The Sociology of Art

A Reader Edited by Jeremy Tanner

LONDON AND NEW YORK -iii-

The Sociology of Art A Reader Edited by Jeremy Tanner LONDON AND NEW YORK -iiiContents Preface viii Acknowledgement s x NTROD!"T ON# SO" OLO$Y AND ART % STORY & 'ART ONE "la((ical (ociological theory and the (ociology of art )* & Karl +ar, +ar,i(m and art hi(tory

39

A SOCIAL BEING AND SOCIAL CONSCIOUSNESS !"#9$ 39 B AR% AND &'

IDEOLOGY !"&#()$ C *IS%ORICAL DE+ELO,-EN% AND CUL%URAL %RADI%IONS !"#.("/ !"#0$ &3 ) +a, Weber Art and c-lt-ral rationali.ation &) A -AGICAL RELIGION1 SAL+A%ION RELIGION AND %*E E+OLU%ION O2 AR% !9!#$ B %*E %ENSIONS BE%WEEN AR% AND E%*ICAL RELIGION !900$

&)

&"

C AR% AND RA%IONALI3A%ION IN %*E WES%ERN WORLD !9'&$ #! / $eorg Simmel SY--E%RY AND SOCIAL ORGANI3A%ION !"9)$ 0 Emile D-r1heim Social (tr-ct-re2 material c-lt-re and (ymbolic comm-nication #9 A SY-BOLIC -EANING AND O4EC%I2ICA%ION !9!0$ #9 B SY-BOLIC OB4EC%S1 CO--UNICA%I+E IN%ERAC%ION AND SOCIAL CREA%I+I%Y !9!0$ )3 'ART TWO The (ocial 3rod-ction of art 45 6 Raymond William( +ar,i(m and the (ocial 3rod-ction of art .. A ,RODUC%I+E 2ORCES !9..$ .. B 2RO- RE2LEC%ION %O -EDIA%ION !9..$ "! 4 %o7ard S8 9ec1er AR% AS COLLEC%I+E AC%ION !9.&$ "# * 'ierre 9o-rdie- BU% W*O CREA%ED %*E 5CREA%ORS56 !993$ 9) 'ART T%REE The (ociology of the arti(t &:6 ; Arnold %a-(er %*E SOCIAL S%A%US O2 %*E RENAISSANCE AR%IS% !9#!$ !!3 5 Natalie %einich %*E +AN GOG* E22EC% !99)$ !00 &: Norbert Elia( CRA2%S-EN5S AR% AND AR%IS%S5 AR% !993$ !30 && Da<id 9rain -A%ERIAL AGENCY AND %*E AR% O2 ARI2AC%S !99&$ !3. 'ART =O!R +-(e-m( and the (ocial con(tr-ction of high c-lt-re &0* &) J>rgen %aberma( AR% CRI%ICIS- AND %*E INS%I%U%ION O2 %*E ,UBLIC S,*ERE !990$ !#.

&/ 'ierre 9o-rdie- OU%LINE O2 %*E SOCIOLOGICAL %*EROY O2 AR% ,ERCE,%ION !9)"$ !)&

-vi&0 'a-l Di+aggio CUL%URAL EN%RE,RENEUS*I, IN NINE%EEN%*-CEN%URY BOS%ON7 %*E CREA%ION O2 AN ORGANISA%ION CEN%URY *IG* CUL%URE IN A-ERICA !9"0$ !." &6 ?era L8 @olberg CON2LICING +ISIONS IN A-ERICAN AR% -USEU-S !9"!$ !9& 'ART = ?E Sociology2 ae(thetic form and the (3ecificity of art ):* &4 Karl +annheim %*E DYNA-ICS O2 S,IRI%UAL REALI%IES !9"08!9009$ 0!# &* Robert Wit1in +AN EYCK %*ROUG* %*E LOOKING GLASS !99#$ 00! &; Talcott 'ar(on( Art a( e,3re((i<e (ymboli(m# action theory and the (ociology of art 033 A E:,RESSI+E SY-BOLIS- AND SOCIAL IN%ERAC%ION !9#!$ 033 B %*E CUL%URAL ELABORA%ION O2 E:,RESSI+E -EANINGS AND %*E E+OLU%ION O2 AR% !9)!$ 03" References 0&# Index 0)' -vii-

'reface
T% S READER S DES $NED to ;<ovide st=dents >it? @n int<od=Ation to t?e B=nd@Cent@D t?eo<etiA@D o<ient@tions >?iA? ?@ve A?@<@Ate<ised t?e soAioDoEy oB @<t B<oC its nineteent?-Aent=<y o<iEins1 in -@<xisC1 to AonteC;o<@<y Aont<ib=tionsF Re@dinEs ?@ve been seDeAted >?iA? @<e bot? <e;<esent@tive oB t?e C@Go< deb@tes in t?e soAioDoEy oB @<t @nd Dend t?eCseDves Cost st<onEDy to inBo<CinE AonteC;o<@<y t?eo<etiA@D deb@tes bet>een @<t ?isto<y @nd t?e soAioDoEy oB @<tF %?e int<od=Ation ex;Do<es t?e deveDo;Cent oB bot? @<t ?isto<y @nd soAioDoEy @s ne> disAo=<ses >?iA? deveDo;ed d=<inE t?e Ao=<se oB t?e nineteent? Aent=<y in <es;onse to t?e deveDo;Cent oB Code<n soAi@D st<=At=<es @nd A=Dt=<@D instit=tionsF ConseH=entDy1 C@ny oB t?e AD@ssiAs oB soAioDoEiA@D @nd @<t-?isto<iA@D t?o=E?t - Bo< ex@C;De Webe< @nd WIDBBDin - ?@ve AoCCon@Dities bot? in t?ei< inteDDeAt=@D b@AJE<o=nd @nd in t?e Jinds oB inteDDeAt=@D ;<obDeCs in >?iA? t?ey @<e inte<ested7 t?e <eD@tions?i; bet>een AoDDeAtive st<=At=<es @nd individ=@D B<eedoC1 A=Dt=<@D evoD=tion @nd t?e systeC@tiA A?@<@Ate< oB ;<oAesses oB A=Dt=<@D A?@nEeF In ot?e< A@ses1 ess@ys >?iA? @<e no> <eAoEnised @s AD@ssiAs in t?ei< o>n BieDds - ,@noBsJy5s ess@y on t?e Cet?odoDoEy oB iAonoE<@;?iA @nd iAonoDoEiA@D inte<;<et@tion @nd K@<D -@nn?eiC5s int<od=Ation to t?e inte<;<et@tion oB Weltanschauungen >o<Ddvie>s$ - >e<e o<iEin@DDy ><itten in <es;onse to e@A? ot?e<1 @nd @<e C=A? bette< =nde<stood in <eD@tions?i; to e@A? ot?e< t?@n in t?e disAi;Din@<y isoD@tion in >?iA? t?ey @<e no<C@DDy <e@d tod@yF -y int<od=Ation Eoes on to ex;Do<e soCe oB t?e <e@sons >?y @<t ?isto<y @nd soAioDoEy deveDo;ed in se;@<@te di<eAtions d=<inE t?e Ao=<se oB t?e t>entiet? Aent=<y1 @nd soCe oB t?e Co<e <eAent @tteC;ts to A<oss t?e disAi;Din@<y divide1 Cost not@bDy in t?e soAioDoEy oB @<t oB ,ie<<e Bo=<die= @nd -iA?@eD B@x@nd@DD5s A<itiA@D @<t ?isto<yF %?e Ao<e oB t?e Re@de< Aonsists in Bive ;@<ts e@A? ex;Do<inE @ Jey @<e@ in t?e soAioDoEy oB @<t7 t?e AD@ssiA t?eo<etiA@D ;e<s;eAtives oB -@<x1 Webe<1 SiCCeD @nd D=<J?eiC/ t?e soAi@D ;<od=Ation oB @<t/ t?e soAioDoEy oB t?e @<tist/ soAioDoEiA@D -viii-

;e<s;eAtives on ?iE? A=Dt=<e @nd C=se=Cs/ soAioDoEiA@D @;;<o@A?es to styDe @nd @est?etiA Bo<CF E@A? oB t?e ;@<ts beEins >it? @ s?o<t int<od=Ato<y AoCCent@<yF %?ese AoCCent@<ies disA=ss t?e C@in iss=es @nd @;;<o@A?es A?@<@Ate<istiA oB t?e soAioDoEy oB @<t in e@A? oB t?ese @<e@s1 @nd in ;@<tiA=D@< seeJ to A?@<@Ate<ise t?e distinAtiveness oB soAioDoEiA@D B<oC C@inst<e@C @<t-?isto<iA@D @;;<o@A?es1 @s >eDD @s ;ointinE o=t @<e@s >?e<e e@A? disAi;Dine Ao=Dd beneBit B<oC dee;e< insiE?t into @nd AoDD@bo<@tion >it? t?e ot?e<F %?e inteDDeAt=@D b@AJE<o=nd @nd Jey AonAe;ts oB e@A? oB t?e seDeAted <e@dinEs @<e @Dso int<od=Aed @nd ex;D@ined in t?ese int<od=Ato<y AoCCent@<iesF Any seDeAtion oB <e@dinEs in @ ;@<tiA=D@< @A@deCiA disAi;Dine1 >?@teve< AD@iCs it C@y C@Je to beinE <e;<esent@tive oB its BieDd - @nd I ?o;e t?is Re@de< is <e;<esent@tive - is @Dso ;<oE<@CC@tiAF %?is voD=Ce is no diBBe<entF It ?@s t>o ;<iC@<y Eo@DsF 2i<st1 inteDDeAt=@D exAiteCent7 it inAD=des >o<J by soCe oB t?e Binest soAioDoEiA@D t?inJe<s B<oC t?e nineteent? Aent=<y =ntiD tod@y - -@<x1 Webe<1 D=<J?eiC1 SiCCeD1 -@nn?eiC1 ,@<sons1 EDi@s1 *@be<C@s1 Bo=<die= - @DD @dd<essinE ;<obDeCs >?iA? @<e A<=Ai@D to o=< =nde<st@ndinE oB @<t7 t?e soAi@D B=nAtions oB ?iE? A=Dt=<e1 t?e n@t=<e oB @<tistiA A<e@tivity1 t?e <eD@tions?i; bet>een soAi@D st<=At=<e @nd @est?etiA Bo<CF SeAond1 inte<disAi;Din@<ity7 t?e best @<t ?isto<y is1 iC;DiAitDy @t De@st1 soAioDoEiA@DDy inBo<Ced1 @nd t?e best soAioDoEy oB @<t ;D@Aes H=estions oB @<tistiA @EenAy @nd @est?etiA Bo<C @t t?e Ao<e oB its <ese@<A?F ConseH=entDy1 @ ;<iC@<y @iC oB t?is Re@de< is to C@Je it e@sie< Bo< @<t ?isto<y st=dents to see t?e ;otenti@D <e>@<d oB ex;Do<inE soAioDoEiA@D ;e<s;eAtives on @<t in @ Co<e systeC@tiA >@y1 @nd Bo< soAioDoEists to <eE@in @AAess to @ A<itiA@D t<@dition in @<t-?isto<iA@D @nd @<t-soAioDoEiA@D t?o=E?t >?iA? A@n @DDo> t?eC to @dd<ess AonteC;o<@<y ;<obDeCs in t?e soCetiCes Co<e n=@nAed1 @est?etiA@DDy inBo<Ced C@nne< A?@<@Ate<istiA oB Ae<t@in e@<Die< st<@nds oB soAioDoEiA@D t?o=E?tF 2=DD bibDioE<@;?iA@D det@iDs ?@ve been Eiven >it? e@A? <e@dinE1 Bo< st=dents >is?inE to <et=<n to t?e o<iEin@D so=<AeF -@ny oB t?e o<iEin@D texts ?@ve been A=t1 @nd o<iEin@D notes @nd <eBe<enAes oCitted1 >?e<e it >@s t?o=E?t inessenti@D to t?e C@in @<E=Cent oB t?e <e@dinEF Conventions oB s;eDDinE @nd A@;it@Dis@tion1 @s @Dso t?e =se oB D@nE=@Ee >?iA? CiE?t no> seeC =n@AAe;t@bDy Eende<-bi@sed1 ?@ve been DeBt =nA?@nEedF -ix-

Ac1no7ledgement(
-@ny B<iends @nd AoDDe@E=es ?@ve Aont<ib=ted to t?is booJ in one >@y o< @not?e<F In ;@<tiA=D@<1 I o>e @ E<e@t debt oB E<@tit=de to Cy te@A?e<s in bot? @<t ?isto<y @nd soAioDoEy1 es;eAi@DDy -@<y Be@<d1 *@<oDd Be<s?@dy1 Robin Co<C@AJ1 +iAto< LidK1 Robin Osbo<ne @nd Ant?ony SnodE<@ssF EH=@DDy1 t?is booJ >o=Dd not ?@ve been ><itten >it?o=t t?e stiC=D=s oB Cy st=dents in t?e CoC;@<@tive A<t -A ;<oE<@CCe @t t?e Instit=te oB A<A?@eoDoEy1 Unive<sity CoDDeEe LondonF 4@s EDsne< ;<ovided t?e ;<oxiC@te A@=se Bo< t?is ;@<tiA=D@< ;<oGeAt1 @nd I @C ;<oBo=ndDy indebted to ?iC not onDy Bo< ?is Aonside<@bDe ?eD; in b<inEinE t?is >o<J to B<=ition b=t Bo< ?is inteDDeAt=@D AoC;@nions?i; @nd C@ny ;e<son@D Jindnesses ove< @ n=Cbe< oB ye@<sF %?e ;=bDis?e<s >o=Dd DiJe to t?@nJ @DD t?e @=t?o<s <e;<esented in t?is >o<J1 @s >eDD @s t?e BoDDo>inE ;=bDis?e<s Bo< t?ei< ;e<Cission to <e;<int t?ei< C@te<i@D7 %?e ACe<iA@n SoAioDoEiA@D AssoAi@tion Bo< ;e<Cission to <e;<int *o>@<d SF BeAJe<1 5A<t @s AoDDeAtive @Ation51 B<oC t?e American Sociological Review1 !9.&F BD@AJ>eDD ,=bDis?inE Bo< ;e<Cission to <e;<int Robe<t WitJin1 5+@n EyAJ t?<o=E? t?e DooJinE ED@ss5 B<oC Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour 001 !990/ B<oC D@vid B<@in1 5-@te<i@D @EenAy @nd t?e @<t oB @<tiB@Ats5 in The Sociology of ulture1 !99&/ @nd C@te<i@D B<oC No<be<t EDi@s1 !o"art# Portrait of a $enius1 !993F

CoD=Cbi@ Unive<sity ,<ess Bo< ;e<Cission to <e;<int C@te<i@D B<oC Geo<E SiCCeD1 The onflict in !odern ulture and %ther &ssays1 !9)"F KD=>e< AA@deCiA ,=bDis?e<s Bo< ;e<Cission to <e;<int +e<@ LF 3oDbe<E1 5ConBDiAtinE visions in ACe<iA@n @<t C=se=Cs51 B<oC Theory and Society !'1 !9"!F %?e -I% ,<ess Bo< ;e<Cission to <e;<int C@te<i@D B<oC 4L<Een *@be<C@s1 The Structural Transformation of the Pu'lic S(here1 !9"9F

-xOxBo<d Unive<sity ,<ess Bo< ;e<Cission to <e;<int C@te<i@D B<oC R@yCond WiDDi@Cs1 !arxism and )iterature1 !9../ @nd B<oC *rom !ax We'er# &ssays in Sociology1 edited by *F *F Ge<t? @nd CF W<iE?t -iDDs1 !9&)F ,<inAeton Unive<sity ,<ess Bo< ;e<Cission to <e;<int C@te<i@D B<oC N@t@Die *einiA?1 The $lory of +an $ogh# An Anthro(ology of Admiration1 !99)F ,<oE<ess ,=bDis?inE G<o=; Co<;o<@tion Bo< ;e<Cission to <e;<int seDeAtions B<oC K@<D -@<x @nd 2<ede<iAJ EnEeDs1 !arx and &ngels on )iterature and Art1 !9.)F Ro=tDedEe Bo< ;e<Cission to <e;<int C@te<i@D B<oC A<noDd *@=se<1 The Social ,istory of Art1 voDF II1 !9#!/ @nd B<oC K@<D -@nn?eiC1 Structures of Thinking1 edited by DF KettDe<1 +F -eG@ @nd NF Ste?<1 !9"0F S@Ee ,=bDiA@tions Bo< ;e<Cission to <e;<int ,@=D Di-@EEio1 5C=Dt=<@D Ent<e;<ene=<s?i; in nineteent?-Aent=<y Boston5 B<oC !edia- ulture and Society &1 !9"0F Unive<sity oB C@DiBo<ni@ ,<ess Bo< ;e<Cission to <e;<int C@te<i@D B<oC -@x Webe<1 &conomy and Society1 edited by GF Rot?1 !9)"F %?e ;=bDis?e<s ?@ve C@de eve<y eBBo<t to Aont@At t?e Ao;y<iE?t ?oDde<s oB >o<Js <e;<inted in The Sociology of Art# A Reader. It ?@s not been ;ossibDe in eve<y A@se1 ?o>eve<1 @nd >e >o=Dd >eDAoCe Ao<<es;ondenAe B<oC individ=@Ds o< AoC;@nies >e ?@ve been =n@bDe to t<@AeF We >iDD =nde<t@Je to <eAtiBy e<<o<s o< oCissions in B=t=<e editions oB t?e booJF -xi-

ntrod-ction# Sociology and art hi(tory

5SO" OLO$Y AND ART DO not C@Je Eood bedBeDDo>s5 Bo=<die= !993b1 !39 - see C?@;te< .$F %?is diBBiA=Dt <eD@tions?i; is soCet?inE oB @ ;@<@doxF A<t ><ite<s s=A? @s 2<ied<iA? SA?iDDe< @nd 4o?@nn 4o@A?iC WinAJeDC@nn >?o ;<oBo=ndDy s?@;ed t?e Code<n disAi;Dine oB @<t ?isto<y ?@d siCiD@< ;<eoAA=;@tions to t?ose oB e@<Dy soAioDoEists s=A? @s K@<D -@<x @nd -@x Webe<F Bot? @<t ?isto<y @nd soAioDoEy >e<e A=Dt=<@D disAo=<ses o< Een<es oB ><itinE Aonst<=Ated @nd 5instit=tion@Dised5 - o< Eiven @ soAi@D b@sis in sets oB <o=tinised soAi@D <eD@tions?i;s @nd ;@tte<ns oB @Ation - B<oC t?e D@te eiE?teent? to t?e e@<Dy t>entiet? Aent=<y1 D@<EeDy in 2<@nAe @nd Ge<C@nyF %?ese ne> A=Dt=<@D ;<@AtiAes >e<e @ <es;onse to t?e ;<oBo=nd soAi@D A?@nEes >?iA? C@<Jed t?e deveDo;Cent oB Code<nity in t?e >estF Aest?etiAs1 @<t ?isto<y @nd instit=tions s=A? @s C=se=Cs >e<e A<e@ted @s ;@<t oB t?e ;<oAess >?e<eby @<t beA@Ce inA<e@sinEDy @=tonoCo=s B<oC t?e <eDiEio=s @nd ;oDitiA@D instit=tions1 s=A? @s A?=<A? @nd st@te1 >?iA? ?@d ;<evio=sDy Aont<oDDed @<t ;<od=Ation @nd Aons=C;tionF SoAioDoEiA@D ><itinE tooJ ;D@Ae >it?in t?e s@Ce ne>Dy eCe<Eent s;?e<e oB AiviD soAiety @s @est?etiAs @nd @<t ?isto<y ><itinEF Bot? disAo=<ses @dd<essed ?o> t?is s;?e<e >@s

inA<e@sinEDy doCin@ted @nd Ao<<=;ted by t?e @dv@nAes oB =n<eE=D@ted C@<Jet eAonoCies/ ?o> ;@tte<ns oB eAonoCiA o<E@nis@tion dis<=;ted Co<@D o<de<1 e<oded soAi@D inteE<@tion @nd <ed=Aed ?=C@nity to t?e one-diCension@D @dG=nAt oB @ <@tion@Dised @nd CeA?@nistiA A@;it@Dist 5A@Ee5 *@>t?o<n !9"./ *=nte< !990$F *o>1 t?en1 ?@ve @<t @nd soAioDoEy AoCe to C@Je s=A? @n =nDiJeDy Ao=;De6 In t?is int<od=Ation I s?@DD sJetA? t?e Eenesis oB bot? soAioDoEy @nd @<t ?isto<y ><itinE in t?e Aontext oB t?ese ;<oAesses >?e<eby soAi@D doC@ins - t?e ;oDitiA@D1 t?e eAonoCiA1 t?e B@CiDi@D - @nd A=Dt=<@D <e@DCs - @<t1 <eDiEion1 sAienAe - beA@Ce inA<e@sinEDy 5diBBe<enti@ted51 se;@<@ted B<oC @nd @=tonoCo=s oB e@A? ot?e<F I s?@DD eC;?@sise t?e s?@<ed <oots oB @<t ?isto<y @nd soAioDoEy @nd in ;@<tiA=D@< t?e deE<ee to >?iA? e@<Dy @<t-?isto<iA@D ><itinE ?@d @ C@<Jed soAioDoEiA@D o<ient@tionF I s?@DD t?en ex;Do<e ?o> -!soAioDoEy @nd @<t ?isto<y beA@Ce 5instit=tion@Dised5 @s @A@deCiA disAi;Dines in Code<n =nive<sities1 @AH=i<inE @n o<E@nis@tion@D @nd soAi@D b@sis Bo< t?ei< inteDDeAt=@D ;<oGeAtsF As t?ey @AH=i<ed t?is inde;endent soAi@D b@sis Bo< t?ei< >o<J1 @<t ?isto<i@ns <edeBined t?ei< disAi;Dine in s=A? @ >@y @s to C@<Ein@Dise soAioDoEiA@D AonAe<ns1 @nd soAioDoEists deveDo;ed s;eAiBiA @ttit=des to>@<ds @<t @nd Cet?ods oB @n@Dysis >?iA? >e<e inA<e@sinEDy ;e<i;?e<@D to @<t ?isto<i@ns5 Ao<e inte<estsF I s?@DD AonAD=de >it? @ A<itiA@D ex@Cin@tion oB <eAent @tteC;ts to b<idEe t?e E@; bet>een @<t ?isto<y @nd t?e soAioDoEy oB @<t1 @nd soCe s=EEestions @s to ?o> s?@<ed disAi;Din@<y inte<ests CiE?t be B=<t?e< deveDo;edF

Art hi(tory2 (ociology and the gene(i( of modernity

The social and cultural origins of sociology
SoAioDoEiA@D @nd A=Dt=<@D A@teEo<ies @<e t?eCseDves t?e ;<od=Ats oB t?e soAi@D @nd A=Dt=<@D ;<oAesses t?ey seeJ to ex;D@inF ! K@<D -@<x5s disAove<y oB t?e @bst<@At A@teEo<y oB 5D@bo=<5 @s t?e so=<Ae oB eAonoCiA v@D=e1 Bo< ex@C;De1 de;ended on t?e deveDo;Cent oB >@Ee-D@bo=< @nd D@bo=< C@<Jets in e@<Dy A@;it@Dist soAietyF %?ese C@de t?e ;?enoCenon oB D@bo=< visibDe in >@ys >?iA? it ?@d not been beBo<e1 in @ >o<Dd oB tied ;e@s@nt<y o< inde;endent A<@Bt->o<Js?o;sF SiCiD@<Dy1 t?e AonAe;t oB soAiety @nd o=< Code<n ide@ oB t?e soAi@D @<e t?e <es=Dt oB @ DonE ;<oAess oB ?isto<iA@D deveDo;Cent beEinninE >it? t?e dissoD=tion oB Be=d@DisCF In t?e -iddDe AEes Cost ><itinE @bo=t iss=es >e CiE?t <eE@<d @s soAi@D - t?e B@CiDy1 Co<@Dity1 ;oDitiA@D @=t?o<ity - <eC@ined inteE<@ted >it? t?eoDoEiA@D disAo=<se @s ;@<t oB t?e <eDiEio=s s;?e<eF OnDy in t?e Ren@iss@nAe @nd ReBo<C@tion1 @s t?e st@te @dCinist<@tive @;;@<@t=s beA@Ce se;@<@ted o< 5diBBe<enti@ted5 B<oC t?e ;e<son@D ?o=se?oDds oB individ=@D <=De<s1 did t?e seA=D@<is@tion oB t?o=E?t C@Je @ny ;<oE<essF %?is ;e<iod s@> t?e Bi<st deveDo;Cent oB s;eAiBiA@DDy ;oDitiA@D t?eo<y @nd t?e @<tiA=D@tion oB ide@s oB ;oDitiA@D inte<ests @s ;?enoCen@ in t?ei< o>n <iE?t1 i<<ed=AibDe to <eDiEion o< Co<@Dity1 @ ;<oAess Cost ADoseDy @ssoAi@ted >it? -@A?i@veDDiF %?e deveDo;Cent oB @bsoD=te Con@<A?y1 not@bDy in 2<@nAe1 B=<t?e< enAo=<@Eed t?e eC@nAi;@tion oB Dite<@<y @nd inteDDeAt=@D A=Dt=<e B<oC t?e A?=<A?F In t?e seventeent? Aent=<y1 t?e Bo=nd@tion oB @A@deCies ;<ovided instit=tion@Dised ;@t<on@Ee Bo< Dite<@<yinteDDeAt=@D @nd oB Ao=<se @<tistiA$ ;<od=AtionF %?e ;<iviDeEes <ese<ved to t?ese bodies in C@tte<s oB D@nE=@Ee @nd Dite<@t=<e t?e AA@deCie 2<@nM@ise$1 @<t @nd @est?etiAs AA@deCie de D@ ,eint=<e$1 sAienAe @nd teA?noDoEy AA@deCie des SAienAes$ en?@nAed st@te Aont<oD ove< A=Dt=<@D ;<od=Ation to t?e ;oint oB @ vi<t=@D Cono;oDy1 D@<EeDy @t t?e ex;ense oB t?e Bo<Ce< doCin@nAe oB t?e A?=<A? ove< @<t ;<od=AtionF Iss=es oB ;oDitiA@D @nd Co<@D t?eo<y1 Bo< ex@C;De1 >e<e deb@ted >it?in @ B<@Ce>o<J oB <eE=D@tions D@id do>n by t?e AA@deCie 2<@nM@ise1 >?iA? sti;=D@ted t?@t s=A? H=estions Ao=Dd be de@Dt

>it? onDy 5in @AAo<d@nAe >it? t?e @=t?o<ity oB t?e JinE1 t?e Eove<nCent @nd t?e D@>s oB t?e Con@<A?y5 *eiDb<on !99#1 )"$F %?e @A@deCies <e;<esented @ Bo<C@Dised extension oB t?e C=A? b<o@de< Ao=<tDy A=Dt=<e oB t?e s@Dons1 t?e inteDDeAt=@D @nd soAi@D CiDie= oB @n inA<e@sinEDy de;oDitiAised @<istoA<@AyF InteDDeAt=@D exA?@nEe in t?ese settinEs tooJ t?e Bo<C oB <eBined @nd -0s;@<JDinE Aonve<s@tion1 @nd >@s o;en to 'ourgeoises @s >eDD @s @<istoA<@ts1 so DonE @s t?ey Ao=Dd Ceet st@nd@<ds oB Ao=<tDy etiH=etteF In t?is Aontext1 ;=<eDy soAi@D vi<t=es1 s=A? @s t?e @biDity to Aonst<=At @nd C@int@in <eD@tions?i;s1 >e<e @t @ ;<eCi=CF 2<enA? t?inJe<s s=A? @s +oDt@i<e beA@Ce inA<e@sinEDy @>@<e oB soci/t/ @nd socia'ilit/ @s ;?enoCen@ >it? t?ei< o>n o<de< oB <e@Dity1 inde;endent oB et?iA@D o< A=Dt=<@D Aonside<@tionsF %?e AonAe;t oB soci/t/ >@s extended B<oC eDite soAi@D Ai<ADes to ;@tte<ns oB soAi@D <eD@tions in Eene<@DF Bo=<Eeois inteDDeAt=@Ds1 oBten soCe>?@t =nAoCBo<t@bDy ;D@Aed on t?e edEe oB t?e inteDDeAt=@D DiBe oB t?e @A@deCies @nd s@Dons1 >e<e ;@<tiA=D@<Dy sensitive to t?e ide@ oB t?e soAi@DF ADonEside s@Dons1 AD=bs @nd ot?e< net>o<Js ex;@nded t?e <@nEe oB @Ativities not s=bGeAt to di<eAt <eE=D@tion by t?e st@teF %?e E<o>t? oB @ bo=<Eeois <e@de<s?i; ;e<Citted t?e ;=bDiA@tion oB s=A? C@Go< inteDDeAt=@D ;<oGeAts @s t?e &ncyclo(/die o=tside t?e ;@t<on@Ee @nd t?e Aont<oDs oB t?e @A@deCyF %?is instit=tion@D diBBe<enti@tion oB AiviD soAiety B<oC t?e st@te1 @nd t?e CodeD oB @ soAiety oB eH=@Ds oBBe<ed by t?e s@Dons @nd inteDDeAt=@D AD=bs1 enAo=<@Eed t?e deveDo;Cent oB @ ;=<eDy seA=D@< =nde<st@ndinE oB soAiety1 exeC;DiBied by 4e@n-4@AH=es Ro=sse@=5s ide@ oB t?e soAi@D Aont<@At @s ;<io< to ;oDitiA@D <eD@tions @nd st@ndinE in o;;osition to t?e st@teF An e@<Dy ex@C;De oB t?is sense oB @ ;?enoCenon i<<ed=AibDe to Aonvention@D ;oDitiA@D A@teEo<ies o< @ =nive<s@DistiA1 =DtiC@teDy <eDiEio=s1 Co<@Dity is -ontesH=ie=5s S(irit of the )awsF -ontesH=ie= <eD@tes diBBe<enAes in t?e ;oDitiA@D st<=At=<e oB <eEiCes to t?e ;?ysiA@D envi<onCent @nd t?e Co<@D Aonstit=tion o< es(rit g/n/ral oB n@tionsF %?is Eene<@D s;i<it st@nds ove< @nd sets DiCits on t?e DeEitiC@te exe<Aise oB ;o>e< oB t?e Con@<A?1 ;e<Bo<CinE @ siCiD@< B=nAtion to t?@t oB t?e 5AoDDeAtive AonsAienAe5 in t?e D@te< soAioDoEy oB ECiDe D=<J?eiCF SiCiD@<Dy1 +oDt@i<e in ?is @AAo=nt oB )e Si0cle de )ouis 1I+ ;=t t?e 5A=Dt=<e oB t?e s;i<it5 oB t?e 2<enA? n@tion1 not t?e individ=@D Con@<A? o< ;oDitiA@D events1 @t t?e Aent<e oB ?is @AAo=ntF ADt?o=E? t?e >o<Js oB +oDt@i<e1 Ro=sse@= @nd -ontesH=ie= Aont@in in B@At o< @ntiAi;@tion C@ny oB t?e Jey AonAe;ts oB >?@t >@s to beAoCe soAioDoEy1 t?ei< >o<J <et@ins t?e D@<EeDy Dite<@<y @nd ess@yistiA A?@<@Ate< oB s@Don A=Dt=<eF %?e sAientis@tion oB soAi@D t?o=E?t >@s t?e @A?ieveCent oB t?e D@tte< ;@<t oB t?e eiE?teent? @nd t?e nineteent? Aent=<iesF Condo<Aet ?@d @D<e@dy1 in t?e !."'s1 @<E=ed t?@t t?e Co<@D sAienAes s?o=Dd BoDDo> t?e De@d oB t?e n@t=<@D sAienAes in deveDo;inE @n 5ex@At @nd ;<eAise5 AonAe;t=@D D@nE=@Ee1 @nd ex;DoitinE C@t?eC@tiAs to Bo<C@Dise @n@DysisF ADt?o=E? s=A? ide@s >e<e initi@DDy iDD <eAeived1 t?e <evoD=tion@<y Eove<nCents ;<oCoted sAientiBiA ende@vo=<s @t t?e ex;ense oB t?e Dite<@<y @Ativities @ssoAi@ted >it? Ao=<tDy A=Dt=<eF %?is Ded to @ se;@<@tion bet>een AoEnitive @nd @est?etiA @Ativities7 instit=tion@DDy C@<Ein@Dised ;oets @nd ><ite<s beA@Ce =n>iDDinE to @AJno>DedEe t?e Dite<@<y @=t?o<ity oB ;?iDoso;?e<s @nd sA?oD@<sF SAientiBiA @Ativities inA<e@sinEDy @Dso esA@;ed t?e Aont<oD oB t?e oDd @A@deCies1 @s disAi;Din@<y diBBe<enti@tion E@ve <ise to Co<e s;eAiBiA sAientiBiA soAieties @nd Go=<n@Ds to ;=bDis? t?ei< CeCbe<s5 BindinEs @nd disA=ssionsF It >@s in t?is Aontext t?@t A=E=ste CoCte1 oBten <eE@<ded @s t?e Bo=nde< oB soAioDoEy1 so=E?t to deBine t?e s;eAiBiAity oB soAioDoEy @s t?e D@st oB @ se<ies oB @=tonoCo=s sAienAes1 e@A? eCe<Eent B<oC t?e sAienAe t?@t ?@d ?isto<iA@DDy ;<eAeded it1 e@A? A?@<@Ate<ised by t?e E<e@te< DeveD oB AoC;Dexity oB its ;<o;e< obGeAt1 @nd e@A?

