Vocational Education and Training - Key To The Future: Lisbon-Copenhagen-Maastricht: Mobilising For 2010

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Europe 123, GR-570 01 Thessaloniki (Pylea)
Postal address: PO Box 22427, GR-551 02 Thessaloniki
Tel. (30) 23 10 49 01 11, Fax (30) 23 10 49 00 20
E-mail: [email protected]
Homepage: www.cedefop.eu.int
Interactive website: www.trainingvillage.gr
European Centre for the
Development of Vocational Training
Free of charge 4041 EN
9 789289 603294
ISBN 92-896-0329-1
This report puts together the main findings of a study (Maastricht
study, Leney et al. 2004) examining developments in VET and
progress towards the Lisbon and Copenhagen goals in 31 European
countries.
The report considers key challenges facing VET and looks at efforts
made at national and European levels. It compares and contrasts
the state of VET in Europe with that of competitor countries, such
as Australia, Canada and the US.
The report puts forward conclusions and recommendations for
future action to improve the contribution of VET to meeting the
Lisbon goal. This is for the EU to become the most dynamic and
competitive knowledge-based economy in the world, delivering
sustainable growth, generating more and better jobs and creating
more social cohesion.
The report is intended to inform reflection and act as a stimulus
for debate. It includes examples of practice and data on key
indicators to enable policy-makers to benchmark their own systems
in relation to others.
Manfred Tessaring
Jennifer Wannan
Cedefop synthesis of the Maastricht Study
Vocational education
and training
key to the future
Lisbon-Copenhagen-Maastricht:
mobilising for 2010
C O L I B R I L t d - F I N A L V E R S I O N
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2004
and training
key to the future
mobilising for 2010
Manfred Tessaring
Jennifer Wannan
A great deal of additional information on the European Union is available on
the Internet. It can be accessed through the Europa server (http://europa.eu.int).
Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this publication.
Luxembourg:
Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2004
ISBN 92-896-0329-1
European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training, 2004
All rights reserved.
Designed by Colibri Ltd. Greece
Printed in Greece
The European Centre for the Development of
Vocational Training (Cedefop) is the European Union's
reference Centre for vocational education and training.
We provide information on and analyses
of vocational education and training systems,
policies, research and practice.
Cedefop was established in 1975
by Council Regulation (EEC) No 337/75.
Europe 123
GR-570 01 Thessaloniki (Pylea)
Postal address: PO Box 22427
GR-551 02 Thessaloniki
Tel. (30) 23 10 49 01 11, Fax (30) 23 10 49 00 20
E-mail: [email protected]
Homepage: www.cedefop.eu.int
Interactive website: www.trainingvillage.gr
Project manager:
Manfred Tessaring, Jennifer Wannan, Cedefop
Published under the responsibility of:
Johan van Rens, Director
Stavros Stavrou, Deputy Director
Table of contents
Summary and main conclusions 3
Introduction 10
Section A Context and key challenges 14
A1 Image, attractiveness and participation in VET 15
A2 Labour market and demographic change 19
A3 Low skilled people 22
Section B Achievements and priorities at national level 24
B1 Implementation of agreed reforms and practices 25
B2 Training expenditure and incentives 29
B3 Economic performance the contribution
of education and training 33
B4 Social cohesion and people at risk 35
B5 Learning pathways and guidance in a framework
of lifelong learning 40
B6 Involvement of stakeholders and partnerships 46
B7 Innovative pedagogies and learning-conducive
environments 48
B8 The role of teachers and trainers in assuring
quality in VET 51
Section C The contribution of the Copenhagen process
to achieving the Lisbon goals 53
Annexes 58
References 65
Vocational education and training key to the future
Lisbon-Copenhagen-Maastricht: mobilising for 2010
List of Tables and Figures
Tables 1 Competitiveness indicators for selected OECD countries 16
2 Pupils in upper secondary education enrolled
in vocational stream (%) 19
3 Population scenario for EU15 until 2050 21
4 Educational attainment of adults in selected OECD
countries, 2000-2003 23
5 The relationship between national and EU policies for VET 24
6 Public and private expenditure on education and
training institutions (excluding tertiary education) in OECD
countries as a percentage of GDP 2001
and change 1995-2001 30
7 Employment and unemployment rates by sex
and educational attainment, EU25, 2003 38
A1 Population aged 26-64 years by highest level
of education attained 2003 (%) 4
Figures 1 Education and training 2010 -European strategies 10
2 Upper secondary graduation rates in selected European
countries, Japan and the US; 1998, 2002 18
3 Unemployment rates of the population by level
of education, 2003, EU25 (%) 20
4 Public expenditure on all levels of education and training
as percent of GDP, 1995,1998, 2001 29
5 Population aged 20-24 with at least upper secondary
education and training (ISCED 3-6), 1995, 1999, 2003 (%) 35
6 Early school leavers (a) in Europe, 1996, 2000, 2003 (%) 37
7 Participation of the European population aged 25 to 64
in lifelong learning; 1996, 2000, 2003 (%) 43
8 Participation in continuing vocational training courses;
1993, 1999; EU25 (% of employees, all enterprises) 43
A1 Pupils in upper secondary education enrolled
in vocational stream, 1998, 2002 (%) 63
2
Summary and main
conclusions
A. Progress towards the Lisbon goals?
1. Over the last four years the overall performance of the European
economy has been disappointing, and the gap with North America and
some Asian countries has widened. This has been caused mainly by
structural weaknesses in the European economy. Few European
countries score high on competitiveness and performance.
Three clusters of competitive countries can be identified: the core
countries, including Germany and France, with high labour productivity,
social spending, and well-developed social partnership; the Nordic
group, including Norway, Sweden and partly Denmark, with high
economic performance and participation in the labour market and
education and training, and a pronounced social partner approach; and
the United Kingdom (together with the US) with high employment rates,
sufficient economic performance, lower social spending and less
developed social partnership.
2. In Lisbon in 2000, the European Council set the ambitious goal of making
Europe the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in
the world by 2010. All Member States are responsible for ensuring that
adequate attention is given to the achievement of the Lisbon goals and
related benchmarks within their national contexts. They have made
considerable effort but, at this halfway stage, progress is mixed. This
reflects the varied starting positions of countries, their different
circumstances and specific challenges. Competitor countries are moving
forward in modernising their economies as well as their education and
training systems.
3. In Barcelona in 2002, the European Council set an additional objective of
making education and training a world quality reference by 2010, in
particular through better insight into learning demand as the basis for a
lifelong learning strategy. Member States have agreed that coherent
lifelong strategies be developed by 2006; VET should form a key element.
Although many countries have initiated measures to promote lifelong
learning, coherent structures are generally lacking. Many fundamental
elements of quality including strengthening the status and roles of
teachers and trainers, quality assurance systems, information, advice
and guidance systems, and increased permeability between pathways
have not been implemented on a large scale in most European countries.
4. Vocational education and training is an integral part of promoting the
achievement of the Lisbon and Barcelona goals. The Copenhagen
process (2002) provides the overall Framework for European VET
development. It has raised awareness of key issues and has accelerated
cooperation, comparison and compatibility of VET policies in Europe.
However, there is much need for further action strengthening especially
at national level, implementation, cooperation and coordination with all
stakeholders, and further developing the open method of coordination.
B. Key challenges
1. Europe has committed itself to becoming a knowledge society,
combining economic performance with social inclusion. However, at
present 80 million EU citizens are low skilled. It is estimated that by 2010
almost half of the net additional jobs will require people with tertiary level
qualifications; just under 40 % will require upper secondary level and
only 15 % of jobs will be for those with basic schooling. This means a
dramatic decline in job prospects for the low skilled. Therefore, better
acknowledgement of the importance and value of learning, knowledge
and competences is required. More participation in education and
training and acquisition of at least basic skills and a good literacy level
should be top of the European agenda.
2. The workforce is both shrinking and ageing owing to the effects of
demographic change. Urgent action is needed to integrate those who are
currently inactive into the labour force. Europe cannot afford to waste its
most precious asset, its human resources. The unemployed and the
hidden labour force represent 33 million people in the EU25. It is not only
necessary to help more people especially women into jobs, we must
also help people to remain in jobs for a full working life. It is essential that
measures are taken to address structural unemployment, to increase skill
levels and to provide better access to, and delivery of, learning for all.
3. Employment and productivity growth are increasingly driven by
innovation. To harness the full potential of the new economy for higher
skilled, more stable and more rewarding jobs, Europes workforce must
be skilled and trained to meet modern labour market needs, and the
4
demands of new and rapidly changing technologies. Between 1995-2000
1.5 million jobs were created in the EU in the high-tech sector and 5.5
million in high education sectors. Highly-skilled occupations accounted
for over 60 % of jobs created. Skills and competences strongly influence
creativity, innovation and adaptability. Academic excellence and research
are crucial but the transfer and application of knowledge in companies
and organisations also require skilled workers with job-related
competences, acquired through initial vocational training and updated by
continuing training within a lifelong learning perspective. VET has an
important role to play in raising the quality of work, increasing job
satisfaction and motivating workers as well as enhancing productivity.
4. The low level of transnational mobility hampers achieving a true
European labour market. Having the right skills in the right place at the
right time is essential for labour markets to operate more effectively on a
European scale and help even out skills bottlenecks. In many areas
demand for skilled workers already outstrips supply and skills
mismatches are limiting the EUs capacity for growth. Selective
immigration to attract new talent and to offset labour market shortages,
demographic decline and brain-drain is also needed. Education and
training can help reduce barriers to mobility by recognising skills and
competences acquired abroad and making people, especially young
people, more familiar with training and work in other countries.
5. It is vital that skills and training do not become the preserve of the elite
few but are open to everyone. Social cohesion and inclusion are not only
social goals, but also economic ones. A high number of socially excluded
people is a burden on economies and limits growth and investment in
innovative and future-oriented areas and sectors. Raising skills and
literacy levels of low performers can yield large economic gains. Tailor-
made measures for disadvantaged and at risk groups are needed to
increase their participation in training and employment and to prevent
high social costs in the longer term.
C. Priorities for VET
To meet the policy goals and respond to the challenges outlined above, VET
in Europe needs to address five main priorities.
1. Tackling the large number of low skilled people. Although European
countries have made some progress in raising the skill levels of their
populations, and the benchmark set by the Council of increasing
completion of upper secondary education and training to at least 85 %
is likely to be reached, the number of people with low skills remains too
high and jeopardises social cohesion, competitiveness and future
growth. Canada, the US, Japan and others, all have higher skills levels,
especially at tertiary level. Barriers to access and take up of VET need to
be removed and provision made more flexible and attractive, including
entry routes to higher education and training as well as the labour market.
A thorough analysis of the characteristics of the low skilled and other
disadvantaged groups is needed to develop more learner-centred
targeted measures to increase their participation in, and completion of,
VET. Action to combat early school leaving (ESL) has an important role to
play in reducing the number of people with low skills. The Council
benchmark of reducing ESL to 10 % is in sight if efforts are reinforced.
Strengthening vocational streams and work-based learning helps prevent
school dropout. Lifelong guidance and counselling support increased
participation and completion rates by helping younger and older people
to find the most appropriate pathways. Countries should strive to put in
place more coherent and pro-active career guidance systems which
ensure access for all and which develop career and learning
management skills.
2. Promoting continuing vocational training (CVT). CVT is the weakest link in
lifelong learning (LLL). The number of companies in the EU providing
training remains low and participation of adults in LLL is still below 10 %.
All stakeholders, including the social partners, have to act to develop
lifelong learning in practice. Measures are needed, in particular, to
encourage companies to train more, to support the development of
provision for SME employees and to encourage the participation of non-
traditional learners, including women returning to the labour market and
older workers. In addition to financial and time incentives, more
systematic recognition of non-formal and informal learning is required.
LLL pacts in collective agreements between the social partners at all
levels, and more learning conducive environments in vocational schools
6
and enterprises, more flexible learning provision including work-based,
open and distance learning and e-learning represent important
practical ways of making progress. If efforts are reinforced and
accelerated, the Council benchmark to increase participation in lifelong
learning to 12.5 % is not impossible to reach.
3. Increasing mobility to promote the development of a European labour
market. The lack of mutual recognition of qualifications and competences
is a major obstacle to mobility within the EU. The European Qualifications
Framework, together with the new Europass system and more
transnational placements, as foreseen in the new generation of education
and training programmes, are essential tools for achieving this goal.
These tools have to be reinforced and implemented on a large scale
under the particular responsibility of countries and social partners. Most
countries have not yet given sufficient attention to these issues. Regular
monitoring, evaluation and feedback are needed to measure progress
and improve the effectiveness of measures. To promote a closer match
between education and training supply and labour market demand,
strong links between VET institutes and the world of work are required
and should be complemented by European approaches for early
identification of new and changing skill needs. Strengthening training for
entrepreneurship can also reduce high failure rates of business start-ups
and contribute to job creation.
4. Investing in quality VET systems. The EU average public and private
expenditure for primary, lower and upper secondary education and
training is below that of competitors such as Australia and the US. More
investment is needed to close this gap and raise the skill levels of
Europes population. Despite the importance of skills and competences,
expenditure on training is often regarded as an immediate cost rather
than a longer-term investment. All actors must accept their responsibility
to raise the level and efficiency of spending on initial and continuing VET.
European and national budgets should also reflect the Lisbon priorities,
in particular education and training and R&D to promote
competitiveness. It is necessary to improve data and indicators on VET.
Quality assurance (QA) is a pre-requisite in ensuring a better return on
investment and more efficient and effective VET systems. Few countries
have implemented quality assurance systems. Training departments
have lagged behind production and marketing departments in adopting
a quality assurance approach. Steps need to be taken to ensure that QA
approaches are widely applied by public and private organisations
involved in VET.
5. Ensuring high quality and appropriately skilled VET professionals. VET
teachers and trainers are pivotal in promoting the Lisbon and
Copenhagen goals. The quality of VET depends primarily on the quality
of its teachers and trainers. VET has to keep pace with rapid changes in
work processes and content. The role of VET professionals is shifting
from pure instruction to encompass learning facilitation and innovation.
VET teaching is an ageing profession and in many countries the pay and
image of vocational teachers/trainers are low and shortages exist. As a
matter of urgency countries need to improve the status and
attractiveness of the VET profession. The right balance needs to be found
between further professionalisation of VET teachers/trainers and more
flexibility in policies for their recruitment. Special attention should be
given to their continuing training, including in how to exploit the learning
and innovation potential of ICTs as well as content specific training.
D. Making change happen
In the first phase of the Lisbon and Copenhagen processes, much has been
achieved at EU level, many agreements have been reached, concepts
clarified, common aims/principles and frameworks established and practical
tools developed to support EU education and training policy goals. In the
coming period up to 2010, to achieve real impact, the emphasis has to be
on moving to concrete action at national and regional levels. Because of its
close links to employment and the economy, VET policy has to be conceived
as an integral part of a wider policy framework, including all relevant
ministries and stakeholders from the education, social, employment,
finance, justice and other relevant domains. Moreover, to address effectively
the priorities outlined above, all the actors from the public, private and
community sectors need to mobilise and work together in partnership.
The EU will continue to provide support, both in the form of joint financing
and of exchange of experience, mutual learning and peer review. In turn,
Member States need to ensure that the financial possibilities for the
development of VET offered by the Structural Funds and by the new
education and training programmes are used to the full.
8
To move closer to a knowledge-based society, Europe needs an
innovation strategy to foster investment in, and the quality of, human capital.
More effective use of resources, a future-oriented design of VET and new
approaches to learning in schools and at work are essential ingredients of
such a strategy. Special attention needs to be given to the development of
key competences, including ICT literacy, learning partnerships (in particular
at local and regional levels) and the creation of learning-conducive
environments in all settings. To move forward, governments should identify
the key issues of such an innovation strategy, supported by public-private
partnerships and agreements on innovation pacts with social partners and
other stakeholders. Setting benchmarks and regular assessments of
progress made should become a joint activity for all those concerned.
Introduction
The Lisbon European Council in 2000 agreed a strategy to transform Europe
by 2010 into the most dynamic and competitive knowledge-based economy
in the world, delivering sustainable growth, generating more and better jobs
and creating greater social cohesion. Implementing lifelong learning has a
key role in achieving these goals. The Lisbon process was enhanced in
Barcelona and Copenhagen in 2002 as part of the Education and training
2010 strategy (Figure 1).
In Copenhagen, 31 ministers from the EU Members States, the EEA/EFTA
and candidate countries, the European social partners and the European
LISBON
EU COUNCIL
Strategic goal for the EU
'to become by 2010, the
most competitive and
dynamic knowledge-based
economy in the world,
capable of sustainable
economic growth with more
and better jobs and greater
social cohesion'.
STOCKHOLM
EU COUNCIL
Three strategic objectives of
ET systems and 13 associated
objectives:
1. Improving quality and
effectiveness of ET
systems in the EU
2. Facilitating access of all
to ET systems
3. Opening up ET systems
to the wider world
BARCELONA
EU COUNCIL
Working programme for
improving ET systems in
Europe
Strategic framework of a
European lifelong learning
system
Calls for an 'insight into
demand for learning'
approach as the basis of
lifelong learning strategy.
ET should become a world
quality reference.
Lifelong learning process
October 2000: Commission's Memorandum on lifelong learning
followed by Europe-wide consultation, resulting in the Communication
Making a European area of lifelong learning a reality,
November 2001: Priorities for action: valuing learning, information,
guidance and counselling, investing time and money, bringing together
learners and learning opportunities, basic skills, innovative pedagogy.
November 2002:
The Copenhagen
Declaration calls for
enhanced cooperation in
vocational education and
training.
2000 2001 2002
Figure 1: Education and training 2010 - European strategies
Commission agreed on the Copenhagen Declaration. It calls for enhanced
cooperation in vocational education and training (VET), prioritising the
European dimension; transparency, information and guidance; recognition of
competences and qualifications; quality assurance and teachers and
trainers. The Maastricht Communiqu (December 2004) calls for an
assessment of progress towards the Lisbon/Copenhagen goals for VET at
national and EU level and sets new priorities.
This synthesis report draws mainly on the Maastricht study (
1
) and aims to
help policy makers situate the Maastricht Communiqu in context and
stimulate debate.
Introduction 11
(1) This study was commissioned by the European Commission in early 2004 (Leney et al., 2004) to
assess progress in VET. It covered EU Member States, EFTA and candidate countries (including Turkey)
and it included a survey of Directors-general for vocational training (DGVT) and country reports.
Priorities:
European dimension in VET
Transparency, information,
guidance
Recognition of competences
and qualifications
Quality assurance, teachers
and trainers.
May 2003: The Education Council agrees on European benchmarks
for the improvement of ET systems until 2010, concerning:
Reduce early school leavers
Increase graduates in mathematics, science and technology
Improve basic skills
Completion of upper secondary education
Decrease low-achieving youth in reading literacy
Higher participation in lifelong learning
Investment in human resources.
BRUSSELS
EU COUNCIL
Implementation of a 10-year
programme on the objectives
for ET systems, ensuring
efficient and effective
investments in human
resources
Foster transparency,
recognition and quality
assurance of qualifications
across the EU
Put emphasis on basic skills,
languages, digital literacy and
lifelong learning in ET systems.
BRUSSELS EDUCATION
COUNCIL
Resolution on guidance
Conclusions on:
Quality assurance in VET
Identification and validation
of non-formal and
informal learning
Decision on Europass.
MAASTRICHT
The Maastricht Communiqu
takes stock of progress made
on the Lisbon/ Copenhagen
strategy and sets new
priorities and strategies
under the Copenhagen
process on Enhanced
European Cooperation in VET.
2003 2004 Dec. 2004
ET: education and training
The report is in three parts:
Part A provides a brief overview of the major challenges facing VET in
Europe today, including improving the image and attractiveness of
VET (A1); adapting to labour market needs and the impact of
demographic change (A2); and responding to the needs of low
skilled and disadvantaged groups for social cohesion and labour
market participation (A3).
Part B reviews progress achieved by Member States to date and national
priorities. Issues include implementing reforms and practices (B1);
training expenditure and incentives (B2); economic performance and
the contribution of education and training (B3); social cohesion and
people at risk (B4); open learning pathways and guidance (B5);
involvement of stakeholders and partnerships (B6); innovative
pedagogies and learning-conducive environments (B7); and the role
of teachers and trainers in assuring quality in VET (B8).
Part C summarises the contribution, at European level, of the Copenhagen
process in achieving the Lisbon goals.
Data and examples from Europes main competitors are in parts A and B.
A few examples of Member State actions are included in part B. A thematic
summary of the main measures taken by European countries to promote
VET under the Lisbon and Copenhagen processes, further references and
more detailed tables and figures are provided in Annex.
12
Introduction 13
(2) More information on countries can be obtained from Cedefop which has published
comprehensive monographs for all European countries.
VET comprises all more or less organised or structured activities that aim to provide people with
the knowledge, skills and competences necessary to perform a job or a set of jobs, whether or
not they lead to a formal qualification. VET is independent of venue, age or other characteristics
of participants and previous level of qualifications. VET may be job-specific or directed at a
broader range of occupations. It may also include elements of general education. The major
importance of VET for individuals, enterprises and society is widely acknowledged, and is
perceived as a key element of lifelong learning.
VET takes a variety of forms in different countries and also within a given country. It can be
organised as prevocational training to prepare young people for transition to a VET programme
at upper secondary level. Initial VET normally leads to a certificate at upper secondary level. It
can be school-based, enterprise-based, or a combination of both (as in the dual system).
Completion of initial VET qualifies for access to a skilled job, and gives access to post-
secondary, and sometimes higher education. VET at post-secondary level provides access to
higher skilled jobs (e.g. master or technician) and can also open the way to higher education.
Continuing vocational training (CVT) takes multiple forms, ranging from short training courses
to participation in advanced and longer programmes. CVT can be organised by companies or
networks of companies, social partner organisations, and local, regional and state bodies.
Participants include employees, unemployed people or those returning to the labour market.
This report aims to provide a selective overview of developments in key aspects of VET (
2
).
Defining VET
SECTION A
Context and key challenges
Competitiveness is Europe catching up?
Estimates are that up to 30 % of workers in future will work directly in
producing and diffusing knowledge (Kok, 2004, p. 19). It is evident that
industrialised countries are transforming themselves into knowledge-based
economies. If Europe is to compete in the global knowledge society, it must
also invest more in its most precious asset its people. The productivity and
competitiveness of Europe are directly dependent on a well-educated,
skilled and adaptable workforce. (ibid., p. 33)
In its paper on Canada's innovation strategy (Knowledge matters, 2002), the Canadian
government emphasises that, by 2004, around 70 % of all new jobs will require some
form of post-secondary education, and another 25 % of new jobs a university degree.
Only 6 % of new jobs will be held by those who have not finished high school.
Competitiveness is a major Lisbon goal and includes economic and
employment performance, social cohesion and sustainable economic
growth. Competitiveness analyses the facts and policies that shape the
ability of a nation to create and maintain an environment that sustains more
value creation for its enterprises and more prosperity for its people. (IMD,
2004, p. 740). To assess competitiveness a number of indicators, including
investment in education and training, are required to rank countries.
Although subject to criticism, rankings if based on reliable data and
methods can show a countrys position in a comparative context.
How competitive is Europe today? Table 1 provides some indicators
based on detailed data from the OECD, the World Bank, the ILO, the UNO
and others.
Some European countries, especially Denmark, Ireland, Luxembourg and Finland are
among the top 10 on economic performance, government and business efficiency.
Most EU countries, however, are less competitive than Australia, Canada and the US
in relation to economic and technological advancement.
The Maastricht study (2004) identifies three clusters of competitive
economies:
1. core countries (Germany, France) characterised by high productivity
(GDP/working hour), high social spending and an inclusive social partner
approach;
2. the Nordic group (Finland, Norway, Sweden and partly Denmark) with
the best economic performance such as growth and productivity in
Europe, high labour market and education-training participation, high
social spending and a pronounced social partner approach;
3. the Anglo-Saxon countries (the UK, the US) with high employment rates
and economic performance (but low productivity in the UK), lower social
spending and less developed social partnership.
Insufficient data and indicators for VET hamper assessment
of progress
It is difficult to assess the contribution of education and training to
competitiveness, even harder to calculate the specific impact of VET. Data
from national systems differ in their characteristics and are hard to compare,
especially over time. Similar constraints are faced by all countries. In the
US, for example, the reliability and validity of much of the data on VET is
poor (NAVE, 2004). There is a need to improve information and provide a
better picture of comparative trends for VET across European countries to
help policy makers monitor and evaluate policies.
A1. Image, attractiveness and participation in VET
The attractiveness or image of any education or training route is subjective.
Deciding factors include access to further studies, career prospects,
earnings and social status. A possible indicator for the image and
attractiveness of education and training is enrolment. However, data on age-
specific enrolment rates in upper secondary education and training
especially in vocational programmes, are not available (
3
). Figure 2 shows
the development of graduation rates from upper secondary level over recent
years.
SECTION A
Context and key challenges 15
(3) One of the reasons is that enrolment is spread over a broad range of ages years in different
countries.
Lisbon-Copenhagen-Maastricht: mobilising for 2010 16
BE
CZ
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DE
EE
EL
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FR
IE
IT
LU
HU
NL
AT
PL
PT
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
CH
IS
NO
AU
CA
CN
KR
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o
m
p
u
t
e
r
s

