);
kidney damage may result if sodium intake (e) Potassium nitrate (KNO3): White crystals or
is low (provide plenty of drinking water and crystalline powder; very soluble in water;
obtain medical attention); no hazardous stable but may emit toxic fumes in a fire
reactions with water, acids, bases, oxidizers (fight the fire with a water spray); ingestion
or combustibles; of large quantities causes vomiting, but it is
Table 4.4. Standard instruments for the measurement of humidity
Dewpoint temperature Relative humidity (%)

Standard instrument
Range (°C) Uncertainty (K) Range Uncertainty
Primary standard
Requirement – 60 to –15 0.3 5 to 100 0.2

–15 to 40 0.1 5 to 100 0.2
Gravimetric hygrometer – 60 to –35 0.25

–35 to 35 0.03
35 to 60 0.25
Standard two-temperature – 75 to –15 0.25

humidity generator –15 to 30 0.1
30 to 80 0.2
Standard two-pressure
–75 to 30 0.2
humidity generator
Secondary standard

–15 to 40 0.25
Chilled-mirror hygrometer –60 to 40 0.15
Reference psychrometer 5 to 100 0.6
Reference standard

–15 to 40 0.3
Reference psychrometer 5 to 100 0.6
Working standard
Requirement –15 to 40 0.5 5 to 100 2
Assmann psychrometer –10 to 25 40 to 90 1

rapidly excreted in urine (provide plenty of

4.9.2 Calibration intervals and methods
drinking water); may irritate eyes (wash with
water); no hazardous reaction with water, Regular calibration is required for all humidity
acids, bases, oxidizers or combustibles; sensors in the field. For chilled-mirror psychrome-
(f) Sodium chloride (NaCl): Colourless crystals or ters and heated dewpoint hygrometers that use a
white powder; very soluble in water; stable; no temperature detector, calibration can be checked
hazardous reaction with water, acids, bases, whenever a regular maintenance routine is
oxidizers or combustibles; ingestion of large performed. Comparison with a working standard,
amounts may cause diarrhoea, nausea, vomit- such as an Assmann psychrometer, should be
ing, deep and rapid breathing and convulsions performed at least once a month.
(in severe cases obtain medical attention).
The use of a standard type of aspirated psychrome-
Advice concerning the safe use of mercury is given ter, such as the Assmann, as a working standard has
in Part I, Chapter 3. the advantage that its integrity can be verified by
comparing the dry- and wet-bulb thermometers,
and that adequate aspiration may be expected from
a healthy sounding fan. The reference instrument
4.9 Standard instruments and should itself be calibrated at an interval appropriate
calibration to its type.
Saturated salt solutions can be applied with sensors