endo>ed >it? @ =niH=e set oB Cet?ods7 @st<onoCy1 ;?ysiAs1 A?eCist<y1 bioDoEy1 -3N=esti@ -edi@ ACe<iA@1 InAF www.2uestia.com

IN%RODUC%ION soAioDoEyF W?iDst CoCte ?iCseDB >@s neve< Co<e t?@n @ C@<Ein@D BiE=<e >it?in t?e 2<enA? @A@deCiA est@bDis?Cent1 it >@s ?is sA?eCe >?iA? ;<ovided t?e b@sis Bo< t?e <ese@<A? ;<oE<@CCe <e@Dised @nd Eiven instit=tion@D Bo<C by D=<J?eiC @nd ?is AoDD@bo<@to<s @t t?e end oB t?e nineteent? Aent=<y7 soAioDoEy @s t?e sAienAe oB soAi@D ;?enoCen@ - soAi@D <eD@tions?i;s @nd @Ations s?@;ed by t?eC1 E<o=;s1 instit=tions1 AoCC=nities1 soAieties @nd t?ei< D@>s oB B=nAtioninE - =nde<stood @s obGeAts oB t?ei< o>n s;eAiBiA ty;e1 to be ex;D@ined in te<Cs oB ot?e< soAi@D ;?enoCen@ @nd not <ed=AibDe to ot?e< sAienAes s=A? @s bioDoEy o< ;syA?oDoEyF

The autonomy of art and the origins of art history

It is @ AoCCon;D@Ae oB t?e ?isto<y oB ide@s t?@t t?e Code<n AonAe;t oB t?e 2ine A<ts eCe<Eed onDy d=<inE t?e Ao=<se oB t?e eiE?teent? Aent=<y K<isteDDe< !99'$F *e<e I >is? G=st to sJetA? t?e deveDo;Cent oB t?e AonAe;t oB @<t @s @n @=tonoCo=s A=Dt=<@D doC@in @nd t?e @ssoAi@ted o<iEins oB @<t ?isto<y ><itinE1 eC;?@sisinE t?e instit=tion@D diCensions oB t?is ;<oAess @nd its ;@<@DDeDs >it? t?e eCe<EenAe oB soAioDoEyF *e<e @Dso t?e soAi@D deveDo;Cent oB t?e obGeAt @nd t?e A=Dt=<@D deveDo;Cent oB t?e ;ossibiDity oB its AoEnition @<e ADoseDy DinJed BL<Ee< !9"&/ -@nn?eiC !9"0$F -ediev@D @est?etiA t?o=E?t1 DiJe Cediev@D soAi@D t?o=E?t1 >@s B=sed >it? t?eoDoEyF OnDy in t?e Ren@iss@nAe >@s @ t<@dition oB >o<Js?o; C@n=@Ds deveDo;ed into @ body oB seA=D@< @nd t?eo<etiA@D t?inJinE on t?e @<ts by ?=C@nistiA@DDy ed=A@ted @<tists s=A? @s ADbe<ti @nd Leon@<do d@ +inAiF Ren@iss@nAe @<tists5 ><itinEs >e<e ;<iC@<iDy AonAe<ned >it? t?e ;<od=Ation oB @<tF %?ey so=E?t to AodiBy @nd <@tion@Dise s=A? diCensions oB @<tistiA desiEn @s ;e<s;eAtive d<@>inE1 @nd to en?@nAe t?e st@t=s oB t?e @<tist @s ;<od=Ae< by eC;?@sisinE t?e t?eo<etiA@D @nd sAientiBiA ove< t?e C@n=@D @s;eAts oB @<tistiA ;<@AtiAeF %?e AD@iCs oB Ren@iss@nAe @<tists >e<e AodiBied in +@s@<i5s The )ives of the Artists- @ se<ies oB bioE<@;?ies oB ;@inte<s teDDinE t?e sto<y oB t?e deveDo;Cent oB It@Di@n @<t B<oC its <=diCent@<y beEinninEs in Giotto to ;e<BeAtion in -iA?eD@nEeDoF W?iDst AoC;onents oB t?e )ives ;<ovided iC;o<t@nt CodeDs Bo< D@te< @<t ?isto<i@ns1 +@s@<i5s @AAoC;Dis?Cents did <eD@tiveDy DittDe to diseCbed @<t B<oC its instit=tion@D AontextsF %?e AA@deCy oB DesiEn1 Bo=nded by +@s@<i in 2Do<enAe !#)3$1 ;<ovided @ ;e<BeAt o<E@nis@tion@D CodeD Bo< t?e deveDo;inE @bsoD=tist st@tes to est@bDis? Aent<@Dised Aont<oD ove< A=Dt=<@D ;<od=Ation @t t?e ex;ense oB t?e e<odinE A=Dt=<@D Cono;oDy oB t?e A?=<A?F In 2<@nAe1 t?e di<eAto< oB t?e AA@deCy oB ,@intinE1 Le B<=n !)!9-9'$1 @Dso s=;e<vised desiEns Bo< @nd C@n@Eed ;<od=Ation in st@te >o<Js?o;s C@n=B@At=<inE ;o<AeD@in @nd t@;est<ies1 t?=s ;<ovidinE t?e st@te >it? @ distinAtive @nd =niBo<C ?iE? A=Dt=<e ,evsne< !9&'/ ,e<<y @nd C=nninE?@C !999$F Wit?in t?e AA@deCy itseDB1 @ Aent<@D <oDe in t?e t<@ininE oB ;@inte<s >@s ;D@yed by @ se<ies oB AonBe<enAes @nd DeAt=<es1 @t >?iA? >o<Js oB A@noniA@D C@ste<s in t?e AD@ssiA@D t<@dition >o=Dd be disA=ssed1 @n@Dysed @nd ev@D=@ted in o<de< to est@bDis? CodeDs Bo< AonteC;o<@<y ;@intinEF As >it? t?e doctrine classi2ue in Dite<@t=<e BL<Ee< !9"3$1 so in ;@intinE t?e @A@deCiA o<t?odoxy so=E?t to <@tion@Dise @<tistiA ;<od=Ation1 s=bGeAtinE B@Ai@D @nd Eest=<@D ex;<ession @nd t?e =se oB Dine @nd AoDo=< to A@DA=D@bDe Aont<oDF S=A? A@<eB=DDy A@DA=D@ted ;iAto<i@D eBBeAts >e<e desiEned to evoJe s;eAiBiA

<es;onses on t?e ;@<t oB vie>e<s1 to ind=Ae t?eC to eC=D@te t?e Aond=At oB t?e ?e<oes <e;<e-

-4IN%RODUC%ION soAioDoEyF W?iDst CoCte ?iCseDB >@s neve< Co<e t?@n @ C@<Ein@D BiE=<e >it?in t?e 2<enA? @A@deCiA est@bDis?Cent1 it >@s ?is sA?eCe >?iA? ;<ovided t?e b@sis Bo< t?e <ese@<A? ;<oE<@CCe <e@Dised @nd Eiven instit=tion@D Bo<C by D=<J?eiC @nd ?is AoDD@bo<@to<s @t t?e end oB t?e nineteent? Aent=<y7 soAioDoEy @s t?e sAienAe oB soAi@D ;?enoCen@ - soAi@D <eD@tions?i;s @nd @Ations s?@;ed by t?eC1 E<o=;s1 instit=tions1 AoCC=nities1 soAieties @nd t?ei< D@>s oB B=nAtioninE - =nde<stood @s obGeAts oB t?ei< o>n s;eAiBiA ty;e1 to be ex;D@ined in te<Cs oB ot?e< soAi@D ;?enoCen@ @nd not <ed=AibDe to ot?e< sAienAes s=A? @s bioDoEy o< ;syA?oDoEyF

The autonomy of art and the origins of art history

It is @ AoCCon;D@Ae oB t?e ?isto<y oB ide@s t?@t t?e Code<n AonAe;t oB t?e 2ine A<ts eCe<Eed onDy d=<inE t?e Ao=<se oB t?e eiE?teent? Aent=<y K<isteDDe< !99'$F *e<e I >is? G=st to sJetA? t?e deveDo;Cent oB t?e AonAe;t oB @<t @s @n @=tonoCo=s A=Dt=<@D doC@in @nd t?e @ssoAi@ted o<iEins oB @<t ?isto<y ><itinE1 eC;?@sisinE t?e instit=tion@D diCensions oB t?is ;<oAess @nd its ;@<@DDeDs >it? t?e eCe<EenAe oB soAioDoEyF *e<e @Dso t?e soAi@D deveDo;Cent oB t?e obGeAt @nd t?e A=Dt=<@D deveDo;Cent oB t?e ;ossibiDity oB its AoEnition @<e ADoseDy DinJed BL<Ee< !9"&/ -@nn?eiC !9"0$F -ediev@D @est?etiA t?o=E?t1 DiJe Cediev@D soAi@D t?o=E?t1 >@s B=sed >it? t?eoDoEyF OnDy in t?e Ren@iss@nAe >@s @ t<@dition oB >o<Js?o; C@n=@Ds deveDo;ed into @ body oB seA=D@< @nd t?eo<etiA@D t?inJinE on t?e @<ts by ?=C@nistiA@DDy ed=A@ted @<tists s=A? @s ADbe<ti @nd Leon@<do d@ +inAiF Ren@iss@nAe @<tists5 ><itinEs >e<e ;<iC@<iDy AonAe<ned >it? t?e ;<od=Ation oB @<tF %?ey so=E?t to AodiBy @nd <@tion@Dise s=A? diCensions oB @<tistiA desiEn @s ;e<s;eAtive d<@>inE1 @nd to en?@nAe t?e st@t=s oB t?e @<tist @s ;<od=Ae< by eC;?@sisinE t?e t?eo<etiA@D @nd sAientiBiA ove< t?e C@n=@D @s;eAts oB @<tistiA ;<@AtiAeF %?e AD@iCs oB Ren@iss@nAe @<tists >e<e AodiBied in +@s@<i5s The )ives of the Artists- @ se<ies oB bioE<@;?ies oB ;@inte<s teDDinE t?e sto<y oB t?e deveDo;Cent oB It@Di@n @<t B<oC its <=diCent@<y beEinninEs in Giotto to ;e<BeAtion in -iA?eD@nEeDoF W?iDst AoC;onents oB t?e )ives ;<ovided iC;o<t@nt CodeDs Bo< D@te< @<t ?isto<i@ns1 +@s@<i5s @AAoC;Dis?Cents did <eD@tiveDy DittDe to diseCbed @<t B<oC its instit=tion@D AontextsF %?e AA@deCy oB DesiEn1 Bo=nded by +@s@<i in 2Do<enAe !#)3$1 ;<ovided @ ;e<BeAt o<E@nis@tion@D CodeD Bo< t?e deveDo;inE @bsoD=tist st@tes to est@bDis? Aent<@Dised Aont<oD ove< A=Dt=<@D ;<od=Ation @t t?e ex;ense oB t?e e<odinE A=Dt=<@D Cono;oDy oB t?e A?=<A?F In 2<@nAe1 t?e di<eAto< oB t?e AA@deCy oB ,@intinE1 Le B<=n !)!9-9'$1 @Dso s=;e<vised desiEns Bo< @nd C@n@Eed ;<od=Ation in st@te >o<Js?o;s C@n=B@At=<inE ;o<AeD@in @nd t@;est<ies1 t?=s ;<ovidinE t?e st@te >it? @ distinAtive @nd =niBo<C ?iE? A=Dt=<e ,evsne< !9&'/ ,e<<y @nd C=nninE?@C !999$F Wit?in t?e AA@deCy itseDB1 @ Aent<@D <oDe in t?e t<@ininE oB ;@inte<s >@s ;D@yed by @ se<ies oB AonBe<enAes @nd DeAt=<es1 @t >?iA? >o<Js oB A@noniA@D C@ste<s in t?e AD@ssiA@D t<@dition >o=Dd be disA=ssed1 @n@Dysed @nd ev@D=@ted in o<de< to est@bDis? CodeDs Bo< AonteC;o<@<y ;@intinEF As >it? t?e doctrine classi2ue in Dite<@t=<e BL<Ee< !9"3$1 so in ;@intinE t?e @A@deCiA o<t?odoxy so=E?t to <@tion@Dise @<tistiA ;<od=Ation1 s=bGeAtinE B@Ai@D @nd Eest=<@D ex;<ession @nd t?e =se oB Dine @nd AoDo=< to A@DA=D@bDe Aont<oDF S=A? A@<eB=DDy A@DA=D@ted ;iAto<i@D eBBeAts >e<e desiEned to evoJe s;eAiBiA

<es;onses on t?e ;@<t oB vie>e<s1 to ind=Ae t?eC to eC=D@te t?e Aond=At oB t?e ?e<oes <e;<e-&sented in ?isto<y ;@intinEs1 @nd t?=s to soAi@Dise t?eC into t?e no<C@tive v@D=es >?iA? =nde<><ote t?e ne> @bsoD=tist st@teF In t?e Aontext oB t?is @A@deCiA systeC1 @nd oB t?e <es=<EenAe oB <eDiEio=s ;@t<on@Ee @s t?e Co=nte<-ReBo<C@tion E@t?e<ed ;@Ae in t?e seventeent? Aent=<y1 t?e ex;e<ienAe oB @<t <eC@ined eCbedded in t?e <eDiEio=s ;<@AtiAes oB beDieve<s @nd t?e Ao=<tDy DiBestyDe oB t?e soAi@D eDiteF LooJinE @t @nd Jno>inE @bo=t ;@intinEs >@s not @ s;eAi@D @Ativity de;endent on ex;e<t Jno>DedEe1 b=t ;@<t oB t?e eve<yd@y A=Dt=<e oB t?e A=Dtiv@ted Ao=<tie<F B=t @Dt?o=E? on one DeveD t?e ;<od=Ation @nd <eAe;tion oB @<t <eC@ined 5soAi@DDy eCbedded5 - Aont<oDDed by non-s;eAiBiA@DDy @<tistiA E<o=;s @nd inte<ests s=A? @s A?=<A? @nd st@te - t?e o;en disA=ssion oB t?e no<Cs oB @<t >?iA? tooJ ;D@Ae @t AonBe<enAes1 invoDvinE votes to est@bDis? o<t?odox @A@deCiA ;ositions on ;@<tiA=D@< iss=es1 <e;<esented @ <e@D E@in in @=tonoCyF S=A? ;<@AtiAes eC@nAi;@ted @<t ;<od=Ation B<oC t<@dition@DistiA no<CsF %?ey @Dso ;<ovided @<t >it? soCe ;<oteAtion B<oC t?e @tteC;ts to <eiC;ose s=A? Aont<oDs A?@<@Ate<istiA oB Co=nte<-ReBo<C@tion @<tistiA ;@t<on@EeF -o<eove<1 even iB t?e <@tion@Dis@tion oB ;@intinE >@s =DtiC@teDy E=ided by @ desi<e to inA=DA@te Co<e eBBeAtiveDy est@bDis?ed soAi@D no<Cs1 t?e ve<y ;<@AtiAe oB disA=ssinE @nd @n@DysinE ;@intinEs in @ Bo<C@D instit=tion@D Aontext st@ndinE o=tside t?e Ao=<tDy @nd s@A<@D s;?e<es Bo< >?iA? t?@t @<t >@s ;<edestined enAo=<@Eed @n inA<e@sinE sense oB t?e @=tonoCy oB t?e s;eAiBiA@DDy @est?etiA v@D=es oB @<t1 @nd in ;@<tiA=D@< oB ;e<son@D @nd <eEion@D styDes B@<@sA? !9"#1 3#&$F It >@s in Ao=nt<ies >?e<e @A@deCiA ide@s >e<e onDy ve<y ;@<ti@DDy iB @t @DD instit=tion@Dised - EnED@nd @nd t?e n=Ce<o=s sC@DD st@tes oB Ge<C@ny - t?@t @ B=<t?e< ste; >@s t@Jen in t?e diseCbeddinE oB @<t ><itinE @nd t?e ex;e<ienAe oB @<t B<oC t<@dition@D instit=tion@D Aontexts1 @nd t?e A<e@tion oB @ ne> @=tonoCo=s B<@Ce>o<J in >?iA? @<t vie>inE @nd @;;<eAi@tion >e<e Aonstit=ted @s @ s;eAi@Dised @Ativity =nde<t@Jen in t?ei< o>n <iE?tF 0 ABte< t?e t<i=C;? oB ,@<Di@Cent in t?e GDo<io=s RevoD=tion oB !)""1 @ny @s;i<@tions oB t?e EnEDis? Con@<A?y to @bsoD=tisC >e<e eBBeAtiveDy eDiCin@ted1 @nd t?e Ao=<t Ae@sed to ;D@y @ C@Go< <oDe @s @n @<t ;@t<onF ,=<it@nisC1 Co<eove<1 ?@d E<e@tDy <ed=Aed t?e deC@nd Bo< t?e <eDiEio=s @<t >?iA? ;D@yed s=A? @n iC;o<t@nt <oDe in C@t?oDiA E=<o;eF A<t ;<od=Ation >@s inA<e@sinEDy o<iented to @ C@<Jet1 @nd soDd to AoDDeAto<s AoC;osed oB @<istoA<@ts @nd >e@Dt?y CeCbe<s oB t?e AoCCe<Ai@D eDiteF W?et?e< in Ao=nt<y ?o=ses o< London ?oCes1 s=A? AoDDeAtions >e<e Bo<Ced @AAo<dinE to ;<iC@<iDy styDistiA @nd ?isto<iA@D A<ite<i@ oB v@D=e s?@;ed by @A@deCiA @<t ><itinEF %?is dis;D@Aed t?e <e;<esent@tive B=nAtion oB E@DDe<ies oB @nAest<@D ;o<t<@its A?@<@Ate<istiA oB t?e oDd nobiDityF Bot? in AoDDeAtions @nd in @=Ations1 ;eo;De enAo=nte<ed >o<Js oB @<t o=tside t?e <eDiEio=s @nd ;oDitiA@D Aontexts in >?iA? t?ey ?@d Aonvention@DDy been ex;e<ienAedF In 2<@nAe1 t?e @nn=@D dis;D@y oB @A@deCiA @<t in t?e s@Dons oBBe<ed o;;o<t=nities Bo< siCiD@< Jinds oB ex;e<ienAe1 @nd >@s t?e settinE Bo< >?iA? Dide<ot deveDo;ed ?is @<t A<itiAisCF S=A? @<t A<itiA@D >o<Js >e<e C@de ;ossibDe by @n ex;@ndinE CiddDe-AD@ss ;=bDiA t?@t needed E=id@nAe in enAo=nte<inE @nd <es;ondinE to @<t in t?ese ne> settinEsF EiE?teent?-Aent=<y @est?etiA ;?iDoso;?y - -o<itK1 B@=CE@<ten1 K@nt - is D@<EeDy @n @tteC;t to @<tiA=D@te t?is ne> ex;e<ienAe oB 5@<t @s s=A?5 Ab<@Cs !9"9@1 !9"9b$F -@de ;ossibDe by t?e deveDo;Cent oB t?e @<t C@<Jet1 t?is t<@dition1 A=DCin@tinE in SA?iDDe<5s %n the Aesthetic &ducation of !an- @Dso <e;<esents @ A<itiA@D <es;onse to -#-

t?e inA<e@sinE C@<Jetis@tion oB Eoods @nd ?=C@n D@bo=<F It <eAonstit=tes t?e Jind oB ;<@AtiA@D A<itiAisC invoDved in @A@deCiA @<t te@A?inE @s @ 5teA?niH=e oB t?e seDB51 @ set oB ;<@AtiAes desiEned to A=Dtiv@te @n individ=@Dised @est?etiA et?os7 A<itiA@D @n@Dysis oB t?e >o<J oB @<t is ;D@yed oBB @E@inst eCotion@D identiBiA@tion in @ s;i<@DDinE ;<oAess desiEned to intensiBy iC@Ein@tive ex;e<ienAe *=nte< !990$F %?e inte<io< o< s;i<it=@D de;t? enEende<ed by s=A? @ ;<oAess oB Bildung - o< ed=A@tion@D seDB-Bo<C@tion endo>s its be@<e< >it? @n inne< AoC;os=<e o< B<eedoC @E@inst t?e @Dien@tinE @nd B<@ECentinE ;<ess=<es oB Code<n soAietyF %?is eC;?@sis on teA?niA@D 5Aonst<=Ative5 B<eedoC1 @nd on t?e et?iA@D inne< B<eedoC oB 5AoC;os=<e5 on t?e ;@<t oB t?e @<tist in <eD@tion to t?e obGeAt ?e o< s?e <e;<esents Aonstit=tes t?e teA?niA@D Ao<e oB t?e A<itiA@D Ge<C@n ide@Dist t<@dition in @<t ?isto<y ,od<o !9"0$1 @nd indeed t?e doCin@nt st<@nd oB @<t ?isto<y ><itinE even tod@yF 4F 4F WinJeDC@nn5s ,istory of Ancient Art !.)&$ synt?esised @ n=Cbe< oB diCensions in @est?etiA @nd soAi@D t?o=E?t >?iA? >e ?@ve @D<e@dy enAo=nte<edF StyDistiA A@teEo<ies @<e =sed not siC;Dy to AD@ssiBy >o<Js oB @<t by <eEion o< @<tist b=t to ;<ovide @ A?<onoDoEiA@D B<@Ce>o<J >it?in >?iA? t?e <ise1 ADiC@x @nd deADine oB G<eeJ @<t @<e ex;D@ined in te<Cs oB t?e deveDo;inE ;oDitiA@D st<=At=<e oB t?e G<eeJ st@te1 @nd Co<e b<o@dDy in te<Cs oB EeoE<@;?iA@D @nd ADiC@tiA envi<onCentF %?e @n@Dysis Ao<<es;onds ex@AtDy to t?e CodeD oB -ontesH=ie=5s S(irit of the )aws- b=t >it? @ C=A? Co<e ex;DiAit ?isto<iA@D diCensionF AntiAi;@tinE SA?iDDe<1 >?ose Co<e deveDo;ed @est?etiA ;?iDoso;?y is ?e@viDy de;endent on WinAJeDC@nn1 ?e <e;<esents t?e G<eeJ C@De n=de @s t?e eCbodiCent oB ;e<BeAtDy inteE<@ted C@n?ood1 seDB-s=BBiAient @nd =n@Dien@ted1 @n obGeAt oB identiBiA@tion Bo< t?e Code<n vie>e< B<@ECented by t?e divisions @nd ineH=@Dities oB AiviD soAiety desA<ibed by Ro=sse@= in ?is 3iscourse on the %rigins of Ine2uality ,otts !99&1 !#'$F WinAJeDC@nn en@Ats t?<o=E? ?is enE@EeCent >it? G<eeJ @<t >?@t SA?iDDe< >@s to Eene<@Dise @s @ A<itiA@D @est?etiA st@nAe to @DD @<t in ?is Dette<s %n the Aesthetic &ducation of !an.

Art and society in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century art history writing

In t?e DiE?t oB t?ese ;@<@DDeDs bet>een t?e deveDo;Cent oB soAi@D t?o=E?t @nd oB ><itinE on t?e @<ts1 it is ;e<?@;s not s=<;<isinE t?@t C=A? e@<Dy @<t-?isto<iA@D ><itinE ?@s @ st<onEDy soAioDoEiA@D A?@<@Ate<F Indeed t?e Jey iss=e >@s t?e <eD@tions?i; bet>een @<t @nd soAiety @nd t?e B=nd@Cent@D AonAe;t t?@t oB @<t @s @ reflection oB soAiety o< t?e n@tionF -o<eove<1 t?e @=t?o<s oB e@<Dy soAi@D sAientiBiA ><itinE @nd @<t o< A=Dt=<@D ?isto<y ><itinE @<e oBten t?e s@Ce individ=@Ds1 >o<JinE >it?in BDexibDe @nd o;en inteDDeAt=@D Een<es not @s yet diBBe<enti@ted in t?e >@y t?ey >e<e to be in t?e Code<n =nive<sity *eiDb<on !99#1 3$F -ontesH=ie= in ?is notes on @ visit to t?e UBBiKi in 2Do<enAe is D@<EeDy ;<eoAA=;ied >it? t?e A?@nEinE @est?etiA A=stoCs ?@i< B@s?ions1 @<t styDes$ in t?e Aontext oB t?e deveDo;Cent @nd deADine oB t?e RoC@n st@te1 <@t?e< t?@n t?e ;@<tiA=D@< ;e<son@Dities oB ;eo;De ;o<t<@yed >?iA? ?@d been t?e ;<iC@<y inte<est oB e@<Die< ><ite<s *@sJeDD !9931 !)&$F As e@<Dy @s !.#01 t?e CoCte de C@yD=s ?@d s=EEested t?@t t?e @<ts 5;<esent @ ;iAt=<e oB t?e Co<@Ds @nd s;i<it oB @ Aent=<y @nd @ n@tion51 b=t >@s =n@bDe to deveDo; t?e Eene<@D insiE?t into @ Co<e systeC@tiA -)t?eo<y i'id.- !"!$F +oDt@i<e =sed @<t @s @n indiA@to< oB t?e s;i<it=@D H=@Dity o< v@D=e oB diBBe<ent ;e<iods1 @nd ?@d o<iEin@DDy intended to inAo<;o<@te @n @n@Dysis oB @<t in its soAiet@D Aontext in ?is &ssai sur les moeurs i'id.- 0'!$F