p
e
r
c
a
p
i
t
a

(
d
)

(
2
0
0
3
)
20
28
32
4
29
45
22
13
6
39
3
47
7
21
57
42
33
46
31
25
14
27
15
26
19
8
2
49
17
1
44
48
5
34
15
49
22
41
13
56
9
43
25
14
58
32
47
26
4
19
29
11
7
17
2
6
21
36
37
10
20
50
9
34
31
39
38
43
11
54
12
47
15
14
56
48
51
46
10
16
21
25
5
27
4
8
35
29
37
1
40.58
18.03
37.06
34.89
16.06
29.58
30.55
42.38
45.10
39.31
53.37
18.03
38.10
36.41
16.33
20.34
22.83
17.52
34.22
30.65
30.93
27.68
31.78
43.56
34.16
31.99
4.39
16.56
29.88
40.72
8
36
13
15
42
25
23
6
3
10
2
37
12
14
41
35
31
39
17
22
21
27
20
5
18
19
57
40
24
7
0.66
-0.08
-0.35
-0.33
1.20
-0.07
2.63
0.78
3.51
0.65
2.88
1.06
1.00
1.40
-1.38
0.48
-1.33
0.34
-0.38
0.66
0.19
0.70
0.25
-0.21
1.49
2.16
1.25
0.17
-0.34
1.14
38
49
54
52
26
48
9
34
4
39
7
30
32
24
58
42
57
44
55
37
46
35
45
51
22
15
25
47
53
27
18
34
5
10
35
39
31
16
25
37
21
32
14
17
47
36
38
42
7
4
24
3
8
11
13
6
41
27
2
1
16.9
13.9
14.8
17.1
15.5
19.2
17.1
16.2
11.1
18.3
14.4
15.4
13.6
15.5
12.5
16.6
14.4
11.4
15.4
17.2
15.9
15.4
11.7
14.9
12.6
12.5
7.3
7.9
18.5
12.5
535
236
680
511
240
143
233
440
515
339
639
164
638
501
122
224
309
195
680
706
547
656
684
675
650
652
33
391
509
745
14
33
5
17
32
40
34
24
16
28
10
38
11
20
42
36
30
37
4
2
13
7
3
6
9
8
55
27
19
1
Table 1: Competitiveness indicators for selected OECD countries
Business efficiency
RANKING
SECTION A
Business efficiencyInfrastructure
RANKING RANKING RANKING RANKING per 1000
I
n
t
e
r
n
e
t

u
s
e
r
s

(
e
)
(
2
0
0
3
)
H
i
g
h
-
t
e
c
h

e
x
p
o
r
t
s
(
f
)

(
2
0
0
2
)
T
o
t
a
l

e
x
p
e
n
d
i
t
u
r
e
o
n

R
&
D

(
g
)

(
2
0
0
2
)
H
u
m
a
n

d
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t
i
n
d
e
x

(
h
)

