GROUNDING OF ELECTRICAL

SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT

INTRODUCTION
Electrical grounding seems to be one of the most misunderstood subjects of the National
Electrical Code (NEC). This is evidenced by one report which stated that the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) documented more than 20,000 violations of
grounding in one year. Most of these violations came from loose, damaged, or missing
external grounds. Just imagine the increased numbers of violations if the OSHA inspector
opened electrical equipment to check equipment ground connections or if they used test
equipment to verify proper grounding!
The real problem is that most electrical equipment will work without a ground connec-
tion. For example, an electric drill will not work if the hot or neutral wire is open however,
if the ground wire is open, it will work properly. Even though the drill works properly with-
out a ground connection, it is not safe to use.
This chapter addresses several issues dealing with general grounding and bonding, sys-
tem grounding, and equipment grounding. Proper grounding is an issue that must be seri-
ously considered for all electrical installations and equipment. Strict adherence to the
OSHA requirements, NEC Article 250, as well as the numerous consensus standards and
reference books, reduces the risk of electrical shock from contact with inadvertently ener-
gized equipment, enclosures, and structures.
The information in this chapter is not intended to be a substitute for the NEC or OSHA
requirements. Nor is it intended to replace or be a substitute for any other standard quoted
herein. For proper grounding of electrical systems and equipment, always comply with the
requirements contained in the current standards and regulations.
ELECTRIC SHOCK HAZARD
Energized conductors and circuit components, installed within or on electrical equipment,
are insulated from the equipments metal enclosure, to provide protection for personnel
who operate the equipment, from being exposed to dangerous voltages. When aging or mal-
function causes the insulation to break down, the energized conductors within the equip-
ment can make direct contact with the metal enclosure, thereby energizing it. Anyone
making contact with energized equipment could be injured or killed.
Equipment grounding is a way of nullifying this shock hazard. An equipment ground
forms a very low impedance path to ground. Personnel making contact with the energized
enclosure will be exposed to less voltage than they would otherwise.
4.1
CHAPTER 4
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4.2 CHAPTER FOUR
Simply stated, proper bonding and grounding of electrical equipment will substantially
reduce the risk of electrical shock by effectively eliminating a difference in potential.
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR GROUNDING
AND BONDING
Definitions
The following terms are defined here due to their frequent use in this chapter. The definitions
contained in this chapter are taken verbatim from OSHA 29 CFR 1910.399. Corresponding
definitions can also be found in Article 100 of the current edition of the NEC.
Bonding (Bonded). The permanent joining of metallic parts to form an electrically con-
ductive path that will ensure electrical continuity and the capacity to conduct safely any cur-
rent likely to be imposed.
Bonding Jumper. A reliable conductor to ensure the required electrical conductivity
between metal parts required to be electrically connected.
Bonding Jumper, Equipment. The connection between two or more portions of the
equipment grounding conductor.
Bonding Jumper, Main. The connection between the grounded circuit conductor and the
equipment grounding conductor at the service.
Energized. Electrically connected to a source of potential difference.
Equipment. A general term including material, fittings, devices, appliances, fixtures,
apparatus, and the like used as a part of, or in connection with, an electrical installation.
Ground. A conducting connection, whether intentional or accidental, between an electri-
cal circuit or equipment and the earth, or to some conducting body that serves in place of
the earth.
Grounded. Connected to earth or to some conducting body that serves in place of the
earth.
Grounded, Effectively. Intentionally connected to earth through a ground connection or
connections of sufficiently low impedance and having sufficient current-carrying capacity
to prevent the buildup of voltages that may result in undue hazards to connected equipment
or to persons.
Grounding Conductor. A conductor used to connect equipment or the grounded circuit
of a wiring system to a grounding electrode or electrodes.
Grounding Conductor, Equipment. The conductor used to connect the non-current-
carrying metal parts of equipment, raceways, and other enclosures to the system grounded
conductor, the grounding electrode conductor, or both, at the service equipment or at the
source of a separately derived system.
Grounding Electrode Conductor. The conductor used to connect the grounding elec-
trode to the equipment grounding conductor, to the grounded conductor, or to both, of the
circuit at the service equipment or at the source of a separately derived system.
Grounding Electrode System. Two or more grounding electrodes that are effectively
bonded together shall be considered a single grounding electrode system.
Ground-Fault Circuit Interrupter. A device intended for the protection of personnel that
functions to de-energize a circuit or portion thereof within an established period of time
when a current to ground exceeds some predetermined value that is less than that required
to operate the overcurrent protective device of the supply circuit.
Ground-Fault Protection of Equipment. A system intended to provide protection of
equipment from damaging line-to-ground fault currents by operating to cause a discon-
necting means to open all ungrounded conductors of the faulted circuit. This protection is
provided at current levels less than those required to protect conductors from damage
through the operation of a supply circuit overcurrent device.
Grounding of Electrical Systems
Grounded electrical systems are required to be connected to earth in such a way as to limit
any voltages imposed by lightning, line surges, or unintentional contact with higher volt-
age lines. Electrical systems are also grounded to stabilize the voltage to earth during nor-
mal operation. If, for example, the neutral of a 120/240 V, wye-connected secondary of a
transformer were not grounded, instead of being 120 V to ground, the voltage could reach
several hundred volts to ground. A wye-connected electrical system becomes very unstable
if it is not properly grounded.
The following requirements are taken from OSHA 29 CFR 1910.304(f) and can also be
found in the 2005 National Electrical Code (NEC)