%?e inA<e@sinE eC;?@sis ;D@Aed on t?e ide@ oB @ n@tion@D soAiet@D AoCC=nity1 ;<io< to @nd Aonst<@ininE t?e st@te1 evident in t?inJe<s s=A? @s -ontesH=ie= @nd Ro=sse@=1 >@s t<@nsD@ted into @<t-?isto<iA@D t?o=E?t t?<o=E? t?e ><itinE oB *e<de< @nd *eEeDF *e<de< A<itiAised WinAJeDC@nn Bo< G=dEinE @DD @<t @AAo<dinE to @ sinEDe styDistiA st@nd@<d1 s=EEestinE t?@t ;e<iods @nd t<@ditions des;ised by WinAJeDC@nn - EEy;ti@n1 Got?iA - s?o=Dd be =nde<stood in te<Cs oB t?ei< o>n @est?etiA st@nd@<ds1 t?eCseDves AonBo<C@bDe to t?e ;@tte<n oB DiBe oB t?ei< o>n tiCesF *eEeD inAo<;o<@ted *e<de<5s ?isto<iAist vision >it?in @ 5dete<Cinist5 ;?iDoso;?y oB ?isto<y in >?iA? e@A? distinAtive ;e<iod @nd A=Dt=<@D t<@dition >@s deBined bot? in its o>n int<insiA te<Cs @nd @s @ neAess@<y ste; in t?e evoD=tion oB t?e >o<Dd s;i<it7 Eve<y ste;1 beinE diBBe<ent B<oC eve<y ot?e< one1 ?@s its o>n dete<Cined @nd ;eA=Di@< ;<inAi;DeF In ?isto<y s=A? @ ;<inAi;De beAoCes t?e dete<Cin@tion oB t?e s;i<it - @ ;eA=Di@< n@tion@D s;i<itF It is ?e<e t?@t it ex;<esses AonA<eteDy @DD @s;eAts oB its AonsAio=sness @nd >iDD1 its tot@D <e@Dity/ it is t?is t?@t iC;@<ts @ AoCCon st@C; to its <eDiEion1 its ;oDitiA@D Aonstit=tion1 its soAi@D et?iAs1 its DeE@D systeC1 its A=stoCs b=t @Dso its sAienAe1 its @<t @nd its teA?niA@D sJiDDsF %?ese ;@<tiA=D@< individ=@D H=@Dities C=st be =nde<stood @s d<ivinE B<oC t?@t Eene<@D ;eA=Di@<ity1 t?e ;@<tiA=D@< ;<inAi;De oB @ n@tionF *eEeD1 H=oted by GoCb<iA? !9"&@1 #&$ A<t >@s t?e ;<iviDeEed ve?iADe oB t?e *eEeDi@n vision1 @n 5ex;<ession oB t?e Divinity5 >?iA? 5t@Jes @nd ext<@Ats >it?o=t @d=Dte<@tion t?e ind>eDDinE s;i<it oB t?e n@tion51 5<eve@DinE t?e t<=t? >?iA? is C@niBest in t?e ?isto<y oB t?e >o<Dd5F As >e s?@DD see1 it is t?is *eEeDi@n AonAe;t=@D Ao<e - @est?etiA t<@nsAendent@DisC1 AoDDeAtivisC @nd ?isto<iA@D dete<CinisC - t?@t Bo<Cs t?e t@JinE-oBB ;oint Bo< t?eo<etiA@D ex;Do<@tions oB bot? @<t ?isto<y @nd t?e soAioDoEy oB @<t1 e@A? @;;<o;<i@tinE1 t<@nsBo<CinE @nd - in Ae<t@in <es;eAts - <eGeAtinE t?e *eEeDi@n vision >?iA? it sees ;<ese<ved in t?e ot?e< GoCb<iA? !9"&@1 #0$F *eEeD5s >o<d >@s @D<e@dy beAoCinE BDes? @s ?e s;oJe1 in t?e ne> @<t C=se=Cs oB t?e D@te eiE?teent? @nd nineteent? Aent=<iesF As EnDiE?tenCent ;?iDoso;?e<s5 ide@s @bo=t t?e n@tion5s ;<io<ity ove< t?e st@te E@ined A=<<enAy1 st@tes so=E?t to DeEitiC@te t?ei< ;o>e< by ADot?inE t?eCseDves in t?e @=<@ oB t?ei< n@tion@D @<t t<@ditions >?iA? t?ey AD@iCed to ;<oteAt @nd ;<oCoteF %?e E<e@t n@tion@D C=se=Cs s=A? @s t?e Lo=v<e >e<e A<e@ted @s ;@<t oB t?e Code<n st@te A=Dt=<@D @;;@<@t=s1 @nd ?@ve been @;tDy desA<ibed @s 5<it=@D Con=Cents5 desiEned to inA=DA@te in visito<s @n identiBiA@tion >it? t?e st@te @s t?e E=@<di@n oB s@A<ed n@tion@D v@D=esF %?ey @AAoC;Dis? t?is t?<o=E? @<A?iteAt=<@D desiEn - @s teC;Des oB t?e -=ses - @nd t?ei< inte<io< @<<@nEeCent - @ <it=@Dised >@DJ t?<o=E? t?e ?isto<y oB @<t A=DCin@tinE in t?e deveDo;Cent oB @ n@tion@D sA?ooDF %?is @<<@nEeCent ;<oGeAts t?e n@tion @s t?e ?ei< to t?e AD@ssiA@D t<@dition @nd t?e st@te @s t?e E=@<di@n on be?@DB oB its AitiKens oB t?e DivinE ;@t<iCony oB its @<t D=nA@n @nd W@DD@A? !9"'$F %?is t<@dition oB ><itinE A=DCin@ted in t?e seAond ?@DB oB t?e nineteent? Aent=<y in -.t?e A=Dt=<@D ?isto<ies oB B=<AJ?@<dt @nd %@ine1 >?iA? @<e D@<EeDy *eEeDi@n in t?ei< inteDDeAt=@D ;<es=;;ositionsF Bot? desA<ibe ;e<iod @nd n@tion@D A=Dt=<es @s inteE<@D tot@Dities1 be@<inE @ 5AoCCon st@C;5 in t?ei< ;oDitiAs1 <eDiEion @nd @<tF In B=<AJ?@<dt5s @AAo=nts oB It@Di@n Ren@iss@nAe @<t @nd A=Dt=<e1 t?e @<tist is desA<ibed @s @ ve?iADe oB @ ;e<iod styDe @nd s;i<it *@sJeDD !9931 3&3/ B=<AJ?@<dt !9#"$F %@ine deveDo;ed @ stiDD inBD=enti@D B<@Ce>o<J Bo< @<t inte<;<et@tion >?iA? so=E?t to ex;D@in individ=@D >o<Js oB @<t o< @<tistiA styDes in te<Cs oB t?ei< 5CiDie=5 *@dGiniJoD@o= !9."1 3'-#/ *@sJeDD !9931 3))-0/ -@<tin !9)3@1 !9))$F %@ine Eoes beyond WinAJeDC@nn by s=;;DeCentinE ;oDitiA@D @nd n@t=<@D envi<onCent@D ex;D@n@tions >it? @ >ide< <@nEe oB ;ossibDe soAioA=Dt=<@D 5inBD=enAes5F %?e Be@t=<es oB >o<Js oB @<t @nd styDes s?o=Dd be =nde<stood in te<Cs oB @ <@di@tinE se<ies oB Ai<ADes oB ;ossibDe inBD=enAes >?iA? ;<e-dis;ose t?e @<tist to seDeAt Ae<t@in Be@t=<es oB Aontent o< styDe7 t?e 5sA?ooD o< B@CiDy oB @<tists5 oB @

;@<tiA=D@< ;e<iod @nd Ao=nt<y1 5@not?e< E<o=; yet Co<e v@st5 n@CeDy t?e soAiety >it?in >?iA? t?is B@CiDy oB @<tists is eCbedded1 @DonE >it? t?e Ao<<es;ondinE 5t@stes51 5syC;@t?ies5 @nd 5inteDDeAt=@D Aonditions5 oB t?@t soAietyF 5%?is soAi@D @nd inteDDeAt=@D Aondition oB @ AoCC=nity is t?e st@nd@<d oB t?@t oB @<tists/ t?ey do not Dive @s isoD@ted Cen5 %@ine !").1 &-"$F W?@t is inte<estinE @bo=t %@ine is t?@t ?is ><itinE inAD=des Cost oB t?e @n@DytiA@D AoC;onents >?iA? @<e to be oB iC;o<t@nAe in bot? ?isto<y @nd soAioDoEy oB @<t7 @ AonAe<n >it? styDe @nd Bo<C @nd iAonoE<@;?y1 t?e individ=@D @<tist1 t?e net>o<Js oB @<tists >it? >?oC @n @<tist in H=estion AoCC=niA@tes @nd Aoo;e<@tes1 t?e b<o@de< soAi@D st<=At=<e >it?in >?iA? @<tistiA ;<od=Ation @nd Aons=C;tion t@Jes ;D@AeF %?e<e is @ st<onE sense oB t?e exte<n@Dity @nd AoC;eDDinE n@t=<e oB t?e soAi@D CiDie=1 @ntiAi;@tinE D=<J?eiC5s soAioDoEy7 5@ E<o=; oB Ai<A=Cst@nAes Aont<oDDinE C@n1 to >?iA? ?e is AoC;eDDed to <esiEn ?iCseDBF %?is sit=@tion deveDo;s in C@n Ao<<es;ondinE desi<es1 distinAt @;tit=des @nd s;eAi@D sentiCents5 !#9$F %?e A@teEo<ies1 ?o>eve<1 <eC@in soCe>?@t diBB=se - 5@DD s=<<o=ndinE soAi@D @nd inteDDeAt=@D inBD=enAes5 - @nd t?e AonneAtions bet>een t?eC @<e ve<y DooseDy @<tiA=D@ted1 on t?e @ss=C;tion t?@t t?e soAi@D enseCbDe AoC;<ises @ =nity in >?iA? @DD AoC;onents @<e eH=@DDy dete<Cin@nts oB @DD ot?e<sF Co<<es;ondinEDy1 @<t @n@Dysis @nd Aontext=@Dis@tion <eC@in @ D@<EeDy desA<i;tive exe<Aise1 <@t?e< t?@n @n ex;D@n@to<y one in >?iA? it is ;ossibDe to Eene<@Dise @bo=t <eD@tions?i;s bet>een @<t @nd soAietyF In t?e BoDDo>inE Eene<@tions1 t?e s?@<;eninE oB t?ese @n@DytiA A@teEo<ies >@s to se;@<@te soAioDoEiA@D @nd @<t-?isto<iA@D ><itinE C=A? Co<e s?@<;DyF

Di(ci3linary formation(# from Kulturgeschichte to art hi(tory and the (ociology of art
Art history for art history's sake: Wlfflin, Panofsky, Mannheim and the ro!lem of art inter retation
So >?en @nd >?y did @<t ?isto<y @nd soAioDoEy ;@<t AoC;@ny6 %?e seAond ?@DB oB t?e nineteent? Aent=<y s@> t?e Bo<C@tion oB Code<n ?iE?e< ed=A@tion in E=<o;e1 <es;ondinE to t?e deC@nds A<e@ted by <@;id ind=st<i@Dis@tion1 @ A?@nEinE soAi@D o<de< @nd t?e @dCinist<@tive deC@nds oB AoDoni@DisCF %?e ex;@nsion oB =nive<sities enAo=<@Eed t?e diBBe<enti@tion oB disAi;Dines1 seeJinE to st=dy distinAtive s=bGeAts t?<o=E? t?e =se oB -"distinAtive Cet?ods1 >?iA? ;<ovided t?e b@sis oB t?ei< ;<oE<@CCes oB ed=A@tion @nd t<@ininE in @=tonoCo=s de;@<tCentsF Gene<iA CixinE oB ><itinEs on @<t1 Co<@D ;?iDoso;?y @nd soAi@D st=dies >@s inA<e@sinEDy <e;D@Aed by st<iAtDy deBined =nive<sity disAi;Dines *eiDb<on !99#1 3$F In 2<@nAe1 ECiDe D=<J?eiC5s st=dies oB The 3ivision of )a'our !"93$ @nd Suicide !"9.$ @nd ?is ;<oE<@CC@tiA @AAo=nt oB %?e R=Des oB Sociological !ethod !"9#$ deBined @ ;ositivistiA B<@Ce>o<J Bo< soAioDoEy @s @ sAienAe oB soAi@D ;?enoCen@1 ex;Do<inE t?e inte<<eD@tions?i;s bet>een s;eAiBiA@DDy soAi@D o<de<s oB B@Ats - soAi@D st<=At=<e @nd Co<@D Aodes1 soAi@D A?@nEe @nd soAi@D inteE<@tionF In Ge<C@ny1 -@x Webe<5s Cet?odoDoEiA@D ><itinEs deBined soAioDoEy @s @n inter(retative sAienAe oB soAi@D @Ation !9'#/ !900$F %?@t is to s@y soAioDoEy is AonAe<ned >it? t?e inte<;<et@tion and causal ex(lanation oB be?@vio=< to >?iA? s=bGeAtive Ce@ninE is @tt@A?ed1 @nd >?iA? is s?@;ed in its Ao=<se by Aonside<@tion oB t?e @At=@D o< ex;eAted be?@vio=< oB ot?e< ;e<sonsF It >@s t?e <oDe oB E<o=;s1 @nd ;@<tiAi;@tion in E<o=; DiBe1 in A<e@tinE s;eAiBiA AonsteDD@tions oB ide@D @nd C@te<i@D inte<ests @nd t?e<eby ;e<CittinE A@=s@D ex;D@n@tion >?iA? diBBe<enti@ted soAioDoEy

B<oC Co<e ;=<eDy ?e<Cene=tiA o< inte<;<et@tive disAi;Dines s=A? @s G=<is;<=denAe o< ?isto<y oB ;?iDoso;?yF A<t ?isto<y1 DiJe soAioDoEy1 so=E?t to deBine itseDB in <eD@tions?i; to est@bDis?ed disAi;Dines s=A? @s ?isto<y1 >it?in >?iA? it ?@d eBBeAtiveDy been @bso<bed in t?e A=Dt=<@D ?isto<y oB B=<AJ?@<dt @nd %@ineF LiJe Webe<1 C@ny e@<Dy @<t-?isto<iA@D t?eo<ists >e<e dee;Dy inBD=enAed by t?e Cet?odoDoEiA@D ><itinEs oB WiD?eDC DiDt?ey1 @nd in ;@<tiA=D@< ?is <eAoEnition oB 5obGeAtive5 Bo<Cs oB A=Dt=<e s=A? @s D@>1 @<t1 sAienAe @nd <eDiEion e@A? >it? its o>n inte<n@D DoEiA @nd e@A? <eH=i<inE inte<;<et@tion @AAo<dinE to s;eAiBiA ?e<Cene=tiA Cet?odsF 3 Co<<es;ondinEDy1 t?eo<ists s=A? @s RieED1 WIDBBDin @nd ,@noBsJy so=E?t to eD@bo<@te AonAe;ts >?iA? identiBied t?e i<<ed=AibDy @<tistiA diCensions oB >o<Js oB @<t1 @nd so=E?t in t?eC t?e b@sis oB @<t-?isto<iA@D ex;D@n@tionF ADD t?ese AonAe;ts BoA=s on t?e Aonst<=Ative <oDe oB @est?etiA Bo<C1 >?et?e< in inBo<CinE Aontents diBBe<ent Bo<C@D t<e@tCents oB @ sinEDe t?eCe1 Bo< ex@C;De @ -@donn@ @nd A?iDd$1 in @DiEninE @ vie>e<5s <es;onse to t?ose Aontents1 o< ;=<eDy Bo<C@D @AAo=nts oB @est?etiA evoD=tion @s in ADois RieED5s @AAo=nts oB t?e evoD=tion oB ;D@nt CotiBs in AD@ssiA@D o<n@Cent @AAo<dinE to s=;;osedDy =nive<s@D ;<inAi;Des oB desiEn Ive<sen !9.9$F An in?e<ited AonAe;t=@D voA@b=D@<y >?iA? ?@d st<onE AonneAtions >it? Co<e soAioDoEiA@D1 @nt?<o;oDoEiA@D @nd ;syA?oDoEiA@D =nde<st@ndinEs oB ex;<essivity >@s E<@d=@DDy <e;D@Aed by @ Co<e ;=<eDy @est?etiA B<@Ce>o<JF In *ein<iA? WIDBBDin5s e@<Dy st=dies @<tistiA ex;<ession is Aonditioned by ?=C@n n@t=<e @nd soAi@D o<de< Antoni !9&'1 0!0BBF$F In Renaissance and Baro2ue !"""$1 Bo< ex@C;De1 WIDBBDin E<o=nds t?e ex;<essive ;otenti@D oB @<A?iteAt=<e @nd ;@intinE in s?@<ed ?=C@n A@;@Aities Bo< eC;@t?y7 o=< sense oB o=< o>n body is ;<oGeAted onto ot?e< @<tistiA@DDy Bo<Ced bodies1 <es;ondinE to @;;e@<@nAes oB C@ssiveness1 CoveCent o< iCb@D@nAeF In lassic Art !"9"$1 t?is ve<y b<o@d @nt?<o;oDoEiA@D @;;<o@A? is n=@nAed o< H=@DiBied soAioDoEiA@DDyF %?e AD@ssiA styDe is inte<;<eted in te<Cs oB @n eDite Ao<;o<e@D Aode eD@bo<@ted >it?in Ao=<tDy Ai<ADes s=A? @s t?ose desA<ibed @t U<bino by C@stiEDioneF ADt?o=E? A<=Ai@D to t?e ex;D@n@to<y DoEiA oB WIDBBDin5s @<E=Cents1 t?ese @nt?<o;oDoEiA@D @nd soAioDoEiA@D =nde<;inninEs @<e soCe>?@t C@<Ein@D to ?is Co<e Aent<@D AonAe<n >it? t?e ;@<tiA=D@<ities oB Bo<C @n@Dysis1 @nd st@nd @DonEside H=ite -9C@<Jed ;oDeCiAs @E@inst A=Dt=<@D ?isto<iA@D ex;D@n@tions oB 5t?e ?isto<y oB styDe @s @ <eBDeAtion oB A?@nEes in t?e ;@tte<n oB ?=C@n DiBe5 !"""1 .3$F Co<<es;ondinEDy1 in ?is Cet?odoDoEiA@D t<e@tise Princi(les of Art ,istory !9!#$ WIDBBDin so=E?t to Eive t?e disAi;Dine oB @<t ?isto<y @ ;=<eDy Bo<C@D-@est?etiA AonAe;t=@D Bo=nd@tionF *e @<E=es t?@t @DD styDes A@n be A?@<@Ate<ised in te<Cs oB v@<yinE AoCbin@tions oB ten ;@i<ed A@teEo<ies oB ;iAto<i@D o<de<7 Dine@< @nd ;@inte<Dy1 ;D@ne @nd <eAession1 ADosed @nd o;en Bo<C1 C=Dti;DiAity @nd =nity1 ADe@<ness @nd =nADe@<nessF %?ese >e<e a (riori AonAe;ts >?iA? deBined B=nd@Cent@D @Dte<n@tives B@Aed by @<tists in o<de<inE vis=@D Bo<C1 @Dte<n@tives E<o=nded in t?e st<=At=<e oB t?e ?=C@n eyeF %?e deveDo;Cent oB @<t Ao=Dd be inte<;<eted @s @ ;=<eDy vis=@D ;?enoCenon =nBoDdinE in @ ;e<iodiA AyADe oB t?e eD@bo<@tion @nd deAonst<=Ation oB Bo<C@D AoC;Dexity o<E@nised t?<o=E? t?ese B=nd@Cent@D <e;<esent@tion@D A?oiAesF W?e<e WIDBBDin so=E?t to deBine @<t ?isto<y5s disAi;Din@<y bo=nd@<ies @E@inst Eene<@D ?isto<y1 soAioDoEy @nd @nt?<o;oDoEy1 E<>in ,@noBsJy !90'$ so=E?t to <id @<t ?isto<y oB t?e <esid=@D ;syA?oDoEiA@D AoC;onents iC;DiAit in RieED5s AonAe;t oB 4unstwollen 5@<tistiA voDition5 o< 5>iDD to Bo<C5F 4unstwollen- ,@noBsJy @<E=ed1 s?o=Dd not be =nde<stood in te<Cs oB @<tistiA intention1 o< @s soCe Jind oB b<o@d A=Dt=<@D dis;osition A?@<@Ate<istiA oB @ ;e<iodF S=A? A?@<@Ate<is@tions se<ved onDy to <ed=Ae @<t to its exte<n@D so=<Aes @nd eDide t?e 5inBo<CinE oB C@te<i@Ds5 >?iA? distinE=is?ed 5@<tistiA @Ativity5 B<oC 5Eene<@D ?isto<iA@D @Ativity5 !"-0#$F On t?e Aont<@<y t?e AonAe;t s?o=Dd <eBe< to ;<eAiseDy t?ose ;?enoCen@ inte<n@D to @<t >?iA? WIDBBDin ?@d <eAoEnised in ?is

B=nd@Cent@D A@teEo<ies oB ;iAto<i@D o<de<F S=A? AonAe;ts Ao=Dd be deBined onDy @ (riori- in @est?etiAsF %?is ent@iDed t?@t @<t ?isto<y >@s B=nd@Cent@DDy o;;osed to EenetiA ex;D@n@tions o< A@=s@D inte<;<et@tive B<@Ce>o<Js A?@<@Ate<istiA oB disAi;Dines s=A? @s soAioDoEy @nd ;syA?oDoEy o< ot?e< disAi;Dines AonAe<ned >it? 5t?e ?isto<y oB @Ations5 0"-3!$F A<t ?isto<y so=E?t not to ex;D@in @Ations o< obGeAts @s ;<od=Ats oB @Ations b=t to deAi;?e< @est?etiA@DDy Eiven Ce@ninEsF ,@noBsJy5s 4unstwollen ess@y <e;<esents @ Jey ste; in @ se<ies oB ess@ys >?iA? deBined t?e o<t?odox t?eo<etiA@D o<ient@tion @nd Cet?odoDoEiA@D st@nAes oB C@inst<e@C @<t ?isto<y =; to t?e !9"'sF ,@noBsJy5s D@te< ess@ys >e<e siEniBiA@ntDy s?@;ed by ?is <e@dinE oB t?e soAioDoEist K@<D -@nn?eiC5s ess@y 5On t?e inte<;<et@tion oB WeDt@nsA?@==nE5 Weltanschauung->o<Ddvie>$ !900$F -@nn?eiC >@s inte<ested in @<t ?isto<y @s @ s;eAi@D A@se oB @ A=Dt=<@D sAienAe oB inte<;<et@tion1 @nd in ;@<tiA=D@< in its <eD@tions?i; to A=Dt=<@D sAienAes >it? Co<e ex;D@n@to<y Eo@Ds s=A? @s soAioDoEyF *e <eAoEnised t?@t @DD disAi;Dines H=ite DeEitiC@teDy Bo<Ced t?ei< obGeAts t?<o=E? t?e Jinds oB o;e<@tion oB @n@DytiA @bst<@Ation ;e<Bo<Ced by WIDBBDin @nd ,@noBsJyF *e @Dso so=E?t1 ?o>eve<1 to A<e@te inteDDeAt=@D B<@Ce>o<Js >?iA? Ao=Dd synt?esise t?e v@<yinE =nde<st@ndinEs t?@t diBBe<ent disAi;Dines ?@d oB t?e s@Ce obGeAts1 o< @t De@st Aoo<din@te t?e ;@<tiA=D@< insiE?ts oB diBBe<ent disAi;DinesF *e distinE=is?es t?<ee DeveDs oB Ce@ninE AoCCon to inte<;<et@tions oB bot? eve<yd@y soAi@D inte<@Ation @nd >o<Js oB @<tF %?e 5obGeAtive Ce@ninE5 oB @ >o<J oB @<t o< @n @Ation de;ends on soAi@D @nd <e;<esent@tion@D Aonventions1 Bo< ex@C;De t?e Aonventions oB D@nE=@Ee >?iA? Eive @ sentenAe @ dete<Cin@te Ce@ninEF %?e ex;<essive Ce@ninE oB @n @Ation o< @ ;@intinE ;oints to>@<ds t?e intention oB t?e ;e<son >?o ;<od=Aed itF %?e ;?<@se 5I @C so<<y51 Bo< ex@C;De1 ?@s @ dete<Cin@te obGeAtive Ce@ninE Eiven by t?e <=Des oB D@nE=@EeF *o>eve<1 -!'its ex;<essive Ce@ninE >?en =sed to @;oDoEise1 de;ends on ?o> t?e ;?<@se is de;Doyed1 Be@t=<es s=A? @s tone oB voiAe ;ointinE to>@<ds t?e @=t?entiAity o< insinAe<ity oB t?e @;oDoEyF Inte<;<etinE @n @Ation o< @n obGeAt in te<Cs oB its 5doA=Cent@<y Ce@ninE5 invoDves seeinE it @s t?e ;<od=At o< syC;toC oB soCe dee;e< exte<n@D Bo<Ae >?iA? Dies be?ind it - @n et?os1 @ Weltanschauung o< @ 4unstwollen- Bo< ex@C;DeF %?e deveDo;Cent oB @ ne> >@y oB =sinE t?e ;?<@se 5I @C so<<y5 Ao=Dd be inte<;<eted @s @ syC;toC oB A?@nEinE ;@tte<ns oB Ao=<tesy @nd oB t?e st<=At=<e oB soAi@D <eD@tions >it?in >?iA? s=A? Ao=<tesy <=Des B=nAtionedF As t?inEs stood1 t?e AonneAtions bet>een @Ations @nd A=Dt=<@D obGeAts in diBBe<ent doC@ins - s=A? @s @<t1 <eDiEion1 D@> @nd sAienAe - <eC@ined <@t?e< =nADe@<1 de;endent on v@E=e int=itions oB ;<eAiseDy t?e Jind t?@t WIDBBDin !"""1 .)$ ?@d A<itiAisedF AAAo<dinE to -@nn?eiC1 @ Een=ine sAienAe oB A=Dt=<@D ;?enoCen@ >o=Dd be <e@Dised onDy >?en s=A? int=itive DinJs Ao=Dd be @<tiA=D@ted Co<e <iEo<o=sDy t?<o=E? AonAe;tions s=A? @s Ao<<es;ondenAe1 ;@<@DDeDisC1 B=nAtion1 A@=s@Dity @nd <eAi;<oAityF -@nn?eiC5s ess@y ;<ovided @ CodeD Bo< ,@noBsJy5s !939$ AD@ssiA Bo<C=D@tion oB @<t?isto<iA@D inte<;<et@tion1 5IAonoE<@;?y @nd iAonoDoEy5F 2oDDo>inE -@nn?eiC5s t<i;@<tite sA?eC@1 ,@noBsJy distinE=is?ed ;<iC@<y o< n@t=<@D s=bGeAt C@tte< t?e >o<Dd oB @<tistiA CotiBs$1 Aonvention@D o< iAonoE<@;?iA Ce@ninEs t?e >o<Dd oB iC@Ees1 sto<ies @nd @DDeEo<ies$1 @nd int<insiA Ce@ninE o< Aontent t?e >o<Dd oB syCboDiA@D v@D=es$F E@A? oB t?ese DeveDs oB Ce@ninE <eDied on s;eAiBiA Jinds oB inte<;<et@tive Jno>DedEe1 <es;eAtiveDy7 ;<@AtiA@D >o<DdDy ex;e<ienAe/ Jno>DedEe oB Dite<@<y so=<Aes/ @nd synt?etiA int=itionF Inte<;<et@tion @t e@A? DeveD Ao=Dd be v@Did@ted @AAo<dinE to @ 5Ao<<eAtive ;<inAi;De57 ?isto<y oB styDe1 @BBo<dinE Jno>DedEe oB ?o> diBBe<ent <e@D->o<Dd obGeAts >e<e <e;<esented in diBBe<ent ;e<iods/ ?isto<y oB iAonoE<@;?iA ty;es1 @BBo<dinE Jno>DedEe oB >?@t CotiBs >e<e =sed to <e;<esent ;@<tiA=D@< sto<ies o< @DDeEo<ies in diBBe<ent ;e<iods/ @nd t?e ?isto<y oB A=Dt=<@D syCboDsF 2<oC t?e ;oint oB vie> oB o<t?odox o< C@inst<e@C @<t ?isto<y1 ,@noBsJy5s ess@y <e;<esents @ 5B@< Co<e systeC@tiA AodiBiA@tion5 oB -@nn?eiC5s @AAo=nt oB inte<;<et@tionF ,@noBsJy1 it is ?eDd1 5>@s @bDe to s?ed t?e ove<Dy ;?iDoso;?iA@D @nd obsA=<e ve<bi@Ee oB ?is e@<Die< t?eo<y1

to C@Je it @ =seB=D Aonst<=At5F One Ao=Dd v@Did@te inte<;<et@tions =sinE ,@noBsJy5s Cet?od oB Ao<<eAtives 5>it?o=t <eBe<<inE to A@=s@D ex;D@n@tions5 *@<t !9931 ##3$F -@nn?eiC deveDo;ed ?is ide@s in H=ite t?e o;;osite di<eAtion1 in @ se<ies oB ess@ys ><itten in t?e !90's b=t onDy <eAentDy ;=bDis?edF R@t?e< t?@n dis;ensinE >it? t?e AonAe;t oB 4unstwollen- ?e so=E?t to b<o@den t?e sAo;e oB t?e AonAe;t to ot?e< BieDds oB soAi@D @nd A=Dt=<@D @Ation1 @nd Aontext=@Dise it in E<o=; st<=At=<es @nd AoDDeAtive >@ys oB DiBe -@nn?eiC !9"01 033BBF$F -@nn?eiC s=EEests t?@t @DonEside t?e AonAe;t oB 5@<tistiA voDition5 one CiE?t @Dso t@DJ oB @n 5eAonoCiA voDition51 @ 5soAi@D voDition5 @nd =DtiC@teDy 5@ Weltwollen o< >iDD to t?e >o<Dd O t?e dee;est =nity oB styDe beDonEinE to t?e AonsAio=sness oB @ AoCC=nity in @DD oB its obGeAtiBiA@tions1 AonsAio=s o< =nAonsAio=s5 !9"01 033$F As t?e AonAe;ts s=EEest1 e@A? oB t?ese voDitions is A@<<ied by CeCbe<s oB @ soAi@D AoCC=nity >it?in s;eAiBiA instit=tion@D Aontexts1 @nd A@nnot be ex;D@ined 5by <eBe<enAe to t?e st<=At=<e5 o< ;@tte<ninE oB A=Dt=<@D obGeAtiBiA@tions @DoneF On t?e Aont<@<y t?ey @<e E<o=nded in AoDDeAtiveDy o< instit=tion@DDy o<E@nised DiBe ;<oAesses oB @ AoCC=nityF %?ey A@n st@nd in H=ite v@<ied <eD@tions oB AoC;Dete o< ;@<ti@D AonE<=enAe o< Aont<@diAtion to e@A? ot?e<1 de;endinE on t?e ;@<tiA=D@< DiBe -!!sit=@tion oB t?e AoCC=nity o< s=b-E<o=; o< instit=tion >it?in @ AoCC=nity >?iA? is t?e be@<e< oB s=A? @ soAi@D1 eAonoCiA o< @<tistiA voDition o< dis;ositionF In ot?e< >o<ds1 Bo< -@nn?eiC t?e AonAe;t oB 4unstwollen oBBe<s @ >@y oB DendinE @ dyn@CiA diCension to t?e @n@Dysis oB A=Dt=<@D Bo<Cs1 to see t?eC @s (rinci(les of action bo=nd =; in H=ite AoC;Dex @nd onEoinE soAi@D @nd A=Dt=<@D ;<oAesses <@t?e< t?@n @s st@tiA obGeAts o< =nCoved Cove<s @s in t?e A@se oB ,@noBsJy5s AonAe;tions oB iAonoDoEy @nd 4unstwollen. %?e t@sJ oB t?e soAioDoEy oB @<t is to t<@Ae systeC@tiA@DDy t?e inte<AonneAtions bet>een ;@<tiA=D@< Bo<Cs oB @<tistiA voDition @nd AoDDeAtive ;@tte<ns oB ex;e<ienAe <ooted in soAi@D st<=At=<es @nd ;<oAesses oB E<o=; DiBe 93BBF1 033BBF$F W?@t Bo< o<t?odox @<t ?isto<y intent on 5eD=Aid@tinE inte<;<et@tion5 oB ;@<tiA=D@< obGeAts is @n int=itiveDy Eiven b@AJE<o=nd to t?e >o<J oB @<t beAoCes t?e ex;DiAit BoA=s oB @ systeC@tisinE soAioDoEy oB @<t seeJinE to s=;;DeCent inte<;<et@tion >it? EenetiA1 ?isto<iA@D o< A@=s@D ex;D@n@tion !0#BBF/ !9001 !"3$F As >e s?@DD see D@te<1 t?e Cost iC;<essive <eAent @tteC;ts to inteE<@te @<t @n@Dysis @nd soAioDoEy ?@ve BoDDo>ed -@nn?eiC5s De@d in t=<ninE b@AJ t?<o=E? ,@noBsJy5s iAonoDoEiA@D DeveD oB @n@Dysis1 seeJinE to s;eAiBy @n@DytiA@DDy >?@t is DeBt o;en @s @ ;<obDeC oB int=ition in ,@noBsJy5s sA?eC@F