(
2
0
0
1
)
435
294
645
442
399
241
307
361
410
408
440
247
565
508
218
555
410
230
589
648
508
582
659
629
601
594
61
605
566
597
23
37
3
20
30
40
35
32
27
28
22
39
13
18
42
15
26
41
9
2
17
10
1
4
6
8
55
5
12
7
10.5
14.3
21.7
16.6
12.0
9.9
6.9
21.2
40.6
9.0
18.9
24.8
27.7
15.3
2.8
7.0
5.2
3.2
24.2
16.4
31.4
21.0
5.5
22.3
16.5
14.3
23.3
31.5
24.5
31.8
40
35
18
29
38
42
47
20
6
43
26
13
12
34
59
46
49
58
15
32
10
22
48
17
31
36
16
8
14
7
2.2
1.3
2.4
2.5
0.8
0.6
1.0
2.2
1.2
1.1
1.7
1.0
1.9
1.9
0.6
0.9
1.2
0.6
3.4
4.3
1.9
2.6
3.1
1.6
1.6
1.8
1.2
2.5
3.1
2.7
16
26
12
11
42
47
38
15
33
34
23
37
19
18
46
39
31
49
3
2
20
9
5
24
25
22
30
10
6
8
6
35
11
21
40
30
23
18
11
26
11
38
5
17
37
29
33
39
11
3
11
9
2
1
4
6
54
34
9
6
BE
CZ
DK
DE
EE
EL
ES
FR
IE
IT
LU
HU
NL
AT
PL
PT
SI
SK
FI
SE
UK
CH
IS
NO
AU
CA
CN
KR
JP
US
C
o
u
n
t
r
i
e
s
Shaded areas: top ten
(a) Estimates: GDP (PPP) per person
employed per hour, USD
(b) Percentage change
(c) Percentage of total population
(d) Number of computers per 1000
people / Source: Computer
Industry Almanac
(e) Number of internet users per
1000 people / Source: Computer
Industry Almanac
(f) Percentage of manufactured
exports
(g) Percentage of GDP
(h) Combines economic - social -
educational indicators / Source:
Human Development Report
Source: IMD World Competitiveness
Yearbook 2004
% GDP %

Figure 2: Upper secondary graduation rates in selected European
countries, Japan and the US; 1998, 2002
Although VET contributes to individual, companies, economic and
societal performance, in some countries it is not as attractive as general
education, as reflected by participation rates in upper secondary vocational
streams. Most European countries (except Cyprus and Hungary) have high
proportions of young males in vocational pathways, while rates for females
are lower (Table 2). The proportion of young people in initial VET, compared
with general education is increasing in most of the old Member States
(except Germany, Italy, Luxembourg), but decreasing in most of the new
ones (Figure A1 in Annex). In the US, only about one quarter of students is
occupational concentrators (
4
).
In view of the often precarious labour market situation of women, their participation
in VET should be increased, through targeted courses and information campaigns to
raise the image of VET, including in traditionally male-dominated occupations which
provide clear career perspectives. Countries with decreasing participation in initial
VET should take steps to counteract this trend; this applies specifically to the new
Member States as well as Germany, Italy and Luxembourg.
The Maastricht study identified a close association between the level of graduation
rates in upper secondary vocational streams and lower rates of early school leavers
in many countries. Reinforcing vocational streams therefore, can prevent and reduce
school dropout. (See also Section B4)
18
(4) Occupational concentrators are students who participate most intensively in vocational
programmes (earning at least 3.0 occupational credits in one programme area). Source: NAVE, 2004.
DK
100
90
NO
97
DE
93
93
JP
92
96
PL
90
90
CH
90
84
FI
85
89
EL
85
83
HU
82
90
FR
82
87
IT
82
73
CZ
81
80
IS
79
92
BE
79
84
IE
77
87
US
73
74
SE
72
79
ES
68
67
LU
68
62
SK
61
60
100
75
50
25
0
(a) Denmark and Luxembourg: 2001
(b) Denmark and Italy: 1999; Poland and Slovakia: 2000
Source: OECD, Education at a glance, several issues
2002 (a)
1998 (b)
Table 2: Pupils in upper secondary education enrolled in vocational
stream (%) (
a
)
Countries
Males Females
Share in 2002
70 % and more CZ, SK, AT, SI, RO, NL, BE, CH CZ, UK, SK
60 % - 69 % PL, DE, UK, LU, BG, NO, FR, FI BE, AT, NL, SI, LU
50 % - 59 % DK, SE CH, DE, RO, FI, NO, PL, FR
25 % - 49 % EE, EL, ES, IS, IT, JP, LT, LV, MT, PT BG, DK, EL, ES, IS, LV, SE
less than 25 % CY, HU PT, IT, JP, LT, EE, MT, HU, CY
Trend 1998-2002
Increasing CZ, AT, NL, UK, NO, FI, DK, SE, IS, UK, AT, NL, FI, NO, SE, DK, BG, ES,
EL, ES, PT, HU EL, LV, IS, PT, HU
Decreasing SK, SI, RO, PL, DE, LU, BG, LV, CZ, SK, SI, LU, DE, RO, PL, IT, LT, EE
EE, LT, IT
(a) Percentage of all pupils in upper secondary education
Source: Eurostat
A2. Labour market and demographic change
Employment growth and creation is insufficient in some European countries.
Structural unemployment caused by mismatches in the labour market, is a
persistent phenomenon, with a high number of long-term unemployed
people and simultaneously unfilled vacancies. Longer-term needs of the
labour market indicate an increasing demand for skilled and highly skilled
labour driven by the change towards knowledge-intensive services, high-
tech manufacturing, globalisation and technological developments.
Structural unemployment a challenge for the European labour market
In 2003, the EU25 unemployment rate was 9.0 %, some 19 million people.
Long-term unemployment, is a continuing challenge for most European
countries. After falling between 1994 and 2001, long-term unemployment
rose to 4 % of the total labour force. Half of the long-term unemployed has
been out of work for two years or more.
SECTION A

In addition to the registered unemployed, there are those unregistered but seeking a
job and discouraged workers, who are not actively seeking a job but would accept
a suitable offer. Hidden unemployment accounts for around 14 million people in the
EU. Combined with the 19 million registered unemployed, around 33 million
Europeans are not employed (Eurostat-Labour Force Survey 2003).
An indicator for skill mismatch is the unemployment rate of people with
different skill levels (Figure 3). In all EU (and most other OECD) countries,
higher skilled people are significantly less affected by unemployment than
the lower skilled (
5
). Whereas the unemployment rate for the low skilled was
11.3 %, the rate for the medium skilled was 8.3 % and for the high skilled
4.7 %. These rates are clear indications of a labour market characterised by
increasing demand for higher skills and competences.
Figure 3: Unemployment rates of the total population by level of
education, 2003 (a), EU25 (%)
Reducing structural unemployment and skill mismatch is necessary to
foster geographical, occupational and social status mobility. This can be done
by reinforcing active labour market policies with a training component, making
education and training systems and policies more coherent with employment
and economic policies, and by considering the longer-term needs of the
labour market and individuals. These appear to be the most important
measures to achieve efficient local, regional and national labour markets.
20
(5) With a few exceptions (see Figure 3).
50
40
30
20
10
0
(a) Iceland and Netherland: 2002; Esthonia: unreliable data
Low: ISCED 0-2; Medium: ISCED 3-4; High: ISCED 5-6.
Source: Eurostat - NewCronos database (cited 12.11.04)
NL
3
1.9
1.7
IS
3.2
2.5
LU
3.3
2.6
CY
4.5
3.8
3
NO
5
3
2.9
SE
5.3
4.5
3.6
MT
5.6
2.8
2.4
PO
5.9
5.3
4.9
CH
6
3.3
2.9
RO
6.2
6.5
2.9
IE
6.5
3
2.5
EL
7.1
9.2
5.6
UK
7.2
3.5
2.3
DK
7.5
4.2
5
AT
7.6
3.3
1.9
IT
9
5.9
5.7
SI
10.2
5.1
3.8
BE
10.2
6.5
3.7
FR
10.5
6.6
5.1
HU
11
4.8
1.2
EU25
11.3
8.3
4.7
FI
11.5
9
4.2
ES
11.5
9.7
7.3
EE
12.9
11.5
5.4
LV
15.9
9.7
6
DE
18
10
4.9
CZ
19.7
6.1
2
LT
20.5
12.1
5.8
BG
24.7
11.2
6.4
PL
27.4
17.2
6
SK
44.6
13.2
3
11.3
Low
Medium
High
More targeted vocational education and training, and in particular retraining within
active labour market policies, is urgently required to reduce the level of structural
and hidden unemployment and to raise employment rates. Integrating the inactive
part of the potential labour force into employment is all the more important in view
of the ageing of the European workforce over the next decades.
Demographic change the time bomb is ticking
The average age of the European population will increase from 39 (2000) to
around 45 by 2050. Table 3 illustrates the demographic challenge for the
EU15 in the next decades (
6
). By 2030, the number of people aged 20-54
will fall by 27.2 million. At the same time, the number of older people of
working age (55-64) will increase by 13.5 million. As a consequence, the
old-age dependency ratio will increase significantly.
Table 3: Population scenario for EU15 until 2050
Age group 2000 2020 2030 2050
Share in total population (%)
0 - 19 23 20 19 19
20 - 64 61 59 56 53
65 and older 16 21 25 28
Change since 2000 (million persons)
20 - 54 0.6 27.2 42.6
55 - 64 + 17.9 + 13.5 + 8.0
Source: Eurostat baseline population scenario, revision 1999.
The shrinking and ageing of the European workforce underlines the urgent need to
upgrade the skills of young people and increase employment rates, particularly of
women. Europe cannot afford to waste its human resources. Efforts must continue
to keep older workers in employment longer, to adapt their skills, and make visible
the competences they have acquired through non-formal and informal learning.
SECTION A
(6) Eurostat population scenarios for the new Member States are not yet available.

Transnational mobility still some way to go
Geographic mobility in the EU15 has always been low. Only around 2 % of
the EU population work in an EU country other than that of their birth. EU
enlargement has raised fears of large sudden immigration. However, the
overall volume of inward migration from the new Member States and the
candidate countries is expected to be much less than assumed in public
debate. Immigration can improve economic performance in receiving
countries, but be detrimental to the stock of human capital of the sending
countries (brain drain).
EU mobility policies should continue to expand options for short-term
educational activity and study mobility through European grant schemes for
young people and through financial incentives. The social partners have a
key role to play here. A major issue is to achieve negotiated mobility with full
recognition of qualifications.
As Europe develops a more open and international labour market, VET can reduce
barriers to geographic mobility for workers and learners. In view of the demographic
downturn, measures to provide more initial and continuing training should be
complemented by immigration policies for people from outside Europe, particularly
attracting skilled immigrants. This requires recognition of certificates and
competences acquired abroad by formal and non-formal learning, legal support and
familiarisation measures. This is a policy priority of classical immigration countries,
such as Australia, Canada and the US.
A3. Low skilled people
The vision of a Europe with a highly educated, flexible and adaptable
workforce, with a high degree of social inclusion, is far from being realised.
Many groups are excluded. They have at least two things in common: a lack
of basic skills and competences, and obstacles to accessing education and
vocational training.
In 2003, in the EU25 the number of low and unskilled people aged 25-64
years (i.e. those not having completed upper secondary education) was
almost 80 million, some 32 % of the working age population. This
corresponds roughly to the total population of the EUs largest country,
Germany, and illustrates the enormous challenge facing the EU in upskilling
its population.
The proportion of low and unskilled people in the EU is considerably
higher than in competitor countries such as Canada, Japan, South Korea
22
and the US (Table 4). These countries and Australia have higher adult
educational levels, especially at tertiary level. However, on average,
secondary and post-secondary levels, and particularly vocational training,
are higher in Europe.
Table 4: Educational attainment of adults (
a
) in selected OECD countries,
2002-2003 (
b
)
Low skilled Upper/post-secondary Tertiary
EU 25 32 47 21
Australia 39 30 31
Canada 18 40 43
Japan 16 47 36
South Korea 30 45 26
USA 13 49 38
(
a
) 25 to 64-year old population; low skilled: ISCED 0-2; upper/ post-secondary education: ISCED 3-4;
tertiary education: ISCED 5-6
(
b
) EU: 2003 (partly estimated); other countries: 2002
Sources: EU: Eurostat-NewCronos database; OECD: Education at a glance, 2004.
The high proportion of low skilled people in the EU means that we are a long way
from becoming the world-leader in high-quality human capital. Our competitors are
upskilling their populations which are already among the highest skilled in the world.
Europe must not only strive for academic excellence but should also strengthen
work-related skills acquired in VET and by non-formal learning.
As upgrading the (formal) qualifications of the population is mainly
achieved by increasing the skills of the younger age cohorts, this process
will take time.
Low-skilled people most often left school early or dropped out of post-
compulsory education and training. Reducing the number of early school
leavers remains an important means of upgrading the skills of populations.
In 2003, the Council set benchmarks for both groups: to increase
completion of upper secondary education for young people, and to reduce
the proportion of early school leavers. Progress towards these benchmarks
is summarised in Section B4.
SECTION A
SECTION B
Achievements and priorities
at national level
National agendas are taking on board approaches and instruments defined
in Lisbon and Copenhagen for lifelong learning; cooperation between
European countries in VET has increased (Table 5).
Broadly, there is coherence or compatibility between national and
European priorities. However, progress towards the Copenhagen
recommendations will be made according to varying sets of priorities.
European countries will continue to develop reforms most appropriate to
their own diverse traditions, challenges and aims.
Table 5: The relationship between national and EU policies for VET
EU15 Belgium-WA; Denmark; Finland; Austria; Belgium-Fl; Greece
France; Germany; Ireland; Italy;
Luxembourg; Netherlands;
Portugal; Spain; Sweden; the UK
EU10 Czech Republic; Estonia; Hungary; Cyprus; Malta; Poland; Slovakia
Latvia; Lithuania; Slovenia
Candidate countries Bulgaria; Romania Turkey
EEA Iceland Norway; Liechtenstein
Source: Maastricht study, 2004 (DGVT inquiry).
Coherence exists
between the EU and
national policies for VET
The Copenhagen or Lisbon
processes do not directly
influence national policies.
But they are, nevertheless,
broadly compatible
Reforms of education and training in Australia, Canada and the US
Australia has implemented major VET reforms in the last decade, including:
Introduction of a competence-based approach to training;
Implementation of the Australian qualification framework;
Development of the training market with a view to the needs of students and industry;
Mechanisms to enhance learning pathways;
Reform of apprenticeship training (New Apprenticeship scheme);
Introduction of a national framework for quality assurance and nationwide recognition
of training providers.
In its innovation strategy, the Canadian government has given priority to:
Building a foundation for lifelong learning for children and youth,
including fostering apprenticeship training;
Strengthening accessibility and excellence in post-secondary education;
Building a world-class workforce;
Helping immigrants to achieve their full potential.
A regulatory reform process will begin in 2005, focusing on sustainable funding, partnerships and
innovation-related skills, and on an inclusive and skilled workforce (Government of Canada,
2002).
In the US, the national goal is for at least 14 years of education to be the norm. The Perkins III Act
(1998, sets the following goals:
Integration of academic and vocational education;
Linking secondary and post-secondary programmes;
Collaboration with employers;
Expanding the use of technology.
The Act called for rigorous academic standards and accountability.
The US National assessment of vocational education (NAVE) is concerned about the diffuse
nature of federal priorities which impede efforts to develop clear focused educational
interventions. It proposes to set clear priorities: either to put the emphasis on learning academic
or occupational skills, or to focus primarily on workforce development with emphasis primarily on
the job (in particular for post-secondary vocational education).
B1. Implementation of agreed reforms and
practices
Improving transparency and fostering mobility
More transparency of national qualification frameworks or systems in which
VET qualifications at different levels are located is important. Various
countries (Czech Republic, Estonia, Ireland, Italy, Hungary, Malta, the
Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Slovenia, the UK) are developing or
implementing such frameworks. These efforts will be linked to the European
SECTION B
Achievements and priorities at national level 25

