Having examined how variables are measured, we will now discuss the various sources of data and the

ways in which data can be gathered for purposes of analysis, testing hypotheses, and answering the research questions SOURCE OF DATA Data can be obtained from primary or secondary data. Primary data refer to information obtained first-hand by the researcher on the variables of interest for the specific purpose of the study. Secondary data refer to information gathered from source that already exist. Primary sources of data Individuals provide information when interviewed, administered questionnaires, or observed. Group depth interviews, or focus groups, are another rich source of primary data Focus group Focus groups consist typically of eight to ten members with a moderator leading the discussions for about two hours on a particular topic, concept, or product. Members are generally chosen on the basis of their expertise in the topic on which information is sought. Focus group discussions on a specific topic at a particular location and at a specified time provide the opportunity for a flexible, free-flowing format for the members. The unstructured and spontaneous responses are expected to reflect the genuine opinions, ideas, and feelings of the members about the topic under discussion. The selection of and role played by the moderator are critical. The moderator introduces the topic, observes, and takes notes and/or tapes the discussions. The moderator never becomes an integral part of the discussions, but merely steers the group persuasively to obtain all the relevant information, and helps the group members to get through any impasse that might occur. It should be noted that though data obtained through these homogeneous group members are the least expensive of the various data collection methods, and also lend themselves for quick analysis, the content analysis of the data so obtained provides only qualitative and not quantitative information. Focus groups are used for (1) exploratory studies, (2) making generalizations based on the information generated by them, and (3) conducting sample surveys. If regional variations in responses are expected, several focus groups could be formed including trained moderators at different locations. This process is easily facilitated through videoconferencing. By zooming in on a particular member the nonverbal cues and gestures of that individual can be captured, as and when desired. This also obviates the need for an observer looking through a one-way mirror.

Panels Panels, like focus groups, are another source of primary information for research purposes. Whereas focus groups meet for a one-time group session, panels (of members) meet more than once. In cases where the effects of certain interventions or changes are to be studied over a period of time, panel studies are very useful. Individuals are randomly chosen to serve as panel members for a research study. A panel is a source of direct information. Panels could be static or dynamic, and are typically used when several aspects of a product are to be studied from time to time. The Deplhi Technique is a forecasting method that uses a cautiously selected panel of the experts in a systematic, interactive manner. Unobtrusive measures Unobtrusive measures, or trace measures as they are also called, originate from a primary source that does not involve people. One example is the wear and tear of journals in a university library, which offers a good indication of their popularity, frequency of use, or both. Secondary sources of data Secondary data are indispensable for most organizational research. Secondary data can be used, among other things, for forecasting sales by constructing models based on past sales figures, and through extrapolation. The advantage of seeking secondary data sources is savings in time and costs of acquiring information. However, secondary data as the sole source of information has the drawback of becoming obsolete, and not meeting the specific needs of the particular situation or setting. Hence, it is important to refer to sources that offer current and upto-date information. DATA COLLECTION METHODS Data collection methods are an integral part of research design. Data can be collected in a variety of ways, in different settingsfield or laband from different sources, as we have just discussed. Data collection methods include interviewsface-to-face interviews, telephone interviews, computer-assisted interviews, and interviews through the electronic media; questionnaires that are either personally administered, sent through the mail, or electronically administered; observation of individuals and events with or without videotaping or audio recording; and a variety of other motivational techniques such as projective tests. Interviewing One method of collecting data is to interview respondents to obtain information on the issues of interest. Interviews could be unstructured or structured, and conducted either face to face or by telephone or online.