"ociology and art history: conflicts and confrontations

-@nn?eiC !9"0$ ?@s desA<ibed ?o> t?e diBBe<inE instit=tion@D DoA@tions oB soAioDoEy @nd @<t ?isto<y in <eD@tion to t?e @<t >o<Dd1 @nd t?ei< s;eAiBiA disAi;Din@<y inte<ests1 enAo=<@Eed t?ese disAi;Dines to see @nd A?@<@Ate<ise ostensibDy t?e s@Ce obGeAts1 >o<Js oB @<t @nd styDes in B=nd@Cent@DDy diBBe<ent >@ysF %?@t is to s@y1 DiJe ot?e< systeCs oB t?o=E?t1 bot? @<t ?isto<y @nd soAioDoEy @<e >?@t -@nn?eiC A@DDs 5;e<s;eAtiv@D5F Co<<es;ondinEDy1 t?ei< t<=t? AD@iCs1 t?o=E? <e@D1 @<e ;@<ti@D1 @nd C=st be <eD@tivised to t?e ;@<tiA=D@< instit=tion@D @nd disAi;Din@<y Aontexts >it?in >?iA? @<t ?isto<i@ns @nd soAioDoEists >o<J1 @nd to t?e ide@D @nd C@te<i@D inte<ests to >?iA? t?ese diBBe<inE Aontexts Eive <iseF OnDy in t?is DiE?t A@n t?e @;;@<entDy disA<e;@nt AD@iCs oB soAioDoEists @nd @<t ?isto<i@ns be seen siC=Dt@neo=sDy to ?@ve v@Didity in t?ei< o>n <@t?e< diBBe<ent te<CsF S=A? @ <eD@tivis@tion oB t?e t>o ;e<s;eAtives @Dso o;ens =; t?e ;ossibiDity oB @ Co<e synt?etiA @;;<o@A? >?iA? Eoes beyond Ce<eDy D=C;inE toEet?e< ;e<s;eAtives >?iA? @<e1 @t t?e DeveDs Bo<C=D@ted1 inAoCCens=<@bDeF It s?o=Dd @Dso CitiE@te t?e tendentio=s ;oD@<is@tion t?@t ?@s A?@<@Ate<ised t?e <eD@tions?i; bet>een ?isto<y @nd soAioDoEy oB @<t in t?e ;ost>@< ;e<iodF SoAioDoEy A@nnot siC;Dy s=bs=Ce o< <e;D@Ae @<t ?isto<y1 b=t it is C=A? Co<e t?@n @ ?@ndC@iden oB @<t ?isto<y1 @s soCe

?@ve s=EEested GoCb<iA? !9.3(!9.9$F -o<eove< C=A? @<t-?isto<iA@D A<itiAisC oB soAioDoEiA@D >o<J siC;Dy Cisses t?e ;oint oB >?@t soAioDoEy seeJs to @AAoC;Dis?1 @nd ev@D=@tes it @AAo<dinE to in@;;<o;<i@te A<ite<i@ t?e s@Ce is t<=e Bo< C@ny soAioDoEiA@D A<itiAs oB @<t ?isto<y$F A<t ?isto<y is Aent<@DDy AonAe<ned >it? H=estions oB @est?etiA v@D=e *@sJeDD !9931 )/ ,e<<y @nd C=nninE?@C !999/ GoCb<iA? !9.3(.91 !##$F %?e existenAe oB Code<n @<t instit=tions - C=se=Cs1 E@DDe<ies1 @<t booJs - ;<es=;;oses @ diBBe<enti@D v@D=@tion oB ;@<ts oB o=< A=Dt=<@D t<@dition ove< ot?e<s1 DinJed to ide@s oB individ=@D @nd n@tion@D Eeni=s @nd A<e@tivityF %?e A@teEo<ies oB @<t-?isto<iA@D @n@Dysis @<e t?e ;<eAi;it@te oB ;@st AonBDiAts in @est?etiA v@D=@tion GoCb<iA? !9)3())$F Deb@tes @bo=t

-12;@st @<t1 DiJe t?@t bet>een Be<enson !9#&$ @nd WiAJ?oBB !9''$ ove< t?e dissoD=tion oB n@t=<@DisC in D@te @ntiH=e @<t1 @<e oBten inBo<Ced by AonteC;o<@<y @est?etiA dis;=tes1 in t?is A@se ove< iC;<essionisC @nd s=AAessive styDes in Code<nist @<tF C?oiAes @bo=t >?@t @<t to st=dy o< to ex?ibit iC;DiAitDy AonBi<C o< Aontest t?e @<tistiA A@nonF S=A? A?oiAes @nd v@D=es @<e @Dso <eD@ted to C@te<i@D inte<ests iC;DiAit in t?e soAi@D st<=At=<e oB t?e @<t >o<Dd =nde<stood in its b<o@dest senseF -=se=Cs ex?ibit @<tists >?o >iDD @tt<@At n=Ce<o=s visito<s >?o eit?e< di<eAtDy ;@y Bo< ent<y o< DeEitiC@te Eove<nCent s=bsidiesF SA?oD@<s >?o st=dy C@Go< @<tists B<oC 5iC;o<t@nt5 ;e<iods Bind it e@sie< to ;=bDis? t?ei< >o<J1 to seA=<e Gobs in C=se=Cs o< =nive<sities1 @nd to @AH=i<e ;<estiEe @nd inBD=enAe >it?in t?e @<t-?isto<iA@D AoCC=nityF Ed=A@tion in @<t ?isto<y - >?et?e< t?<o=E? booJs1 C=se=C ex?ibitions o< =nde<E<@d=@te deE<ee Ao=<ses - ?@s @s one oB its C@Go< @iCs t?e en<iA?Cent oB ?=C@n ex;e<ienAe t?<o=E? t?e <e@Dis@tion oB @est?etiA v@D=e GoCb<iA? !9).(.91 #9$F Co<<es;ondinEDy1 @n eC;?@sis is D@id on t?e A=Dt=<@D AoC;etenAies - @bove @DD Aonnoisse=<s?i;1 @ ?iE?Dy A=Dtiv@ted A@;@Aity Bo< DooJinE @t @nd disA<iCin@tinE bet>een @est?etiA Bo<Cs AoCC=niA@bDe onDy >it?in @ 5A=Dt=<@DDy ADose-Jnit5 AoCC=nity - >?iA? ;e<Cit @ ADose 5iCC@nent5 o< st<iAtDy inte<n@D enE@EeCent >it? t?e obGeAt -@nn?eiC !9"01 )31 0!)$F %?e =DtiC@te Eo@D oB t?e @AA=C=D@tion @nd t<@nsCission oB @<t-?isto<iA@D Jno>DedEe is @=t?entiA invoDveCent >it? t?e individ=@D >o<J oB @<t1 synt?esisinE t?e t?<ee DeveDs oB iAonoE<@;?iA@D @n@Dysis identiBied by ,@noBsJy into @n &rle'nis o< Dived ex;e<ienAe oB 5int=itive @est?etiA <eA<e@tion5 ,@noBsJy !9##1 !&-!#/ *@<t !9931 ##&$F SoAioDoEists5 A?oiAes oB <ese@<A? ;<obDeCs @<e @Dso E=ided by v@D=es Webe< !9!.1 es;F 09BBF Bo< @ disA=ssion oB v@D=e G=dEeCents in @<t ?isto<y @nd soAioDoEy oB @<t$1 b=t @ AoCCitCent to @<t o< ;@<tiA=D@< @est?etiA v@D=es is <@t?e< seDdoC one oB t?eC @nd in @ny A@se not one t?@t A@n be E<o=nded o< G=stiBied >it?in t?e AonAe;t=@D B<@Ce>o<J oB soAioDoEy itseDB1 b=t onDy B<oC o=tside it$F ADt?o=E? soAioDoEists ?@ve A@<ee< inte<ests DiJe t?ose oB @<t ?isto<i@ns1 t?ey @<e not tied =; >it? t?e ?ie<@<A?ies oB v@D=e Aonstit=tive oB t?e @<t >o<DdF A<t >?iA? >o=Dd be ;e<Aeived @s t<ivi@D1 sA@<AeDy >o<t?y oB st=dy >it?in t?e disAi;Dine oB @<t ?isto<y1 A@n be t?e obGeAt oB soAioDoEiA@DDy ext<eCeDy siEniBiA@nt >o<J *@DDe !99&$F Bot? soAioDoEy @nd @<t ?isto<y @<e <ooted in t?e o<iEins oB >este<n Code<nity @nd s?@<e Ae<t@in v@D=es @nd inte<ests >?iA? AoC;ose t?e Ao<e oB >este<n A=Dt=<e1 Cost not@bDy t?e AonAe<n >it? individ=@D @=tonoCyF -o<eove<1 soAioDoEists s=A? @s Webe< @<e inte<ested in t?e distinAtiveness oB >este<n @est?etiA A=Dt=<e1 @nd in t?e e<osion oB @est?etiA v@D=e t?<o=E? <@tion@Dis@tion ;<oAessesF *o>eve<1 t?is iC;Dies @n inte<est in @est?etiAs onDy in so B@< @s @est?etiAs iC;inEes =;on @nd A@n be <eD@ted to t?e soAi@D st<=At=<es @nd ;<oAesses >?iA? @<e t?e ;<iC@<y obGeAt oB soAioDoEiA@D ex;D@n@tionF %?e distinAtiveDy soAioDoEiA@D vie>;oint on @<t t?=s seeCs to inve<t t?e ;@<tiA=D@< v@D=e <eD@tions?i;s iC;DiAit in @<t ?isto<yF A<t ?isto<y is A?@<@Ate<ised by 5@=t?entiA51 ;@ins-t@JinE @nd di<eAt enE@EeCent >it? t?e @<t obGeAt1 @nd by @n inte<est in @<tistiA individ=@Dity bot? oB ;@<tiA=D@< @<t>o<Js @nd oB

@<tists @s C@niBested in t?e Aonst<=Ative <oDe oB Bo<CF SoAioDoEy is AonAe<ned not so C=A? >it? ;@<tiA=D@< individ=@D eC;i<iA@D B@Ats @s >it? ty;iA@D ty;es oB <eD@tions?i; 2<@nA@steD !9&'(!9&"1 #'$F %?e >@ys oB <e;<esentinE Con@<A?iA ;o>e<1 Bo< ex@C;De1 @<e ve<y dive<se @A<oss A=Dt=<es1 b=t t?e<e -!3is not @n inBinite <@nEe oB >@ys oB doinE so1 @nd soCe >@ys @<e Co<e siCiD@< to e@A? ot?e< t?@n ot?e<sF %?ey A@n be E<o=;ed into ty;es @nd <eD@ted to ty;es oB soAi@D st<=At=<eF SoAioDoEy5s A?@<@Ate<is@tion oB s=A? ty;es is desiEned not to ex;Do<e t?ei< int<insiA @est?etiA v@D=es b=t to en@bDe AonneAtions to be C@de >it? soAi@D st<=At=<es @nd ;<oAessesF In eD@bo<@tinE t?e 5Aontext5 oB @n obGeAt1 soAioDoEy by deBinition seeJs to =nde<st@nd t?e obGeAt @bove @DD in te<Cs oB its B=nAtion@D Aont<ib=tion to soAi@D ;<oAesses1 @nd to deBine t?e ;e<iod beinE st=died in te<Cs oB its A?@<@Ate<istiA soAi@D st<=At=<e1 t?e E<o=;s >?iA? AoC;ose t?@t st<=At=<e1 @nd >?iA? ;<od=Ae @nd =se t?e >o<Js oB @<t in H=estion -@nn?eiC !9"01 "9BBF1 !09BBF$F By vi<t=e oB t?is st<onEDy ty;oDoEisinE dis;osition1 @nd t?e ;e<Ae;tion oB >o<Js oB @<t @nd A?@nEe in @<tistiA styDe in <eD@tion to E<o=; ;<oAesses @nd ty;es oB soAi@D st<=At=<e1 soAioDoEy A?@<@Ate<istiA@DDy Aonst<=Ats @s disAontin=o=s styDes o< ;e<iods >?iA? to t?e ?isto<i@n seeC DiJe sCoot? Aontin=o=s t<@nsitions -@nn?eiC !9"01 !!)BBF1 !0.$F NeedDess to s@y1 t?is C@y @;;e@< to t?e @<t ?isto<i@n @s @ >iDB=D neEDeAt oB ;<o;e< <es;eAt Bo< t?e obGeAt @s s=A? @nd t?e ;@<tiA=D@<ities oB Bo<C A?@<@Ate<istiA oB individ=@D obGeAtsF B=t it is @n inevit@bDe <es=Dt oB t?e diBBe<ent inte<;<et@tive @nd ex;D@n@to<y Eo@Ds oB soAioDoEyF C<itiAisC in s=A? te<Cs siC;Dy Cisses t?e ;oint1 A?oosinE to iEno<e t?e distinAtive vision oB @<t >?iA? @ soAioDoEiA@D ;e<s;eAtive oBBe<s7 5t?is non-iCC@nent Aonside<@tion oB t?e Co<e dist@nAed vie> ?@s t?e v@D=e oB <eve@DinE t?e enti<e ;?enoCenon @t onAe1 @s it is inte<>oven >it? t?e >?oDe oB DiBe @nd ex;e<ienAe @nd @s it is indebted to t?eC5 -@nn?eiC !9"01 )&$F SoAioDoEy C@Jes no AD@iC to Eive @ tot@D ex;D@n@tion oB @<t1 onDy to Eive @ distinAtive one1 v@Did in te<Cs oB its o>n ;<es=;;ositions @nd oBBe<inE @ ;oint oB vie> not @BBo<ded by Aonvention@D @<t ?isto<yF %?ese diBBe<enAes in ide@D @nd C@te<i@D inte<ests s?@;inE soAioDoEists5 @nd @<t ?isto<i@ns5 <eD@tions?i;s to @<t Dend t?eCseDves to C=t=@D A@<iA@t=<e @nd Cis=nde<st@ndinE1 @s e@A? sees t?e inAoCCens=<@bDe t<=t? AD@iCs oB t?e ot?e< @s @ t?<e@t to t?ei< o>n AD@iCs to t<=t?F In t?e ;ost>@< ;e<iod t?ese AonBDiAts @nd Cis=nde<st@ndinEs ?@ve been ex@Ae<b@ted by @ n=Cbe< oB AontinEent ?isto<iA@D B@Ato<s >?iA? s?@;ed t?e deveDo;Cent oB bot? BieDdsF %?e <@t?e< so;?istiA@ted @>@<eness oB t?ese e;isteCoDoEiA@D iss=es deveDo;ed in Ge<C@n @<t ?isto<y @nd soAioDoEy >@s eBBeAtiveDy Dost to t?e sA?oD@<Dy AoCC=nity @s @ <es=Dt oB N@KisC @nd t?e SeAond Wo<Dd W@<F ExiDes in B<it@in @nd ACe<iA@ enAo=nte<ed @n envi<onCent ?ostiDe to t?e Jind oB t?eo<etiA@D >o<J A@<<ied o=t by ,@noBsJy @nd -@nn?eiC in ;<e>@< Ge<C@nyF ,@noBsJy @nd ?is Cet?od >e<e ?=EeDy inBD=enti@D in ;ost>@< ACe<iA@n @<t ?isto<y1 b=t ,@noBsJy ?iCseDB no DonEe< ><ote t?eo<etiA@D ess@ys1 @nd t?e Cet?od >@s @do;ted >it? DittDe o< no A<itiA@D @>@<eness o< disA=ssion oB its t?eo<etiA@D =nde<;inninEs EisDe< !9)9$F In EnED@nd1 -@nn?eiC - @nd ?is *=nE@<i@n AoDDe@E=es1 t?e soAi@D ?isto<i@ns oB @<t 2F Ant@D @nd AF *@=se<1 - >e<e C@<Ein@Dised by t<@ditions oB Co=<t@=Dd Aonnoisse=<s?i; @nd t?e W@<b=<E sA?ooD doCin@ted by GoCb<iA?1 t?e @<t?isto<iA@D BD@E-be@<e< oB K@<D ,o;;e<5s ;ositivisCF & Wit?in AnEDo-ACe<iA@n soAioDoEy1 Co<eove<1 it >@s t?e st<=At=<@D @s;eAts oB Ge<C@n soAioDoEy >?iA? Bo=nd Cost <e@dy <eAe;tion1 <@t?e< t?@n t?ose eDeCents de<ived B<oC t?e ?e<Cene=tiA t<@dition oB DiDt?eyF -@x Webe<5s st=dies oB b=<e@=A<@Ay @nd eAonoCiA o<E@nis@tion ?@ve in ;<@AtiAe been C=A? Co<e inBD=enti@D t?@n ?is eH=@DDy AeDeb<@ted st=dies in t?e soAioDoEy oB <eDiEionF Geo<E SiCCeD5s Bo<C@D soAioDoEy >@s Co<e o< Dess systeC@tiA@DDy

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st<i;;ed oB its @est?etiA eDeCents @s it beA@Ce @bso<bed in ACe<iA@n syCboDiA inte<@Ationist soAi@D t?eo<yF 2@iD=<e to see t?e ;e<s;eAtiv@D A?@<@Ate< oB t?ese t>o <eD@tions?i;s to @<t ?@s Ded e@A? disAi;Dine to ove<st@te its o>n t<=t? AD@iCs >?iDst disCissinE t?ose oB t?e ot?e<F A E<e@t de@D oB soAioDoEiA@D >o<J is AonAe<ned >it? 5des@A<@DisinE5 @<t o< deBD@tinE @<t >o<Dd AD@iCs to v@D=eF SoCe >o<J in t?e ;<od=Ation oB A=Dt=<e ;e<s;eAtive ,@<t %>o beDo>$ s=EEests t?@t deb@tes ove< @est?etiA v@D=es in @<t A<itiAisC @nd ?isto<y @<e ;=<e ideoDoEy1 veiDinE >?@t @<e <e@DDy H=@<<eDs ove< Co<e s=bst@nti@D soAi@D @nd eAonoCiA inte<estsF An iC;o<t@nt st<@nd oB soAioDoEiA@D @n@Dysis oB C=se=Cs @nd ?iE? A=Dt=<e ,@<t 2o=<$ s=EEests t?@t t?e 5t<=e5 B=nAtion oB t?e >?oDe enseCbDe oB ;<@AtiAes s=<<o=ndinE C=se=C visitinE @nd DooJinE @t >o<Js oB @<t is siC;Dy to C@<J soAi@D st@t=s @nd <e;<od=Ae t?e AD@ss ?ie<@<A?y oB Code<n A@;it@Dist soAietyF %?ese AD@iCs @<e ;@<t oB @ b<o@de< st<=EEDe Bo< @ Cono;oDistiA AD@iC to t<=e <e;<esent@tion oB t?e soAi@D @nd A=Dt=<@D >o<DdF %?is is ;@<tiA=D@<Dy @;;@<ent in t?e >o<J oB t?e C@Go< 2<enA? soAioDoEist ,ie<<e Bo=<die=1 ;e<?@;s t?e Cost inBD=enti@D BiE=<e in AonteC;o<@<y soAioDoEy oB @<tF Bo=<die= Aont<@sts ?is soAioDoEy oB t?e 2<enA? AA@deCy @nd t?e iC;<essionist <evoD=tion >it? t?@t oB @<t ?isto<i@ns >?o1 A@=E?t =; in @n ev@D=@tive <eD@tions?i; to ;@<tiA=D@< styDes1 5@DDo> @DD t?e A?@<@Ate<istiAs >?iA? >o=Dd ;e<Cit @n =nde<st@ndinE oB t?e >o<Js in the truth of their social genesis to esA@;e =nnotiAed5 Bo=<die= !993@1 0&!$F In @ st<iJinE eA?o oB ,D@to5s disCiss@D oB t?e vis=@D @<ts in t?e Re(u'lic- Bo=<die= disCisses t?e Bo<Cs oB Jno>DedEe eCbedded in >o<Js oB @<t @nd Dite<@t=<e1 t?e ex;e<ienAe oB >?iA? is Aonst<=Ated @nd Cedi@ted by @<t ?isto<i@ns1 >?et?e< t?<o=E? booJs o< t?<o=E? C=se=C dis;D@ys1 @s 5Dite<@<y @DA?eCy51 @ ;?oney s=bstit=te Bo< t?e Een=ineDy sAientiBiA @nd eC@nAi;@to<y Jno>DedEe oBBe<ed by soAioDoEy Bo=<die= !99)1 30$F 5%?e Bo<C in >?iA? Dite<@<y obGeAtiBiA@tion is en=nAi@ted is no do=bt >?@t ;e<Cits t?e eCe<EenAe oB t?e dee;est <e@Dity1 beA@=se t?@t 8t?e Bo<C9 is t?e veiD >?iA? @DDo>s t?e @=t?o< @nd <e@de< to dissiC=D@te it @nd ADose t?ei< eyes to itF5 # A Ao<<es;ondinE <eB=s@D to Ao=nten@nAe t?e t<=t? AD@iCs oB soAioDoEiA@D @;;<o@A?es to @<t is Bo=nd in t?e >o<J oB ;e<?@;s t?e Cost inBD=enti@D @<t-?isto<iA@D t?eo<ist oB t?e ;ost>@< ;e<iod1 E<nst GoCb<iA?F GoCb<iA? ?@s been one oB t?e Bo<eCost A<itiAs oB *eEeDi@n @<t ?isto<y1 >?et?e< in its E<@nde< ve<sion oB @<t @s @ ve?iADe oB Aontin=o=s evoD=tion oB t?e s;i<it B<oC EEy;t to >este<n Code<nity o< in its Co<e DoA@Dised ?isto<iAist ve<sions in >?iA? @<t is inte<;<eted @s @ <eBDeAtion oB t?e s;i<it oB t?e @Ee o< n@tion@D s;i<itF GoCb<iA?5s ;@<tiA=D@< obGeAtions to *eEeDi@n Bo<Cs oB @<t ?isto<y inAD=dinE Bo< ?iC -@<xisC @nd soAioDoEy oB @<t$ is t?@t t?ey @<e ?oDist o< AoDDeAtivist @nd dete<CinistiA1 AonseH=entDy @DDo>inE no <oDe Bo< ?=C@n B<eedoC in ?isto<y @nd s?o<t-Ai<A=itinE t?e ;<oAess oB eC;i<iA@D enH=i<y >?e<e ?y;ot?eses @<e tested @nd CodiBied @E@inst d@t@F W?@t is ;e<?@;s Cost st<iJinE @bo=t ?is disA=ssions oB soAi@D ?isto<i@ns oB @<t is ?o> GoCb<iA?5s no<C@DDy A@<eB=D @nd iC;e<son@D DoEiA@D @<E=Cent@tion b<e@Js do>n into ;=<e v@D=e-@sse<tion o< <@t?e< tendentio=s @tteC;ts to disA<edit t?e >o<J oB sA?oD@<s >?o do not s?@<e GoCb<iA?5s <@diA@D individ=@Dist ;<es=;;ositionsF %?e onDy soAi@D ?isto<y oB @<t t?@t GoCb<iA? is ;<e;@<ed to Ao=nten@nAe is one in >?iA? soAioDoEy is t?e ?@ndC@iden oB @<t ?isto<y1 st=dyinE t?e soAi@D 5b@AJE<o=nd5 oB >o<Js?o; o<E@nis@tion1 Aont<@Ats @nd so Bo<t?1 De@vinE t?e @<t itseDB to t?e Co<e -!#int=itive @nd ;e<son@D @;;<o@A?es oB t<=e @<t ?isto<i@nsF Any soAi@D ?isto<y >?iA? Eoes beyond t?is1 seeJinE to ex;D@in t?e st=BB oB @<t itseDB1 n@CeDy styDes1 in te<Cs oB soAioDoEiA@D B@Ato<s is disCissed @s 5AoDDeAtivist5 @nd 5?oDist5 @;;@<entDy synonyCs$ @nd t?e<eBo<e 5dete<Cinist5 !9"&@1 )3BBF$F GoCb<iA?5s A<itiH=e is not siC;Dy @A@deCiA b=t ;oDitiA@D1 A<e@tinE @ sense oB E=iDt by @ssoAi@tionF SoAioDoEy is desA<ibed @s 5soAioDoEisC51 to C@Je it so=nd Co<e DiJe @ ;oDitiA@D ideoDoEy t?@n @ se<io=s inteDDeAt=@D

disAi;DineF Any @;;<o@A? t?@t t@Jes se<io=sDy t?e <oDe oB E<o=;s o< AoDDeAtivities is 5AoDDeAtivist51 ;<es=C@bDy DiJe Soviet @E<iA=Dt=<eF %?e voA@b=D@<y is t?@t oB t?e CoDd W@<1 @nd GoCb<iA? Ao=Dd ?@<dDy ?@ve been =n@>@<e oB t?e Aonnot@tions oB t?e >o<ds ?e A?oseF -@nn?eiC5s disA=ssions oB t?e <eD@tions?i; bet>een styDe @nd soAi@D st<=At=<e @<e disCissed >it?o=t disA=ssion @s Aont@Cin@ted by 5;oDitiA@D =to;i@nisC5 @nd 5?isto<iA@D ?oDisC5 @nd t?e<eBo<e in ?oAJ >it? t?e 5tot@Dit@<i@n ;?iDoso;?ies5 AoCb@ted by GoCb<iA?5s o>n idoDs von *@yeJ @nd ,o;;e< GoCb<iA? !9.&(.9$F It is not ?@<d to see ?o> @nd by >?oC -@nn?eiC1 *@=se< @nd Ant@D Eot B<oKen o=t oB t?e inteDDeAt=@D deb@tes in ;ost>@< @<t ?isto<y in LondonF W?en <e@d in t?e DiE?t oB ?is o>n ><itinEs eDse>?e<e1 GoCb<iA?5s A<itiAisCs oB *@=se<5s The Social ,istory of Art !9#!$ <eve@D <@t?e< s?@bby do=bDe st@nd@<dsF *@=se< is <eb=Jed beA@=se 5Bo< ?is ;=<;ose B@Ats @<e onDy oB inte<est in so B@< @s t?ey ?@ve @ be@<inE on ?is inte<;<et@tion5 GoCb<iA? !9#3()31 ")$1 @s iB it >e<e @ <e@son@bDe <eH=i<eCent t?@t @DD B@Ats i<<es;eAtive oB t?ei< <eDev@nAe to t?e inte<;<et@tion @t ?@nd s?o=Dd be Aonside<edF EDse>?e<e GoCb<iA? @AJno>DedEes t?@t >it?o=t s=A? @ t?eo<etiA@D B<@Ce @s @ b@sis on >?iA? to seDeAt @nd o<de< <eDev@nt B@Ats B<oC t?e inBinite A?@os oB d@t@ t?e 5@toCs oB ;@st A=Dt=<es >o=Dd B@DD b@AJ into d=st ?e@;s5 !9).(.91 &0$F W?en *@=se< insists on t?e 5PindissoD=bDe inte<de;endenAeQ oB @DD ?isto<y O >?e<e @DD ?=C@n @Ativities @<e bo=nd =; >it? e@A? ot?e< @nd >it? eAonoCiA B@Ats5 t?is Bo< GoCb<iA? 5C@Jes t?e seDeAtion oB C@te<i@D @<bit<@<y O DeBt to t?e ?isto<i@n5s CoCent@<y ;<eBe<enAe5 !9#3()31 ")$F Yet eDse>?e<e GoCb<iA? insists t?@t 5t?e ?isto<y oB @<t is one st<@nd in t?e se@CDess E@<Cent oB DiBe >?iA? A@nnot be isoD@ted B<oC t?e st<@nds oB eAonoCiA1 soAi@D1 <eDiEio=s o< instit=tion@D ?isto<y5 !9.3(.91 !3&$F *@=se<5s De@dinE ?y;ot?esis AonneAts n@t=<@DistiA styDes >it? t?e deveDo;Cent oB bo=<Eeois AD@sses @nd Co<e <iEid ?ie<@<A?iA styDes >it? t?e doCin@nAe oB D@nded @<istoA<@AyF 2@< B<oC beinE <iEidDy dete<Cinist1 ?o>eve<1 *@=se< seeJs to ex;Do<e ?o> t?ese Eene<@D tendenAies @<e <e@Dised o< A?eAJed =nde< v@<yinE Ai<A=Cst@nAes7 diBBe<ent AonBiE=<@tions oB AD@ss ;o>e< >it?in v@<yinE soAi@D st<=At=<es @t diBBe<ent st@Ees oB soAi@D deveDo;CentF *e seeJs to <ende< t?e initi@D ?y;ot?esis Co<e AoC;Dex by s=EEestinE - Bo< ex@C;De - t?@t =<b@n ;@t<on@Ee >it?in @ B=nd@Cent@DDy @E<@<i@n soAiety Aont<ib=tes to t?e deveDo;Cent oB n@t=<@DisC in AJ?en@ten5s EEy;t1 o< Aonve<seDy t?@t t?e doCin@nAe oB @ ;<iestDy AD@ss ;<events t?e deveDo;Cent oB n@t=<@DisC t?@t one CiE?t ot?e<>ise ?@ve ex;eAted in t?e =<b@n AiviDis@tion oB B@byDonF 2o< GoCb<iA? t?is <e;<esents @ <eso<t to 5eve< ne> @nd inEenio=s ex;edients to b<inE t?e ?y;ot?esis into ?@<Cony >it? t?e B@Ats5 !9#3()31 ".$F W?y not see t?is @s siC;Dy testinE @nd <eBininE t?e ?y;ot?esis in DiE?t oB t?e d@t@7 sA?eC@1 Ao<<eAtion/ C@JinE1 C@tA?inE1 C@JinE @E@in - GoCb<iA?5s o>n ;<eBe<<ed CodeD oB bot? sAientiBiA @nd @<tistiA ;<oE<ess GoCb<iA? !9)'$6 Anyt?inE >?iA? Eoes beyond @ t>o-v@<i@bDe ?y;ot?esis set =; to be B@DsiBied by testinE @E@inst d@t@ is deeCed in@deH=@te @AAo<d-

-16inE to sAientiBiA A<ite<i@ oB ex;D@n@to<y @deH=@Ay GoCb<iA? de<ives B<oC ,o;;e<5s ;ositivist ;?iDoso;?yF One Eets t?e BeeDinE t?@t >?@teve< *@=se< s@id1 it ?@d to be ><onE1 beA@=se ?e >@s @ -@<xist @nd t?e<eBo<e t?e eneCyF IB t?e @Dte<n@tive to dete<CinisC is1 @s GoCb<iA? s=EEests1 @ ;<o;e< @AJno>DedEeCent oB 5t?e <e@Dity oB A?@nAe5 @nd 5bDind AoinAidenAe5 !9"&@1 )3-&$1 dete<CinisC C=st be t?e onDy ;ossibDe b@sis Bo< <@tion@D enH=i<yF %?e <e@D H=estion AonAe<ns t?e n@t=<e1 t?e AoC;Dexity @nd t?e diBBe<enti@D AonBiE=<@tion oB dete<Cin@nts @A<oss diBBe<ent Aontexts1 not dete<Cin@tion ve<s=s bDind A?@nAeF B=t >it?o=t soCe Jind oB Eene<@DisinE @n@DytiA B<@Ce>o<J1 >?et?e< -@<xist o< soAioDoEiA@D1 t?e<e is no ;ossibiDity oB C@JinE G=dEeCents @bo=t v@Did A@=s@D o< B=nAtion@D <eD@tions?i;s bet>een even individ=@D eventsF %?e deveDo;Cent oB s=A? @n ex;D@n@to<y B<@Ce>o<J is <=Ded o=t oB Ao=<t by GoCb<iA?5s t?eo<etiA@D @nd Cet?odoDoEiA@D st<iAt=<esF Inte<;<et@tion beAoCes t?e soDe DeEitiC@te o;tionF