4.9.1 Principles involved in the
that require only a small-volume sample. A very
calibration of hygrometers
stable ambient temperature is required and it is
Precision in the calibration of humidity sensors difficult to be confident about their use in the field.
entails special problems, to a great extent owing When using salt solutions for control purposes, it
to the relatively small quantity of water vapour should be borne in mind that the nominal humid-
which can exist in an air sample at normal ity value given for the salt solution itself is not
temperatures, but also due to the general diffi- traceable to any primary standard.
culty of isolating and containing gases and, more
particularly, vapour. An ordered hierarchy of
4.9.3 Laboratory calibration
international traceability in humidity standards
is only now emerging. Laboratory calibration is essential for maintaining
accuracy in the following ways:
An absolute standard for humidity (namely, a (a) Field and working standard instruments:
realization of the physical definition for the quan- Laboratory calibration of field and working
tity of humidity) can be achieved by gravimetric standard instruments should be carried out
hygrometry. The reference psychrometer (within on the same regular basis as for other opera-
its limited range) is also a form of primary stand- tional thermometers. For this purpose, the
ard, in that its performance is calculable. The chilled-mirror sensor device may be consid-
calibration of secondary, reference and working ered separately from the control unit. The
standards involves several steps. Table 4.4 shows mirror thermometer should be calibrated
a summary of humidity standard instruments independently and the control unit should
and their performances. be calibrated on the same regular basis as
other items of precision electronic equip-
A practical field calibration is most frequently ment. The calibration of a field instrument
done by means of well-designed aspirated in a humidity generator is not strictly neces-
psychrometers and dewpoint sensors as working sary if the components have been calibrated
standards. These specific types of standards must separately, as described previously.
be traceable to the higher levels of standards by The correct operation of an instrument
careful comparisons. Any instrument used as a may be verified under stable room condi-
standard must be individually calibrated for all tions by comparison with a reference instru-
variables involved in calculating humidity (air ment, such as an Assmann psychrometer
temperature, wet-bulb temperature, dewpoint or a standard chilled-mirror hygrometer.
temperature, and so forth). Other factors affect- If the field instrument incorporates an ice
ing performance, such as air-flow, must also be detector, the correct operation of this system
checked. should be verified.
(b) Reference and standard instruments: Labo- and allowed to expand isothermally in a second
ratory calibration of reference and standard chamber at a lower pressure P2. Both chambers are
instruments requires a precision humidity maintained at the same temperature in an oil bath.
generator and a suitable transfer standard The relative humidity of the water vapour-gas
hygrometer. Two-pressure and two-tempera- mixture is straightforwardly related to the total
ture humidity generators are able to deliver pressures in each of the two chambers through
a suitable controlled flow of air at a prede- Dalton’s law of partial pressures; the partial pressure
termined temperature and dewpoint. The e’ of the vapour in the low-pressure chamber will
calibration should be performed at least have the same relation to the saturation vapour
every 12 months and over the full range of pressure e’w as the total pressure in the high-pressure
the reference application for the instrument. saturator has to the total pressure in the low-pres-
The calibration of the mirror thermometer sure chamber. Thus, the relative humidity Uw is
and the temperature display system should given by:
be performed independently at least once
every 12 months. Uw = 100 · e’/e’w = 100 · P1/P2 (4.5)
The relation also holds for the solid phase if the