Qualifications Framework described in Part C.
A key to improving transparency and fostering mobility in Europe is
Europass, a single portfolio of documents reflecting the qualifications and
competences of citizens. The new Europass will enter into force in 2005 (see
Part C) (
7
). Most countries have implemented Europass training (
8
) and
others are at the planning stage (Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia,
Hungary, Latvia, Romania, Slovakia).
A mixed picture emerges. Despite a steady increase, the uptake of Europass training
is modest (ranging from a few hundred in Ireland to just over 5 000 in France).
Monitoring and feed-back mechanisms to measure progress and learn lessons for
the future direction of the Copenhagen process and measures on mobility and
transparency are required.
Mobility in education and training is a major aspect of the design of past
and current EU programmes. It will be further strengthened by the new
generation of programmes after 2006. Although placement numbers are
increasing, more vigorous action is required, including the development of
dedicated mobility programmes to organise transnational placements and
implement Europass training.
More data is needed on how short-term work-placement mobility can
further vocational career paths, how VET systems can support mobility of
young students and graduates and on the effects on their employment and
employability. Compared with universities, internationalisation strategies are
not a strong feature of VET systems.
EU initiatives relating to the Copenhagen process on credit accumulation and
transfer, and a common reference level framework are likely to promote mobility (see
Part C). Qualification frameworks, credit accumulation and transfer are, however,
only at the planning stage in most countries. Transnational mobility and
internationalisation of VET need to be an integrated part of VET systems. To achieve
a true European Labour market, barriers to transnational mobility have to be
removed, and transparency and recognition of qualifications achieved. For the next
generation of Europass, Member States and social partners should be mobilised to
act immediately.
26
(7) The existing Europass will be replaced by Europass as a common brand name linked to the
European CV, including: Europass mobility (for periods of learning in other countries), Europass
Diploma Supplement (for higher education), Europass Language Portfolio and Europass
Certificate Supplement (for vocational training). These will constitute the new Europass
documents reflecting the qualifications and competences of citizens.
(8) The European CV was downloaded from the Cedefop website around two million times
(www.cedefop.eu.int/transparency/cv.asp).
For mobility to become an option for a wider group of VET students, it

should comprise at institutional level:
study visits and placements for students, teachers, social partners, and
VET graduates;
guest teachers from other VET systems;
courses offered in a language other than the native language and curricula
with an international dimension;
financial incentives for school administrations and disadvantaged groups;
virtual mobility enabling students to collaborate with VET students on joint
projects.
Quality assurance the key to competitiveness
A Common Quality Assurance Framework (CQAF) for VET, which provides a
meta-framework compatible with existing quality assurance systems, was
endorsed by the Council in May 2004 (see Part C). Quality assurance in VET
is on the political agenda of all European countries. However, few have
implemented quality assurance systems (Austria, Belgium-Fl, Denmark,
Ireland, and Romania). The precise instruments of quality assurance in use
remain unclear in many cases and there are different concepts of quality and
quality assurance. Most common methods include inspection, systemic
evaluation and self-evaluation, examinations and the application of quality
standards such as ISO 9001, awards and accreditation procedures.
To maximise the return on their investment, it is in the interest of all actors
involved in VET public and private organisations as well as companies to
adopt a quality assurance approach, with clear training plans, specific goals
and measurable success criteria. However, such approaches are not yet
commonly implemented and training departments are lagging behind
production and marketing departments in adopting a quality assurance
approach.
To develop more coherent and systematic quality assurance in VET, it is important
that countries implement the CQAF and reinforce their efforts, including by
integrating externally developed mechanisms for quality assurance and by
strengthening evaluation and follow-up.
Identification and validation of non-formal and informal learning
The assessment of competences is increasingly important in most European
countries. The realisation that knowledge and skills are also developed
outside formal education and training is leading almost all European
countries to formulate policies to recognise the outcomes of non-formal and
SECTION B

informal learning. The Council Conclusions of May 2004 outline a common
set of principles to support this (see Part C).
Despite the innovative character of several assessment approaches, they
fulfil the same role as other testing systems, acting as quality control for the
learning processes of individuals, learning institutions and educational
systems.
Recognition of non-formal and informal learning:
stages of development in selected countries
Experimentation and uncertainty: Germany, Italy, Austria and Sweden. These countries are still at
an experimental stage (to varying degrees) but accept the need for initiatives in this field.
National systems are emerging: France, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Romania and Spain.
These countries are moving towards national systems building on a defined legal and
institutional basis.
Permanent systems already exist: Finland, the UK. These are countries where permanent
systems have been introduced. Belonging to this category does not mean, however, that further
policy development is ruled out.
Source: Bjrnvold, 2004a.
Canada considers the recognition of prior learning as an essential element of reform. However, in
2002 it was still in the planning phase. A particular focus will be laid on the recognition of foreign
credentials (immigrants).
In Australia, recognition of non-formal learning is already partly implemented.
With the exception of Norway and Portugal, relatively few people have
acquired a qualification this way.
Various approaches to recognising non-formal learning can be identified in Europe,
but all aim to have non-formal and informal learning encompassed by traditional VET
systems. Problems and priorities in opening up VET systems to non-formal learning
are related to the characteristics of national VET systems. For instance, dual systems
(Germany and Austria) appear to be reluctant to embrace this trend as it challenges
the explicit initial VET character of the system (Bjrnvold, 2004b).
28
B2. Training expenditure and incentives
There is a longstanding debate on who should pay for training, and why. A
straightforward solution is that training costs be borne by those who benefit
directly: cui bono? However, this is complicated as the benefits of education
and training are difficult to measure (see also Section B3). Education and
training have considerable external effects to the benefit of others and wider
economic and social goals.
Between 1995 and 2001 (most recent data) public expenditure on
education and training as a percentage of GDP stabilised in most countries
(Figure 4) at around 5 %. The EU25 is on an equal footing with the US (5.1
%) and scores considerably higher than Japan (3.6 %).
Figure 4: Public expenditure on all levels of education and training as
percent of GDP, 1995, 1998, 2001
Public expenditure on primary and secondary education and training, as
a percentage of GDP (
9
), remained stable in most countries or increased
slightly, with the exception of Spain and Slovakia where it fell.
Table 6 shows public and private expenditure on education and training
institutions excluding tertiary education as a percentage of GDP. In most
European countries, total public expenditure is on a par with Australia,
Canada, South Korea and the US, and higher than in Japan.
SECTION B
(9) Data are available only from 1999-2001.
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
DK
8.5
8.3
7.7
SE
7.3
7.7
7.2
NO
7.0
7.6
7.4
IS
6.5
5.9
4.9
CY
6.3
5.8
4.8
FI
6.2
6.3
6.9
BE
6.1
LT
5.9
6.0
5.1
PT
5.9
5.6
5.4
AT
5.8
5.8
6.2
FR
5.7
6.0
6.0
PL
5.6
5.1
5.1
LV
5.5
6.3
6.3
CH
5.5
EE
5.5
5.7
5.8
HU
5.2
4.6
5.0
EU25
5.1
5.2
US
5.1
4.9
5.0
NL
5.0
4.8
5.1
IT
5.0
4.7
4.9
UK
4.7
4.8
5.2
MT
4.6
DE
4.6
4.6
ES
4.4
4.5
4.7
IE
4.4
4.9
5.5
CZ
4.2
3.9
4.6
SK
4.0
4.5
5.0
EL
3.9
3.9
2.9
LU
3.9
4.3
TR
3.7
3.2
2.4
JP
3..6
3.5
3.5
BG
3.5
3.2
3.4
RO
3.3
4.4
5.1
2001
1998
1995
Table 6: Public and private expenditure on education and training
institutions (excluding tertiary education) in OECD countries
as a percentage of GDP 2001 and change 1995-2001
Shadowed field: around or above country mean:
(i) difference to 100; (private) household expenditure
(ii) average for countries where data are available
a=data not applicable; m=data not available; n=magnitude is either negligible or zero
Source: OECD, Education at a glance, 2004 (Tables B2.1c, B2.2, B3.2a). For notes concerning the figures see this publication
Of which: expenditure
of other private entities
(mostly enterprises) as % of
total private expenditure (i)
Total private expenditure
Total public
expenditure
Country
Total public and private
expenditure as % of GDP
Of which: expenditure
for upper and post-
secondary education
and training
30
AT
BE
CZ
DK
FI
FR
DE
EL
HU
IE
IT
LU
NL
PL
PT
SK
ES
SE
UK
IS
NO
CH
TR
AU
CA
JP
KR
US
mean (ii)
3.8
4.0
2.8
4.2
3.7
4.0
2.9
2.4
2.8
2.9
3.6
3.6
3.1
4.0
4.2
2.6
3.0
4.3
3.4
5.0
4.6
3.9
2.5
3.6
3.1
2.7
3.5
3.8
3.5
103
m
92
126
118
112
108
134
109
134
110
m
130
140
137
107
107
124
120
m
107
107
166
139
99
105
m
126
119
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.1
n
0.2
0.7
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
n
0.1
m
n
n
0.2
n
0.5
0.2
n
0.6
m
0.7
0.3
0.2
1.0
0.5
0.3
99
m
79
114
m
104
104
m
88
180
m
m
102
m
178
187
m
89
136
m
m
m
m
152
128
107
m
134
124
54
m
32
m
m
21
91
m
45
m
15
m
16
m
a
80
m
a
n
m
m
100
m
22
54
11
13
n
30
3.9
4.2
3.1
4.3
3.7
4.2
3.6
2.7
3.1
3.1
3.7
3.6
3.3
4.0
4.2
2.7
3.2
4.3
3.9
5.2
4.6
4.5
2.5
4.3
3.4
2.9
4.6
4.1
3.8
1.4
2.8
1.2
1.3
1.3
1.5
1.4
1.5
1.2
0.8
1.4
m
0.8
1.2
1.2
1.1
m
1.3
2.6
1.5
1.2
1.8
0.7
1.0
m
0.9
1.4
1.0
1.3
% of GDP % of GDP 1995=100 1995=100
Total private expenditure, including that by private households (the US:
0.5 %, South Korea: 1.0 %, Australia: 0.7 %) is much lower in Europe, with
the exception of Germany and the UK. If expenditure by enterprises for
training is taken, only the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Austria and
Slovakia are above average.
Little information is available on expenditure on initial VET at European
and international level, and there is an urgent need to rectify this. Employers
finance apprenticeship training directly or through collective funds in
Denmark, Germany, France and Austria. In the Netherlands, Finland and
Sweden the majority of funds for apprenticeship training comes from
government. Financing initial VET continues to be largely input-related,
despite innovations such as output-based funding or training vouchers.
The most recent comparative data at European level on company
expenditure on continuing vocational training (CVT) refer to 1999 (CVTS2)
and show that expenditure represents around 1 % of GDP at EU15 level.
Spending varies greatly between countries, ranging from 0.3 % in Romania
to 3.6 % in the UK. With the exception of Greece, spending on continuing
vocational training, as a percentage of labour costs, increased between
1993 (CVTS1, 1993) and 1999. This increase was most pronounced in
Denmark, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands and the UK.
Countries have taken steps to provide incentives for continuing training.
There are three main types of measures targeted at individuals: financial
incentives encouraging participation in learning; refocusing programmes
towards the individual needs of (working) adults and counselling and
guidance services for adult learners. Measures encouraging companies to
invest in learning tend to be of a financial nature, such as tax incentives and
direct subsidies for training activities or obligations for employers to train
workers. Only a few countries report the introduction of support and
advisory services for companies.
SECTION B
Examples of CVT measures targeted at individuals
Austria: tax incentives for employees; a fixed sum to finance educational leave/vouchers
provided by regional chambers of commerce;
Estonia: the creation of a counselling system for adults; universities are obliged to develop a
system registering previous work and study experiences;
France: individual training right for each employee which can be saved up to a maximum of
6 years.
Examples of CVT measures targeted at companies
Bulgaria: a financial incentive scheme for employers to maintain/enhance the vocational
qualification of employees;
Hungary: subsidies for training employees for the purpose of a higher level of working;
Romania: to stimulate more continuing training provision, up to 50 % of the employers cost
for training can be covered by the unemployment fund under certain conditions;
Spain: a new CVT funding model making it easier for SMEs to be involved in training;
simplifying and speeding up administration procedures; cofunding systems.
Source: Maastricht study, 2004 (country reports).
Most countries are concerned about inefficiencies in VET, and several are
planning or have implemented, measures to enhance efficiency. Approaches
include:
reform of management;
involving social partners in developing VET (e.g. to support the
improvement of training quality or to enhance responsiveness to labour
market needs);
stimulation of private investment by companies and individuals through
incentives, e.g. tax relief. This is intended both to increase the budget for
education and training and make users consider their needs more
carefully;
funding arrangements with obligatory or voluntary adherence and levies,
based on collective agreement or law;
sharing of facilities, cooperation or merger of schools, creation of training
clusters.
32
Although skills and competences of the workforce are important to company

performance, expenditure on training is often regarded as a cost rather than as an
investment. Increased levels of expenditure are necessary if VET is to play its full part
in achieving the Lisbon goals.
Governments, companies, the social partners and individuals must all accept their
responsibilities for raising the levels and efficiency of investment in human capital.
European and national budgets should reflect the priorities of the Lisbon strategy,
including education and training, to promote economic competitiveness. (Kok, 2004,
p. 33)
B3. Economic performance the contribution of
education and training
Human capital, generated by education, training, experience and non-formal
learning, has significant positive impacts on economic development. In
addition to material benefits such as fostering sustainable economic growth,
productivity and earnings, there are non-material ones such as greater social
cohesion, reduction of crime, better health and parenting. However, many
are not fully aware of these benefits.
Human capital a lever for economic growth
Investments in education and training, and acquisition of skills are identified
by numerous research studies (
10
) as key determinants of economic
prosperity. Wilson (2004) summarises research on the impact of skills and
qualification on growth (
11
): Overall, these growth models demonstrate that
higher educational investments have had a significant impact on levels of
national income growth. Broadly, the weight of evidence suggests that a one
percent increase in school enrolment rates has led to an increase in GDP per
capita growth of between one and three percent. An additional year of
secondary education, which increases the stock of human capital [...] has
led to a more than one percent increase in economic growth each year.
A recent study (Coulombe et al., 2004) based on IALS data concludes that
a rise of 1 % in literacy is associated with a 2.5 % rise in labour productivity
and a 1.5 % increase of GDP per capita.
SECTION B
(10) These examples are taken from Cedefops third research report (Descy and Tessaring, 2005)
which presents a detailed discussion of research on the impacts and benefits of education and
training.
(11) The percentages indicated by Wilson refer to percentage points of the growth rates.