%?e onDy tiCe GoCb<iA? deiEns to ;<@ise *@=se<5s >o<J is in te<Cs oB t?e individ=@DistiA @nd int=itionist ;<es=;;ositions oB C@inst<e@C @<t ?isto<yF ) ,oo< *@=se< C=st ?@ve E<o@ned >?en t?e >?oDe ;oint oB ?is A@<eB=D ty;oDoEisinE oB ty;es oB styDes @nd E<o=;s1 @nd t?e AoC;@<isons oB diBBe<ent AonBiE=<@tions oB E<o=;s in <eD@tions?i; to e@A? ot?e< @nd to styDes d=<inE t?e deveDo;Cent oB @<t B<oC ,@D@eoDit?iA to ;<esent1 >@s so eE<eEio=sDy CissedF *@<d->on @n@DytiA Eene<@Dis@tions systeC@tisinE ty;iA@DDy <eA=<<ent <eD@tions?i;s bet>een @<t @nd soAi@D st<=At=<e @<e disCissed @s Cis;D@Aed sAientisC1 >?iDe @ Be> <eD@tiveDy t<ivi@D ;@<@E<@;?s desA<ibinE iC;<essionist teA?niH=e @<e e=DoEised Bo< de;endinE on t?e v@E=e int=itions >?iA? *@=se< des;ised @nd so=E?t to <e;D@Ae >it? systeC@tiA @n@DysisF GoCb<iA?1 DiJe C@ny @<t ?isto<i@ns1 is soAioDoEiA@DDy de@B G=st @s soAioDoEists oB @<t C@y seeC to @<t ?isto<i@ns @est?etiA@DDy bDind$F 2o< ?iC t?e onDy <e@Dities @<e individ=@Ds . @nd s=A? C@te<i@D B@Ats @s obGeAts1 E<o=;s @nd E<o=; identities @<e not <e@D b=t ?y;ost@ses oB i<<@tion@DisCF " SysteC@tiA t?o=E?t Aonsists onDy in t?e testinE oB ?y;ot?eses >?iA? @<e ;iAJed o=t oB t?e @i<1 >?@t GoCb<iA? A@DDs 5>iDd H=estions5 !9#.()31 !!"$1 not de<ived B<oC @ A=C=D@tive body oB Eene<@D t?eo<yF %?e Cyste<y oB individ=@D Eeni=s is t?e Bo=nd@tion oB @<t ?isto<y @s oB @<t itseDBF So DonE @s t?ese @<e t?e te<Cs oB disA=ssion bet>een soAioDoEy @nd @<t ?isto<y1 t?e<e is oB Ao=<se <e@DDy not?inE to be s@idF

Sociology and art hi(tory# the ne7 (ynthe(e(

Art and its conte#ts in art history and sociology
%?e<e ?@ve been soCe Co<e AonAiDi@to<y eBBo<ts to A<oss t?e disAi;Din@<y bo=nd@<ies bet>een @<t ?isto<y @nd t?e soAioDoEy oB @<t1 ;@<tiA=D@<Dy in t?e >@Je oB t?e st<=At=<@Dist1 BeCinist @nd -@<xist A<itiH=es oB C@inst<e@C @<t ?isto<y >?iA? tooJ ;D@Ae in t?e Bo<C@tion oB t?e so-A@DDed 5ne> @<t ?isto<y5 in t?e e@<Dy !9"'s Rees @nd Bo<KeDDo !9")$F *o>eve<1 even Co<e o;en-Cinded @<t ?isto<i@ns tend to <eve<t to t?e b@siA @ss=C;tions Cost Bo<t?<iE?tDy @dvoA@ted by GoCb<iA?F SoAioDoEists5 @tteC;ts to A<oss t?e divide B<oC t?e ot?e< side ?@ve Bo=nde<ed @s @ <es=Dt oB t?ei< st@<tinE ;oint1 n@CeDy ,@noBsJy5s ide@Dist t?eo<etiA@D B<@Ce>o<J1 >?iA? in ;<@AtiAe soAioDoEists Ce<eDy inve<tF %?@t s@id1 t?e<e @<e inA<e@sinE siEns oB <e@D ;ossibiDities oB inte<disAi;Din@<y di@DoE=e1 >?iA? I s?@DD seeJ to d<@> o=t in t?e ADosinE ;@Ees oB t?is int<od=AtionF -!.-iA?@eD B@x@nd@DD5s Patterns of Intention !9"#$ is one oB t?e Co<e iC;o<t@nt @tteC;ts to @A?ieve @ <@;;<oA?eCent bet>een @<t-?isto<iA@D @nd soAioDoEiA@D Codes oB ex;D@n@tion G<is>oDd !9"./ D@=be< !990/ *@>t?o<n !99!$F *e seeJs to desA<ibe @<tistiA ;<od=Ation in te<Cs oB @ Eene<@D t?eo<y oB ?=C@n @AtionF SinAe bot? @ ;@intinE @nd @n @<teB@At s=A? @s BenG@Cin B@Je<5s 2o<t? B<idEe @<e ;<od=Ats oB intention@D ?=C@n @Ation1 t?ey s?o=Dd be ex;DiA@bDe in siCiD@< te<CsF *e deveDo;s t?e AonAe;ts oB 5A?@<Ee5 - t?e inst<=Ation to b=iDd @ b<idEe1 t?e Eo@D oB B@Je<5s ;<oGeAted @Ations - @nd 5b<ieB5 - t?e Co<e s;eAiBiA Aonst<@ints oB teA?niA@D Ce@ns1 envi<onCent@D Aonditions1 @nd instit=tion@D Aontext AonsistinE Bo< B@Je<$ ;<iC@<iDy in t?e eAonoCiA ;=<;oses deBininE t?e n@t=<e oB ?is ;<oGeAt - to ;oint =; t?e siCiD@<ities bet>een C@JinE ;@intinEs @nd C@JinE b<idEesF B@x@nd@DD t?en @sJs >?@t C@Jes @ b<idEe diBBe<ent B<oC @ ;@intinEF *o>eve<1 Cost oB t?e diBBe<enAes ?e Dists bet>een t?e 2o<t? B<idEe @nd @ ;@intinE @<e t<=e onDy oB t?e Code<n ;@intinE1 ,iA@sso5s Portrait of 4ahnweiler- >?iA? ?e =ses @s @n ex@C;DeF ,iA@sso5s b<ieB1 Bo< ex@C;De1 is not @s ADe@< @s B@Je<5s beA@=se ?e sets it ?iCseDB1 @nd it is not C@de ve<b@DDy ex;DiAit !9"#1 39$F B=t t?is is @ B=nAtion oB t?e =n=s=@D

instit=tion@D @<<@nEeCents oB t?e Code<n @<t >o<Dd1 in >?iA? t?e A<e@tive @=tonoCy oB t?e @<tist is instit=tion@DDy E=@<@nteed1 not in t?e n@t=<e oB @<t o< ;@intinE @s s=A?F One need onDy AoC;@<e t?e Aont<@Ats oB Ren@iss@nAe ;@inte<s1 o< t?e b=iDdinE s;eAiBiA@tions @E<eed bet>een G<eeJ @<A?iteAts @nd t?e st@tes >?o AoCCissioned t?ei< ;<oGeAtsF B@x@nd@DD5s desA<i;tion oB t?e B=nAtion oB ;@intinE @s 5intention@D vis=@D inte<est di<eAted to>@<d @n end5 is @Dso ;otenti@DDy @ ve<y soAioDoEiA@D Bo<C=D@tion1 in so B@< @s it is ;ossibDe to <eAoEnise t?@t t?e end oB vis=@D inte<est C@y v@<y in diBBe<ent soAi@D settinEsF B=t B@x@nd@DD AonsistentDy @ss=Ces t?e ;@<tiA=D@< instit=tion@D @<<@nEeCents >?iA? A?@<@Ate<ise t?e Code<n @<t >o<Dd1 @nd >?iA? s?@;ed t?e ;@<@diEC oB @<t ?isto<y Aonst<=Ated in t?e eiE?teent? @nd nineteent? Aent=<iesF 5%?e s;eAiBiA te<Cs oB t?e ;@inte<5s ;<obDeC51 >e @<e toDd1 5@<e Di@bDe to be ;<iC@<iDy @ s;eAiBiA vie> oB ;@st ;@intinEF O %?e<e is @ ?isto<iA@D-A=C-A<itiA@D diCension to t?e ;@inte<5s b<ieB5 !9"#1 &)$F Co<<es;ondinEDy1 t?e ;@inte< Bo<C=D@tes ?is o< ?e< o>n b<ieB1 @nd 5<eEiste<s ?is individ=@Dity ve<y C=A? by ?is ;@<tiA=D@< ;e<Ae;tion oB t?e Ai<A=Cst@nAes ?e C=st @dd<ess5 &.$F It is ?e<e 5t?@t one A@n Cost seA=<eDy DoA@te @n individ=@Dity5 &.$F ,@intinEs >?iA? do not C@niBest @ ADe@< intention@D vis=@D inte<est1 5@ ?iE? deE<ee oB o<E@nis@tion51 ex;DiA@bDe in te<Cs oB t?e o<E@nisinE ;<esenAe oB @n @<tistiA individ=@Dity1 @<e by deBinition 5inBe<io<5 @nd 5iC;enet<@bDe5 @nd >iDD not 5s=st@in ex;D@n@tion oB t?e Jind >e @<e @tteC;tinE5 !0'$F B@x@nd@DD <eAoEnises t?@t in ;<@AtiAe 5@At=@D C@<Jet sit=@tions5 be@< DittDe <eseCbD@nAe to ?is ide@D C@<JetF 5%?e Bo<Cs oB instit=tions @<e ;@<t oB t?e ;@inte<5s b<ieB beA@=se t?ey eCbody D@tent @ss=C;tions @bo=t >?@t ;@intinE is5 !9"#1 &"$F %o @dCit t?is is to s=bve<t t?e >?oDe b@sis oB B@x@nd@DD5s @<E=Cent1 ?o>eve<1 sinAe it <eAoEnises t?@t t?e deBinition oB t?e ;=<;ose o< end oB ;@intinE is ?isto<iA@DDy v@<i@bDe @nd soAi@DDy Aonst<=Ated1 not1 @s B@x@nd@DD ;ost=D@ted1 t?e ;<od=Ation oB @n obGeAt oB intention@D vis=@D inte<est AoC;<isinE @ <eEist<@tion oB t?e @<tist5s individ=@Dity by Ce@ns oB @ t<@nsBo<C@tion oB t?e in?e<ited @<tistiA t<@ditionF In ?is @n@Dysis oB ,iA@sso5s Portrait of 4ahnweiler- B@x@nd@DD ev@des t?ese AonB=sinE ;<obDeCs oB t?e v@<i@bDe soAi@D deBinition oB @n @<tist5s <oDe @nd t?e ;=<;ose oB ;@intinE by settinE =; -!"t>o @t De@st B<oC @ soAioDoEiA@D ;e<s;eAtive$ B@Dse diA?otoCies7 Bi<st1 bet>een 5>?et?e< it is soAi@D ?isto<y o< ;iAt=<es one is @dd<essinE5 >?en ;iAt=<es @<e @ AoC;onent oB soAi@D ?isto<y1 b<o@dDy AonAeived$/ seAond1 bet>een @n inBe<enti@D A<itiAisC o< ?isto<iA@D ex;D@n@tion oB ;iAt=<es b@sed on 5eAonoCiA dete<Cinist AonviAtions5 o< one b@sed on no inteDDeAt=@D AonviAtions @t @DD b=t on @ ;<@EC@tiA int=itionisC1 invoJinE DiJeDy 5A<itiA@D yieDd in t?e ;@<tiA=D@< A@se5 @nd >?@t B@x@nd@DD 5BeeD8s95 @bo=t t?e <eDev@nAe oB soAi@D B@Ato<s to t?e inte<;<et@tion oB individ=@D @<tists #.$F 2o< @DD t?e >iDDinEness to ex;D@in @<t in t?e s@Ce te<Cs @s ot?e< Bo<Cs oB soAi@D @Ation1 @nd ?is o;enness to Aonside<inE soAioDoEiA@D iss=es1 B@x@nd@DD5s A<itiA@D @s;i<@tions d<@> ?iC b@AJ to>@<ds @ set oB t?eo<etiA@D @ss=C;tions >?iA? in t?e end @<e not so C=A? diBBe<ent B<oC GoCb<iA?5sF ReAent >o<J in soAioDoEy ?@s in its t=<n so=E?t to be Co<e @ttentive to t?e @est?etiAAonst<=Ative @s;eAts oB @<t t?@n t?e doCin@nt @;;<o@A?es oB t?e !9.'s @nd e@<Dy !9"'s >?iA? esA?e>ed t?e ;e<Aeived s=bGeAtivisC oB Bo<C@D @n@Dysis in B@vo=< oB Co<e 5obGeAtive5 @;;<o@A?es to t?e @<ts t?<o=E? @n@Dysis oB ;<od=Ation o<E@nis@tions Cose< !9."/ C<@ne !9".$F Inte<estinEDy1 t?e t>o Cost systeC@tiA @tteC;ts to Aonst<=At @ soAioDoEy oB @<t >?iA? t@Jes ;<o;e< @AAo=nt oB @est?etiA Bo<C bot? =se ,@noBsJy5s ;<oE<@CCe in 5IAonoE<@;?y @nd iAonoDoEy5 !939$ @s t?ei< st@<tinE ;ointF Bot? Bo=<die= @nd Robe<t WitJin seeJ to inteE<@te @<t ?isto<y @nd soAioDoEy1 @nd to t<@nsAend t?e st@De o;;osition bet>een inte<n@Dist @nd exte<n@Dist @;;<o@A?es to @<t1 by b=iDdinE on t?e 5syC;toC@tiA5 <eD@tion oB @<t to its b<o@de< soAi@D @nd A=Dt=<@D

Aontext identiBied in ,@noBsJy5s iAonoDoEiA@D DeveD oB @n@DysisF In e@A? A@se t?ey seeJ to C@Je soAioDoEiA@DDy dete<Cin@te t?e AonneAtions >?iA? ,@noBsJy t?o=E?t Ao=Dd be identiBied onDy by 5int=ition5F In o<de< to do t?is1 t?ey @<E=e t?@t @<tistiA st<=At=<es @nd soAi@D st<=At=<es @<e 5?oCoDoEo=s5F %?@t is to s@y1 one Binds siCiD@< Jinds oB ;@tte<ns in t?e @<tistiA st<=At=<es o< styDes oB @ soAiety @s one Binds in its soAi@D st<=At=<es1 @nd it is t?is siCiD@<ity >?iA? @DDo>s @<t @nd soAiety to Bit toEet?e< @s @ B=nAtion@D >?oDeF WitJin !99#/ see C?@;te< !.$ @<E=es t?@t t?e systeCs oB soAi@D <eD@tions @nd systeCs oB vis=@D Bo<Cs A?@<@Ate<istiA oB @ soAiety Ao<<es;ond to e@A? ot?e< by vi<t=e oB bot? @ DoEiA@D A=Dt=<@D o< 5seCiotiA5 neAAessity @nd @ 5B=nAtion@D5 soAioDoEiA@D neAAessityF A<t styDes1 WitJin @<E=es1 o<de< sense v@D=es7 AoDo=<s1 ton@D Aont<@sts1 s?@;esF R=Des oB soAi@D inte<@Ation o<de< soAi@D <eD@tionsF In <eD@tiveDy siC;De soAieties1 s=A? @s t?ose oB ?=nte<-E@t?e<e<s1 eAonoCiA ;<od=Ation is ?e@viDy dete<Cined by n@t=<@D Aonst<@ints7 se@son@D @v@iD@biDity oB E@t?e<ed Boods @nd CoveCents oB ?=nted @niC@DsF %?e <=Des Aont<oDDinE soAi@D <oDes @<e Ao<<es;ondinEDy AonA<ete1 <eE=D@tinE t?e 5Ao@Ation5 oB individ=@Ds in <eD@tion to t?e n@t=<@D envi<onCentF As soAieties beAoCe inA<e@sinEDy AoC;Dex so soAi@D st<=At=<e beAoCes inA<e@sinEDy 5@bst<@Ated5 B<oC n@t=<e7 @ AoC;Dex v@<iety oB inte<@Ations bet>een ;eo;De1 in Aities >it? @ ?iE? division oB D@bo=<1 beAoCe Co<e iC;o<t@nt t?@n inte<@Ations bet>een ;eo;De @nd n@t=<e1 @nd t?e <=Des <eE=D@tinE soAi@D @Ation beAoCe Ao<<es;ondnEDy Co<e @bst<@AtF WitJin @<E=es t?@t t?e<e is @ siCiD@< evoD=tion in @<t styDes1 B<oC ones in >?iA? t?e inte<n@D <eD@tions bet>een AoC;onents oB @ vis=@D iC@Ee @<e o<de<ed @AAo<dinE to <eD@tiveDy siC;De AonA<ete ;<inAi;Des - Bo< ex@C;De t?e siC;De G=xt@;osition oB BD@t @<e@s oB AoDo=< in EEy;ti@n ;@intinE - to styDes in >?iA? t?e <=Des <eE=D@tinE s=A? inte<n@D <eD@tions @<e Co<e AoC;Dex @nd @bst<@At1 Bo< ex@C;De in ;@intinEs >it? ;e<s;eAtive @nd A?i@<osA=<o1 -!9o< =DtiC@teDy in A=bist ;@intinEF 2=nd@Cent@D ;<inAi;Des oB soAi@D o<de<inE @<e C@de Ao-o<din@te >it? t?e B=nd@Cent@D ;<inAi;Des oB o<de<inE t?e inte<n@D Bo<C@D st<=At=<e oB >o<Js oB @<t1 ,@noBsJy5s 4unstwollen. %?e diBBiA=Dty >it? t?is1 @s >it? @ny s=A? @Cbitio=s CodeD1 @<ises in inte<Cedi@te A@ses1 s=A? @s t?e @<t oB AD@ssiA@D @ntiH=ity1 >?iA? WitJin sees @s ?@vinE bot? n@t=<@DistiA-@bst<@At eDeCents ;<o;e< to @ Co<e AoC;Dex soAiety @nd ?ie<@tiA-AonA<ete eDeCents A?@<@Ate<istiA oB @ Dess-=<b@nised soAiety s=A? @s t?eoA<@tiA @nAient EEy;tF In s=A? Ai<A=Cst@nAes oB D@AJ oB Ao<<es;ondenAe1 A@n @<t ;<oCote soAi@D A?@nEe o< is it Ce<eDy @n e;i;?enoCenon oB s=A? @ A?@nEe1 Co<e @ <eBDeAtion oB soAi@D st<=At=<e t?@n t?e 5B=nAtion@DDy neAAess@<y5 AoC;onent oB soAiety WitJin s=EEests6 *o> do t?ese st<=At=<inE ;<inAi;Des in @<t @nd soAiety inte<@At >?en t?ey @<e not AonE<=ent b=t Aont<@diAto<y6 %?e ;<obDeC <eve@Ds itseDB B=DDy >?en WitJin Coves beyond ?is sA?eC@tiA evoD=tion@<y ty;oDoEy oB ?is e@<Die< st=dy !99#$ to @n inte<;<et@tion oB @<tistiA innov@tion in @ AonA<ete ?isto<iA@D AontextF In ?is ess@y on -@net5s %lym(ia- WitJin !99.$ Eives >?@t @Co=nts to @n iAonoDoEiA@D <e@dinE oB t?e ;@intinE1 >?iA? int=itiveDy AonneAts -@net5s Code<nisC >it? t?e soAioDoEiA@D t?eo<ies oB -@<x1 Webe< @nd D=<J?eiC @s ;@<@DDeD Bo<Cs oB s;i<it=@D <esist@nAe to 5t?e Ao<<=;tion oB v@D=e by Cotive in?e<ent in Code<nity5F %?e teA?niH=es oB Code<nisC in -@net - BD@tness1 t?e @bsenAe oB Binis? t?=s C@JinE evident t?e >o<J oB t?e b<=s?1 st<onE o=tDine @nd CiniC@D A?i@<osA=<o1 t?e denseDy seDB-<eBe<enti@D <eD@tions?i; to @<tistiA t<@dition - B@AiDit@te t?e AoCbin@tion in t?e BiE=<e oB ODyC;i@ oB diBBe<ent @nd i<<eAonAiD@bDe soAi@D ty;es - 5?@=tebo=<Eeois(;<oDet@<i@n1 Ao=<tes@n(>?o<e1 ?e@Dt?(siAJness5 - in o<de< to deAonst<=At t?e ?y;oA<itiA@D <eD@tions?i; oB bo=<Eeois soAiety to >oCen1 s@A<@Dised in t?e ?oCe @nd t?e t<@dition oB t?e n=de$ >?iDst sex=@DDy ex;Doited @s CeCbe<s oB t?e doCin@ted AD@sses in t?e Deis=<e ind=st<iesF S=A? @ ;@intinE Ao<<es;onds to 5t?e sens=o=s beinE oB t?e Code<n s=bGeAt1 CovinE in t?e disG=nAt net>o<Js oB t?e Code<n Cet<o;oDis1 O B<@ECented @ConE @ v@<iety oB <eD@tion@D Aontexts t?@t @<e no DonEe< Aontin=o=s1 t?@t no DonEe< @dd =;5 !!0$F %?e ;@intinE Cet1 ?o>eve<1 @DCost =nive<s@D A<itiA@D AondeCn@tion @nd <eGeAtionF In ex;D@ininE t?is E@; bet>een t?e @;;@<ent @deH=@Ay oB

t?e ;@intinE to Code<n soAi@D st<=At=<e @nd its ADe@< in@deH=@Ay to t?e sensibiDity oB AonteC;o<@<y vie>e<s1 WitJin is Bo<Aed to <eso<t to @ no<C@tive @<t A<itiA@D <?eto<iA1 H=ite Bo<eiEn to ?is Eene<@D soAioDoEiA@D t?eo<y oB @<tF %<@dition@D Eende< ideoDoEy >@s 5stiDD seA=<e1 @nd t?e A?@DDenEe oB t?e >o<J 8?@d9 not been Cet by t?ose <eAeivinE it5/ vie>e<s Ao=Dd not 5Ceet t?e seCiotiA ;<ovoA@tion @nd enE@Ee >it? t?e ;iAt=<e in t?e >@y it deC@nded5 !03$F Bo=<die= d<@>s =;on ,@noBsJy5s sA?eC@ to Eive @n @AAo=nt bot? oB t?e ;<od=Ation @nd oB t?e Aons=C;tion oB @<tF In ?is D@te< booJ $othic Architecture and Scholasticism- ,@noBsJy !9#!$ deveDo;ed @n =n=s=@DDy dete<Cin@te iAonoDoEiA@D <e@dinEF %?is AonneAted t?e st<=At=<@D eD@bo<@tion oB @<A?es @nd v@=DtinE in Got?iA @<A?iteAt=<e >it? sA?oD@stiA t?o=E?t t?<o=E? t?e @EenAy oB t?e 5inteDDeAt=@D ?@bit5 @nd inA=DA@ted in sA?oD@stiA ed=A@tion1 oB C@xiCisinE t?e AD@<ity oB DoEiA@D @<tiA=D@tion bet>een t?e AoC;onent CeCbe<s oB @n @<E=CentF It is B<oC t?is so=<Ae t?@t Bo=<die= deveDo;ed ?is o>n AonAe;t oB ha'itus- intended to t<@nsAend bot? t?e intention@DisC oB @Ation @nd ;?enoCenoDoEiA@D t?eo<ies @nd t?e obGeAtivisC oB st<=At=<@DisC !99)1 !.9/ !9.!1 !"&$F ,a'itus ;e<Bo<Cs Bo< soAioDoEiA@D t?eo<y t?e s@Ce B=nAtion @s t?e -0'AonAe;t oB 4unstwollen Bo< ,@noBJsy5s @<t ?isto<y1 in so B@< @s it ;<ovides @ ;=<eDy soAioDoEiA@D ;<inAi;De Bo< t?e ex;D@n@tion oB t?e ;<od=Ation1 <e;<od=Ation @nd t<@nsBo<C@tion oB soAi@D st<=At=<e1 >it?o=t @ny need to invoJe ext<@-soAioDoEiA@D AonAe;ts oB A=Dt=<e o< ;syA?oDoEyF Co<<es;ondinEDy1 @<t is @ <esid=@D A@teEo<y >it?in Bo=<die=5s AonAe;t=@D B<@Ce>o<J1 @nd is Aontin=@DDy <ed=Aed b@AJ into soAi@D st<=At=<eF *e osAiDD@tes bet>een @ t<@dinE =;on AonteC;o<@<y deBinitions oB t?e <oDe oB t?e @<tist o< ><ite< in o<de< to identiBy t?e BieDds1 ;<@AtiAes @nd @Eents ?e >is?es to @n@Dyse1 @nd @ ?isto<iAisC >?iA? denies t?@t t?e<e A@n be @ 5=nive<s@D deBinition5 oB @<tist o< ><ite< !99)1 00&$F On one ;@Ee >e enAo=nte< @ dee;Dy essenti@Dist @AAo=nt oB t?e diBBe<enti@tion o< @=tonoCis@tion oB t?e Codes oB @<tistiA ex;<ession @s 5t?e E<@d=@D isoD@tinE oB t?e essenti@D ;<inAi;De t?@t ;<o;e<Dy deBines e@A? @<t @nd e@A? Een<e51 in >?iA? t?e 5?isto<iA@D ;<oAess ;D@ys t?e <oDe oB @bst<@Ato< oB H=intessenAe5F 9 EDse>?e<e1 t?e v@D=e oB @<t is inte<;<eted in @ <@diA@DDy <eD@tivist >@y1 @s t?e ;<od=At oB @ systeC oB ;=<e @nd @<bit<@<y diBBe<enAes >?iA? se<ve to 5distinE=is?5 @<tists B<oC e@A? ot?e< in t?e ;e<;et=@D 5st<=EEDe Bo< s=<viv@D5 >?iA? A?@<@Ate<ises t?e Code<n @<t >o<DdF S=A? styDistiA distinAtions ?@ve no s=bst@nAe exAe;t in so B@< @s t?ey <est on t?e soAi@D ;ositions oB t?e @<tists >?o ;<od=Ae t?eC1 @nd t?e sets oB o;;ositions >it?in t?e net>o<Js oB de@De<s1 C=se=Cs @nd ot?e< Cedi@to<s >?o ;e<Bo<C t?e 5syCboDiA @DA?eCy5 oB AonseA<@tion @nd AondeCn@tion1 >?iA? dete<Cines t?e dist<ib=tion oB t?e syCboDiA @nd eAonoCiA ;<oBits oB t?e BieDdF !' %?e Cotiv@tion oB @<tists is insistentDy inst<=Cent@Dised1 @nd @<tistiA innov@tion is BoDded b@AJ into soAi@D st<=At=<e @s @n =nAonsAio=s eBBeAt oB t?e ha'itus. *@vinE @n@Dysed t?e Dite<@<y st<=At=<e oB 2D@=be<t5s noveDs1 @nd in ;@<tiA=D@< t?e Dite<@<y deviAe oB B<ee indi<eAt styDe on >?iA? t?ei< Aonst<=Ation is b@sed1 Bo=<die= seeJs to =nde<st@nd 2D@=be<t5s ;oetiAs by @n@DysinE t?e 5s;@Ae oB @<tistiA ;osition-t@JinE5 on t?e ;@<t oB ><ite<s >it?in t?e Dite<@<y BieDd1 >?iA? deBines t?e 5diBBe<enti@D siEniBiA@tion t?@t A?@<@Ate<ises 8;oetiA A?oiAes9 >it?in t?e =nive<se oB AoC;ossibDe A?oiAes5 @nd >@s t?e Aondition oB t?e Bo<C=D@tion oB 2D@=be<t5s o>n A<e@tive ;<oGeAt !99)1 ".-"$F !! In ;<@AtiAe1 t?ese A?oiAes @<e iDD=so<yF 2D@=be<t is t?e 5Cedi=C5 oB soAi@D st<=At=<e not @n @=tonoCo=s A<e@to< &$F %?e 5<=;t=<es5 oB <@diA@D Dite<@<y @nd @<tistiA innov@tion 5@<e not >iDDed @s s=A? 8b=t9 o;e<@te @t t?e dee;est DeveD oB t?e P=nJno>inE ;oetiAsQ1 t?@t is to s@y1 in t?e >o<J oB ><itinE @nd t?e >o<J oB t?e soAi@D =nAonsAio=s Boste<ed by t?e >o<J on Bo<C5F !0 It is onDy in so B@< @s t?e s;@Ae oB t?e ;osition-t@JinEs - to >?iA? st<@teEies oB t?e ha'itus =nAonsAio=sDy <es;ond - is itseDB not AonsAio=sDy Jno>n t?@t >e @<e 5not obDiEed to inte<;<et 82D@=be<t5s9 A?oiAes @s AonsAio=s st<@teEies oB distinAtion5 93$F %?e<e is @n obvio=s @Dte<n@tiveF 2D@=be<t5s ;oetiAs CiE?t ?@ve @ ;ositiveDy deBined @est?etiA s=bst@nAe not G=st @ neE@tiveDy

deBined diBBe<enAe distinE=is?inE ?is B<oC ?is AoC;etito<s5 ;osition-t@JinE$1 t?e <es=Dt oB @ AonsAio=sDy es;o=sed ;<oGeAtF S=A? @ ;<oGeAt1 @nd t?e ;oetiAs >?iA? it ent@iDed1 CiE?t ?@ve been <e@Dised in ;@<t @s @ <es=Dt oB eBBo<t @<isinE o=t oB @ Cotiv@ted AoCCitCent to @ AonsAio=sDy ?eDd voA@tion @s @ ><ite< in ot?e< >o<ds1 t?e @ss=C;tions eCbedded in o<E@nis@tion oB Code<n @<t >o<Dds @nd t@Jen @s Eene<@DDy v@Did by @<t ?isto<i@ns s=A? @s B@x@nd@DD$ - sit=@ted oB Ao=<se >it?in t?e obGeAtive st<=At=<es oB t?e BieDd so D=AidDy ex;DiA@ted by Bo=<die=F B=t t?is is siC;Dy not even @ t?eo<etiA@D ;ossibiDity >it?in Bo=<die=5s B<@Ce oB <eBe<enAe1 des;ite t?e B@At t?@t -0!?is o>n text is D@Aed >it? H=ot@tions B<oC 2D@=be<t5s o>n Dette<s t?@t C@niBest s=A? @ AonsAio=s intention 9&-.$F