Section 250.20.
(f) Grounding. Paragraphs (f)(1) through (f)(7) of this section contain grounding
requirements for systems, circuits, and equipment.
(1) Systems to be grounded. The following systems, which supply premises wiring,
shall be grounded:
(i) All 3-wire DC systems shall have their neutral conductor grounded.
(ii) Two-wire DC systems operating at over 50 volts through 300 volts between con-
ductors shall be grounded unless:
(A) They supply only industrial equipment in limited areas and are equipped with a
ground detector; or
(B) They are rectifier-derived from an AC system complying with paragraphs (f)(1)(iii),
(f)(1)(iv), and (f)(1)(v) of this section; or
(C) They are fire-protective signaling circuits having a maximum current of 0.030
amperes.
(iii) AC circuits of less than 50 volts shall be grounded if they are installed as overhead
conductors outside of buildings or if they are supplied by transformers and the trans-
former primary supply system is ungrounded or exceeds 150 volts to ground.
(iv) AC systems of 50 volts to 1000 volts shall be grounded under any of the following
conditions, unless exempted by paragraph (f)(1)(v) of this section:
(A) If the system can be so grounded that the maximum voltage to ground on the
ungrounded conductors does not exceed 150 volts; (see Fig. 4.1)
GROUNDING OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT 4.3
(B) If the system is nominally rated 480Y/277 volt, 3-phase, 4-wire in which the neu-
tral is used as a circuit conductor; (see Fig. 4.2)
(C) If the system is nominally rated 240/120 volt, 3-phase, 4-wire in which the midpoint
of one phase is used as a circuit conductor; (see Fig. 4.3)
Or,
(D) If a service conductor is uninsulated.
(v) AC systems of 50 volts to 1000 volts are not required to be grounded under any of
the following conditions:
(A) If the system is used exclusively to supply industrial electric furnaces for melting,
refining, tempering, and the like.
(B) If the system is separately derived and is used exclusively for rectifiers supplying
only adjustable speed industrial drives.
(C) If the system is separately derived and is supplied by a transformer that has a primary
voltage rating less than 1000 volts, provided all of the following conditions are met:
{1} The system is used exclusively for control circuits,
4.4 CHAPTER FOUR
FIGURE 4.1 Voltage-to-ground less than 150 volts. (Courtesy of AVO Training Institute, Inc.)
FIGURE 4.2 480/277 volt systems. (Courtesy of AVO Training Institute, Inc.)
{2} The conditions of maintenance and supervision assure that only qualified persons
will service the installation,
{3} Continuity of control power is required, and
{4} Ground detectors are installed on the control system.
(D) If the system is an isolated power system that supplies circuits in health care
facilities.
(2) Conductors to be grounded. For AC premises wiring systems the identified con-
ductor shall be grounded.
(4) Grounding path. The path to ground from circuits, equipment, and enclosures shall
be permanent and continuous.
(5) Supports, enclosures, and equipment to be grounded(i) Supports and enclo-
sures for conductors. Metal cable trays, metal raceways, and metal enclosures for con-
ductors shall be grounded, except that:
(7) Grounding of systems and circuits of 1000 volts and over (high voltage.)(i)
General. If high voltage systems are grounded, they shall comply with all applicable
provisions of paragraphs (f)(1) through (f)(6) of this section as supplemented and mod-
ified by this paragraph (f)(7).
(ii) Grounding of systems supplying portable or mobile equipment. [see
1910.302(b)(3)] Systems supplying portable or mobile high voltage equipment, other
than substations installed on a temporary basis, shall comply with the following:
(A) Portable and mobile high voltage equipment shall be supplied from a system hav-
ing its neutral grounded through an impedance. If a delta-connected high voltage sys-
tem is used to supply the equipment, a system neutral shall be derived.
(B) Exposed non-current-carrying metal parts of portable and mobile equipment shall
be connected by an equipment grounding conductor to the point at which the system
neutral impedance is grounded.
(C) Ground-fault detection and relaying shall be provided to automatically de-energize
any high voltage system component which has developed a ground fault. The continu-
ity of the equipment grounding conductor shall be continuously monitored so as to de-
energize automatically the high voltage feeder to the portable equipment upon loss of
continuity of the equipment grounding conductor.
GROUNDING OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT 4.5
FIGURE 4.3 Delta system with neutral. (Courtesy of AVO Training Institute, Inc.)
(D) The grounding electrode to which the portable or mobile equipment system neu-
tral impedance is connected shall be isolated from and separated in the ground by at
least 20 feet from any other system or equipment grounding electrode, and there shall
be no direct connection between the grounding electrodes, such as buried pipe, fence,
and so on.
Grounding of Electrical Equipment
OSHA 1910.304(f)(7)(iii) Grounding of equipment. All non-current-carrying metal
parts of portable equipment and fixed equipment including their associated fences, hous-
ings, enclosures, and supporting structures shall be grounded. However, equipment that is
guarded by location and isolated from ground need not be grounded. Additionally, pole-
mounted distribution apparatus at a height exceeding 8 feet above ground or grade level
need not be grounded.
In 29 CFR 1910.303, General Requirements, OSHA states under (b) Examination,
installation, and use of equipment (1) Examination that Electrical equipment shall be
free from recognized hazards that are likely to cause death or serious physical harm to
employees. This section continues with other factors which contribute to the practical
safeguarding of employees using or likely to come in contact with the equipment. One of
these other factors is proper grounding. If the non-current-carrying metal parts of elec-
tric equipment are not properly grounded and these parts become energized, then any
employee using or likely to come in contact with the equipment is at risk of an electri-
cal shock that may or may not be fatal. This is a risk that must not be taken. Proper ground-
ing can effectively eliminate this shock hazard by providing a permanent and continuous low
impedance path for ground-fault current to follow in order to clear the circuit protective
device(s).
Bonding of Electrically Conductive Materials and Other Equipment
Bonding is the permanent joining of metallic parts of materials and equipment. When
different metal parts are not bonded together, a difference in potential could exist
between the metal parts. This creates an electrically hazardous condition between the
parts. Anyone simultaneously coming into contact with the metal parts would be subject
to electrical shock, burns, or electrocution. When all conductive materials and parts of
equipment are permanently bonded together, there is only one piece of metal and no
potential difference exists between the parts. The metal parts must also be grounded to
earth in order to be at earth potential. This minimizes the risk of touch-potential and
step-potential hazards when working on or around metal enclosures that could become
energized.
Other metallic equipment that is in contact with or adjacent to the electrical equipment
should also be grounded to prevent a difference in potential in the event that a ground fault
occurs in the electrical equipment. This could include other piping as well as ducts in ven-
tilation systems as shown in Fig. 4.4.
As discussed in the previous section, all non-current-carrying components of electrical
equipment must be grounded. Equipment grounding conductors are installed and con-
nected to the required terminal in the equipment to provide the low impedance path for fault
current to clear the circuit. All other metallic components of the equipment must be bonded
to the grounded portion of the equipment in order to prevent a difference in potential
between the components. An example of this would be service enclosures. Figure 4.5 illus-
trates bonding of service enclosures.
4.6 CHAPTER FOUR
FIGURE 4.4 Bonding of other piping and duct systems. (Courtesy of AVO
Training Institute, Inc.)
FIGURE 4.5 Bonding service enclosures. (Courtesy of AVO Training Institute, Inc.)
4.7
Performance of Fault Path
OSHA makes a very simple statement on the performance of the fault path as found in
1910.304(f)(4) which states: Grounding path. The path to ground from circuits, equip-
ment, and enclosures shall be permanent and continuous. NEC Section 250.4(A)(5) also
requires the fault current path to be able to safely carry the maximum ground-fault cur-
rent, provide a low impedance path in order to clear the overcurrent devices, and perform
in a way that the earth is not used as the sole equipment grounding conductor for fault
current.
The fault current path must meet these criteria in order for the overcurrent protection to
clear the circuit in the event a ground fault occurs. A low-impedance conductor path must
be used because the earth provides an extremely high impedance path and would not allow
a sufficient amount of fault current to flow to clear the overcurrent device. Another factor
is that a low-impedance conductor path for fault current to flow through minimizes the pos-
sibility of step- and touch-potential hazards by limiting the voltage to ground.
Arrangement to Prevent Objectionable Current
Grounding of electrical equipment and systems must be accomplished in a manner that
would prevent objectionable current. The main point here is to install an effective ground-
ing system without creating an objectionable current situation. Circulating current is one
form of objectionable current that can occur when multiple grounds are utilized.
Alterations to Stop Objectionable Current
Objectionable current flow can occur when using multiple grounds in electrical systems
and equipment. If this occurs there are several different options to prevent or at least mini-
mize this current flow:
1. One or more of the grounds may be discontinued. Never discontinue all of the grounds.
2. The grounding connection may be changed to another location.
3. The conductive path for the grounding connections may be interrupted.
4. The authority having jurisdiction may grant other remedial action.
Temporary Currents Not Classified as Objectionable Current
One thing to keep in mind when dealing with this subject is that there are times when cur-
rent will flow in the grounding system or through the non-current carrying parts of electri-
cal equipment. Ground faults in equipment do occur and that is when the grounding system
performs its function. These currents are not classified as objectionable current for the pur-
pose of this discussion.
Connection of Grounding and Bonding Equipment
Conductors for grounding and bonding of electrical equipment must be connected using an
approved method such as exothermic welding, listed pressure connections, listed clamps,
4.8 CHAPTER FOUR
and other approved means. Solder must not be used as the sole connection. Solder is too
soft and has a very low melting point and, therefore, becomes a fuse in the grounding con-
nection. Also, never use sheet metal screws to make connections between the grounding
conductor and the enclosure. The use of sheet metal screws would provide limited metal-
to-metal contact between the screw and the enclosure and, therefore, may not provide the
required low-impedance connection.
Protection of Ground Clamps and Fittings
All grounding connections must be protected from physical damage either by location or
by means of an enclosure made of wood, metal, or equivalent. Damaged grounding con-
ductor connections can result in loss of continuity in the ground path, which will create a
potential shock hazard.
Clean Surfaces
If the grounding connection point is contaminated with paint or other such coatings, good
continuity may not be accomplished. All surfaces must be cleaned as needed to remove any
such coatings or other contaminants that could interfere with the continuity of the ground-
ing connection. As was stated earlier, the grounding system must create a sufficiently low
impedance path in order for circuit protective devices to clear the circuit in the event of a
ground fault.
SYSTEM GROUNDING
Purposes of System Grounding
Power systems are grounded for one or more of the following reasons:

Control of the voltage to ground to within predictable limits.

To provide for current flow and allow detection and location of ground faults.

To reduce shock hazard to personnel.

It is not always possible to accomplish all these goals with a particular method of ground-
ing. In some cases, the chosen method of grounding is a compromise between conflict-
ing goals. Table 4.1 shows the advantages and disadvantages of the various grounding
methods.
Grounding Service-Supplied Alternating-Current Systems
The premises wiring system of a grounded electrical service must be grounded. This
means that each grounded service must have a grounding electrode conductor connected
to the grounding electrode and to the service equipment. The grounded service conductor
is also connected to the grounding electrode conductor. OSHA provides this requirement in
GROUNDING OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT 4.9
29 CFR 1910.304(3)(i), (ii), and (iii) (NEC Section 250.24 provides a more in-depth
requirement) as quoted below:
(3) Grounding connections. (i) For a grounded system, a grounding electrode conductor shall
be used to connect both the equipment grounding conductor and the grounded circuit conduc-
tor to the grounding electrode (see Fig. 4.6). Both the equipment grounding conductor and the
grounding electrode conductor shall be connected to the grounded circuit conductor on the sup-
ply side of the service disconnecting means, or on the supply side of the system disconnecting
means or overcurrent devices if the system is separately derived.
(ii) For an ungrounded service-supplied system, the equipment grounding conductor shall be
connected to the grounding electrode conductor at the service equipment. For an ungrounded
4.10 CHAPTER FOUR
TABLE 4.1 Comparison of System Grounding Methods
Method of grounding Advantages Disadvantages
Ungroundedno intentional Little or no ground current. Possiblity of large transient
connection to ground overvoltages.
Plant does not need to trip Overvoltages on the unfaulted phases.
for a single ground fault. Hard to detect and locate ground
faults.
Possibility of ferroresonance.
High Resistanceground Limit transient Overvoltage on the unfaulted phases.
fault < 10 A. overvoltages to 250%. Surge arresters need to be rated for
Can usually keep plant the phase-to-phase voltage.
running through a single
ground fault. .
Ground fault can be detected.
Low Resistanceground Limit transient overvoltages Overvoltage on the unfaulted
fault > 100 A. to 250%. phases.
Immediate and selective Surge arresters need to be rated
fault clearing is possible. phase-to-phase voltage.
Reactanceground fault at Prevent serious transient High ground fault currents that
least 25% and preferably overvoltages. must be cleared.
60% of the three-phase
fault
X
o
< 10 X
1
Limit generator phase to
ground fault to the
magnitude of the three-
phase fault.
Solidly groundedsolid Limits system overvoltages. Extreme ground fault magnitudes.
connection between Freedom from ferroresonance. Safety risks (arc blast and flash).
neutral and ground.
R
o
X
1
X
0
< 3X
1
Easier detection, location, and Stray voltages due to ground
Note that Z
o
O selective tripping of ground faults (shock hazard).
faults. Mechanical and thermal stress
Can use phase to ground and damage during ground faults.
rated surge arresters.
Ground fault must be detected and
cleared, even if the plant must take
an outage.
Source: Courtesy of AVO Training Institue, Inc.
separately derived system, the equipment grounding conductor shall be connected to the
grounding electrode conductor at, or ahead of, the system disconnecting means or overcurrent
devices.
(iii) On extensions of existing branch circuits, which do not have an equipment grounding
conductor, grounding-type receptacles may be grounded to a grounded cold water pipe near the
equipment.
An important point to make here is that the grounding and grounded conductors are only
allowed to be connected together on the line-side of the service disconnecting means, they are
generally not allowed to be connected on the load-side. This issue will be addressed in more
detail in the section titled Use of Grounded Circuit Conductor for Grounding Equipment.
Conductors to Be GroundedAlternating-Current Systems
The following conductors of an AC premises wiring system are required to be grounded:
1. One conductor of a single-phase, 2-wire system
2. The neutral conductor of a single-phase, 3-wire system
3. The common conductor of a multiphase system where one wire is common to all phases
4. One phase conductor of a multiphase system requiring a grounded phase
5. The neutral conductor of a multiphase system where one phase is used as the neutral
Main Bonding Jumper
In a grounded electrical system, an unspliced main bonding jumper is required to connect
all grounding and grounded conductors to the service equipment enclosure. This connec-
tion is made within the service equipment enclosure using either a ground bus, a screw,
strap, or wire. Figure 4.7 further illustrates this requirement:
GROUNDING OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT 4.11
FIGURE 4.6 Grounding service conductor connection to grounding electrode. (Courtesy of AVO Training
Institute, Inc.)
Grounding Electrode System
A grounding electrode system is made up of a grounding electrode(s), any required bonding
jumpers between electrodes, and a grounding electrode conductor. All conductors and jumpers
used in the grounding electrode system must be sized in accordance with NEC Section 250.66
and connected as specified in Section 250.70. There may be several types of grounding elec-
trodes available at each building or structure. All available electrodes must be bonded together
and used to form a grounding electrode system. Available electrodes include metal under-
ground water pipe, the metal frame of a building, concrete-encased electrodes, and ground
rings. Figure 4.8 illustrates several common types of grounding electrodes. Several of the elec-
trodes mentioned above have specific requirements as noted in Fig. 4.9.
If only a water pipe is available for the grounding electrode, it must be supplemented
by one of the other electrodes mentioned above or by a made electrode as illustrated in
Fig. 4.10.
Made electrodes, such as a ground rod, pipe, or plate, may also be utilized to supple-
ment existing electrodes. Figure 4.11 illustrates the minimum requirements for a ground
rod or pipe.
There are two alternate installation methods for ground rods or pipes that are permitted to
be utilized if vertical installation is not possible due to rock or other obstructions. Figure 4.12
illustrates these alternate methods.
Figure 4.13 illustrates the minimum requirements for a ground plate.
Where practicable, these made electrodes are required to be installed below the perma-