These findings suggest economic growth will not be fostered significantly if
investment is limited to elite groups. Raising general literacy levels and basic skills
yields large economic gains. Investing in programmes targeted on those with low
literacy skills is worthwhile, not only on equity grounds but also from an economic
point of view. Vocational training has an important role to play in acquiring basic
skills.
Enterprise performance and training investment
Investment in vocational training both initial and continuing - generates
substantial gains for firms (Hansson and Wagner, 2004), in terms of
productivity, profitability, market share and stock market value, and
competitiveness. This evidence is found for various countries including
France, Ireland, the Netherlands, Sweden, the UK, and the US. Increasingly
firms are financing all types of training, general as well as specific.
However, provision of training is closely linked to enterprise size. Although
SMEs outside agriculture employ around two thirds of all workers in the EU,
training investments by SMEs are generally far below those of larger firms.
Training networks and partnerships at local and regional level, distance
learning and tax incentives can help improve training investments by SMEs.
Training for entrepreneurship can also reduce high failure rates of business
set-ups and contribute to job creation (see Section B7).
Benefits of education and training for individuals
Research results on the benefits of education and training for individuals
suggest that returns on investment in human capital in most countries are
higher than for investments in physical capital. Investing in human capital is
an attractive way for the average person to build up wealth. (OECD, 2003,
p. 160) Individual rates of return for upper secondary and higher education
and training range between 10 and 15 % in most countries. Apart from
these monetary returns, skilled people participate more in the labour market
and are at less risk of unemployment. Education, training and skills are also
associated with better quality of life, career and social status.
The benefits of education and training are strong incentives for people to acquire
higher skills and qualifications and for companies and governments to increase
investments in education and training. Teachers, trainers, those engaged in guidance
and counselling and the social partners should help to raise the awareness of
individuals and companies of these benefits.
34
B4. Social cohesion and people at risk
Low skilled young people
Almost one third of the EU25 population has not completed upper
secondary education and training. Most Member States have much higher
rates of low-skilled people than the US. Only the Czech Republic, Estonia,
Lithuania and Slovakia have rates of low skilled on a par with the US.
Denmark, Germany, Sweden and the UK, have proportions below 20 %.
Low performing countries, with proportions above 50 %, include Spain,
Italy, Malta and Portugal (see Table A1 in Annex).
In 2003, the Council set the benchmark that, by 2010, the proportion of
22 years old with at least upper secondary education and training should not
be less than 85 % on average across the EU. For statistical reasons the age
group 20-24 years is used here to monitor progress.
Figure 5 shows that in 2003 around 77 % of people aged 20-24 in EU25
attained an educational level at upper secondary or above. Two groups of
countries can be distinguished: those that have reached the benchmark of
85 % (
12
) the Czech Republic, Finland, Hungary, Ireland, Norway, Poland,
Slovenia, Slovakia and Sweden and those that are far below the
benchmark (less than 70 %), Spain, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, Portugal
(and, outside of the EU, also Iceland).
Figure 5: Population aged 20-24 with at least upper secondary education
and training (ISCED 3-6), 1995, 1999, 2003 (%)
SECTION B
(12) The original benchmark was set for 22 years old, see remark above.
100
75
50
25
0
Denmark and Hungary: 2002; partly estimated and provisional data.
SK
94.1
93.3
NO
93.3
94.4
CZ
92.0
91.8
SI
90.7
85.8
PL
88.8
81.6
HU
85.8
85.2
IE
85.7
81.9
73.8
SE
85.6
86.3
88.1
FI
85.2
86.8
82.4
AT
83.8
84.7
79.2
CY
82.2
83.4
CH
82.2
76.0
LT
82.1
81.3
EL
81.7
79.5
73.8
EE
81.4
83.0
BE
81.3
76.2
77.6
FR
80.9
80.0
78.6
DK
79.6
73.2
89.3
UK
78.2
75.4
64.0
EU25
76.7
74.8
BG
75.6
LV
74.0
74.6
RO
73.8
77.8
NL
73.3
72.3
DE
72.5
74.6
79.4
IT
69.9
66.3
59.2
LU
69.8
71.2
51.9
ES
63.4
65.0
59.0
IS
51.1
45.4
PT
47.7
40.2
45.1
MT
43.0
76.7
BENCHMARK FOR 2010:
85% OF 22 YEAR OLD
2003
1999
1995

Between 1999-2003, educational attainment rates fell in a number of
countries (
13
) including Germany (from 74.6 to 72.5 %) and Romania (from
77.8 to 73.8 %). The quality of education and training is poor in some of the
new Member States and they face particular challenges modernising their
VET systems. However, the benchmark could be reached by 2010, if
countries do not relax their efforts.
Countries with decreasing and with below average attainment rates must review and
reinforce their efforts to provide high-quality vocational education and training for
younger generations and implement measures to encourage them to complete at
least upper secondary education and training.
As the country examples show (see Annex 1), there are a number of features
regarding initiatives for the low skilled that inform policy development,
including:
emphasis on core skills, such as literacy and numeracy and not just work-
specific skills;
partnership models and a strong focus on dissemination to signal that it is
a problem for many and a joint responsibility to tackle and to establish a
climate of trust;
more detailed analysis of the group of early school leavers and low skilled
people, in order to develop targeted policies;
use of varied forms of incentives;
a strong guidance component.
Early school leavers not only a European phenomenon
Low-skilled people are mainly those who left school early or dropped out of
post-compulsory education and training. Reducing the number of early
school leavers is an important approach to upgrade the skills of populations,
increase their employment rates, and promote social inclusion. There is a
clear association between school dropout and the provision of VET. Most
European countries with high levels of VET participation have low levels of
early school leavers. However, some countries have increasing rates of the
young not completing upper secondary education.
In 2003, the Council set the benchmark of reducing the EU average rate of
early school leavers to 10 % by 2010. In 2003 this rate was 16 % in EU25
(Figure 6). The benchmark is possible to reach and several countries have
done so already (the Czech Republic, Denmark, Austria, Poland, Slovenia,
36
(13) However, a comparison over time is hampered because several countries changed definitions
and data collection methods since 1999, leading to a break intime series.
Slovakia, Sweden). However, Spain, Italy, Malta, Portugal (and, outside of the
EU, Bulgaria, Iceland and Romania) have rates more than double the
benchmark. Most countries have reduced the share of early school leavers
considerably, especially Estonia, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Luxembourg
and Norway. However, in Belgium, Spain, France, Luxembourg, Finland,
Sweden and (outside of the EU) Romania, dropout rates have increased.
Figure 6: Early school leavers (
a
) in Europe, 1996, 2000, 2003 (%)
The relatively high proportion of dropouts does not occur just in Europe.
One in eight young Canadians does not complete high school (Canadian
Government, 2002a). In the US, the official dropout rate in 2001 was around
11 %, although the percentage of students who fail to obtain a high school
diploma is estimated to be much higher, more than 20 % (NAVE, 2004).
Most European countries have policies to reduce the number of early school leavers
(European Commission, 2004c). Measures range from increased cooperation
between schools, companies and regions (Germany and the Netherlands), to more
adapted pedagogy and increased personalised guidance of pupils, as in France,
Luxembourg and Austria. However, those countries with a high share of early school
leavers need to substantially increase their efforts. And those countries where the
share has been increasing over the past years need to take steps to reverse this
trend. As shown in Section A1, strengthening vocational streams can help prevent
and reduce school dropout.
SECTION B
50
40
30
20
10
0
(
a
) People aged 18 to 24 with ISCED 0-2 as highest level of education or training and who declared having not received
any education or training in the 4 weeks preceding the survey.
NB: partly estimated by Eurostat; break in time series 1999, 2000 and 2003 for several countries (see Eurostat information).
Source: Eurostat - NewCronos database - Structural Indicators - Social Cohesion (cited 04.11.04)
SI
4.3
SK
4.9
CZ
6.0
PL
6.3
NO
10.9
13.3
6.6
CH
6.1
7.3
7.7
SE
7.5
7.7
9.0
AT
12.1
10.2
9.0
DK
12.1
11.6
10.0
FI
11.1
8.9
10.7
HU
13.8
11.8
EE
14.2
11.8
LT
16.7
11.8
IE
18.9
12.1
BE
12.9
12.5
12.8
DE
13.3
14.9
12.8
FR
15.2
13.3
13.7
NL
17.6
15.5
15.0
CY
15.1
15.1
EL
20.7
17.1
15.3
EU25
16.0
UK
18.3
16.7
LU
35.3
16.8
17.0
LV
18.1
BG
22.4
RO
22.3
23.2
IT
31.3
25.3
23.5
IS
28.6
27.3
ES
31.5
28.8
29.8
PT
40.1
42.9
40.4
MT
48.2
BENCHMARK FOR 2010:
10% ON EU AVERAGE
16.0
1996
2000
2003
Other disadvantaged groups need for targeted measures
Education and training can help prevent and tackle social exclusion. In
addition to school dropouts and people with poor levels of basic skills, groups
at risk of exclusion include women (in areas of low female employment, and
labour-market returners), the long-term unemployed, migrants, ethnic
minorities and people left behind by industrial reorganisation, older workers
and young people facing problems in their transition to work. Targeted and
integrated measures should be provided for these groups, particularly at local
and regional levels. In the EU25, 8.6 million women of working age are not in
paid employment, although they want to work. Together with the 9.8 million
unemployed women, the scale of the untapped female labour supply is
considerable (
14
). The differences in labour market participation and
unemployment rates between women and men are huge (Table 7). However,
as for men, prospects for women with high educational levels are much better
than for those with upper secondary or lower levels.
Table 7: Employment and unemployment rates by sex and educational
attainment, EU25, 2003 (%)
Educational attainment of population aged 15-64
Low (ISCED 0-2) Medium(ISCED 3-4) High (ISCED 5-6) Total
Employment rates
Women 24.3 55.8 74.5 43.4
Men 45.1 68.0 78.4 59.9
Unemployment rates
Women 14.1 10.4 5.6 9.9
Men 11.0 8.9 4.4 8.4
Source: Eurostat - NewCronos database (cited 12.11.04).
The unemployment rate of non-EU nationals in 2002 was twice that of EU
nationals. The Kok report (2003) cites inappropriate or low levels of skills as
well as cultural and language barriers as the main cause.
Recognition of skills and competences acquired abroad by formal and
non-formal learning (a major feature of Canadas VET strategy), targeted
integration measures including guidance, language courses and provision of
education and training preferably at the workplace are some of the
measures already taken. However, given the scale of demographic changes,
38
(14) Report of the High Level Group on the future of social policy in an enlarged European Union, 2004.
SECTION B
they must be considerably reinforced and made more responsive to labour
market, individual and societal needs.
People left behind by industrial restructuring are often helped by
measures financed by the ESF or ERDF. Poland has established initiatives in
the coal-mining sector to improve occupational mobility, job creation,
retraining, guidance and counselling, and support job creation through SME
development. Similar measures also apply to the long-term unemployed
whose skills are outdated or no longer needed in the labour market. A range
of measures to prevent and reduce long-term unemployment has been
taken as part of the European Employment Strategy.
Numerous initiatives provide training opportunities for older workers, but
there is little evidence of constructive strategies in national lifelong learning
plans. In addition to policies withdrawing early retirement schemes and
raising the retirement age, initiatives should focus on adapting the labour
market to enable older workers to remain in work. Since 1998 Finland has
implemented a comprehensive strategy to foster employability of older
workers and adaptation of the work environment.
The Maastricht study (2004) identifies four types of initiatives:
1. Labour market and employment related measures. Active labour market policies with a
training element, human resources policies, earnings and pensions: Austria, Belgium, the
Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Liechtenstein, Greece, and the UK (planned);
2. Provision of training for older employees. Recognition of their non-formal and informal
learning, qualification programmes, second chance schools, enterprise training, involvement
of social partners: Belgium, Estonia, Greece, France, Ireland, the Netherlands, Austria, Finland;
3. Provision of wider lifelong learning to stay active. Internet access, computer literacy, adult
education, active ageing initiatives, distance and e-learning: Austria, the Czech Republic,
Estonia, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein and Sweden;
4. Provision of training or lifelong learning for non-employed people. Qualification measures,
return to work for women, New Deal for 50 plus: Ireland, Austria, the UK.
Targeted measures are needed to raise the motivation and capability of disadvantaged
groups to participate in initial and continuing education and training, to recognise their
skills and competences, and to integrate or keep them within the labour market and
society. Education and training are important for social cohesion. However, their
influence on the major characteristics of social cohesion political, social and cultural
participation, etc. tends to be indirect through reducing poverty and raising
awareness of societal goals. A prerequisite is, that the values important for social
cohesion and citizenship form an integral part of education and training curricula.