$ack to the future% A critical research rogramme for the sociology of art
ReAent @tteC;ts to <eAonAiDe t?e t>o disAi;Din@<y ;e<s;eAtives @<e not enti<eDy s@tisB@Ato<yF A<t ?isto<y - @t De@st @s A=<<entDy Aonstit=ted - A@nnot systeC@tiA@DDy t@Je into @AAo=nt soAioDoEiA@D H=estions1 no< is it DiJeDy to in t?e B=t=<e Eiven t?e DinJs >e ?@ve seen bet>een t?e t?eo<etiA@D b@sis oB @<t ?isto<y @nd its B=nAtions >it?in t?e Code<n @<t >o<DdF SoAioDoEy oB @<t <eC@ins =n@bDe to Eive @ B=DDy s@tisB@Ato<y @AAo=nt oB t?e Aonst<=Ative <oDe oB @est?etiA Bo<C B<oC >it?in its o>n t?eo<etiA@D ?o<iKonsF -y o>n BeeDinE is t?@t soAioDoEy s?o=Dd be soCet?inE Co<e t?@n t?e ?@ndC@iden o< oddGobbe< oB @<t ?isto<y @s GoCb<iA? @nd B@x@nd@DD s=EEest$1 b=t it A@nnot siC;Dy dis;D@Ae @<t ?isto<y in o<de< to <eve@D t?e 5soAi@D t<=t?5 oB t?inEs @s Bo=<die= @<E=esF In deBininE t?e ;<o;e< t@sJs oB soAioDoEy oB @<t >e CiE?t do >eDD to <et=<n to t?e >o<J oB sA?oD@<s in t?e Bi<st ?@DB oB t?e t>entiet? Aent=<y1 es;eAi@DDy -@nn?eiC @nd WIDBBDin1 ><itinE beBo<e t?e divide bet>een soAioDoEy @nd @<t ?isto<y ?@d ?@<denedF %?ei< ><itinEs s=EEest ;otenti@DDy B<=itB=D t?eo<etiA@D Cet?ods @nd <ese@<A? ;<oE<@CCes >?iA? ?@ve stiDD to be B=DDy ex;Do<edF A n=Cbe< oB sA?oD@<s ?@ve noted t?e siCiD@<ities bet>een -@x Webe<5s @nd *ein<iA? WIDBBDin5s Cet?ods oB AonAe;t Bo<C@tion Antoni !9&'/ B<o>n !9"0$F Bot? Webe<5s ide@D ty;es @nd WIDBBDin5s A?@<@Ate<is@tions oB styDes @<e ex@C;Des oB 5Co<;?oDoEiA@D5 <@t?e< t?@n 5t@xonoCiA5 AD@ssiBiA@tionsF %?@t is to s@y1 t?e =nive<se oB AD@ssiBiA@tions t?ey deBine 5Aonsists not oB n=Ce<o=s se;@<@te AD@sses b=t oB @ Aontin==C oB individ=@Ds <eD@ted t?<o=E? ;<inAi;Des oB Bo<C@tion o< t<@nsBo<C@tion5 b@sed on B=nd@Cent@D Bo<CinE ;o>e<s B<o>n !9"01 3"!$F WIDBBDin disA<iCin@ted Bive sets oB ;oD@< A?oiAes B@AinE vis=@D @<tists in o<E@nisinE t?ei< ex;<essive BieDds7 Dine@< ve<s=s ;@inte<Dy1 ;D@ne @nd <eAession1 ADosed @nd o;en Bo<C1 C=Dti;DiAity @nd =nity1 ADe@<ness @nd =nADe@<nessF %?e Cost B=nd@Cent@D oB Webe<5s ide@D ty;es AonAe<n diBBe<ent ;<inAi;Des oB t?e o<ient@tion oB @Ation7 ;=<;osiveDy <@tion@D1 v@D=e <@tion@D1 t<@dition@D @nd @BBeAtive/ @nd C@ny oB ?is Co<e AoC;Dex ty;es A@n be seen @s <e;<esentinE ;@<tiA=D@< AonBiE=<@tions oB t?ese o<ient@tions in Co<e s;eAiBiA Aontexts s=A? @s ty;es oB @=t?o<ity systeC o< st<=At=<es oB AoCC=nityF %@DAott ,@<sons so=E?t to systeC@tise Webe<5s sA?eC@ by distinE=is?inE Bive ;@i<ed ;@tte<n v@<i@bDes1 deBininE t?e B=nd@Cent@D A?oiAes >?iA? ?@d to be C@de by @n @Ato< in o<ientinE ?is @Ations1 soCe>?@t AoC;@<@bDe to WIDBBDin5s sA?eC@1 not De@st beA@=se t?ey @<e ;@<tDy AonAe<ned >it? t?e deE<ee oB ex;<essivity @s o;;osed to inst<=Cent@Dity$ oB @n @Ation7 s;eAiBiAity(diBB=seness1 =nive<s@DisC(;@<tiA=D@<isC1 seDB-inte<est(disinte<est1 @BBeAtivity(ne=t<@Dity1 @A?ieveCent(@sA<i;tionF

%?e @tt<@Ation oB t?ese Jinds oB AonAe;ts is t>oBoDdF 2i<st1 t?ey @DDo> one to AD@ssiBy @n in ;<inAi;De$ inBinite v@<iety oB Bo<Cs @nd systeC@tiA@DDy <eD@te t?eC to e@A? ot?e< @s v@<i@nt <eAoCbin@tions oB @ sC@DD n=Cbe< oB disA<iCin@tionsF A<t styDes1 DiJe soAieties1 @Dt?o=E? e@A? =niH=e1 A@n be systeC@tiA@DDy <eD@ted to e@A? ot?e<1 @nd E<o=;ed into Co<e o< Dess siCiD@< st<=At=<@D ty;esF SeAond1 s=A? AonAe;ts @<e -00-

;<o;osition@D @t t?e s@Ce tiCe @s beinE AD@ssiBiA@to<y1 ;ointinE to>@<ds st<=At=<@D @BBinities o< Aont<@diAtions bet>een ty;es oB @Ation o<ient@tion1 soAi@D st<=At=<e o< styDe ;@tte<n1 @nd to Ae<t@in 5Eene<@Dised =niBo<Cities oB eC;i<iA@D ;<oAess5 *@>t?o<n !9".1 !)'$ >?iA? <es=Dt B<oC s=A? @BBinities @nd Aont<@diAtionsF Unde<stood in t?is >@y1 WIDBBDin5s !9!#$ @AAo=nt oB t?e evoD=tion oB Bo<C s?o=Dd not be <e@d @s @ E<@nd n@<<@tive oB >este<n @<t1 no< @s @ st<iAtDy dete<Cinist evoD=tionisC1 b=t @s @n ide@D ty;iA@D @AAo=nt oB ve<y Eene<@D ;<oAesses oB t?e inte<n@D deveDo;Cent oB AoC;Dex @<tistiA o<de<s1 t?@t is to s@y oB ;<oAesses oB @est?etiA <@tion@Dis@tion @n@DoEo=s to Webe<5s @AAo=nts oB <eDiEio=s <@tion@Dis@tionF %?is ide@D-ty;iA@D CodeD A@n t?en be AoC;@<ed >it? ot?e< ;<oAesses oB t?e s@Ce o<de< - Bo< ex@C;De styDe A?@nEe in AD@ssiA@D G<eeJ o< @nAient C?inese @<t - to =nde<st@nd t?ei< siCiD@<ities @nd diBBe<enAes >it? t?e ty;e oB ;<oAess sJetA?ed by WIDBBDin1 @nd t?e s;eAiBiA soAi@D @nd A=Dt=<@D B@Ato<s t?@t A@=se t?ose diBBe<enAesF S=A? AoC;@<@tive @nd @n@DytiA n@<<@tives CiE?t oBBe< @n inte<estinE esA@;e B<oC t?e diDeCC@ in AonteC;o<@<y @<t ?isto<y identiBied by B@D @nd B<yson !99!$F B@D @nd B<yson @<E=e t?@t t?e 5syneAdoA?iA5 t<o;es oB t<@dition@D @<t-?isto<iA@D n@<<@tive1 b@sed on t?e @ss=Ced =nity oB styDe @nd A=Dt=<e1 ?@ve been dis;D@Aed in t?e ne> @<t ?isto<y by t?e t<o;es oB 5CetonyCy51 >it? @n 5endDess <@CiBiA@tion5 oB AontiE=o=s eDeCents1 none oB >?iA? <e;<esents @ st@bDe Bo=nd@tion Bo< ex;D@ininE ot?e< eDeCentsF %?is is ;@<tiA=D@<Dy @;;@<ent in t?e AonAe;t oB 5Aontext51 >?iA? on t?e one ?@nd s=EEests t?e ;ossibiDity oB @ AoC;Dete A@=s@D @AAo=ntinE Bo< t?e >o<J oB @<t1 b=t on t?e ot?e< ?@nd ;<oves iC;ossibDe to ADose7 Aontexts @D>@ys ?@ve t?ei< o>n B=<t?e< Aontext B<yson !990$F CoC;@<@tive n@<<@tives BoA=sed on @ ;@<tiA=D@< @n@DytiA ;<obDeC - styDistiA ;<oAess1 t?e soAio-Eenesis oB Een<es s=A? @s ;o<t<@its o< D@ndsA@;es - Aont<@stiveDy Aontext=@Dise e@A? ot?e<1 @nd ;<ovide ADos=<e >?iA? is not @bsoD=te o< tot@DisinE1 b=t s=BBiAient Bo< t?e Eiven t?eo<etiA@D ;=<;oses1 >?en t?e diBBe<ent B@Ato<s t?@t s?@;e t?e v@<yinE ;@tte<ns o< o=tAoCes oB t?ese ;<oAesses @<e identiBiedF ,=ttinE toEet?e< t?is Jind oB <ese@<A? ;<oE<@CCe >o=Dd <eH=i<e Aont<ib=tions @t @ n=Cbe< oB diBBe<ent DeveDs oB t?o=E?tF -@nn?eiC distinE=is?es t?<ee DeveDs oB disAo=<se in soAioDoEiA@D t?eo<y1 @nd t?e soAioDoEy oB A=Dt=<e7 ;=<e1 Eene<@D @nd dyn@CiA soAioDoEiesF In @ddition to oBBe<inE @ n=Cbe< oB @;;<o@A?es to iC;o<t@nt s=bst@ntive ;<obDeCs in t?e soAioDoEy oB @<t - A=Dt=<@D ;<od=Ation1 t?e <oDe @nd st@t=s oB t?e @<tist1 ?iE? A=Dt=<e - t?e seDeAtion oB <e@dinEs in t?is voD=Ce Ao=Dd @Dso be <e@d @s @ set oB ex@C;Des oB diBBe<ent t?eo<etiA@D st<@teEies on e@A? oB t?e DeveDs oB @<E=Cent@tion identiBied by -@nn?eiCF ,=<e A=Dt=<@D soAioDoEy @sJs ?o> it is t?@t s;i<it=@D o< A=Dt=<@D Bo<C@tions AoCe into beinE >?iA? A@n be s?@<ed by @ AoCC=nity <@t?e< t?@n 5s?=t =; >it?in t?e Con@diA ADosedness oB t?e individ=@D AonsAio=sness51 @nd >?@t @<e t?e dive<se Jinds oB s=A? Bo<C@tions -@nn?eiC !9"01 !0!BBF$F Abst<@AtinE B<oC @ny ;@<tiA=D@< AonA<ete Aontext1 it @sJs s=A? B=nd@Cent@D H=estions @s ?o> @<e soAiety1 A=Dt=<e @nd t?e Bo<Cs oB A=Dt=<e @<t1 sAienAe1 <eDiEion$ ;ossibDe6 W?@t is t?ei< ;D@Ae >it?in t?e ?=C@n Aondition6 It is onDy on t?e b@sis oB soCe Jind oB @ns>e< to t?ese H=estions t?@t >e A@n =se s=A? Eene<@DisinE AonAe;ts @s A=Dt=<e o< soAiety @t @DDF And it is on t?e b@sis oB @t De@st @ t@Ait @ns>e< to s=A? H=estions t?@t o=< b@siA sense oB t?e B=nAtion@Dity oB @<t de;ends1 @nd o=< A@;@Aity to AoC;@<e @<t

instit=tions oB diBBe<ent ;e<iods1 o< @t De@st -03to <eAoEnise soCe obGeAts @s beinE ;<o;e< obGeAts oB @<t-?isto<iA@D @n@Dysis @nd ot?e<s notF Ex@C;Des oB @<E=Cent@tion @t t?is DeveD @<e D=<J?eiC5s @AAo=nt oB syCboDisC1 AoCC=niA@tion @nd soAi@D o<de< C?@;te< &$1 SiCCeD5s Bo<C@D @n@Dysis oB soAi@tion @nd soAi@D st<=At=<e C?@;te< 3$1 -@nn?eiC5s sJetA? oB 5t?e dyn@CiAs oB s;i<it=@D <e@Dities5 C?@;te< !)$ @nd ,@<sons5 @n@Dysis oB @<t @s ex;<essive syCboDisC C?@;te< !"$F Gene<@D A=Dt=<@D soAioDoEy @sJs 5?o> t?e B=nd@Cent@D st<=At=<es oB E<o=;s soAi@Dis@tion @nd AoCC=n@Dis@tion$ <eD@te to t?e A=Dt=<@D Bo<C@tions Ao<<es;ondinE to t?eC5F It 5@tteC;ts ind=AtiveDy to o<de< O t?e Cost Eene<@D <eD@tions?i;s bet>een ?isto<iA@DDy existent soAi@D @nd A=Dt=<@D st<=At=<es @nd to AoC;<e?end t?eC5F %?e BoA=s oB inte<est ?e<e is not t?e =niH=eness oB ?isto<iA@D individ=@Ds b=t ty;es oB A=Dt=<@D st<=At=<e1 5;@st ;<inAi;Des >?iA? <e;e@t t?eCseDves @nd <eC@in de;iAt@bDe sA?eC@tiA@DDy5 -@nn?eiC !9"01 !00BBF$F %?e best ex@C;Des oB t?is Jind oB @n@Dysis @<e t?e <iA? ty;oDoEies in Webe<5s &conomy and Society !900$F %?ese inAD=de ?is b<ieB @n@Dysis oB ty;iA@DDy <eA=<<ent ;@tte<ns oB @BBinity @nd Aont<@diAtion bet>een @<t @nd <eDiEio=s systeCs @t v@<io=s DeveDs oB A=Dt=<@D evoD=tion C?@;te< 0$F Ot?e< ex@C;Des in t?is voD=Ce inAD=de EDi@s5s Eene<@DisinE @AAo=nt oB t?e t<@nsBo<C@tion oB t?e @<tistiA <oDe in t?e t<@nsition B<oC ;@t<on@D to C@<Jet systeCs C?@;te< !'$1 BeAJe<5s @nd WiDDi@Cs5s ty;oDoEies oB ;<od=Ation systeCs C?@;te<s ) @nd #$ @nd Bo=<die=5s @n@Dysis oB t?e A<e@tive BieDd C?@;te< .$F Even t?o=E? C@ny A@se st=dies in t?e soAioDoEy oB @<t d<@> =;on Eene<@Dised t?eo<etiA@D B<@Ce>o<Js @nd seeJ to Eene<@Dise t?ei< BindinEs1 t?is is ;e<?@;s t?e De@st >eDD deveDo;ed DeveD oB @n@Dysis in t?e soAioDoEy oB @<tF %?e<e @<e soCe =seB=D CodeDs oB t?is Jind oB @n@DysisF K@voDis5s Artistic &x(ression !9)"$ ex;Do<es <eD@tions?i;s bet>een ty;es oB styDe @nd Bo< ex@C;De1 st<@tiBiA@tion systeCs o;en(ADosed1 ?ie<@<A?iA@D(eE@Dit@<i@n$ o< ;oDitiA@D o<de<sF %?is st=dy is B=DD oB inte<estinE @nd @A=te AoC;@<isonsF 2o< ex@C;De1 it s?o>s t?@t t?e @<t styDes oB beDieB-o<iented <eDiEions @<e A?@<@Ate<istiA@DDy Co<e @=ste<e t?@n t?ose oB BeeDinE-o<iented <eDiEions >?iA? @<e Eene<@DDy Co<e sens=o=s1 AoC;@<inE t?e <eDiEio=s @<t oB Indi@ B=dd?ist - BeeDinE-o<iented$ @nd C?in@ ConB=Ai@n - beDieB-o<iented$ in o<de< to Aont<oD ot?e< ;otenti@D B@Ato<s s=A? @s DeveD oB =<b@nis@tion o< deE<ee oB AoCCe<Ai@Dis@tion oB eAonoCiA DiBeF K@voDis1 ?o>eve<1 neve< Eoes C=A? beyond t?e ex;Do<@tion oB <eD@tions?i;s bet>een t>o v@<i@bDes1 iEno<inE ty;iA@D AonsteDD@tions o< AonG=nAt=<es =nde< >?iA? @ny one v@<i@bDe t?@t ?e identiBies CiE?t doCin@te o< inte<@At >it? ot?e<sF ConseH=entDy1 bot? soAioDoEiA@DDy @nd @est?etiA@DDy t?e <es=Dt is <@t?e< t?in E<=eD1 ?o>eve< s=EEestiveF %?@t s@id1 t?e ;<obDeCs ex;Do<ed by K@voDis Ae<t@inDy dese<ve B=<t?e< ex;Do<@tion1 @s do D=viEn@=d5s !9.01 )#BBF1 9"BBF$ B<=st<@tinEDy b<ieB sJetA?es Bi<st oB @ ty;oDoEy oB @est?etiA @ttit=des @nd ty;iA@D E<o=nds Bo< t?eC1 @nd seAond oB t?e A?@<@Ate<istiA instit=tion@D B=nAtions oB @<t in @ BiveeDeCent ty;oDoEy oB soAieties t<ib@D1 t?eoA<@tiA1 =<b@n1 Be=d@D1 Con@<A?iA@D$F Dyn@CiA A=Dt=<@D soAioDoEy 5t@Jes AonAe;ts @;;<o;<i@te to ty;es >?iA? @<e <eD@tiveDy st@bDe Bo< @ ;e<iod @nd it eD@bo<@tes t?eC Bo< t?e ex;D@n@tion @nd inte<;<et@tion oB A=Dt=<@D Bo<C@tions5 -@nn?eiC !9"01 !0)$F ,@<tiA=D@< @ttention is ;@id to eD@bo<@tinE AonAe;ts @nd A?@<@Ate<is@tions oB A=Dt=<@D ;?enoCen@ t?@t @<e @deH=@te to t?e 5v@D=@tions @nd inne<Cost inADin@tions oB t?e @Ee =nde< st=dy51 <@t?e< t?@n st<@iE?t@>@y o<E@nisinE t?eC =nde< t?e ext<insiA @nd Co<e synt?etiA AonAe;ts A?@<@Ate<istiA -0&oB Eene<@D A=Dt=<@D soAioDoEyF *e<e t?e bo=nd@<y bet>een soAioDoEy oB @<t @nd soAi@D ?isto<y oB @<t is ev@nesAentF W?@t C@Jes @ st=dy distinAtiveDy soAioDoEiA@D is t?@t t?e ;e<iod in H=estion tends to be deBined in te<Cs oB @ A?@<@Ate<istiA soAi@D

st<=At=<e @nd t?e E<o=;s >?iA? AoC;ose it1 @nd Ao<<es;ondinEDy A=Dt=<@D Bo<C@tions @<e ex;D@ined @nd inte<;<eted in te<Cs oB t?ei< deveDo;Cent o=t oB @nd <oDe >it?in ;<oAesses oB E<o=; DiBeF %?e ;<e;onde<@nAe oB AonteC;o<@<y soAioDoEy oB @<t t@Jes t?e Bo<C oB ex@AtDy t?is Jind oB ;e<iod-s;eAiBiA A@se st=dyF In t?is voD=Ce ex@C;Des @<e *@=se<5s @AAo=nt oB t?e <oDe oB t?e @<tist in t?e Ren@iss@nAe C?@;te< "$1 B<@in5s @n@Dysis oB @<A?iteAt=<@D @EenAy in t?e Ne> De@D e<@ C?@;te< !!$1 *@be<C@s5s1 Di-@EEio5s @nd 3oDbe<E5s st=dies oB t?e deveDo;Cent oB ?iE? A=Dt=<@D instit=tions C?@;te<s !01 !&1 !#$ @nd WitJin5s <e@dinE oB +@n EyAJ5s The !arriage of Arnolfini C?@;te< !.$F -y o>n BeeDinE is t?@t s=A? st=dies s?o=Dd <e@DDy be t?e Ce@ns to t?e end oB @ Eene<@D soAioDoEy oB @<tF In ;<@AtiAe1 ?o>eve<1 s=A? @ Eene<@D soAioDoEy oB @<t ?@s ;<oved diBBiA=Dt to Aonst<=AtF S=A? Be> AoC;@<@tive @nd Eene<@DisinE st=dies @s sDi; ;@st @<t-?isto<iA@D E@teJee;e<s D@<EeDy ?ostiDe to s=A? @;;<o@A?es tend to be eit?e< de<ided o< iEno<edF On >?@t DeveD <e@de<s A?oose to ex;Doit t?e <iA? @nd dive<se inteDDeAt=@D A@;it@D oB t?e soAioDoEy oB @<t <e;<esented by t?e seDeAtions in t?is voD=Ce is1 oB Ao=<se1 =; to t?eCF

NOTES
! 0 3 &

-y @AAo=nt oB t?e deveDo;Cent oB soAioDoEy de;ends on -@nn?eiC !9"01 *@>t?o<n !9".1 *eiDb<on !99#F -y @AAo=nt ?e<e d<@>s on t?e >o<J oB ,e@<s !9""$1 Ab<@Cs !9"9@1 !9"9b$F On t?e iC;o<t@nAe oB DiDt?ey5s ?e<Cene=tiAs to @<t-?isto<iA@D t?eo<y in t?e Bi<st ?@DB oB t?e t>entiet? Aent=<y see Antoni !9&'1 0!'$1 -@<tin !9)3@1 !9)3b$F %?e Co=<t@=Dd Instit=te @nd t?e W@<b=<E Instit=te >e<e est@bDis?ed in London in t?e !93's @s t?e C@Go< Aent<es Bo< <ese@<A? @nd t?e t<@ininE oB E<@d=@te st=dents in @<t ?isto<yF %?e W@<b=<E Instit=te ?@d o<iEin@DDy been est@bDis?ed in *@Cb=<E1 b=t >@s Coved to London to ;<oteAt its st@BB @nd <eso=<Aes B<oC @nti-SeCitiA ;e<seA=tion by t?e N@KisF %?ey <eC@in doCin@nt inBD=enAes to t?is d@y1 e@A? A?@<@Ate<ised by @ distinAtive ;e<s;eAtive7 Bo<C@DisC @nd Aonnoisse=<s?i; @t t?e Co=<t@=Dd1 iAonoE<@;?y @nd iAonoDoEy in t?e t<@dition oB Aby W@<b=<E @nd E<>in ,@noBsJy @t t?e W@<b=<EF %?is is1 oB Ao=<se1 not @ ve<y AoC;eDDinE @AAo=nt oB t?e soAi@D eBBeAtivity oB @<tF One need onDy t?inJ oB t?e v@<io=s Bo<Cs oB A<itiA@D <e@DisC in Dite<@t=<e - Bo< ex@C;De t?e ><itinE oB DiAJens in ,ard Times >?e<e bot? t?e A?@<@Ate<is@tion oB BiE=<es s=A? @s Bitse< @nd G<@dE<ind @nd t?e >?oDe st<=At=<e oB t?e n@<<@tive B=nAtion @s @n ex;DiAit @nd ;otenti@DDy CobiDisinE A<itiH=e oB t?e de?=C@nisinE <es=Dts oB ind=st<i@D A@;it@DisCF SiCiD@<Dy1 it is ;<eAiseDy t?e st<onEDy Dite<@<y @nd <?eto<iA@D Bo<C oB C=A? oB -@<x5s ><itinE1 Cost not@bDy The ommunist !anifesto- not G=st its sAientiBiA H=@Dities1 >?iA? is desiEned to @>@Jen <e@de<s5 Cinds to t?e inG=stiAes oB A@;it@DisC @nd @At @s @ s;=< to @Ation1 not @ n@<AotiAF 2o< @ soAioDoEiA@D @n@Dysis oB @ >o<J oB @<t @DonE t?ese Dines see WitJin !99.$ on -@net5s %lym(ia. CoCCentinE on *@=se<5s t<e@tCent oB t?e Code<n ;e<iod in ?is The Social ,istory of Art# 5*e<e ?e ;e<Cits ?iCseDB to t<=st ?is o>n <es;onses @nd syC;@t?ies1 t?e ;@Ae

-0#H=iAJens O >e @<e C@de to BeeD t?@t >e @<e AonAe<ned >it? P;eo;DeQ <@t?e< t?@n B@Ato<s O ;@Ee on iC;<essionist teA?niH=e is @Dive >it? t?e t?<iDD oB int=itive =nde<st@ndinE51 @DD st@ndinE in Aont<@st to *@=se<5s Co<e Eene<@D 5CisAonAeived ide@D oB sAientiBiA so;?istiA@tion5 GoCb<iA? !9#3(!9)31 9&$F . CBF GoCb<iA? !9).(!9.91 #)-.7 5C=Dt=<@D ?isto<y >iDD C@Je ;<oE<ess iB it Bixes its @ttention Bi<CDy on t?e individ=@D ?=C@n beinE O C=Dt=<@D ?isto<i@ns5 AonAe<n s?o=Dd be >it? t?e individ=@D @nd ;@<tiA=D@< <@t?e< t?@n >it? t?e st=dy oB

st<=At=<es @nd ;@tte<ns >?iA? is <@<eDy B<ee oB *eEeDi@n ?oDisCF5 " CBF ?is AoCCents in @n ess@y on *=iKinE@ GoCb<iA? !9"&b1 !)'$7 5W?@t is i<<@tion@D is t?e iC;DiAit @ss=C;tion t?@t viAto<y in one ty;e oB Aontest betoJens s=;e<io<ity in ot?e< BieDdsF %?e B@At t?@t t?e bo@t oB t?e C@Cb<idEe A<e> @<<ives @t t?e >inninE ;ost beBo<e t?@t oB OxBo<d is t@Jen to Ce@n t?@t C@Cb<idEe is t?e bette< =nive<sityF I AonBess I s=BBe< B<oC @ <@<e dis@biDity in t?is <es;eAtF I find it hard to understand the feeling that 5we have won6 merely 'ecause someone has won.7 Bo=<die= !99)1 !3"F CBF7 5@ ;<oE<essive disAove<y oB e@A? @<t o< e@A? Een<e1 beyond t?e exte<io< siEns1 soAi@DDy Jno>n o< <eAoEnised1 oB its identity5F S=A? AD@iCs s?o=Dd t@Je =s into @n @nt?<o;oDoEy oB @<t >?iA? is H=ite beyond Bo=<die=5s <@t?e< n@<<o> soAioDoEyF In ;<@AtiAe1 in s=A? DonE-te<C ;<oAesses1 t?e diBBe<enti@tion B<oC t?ei< @nt?<o;oDoEiA@D E<o=ndinEs oB diBBe<ent @<tistiA Codes @<e AoC;DexeDy inte<>oven >it? non-@<tistiA A=Dt=<@D t<@ditions @nd soAi@D B@Ato<s1 >?iA? C@y bDoAJ Ae<t@in @nt?<o;oDoEiA@DDy Eiven ;otenti@Dities7 in C?in@1 Bo< ex@C;De1 t?e ;D@Ae oB ;@intinE in t?e identity oB t?e Dite<@ti bDoAJed t?e @=tonoCis@tion oB sA=D;t=<e @s @n @<tistiA Bo<C in its o>n <iE?tF It <eC@ined eCbedded in <eDiEio=s A=Dt=<e @nd inte<>oven >it? ot?e< @<tistiA teA?niH=es A?@sinE1 en@CeD>o<J1 Ge>eDDe<y - >it? @ diBBe<ent ex;<essive DoEiA t?@n sA=D;t=<e ;e< seF Bo=<die= siC;Dy =nive<s@Dises ?isto<iA@DDy s;eAiBiA >este<n ex;e<ienAe @s t?e deBinition oB t?e essenAe oB @<tF

!' Bo=<die= !99)1 !&!-.31 H=ot@tions1 !#. @nd !.'F CBF ;F ". on =nde<st@ndinE @<tistiA A?oiAes in te<Cs oB 5t?e diBBe<enti@D siEniBiA@tion t?@t A?@<@Ate<ises t?eC >it?in t?e s;@Ae oB AoC;ossibDe A?oiAes5F !! Bo=<die= !99)1 ".-"F !0 Bo=<die= !99)1 !'3F %?is 5=nJno>inE ;oetiAs51 t?e @<tistiA ha'itus- is t?e Ci<<o< iC@Ee oB ,@noBsJy5s 4unstwollen. -0)-

'ART ONE
"la((ical (ociological theory and the (ociology of art NTROD!"T ON
SO" OLO$Y "AN 9E "%ARA"TER SED @s @ ;<obDeC-o<iented @nd Eene<@DisinE disAi;Dine1 in Aont<@st to @<t ?isto<y >?iA? is obGeAt-o<iented @nd ;@<tiA=D@<isinEF %?ese diBBe<inE o<ient@tions iC;Dy @ B=nd@Cent@DDy diBBe<ent <eD@tions?i; to 5t?eo<y5F In soAioDoEy1 t?eo<y ;D@ys @ Aent<@D <oDe in t?e disAi;Dine1 >?iDst in @<t ?isto<y it is oBten <eE@<ded @s @n o;tion@D ext<@F No soAioDoEy =nde<E<@d=@te ;<oE<@CCe1 Det @Done -A ;<oE<@CCes1 >o=Dd be >it?o=t <eH=i<ed Ao=<ses in 5AD@ssiA@D5 @nd AonteC;o<@<y soAioDoEiA@D t?eo<yF By Aont<@st1 even tod@y1 ;<estiEio=s E<@d=@te ;<oE<@CCes in @<t ?isto<y C@y D@AJ @ny Ao<e t?eo<y ed=A@tion s?@<ed by @DD t?ei< st=dents1 in t?e beDieB t?@t t?e <e@D b=siness oB @<t ?isto<y is @ C@tte< oB ;e<iod s;eAi@Dities @nd Bi<st-?@nd Jno>DedEe oB t?e obGeAtsF A<t-?isto<iA@D t?eo<y @Dso ?@s @ A?@<@Ate< ve<y diBBe<ent B<oC soAioDoEiA@D t?eo<yF It is ess@yistiA @nd oBten oB @ <@t?e< e;?eCe<@D A?@<@Ate<1 >?e<e@s soAioDoEiA@D t?eo<isinE is systeC@tiA @nd ;@<t oB @ A=C=D@tive t<@ditionF %?e diBBe<ent A?@<@Ate< oB t?e t>o disAi;Dines is ;@<tiA=D@<Dy C@<Jed in t?ei< <eD@tions?i; to t?ei< Bo=ndinE B@t?e<sF %?e AD@ssiAs oB @<t-?isto<iA@D t?eo<y WinAJeDC@nn1 *eEeD1 %@ine1 RieED1 WIDBBDin1 ,@noBsJy - @<e D@<EeDy =n<e@d by ;<@AtisinE @<t ?isto<i@nsF %?ey @<e seDdoC Centioned in Cost no<C@D @<t-?isto<iA@D <ese@<A?1 exAe;t in ;@ssinE disCissive A@<iA@t=<es oB ;ositions - %@ine @nd CiDie= t?eo<y1 RieED @nd evoD=tionisC1 WIDBBDin @nd Bo<C@DisCF Se<io=s sA?oD@<Dy enE@EeCent >it? t?ese texts is DiCited to ;<iC@<iDy ?isto<ioE<@;?iA exe<Aises1 ;D@AinE t?e @=t?o<s @nd t?ei< ide@s in t?ei< A=Dt=<@D @nd inteDDeAt=@D Aontext Ive<sen !993/ *oDDy !9"&$F C<itiA@D <e<e@dinEs s=A? @s ,od<o5s !9"0$ st=dy oB t?e Ge<C@n ide@Dists @<e <eD@tiveDy <@<e1 @nd t?e<e is DittDe evidenAe to s=EEest t?@t t?ey siEniBiA@ntDy @BBeAt t?e >ide< ;<@AtiAe oB @<t-?isto<iA@D <ese@<A?F -0.-

n (ociology2 caref-l reading and rereading of a (table2 b-t not fi,ed2 canon of theoretical te,t( 3lay( a central role in the (ociali(ation of (t-dent( into the di(ci3line2 and of indi<id-al and collecti<e redefinition of re(earch orientation( and obAecti<e(8 & A familiarity 7ith the 7or1( of +ar,2 Weber2