4.9.4 Primary standards
gas is saturated with respect to ice at pressure P1:
4.9.4.1 Gravimetric hygrometry
Ui = 100 · e’/e’i = 100 · P1/P2 (4.6)
The gravimetric method yields an absolute meas-
ure of the water-vapour content of an air sample
4.9.4.3 Dynamic two-temperature standard
in terms of its humidity mixing ratio. This is
humidity generator
obtained by first removing the water vapour from
the sample using a known mass of a drying agent, This laboratory apparatus provides a stream of
such as anhydrous phosphorous pentoxide (P2O5) humid gas at temperature T 1 having a dew- or
or magnesium perchlorate (Mg(ClO4)2). The mass frost-point temperature T 2 . Two temperature-
of the water vapour is determined by weighing controlled baths, each equipped with heat
the drying agent before and after absorbing the exchangers and one with a saturator containing
vapour. The mass of the dry sample is determined either water or ice, are used first to saturate the
either by weighing (after liquefaction to render air-stream at temperature T1 and then to heat it
the volume of the sample manageable) or by isobarically to temperature T 2 . In practical
measuring its volume (and having knowledge of designs, the air-stream is continuously circulated
its density). to ensure saturation. Test instruments draw off
air at temperature T2 and a flow rate that is small
The complexity of the apparatus required to accu- in proportion to the main circulation.
rately carry out the procedure described limits
the application of this method to the laboratory
4.9.5 Secondary standards
environment. In addition, a substantial volume
sample of air is required for accurate measure- A secondary standard instrument should be care-
ments to be taken and a practical apparatus fully maintained and removed from the calibration
requires a steady flow of the humid gas for a laboratory only for the purpose of calibration with
number of hours, depending upon the humidity, a primary standard or for intercomparison with
in order to remove a sufficient mass of water other secondary standards. Secondary standards
vapour for an accurate weighing measurement. may be used as transfer standards from the primary
As a consequence, the method is restricted to standards.
providing an absolute calibration reference stand-
ard. Such an apparatus is found mostly in national A chilled-mirror hygrometer may be used as a
calibration standards laboratories. secondary standard instrument under controlled
conditions of air temperature, humidity and pres-
4.9.4.2 Dynamic two-pressure standard sure. For this purpose, it should be calibrated from
humidity generator a recognized accredited laboratory, giving uncer-
tainty limits throughout the operational range of
This laboratory apparatus serves to provide a source the instrument. This calibration must be directly
of humid gas whose relative humidity is determined traceable to a primary standard and should be
on an absolute basis. A stream of the carrier gas is renewed at an appropriate interval (usually once
passed through a saturating chamber at pressure P1 every 12 months).
General considerations for chilled-mirror hygrome- frequently during the operation. The psychrome-
ters are discussed in section 4.4. This method ter’s description and operating instructions are
presents a fundamental technique for determining given in WMO (1992).
atmospheric humidity. Provided that the instru-
ment is maintained and operated correctly,
4.9.8 Saturated salt solutions
following the manufacturer’s instructions, it can
provide a primary measurement of dew or frost Vessels containing saturated solutions of appropri-
point within limits of uncertainty determined by ate salts may be used to calibrate relative humidity
the correspondence between the mirror surface sensors. Commonly used salts and their saturation
temperature at the appropriate point of the conden- relative humidities at 25°C are as follows:
sation/evaporation cycle and the temperature Barium chloride (BaCl2): 90.3 per cent
registered by the mirror thermometer at the obser- Sodium chloride (NaCl): 75.3 per cent
vation time. The Kelvin and Raoult effects upon the Magnesium nitrate (Mg(NO3)2): 52.9 per cent
condensation temperature must be taken into Calcium chloride (CaCl2): 29.0 per cent
consideration, and any change of the air pressure Lithium chloride (LiCl): 11.1 per cent
resulting from the sampling technique must be
taken into account by using the equations given in It is important that the surface area of the solu-
section 4.4.1.2. tion is large compared to that of the sensor
element and the enclosed volume of air so that
equilibrium may be achieved quickly; an airtight
4.9.6 Working standards (and field
access port is required for the test sensor. The
reference instruments)
temperature of the vessel should be measured and
A chilled-mirror hygrometer or an Assmann maintained at a constant level as the saturation
psychrometer may be used as a working standard humidity for most salts has a significant tempera-
for comparisons under ambient conditions in the ture coefficient.
field or the laboratory. For this purpose, it is
necessary to have performed comparisons at least Care should be taken when using saturated salt
at the reference standard level. The comparisons solutions. The degree of toxicity and corrosivity
should be performed at least once every 12 of salt solutions should be known to the person-
months under stable room conditions. The work- nel dealing with them. The salts listed above may
ing standard will require a suitable aspiration all be used quite safely, but it is nevertheless
device to sample the air. important to avoid contact with the skin, and to
avoid ingestion and splashing into the eyes. The
4.9.7 The WMO reference psychrometer salts should always be kept in secure and clearly
labelled containers which detail any hazards
This type of psychrometer is essentially a primary involved. Care should be taken when dissolving
standard because its performance is calculable. calcium chloride crystals in water, as much heat
However, its main use is as a highly accurate refer- is evolved. Section 4.8 deals with chemical hazards
ence instrument, specifically for type-testing in greater detail.
other instrument systems in the field. It is
intended for use as a free-standing instrument, Although the use of saturated salt solutions
alongside the screen or other field instruments, provides a simple method to adjust some (rela-
and must be made precisely to its general specifi- tive) humidity sensors, such adjustment cannot
cation and operated by skilled staff experienced be considered as a traceable calibration of the
in precise laboratory work; careful attention sensors. The (nominal) values of salt solutions
should be given to aspiration and to preventing have, at the moment, generally no traceability to
the wet bulb from being contaminated by contact reference standards. Measurements from sensors
with fingers or other objects. There are, however, adjusted by means of the saturated salt solution
simple tests by which the readings may be vali- method should always be checked by calibration
dated at any time, and these should be used standards after adjustment.
Annex 4.A
Definitions and specifications of water vapour
in the atmosphere
(adapted from the Technical Regulations (WMO-No. 49), Volume I, Appendix B)
(1) The mixing ratio r of moist air is the ratio (5) The vapour pressure e’ of water vapour in
of the mass mv of water vapour to the mass ma of moist air at total pressure p and with mixing ratio r
dry air with which the water vapour is associated: is defined by:
mv r
r= (4.A.1) e’ = p = xv ⋅ p (4.A.6)
ma 0.621 98 + r