nent moisture level and be free from nonconductive coatings. If more than one electrode is
used, they must be installed at least 6 ft from each other. A common practice is to place the
rods apart at a distance equal to the length of the rod. The best industry practice is to install
the rods at least 10 ft apart. This practice will minimize the risk of dissipation overlap in the
event of a ground fault.
4.12 CHAPTER FOUR
FIGURE 4.7 Location of the main bonding jumper. (Courtesy of AVO Training
Institute, Inc.)
GROUNDING OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT 4.13
FIGURE 4.8 Types of Grounding Electrodes. (Courtesy of AVO Training Institute, Inc.)
FIGURE 4.9 Electrode connections. (Courtesy of AVO Training
Institute, Inc.)
Grounding Electrode System
Resistance
Resistance of all grounding connections must
also be addressed briefly. There are three com-
ponents of resistance to consider: (1) ground-
ing electrode resistance, (2) contact resistance
between the electrode and the soil, and (3) the
resistance of the soil. These three components
are illustrated in Figure 4.14.
The grounding electrode, as a general rule,
has very low resistance. The contact of the elec-
trode with the surrounding soil is also generally
low. The third component, soil, can very dramat-
ically in resistance from one location to another
due to different types and conditions of the soil.
For example, the resistivity of inorganic clay can
range from 1,0005,500 ohm/cm whereas gravel
can range from 60,000100,000 ohm/cm. Every
type and condition of soil will, as can be seen,
vary tremendously. The soil type must be
known and grounding electrode testing must be
done periodically in order to know whether or
not a good grounding system is present. NEC
Section 250.56 specifies that the resistance to
ground for a made electrode must be 25 ohms or
less. If this value cannot be obtained, then mul-
tiple electrodes must be used. As was mentioned
earlier, make sure the electrodes are spaced far
enough apart to prevent dissipation overlap.
Grounding Electrode Conductor
OSHA 29 CFR 1910.399 defines the grounding electrode conductor as: The conductor used to
connect the grounding electrode to the equipment grounding conductor and/or to the grounded
conductor of the circuit at the service equipment or at the source of a separately derived system.
4.14 CHAPTER FOUR
FIGURE 4.10 Sole connections. (Courtesy of AVO Training
Institute, Inc.)
FIGURE 4.11 Minimum requirements for a
ground rod or pipe. (Courtesy of AVO Training
Institute, Inc.)
Although copper is the preferred material for the grounding electrode conductor, alu-
minum and copper-clad aluminum are also acceptable. There are, however, restrictions with
the latter two materials. The aluminum and copper-clad aluminum conductors are not
allowed by code to be installed in direct contact with masonry or the earth, or where corro-
sive conditions exist. If used, these materials must not be installed within 18 in of earth.
Copper, on the other hand, is considered a corrosion resistant material and, therefore, is per-
mitted to be installed in most locations.
NEC Section 250.64(C) requires the grounding electrode conductor to be installed con-
tinuous without splice or joint. There are, however, two deviations from this rule. A splice can
be made using a listed irreversible compression-type connector or the exothermic welding
process. More on this subject will be addressed in the next section, Grounding Conductor
Connections to Electrode.
The grounding electrode conductor must be sized by the requirements of NEC Section
250.66. The conductor is sized based on the size of the largest service-entrance conductor
GROUNDING OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT 4.15
FIGURE 4.12 Alternate burial methods for ground rods. (Courtesy of AVO Training Institute, Inc.)
FIGURE 4.13 Plate electrode minimum requirements. (Courtesy of AVO Training Institute, Inc.)
or equivalent area of parallel conductors. The size can also vary according to the type of
connection used, as will be discussed in the next section. Other deviations to the values
presented in NEC Table 250.66 is as follows:
1. Connections to made electrodes. The sole connection portion of the conductor is not
required to be larger than No. 6 copper wire.
2. Connections to concrete-encased electrodes. The sole connection portion of the con-
ductor is not required to be larger than No. 4 copper wire.
3. Connections to ground rings. The sole connection portion of the conductor is not
required to be larger than the conductor used for the ground ring. NEC Section
250.52(A)(4) states not smaller than No. 2 copper wire.
Grounding Conductor Connection to Electrodes
NEC Section 250.68(B) states that the connection of the grounding electrode conductor must
be made in a manner that will ensure a permanent and effective grounding path. Section
250.70 provides the means of connection of the grounding electrode conductor to the
grounding electrode. These methods include exothermic welding, listed lugs, listed pressure
connectors, listed clamps, and other listed means of connection. Note the term listed for
various connection methods. These are designed, manufactured, listed, and labeled for the
purpose and are the only ones permitted for use in grounding electrode systems. The code
goes on to state that connections made with solder must not be used. Solder has a very low
melting point and, therefore, would disconnect the grounding connection in the event of a
ground-fault, because the solder would act like a fuse. The National Electrical Safety Code
(NESC) states that joints in grounding conductors must be made and maintained so as not to
materially increase the resistance of the grounding conductor. The NESC also states that the
connection must have appropriate mechanical and corrosion-resistant characteristics.
4.16 CHAPTER FOUR
FIGURE 4.14 Components of earth resistance in an earth electrode. (Courtesy of AVO Training
Institute, Inc.)
IEEE Std. 80, Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding is an excellent resource
for determining the minimum size conductor based on the type of connection used. The
Onderdonk AC equation is used to calculate fusing current of a conductor based on the type
of connection used. Connectors and splice connections must also meet the requirements of
IEEE Std. 837 in order to be acceptable. The following examples will further illustrate this
point:
For this example, a shortened version of the Onderdonk equation will be used to deter-
mine conductor size and to determine fusing current levels based on the type of connection.
where A = Cable size, circular mil
K = Connector factor
S = Maximum fault time, seconds
I = Maximum fault current, amperes
For copper conductors these equations use the following K values to represent con-
nection temperature:

Conductor only1083C temperature ratingvalue of K = 6.96

Welded connections1083C temperature ratingvalue of K = 6.96

Irreversible compression-type connections1083C temperature ratingvalue of K =6.96

Brazed connections450C temperature ratingvalue of K = 9.12

Pressure-type connections250C temperature rating value of K = 11.54

The following three examples, used to determine minimum conductor size, will use a
20,000-A fault current with a protective device clearing time of 5 cycles (.083 second)
using :
1. Pressure type connection:
A = 66,493 cm (minimum size conductor)
According to NEC Table 8, the size that corresponds to the minimum size conductor
would be a No. 1 AWG copper conductor (83,690 cm)
2. Brazed connection:
A= 52,549 cm (minimum size conductor)
According to NEC Table 8, the size that corresponds to the minimum size conductor
would be a No. 3 AWG copper conductor (52,620 cm)
3. Welded or irreversible compression-type connection:
A= 40,103 cm (minimum size conductor)
A 6.96 20, 000 = .083
A 9.12 20, 000 = .083
A = 11 54 20 000 083 . , .
A KI S =
Conductor Size Fusing Current
A KI S I
A
K S
= =
GROUNDING OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT 4.17
According to NEC Table 8, the size that corresponds to the minimum size conductor
would be a No. 4 AWG copper conductor (41,740 cm)
As can be seen by the previous examples, if a pressure type connection were used, it
would require a conductor approximately 60 percent larger than a connection made with a
welded or irreversible compression-type connection. The brazed connection would require
a conductor approximately 31 percent larger than a welded or irreversible compression-
type connection. For practical purposes, the welded or irreversible compression-type con-
nection would be the preferred choice.
Another consideration would be the approximate fusing current of the conductor based
on the type of connection. This example will use a 4/0 (211,600 cm) conductor with a pro-
tective device clearing time of 5 cycles (.083 second) using .
1. Pressure type connection:
I = 63,646 amperes fusing current
2. Welded or irreversible compression-type connection:
I = 105,528 amperes fussing current
As can be seen in the above examples the conductor utilizing the welded or irreversible
compression-type connection will handle much more current before fusing than the pressure-
type connection.
When reliability and cost are taken into consideration, it is plain to see that the welded,
as well as the irreversible compression-type, connection are far superior to any other type
of connection.
Bonding
If only one statement were to be made about grounding and bonding, it would be that all non-
current-carrying parts of electrical equipment and nonelectrical equipment, likely to become
energized, be effectively grounded and bonded together. By using this general philosophy,
there will be a minimum (near zero) risk that the non-current-carrying parts of equipment could
become energized. This would greatly reduce the risk of electrical shock or electrocution of
any person likely to come into contact with the equipment. As discussed earlier, a general state-
ment in OSHA 29 CFR 1910.303(b)(1)(vii) includes, other factors which contribute to the
practical safeguarding of employees using or likely to come in contact with the equipment.
One of these other factors refers to grounding and bonding of equipment likely to become
energized.
NEC Section 250.90 states that bonding must be provided where necessary to ensure
electrical continuity. Bonding is also required to ensure the capacity to safely conduct any
fault current that is likely to be imposed on the equipment. This requirement applies to all
types of equipment, systems, and structures. NEC Article 250, Part V. Bonding, must be
complied with in order to size the bonding jumper correctly. Table 4.2 illustrates further
why Part V must be adhered to.
I =
211600
6 96 083 . .
I =
211600
11 54 083 . .
I A K S = /
4.18 CHAPTER FOUR
The key here is to know where the bonding jumper is and what it is being used for; it
makes a significant difference. If the wrong section or table is used, the bonding jumper
may not be of adequate current-carrying capacity to safely conduct any fault current likely
to be imposed on it.
EQUIPMENT GROUNDING
Equipment to be Grounded
Equipment to be grounded essentially means that all non-current-carrying metal parts of
electrical equipment, whether fastened in place or portable, must be grounded. NEC Article
250, Part VI, Equipment Grounding and Equipment Grounding Conductors very specifi-
cally lays out the requirements for equipment grounding for electrical as well as nonelectri-
cal equipment that could become energized. NEC Section 250.110 lists the requirements for
equipment fastened in place (fixed) and has three exceptions. Exception No. 2 itemizes, dis-
tribution apparatus, such as transformer and capacitor cases, mounted on wooden poles, at a
height exceeding 8 ft above the ground or grade level. This exception would protect the gen-
eral public from possible contact with the ungrounded apparatus; however, it does not protect
the person working on the pole. With regard to these issues, OSHA 29 CFR 1910.269(l)(9)
states:
Non-current-carrying metal parts. Non-current-carrying metal parts of equipment or devices,
such as transformer cases and circuit breaker housings, shall be treated as energized at the high-
est voltage to which they are exposed, unless the employer inspects the installation and deter-
mines that these parts are grounded before work is performed.
The best practice is to always ground every case or enclosure that contains electrical
equipment or conductors. When in doubt, ground it.
Grounding Cord- and Plug-Connected Equipment
NEC Section 250.114 states the same philosophy for cord- and plug-connected equipment,
as does Sections 250.110 through 250.112 for fixed equipment. It directs that all exposed
GROUNDING OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT 4.19
TABLE 4.2 Reference Table for Sizing Bonding Jumpers
Paragraph Reference for sizing
Supply side of service Table 250.66
Load side of service Table 250.122
Interior water pipe Table 250.66
Multiple occupancies Table 250.122
Multiple buildings-common service Section 250.122
Separately derived systems Table 250.66
Other metal piping Table 250.122
Structural steel Table 250.66
non-current-carrying metal parts that are likely to become energized must be grounded. A