D-r1heim and Bincrea(inglyC Simmel i( held to 3ro<ide an -nder(tanding of the 1ey intellect-al 3roblem( of (ociology the origin( of modernity2 the nat-re of (ocial action2 the ba(e( of (ocial (olidarity and of conflict2 the role of material intere(t( and c-lt-ral <al-e( in (ocial life - and (ome of the mo(t f-ndamental tool( for gra33ling 7ith tho(e 3roblem( in 7hate<er thematic area or geogra3hical region of (3eciali(ation8 Thi( (hared and contin-o-(ly re<i<ed intellect-al heritage th-( (er<e( to integrate the di(ci3line8 9-t far from engendering di(ci3linary clo(-re2 the cla((ic( 3ro<ide a (tr-ct-red ba(i( for debate2 di(agreement and theoretical change8 Theori(t( (-ch a( Weber2 +ar, and D-r1heim ta1e di(tincti<e 3o(ition( on 7hat are the 1ey characteri(tic( of modernity or the mo(t im3ortant determinant( of action Bc-lt-ral <al-e(2 material intere(t(C and (ocial order Baggregation of indi<id-al choice(2

3atterning of action ba(ed on member(hi3 in collecti<itie(C8 The e,i(tence and contin-o-( de<elo3ment of thi( theoretical core 3ro<ide( a coherent frame7or1 for e,3loring the com3atibility bet7een (ociological and other theoretical orientation(2 and for (electi<ely and A-dicio-(ly b-ilding the in(ight( of other di(ci3line( - e<ol-tionary biology2 cogniti<e 3(ychology2 3(ychonaly(i(2 (tr-ct-rali(t and 3o(t-(tr-ct-rali(t theorie( of c-lt-re and (ignification - into a contin-o-(ly recon(tr-cted (ociology8 ) Thi( facilitate( a rather more balanced relation(hi3 bet7een contin-ity and change2 di(ci3linary integrity and interdi(ci3linarity2 than the often -ncritical DtrendyD a((imilation or mindle(( Dtraditionali(tD reAection of fa(hionable ne7 theorie( characteri(tic of le(( theoretically mat-re di(ci3line( (-ch a( art hi(tory or archaeology8 There i( no rea(on to thin1 that thi( difference in relation(hi3 to theory

i( intellect-ally intrin(ic to the di(ci3line(8 On the contrary2 it (eem( li1ely that it i( in 3art a f-nction of the differing in(tit-tional ba(e( of (ociology and art hi(tory Band the di(r-3tion of the critical ideali(t tradition in the &5/:( and &50:(C2 a( di(c-((ed in the introd-ction8 Taine2 Riegl2 WElfflin and 'anof(1y certainly deal 7ith 3roblem( a( f-ndamental to the hi(tory of art a( tho(e of Weber2 +ar,2 D-r1heim and Simmel to (ociology# the nat-re and ba(e( of ae(thetic meaning and art-hi(torical inter3retation2 the relation(hi3 bet7een the 7or1 of art and the <ie7er2 the ba(e( of the organi(ation of arti(tic form and the 3rinci3le( of the tran(formation of (-ch 3attern( of organi(ation2 the relation(hi3 bet7een art and c-lt-re or (ociety - all intellect-al 3roblem( rele<ant to art hi(torian( 7hate<er their 3eriod or regional (3eciali(ation8 The creation of a tr-ly interdi(ci3linary (ociology of art 7ill certainly in<ol<e a ret-rn to

the(e cla((ic art-hi(torical theori(t( and an integration of their in(ight( and 3er(3ecti<e( into the re(earch 3rogramme( of (ociology8 Only on thi( ba(i( 7ill it be 3o((ible to con(tr-ct an intellect-al 3latform for the 1ind of c-m-lati<e and generali(ing intellect-al de<elo3ment in the (ociology of art that ha( characteri(ed the field of (ociology more generally8 The reading( in 'art One are all from cla((ical (ociological theori(t(2 each of 7hom form-lated a di(tincti<e 3o(ition on the 1ey 3roblem( of (ociological tho-ght2 and by im3lication di(tincti<e acco-nt( of the relation(hi3 bet7een art Band other -);Bo<Cs oB A=Dt=<e$ @nd soAi@D st<=At=<eF %?<o=E?o=t t?e Ao=<se oB t?is <e@de<1 it s?o=Dd beAoCe ADe@< to >?@t extent D@te< ><ite<s deBine @nd eD@bo<@te t?ei< o>n ;ositions by @DiEninE t?eCseDves >it? o< dist@nAinE t?eCseDves B<oC v@<io=s ;ositions ?eDd by t?ese Jey t?eo<istsF ADt?o=E? I oBBe< b<ieB int<od=Ato<y sJetA?es oB t?ese t?inJe<s5 C@in Dines oB t?o=E?t1 <e@de<s s?o=Dd be@< in Cind not onDy t?@t t?e ><itinEs oB t?ese t?eo<ists @<e v@stDy <iA?e< @nd Co<e AoC;Dex t?@n s=A? sJetA?es A@n @DDo>1 b=t @Dso by vi<t=e oB t?e B=nAtion oB t?ese >o<Js in t?e disAi;Din@<y C@t<ix oB soAioDoEy - t?ei< inte<;<et@tion is ?otDy AontestedF

Karl +ar,
-@<x5s distinAtive soAioDoEiA@D ;e<s;eAtive d<@>s on t?<ee inteDDeAt=@D t<@ditions7 t?e Ge<C@n ide@DisC oB *eEeD1 EnEDis? AD@ssiA@D eAonoCiAs @nd 2<enA? soAi@Dist t?o=E?tF On t?is b@sis1 ?e Aonst<=Ated @ 5C@te<i@Dist5 t?eo<y oB ?isto<y A?@<@Ate<ised by @ set oB inte<DinJed @ss=C;tionsF 2i<st1 5C@n5 is deBined ;<iC@<iDy by ?is <eD@tions?i; to n@t=<e1

>?iA? ?e C@ste<s t?<o=E? D@bo=< in o<de< to ;<od=Ae t?e Ce@ns to s=st@in ?iCseDBF SeAond1 Cen ente< into Ao-o;e<@tive <eD@tions in o<de< to seA=<e s=sten@nAe B<oC @nd seA=<ity @E@inst n@t=<e1 @nd t?ese C@te<i@D <eD@tions oB ;<od=Ation Aonstit=te t?e b@sis oB @ny soAi@D o<de<F %?e ide@DisC oB *eEeD is inve<ted by d<@>inE on t?e Co<e C@te<i@Dist ide@s oB EnEDis? eAonoCiA t?eo<y @nd 2<enA? soAi@DisCF 2<enA? soAi@DisC @nd *eEeDi@nisC ;<ovide @ AoDDeAtivist Ao<<eAtion to t?e individ=@DisC oB AD@ssiA@D eAonoCiA t?eo<yF %?e seDeAted <e@dinEs ;<ovide s=AAinAt st@teCents oB t?e -@<xist t?eo<y oB ?isto<y1 @nd its iC;DiA@tions Bo< t?e @n@Dysis @nd =nde<st@ndinE oB A=Dt=<@D ;<od=AtionF %?e Bi<st E<o=; C?@;te< !@$ deBines -@<x5s Jey AonAe;ts7 b@se Bo<Aes oB ;<od=Ation1 <eD@tions oB ;<od=Ation$1 s=;e<st<=At=<e @nd t?e dyn@CiA inte<<eD@tions?i;s oB t?ese AoC;onents oB soAi@D st<=At=<e @nt@EonisC(Aont<@diAtion1 t<@nsBo<C@tion( <evoD=tion$F %?e seAond E<o=; C?@;te< !b$ deveDo;s @ Eene<@D t?eo<y oB ideoDoEy @nd ideoDoEiA@D ;<od=AtionF %?ey eC;?@sise t?@t C@te<i@D ex;e<ienAes @<e t?e b@sis on >?iA? ide@s @<e e<eAted @s @ A=Dt=<@D <eBDex1 @nd t?e >@y in >?iA? ideoDoEies oBten inve<t C@te<i@D <e@Dity1 DiJe @ camera o'scura- t?=s B=nAtioninE to DeEitiC@te ineH=@DityF %?e Aont<oD oB t?e doCin@nt AD@ss ove< t?e Ce@ns oB A=Dt=<@D ;<od=Ation ens=<es t?@t in t?e D@st inst@nAe t?e <eD@tive @=tonoCy oB s;eAi@Dised A=Dt=<@D ;<od=Ae<s in AoC;Dex soAieties ?@s onDy @ ;?@ntoC existenAeF %?e Bin@D E<o=; C?@;te< !A$ ex;Do<es t?e <oDe oB A=Dt=<@D t<@ditions >it?in @ C@te<i@Dist B<@Ce>o<JF %?e ;<obDeC oB t?e ;e<enni@D v@D=e oB G<eeJ @<t1 DonE @Bte< t?e deCise oB t?e C@te<i@D Aonditions >?iA? E@ve <ise to it1 s=EEests t?e ;ossibiDity oB @ D@AJ oB Ao<<es;ondenAe bet>een @est?etiA @nd soAi@D deveDo;CentF -@<x5s @n@Dysis oB t?e =se oB ;@st A=Dt=<@D Bo<Cs in <evoD=tion@<y sit=@tions - Bo< ex@C;De oB RoC@n Re;=bDiA@n iC@Ee<y by 2<enA? <evoD=tion@<ies - ;oints to>@<ds @ Co<e @Ative1 Aonstit=tive <oDe oB A=Dt=<e in soAi@D A?@nEe1 @nd o;ens =; t?e H=estion oB t?e DiCits >it?in >?iA? vis=@D ex;<essive A=Dt=<e is 5dete<Cined5 by t?e soAi@D b@seF %?e DeE@Ay oB -@<xisC to t?e ?isto<y @nd soAioDoEy oB @<t is Aonside<@bDeF %?e Cost B@CiDi@< st<@nd is t?e soAi@D ?isto<y oB @<t oB *@=se< !9#!$1 Ant@D !9&"$ @nd

-29SA?@;i<o !939$1 >?e<e t<@dition@D iAonoE<@;?iA @nd styDistiA @n@Dyses @<e Aontext=@Dised in AonteC;o<@<y Aonditions oB C@te<i@D DiBe @nd A?@nEinE AD@ss st<=At=<esF A<t @s @n ex;<ession oB s;eAiBiA AD@ss ide@Ds @nd inte<ests <e;D@Aes t<@dition@D ide@s oB @<t @s @n ex;<ession oB n@tion@D o< ;e<iod s;i<itF A Co<e t?eo<etiA@DDy @Cbitio=s ;<oE<@CCe >@s deveDo;ed Bi<st by L=JRAs1 t?en ?is s=AAeso<s in t?e 2<@nJB=<t SA?ooD see beDo>1 ;;F !&.-"1 Bo< B=<t?e< disA=ssion oB t?e 2<@nJB=<t SA?ooD$F L=JRAs !903$ so=E?t to d<@> o=t t?e *eEeDi@n AoC;onents in -@<xist t?o=E?t1 @nd in ;@<tiA=D@< to deveDo; @ AonAe;t oB ideoDoEy not siC;Dy @s @n e;i;?enoCenon oB t?e b@se b=t @s @ Co<e ;e<v@sive A=Dt=<@D systeC1 5di@DeAtiA@DDy5 <eD@ted to t?e soAi@D b@se1 in ot?e< >o<ds @AtinE b@AJ =;on @nd AonditioninE t?e b@se5s deveDo;Cent ABF *@CiDton !9.&1 !&&BBF$F Bot? L=JRAs @nd ?is s=AAesso<s in t?e 2<@nJB=<t SA?ooD >e<e ;@<tiA=D@<Dy AonAe<ned >it? t?e ide@ oB @<t @s t?e D@st <esid=e oB ?=C@n B<eedoCF A<t1 t?ey s=EEested1 ?@d t?e ;otenti@Dity to ;e<Bo<C @ A<itiA@D @nd ?enAe eC@nAi;@to<y B=nAtion in t?e deveDo;Cent @nd t<@nsBo<C@tion oB A@;it@Dist soAiety1 in ;@<tiA=D@< t?<o=E? 5<e@Dist5 Bo<Cs oB <e;<esent@tion >?iA? ;enet<@ted bo=<Eeois ideoDoEy @nd <eve@Ded t?e t<=Dy ex;Doit@tive @nd ineE@Dit@<i@n A?@<@Ate< oB Code<n ind=st<i@D soAiety S>inEe>ood !9".1 ##BBF/ A<@to @nd Geb?@<dt !9"0$F %?e eC;i<iA@D >o<J oB t?e 2<@nJB=<t SA?ooD AonAent<@ted on Dite<@t=<e1 @nd ?@s been Cost inBD=enti@D in t?e >o<J oB Dite<@<y t?eo<ists s=A? @s R@yCond WiDDi@Cs !9..1 !9"!$ @nd %e<<y E@EDeton !9.)$F B=t it ?@s @Dso been A<=Ai@D in t?e Bo<C=D@tion oB t?e ;<oGeAts oB -@<xist soAioDoEists @nd soAi@D ?isto<i@ns oB @<t s=A? @s 4@net WoDBB !9"!$ @nd %F 4F CD@<Je !9.3@1 !9.3b1 !9"#$F %?ei< >o<J deveDo;s t?e 2<@nJB=<te<s5 @ttention to t?e s;eAiBiAity oB @<t by ex;Do<inE ?o> soAi@D st<=At=<es @nd A=Dt=<@D Aodes @<e mediated t?<o=E? vis=@D

<e;<esent@tion1 <@t?e< t?@n st<@iE?tBo<>@<dDy <e;<od=Aed o< <eBDeAtedF ReD@tiveDy Be> soAioDoEists oB @<t >o=Dd tod@y identiBy t?eCseDves @s -@<xistsF Neve<t?eDess1 t?e<e is @ st<onEDy C@te<i@Dist o<ient@tion to Cost AonteC;o<@<y soAioDoEy oB @<t1 seeJinE @s it does to <ed=Ae C@niBest A=Dt=<@D Ce@ninE systeCs - >?et?e< t?e Aontent o< styDe oB @<t >o<Js1 o< t?e v@D=es t?@t @niC@te ?iE? A=Dt=<@D 5ideoDoEies5 to Co<e B=nd@Cent@D soAi@D b@ses7 t?e st<=At=<e oB t?e o<E@nis@tions t?<o=E? >?iA? A=Dt=<e is ;<od=Aed1 o< t?e st@t=s inte<ests oB t?e Aons=Ce<s oB ?iE? A=Dt=<eF

+a, Weber
LiJe -@<x1 Webe< so=E?t to =nde<st@nd t?e n@t=<e @nd o<iEins oB A@;it@DisCF W<itinE @ Eene<@tion @Bte< -@<x1 ?o>eve<1 Webe<5s A=Dt=<@D @nd soAioDoEiA@D ?o<iKons >e<e soCe>?@t diBBe<entF LiJe @DD inteDDeAt=@Ds oB ?is Eene<@tion1 Webe< >@s dee;Dy inBD=enAed by NietKsA?e5s @AAo=nt oB t?e @=tonoCy oB t?e ?=C@n >iDD to ;o>e<1 @nd t?e inte<seAtion bet>een ;o>e< <eD@tions @nd t?e soAio-Eenesis oB Co<@D o<de<sF At t?e s@Ce tiCe1 t?e C@ssive ex;@nsion oB t?e Ge<C@n st@te in t?e D@te nineteent? Aent=<y1 @nd t?e AoCCon@Dities bet>een A@;it@Dist ente<;<ises @nd st@te b=<e@=A<@Aies in t?e o<E@nis@tion oB @Ation @nd soAi@D <eD@tions?i;s1 s=EEested to Webe< t?@t Code<n >este<n A@;it@DisC >@s siC;Dy t?e eAonoCiA AoC;onent oB @ C=A? Co<e B@<-<e@A?inE soAi@D @nd A=Dt=<@D ;?enonenon1 n@CeDy 5<@tion@Dis@tion5F Webe< sees eAonoCiA @Ation in A@;it@Dist ente<;<ises @s one ex@C;De oB @ Co<e -3'>ides;<e@d ty;e oB @Ation1 n@CeDy 5<@tion@D @Ation51 in >?iA? Ce@ns @<e seDeAted on t?e b@sis oB t?e best @v@iD@bDe Jno>DedEe in te<Cs oB t?ei< eBBiAienAy to @A?ieve @ ;@<tiA=D@< end1 <@t?e< t?@n beA@=se t?e ;@<tiA=D@< Ce@ns @<e s@nAtioned by t<@dition o< C@nd@ted @AAo<dinE to @ ;@<tiA=D@< v@D=e o<ient@tionF 5R@tion@Dis@tion5 is t?e ;<oAess >?e<eby @ doC@in AoCes to be o<E@nised Co<e @nd Co<e systeC@tiA@DDy in te<Cs oB s=A? A@DA=D@bDe Ce@n-ends <@tion@DityF %?e Code<n >est is =niH=e in t?e <@nEe @nd ;e<v@siveness oB t?e <@tion@Dis@tion oB @DD doC@ins oB DiBe7 t?e eAonoCy1 ;oDitiA@D o<E@nis@tion1 t?eoDoEy1 C=siA1 sAienAeF %?is DeveD oB <@tion@Dis@tion is @Dso A?@<@Ate<istiA oB t?e vis=@D @<ts oB t?e >est1 C@niBested in t?e Got?iA v@=Dt1 @s @ <@tion@Dised A@DA=D@bDe Ce@ns oB dist<ib=tinE t?e >eiE?t oB @ <ooBinE systeC1 @nd Aent<@D v@nis?inE ;oint ;e<s;eAtive in ;@intinE C?@;te< 0@$F %?e st<enEt? oB t?e iC;=Dse be?ind >este<n <@tion@DisC1 @nd its ;eA=Di@<Dy inst<=Cent@D >o<Dd-C@ste<inE A?@<@Ate<1 Webe< @tt<ib=ted to t?e deveDo;Cent oB @ >o<DdDy AonAe;t oB 5voA@tion5 in ,<otest@nt t?o=E?t >?iA? E@ve @ ;ositive Co<@D A?@<@Ate< to systeC@tiA @AH=isitive @Ativity >?iA? ?@d ;<evio=sDy been Ce<eDy toDe<@ted Webe< !9'&(#$F In o<de< to =nde<st@nd t?e =niH=eness oB >este<n <@tion@DisC @nd A@;it@DisC1 @nd to AD@<iBy t?e <oDe ;D@yed by ,<otest@ntisC in its Eenesis1 Webe< =nde<tooJ @ se<ies oB st=dies oB t?e eAonoCiA et?iAs oB t?e >o<Dd <eDiEions - 4=d@isC1 *ind=siC @nd B=dd?isC in Indi@1 ConB=Ai@nisC @nd %@oisC in C?in@ !9!)1 !9!)(!.1 !9!.(!9$F In ;@<tiA=D@<1 ?e so=E?t to s?o> ?o> t?ese <eDiEions s?@;ed t?e systeC@tis@tion oB ;@tte<ns oB DiBe Aond=At in >@ys >?iA? >e<e @ntit?etiA@D to t?e deveDo;Cent oB t?e s@Ce Jind oB B=DD-BDedEed Code<n A@;it@DisC @s >@s A<e@ted in t?e >est1 des;ite t?e B@At t?@t st<=At=<@D Aonditions DeveDs oB =<b@nis@tion1 =se oB Coney1 AoCC=niA@tions systeCs$ in D@te Cediev@D Indi@ @nd C?in@ >e<e on t?e B@Ae oB it Co<e B@vo=<@bDe to t?e deveDo;Cent oB A@;it@DisC t?@n t?ose in t?e >estF In t?e ;ost?=Co=sDy ;=bDis?ed &conomy and Society !900$1 t?ese st=dies >e<e deveDo;ed into @ >ide-<@nEinE @n@Dysis oB ?o> ;@tte<ns oB @Ation >e<e systeC@tiA@DDy s?@;ed by soAi@D1 eAonoCiA1 ;oDitiA@D @nd A=Dt=<@D Aonditions1 <et@ininE @ ;@<tiA=D@< BoA=s on B@Ato<s >?iA? iC;eded o< ;<oCoted <@tion@Dis@tion1 @nd t?e v@<yinE Bo<Cs t@Jen by <@tion@Dis@tion ;<oAesses in diBBe<ent soAi@D @nd

A=Dt=<@D settinEsF It is in t?is Aontext t?@t Webe< E@ve Aonside<@tion to H=estions oB t?e soAioDoEy oB @<tF Webe<5s onDy C@Go< st=dy oB @<t is The Rational and Social *oundations of !usic !9!0$F In t?is st=dy ?e d<@>s @ distinAtion bet>een (olyvocality- in >?iA? C=Dti;De voiAes @<e <eD@ted to e@A? ot?e< on @ b@sis Co<e AoC;Dex t?@n =nison o< t?e oAt@ve1 @nd t<=e (oly(hony- in >?iA? 5seve<@D voiAes oB eH=@D st@ndinE <=n side by side1 ?@<ConiA@DDy DinJed in s=A? @ >@y t?@t t?e ;<oE<ession oB e@A? voiAe is @AAoCCod@ted to t?e ;<oE<ession oB t?e ot?e< @nd is1 t?=s1 s=bGeAt to Ae<t@in <=Des5 Webe< !9!01 )"$F Webe<5s ;<iC@<y AonAe<n >@s to disAove< >?y it >@s onDy in t?e >est t?@t <@tion@D A@DA=D@bDe systeCs oB ?@<ConiA @nd ;oDy;?oniA C=siA deveDo;ed o=t oB ;oDyvoA@D C=siA >?iA? A?@<@Ate<ised not onDy t?e >est b=t ot?e< A=Dt=<es s=A? @s @nAient G<eeAe @nd Cediev@D 4@;@nF In t<yinE to @ns>e< t?is H=estion1 ?e ex;Do<es t?e <oDe oB systeCs oB not@tion in C=siA@D <@tion@Dis@tion1 t?e <oDe oB <eDiEion in ste<eoty;inE @nd t?=s Bo<C@DisinE Ae<t@in tone se<ies @ssoAi@ted >it? ;@<tiA=D@< Eods1 t?e inBD=enAe oB t?e st<=At=<e oB E=iDd o<E@nis@tions oB C=siAi@ns @nd t?e st@nd@<dis@tion oB C=siA@D inst<=CentsF ADt?o=E? Webe< neve< E@ve t?e s@Ce extended Aonside<@tion to t?e vis=@D -3!@<ts1 ?e does Aonside< t?eC in siCiD@< te<Cs in t?e Aontext oB ?is st=dies in t?e soAioDoEy oB <eDiEion C?@;te< 0b1 0A$F *e ex@Cines t?e <oDe oB C@EiA@D ste<eoty;inE in ;<iCitive <eDiEions in t?e Bo<C@tion oB styDe1 @nd oB <eAe;tiveness to t?e Aontent oB @<t in t?e Bo<C@tion oB <eDiEio=s AoCC=nityF *e ex;Do<es t?e tensions >?iA? eCe<Ee bet>een @<t @nd Co<e <@tion@Dised 5inteDDeAt=@Dised5 text-b@sed <eDiEions >?en <eDiEion @nd @<t @<e inA<e@sinEDy E<@s;ed @s inde;endent s;?e<es oB v@D=es in AoC;Dex soAieties >it? diBBe<enti@ted A=Dt=<@D systeCs1 @nd t?e <@;;<oA?eCents bet>een @<t @nd <eDiEion C@de in s=A? ;?enoCen@ @s CystiAisCF ADt?o=E? b<ieB1 t?ese ;@ss@Ees @<e ?=EeDy s=EEestive oB t?e Jinds oB AoC;@<@tive st=dy oB t?e soAi@D @nd A=Dt=<@D dyn@CiAs oB @<tistiA <@tion@Dis@tion >?iA? >o=Dd b<inE t?e soAioDoEy oB @<t to t?e s@Ce DeveD oB so;?istiA@tion @s ot?e< BieDds in t?e soAioDoEy oB A=Dt=<eF

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SiCCeD is ;e<?@;s t?e Cost inteDDeAt=@DDy eD=sive oB t?e Eene<@tion oB AD@ssiA@D soAioDoEiA@D t?eo<istsF Bot? ?is C@<Ein@D ;osition exAD=ded =ntiD s?o<tDy beBo<e ?is de@t? B<oC seA=<inE @ A?@i< on @AAo=nt oB ?is 4e>is? et?niAity @nd soAi@Dist syC;@t?ies$ @nd t?e ;oo<Dy instit=tion@Dised st@t=s oB soAioDoEy in Ge<C@ny in t?e D@te nineteent? @nd e@<Dy t>entiet? Aent=<ies @BBo<ded SiCCeD t?e B<eedoC to <@nEe in ?is DeAt=<es @nd ><itinEs ove< t?eCes t?@t >o=Dd no> be Aonside<ed H=ite distinAt7 ?isto<y oB ;?iDoso;?y1 @est?etiAs1 e;isteCoDoEy1 soAioDoEy EtKJo<n !9)"$F %?e e@<Dy <eAe;tion oB SiCCeD in EnEDis?-s;e@JinE soAioDoEy in t?e t>entiet? Aent=<y eC;?@sised t?e @;;@<entDy Co<e s;eAiBiA@DDy soAioDoEiA@D @s;eAts oB ?is >o<J7 inte<@Ation1 AonBDiAt1 st<=At=<es oB ineH=@Dity @nd doCin@tionF -o<e <eAentDy1 t?e<e ?@s been @ Aonside<@bDe <eviv@D oB inte<est in ?is >o<J1 in ;@<t beA@=se ?is @ttention to @est?etiA iss=es A@n be ;e<?@;s @n@A?<onistiA@DDy$ inte<;<eted @s @ntiAi;@tinE iC;o<t@nt t?eCes oB ;ostCode<n t?eo<y 2<isby !9"!1 !9")/ Weinstein @nd Weinstein !993$F Bot? @;;<o@A?es in Ae<t@in <es;eAts Cis<e@d SiCCeD in AoC;DeCent@<y >@ysF Bot? t<e@t @est?etiA iss=es @s iss=es oB s=<B@Ae7 Bo< t?e <ed=Ationist st<@nd in soAioDoEy @est?etiAs is e;i;?enoCen@ s=;e<BiAi@D eBBeAts1 dete<Cined by @n =nde<DyinE soAi@D @nd eAonoCiA b@se$/ Bo< t?e ;ostCode<nists1 inBD=enAed by st<=At=<@Dist t?eo<ies oB D@nE=@Ee @nd A=Dt=<e1 <e;<esent@tion@D s=<B@Ae is @DD t?e<e is1 @nd t?e se@<A? Bo< @n =nde<DyinE <e@Dity is Cis;D@AedF W?@t seeCs to Ce inte<estinE @bo=t SiCCeD is t?@t ?e t<e@ts @est?etiA Bo<C @s @ Eene<@tive dee; ;?enoCenon >it?in t?e soAi@D o<de< @nd