B5. Learning pathways and guidance in a
framework of lifelong learning
VET has to cater for a variety of participant groups. Increasingly, it has to
serve new target groups such as older workers, women returning to the
labour market, long-term unemployed, and immigrants. These groups differ
substantially from the traditional clientele of VET in terms of educational
background, experience, ambitions and preferences. Flexibility in pathways
and delivery is essential to serving these different clients. Flexibility in
learning pathways contributes to raising the attractiveness, effectiveness
and efficiency of VET, and to making lifelong learning a reality.
Open learning and individual pathways
The most far-reaching form of flexibilisation is tailor-made individualised
pathways, where students shape the pace and content of their own
curriculum; often this is paired with modularisation.
A number of European countries are trying to achieve this goal (
15
),
including open learning approaches in school-based learning
environments. The Danish VET reform, for example, established open
learning cultures in some vocational colleges. Students were supported in
defining individual learning pathways through the use of occupational
learning management systems and changes in the role of teachers.
However, information is lacking on the design and outcomes of open
learning environments, which could be useful for mutual learning across
European countries and regions.
Although open learning environments offer potential for students self-directed
learning, some doubts persist. Open learning arrangements tend to be too demanding
for students who perform poorly or lack motivation and they tend to withdraw from
the learning situation. The traditional role of teachers may also be challenged and
some teachers are resistant to a redefinition of their professional identity.
In combination with open learning environments and appropriate
redefinitions of teachers roles, self-directed or project learning offers new
opportunities for students. The Irish Leaving certificate vocational
programme (LCVP) requires students to take three activity-driven link
modules (enterprise education, preparation for work and work experience).
Mini-company activities are supported, through which students plan,
40
(15) See the Maastricht study for most country examples that follow.
develop and manage a virtual or micro enterprise on their own. Similar

approaches are found in Danish, German and Austrian VET schools.
Attractiveness and flexibility of VET
In European countries, increasing flexibility is provided through several
often combined actions, including: veined pathways, new pedagogy in
terms of teaching and learning, and in curricula adjusted to regional and
individual needs. These measures also aim to raise the attractiveness of VET
and include: modularisation; implementation of national qualification
frameworks; establishing competence-based programmes; and credit
accumulation and transfer.
VET comprises various components and forms (e.g. pre-vocational
training, initial school- or work-based VET, post-secondary VET, short
training courses or labour market training for the unemployed); some forms
may be more attractive than others. This partly explains the varying degrees
of participation in the different countries.
In some countries, in particular the new Member States, people can obtain both a
vocational qualification and a general diploma for entry into tertiary education.
Similar options exist in Finland, France (BacPro), the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden,
and the UK. To increase its attractiveness and status, countries should
systematically ensure that VET provides access to tertiary education.
Transition from VET to higher education could be facilitated by the
inclusion of vocational education elements in higher education as in
Belgium, Latvia, Austria and Finland.
Examples from the US and Australia
In the US, after a decade of federal promotion to integrate academic and vocational education
(see introduction to Part B), there is only slight evidence of improvement. Although increasing
numbers of states include academic content in vocational curriculum guidelines, the guidelines
tend to support basic skills, not higher-level academic competences, and are not necessarily
linked to academic standards (NAVE 2004).
In Australia, VET topics are increasingly made available within the school curriculum and students
can combine general education with vocational training. Some vocational courses can be used as
credits in progressive educational routes. Initiatives include:
New Apprenticeship, based on the British model of master-apprentices. It foresees a
combination of work and structured training which leads to nationally recognised
qualifications;
National Training Framework, including requirements, auditing, and standards and processes
for courses;
SECTION B
Australian Qualification Framework: a national and consistent set of qualifications is issued for
all post-compulsory education, from secondary school certificates to doctoral degrees.
The development of learning pathways that break down the boundaries between educational
sectors is under way. Mechanisms include: recognition of prior learning based on training
packages, credit transfer arrangements, articulated pathways.
Imparting broad vocational skills in curricula and learning can also
increase flexibility, making occupational and workplace mobility easier and
supporting adaptation to changing job requirements. Belgium-Flanders,
Denmark, Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Austria, Slovakia and the
UK have reduced the number of different qualifications or training
occupations in VET (see also Section B7).
Making lifelong learning a reality the benchmark
Lifelong learning is at the top of the European agenda. According to the
Eurobarometer on lifelong learning (2003), almost 90 % of European
citizens agreed that it is important for social and economic reasons
(Chisholm et al., 2004). In 2003, the Council set the benchmark of raising
the participation of the EU working age population in lifelong learning to 12.5
% by 2010. Because of data constraints, the indicator for this is defined as
participation in education and training over the four weeks prior to the
European labour force survey.
This benchmark is not out of reach if countries reinforce their efforts. In
2003, at EU25 level, participation in lifelong learning stood at 9 % (Figure
7). A number of European countries (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, the
Netherlands, Norway, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland and the UK) have
reached this threshold. Some countries below the benchmark have made
considerable progress (
16
). Only in Italy and Austria has participation
dropped.
Examples of specific measures to increase lifelong learning participation
include: tax initiatives for employees and vouchers (Austria); counselling for
adults (Estonia); financial incentives for employers (Bulgaria, Hungary, Spain
for SMEs). The UK and Austria have the Investors in people initiative, a
recognised standard that firms achieve when putting into practice effective
processes for human resource development and training.
Concerning continuing vocational training, most recent data refer to the
second European Continuing vocational training survey (CVTS) carried out in
1999. Figure 8 shows that participation has increased considerably
42
(16) However, comparison over time is hampered by a break in time series for several countries.
compared with 1993 in most countries where data are available. With the
exception of the Czech Republic and Slovenia, it is mainly the new Member
States and Greece, Spain, Italy and Portugal which have rather low
participation rates.
Figure 7: Participation of the European population aged 25 to 64 in
lifelong learning: 1996, 2000, 2003 (%)
Figure 8: Participation in continuing vocational training courses;
1993, 1999; EU25 (% of employees, all enterprises)
SECTION B
40
30
20
10
0
SE
34.2
21.6
26.5
CH
24.8
34.7
29.5
IS
24.0
23.5
15.7
UK
21.3
21.1
NO
21.3
13.3
16.5
DK
18.9
20.8
18.0
FI
17.6
19.6
16.3
NL
16.5
15.6
12.5
SI
15.1
IE
9.7
4.8
EU25
9.0
BE
8.5
6.8
2.9
LV
8.1
AT
7.9
8.3
7.9
CY
7.9
3.1
FR
7.4
2.8
2.7
LU
6.3
4.8
2.9
EE
6.2
6.0
DE
6.0
5.2
5.7
HU
6.0
3.1
ES
5.8
5.1
4.4
CZ
5.4
PL
5.0
SK
4.8
IT
4.7
5.5
4.4
LT
4.5
2.8
MT
4.2
PT
3.7
3.4
3.4
EL
3.7
1.1
0.9
BG
1.4
RO
1.3
0.9
BENCHMARK FOR 2010:
12.5% ON EU AVERAGE
(
a
) Participation in education and training over the four weeks prior to the survey.
NB: partly estimated by Eurostat; break in time series 2000 for FI,
in 2003 for: DK, EL, FR, IE, CY, LU, HU, SI, SK, FI, SE, NO, CH.
Source: Eurostat - NewCronos database - Structural Indicators - Employment (cited 03.11.04)
9.0
2003
2000
1996
100
75
50
25
0
LT
10
HU
12
LV
12
EL
15
13
PL
16
PT
17
13
EE
19
ES
25
20
IT
26
15
AT
31
DE
32
24
SI
32
LU
36
25
EU
40
28
BE
41
25
IE
41
43
NL
41
26
CZ
42
FR
46
37
UK
49
39
FI
50
DK
53
33
SE
61
NB: No data for 1993 available for AT, FI, SE and new Member States; in 1999 no data available for CY, SK and MT.
Source: Eurostat - NewCronos database (CVTS1 AND 2)
1999
1993

Increased efforts are required to expand training opportunities and the take-up of
continuing vocational training and learning at the workplace, which is a leading edge
for adult learning. Special attention needs to be paid to supporting training in SMEs
and to facilitating access and motivating non-traditional learners (e.g. those with low
skills, older workers, migrants). Countries where participation has fallen need to
review their policies and practices to reverse the downward trend.
Information, guidance, counselling imperatives for a European
labour market
The more diverse and flexible learning systems are, the greater individuals
needs for guidance to enable them to take informed decisions about career
and learning opportunities and manage their career paths. Some countries
have implemented information campaigns and other awareness-raising
activities. Measures to develop and reinforce guidance include: the creation
of counselling and guidance systems (the Czech Republic and Slovakia,
Lithuania), improvement of counselling and vocational guidance (Greece),
expansion of guidance and counselling provision (Ireland), the deepening of
career guidance activities to provide individual counselling to all involved in
selecting initial VET options (Liechtenstein), and establishing regional
partnerships for educational and vocational guidance (Norway).
Research by the OECD, Cedefop, the ETF and the World Bank (
17
) shows
that a reform of policies and practices is required for guidance provision in
Europe to meet the demands of a knowledge-based economy. To date, most
provision is focused on secondary school students and the unemployed and
concerns short-term educational or labour market decisions. Provision for
those in vocational streams and in tertiary education and training is relatively
underdeveloped and virtually non-existent for SME employees and older
workers.
In a lifelong learning context, all individuals need to understand the
occupational implications of educational decisions and the pathways
leading to occupational destinations. This requires close cooperation
between education and labour authorities and other stakeholders involved in
guidance. International competitors are ahead of most European countries
in providing coordinated systematic approaches to guidance information
and developing learning and career management skills through a more
competence/outcomes based approach to guidance.
44
(17) The career guidance policy reviews have been carried out in 37 countries.
See http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Projects_Networks/Guidance/Career_Guidance_survey;
http://www.oecd.org/document/35/0,2340,en_2649_34511_1940323_1_1_1_37455,00.html.
Examples from Australia and Canada

In Australia, the federal and state governments have cooperated to design a comprehensive web-
based career exploration and information service, the National Career Information System
(www.myfuture.edu.au). The system contains information on education and training opportunities
and on occupations, including regional information on labour-market demand and on wages and
salaries as well as opportunities for users to assess their interests and capabilities and match
these to potential occupations.
In Canada, the Blueprint for Life and Work Design is a national framework that maps out the life
and work competences individuals need to build their lives and careers. It helps individuals to
discover the skills, knowledge and attitudes required to design and manage life, work and career.
Eleven competences are grouped into three broad areas: personal management, learning and
work exploration, and life/work. https://www.emploisetc.ca/blueprint/ drilldown.jsp?category_id
=1100&root_id=1080&call_id= 127&lang=e
In Quebec schools are being encouraged to develop the concept of the guidance-oriented school.
This is linked to wider competence-oriented school reforms. Personal and career planning is
defined as one of five broad areas of learning throughout schooling. The aim is to provide support
for students identity development in primary school and guidance in career planning throughout
secondary school. To implement this concept, the number of qualified guidance specialists is
being increased and the active involvement of all stakeholders is being promoted.
Member States need to broaden access, especially for those in vocational streams,
employees in SMEs and older workers. The potential of the workplace as a setting
for guidance provision should be developed and, in line with the commitment made
in the Framework of actions for the lifelong development of competencies and
qualifications, the social partners should make information, support and guidance a
priority. More attention also needs to be given to: the development of learning and
career management skills; the improvement of quality assurance; and the
strengthening of structures for policy and systems development at national, regional
and sectoral levels. The follow-up of the Council Resolution on lifelong guidance
(2004) and the tools developed by the European Commissions expert group on
lifelong guidance will support and facilitate Member States and social partners
efforts and help promote more occupational mobility (see Part C).
SECTION B
B6. Involvement of stakeholders and partnerships
Partnerships and networks indispensable to making lifelong
learning a reality
The Framework of actions for the lifelong development of competencies and
qualifications of the European social partners (ETUC et al., 2002) has moved
lifelong learning up the agenda at European sectoral level and stimulated
many new initiatives. Examples include open learning arrangements, human
resource development, cooperation in development plans at local and
regional level, work councils and information campaigns. In many countries,
particularly new Member States and candidate countries, a closer
collaboration with social partners and sector bodies is needed.
Many companies, especially SMEs, cannot provide sufficient learning
from their own resources. In some cases, a common platform of work
performance cooperation has been established, based on shared
knowledge and competences. Workplace partnerships are an innovative
way of linking companies. For example, Japanese companies, organise
partnerships along supply chain networks, and include temporary personnel
exchanges between companies and suppliers. The German and British
automotive sectors have learning networks supporting workers across
multiple companies and organisations.
The Copenhagen process enhances collaboration and coordination at
European sectoral level, building on the accumulated effect of the many
sectoral projects under the Leonardo da Vinci programme.
Examples of cooperation include:
Czech Republic: direct links between educational institutions and social partners in regions;
France: cooperation between schools and industry aiming at local economic development;
Germany: initiative to implement coaching for learners in companies;
Lithuania: change of status of vocational schools into self-governing institutions to cooperate
with industry, social partners and other public institutions is under consideration;
The Netherlands: proposal for cooperation between social partners and national/regional
authorities, reduction in the number of sector councils.
The social partners have launched many initiatives for low-skilled workers especially on the
accreditation of prior learning and older people.
46
A more comprehensive measure is to establish a common European qualification

reference framework (see Part C) within which sectoral efforts should focus on
ensuring transparency and inter-sector mobility. With such a framework, sector
initiatives will make a significant contribution to the Europeanisation of VET. The
framework has the potential to become a common template, connecting national
systems and enabling horizontal and vertical cross-sector initiatives to be
compatible. The mapping initiative led by Cedefop on sector initiatives is an
important first step. It is currently too early to assess how efficiently it will promote
stronger dialogue and coordination between sectoral initiatives and national
systems.
Identification and anticipation of skill needs
As firms and sectors compete on innovation and as globalisation creates
turbulence in traditional markets, new skill and competence requirements
emerge. They have to be identified and considered in reforms of initial and
continuing training curricula.
Cedefop supports the exchange of innovative approaches to identify and anticipate
skill needs in Europe. It set up the Skillsnet network and organises regular events to
promote transfer into policy and practice (www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/
Projects_Networks /Skillsnet). The involvement of all stakeholders researchers,
policy makers, social partners, training organisations, etc. for policy transfer is an
explicit objective of this network.
Examples of countries that have a future perspective
in their policy include (
18
):
In the mid 1990s Germany established a network on Early identification of skills needs
involving the participation of many organisations and exploring new skills emerging in
different sectors and occupations (www.frequenz.net);
France: an agreement between the social partners requires that each sector, that has not
already done so, should take the necessary steps to establish Prospective observatories on
professions and qualifications;
Finland: has developed a foresight methodology on a nationwide basis, including an inter-
governmental working group with 11 ministries and working groups that produce alternative
forecasts and scenarios. (http://www.oph.fi/english/page.asp?path=447;490;6750);
SECTION B
(18) Further examples and publications from European and non-European countries may be found in
the Skillsnet website (see above).
In 2000 the UK set up UK Skillsbase in response to proposals in the second report of the
National Skills Task Force (www.dfes.gov.uk/skillsstrategy/);
Austria has launched the Qualification barometer, a public-private initiative that provides
information on anticipated qualification trends (http://www.ams.or.at/neu/2339);
Belgium (Flanders) is planning to collect wider socio-economic data in collaboration with
regional social economic committees as a supplement to the collection of labour market data
already in place;
Ireland has adopted a futures approach through the expert group on Future skills needs
(www.skillsireland.ie);
Norway implemented the Learning conditions monitor in 2003. It addresses the issue of
skills supply and demand in the context of lifelong learning, and how large-scale measuring
can take account of skills acquired outside a formal learning context (www.fafo.no).
B7. Innovative pedagogies and learning-conducive
environments
Workforce skills are being redesigned to emphasise flexible and broad
occupational competences such as problem-solving, coping effectively with
change and communicating with peers and clients. This is reflected in new
goals and content for VET teaching and learning.
Key competences: openers to a knowledge-based society
The Maastricht study identifies the development of broad occupational
competences through workplace learning as the key dimension of VET
innovation. Transferable or key competences are part of VET curricula in
many countries and the context in which learning takes place influences
greatly the learning outcome.
Innovative European projects have developed curricula including the
competences needed in particular industries or sectors across national
boundaries. Competence-based education and training was introduced in
the Netherlands, and the Global Village in Denmark developed a curricular
approach combining different types of skills and knowledge needed in the
international knowledge-based motor-industry.
Training for entrepreneurship a key competence
Entrepreneurship is a key competence enabling people to develop attitudes
and competences as a basis for creativity, initiative and responsibility, and
independence. Increasingly, governments are implementing entrepreneur-
48
ship teaching in mainstream schooling, but there is still a long way to go