key point here is likely to become energized. Any metal housing or enclosure that con-
tains electrical components is, at some time or another, likely to become energized. Proper
equipment grounding techniques will provide the sufficiently low impedance path required
to cause the overcurrent device to operate and clear the ground fault condition.
In the material written about electrical safety-related work practices, OSHA has pro-
vided specific requirements for the use of portable electrical equipment and extension
cords. This requirement is found in OSHA 29 CFR 1910.334 where it states:
Use of equipment. (a) Portable electric equipment. (3) Grounding type equipment. (i) A
flexible cord used with grounding type equipment shall contain an equipment grounding
conductor.
(ii) Attachment plugs and receptacles may not be connected or altered in a manner which would
prevent proper continuity of the equipment grounding conductor at the point where plugs are
attached to receptacles. Additionally, these devices may not be altered to allow the grounding pole
of a plug to be inserted into slots intended for connection to the current-carrying conductors.
(iii) Adapters which interrupt the continuity of the equipment grounding connection may not
be used.
OSHA makes it very clear that this type of equipment must be grounded. Note as well the
statement in (iii) concerning adapters. The adapters referred to here are used when a grounded
plug is required to be used where an ungrounded receptacle exists. These adapters are UL
approved and can be used, but only if used properly, that is, the ground connection must be
attached to a return ground path. The problem with adapters is that the ground connection
device is generally cut off or otherwise not used, thus defeating the ground continuity.
Equipment grounding conductors are required as stated previously, however, grounding
alone does not give complete protection when using portable cord- and plug-connected,
hand-held equipment and extension cords. The use of a ground-fault circuit interrupter
(GFCI) when using portable equipment will provide additional safety for the user.
Grounding does provide a path for ground fault current to flow to cause the overcurrent
device to operate, however, it does not provide protection when current leakage occurs due
to moisture in a piece of equipment or when there is an undetected cut in the cord or crack
in the equipment case. The GFCI is designed to trip at 4 to 6 mA of current. To explain this
further, the following example is provided.
Given a 20-A molded case circuit breaker, the maximum load allowed by code is 16 A
(80 percent of rating). At 16 A this circuit breaker will, under normal conditions, run indef-
initely. Even at 20 A the circuit breaker will remain closed for several minutes to infinity.
Taking this into consideration, the amount of current leakage from moisture in the equip-
ment (a hand-held drill for example) will not trip this circuit breaker, however, a solid
ground fault will. Since the circuit breaker will not trip, a person contacting this piece of
equipment is exposed to a shock hazard. It takes approximately one-tenth of an ampere to
cause ventricular fibrillation in most people, which is generally fatal. The point is that the
circuit breaker will not protect a person in this situation but a GFCI will.
NEC Section 590.6 requires ground-fault protection for all temporary wiring installa-
tions for construction, remodeling, maintenance, repair, demolition of buildings, structures,
equipment, or similar activities. In other words, any time an extension cord is used for one
of these activities, a GFCI is required. Although not specifically required here, and because
the hazard risk is the same, all hand-held cord- and plug-connected portable electrical
equipment should utilize a GFCI for the protection of the worker.
Figure 4.15 further illustrates how a GFCI works.
Use a GFCI; it may save your life. Look at it this wayit is cheap life insurance.
4.20 CHAPTER FOUR
Equipment Grounding Conductors
NEC Section 250.118 identifies several types of equipment grounding conductors. These
types vary from an equipment grounding conductor run with circuit conductors or enclos-
ing them. It can consist of one or more of the following:
1. A copper, aluminum, or copper-clad aluminum conductor.
2. Rigid metal conduit.
3. Intermediate metal conduit.
4. Electrical metallic tubing.
5. Flexible metal conduit and fittings listed for grounding.
6. Liquid-tight flexible metal conduit and fittings listed for grounding.
7. Flexible metallic tubing, under conditions.
8. Type AC armored cable
9. Copper sheath of type MI cable.
10. Type MC cable metal sheath.
11. Cable trays meeting the requirements of NEC Section 392.3(C) and 392.7.
12. Cablebus framework permitted by NEC Section 370.3.
13. Other metal raceways listed for grounding that are electrically continuous.
14. Surface metal raceways listed for grounding.
The equipment grounding conductor can either be bare, covered, or insulated. Where the
conductor is insulated it must be identified by a continuous outer finish of green, green with
one or more yellow stripes, or bare. Equipment grounding conductors larger than No. 6 and
GROUNDING OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT 4.21
FIGURE 4.15 Internal diagram of a ground-fault circuit interrupter (GFCI). (Courtesy of AVO Training
Institute, Inc.)
multiconductor cable, where one or more conductors are designated for use as an equipment
grounding conductor, must be permanently identified as the equipment grounding conduc-
tor by green stripping, coloring, or taping.
Sizing Equipment Grounding Conductors
Equipment grounding conductors are required to be sized not smaller than is stated in NEC
Table 250.122 and are not required to be larger than the supply conductors. Section
250.122(B) states that if conductors are adjusted in size to compensate for voltage drop, the
equipment grounding conductor must be adjusted proportionately according to circular mil
area. The following example further illustrates this:
A circuit utilizing a No. 1 THW copper conductor that is protected by a 100-A circuit
breaker would use a No. 8 copper equipment grounding conductor (according to NEC
Table 250.122). Due to voltage drop, the ungrounded conductor size must be increased to
a 1/0 conductor. In order to now adjust the size of the equipment grounding conductor pro-