(2) The specific humidity, mass concentration (6) Saturation: Moist air at a given tempera-
or moisture content q of moist air is the ratio of the ture and pressure is said to be saturated if its mixing
mass mv of water vapour to the mass mv + ma of ratio is such that the moist air can coexist in
moist air in which the mass of water vapour mv is neutral equilibrium with an associated condensed
contained: phase (liquid or solid) at the same temperature
mv and pressure, the surface of separation being
q= (4.A.2) plane.
mv + ma
(3) Vapour concentration (density of water (7) Saturation mixing ratio: The symbol rw
vapour in a mixture) or absolute humidity: For a denotes the saturation mixing ratio of moist air
mixture of water vapour and dry air the vapour with respect to a plane surface of the associated
concentration v is defined as the ratio of the mass of liquid phase. The symbol ri denotes the saturation
vapour mv to the volume V occupied by the mixing ratio of moist air with respect to a plane
mixture: surface of the associated solid phase. The associated
mv liquid and solid phases referred to consist of almost
ρv = (4.A.3) pure water and almost pure ice, respectively, there
V
being some dissolved air in each.
(4) Mole fraction of the water vapour of a (8) Saturation vapour pressure in the pure
sample of moist air: The mole fraction xv of the phase: The saturation vapour pressure ew of pure
water vapour of a sample of moist air, composed of aqueous vapour with respect to water is the pres-
a mass ma of dry air and a mass mv of water vapour, sure of the vapour when in a state of neutral
is defined by the ratio of the number of moles of equilibrium with a plane surface of pure water at
water vapour (nv = mv/Mv) to the total number of the same temperature and pressure; similarly for ei
moles of the sample nv + na, where na indicates the with respect to ice; ew and ei are temperature-
number of moles of dry air (na = ma/Ma) of the dependent functions only, namely:
sample concerned. This gives:
ew = ew (T) (4.A.7)
nv (4.A.4)
xv =
na + nv ei = ei (T) (4.A.8)
(9) Mole fraction of water vapour in moist

or: air saturated with respect to water: The mole
r fraction of water vapour in moist air saturated
xv =
0.621 98 + r (4.A.5) with respect to water, at pressure p and tempera-
ture T, is the mole fraction xvw of the water vapour
of a sample of moist air, at the same pressure p and
where r is merely the mixing ratio (r = mv/ma) of the the same temperature T, that is in stable equilib-
water vapour of the sample of moist air. rium in the presence of a plane surface of water
containing the amount of dissolved air corre- (15) The relative humidity Uw with respect to
sponding to equilibrium. Similarly, xvi will be used water of moist air at pressure p and temperature T is
to indicate the saturation mole fraction with the ratio in per cent of the vapour mole fraction xv to
respect to a plane surface of ice containing the the vapour mole fraction xvw which the air would
amount of dissolved air corresponding to have if it were saturated with respect to water at the
equilibrium. same pressure p and temperature T. Accordingly:
(10) Saturation vapour pressure of moist air: ⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ pxv ⎞

The saturation vapour pressure with respect to U w = 100 ⎜ v ⎟ = 100 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ xvw ⎠ p,T ⎝ pxvw ⎠ p,T
water e’w of moist air at pressure p and temperature
T is defined by: ⎛ eʹ ⎞ (4.A.15)
= 100 ⎜ ⎟
rw ⎝ ewʹ ⎠ p,T
ewʹ = p = xvw ⋅ p (4.A.9)
0.621 98 + rw

where subscripts p,T indicate that each term is
Similarly, the saturation vapour pressure with subject to identical conditions of pressure and
respect to ice e’i of moist air at pressure p and temper- temperature. The last expression is formally similar
ature T is defined by: to the classic definition based on the assumption of
ri Dalton’s law of partial pressures.
eiʹ = p = xvi ⋅ p (4.A.10)
0.621 98 + ri
Uw is also related to the mixing ratio r by:
r 0.621 98 + rw
(11) Relations between saturation vapour pres- U w = 100 ⋅ (4.A.16)
sures of the pure phase and of moist air: In the rw 0.621 98 + r
meteorological range of pressure and temperature where rw is the saturation mixing ratio at the pres-
the following relations hold with an error of 0.5 per sure and temperature of the moist air.
cent or less:
(16)1 The relative humidity Ui with respect to
e’w = ew (4.A.11) ice of moist air at pressure p and temperature T is
the ratio in per cent of the vapour mole fraction xv
e’i = ei (4.A.12) to the vapour mole fraction xvi which the air would
have if it were saturated with respect to ice at the
(12) The thermodynamic dewpoint temperature same pressure p and temperature T. Corresponding
Td of moist air at pressure p and with mixing ratio r is to the defining equation in paragraph 15:
the temperature at which moist air, saturated with
respect to water at the given pressure, has a saturation ⎛x ⎞ ⎛ px ⎞ ⎛ eʹ ⎞
mixing ratio rw equal to the given mixing ratio r. Ui = 100 ⎜ v ⎟ = 100 ⎜ v ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ (4.A.17)
⎝ xvi ⎠ p,T ⎝ pxvi ⎠ p,T ⎝ eiʹ ⎠ p,T
(13) The thermodynamic frost-point tempera-