before this is common practice.
Specific entrepreneurship education and training is also a priority for
starting up and running a business. Numerous initiatives and programmes
exist in European countries, mostly in higher education. However, in initial
VET, there is no real focus on self-employment or on setting up a business.
The curriculum prepares students and apprentices to become employees,
since the main task is seen as being to train skilled workers.
CVT offers more business start-up training and advice, often through the private
sector. Measures are most effective when focused on particular sectors, markets and
groups. This element of VET has developed slowly in the EU15, even in those
countries where recognised VET progression pathways beyond upper secondary
level are not widely available. CVT for craft SMEs in Germany provides a well-
established progression route including training for entrepreneurship.
ICT skills and e-learning innovative tools for knowledge transfer
The importance of ICT literacy and e-learning is reflected in Leonardo da
Vinci, Socrates, the e-Learning Action Plan and in other European initiatives.
It is a feature of almost all national innovation strategies on teaching and
learning. Countries vary in the extent of ICT learning and approaches to the
ICT curriculum, with some opting for general ICT literacy, others for ICT
integrated into work processes. Countries with a strong vocational
orientation have a combined approach. Germany and Austria have
introduced vocational education pathways for ICT occupations integrating
formal and non-formal learning.
In initial VET, e-literacy is an important component of national VET
systems, as well as of employee skill portfolios. Apprenticeship training
tends to relate enterprise skill strategies to opportunities for ICT in
workplaces. Various countries have inaugurated ICT action plans to include
ICT content in the different occupational fields, such as the Czech
Republics Outline of State information policy in education, Denmarks ICT
action plan, and Turkeys Preliminary national development plan.
Member States should progressively ensure that, by 2010, ICT in vocational learning
is embedded in work and business processes, rather than mainly involving
simulation activities or distance learning.
SECTION B

Use of new technology and media catalyst for changes
in teaching and learning
New technologies and media allow for greater flexibility in teaching and
learning. They push back the boundaries of time and location and enable
more focus on individual learners. They have led to innovations in teaching
and learning.
Many European and national initiatives have been launched to stimulate
ICT-supported learning. Large companies are beginning to benefit from
these developments to train and up-skill their staff, but only a small
percentage of SMEs.
ICT supported learning offers great potential for innovation in teaching and learning,
in initial VET and continuing vocational training. To tap this potential fully, Member
States need to address the role and support of teachers and trainers, develop new
models to create, use and reuse content, develop pedagogical methods and promote
greater uptake by SMEs.
Learning organisations and partnerships
The learning organisation describes the need for companies and staff to
engage in a continuous process of learning as a source of performance
improvement and competitive advantage.
The development of the learning organisation is closely linked to the
realisation that effective VET teaching and learning is achieved through
learning partnerships. Workplace partnerships are an innovative way to link
companies and develop regional innovation centres, including vocational
schools and higher education.
The GOLO project in Germany is an SME workplace learning partnership.
By rotating apprentices between different companies, learning is enriched
and opportunities expanded. This gives apprentices the range of experience
to develop a comprehensive occupational profile.
The Chance Border region network was set up in 2003 to explore cross
border VET design between countries adjacent to the new Lnder in
Germany. Seventeen partners from nine countries are developing cross-
border qualification profiles in numerous sectors.
Teamwork, learning partnerships and the widespread use of peer group teaching and
learning, contribute to the quality of learning-conducive work. A number of European
countries are working towards this goal.
50
Given the future needs for highly skilled labour, the skill levels of active workforce
must increase dramatically. This is a priority in realising the Lisbon goals. The world
of work can provide many, but not all, curricula and learning opportunities for
developing competences and preparing workers for the future. Formal education and
training is still needed.
B8. The role of teachers and trainers in assuring
quality in VET
There have been few attempts at European level to tackle the specific
challenges of the education and training of vocational teachers and trainers.
Special attention is warranted in view of the direct and indirect influence of
vocational teachers in system quality and skill development. Cedefops
network for training of teachers and trainers (www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/
Projects_ Networks/TTNet) provides a platform for exchange and
cooperation in this field.
In the US, the NAVE report (2004) is concerned about the competences and lack of opportunities
for continuing training among vocational teachers. They are less likely than academic teachers to
have bachelors degrees and many do not feel they have received sufficient professional
development. NAVE concludes that upgrading the techers workforce is essential and that
substantial investments in new recruitment and in-service training approaches are required.
A key challenge is that while vocational teachers and trainers are essential
to supporting skill development in the workforce, their status is low. The
salaries and image of vocational teachers tend to be quite low, especially in
some Mediterranean and new Member States. VET teaching, in schools and
colleges, is an ageing profession, and many are not inclined to undertake
continuing training or adapt to new technologies or pedagogic concepts.
Teacher shortages exist in many countries. In Germany and Austria, there
are shortages of teachers of specific subjects, especially those in high
demand in the external labour market.
Training has diversified in the workplace and the profile of VET teachers and trainers
has grown more varied. Teachers and trainers within companies are extending their
roles from instruction to learning facilitators and innovators and are increasingly
involved in additional tasks, such as human resource development, guidance and
coaching, and assessment of competences.
SECTION B

Many countries have introduced new progression routes and recruitment regulations for teachers
and trainers. Regulating entry and educational requirements for teachers and trainers in VET is
changing. In traditional work-based systems, such as in Denmark, Germany or Austria,
regulations for in-company trainers make some pedagogical training a requirement. In
Luxembourg and Hungary, similar requirements also exist for workplace trainers. Usually, training
is integrated into the upper level training of the respective craft or trade (e.g. Meister
qualification).
With the new law on VET, Italy has introduced new requirements for trainers involved in
apprenticeships. Finland is currently running a major training programme for those who are
involved in learning processes at work. For both Italy and Finland, requirements are also reported
in the case of regional and labour market training, where the trainers qualification is one criterion
for allocating public training subsidies.
Other countries have implemented special school development or overarching reform plans in
which teacher training is an integral component.
Given the fundamental importance of VET teachers and trainers for the
further development of Europe towards the Lisbon goal, improving the
situation and status of VET professionals must be high on the political
agenda. Strong cooperation among European higher education institutes
involved in teacher training may help to raise standards.
A coherent teacher policy reflecting the Lisbon and Copenhagen challenges is not yet
visible. Teachers and trainers should receive far more support to fulfil their role as
innovators and facilitators. This is essential to improving the quality of, and
innovation in, teaching and learning.
A balance is needed between further professionalisation of teachers and more
flexibility in teacher and trainer recruitment policies and practices. This reflects the
tension between the need for quality teachers and the need to adapt to demographic
and economic problems affecting education and training systems in the future.
52
SECTION C
The contribution
of the Copenhagen process to
achieving the Lisbon goals
For VET to be active in developing lifelong learning policies and supplying
the highly skilled workforce necessary to achieve the Lisbon strategic goals
by 2010, the Copenhagen Declaration (2002) identifies four priorities for
enhanced European cooperation in VET across Europe:
strengthening the European dimension;
improving transparency, information and guidance systems;
recognising competences and qualifications;
promoting quality assurance.
In the two years since the Copenhagen process was initiated, substantial
progress has been made.
(a) The Ploteus portal on European learning opportunities was launched in
2003, providing access for citizens to information about education and
training courses and systems, grants, exchange programmes, jobs and
living conditions across Europe.
(b) The new Europass, single framework for the transparency of
qualifications and competences, will be adopted by Council and
Parliament in January 2005 and launched under the Luxembourg
presidency in early 2005.
(c) Work on lifelong guidance has revealed large gaps between policy goals
and the capacity of national career guidance systems. The Council
Resolution of May 2004 identifies clear priorities and the Career
guidance handbook for policy makers provides common principles and
other tools to improve services at national, local and company level.
(d) Validation of non-formal and informal learning is on the agenda of almost
all European countries. The May 2004 Council conclusions provide
common principles to guide these developments. However, the Council
accepts the needs of enterprises and the issue of quality assurance are
not adequately covered by the principles which require further
development.
(e) A European credit system for vocational education and training (ECVET),
to allow trainees to build upon their achievements when moving from
one national VET system to another, is under development. The technical
working group on credit transfer in VET has developed proposals on the
principles and rules of a European credit system for VET, to ensure its
effective implementation in mobility exchange initiatives.
(f) A sectoral qualifications strategy is being developed. The Leonardo da
Vinci II programme provides an important framework for new sectoral
initiatives across national borders in Europe. There is a risk that sectoral
initiatives (local or EU funded) have only a modest impact, as they are
not carried out in a defined political context and tend to have a project
character without sufficient plans for a more structured uptake. This is
compounded by a reluctance of employers and employee organisations
in several European countries to be involved in training issues.
(g) Related to the sectoral strategy, early identification of future skills needs
is a priority. Innovative approaches are needed, given the difficulties in
predicting future skills. Otherwise, there is a danger of passing on
redundant or irrelevant skills. Cedefops Skillsnet network provides a
platform for European cooperation and exchange on new approaches
and findings (see Section B6).
(h) A Common Quality Assurance Framework was endorsed by the Council
in May 2004. The framework helps to develop, improve, monitor and
evaluate national systems and practices, and provides a common
reference system. Quality assurance is on the political agenda of all
European countries. Many have just started planning, others have
implemented quality assurance systems (see Section B1). Extending
quality assurance for training providers outside government influence is
an issue to be addressed, especially for those located outside national
boundaries.
Attention to the learning needs of teachers and trainers within all forms of
VET is a priority under the Copenhagen Declaration to promote quality
assurance. EU programmes can encourage and assist such action, but more
priority needs to be given to this issue at national level.
In addition to VET teachers and trainers, the training needs of people at
risk and the ageing workforce are among the eight national priorities of the
Education Council Conclusions adopted on 15 November 2004. The
Conclusions which provide the basis for the Maastricht Communiqu also
refer to the need to continue the Copenhagen process and implement its
results more systematically at national, regional and local levels.
54
The focus of future action at European level will be to consolidate the