portionately by circular mil area, the following calculation must take place (values of cir-
cular mil area are found in NEC Table 8):
given
No. 1 conductor = 83,690 circular mil area
No. 8 conductor = 16,510 circular mil area
1/0 conductor = 105,600 circular mil area
This calculation determines that the minimum size of equipment grounding conductor
requires a 20,828 circular mil area. Referring again to NEC Table 8, it is noted that this does not
correspond to a standard size conductor; therefore, the next larger conductor must be used. In
this case, a No. 6 copper conductor must be used, which has a 26,240 circular mil area. This is
what the NEC refers to when it says adjusted proportionately according to circular mil area.
There is an important note just below NEC Table 250.122 that is very often overlooked.
It states, Where necessary to comply with Section 250.4(A)(5) or (B)(4), the equipment
grounding conductor shall be sized larger than this table. Section 250.4(A)(5) states that
grounding conductors shall be capable of safely carrying the maximum ground-fault cur-
rent likely to be imposed on it. Too many times, equipment grounding conductors are sized
according to Table 250.122 without considering these other facts. In this case, the conduc-
tor may not be able to safely carry the fault current. As was seen earlier, at a given value of
current, the conductor will fuse (melt), the ground is now lost and the equipment case or
enclosure would become energized, which would create a shock or electrocution hazard.
Use of Grounded Circuit Conductor for Grounding Equipment
NEC Section 250.24(A)(5) states that the grounded conductor (current-carrying neutral)
and the grounding conductor (non-current-carrying) shall not be connected together on the
load-side of the service disconnecting means (see Fig. 4.16).
Figure 4.17 further illustrates this point.
The hazard of making this connection on the load-side is that a parallel return path has
now been established. The metallic raceway becomes a parallel return path with the
grounded conductor. The metallic raceway will generally have higher impedance than the
No.1 ungrounded conductor
No.8 grounded conductor
No.1/0 ungrounded conductor
answer from previous equation
= =
= =
83 690
16 510
5 07
105 600
5 07
20 828
,
,
.
,
.
,
4.22 CHAPTER FOUR
grounding conductor. As a result, the I R values will be different in the parallel return
paths. A different voltage rise will occur and thus a difference in potential will exist
between the grounded conductor and the metallic raceway. A difference in potential may
result in a shock hazard for anyone coming into contact with the metallic raceway. See
Fig. 4.18 for more on this issue.
Another problem with these parallel return paths is what is known as a ground loop.
Ground loops are dangerous because of the resonating pattern established with frequency.
Lightning is generated along a diminishing sine wave or damper wave. There is a varying
frequency along this damper wave. If the frequencies are in resonation with each other,
lightning may be drawn to the ground loop. This would help in explaining why lightning
strikes some structures. Figure 4.19 further presents this phenomenon.
Another issue that must be addressed is proper grounding for two or more buildings
where a common service is used. This issue deals with the grounding electrode, grounded
GROUNDING OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT 4.23
FIGURE 4.16 Neutral and ground to be separated on load side of service. (Courtesy of AVO
Training Institute, Inc.)
FIGURE 4.17 Grounding requirements at the service (supply side). (Courtesy of AVO Training
Institute, Inc.)
4.24 CHAPTER FOUR
FIGURE 4.18 Ground loop. (Courtesy of AVO Training Institute, Inc.)
FIGURE 4.19 Lightning hazard. (Courtesy of AVO Training Institute, Inc.)
(neutral) conductor, equipment grounding conductor, and bonding. NEC Section 250.50
requires the grounding electrodes at each building to be bonded together to form the
grounding electrode system. Where no grounding electrode exists, one must be installed.
There are, however, exceptions to this rule. Where the second building has only one branch
circuit and an equipment grounding conductor is installed with the supply conductors, the
grounding electrode at the main building is all that is required. Figure 4.20 illustrates this
in simple form.
Section 250.32(B)(1) requires an equipment grounding conductor to be run to the sepa-
rate building where there is equipment that is required to be grounded. In this case, the
grounding and grounded conductors are prohibited from being connected together. The
grounded conductor is considered to float in this case because it is not bonded to the
equipment enclosure and grounding conductor. See Fig. 4.21 for further information on this.
Section 250.32(B)(2) states another situation that can be used. Where there is no equip-
ment grounding conductor run with the supply conductors, the buildings are not bonded
together through metal raceways or other piping, and there is no ground-fault equipment
installed at the common service, the grounded conductor from the main building must be
connected to the grounding electrode and bonded to the disconnecting means at the second
building. This type of situation is essentially that same as individual services at each build-
ing. Figure 4.22 illustrates this further.
Ferroresonance
Another very important safety issue associated with proper system grounding is ferroreso-
nance. Ferroresonance is a rare phenomenon in power systems, but one that deserves men-
tion. In response to a voltage transient, phase to ground fault, circuit breaker opening,
equipment energization or de-energization, lightning induced overvoltages, or any number
of other sudden changes, the power system can take a sudden non-linear jump to a sustained
GROUNDING OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT 4.25
FIGURE 4.20 One branch circuit with equipment grounding conductor run, no electrode is required.
(Courtesy of AVO Training Institute, Inc.)
condition of severe harmonic distortion and high (several per-unit) overvoltages that can
severely damage power system equipment. Ferroresonance is an electrical resonance
between the non-linear inductance of a transformer and system capacitance. Effective
grounding decreases the chances of ferroresonance in three ways:

Placing a very low impedance in parallel with the system capacitance.

Fixing the electrical neutral of the system. Ferroresonance seems to require one point
in the system whose potential is not fixed, like the floating neutral of an ungrounded
system.

Controlling and limiting system overvoltages that can initiate a ferroresonance.

For more information, consult any power system analysis text. An excellent reference is a
technical paper by P. Ferracci entitled Ferroresonance, Cahier Technique No. 190(ECT 190),
March 1998. This paper can be obtained from the Internet at http://www.Schneiderelectric.
com.tr/ftp/literature/Publications/ECT190.PDF.
4.26 CHAPTER FOUR
FIGURE 4.21 Equipment grounding conductor run to second building. (Courtesy of AVO Training
Institute, Inc.)
FIGURE 4.22 Common service with no equipment grounding conductor run. (Courtesy of AVO
Training Institute, Inc.)
SUMMARY
Proper grounding is an essential part of electrical safety. Without proper grounding, the
non-current-carrying metal components of electrical equipment have the risk of becoming
energized. Design and install a grounding system based on the requirements of the National
Electrical Code, the IEEE Std. 142 (Green Book), and IEEE Std. 80, as well as any other
national standards that are relevant to the application.
Figure 4.23 provides an overall look at electrical system grounding requirements based
on the current edition of the National Electrical Code.
Note: Dont take a shortcut with grounding; it may cost someone his or her life. That
someone might be you.
GROUNDING OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT 4.27
FIGURE 4.23 Service grounding and bonding requirements. (Courtesy of AVO Training Institute, Inc.)
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