ture Tf of moist air at pressure p and mixing ratio r (17) Relative humidity at temperatures less
is the temperature at which moist air, saturated than 0°C is to be evaluated with respect to water.
with respect to ice at the given pressure, has a satu- The advantages of this procedure are as follows:
ration mixing ratio ri equal to the given ratio r. (a) Most hygrometers which are essentially
responsive to the relative humidity indicate
(14) The dewpoint and frost-point tempera- relative humidity with respect to water at all
tures so defined are related to the mixing ratio r temperatures;
and pressure p by the respective equations: (b) The majority of clouds at temperatures below
0°C consist of water, or mainly of water;
r⋅p
ewʹ ( p,Td ) = f ( p) ⋅ ew (Td ) = xv ⋅ p = (4.A.13) (c) Relative humidities greater than 100 per cent
0.621 98 + r would in general not be observed. This is of
r⋅p
Equations 4.A.15 and 4.A.17 do not apply to moist air when
ei ( p, T f ) = f ( p ) ⋅ ei (T f ) = xv ⋅ p = (4.A.14) pressure p is less than the saturation vapour pressure of pure
0.621 98 + r water and ice, respectively, at temperature T.
particular importance in synoptic weather where Lv(Tw ) is the heat of vaporization of water at
messages, since the atmosphere is often super- temperature Tw , cpa is the specific heat of dry air at
saturated with respect to ice at temperatures constant pressure; and cpv is the specific heat of
below 0°C; water vapour at constant pressure.
(d) The majority of existing records of rela-
tive humidity at temperatures below 0°C are Note: Thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature as here defined
expressed on a basis of saturation with respect has for some time been called “temperature of adiabatic satura-
to water. tion” by air-conditioning engineers.
(18) The thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature (19) The thermodynamic ice-bulb temperature
of moist air at pressure p, temperature T and mixing of moist air at pressure p, temperature T and mixing
ratio r is the temperature Tw attained by the moist air ratio r is the temperature Ti at which pure ice at
when brought adiabatically to saturation at pressure pressure p must be evaporated into the moist air in
p by the evaporation into the moist air of liquid order to saturate it adiabatically at pressure p and
water at pressure p and temperature Tw and contain- temperature Ti. The saturation is with respect to ice.
ing the amount of dissolved air corresponding to Ti is defined by the equation:
equilibrium with saturated air of the same pressure
and temperature. Tw is defined by the equation: h ( p,T, r ) + ⎡⎣ ri ( p,Ti ) − r ⎤⎦ hi ( p,Ti )
(4.A.20)

= h ( p,Ti , ri ( p,Ti ))
h ( p,T, r ) + ⎡⎣ rw ( p,Tw ) − r ⎤⎦ hw ( p,Tw )
(4.A.18)
= h ( p,Tw , rw ( p,Tw )) where ri(p, Ti) is the mixing ratio of saturated moist
air at pressure p and temperature Ti; hi(p, Ti) is the
where rw(p,Tw) is the mixing ratio of saturated moist enthalpy of 1 gram of pure ice at pressure p and
air at pressure p and temperature Tw ; hw(p,Tw) is the temperature Ti ; h(p,T,r) is the enthalpy of
enthalpy of 1 gram of pure water at pressure p and 1 + r grams of moist air, composed of 1 gram of dry
temperature Tw ; h(p,T,r) is the enthalpy of air and r grams of water vapour, at pressure p and
1 + rw grams of moist air, composed of 1 gram of dry temperature T; and h(p,Ti ,ri (p,Ti)) is the enthalpy
air and r grams of water vapour, at pressure p and of 1 + ri grams of saturated air, composed of 1 gram
temperature T; and h(p,Tw ,rw (p,Tw )) is the enthalpy of dry air and ri grams of water vapour, at pressure p
of 1 + rw grams of saturated air, composed of 1 gram and temperature Ti . (This is a function of p and Ti
of dry air and rw grams of water vapour, at pressure only, and may appropriately be denoted by
p and temperature Tw. (This is a function of p and hsi(p,Ti ).)
Tw only and may appropriately be denoted by
hsw(p,Tw).) If air and water vapour are regarded as ideal gases
with constant specific heats, the above equation
If air and water vapour are regarded as ideal gases becomes:
with constant specific heats, the above equation
⎡⎣ ri ( p,Ti ) − r ⎤⎦ Ls (Ti )
becomes: T − Ti = (4.A.21)
c p + rc pv
⎡⎣ rw ( p,Tw ) − r ⎤⎦ Lv (Tw )
T − Tw = (4.A.19)
c pa + rc pv where Ls(Ti ) is the heat of sublimation of ice at