work begun on developing common tools and frameworks and the
development of a European Qualifications Framework. This will provide a
common reference to facilitate the recognition and transferability of VET,
general and higher education qualifications, based on competences and
learning outcomes. It will improve permeability in education and training
systems, provide a reference for validating informally acquired competences
and support effective functioning of the European, national and sectoral
labour markets.
The Copenhagen process, although focusing on VET, has done much to further
lifelong learning. Many of the tools developed are applicable beyond VET and
contribute to making a European area of lifelong learning a reality. The lifelong
guidance principles and handbook, the common principles for validation of non-
formal and informal learning, form part of the required building blocks.
SECTION C
The contribution of the Copenhagen process to achieving the Lisbon goals 55
ANNEX 1
Selective thematic summary of
DGVT responses
(
19
)
(a) Implementation of measures related to the Copenhagen Priorities
Responses to the DGVT questionnaire and the country reports show that
European countries have implemented and are planning many measures
addressing the four priorities for VET of the Copenhagen Declaration, as
outlined below.
Recognition of competences and qualifications has received most
attention to date. Two thirds of European countries (Austria, Belgium-
Fr, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy,
Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Slovenia,
Spain, Sweden, the UK) have taken steps to recognise informal and
non-formal learning. Most others (Belgium-Fl, Bulgaria, Czech
Republic, Finland, Greece, Iceland, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Malta,
Poland, Romania, Slovakia,) are at the planning stage. There are wide
variations in the scope and coverage of approaches. Most have a
summative function and give credits in an educational pathway, aiming
to improve both the systems efficiency and increase participation in
lifelong learning. Some countries (e.g. Estonia, Spain, Ireland, Malta
and Slovenia,) are developing a credit transfer system, often related to
a national qualifications framework. Others (e.g. Czech Republic,
Denmark, Liechtenstein, the Netherlands and Poland) are
implementing actions related to Europass. Denmark is developing a
legal framework to ensure individual recognition of qualifications and
certificates acquired in another country.
Quality assurance is the priority receiving the second highest amount
of attention. Some countries (e.g. Belgium-Fl, Ireland and Austria)
have quality assurance systems for VET. Many countries are applying
new systems of quality development and assurance. The methods
vary between standard quality management procedures such as ISO
or EFQM and approaches targeted to the needs of schools, such as
(
1
) The survey among the DGVTs on measures, challenges and future strategies was part of the
'Maastricht study' (2004). The questionnaire and more detailed results may be found there.
the QIS (Qualitt in Schulen) in Austria. Self-evaluation is emphasised
in some quality assurance processes for institutional VET, for example
in Denmark and the Netherlands.
To improve transparency, information and guidance, many countries
have raised awareness of VET provision and its links to other
pathways to promote its attractiveness. Several countries (e.g. the
Czech Republic, France, Greece, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Norway,
Slovakia) have improved VET information, advice, guidance and
counselling. Fragmented information is a problem. To navigate the
increasingly complex systems of provision, individuals need an
integrated approach connecting learning and career information with
labour market data, making clear which options open up and which
are closed when embarking on a particular track. Norway is
establishing regional partnerships for educational and vocational
guidance. Poland has a multidimensional career information system.
Internationalisation strategies are beginning to be introduced to VET
systems to develop the European dimension and promote mobility.
Placements abroad are still limited and, with a few exceptions (e.g.
Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands and the UK), systems lack
specific provision to organise transnational study and work
placements. Finland provides internationalised apprenticeship training
with a focus on the metal, electrical and telecommunications sectors.
The initiative aims to attract and motivate talented young employees
by offering them opportunities to follow pathways leading to
international professional qualifications. It also develops practical
guidelines for companies to facilitate and encourage their involvement
in international mobility.
(b) Training incentives, investments, expenditure
European countries are using a range of funding strategies that depend
on governments and partnerships with social partners, the private
sector, and involve individuals. Most countries have incentives to
encourage individuals and/or firms to take part in continuing VET.
Measures include the introduction or expansion of educational leave
(e.g. Austria, Belgium, Luxembourg, Norway), financial support or tax
allowances to individuals (e.g. Austria, Cyprus, Germany, Hungary, Italy,
Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Sweden),
financial support, including tax incentives to firms (Austria, Bulgaria,
Cyprus, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Malta, Portugal, Romania,
Spain). In countries such as France, Italy and the Netherlands there are
ANNEX 1
Selective thematic summary of DGVT responses 57
multi-sectoral funds financed by a percentage of the total wage bill of
firms and managed by joint bodies to promote and fund actions and
training plans. In some countries employers also have a mandatory
responsibility to facilitate the acquisition of a qualification for unskilled
employees (e.g. Czech Republic) or ensure access of employees to
training programmes based on training plans agreed with trade unions
(e.g. Romania).
(c) VET to support economic development and respond to
demographic changes
Several countries are shifting towards more competence based VET
curricula (e.g. Belgium, Estonia, France, Greece, Malta, the Netherlands,
Poland, Portugal, Romania). Many have created VET programmes in
higher education and/or introduced access to higher education via VET
(e.g. Austria, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland,
France, Greece, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Norway,
Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Spain). Some countries include
entrepreneurship training in the vocational school curriculum and/or in
the secondary school curriculum or national framework (e.g. Austria,
Bulgaria, Finland, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Norway,
Poland, Spain, the UK). These measures help develop the skills needed
in working life and bring VET closer to the world of work.
As regards skill forecasting mechanisms, some countries (e.g. Austria,
Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Norway, the UK) have taken
steps to incorporate a stronger future perspective into their
methodologies integrating trends that influence change such as sector
convergence, technology developments and local/global specialisation.
To complement labour market policies enabling older people to continue
to work, some countries have expanded access to training and lifelong
learning for older workers (e.g. Austria, Czech Republic, Estonia,
Finland, France, Italy, Ireland, Latvia, Liechtenstein, the Netherlands,
Sweden). Some have initiatives focused in particular on the provision of
training or lifelong learning for older unemployed people (e.g. Belgium,
Czech Republic, Ireland, Austria, the UK).
(d) Social cohesion and VET for vulnerable groups
The vast majority of European countries has expanded and/or deepened
actions to reduce early school leaving. Measures include second chance
education and training (e.g. Germany, Greece, Ireland, Luxembourg,
Austria, Poland, Romania), alternative learning pathways, including a
58
stronger practical VET focus (e.g. Austria, Denmark, Estonia, Finland,
France, Germany, Latvia, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Turkey) and enhanced
guidance and counselling (e.g. Czech Republic, the Netherlands,
Slovakia). A majority has introduced more student-centred learning and
tailor-made provision. Portugal, which has a particularly acute problem
of early school leaving, has developed a national plan of prevention. The
Netherlands has introduced regional information and coordination
centres to detect drop-outs and provide counselling and redirection to
education or special work-based programmes. In Ireland, clusters of
schools and other actors develop plans and provision to combat early
school leaving. In Bulgaria and Lithuania legislative initiatives emphasise
the role of parents in preventing drop-out. In Slovakia the social benefits
system provides incentives for remaining in education and in Lithuania
support (including food, temporary housing, learning materials.) is
provided to pupils from disadvantaged groups.
All countries have measures for the unemployed and adults with no or
low-level qualifications, including support for literacy, numeracy, ICT,
non-formal training, accreditation of prior learning and advice and
guidance. Other target groups addressed by most countries include
migrants (e.g. via literacy and language programmes), people with
disabilities (e.g. via personalised support, improved integration legislation
and tax incentives), and women returners (e.g. via measures to build
confidence, combat occupational discrimination and gender
stereotypes).
(e) Open learning pathways and guidance
All countries have sought to raise the attractiveness and flexibility of
initial VET. Most mention modularisation (Austria, Belgium, Czech
Republic, France, Germany, Hungary, Iceland, Luxembourg, Malta,
Poland, Portugal, Slovenia, Sweden) establishing national qualification
systems/frameworks (Czech Republic, Ireland, Lithuania, Malta, the
Netherlands, Slovenia, the UK), establishing competence based
programmes (Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Italy, Latvia,
Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia,) and increasing access
to higher education (Austria, Finland, Germany, Liechtenstein, Portugal,
Spain, Sweden). Some are trying to improve the quality of VET
programmes (e.g. Estonia, Greece, Hungary, Malta, Romania), whilst
others are focusing more on the diversification of programmes (e.g.
Bulgaria, Poland, Portugal) and pathways (e.g. France). Several have
integrated vocational subjects into general programmes and vice versa
ANNEX 1
(e.g. Belgium, Czech Republic, Ireland, Norway, Austria, Portugal,
Slovakia, Sweden, the UK). Some have strengthened information, advice
and guidance activities (e.g. Belgium, Czech Republic, Greece, France,
Ireland, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Slovakia).
As regards CVT, efforts are being made to improve coherence and
transparency through qualifications frameworks (e.g. Denmark, Ireland),
to promote quality assurance (e.g. Czech Republic, Malta) and reinforce
information, advice and guidance (e.g. Belgium, Spain, Austria). Some
countries are improving the flexibility and responsiveness of systems
and stimulate demand through the creation or adaptation of regional
CVT centres (e.g. Czech Republic, Romania, Spain, Sweden). In Belgium
they are developing and testing a methodology to detect demand for
lifelong learning. Some countries (e.g. France) have reformed training for
the unemployed into a more flexible programme for a wider target group,
including workers whose jobs are likely to be lost or restructured and
older workers. In Germany training for the unemployed has shifted from
supply oriented funding to demand oriented funding.
(f) Involvement of stakeholders/partnerships
Measures have been undertaken in nearly all countries to strengthen the
involvement of social partners and sectors/branches of industry in VET.
Enterprises are increasingly involved in providing work/training
placements for students and teachers/trainers. Cooperation with the
social partners has been consolidated and systematised to promote a
closer match between VET supply and labour market needs. Social
partners are involved in the development of policies, programmes
procedures and certification at various levels, including through
centralised tripartite councils (e.g. Estonia, Latvia), regional
partnerships/networks (e.g. Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany,
Estonia, Slovenia, Slovakia), at all levels (e.g. Greece, Spain, Hungary),
at local level via school/industry partnerships (e.g. Austria, Belgium,
France, Italy, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Sweden,
Turkey), via initiatives at sector or branch level (Bulgaria, Ireland). Iceland
has created 14 occupational councils with social partners to develop
curricula. The UK has a National and Sector Skills Council to encourage
employers to take ownership of skills issues and develop sector
strategies to address specific productivity issues and associated skills
needs. Bulgaria has established a national enrolment plan for sector
ministries and social partners bringing planning of enrolment into line
with labour market needs.
60
(g) Innovative pedagogies and learning-conducive environments
New goals and content for VET teaching and learning have been
developed to reflect changes in the skills needed in a knowledge-based
economy. Countries emphasise the development of broad occupational
competences and/or transferable key competences using
contextualised learning settings, especially in the workplace (e.g.
Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Malta, the
Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania).
Most countries have introduced ICT or e-literacy into the VET
curriculum. Some have implemented ICT action plans (e.g. Czech
Republic, Denmark, Turkey) to promote specific ICT content in different
occupational fields. Others have introduced VET pathways for ICT
occupations integrating formal and non-formal learning (e.g. Germany,
Austria). Generally the focus is on how to use ICT rather than using it to
model and transform an activity. Some countries have introduced open
learning approaches in school or college-based learning environments
to promote learning cultures through individualised and group-directed
learning (e.g. Denmark). Learning partnerships of networks of
enterprises, schools, colleges and universities have been created in
some countries to develop regional innovation centres and increase the
supply of skills and competences for organisations and individuals (e.g.
Germany).
(h) Teachers and trainers
Some countries have reformed their teaching profiles and
teacher/training progression routes (e.g. Belgium, Czech Republic,
Denmark, Ireland, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Poland, Romania). Almost
all have strengthened continuing education and training for VET
teachers, including through periods of immersion in the workplace (e.g.
France). Some countries are building coherent research and training
programmes to reflect the integration of subject matter and pedagogy in
VET. For example in Germany a network of German University Institutes
for training vocational teachers and trainers has looked at occupational
clusters focusing on core problems and developmental tasks. Several
countries have introduced mandatory requirements for teacher
continuing training (e.g. Austria, Finland, Hungary, Ireland, Latvia, the
Netherlands, Romania). Some (e.g. Estonia and the UK) are moving
towards the further professionalisation of teachers and pursuing
ambitious goals to improve teacher quality, whilst others (e.g. Germany)
are more oriented towards allowing greater flexibility in teacher and
ANNEX 1
trainer recruitment policies and practices. Efforts to make
teaching/training a more attractive profession are also evident in many
countries (e.g. Bulgaria, Sweden). In the Czech Republic, a goal has
been set to increase teachers wages from 20% below the national
average to 37% above. Some countries report measures to expand the
pool of teachers/trainers. For example Sweden has introduced special
teacher training for teachers lacking qualifications.
62
ANNEX 2
Tables and figures
Figure A1: Pupils in upper secondary education enrolled in vocational
stream, 1998, 2002 (%)
100
75
50
25
0
Ireland: no data; BE: includes social advancement courses; NL: private institutions excluded;
UK: includes ISCED 4 enrolments. In vocational education, courses are generally collected on a whole-year basis .
Countries sorted by enrolment in 2002.
CZ
84.9
82.5
SK
80.3
83.5
AT
76.4
74.9
SI
75.8
81.4
RO
72.0
78.9
NL
71.8
69.6
BE
71.4
CH
70.6
PL
69.9
77.6
DE
68.4
69.0
UK
68.1
52.2
LU
67.1
70.9
BG
66.9
70.9
NO
63.6
58.6
FR
62.1
62.2
FI
61.4
56.7
DK
58.9
57.5
SE
50.6
44.3
LV
47.3
48.1
IS
45.8
43.2
EL
45.6
39.1
MT
44.0
EE
42.7
43.6
ES
40.4
21.8
LT
34.0
42.3
PO
32.9
29.6
IT
28.8
73.8
JP
27.0
CY
22.8
HU
15.4
11.0
Males
2002
1998
2002
1998
100
75
50
25
0
Ireland: no data; BE: includes social advancement courses; NL: private institutions excluded;
UK: includes ISCED 4 enrolments. In vocational education, courses are generally collected on a whole-year basis .
Countries sorted by enrolment in 2002.
CZ
75.6
76.8
UK
75.2
59.4
SK
72.4
77.1
BE
68.1
AT
67.5
64.3
NL
66.5
62.1
SI
64.8
72.3
LU
61.1
65.1
CH
57.3
DE
57.1
59.4
RO
56.1
56.6
FI
53.5
47.7
NO
52.2
46.0
PL
51.1
57.2
FR
50.3
50.4
SE
48.9
37.8
DK
47.3
46.2
BG
43.8
42.9
ES
35.9
21.1
EL
34.2
26.1
LV
30.9
30.2
IS
28.7
20.9
PO
24.9
21.6
IT
24.7
53.2
JP
22.8
LT
22.5
25.2
EE
20.7
23.6
MT
20.6
HU
10.2
6.2
CY
4.7
Females
2002
1998
Table A1: Population aged 25-64 years by highest level of education
attained 2003 (
a
) (%)
64
Country Total Low (ISCED 0-2) Medium(ISCED 3-4) High (ISCED 5-6)
CZ 100.0 11.6 76.5 11.9
EE 100.0 11.8 57.7 30.4
SK 100.0 13.4 75.0 11.6
LT 100.0 13.9 62.8 23.2
DE 100.0 16.5 59.5 24.0
UK 100.0 17.5 51.9 30.7
LV 100.0 17.6 64.2 18.2
PL 100.0 17.9 68.2 13.9
SE 100.0 18.0 54.8 27.2
DK 100.0 18.1 50.1 31.8
SI 100.0 21.5 60.7 17.8
AT 100.0 21.7 63.1 15.2
FI 100.0 24.5 42.7 32.8
HU 100.0 26.0 58.8 15.2
LU 100.0 30.2 54.8 14.9
NL 100.0 32.4 42.7 24.9
CY 100.0 34.0 36.5 29.5
FR 100.0 35.2 41.3 23.5
IE 100.0 38.3 35.2 26.5
BE 100.0 38.6 33.2 28.2
EL 100.0 45.9 36.0 18.1
IT 100.0 53.1 36.1 10.8
ES 100.0 57.3 17.7 25.0
PT 100.0 77.8 11.7 10.5
MT 100.0 79.5 11.4 9.0
EU15 100.0 34.4 43.1 22.5
EU25 100.0 31.6 47.3 21.2
EU25 (1 000) 245 .518 77 874 115 420 52 224
NO 100.0 13.5 55.2 31.4
CH 100.0 13.5 59.6 26.9
BG 100.0 29.0 49.9 21.1
RO 100.0 29.7 60.4 9.8
IS 100.0 35.0 39.3 25.7
AU 100.0 39.0 30.0 31.0
CA 100.0 18.0 40.0 43.0
JP 100.0 16.0 47.0 36.0
KR 100.0 30.0 45.0 26.0
US 100.0 13.0 49.0 38.0
(
a
) NL, IS, AU, CA, JP, KR, US: 2002.
European countries sorted by low level of education Site differences by rounding numbers.
Source: Eurostat - NewCronos database (cited 2.11.04); non-European countries: OECD, Statistics at a glance, 2004.
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Cedefop (European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training)
and training key to the future
mobilising for 2010
Manfred Tessaring
Jennifer Wannan
Luxembourg:
Office for Official Publications of the European Communities
2004 VI, 67 pp. 17 x 24 cm
ISBN 92-896-0329-1
Cat. No: TI-63-04-771-EN-C
Free of charge
No of publication: 4041 EN

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Vocational education and training key to the future

Vocational education and training key to the future

Vocational education and training key to the future

Vocational education and training key to the future

For mobility to become an option for a wider group of VET students, it

Vocational education and training key to the future

Although skills and competences of the workforce are important to company

Vocational education and training key to the future

Vocational education and training key to the future

Vocational education and training key to the future

develop and manage a virtual or micro enterprise on their own. Similar

Vocational education and training key to the future

Examples from Australia and Canada

A more comprehensive measure is to establish a common European qualification

ship teaching in mainstream schooling, but there is still a long way to go

Vocational education and training key to the future

Vocational education and training key to the future

The focus of future action at European level will be to consolidate the

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