Unstructured and structured interviews Unstructured interviews are so labeled because the interviewer does not enter the interview setting with a planned sequence of questions to be asked of the respondent. Structured interviews are those conducted when it is known at the outset what information is needed. The main purpose of the unstructured interview is to explore and probe into the several factors in the situation that might be central to the broad problem area. During this process it might become evident that the problem, as identified by the client, is but a symptom of a more serious and deep-rooted problem. Conducting unstructured interviews with many people in the organization could result in the identification of several critical factors in the situation. These would then be pursued further during the structured interviews for eliciting more in- depth information on them. This will help identify the critical problem as well as solve it. In applied research, a tentative theory of the factors contributing to the problem is often conceptualized on the basis of the information obtained from the unstructured and structured interviews. Training interviewers When several long interviews are to be conducted, it is often not feasible for one individual to conduct all the interviews. A team of trained interviewers then becomes necessary. Interviewers have to be thoroughly briefed about the research and trained in how to start an interview, how to proceed with the questions, how to motivate respondents to answer, what to look for in the answers, and how to close an interview. Good planning, proper training, offering clear guidelines to interviewers, and supervising their work all help in profitably utilizing the interviewing technique as a viable data collection mechanism. Some tips to follow when interviewing Establishing credibility as able researchers with the client system and the organizational members is important for the success of the research project. Researchers need to establish rapport with the respondents and motivate them to give responses relatively free from bias by allaying whatever suspicions, fears, anxieties, and concerns they may have about the research and its consequences. This can be accomplished by being sincere, pleasant, and nonevaluative. While interviewing, the researcher has to ask broad questions initially and then narrow them down to specific areas, ask questions in an unbiased way, offer clarifications when needed, and help respondents to think through difficult issues. The responses should be transcribed immediately and not be trusted to memory and later recall. Face-to-face and telephone interviews

Interviews can be conducted either face to face or over the telephone. They could also be computer-assisted. Telephone interviews are best suited when information from a large number of respondents spread over a wide geographic area is to be obtained quickly, and the likely duration of each interview is, say, ten minutes or less. Many market surveys, for instance, are conducted through structured telephone interviews. Face-to-face interviews The main advantage of face-to-face or direct interviews is that the researcher can adapt the questions as necessary, clarify doubts, and ensure that the responses are properly understood, by repeating or rephrasing the questions. The main disadvantages of face-to-face interviews are the geographical limitations they may impose on the surveys and the vast resources needed if such surveys need to be done nationally or internationally. Telephone interviews The main advantage of telephone interviewing, from the researchers point of view, is that a number of different people can be reached (if need be, across the country or even internationally) in a relatively short period of time. A main disadvantage of telephone interviewing is that the respondent could unilaterally terminate the interview without warning or explanation, by hanging up the phone. Computer-assisted interviewing With computer-assisted interviews (CAI), thanks to modern technology, questions are flashed onto the computer screen and interviewers can enter the answers of the respondents directly into the computer. The accuracy of data collection is considerably enhanced since the software can be programmed to flag the offbase or out-of-range responses. CAI software also prevents interviewers from asking the wrong questions or in the wrong sequence since the questions are automatically flashed to the respondent in an ordered sequence. There are two types of computer-assisted interview programs: CATI (computer-assisted telephone interviewing) and CAPI (computer-assisted personal interviewing). CATI, used in research organizations, is useful inasmuch as responses to surveys can be obtained from people all over the world since the PC is networked into the telephone system. CAPI involves big investments in hardware and software. CAPI has an advantage in that it can be self-administered; that is, respondents can use their own computers to run the program by themselves once they receive the software and enter their responses, thereby reducing errors in recording. Questionnaires

A questionnaire is a preformulated written set of questions to which respondents record their answers, usually within rather closely defined alternatives. Questionnaires are an efficient data collection mechanism when the researcher knows exactly what is required and how to measure the variables of interest. Personally administered questionnaires When the survey is confined to a local area, and the organization is willing and able to assemble groups of employees to respond to the questionnaires at the workplace, a good way to collect data is to personally administer the questionnaires. The main advantage of this is that the researcher or a member of the research team can collect all the completed responses within a short period of time. Mail questionnaires The main advantage of mail questionnaires is that a wide geographical area can be covered in the survey. They are mailed to the respondents, who can complete them at their convenience, in their homes, and at their own pace. However, the return rates of mail questionnaires are typically low. A 30% response rate is considered acceptable. Guidelines for questionnaire design Sound questionnaire design principles should focus on three areas. The first relates to the wording of the questions. The second refers to planning of issues of how the variables will be categorized, scaled, and coded after receipt of the responses. The third pertains to the general appearance of the questionnaire. All three are important issues in questionnaire design because they can minimize bias in research. The principles of wording refer to such factors as: 1. The appropriateness of the content of the questions, 2. How questions are worded and the level of sophistication of the language used, 3. The type and form of questions asked, 4. The sequencing of the questions, and 5. The personal data sought from the respondents. Other methods of data collection 1. Observational studies 2. Data collection through mechanical observation 3. Multimethods of data collection