temperature Ti.
The relationship between Tw and Ti as defined and

the wet-bulb or ice-bulb temperature as indicated
by a particular psychrometer is a matter to be deter-
The enthalpy of a system in equilibrium at pressure p and
mined by carefully controlled experiment, taking
temperature T is defined as E + pV, where E is the internal
energy of the system and V is its volume. The sum of the
into account the various variables concerned, for
enthalpies of the phases of a closed system is conserved in example, ventilation, size of thermometer bulb and
adiabatic isobaric processes. radiation.
Annex 4.B
Formulae for the computation of measures of humidity
(see also section 4.1.2)
Saturation vapour pressure:
ew(t) = 6.112 exp [17.62 t/(243.12 + t)] Water (–45 to 60°C) (pure phase) e’w (p,t)
= f(p) · ew(t) Moist air
ei(t) = 6.112 exp [22.46 t/(272.62 + t)] Ice (–65 to 0°C) (pure phase)
e’i(p,t) = f(p) · ei(t) Moist air
f(p) = 1.0016 + 3.15 · 10–6 p – 0.074 p–1 [see note]
Dew point and frost point:
243.12 ⋅ ln [ eʹ / 6.112 f ( p)]

td =
17.62 − ln [ eʹ / 6.112 f ( p)] Water (–45 to 60°C)
272.62 ⋅ ln [ eʹ / 6.112 f ( p)] Ice (–65 to 0°C)

tf =
22.46 − ln [ eʹ / 6.112 f ( p)]
Psychrometric formulae for the Assmann psychrometer:
e’ = e’w (p,tw) - 6.53 . 10–4 · (1 + 0.000 944 tw) · p · (t – tw) Water
e’ = e’i (p,ti) - 5.75 . 10–4 · p · (t – ti) Ice
Relative humidity:
U = 100 e’/e’w (p,t) %
U = 100 e’w (p,td)/e’w (p,t) %
Units applied:
t = air temperature (dry-bulb temperature);
tw = wet-bulb temperature;
ti = ice-bulb temperature;
td = dewpoint temperature;
tf = frost-point temperature;
p = pressure of moist air;
ew(t) = saturation vapour pressure in the pure phase with regard to water at the dry-bulb temperature;
ew(tw) = saturation vapour pressure in the pure phase with regard to water at the wet-bulb temperature;
ei(t) = saturation vapour pressure in the pure phase with regard to ice at the dry-bulb temperature;
ei(ti) = saturation vapour pressure in the pure phase with regard to ice at the ice-bulb temperature;
e′w (t) = saturation vapour pressure of moist air with regard to water at the dry-bulb temperature;
e′w (tw) = saturation vapour pressure of moist air with regard to water at the wet-bulb temperature;
e′i (t) = saturation vapour pressure of moist air with regard to ice at the dry-bulb temperature;
e′i (ti) = saturation vapour pressure of moist air with regard to ice at the ice-bulb temperature;
U = relative humidity.
Note: In fact, f is a function of both pressure and temperature, i.e. f = f(p, t), as explained in WMO (1966) in the introduction to
Table 4.10. In practice, the temperature dependency (±0.1%) is much lower with respect to pressure (0 to +0.6%). Therefore, the tempera-
ture dependency may be omitted in the formula above (see also WMO (1989a), Chapter 10). This formula, however, should be used
only for pressure around 1 000 hPa (i.e. surface measurements) and not for upper-air measurements, for which WMO (1966), Table 4.10
should be used.
References and further reading
Bindon, H.H., 1965: A critical review of tables and World Meteorological Organization, 1988:
charts used in psychrometry. In: A. Wexler (ed.), Technical Regulations. Volume I, WMO-No. 49,
Humidity and Moisture, Volume 1, Reinhold, Geneva.
New York, pp. 3–15. World Meteorological Organization, 1989a:
Sonntag, D., 1990: Important new values of the WMO Assmann Aspiration Psychrometer
physical constants of 1986, vapour pressure Intercomparison (D. Sonntag). Instruments and
formulations based on the ITS-90 and psychrom- Observing Methods Report No. 34, WMO/TD-
eter formulae. Zeitschrift für Meteorologie, No. 289, Geneva.
Volume 40, Number 5, pp. 340–344. World Meteorological Organization, 1989b: WMO
Sonntag, D., 1994: Advancements in the field of International Hygrometer Intercomparison
hygrometry. Zeitschrift für Meteorologie, (J. Skaar, K. Hegg, T. Moe and K. Smedstud).
Volume 3, Number 2, pp. 51–66. Instruments and Observing Methods Report
Wexler, A. (ed.), 1965: Humidity and Moisture. No. 38, WMO/TD-No. 316, Geneva.
Volumes 1 and 3, Reinhold, New York. World Meteorological Organization, 1992:
World Meteorological Organization, 1966: Measurement of Temperature and Humidity
International Meteorological Tables (S. Letestu, (R.G. Wylie and T. Lalas). Technical Note
ed.). WMO-No. 188.TP.94, Geneva. No. 194, WMO-No. 759, Geneva.

Measurement of Humidity

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Measurement of Humidity

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Measurement of Humidity

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CHAPTER 4

4.1 General More accurate and detailed formulations of these

The corrigendum to WMO (1988), issued in 2000, contains

Any instrument for measuring humidity is known

When moist air at temperature T, pressure p and

Goldbeater’s skin 10 16 140 4.1.4.11 Protective filters

4.2.1.6 Use of electrical resistance –10 14 3

The psychrometric formulae in Annex 4.B used

water reservoir has about the same temperature as 4.2.5.1 Description

4.4 The chilled-mirror dewpoint

The equilibrium temperature achieved is

The instrument should be energized continu-

The temperature-sensing apparatus should be main-

length can be determined by measuring the

Table 4.4. Standard instruments for the measurement of humidity

Dewpoint temperature Relative humidity (%)

Requirement – 60 to –15 0.3 5 to 100 0.2

Gravimetric hygrometer – 60 to –35 0.25

Standard two-temperature – 75 to –15 0.25

Requirement – 80 to –15 0.75 5 to 100 0.5

Chilled-mirror hygrometer –60 to 40 0.15

Reference psychrometer 5 to 100 0.6

Requirement – 80 to –15 1.0 5 to 100 1.5

Reference psychrometer 5 to 100 0.6

Chilled-mirror hygrometer –60 to 40 0.3

Requirement –15 to 40 0.5 5 to 100 2

Assmann psychrometer –10 to 25 40 to 90 1

Chilled-mirror hygrometer –10 to 30 0.5

rapidly excreted in urine (provide plenty of

Saturated salt solutions can be applied with sensors

The relation also holds for the solid phase if the

(9) Mole fraction of water vapour in moist

(10) Saturation vapour pressure of moist air: ⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ pxv ⎞

(13) The thermodynamic frost-point tempera-

The relationship between Tw and Ti as defined and

Saturation vapour pressure:

e’i(p,t) = f(p) · ei(t) Moist air

f(p) = 1.0016 + 3.15 · 10–6 p – 0.074 p–1 [see note]

Dew point and frost point:

243.12 ⋅ ln [ eʹ / 6.112 f ( p)]

272.62 ⋅ ln [ eʹ / 6.112 f ( p)] Ice (–65 to 0°C)

Psychrometric formulae for the Assmann psychrometer:

e’ = e’w (p,tw) - 6.53 . 10–4 · (1 + 0.000 944 tw) · p · (t – tw) Water

e’ = e’i (p,ti) - 5.75 . 10–4 · p · (t – ti) Ice

References and further reading

You might also like