Aonve<seDy1 soAioDoEiA@D ;<inAi;Des oB o<de<inE @s @est?etiA@DDy Eene<@tive B<oC >it?in @<t <@t?e< t?@n @s exte<n@D dete<Cin@ntsF SiCCeD1 dee;Dy inBD=enAed by bot? NietKsA?e @nd AonteC;o<@<y neo-K@nti@n t?o=E?t1 >@s B@sAin@ted by t?e inte<<eD@tions?i; bet>een DiBe @nd Bo<C1 ene<Ey @nd t?e ;@tte<ns by >?iA? s=A? ene<Ey is Aont<oDDed @nd s?@;ed D@vis !9.3$F LiJe Webe<1 ?e <eE@<ded t?e E<o>inE @=tonoCy oB eAonoCiA DiBe @s one AoC;onent oB @ Co<e Eene<@D ;<oAess in >?iA? @DD A=Dt=<@D Bo<Cs - @<t1 sAienAe1 soAi@biDity itseDB - >e<e beAoCinE inA<e@sinEDy @=tonoCo=sF *e <eE@<ded Code<nity @s beinE A?@<@Ate<ised by @n inA<e@sinE iCb@D@nAe bet>een t?e 5s=bGeAtive A=Dt=<e5 oB t?e individ=@D1 @nd t?e 5obGeAtive A=Dt=<e5 oB t?e inA<e@sinEDy @=tonoCo=s @nd seDB-o<E@nisinE soAi@D @nd -30A=Dt=<@D doC@ins - eAonoCy1 ;oDitiAs1 @<t1 sAienAeF %?e E<o>inE doCin@nAe oB obGeAtive A=Dt=<e t?<e@tened s=bGeAtive A=Dt=<eF As SA?iDDe< @nd Webe< ?@d noted1 it b<oJe do>n t?e inteE<@tion oB t?e individ=@D @s @ v@D=e in ?iCseDB1 bot? t?<o=E? t?e AonBDiAtinE deC@nds t?@t e@A? oB t?e doC@ins oB obGeAtive A=Dt=<e ;D@Aed on t?e individ=@D1 @nd t?<o=E? Ao<<es;ondinE s?iBts in ed=A@tion@D ide@Ds1 B<oC t?e Bo<C@tion oB 5C@n5 5@s @ ;e<son@D inne< v@D=e5 to Code<n inst<=Cent@D @nd voA@tion@D t<@ininE Bo< @ s;eAiBiA B=nAtion@D t@sJ SiCCeD !9'.1 &&9$F 2=<t?e<Co<e1 t?e E<o>t? oB obGeAtive A=Dt=<e C@de it Co<e diBBiA=Dt Bo< individ=@Ds to Bo<C @ ;e<son@D <eD@tions?i; >it? t?e C@te<i@D obGeAts >it? >?iA? t?ey s=<<o=nded t?eCseDves in eve<yd@y DiBeF In ;@<t1 t?is diBBiA=Dty is @ B=nAtion oB t?e s?ee< H=@ntity oB t?e obGeAts/ in ;@<t oB t?e inA<e@sinE obGeAtiBiA@tion oB <eD@tions?i;s oB ;<od=Ation @nd Aons=C;tion7 t?e <eD@tions?i; oB t?e Code<n Aons=Ce< to C@ss-C@n=B@At=<ed obGeAts is @ >?oDDy exte<n@D one in AoC;@<ison >it? oDde< t<@ditions oB t?e A=stoC-C@de >o<J1 >?e<e t?e o>ne<5s s=bGeAtive @nd ;e<son@D needs ente< Co<e intiC@teDy into t?e s?@;inE oB t?e Bin@D ;<od=At SiCCeD !9'.1 &#.-)'$F SiCCeD sees s=A? distinAtiveDy Code<n ;?enoCen@ @s B@s?ion @nd t?e AonteC;o<@<y sense oB styDe @s ;<od=Ats oB t?e @dv@nAe oB obGeAtive A=Dt=<eF %?e styDes - inAD=dinE t?e ADot?inE styDes - oB s=A? E<e@t AiviDiK@tions @s G<eeAe @nd C?in@ >e<e <eD@tiveDy sDo>-A?@nEinE @nd <eD@tiveDy ?oCoEeneo=s1 E<o=nded in t?e v@D=e-o<ient@tions @nd >@y oB DiBe oB t?e doCin@nt eDites oB t?ose soAietiesF %?@t Jind oB ;e<son@D <eD@tions?i; to styDe @nd ADot?inE is no DonEe< ;ossibDe in t?e Aontext oB t?e Code<n B@s?ion systeC >?iA? o;e<@tes @AAo<dinE to its o>n @=tononCo=s DoEiA1 i<<es;eAtive oB t?e Aons=Ce<5s A@;@Aity to invest t?e Bo<Cs oB B@s?ion >it? s=bGeAtive v@D=eF SiCiD@<Dy1 t?e styDistiA ;D=<@DisC in E@<dens1 B=<nit=<e @nd inte<io< desiEn C@de @v@iD@bDe t?<o=E? booJs @nd desiEn ind=st<y - B<oC C?inese to -o<oAA@n1 S>edis? to 4@;@nese @bst<@Ats Bo<C B<oC its DiBe Aontext1 C@JinE =s seDB-AonsAio=sDy @>@<e oB 5styDe @s @n inde;endent B@Ato< >it? @n @=tonoCo=s DiBe51 @t t?e s@Ce tiCe @s it beAoCes inA<e@sinEDy diBBiA=Dt to invest @ny ;@<tiA=D@< styDe >it? s=bGeAtive Ce@ninE !9'.1 &)!-&/ !9'&$F SiCCeD5s AonAe;tion oB 5Bo<C5 extends beyond t?e <@t?e< DiCited Ce@ninE t?e >o<d ?@s in AonteC;o<@<y @est?etiAs @nd @<t ?isto<y1 beinE ne@<e< to @n A<istoteDi@n sense oB soCe =nde<DyinE Bo<C@tive ;<inAi;De t?@n t?e @<t-?isto<iA@D AonAe;t oB sens=o=s @;;e@<@nAeF *e s=EEested t?@t one oB t?e ;<iC@<y Eo@Ds oB Eene<@D soAioDoEy >@s to disAove< t?e Bo<C@D ;<o;e<ties oB soAi@D DiBe1 in @bst<@Ation B<oC t?e ;@<tiA=D@< inte<ests @nd Aontents t?<o=E? >?iA? soAi@D DiBe >@s <e@Dised in AonA<ete ?isto<iA@D inst@nAesF SiCCeD ex;Do<ed t?e diBBe<inE st<=At=<e oB inte<@Ation in dy@diA @nd t<i@diA <eD@tions?i;s1 in <eD@tions oB s=;e<o<din@tion @nd s=bo<din@tion1 @nd s=A? B=nd@Cent@D Bo<Cs oB <eD@tions?i; @s t<=st @nd B@it?Dessness1 seA<eAy @nd o;enness1 E<@tit=de @nd inE<@tit=deF *is ;<oGeAt - ex;Do<inE t?e B=nd@Cent@D Bo<C@D o<de<inE ;<inAi;Des oB soAi@D DiBe - is not dissiCiD@< to WIDBBDin5s ex;Do<@tion oB t?e B=nd@Cent@D diCensions >it?in >?iA? ;iAto<i@D o<de< CiE?t be Aonst<=AtedF SiCCeD1 ?o>eve<1 diBBe<s B<oC WIDBBDin in insistinE on t?e C=t=@D eCbeddinE oB t?e soAioDoEiA@D @nd t?e @est?etiA in t?ese Aonstit=tive Bo<CsF In @n ess@y 5On @est?etiA H=@ntities5 !9'3b$1 t?inJinE @DonE

siCiD@< Dines to WIDBBDin5s eC;@t?etiA @AAo=nt oB @<A?iteAt=<e in Renaissance and Baro2ue !"""$1 SiCCeD ex;Do<es t?e <eD@tions?i; bet>een t?e siC;De siKe oB @ ;@intinE1 t?e ;<o;o<tion oB o=< vis=@D BieDd it BiDDs @nd @ soAioDoEiA@DDy dete<Cined sense oB -33t?e ;<o;<iety oB @AAo<dinE v@<yinE DeveDs oB @est?etiA iC;o<t@nAe to diBBe<ent s=bGeAt C@tte<sF In @ n=Cbe< oB ess@ys !9'3@/ !9'"$1 SiCCeD Eives @ C@<veDDo=sDy sensitive @AAo=nt oB t?e <oDe oB t?e B@Ae1 Bi<st in Aonst<=AtinE1 <eE=D@tinE @nd s?@;inE t?e A?@<@Ate< oB soAi@D inte<@Ations1 @nd seAond1 by @n@DoEiA@D t<@nsBe<enAe1 in st<=At=<inE t?e s?@;e oB enE@EeCent >it? >o<Js oB vis=@D @<tF In @ sense1 t?ese ess@ys ;<ovide t?e soAioDoEiA@D @nd ;?enoCenoDoEiA@D E<o=nd Bo< RieED5s Co<e ;=<eDy @est?etiAisinE @AAo=nt oB st<=At=<es oB be?oDdinE in ,oll8ndische $ru((en(ortr8t 3utch $rou( Portraits$ !9'0$F %?e seDeAted <e@dinE1 B<oC @n ess@y entitDed 5SoAioDoEiA@D @est?etiAs5 !"9)$1 ex;Do<es t?e soAi@D B=nAtions oB syCCet<y in soAi@D st<=At=<e @nd E<o=; o<E@nis@tion1 @nd in ;@<tiA=D@< syCCet<iA@D styDis@tion oB soAi@D DiBe in soAi@Dist @nd ot?e< =to;i@s1 in Aont<@st >it? Co<e individ=@DistiA @est?etiA ide@Ds A?@<@Ate<istiA oB bo=<Eeois Code<nityF

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ECiDe D=<J?eiC5s soAioDoEy so=E?t to @dd<ess t?e b<e@Jdo>n oB t?e oDd Co<@D o<de< >?iA? A?@<@Ate<ised t?e bi<t? oB Code<n soAiety1 @nd to iDD=Cin@te @nd ;<oCote @ ne> Co<@D o<de< @;;<o;<i@te to t?e ne> Aonditions oB soAi@D DiBeF *is Bi<st st=dy1 The 3ivision of )a'our in Society !"93$1 desA<ibed t?e evoD=tion oB Co<@Dity @nd t?e Bo<Cs oB soAi@D soDid@<ity in t?e t<@nsition B<oC siC;De to AoC;Dex soAietiesF -eCbe<s oB siC;De soAieties1 D=<J?eiC s=EEests1 @<e A?@<@Ate<ised by t?ei< siCiD@<ity to e@A? ot?e<1 e@A? ;e<Bo<CinE siCiD@< <oDes >it?in E<o=;s >?iA? d=;DiA@te e@A? ot?e< @nd @<e <eD@ted to e@A? ot?e< by Ce<e G=xt@;osition1 >it? @ <eD@tiveDy AonA<ete set oB Co<@D no<Cs <eE=D@tinE inte<@Ation - 5CeA?@niA@D soDid@<ity5F In Code<n soAieties >it? @ ve<y ?iE? division oB D@bo=<1 by Aont<@st1 ;eo;De @<e <eD@ted to e@A? ot?e< t?<o=E? diBBe<enAe @nd B=nAtion@D inte<de;endenAe1 @nd t?ei< s?@<ed Co<@Dity t@Jes t?e Bo<C oB @bst<@At o< Eene<@Dised v@D=es <@t?e< t?@n s;eAiBiA AonA<ete no<Cs oB Aond=At 5o<E@niA soDid@<ity5F W?e<e soCe1 s=A? @s eAonoCists @nd =tiDit@<i@ns1 @<E=ed t?@t Code<n soAieties1 =nDiJe t<@diton@D AoCC=nities1 >e<e tot@DDy @toCised @nd A?@<@Ate<ised onDy by individ=@D ;=<s=it oB seDB-inte<est1 D=<J?eiC s?o>ed t?@t even s=A? @;;@<entDy tot@DDy individ=@Dised <eD@tions?i;s @s t?ose ente<ed into on t?e b@sis oB @ Aont<@At >e<e =nde<><itten by 5non-Aont<@At=@D eDeCents oB Aont<@At51 t@Jen-Bo<E<@nted <=Des DiCitinE >?@t Ao=Dd be @E<eed o< dis;osed oB by Aont<@At1 Bo< ex@C;De t?@t @ >o<Je< Ao=Dd not Aont<@At ?iCseDB into sD@ve<yF %?e b@sis oB t?ese nonAont<@At=@D eDeCents oB Aont<@At >e<e1 @AAo<dinE to D=<J?eiC1 Ae<t@in t<=t?s ?eDd to be seDB-evident @nd s@A<ed >it?in t?e AoDDeAtive AonsAienAe oB t?e Co<@D AoCC=nity1 Cost not@bDy t?e v@D=e oB t?e individ=@D @nd B<eedoCF %?ese v@D=es >e<e E=@<@nteed @bove @DD by t?e st@te @nd AeDeb<@ted in t?e A=DtiA @Ats oB t?e AiviA <eDiEion oB 2<enA? st@te @nd AiviA Ae<eConi@Ds s=A? @s B@stiDDe D@yF D=<J?eiC5s D@te< st=dies @DD extend t?ese e@<Dy ex;Do<@tions into t?e n@t=<e1 B=nAtioninE @nd b@ses oB Co<@D o<de<F *is Bin@D E<e@t st=dy - The &lementary *orms of Religious )ife !9!0$ - s?iBts t?e BoA=s oB @ttention B<oC t?e A?@nEinE n@t=<e oB Co<@D o<de<1 @nd t?e Aonditions >?iA? ;<oCote o< e<ode soAi@D soDid@<ity1 to B=nd@Cent@D H=estions @bo=t t?e CeA?@nisCs by >?iA? @tt@A?Cent to t?e E<o=; @nd its -3&Aonstit=tive v@D=es is A<e@ted in t?e Bi<st ;D@AeF D=<J?eiC seDeAted A=st<@Di@n Abo<iEin@D <eDiEio=s DiBe Bo< t?e ;=<;oses oB t?is st=dy1 on t?e E<o=nds t?@t t?e

;<@AtiAes oB ;eo;De DivinE in t?e siC;Dest Jno>n soAieties >o=Dd <eve@D t?e ;?enoCen@ in H=estion in t?ei< ADe@<est @s;eAt @nd t?ei< Cost B=nd@Cent@D Bo<CF 2o< t?e ;=<;oses oB @ soAioDoEy oB @<t1 t?e Cost iC;o<t@nt ;@<t oB t?is st=dy is D=<J?eiC5s @AAo=nt oB t?e <oDe ;D@yed by toteCiA <e;<esent@tions in <it=@D @nd eve<yd@y DiBe @ConEst t?e Abo<iEinesF *e<e D=<J?eiC deveDo;s @n @AAo=nt oB siEniBiA@tion @nd AoCC=niA@tion >?iA? ex;D@ins ?o> E<o=; sentiCents A@n be s?@<ed by individ=@Ds1 @nd in ;@<tiA=D@< t?e A<=Ai@D ;D@Ae oB ;<@AtiAes oB C@te<i@D <e;<esent@tion in s=A? ;<oAessesF CoCC=niA@tive inte<@Ation E<o=nded in C@te<i@D <e;<esent@tion is seen @s t?e B=nd@Cent@D b@sis oB t?e soAi@D o<de<F %?e Bi<st seDeAtion C?@;te< &@$ desA<ibes t?e n@t=<e @nd =se oB toteCiA <e;<esent@tions >it?in t?e E<o=; @nd <it=@D DiBe oB t?e Abo<iEines @nd ot?e< siC;De soAietiesF OB ;@<tiA=D@< iC;o<t@nAe is t?e eC;?@sis D=<J?eiC ;D@Aes on t?e 5@<bit<@<y5 o< soAi@DDy Aonvention@D Ce@ninE @;;Died to <e;<esent@tions oB E<o=;s5 toteCsF %?e v@D=e oB s=A? toteCs1 bot? t?e @At=@D @niC@Ds >?iA? B=nAtion @s t?e syCboDs oB E<o=;s @nd t?e C@te<i@D <e;<esent@tions oB s=A? @niC@Ds in sA=D;t=<es o< body-;@intinEs1 ?@s Dess to do >it? t?e @At=@D @niC@Ds in H=estion1 o< oB t?e <eseCbD@nAe oB BiE=<@D <e;<esent@tions to t?ose @niC@Ds1 t?@n >it? t?e ;D@Ae oB @ny s=A? toteCiA siEn in t?e >?oDe systeC oB siEns >?iA? distinE=is?es @nd <eD@tes E<o=;s bot? to e@A? ot?e< @nd to t?e n@t=<@D envi<onCent in >?iA? t?ey DiveF %?is @AAo=nt oB t?e Aonvention@D A?@<@Ate< oB siEns @ntiAi;@tes @nd C@y ?@ve inBD=enAed$ t?e inBD=enti@D st<=At=<@Dist t?eo<y oB D@nE=@Ee deveDo;ed by t?e S>iss DinE=ist 2e<din@nd de S@=ss=<e !9!./ L@yton !99!1 9&$F %?e DinE=istiA CodeD oB st<=At=<@DisC ?@s ;<ovided @ ?=EeDy inBD=enti@D ;@<@diEC in @nt?<o;oDoEy1 @bove @DD t?<o=E? t?e >o<J oB CD@=de LSvi-St<@=ss1 >?o @Dso =sed st<=At=<@Dist Cet?ods in t?e @n@Dysis oB @<t !9#"@1 b1 !9.#$1 @nd in A=Dt=<@D st=dies Co<e >ideDy1 inAD=dinE @<t ?isto<y B@D @nd B<yson !99!$F St<=At=<@DisC ;<ovided @ <iEo<o=s CodeD Bo< deAodinE A=Dt=<@D texts @s D@nE=@Ees >it? t?ei< o>n inte<n@D st<=At=<e @nd Ao?e<enAe1 i<<ed=AibDe to eit?e< exte<n@D <eBe<ents o< to soCe ex;<ession oB @n =nde<DyinE soAi@D b@seF In t?is <es;eAt1 it ?@d st<onE ;@<@DDeDs >it? Bo<C@DisC in @<t ?isto<y1 b=t1 DiJe iAonoE<@;?y1 >@s @Dso st<onEDy o<iented to H=estions oB Ce@ninE1 not G=st styDistiA desA<i;tion A<E@n !9.#/ *@senC=eDDe< !9."$F 2<oC @s e@<Dy @s t?e !9)'s st<=At=<@DisC >@s A<itiAised Bo< its Bo<C@DisC @nd its in@biDity to @dd<ess H=estions oB ;o>e<F %?inJe<s dee;Dy inBD=enAed by st<=At=<@Dist ide@s1 s=A? @s B@<t?es @nd 2o=A@=Dt1 so=E?t to @dd<ess t?ese A<itiAisCs by deveDo;inE >?@t @<e Jno>n @s 5;ost-st<=At=<@Dist5 t?eo<ies >?iA? seeJ to Eo beyond ;=<eDy DinE=istiA CodeDs oB A=Dt=<@D @n@DysisF 2o=A@=Dt1 in ;@<tiA=D@<1 deveDo;ed t?e AonAe;t oB 5disAo=<se5 to s?o> ?o> DinE=istiA =tte<@nAes o< texts Ao=Dd not onDy be deAoded @s ?@vinE @ Ce@ninE b=t @Dso ?@d ;@<tiA=D@< soAi@D eBBeAts1 A<e@tinE @nd deBininE soAi@D <eD@tions?i;s1 in ;@<tiA=D@< <eD@tions?i;s oB ;o>e< @nd doCin@tionF -ediA@D texts seeJinE to desA<ibe @nd @n@Dyse C@dness in t?e nineteent? Aent=<y1 Bo< ex@C;De1 did not Ce<eDy C@Je C@dness @n obGeAt oB sAientiBiA Jno>DedEe1 t?ey deBined @Dso t?e <eD@tions?i; bet>een CediAine @nd t?e ;=t@tiveDy ins@ne @s one oB @=t?o<ity @nd ;o>e<1 DeEitiC@tinE t?e deveDo;Cent oB @ >?oDe net>o<J oB ;syA?i@t<iA instit=tions @nd CediA@D disAi;Dines >it?in >?iA? @ ;o;=D@tion oB C@<Ein@D ;eo;De >@s inA@<Ae<@ted @nd Aont<oDDed 2o=A@=Dt !9.3$F 2<oC @ soAioDoEiA@D ;e<s;eAtive1 C=A? ;ost-st<=At=<@Dist -3#t?o=E?t stiDD seeCs too ?e@viDy s?@;ed by t?e CodeD oB D@nE=@Ee1 @nd not s=BBiAientDy so to @DDo> t?e <eD@tive @=tonoCy oB t?e soAi@D o<de< B<oC A=Dt=<e1 @nd indeed t?e extent to >?iA? A=Dt=<e is soAi@DDy s?@;ed @nd Aonst<=Ated 2<@nJ !9"9$F %o =se -@nn?eiC5s te<Cs1 ;ost-st<=At=<@DisC C@Jes 5EenetiA5 inte<;<et@tion 5iCC@nent51 seeinE <eD@tions?i;s oB ;o>e< @nd soDid@<ity @s siC;Dy eBBeAts oB D@nE=@Ee o< disAo=<seF %?e seAond seDeAtion B<oC D=<J?eiC5s &lementary *orms C?@;te< &b$ s=EEests ?o> t?e ;o>e< oB st<=At=<@Dist CodeDs oB A=Dt=<e CiE?t ?@ve been AoCbined >it? @ ;<o;e< <es;eAt Bo< Co<e s;eAiBiA@DDy soAioDoEiA@D DeveDs oB @<E=CentF In ;@<tiA=D@<1 D=<J?eiC s?o>s t?@t toteCiA siEns do not siC;Dy @ssist in t?e AD@ssiBiA@tion oB distinAt b=t <eD@ted soAi@D E<o=;s @nd t?ei< <eD@tions?i; to t?e n@t=<@D envi<onCent1 @s t?e st<onEDy AoEnitive sD@nt oB AD@ssiA st<=At=<@DisC >o=Dd s=EEest LSvi-St<@=ss !9)0$F

%?ey B=nAtion @Dso to s=st@in sentiCents o< BeeDinEs oB s?@<ed AoCC=n@D CeCbe<s?i;F Indeed1 t?e ve<y eBBiA@Ay oB toteCiA syCboDs @s systeCs oB AD@ssiBiA@tion @nd <e;<esent@tion de;ends =;on t?ei< ;e<iodiA intensiBiA@tion @nd <ene>@D in t?e intensive <it=@D inte<@Ations oB <eDiEio=s Bestiv@DsF S=A? intensive soAi@D inte<@Ation @nd t?e ;syA?oDoEiA@D ent?=si@sC o< 5AoDDeAtive eBBe<vesAenAe5 to >?iA? it Eives <ise1 not onDy ;<oCotes t?e inte<n@Dis@tion oB t?ese systeCs oB <e;<esent@tion in individ=@D ;e<son@Dities1 it endo>s t?eC >it? @ Co<@D @nd @BBeAtive Ce@ninE >?iA? de<ives B<oC soAiety itseDBF SoAiety A<e@tes1 Eives Bo<Ae to @nd <ene>s t?e syCboDiA D@nE=@Ees it =ses/ it is not siC;Dy @n eBBeAt o< A<e@t=<e oB D@nE=@EeF D=<J?eiCi@n soAioDoEy1 in bot? its o<iEin@D B=nAtion@Dist @nd its D@te< st<=At=<@Dist ve<sions1 ?@s been ?=EeDy inBD=enti@D in t?e @nt?<o;oDoEy oB @<t L@yton !99!1 93-9/ -=nn !9)&$F Wit?in t?e soAioDoEy oB @<t t?e onDy siEniBiA@nt BoDDo>e< oB D=<J?eiC >@s ,ie<<e 2<@nA@steD >?ose >o<J ?@s ?@d @n oddDy C@<Ein@D st@t=s in bot? t?e ?isto<y @nd soAioDoEy oB @<t B=<Je !9.!$F 2<@nA@steD t@Jes ?is ins;i<@tion B<oC D=<J?eiC5s st=dies oB syCboDiA AD@ssiBiA@tion in @<E=inE1 @E@inst -@<xists s=A? @s Ant@D1 t?@t @<t is not Ce<eDy @n ex;<ession oB AD@ss ideoDoEy o< @n e;i;?enoCenon oB soAi@D st<=At=<e b=t @n o;e<@tive systeC oB <e;<esent@tion >?iA? @Ats <eAi;<oA@DDy on soAiety >it? its o>n s;eAiBiA eBBeAtsF LiJe D=<J?eiC1 2<@nA@steD !9)'1 !9)#$ @<E=es t?@t t?e <e;<esent@tion@D sA?eC@s >?iA? Aonstit=te @<tistiA D@nE=@Ees @<e de<ived B<oC ;<o;e<ties oB soAi@D st<=At=<e1 in ;@<tiA=D@< A?@<@Ate<istiA Codes oB inte<@Ation bet>een individ=@D ?=C@ns @nd bet>een ?=C@ns @nd n@t=<e1 @nd t?e A?@<@Ate<istiA ;@tte<ns oB Cotiv@tion to >?iA? s=A? st<=At=<es Eive <iseF UnDiJe t?e st<=At=<@Dists1 ?o>eve<1 2<@nA@steD is dee;Dy insistent on t?e s;eAiBiAity oB vis=@D @<t1 <eDi@nt on ;@<tiA=D@< Ce@ns oB <e;<esent@tion - Dine1 AoDo=<1 DiE?t1 voD=Ce1 <eDieB1 s?@de - H=ite distinAt B<oC t?ose oB D@nE=@Ee1 @nd ?enAe distinAtive in its Code oB C@te<i@D @Ation >it?in soAietyF 2<@nA@steD C@int@ined ADose DinJs >it? t?e Annales sA?ooD oB ?isto<i@ns1 Ded by L=Aien 2ebv<e @nd 2e<n@nd B<@=deD B=<Je !99'$1 b=t >it?in @<t ?isto<y1 t?e soAioDoEy oB @<t @nd A=Dt=<@D st=dies ?e seeCs to ?@ve s=BBe<ed neEDeAt @s @ <es=Dt oB ?is A<itiAisCs oB t?e doCin@nt ;@<@diECs oB iAonoE<@;?y1 st<=At=<@DisC @nd -@<xisCF D=viEn@=d !9.0$ d<@>s on D=<J?eiCi@n ide@s in seeJinE to est@bDis? @n @AAo=nt oB t?e @<tistiA siEn @s @ Cedi@to< bet>een ?=C@n-n@t=<e systeCs @nd ?=C@n-?=C@n systeCs1 @nd @Dso in ?is s=EEestion t?@t @<tistiA A<e@tivity is Cost intense in ;e<iods oB anomie>?en t<@dition@D no<Cs @<e no DonEe< B=nAtioninEF -ost <eAentDy @ ne> De@se oB DiBe to D=<J?eiCi@n soAioDoEy oB @<t ?@s been Eiven by K@<en Ce<=Do5s !99#$ s=;e<b st=dy oB t?e

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Note(
! 0 -y @AAo=nt oB t?e disAi;Din@<y B=nAtion oB AD@ssiA@D soAioDoEiA@D t?eo<y BoDDo>s t?@t oB ADex@nde< !9".F See Bo< ex@C;De7 ,@<sons !9)& soAioDoEy @nd ;syA?o@n@Dysis$1 LidK @nd LidK !9.) soAioDoEy @nd ,i@Eet5s AoEnitive ;syA?oDoEy$1 SA?>@<tK !9"! soAioDoEy @nd st<=At=<@DisC$1 W=t?no> !9"9 soAioDoEy @nd ;ost-st<=At=<@Dist A=Dt=<@D @n@Dysis$F -3.-

"ha3ter &
Karl +ar,

+ARF S+ AND ART % STORY BaC SO" AL 9E N$ AND SO" AL "ONS" O!SNESS
Ext<@At B<oC ,<eB@Ae to A ontri'ution to the riti2ue of Political &conomy. *rom !arx and &ngels on )iterature and Art. -osAo>1 ,<oE<ess ,=bDis?e<s1 !9.)1 ;;F &!-0F O<iEin@D ;=bDiA@tion !"#9F N T%E SO" AL 'ROD!"T ON oB t?ei< DiBe1 Cen ente< into deBinite <eD@tions t?@t @<e indis;ens@bDe @nd inde;endent oB t?ei< >iDD1 <eD@tions oB ;<od=Ation >?iA? Ao<<es;ond to @ deBinite st@Ee oB deveDo;Cent oB t?ei< C@te<i@D ;<od=Ative Bo<AesF %?e s=C tot@D oB t?ese <eD@tions oB ;<od=Ation Aonstit=tes t?e eAonoCiA st<=At=<e oB soAiety1 t?e <e@D Bo=nd@tion1 on >?iA? <ises @ DeE@D @nd ;oDitiA@D s=;e<-st<=At=<e @nd to >?iA? Ao<<es;ond deBinite Bo<Cs oB soAi@D AonsAio=snessF %?e Code oB ;<od=Ation oB C@te<i@D DiBe Aonditions t?e soAi@D1 ;oDitiA@D @nd inteDDeAt=@D DiBe ;<oAess in Eene<@DF It is not t?e AonsAio=sness oB Cen t?@t dete<Cines t?ei< beinE1 b=t1 on t?e Aont<@<y1 t?ei< soAi@D beinE t?@t dete<Cines t?ei< AonsAio=snessF At @ Ae<t@in st@Ee oB t?ei< deveDo;Cent1 t?e C@te<i@D ;<od=Ative Bo<Aes oB soAiety AoCe in AonBDiAt >it? t?e existinE <eD@tions oB ;<od=Ation1 o< - >?@t is b=t @ DeE@D ex;<ession Bo< t?e s@Ce t?inE - >it? t?e ;<o;e<ty <eD@tions >it?in >?iA? t?ey ?@ve been @t >o<J ?it?e<toF 2<oC Bo<Cs oB deveDo;Cent oB t?e ;<od=Ative Bo<Aes t?ese <eD@tions t=<n into t?ei< Bette<sF %?en beEins @n e;oA? oB soAi@D <evoD=tionF Wit? t?e A?@nEe oB t?e eAonoCiA Bo=nd@tion t?e enti<e iCCense s=;e<st<=At=<e is Co<e o< Dess <@;idDy t<@nsBo<CedF In Aonside<inE s=A? t<@nsBo<C@tions @ distinAtion s?o=Dd @D>@ys be C@de bet>een t?e C@te<i@D t<@nsBo<C@tion oB t?e eAonoCiA Aonditions oB ;<od=Ation1 >?iA? A@n be dete<Cined >it? t?e ;<eAision oB n@t=<@D sAienAe1 @nd t?e DeE@D1 ;oDitiA@D1 <eDiEio=s1 @est?etiA o< ;?iDoso;?iA - in s?o<t1 ideoDoEiA@D Bo<Cs in >?iA? Cen beAoCe AonsAio=s oB t?is AonBDiAt @nd BiE?t it o=tF 4=st @s o=< o;inion oB @n individ=@D is not b@sed on >?@t ?e t?inJs oB ?iCseDB1 so A@n >e not G=dEe oB s=A? @ ;e<iod oB t<@nsBo<C@tion by its o>n AonsAio=sness/ on t?e Aont<@<y1 t?is AonsAio=sness C=st be ex;D@ined <@t?e< B<oC t?e Aont<@diAtions oB C@te<i@D DiBe1 B<oC t?e -39existinE AonBDiAt bet>een t?e soAi@D ;<od=Ative Bo<Aes @nd t?e <eD@tions oB ;<od=AtionF No soAi@D o<de< eve< ;e<is?es beBo<e @DD t?e ;<od=Ative Bo<Aes Bo< >?iA? t?e<e is <ooC in it ?@ve deveDo;ed/ @nd ne>1 ?iE?e< <eD@tions oB ;<od=Ation neve< @;;e@< beBo<e t?e C@te<i@D Aonditions oB t?ei< existenAe ?@ve C@t=<ed in t?e >oCb oB t?e oDd soAiety itseDBF %?e<eBo<e C@nJind @D>@ys sets itseDB onDy s=A? t@sJs @s it A@n soDve/ sinAe1 DooJinE @t t?e C@tte< Co<e ADoseDy1 it >iDD @D>@ys be Bo=nd t?@t t?e t@sJ itseDB @<ises onDy >?en t?e C@te<i@D Aonditions Bo< its soD=tion @D<e@dy exist o< @<e @t De@st in t?e ;<oAess oB Bo<C@tionF In b<o@d o=tDine Asi@tiA1 @nAient1 Be=d@D1 @nd Code<n bo=<Eeois Codes oB ;<od=Ation A@n be desiEn@ted @s ;<oE<essive e;oA?s in t?e eAonoCiA Bo<C@tion oB soAietyF %?e bo=<Eeois <eD@tions oB ;<od=Ation @<e t?e D@st @nt@EonistiA Bo<C oB t?e soAi@D ;<oAess oB ;<od=Ation - @nt@EonistiA not in t?e sense oB individ=@D @nt@EonisC1 b=t oB one @<isinE B<oC t?e soAi@D Aonditions oB DiBe oB t?e individ=@Ds/ @t t?e s@Ce tiCe t?e ;<od=Ative Bo<Aes deveDo;inE in t?e >oCb oB bo=<Eeois soAiety A<e@te t?e C@te<i@D Aonditions Bo< t?e soD=tion oB t?@t @nt@EonisCF %?is soAi@D Bo<C@tion b<inEs1 t?e<eBo<e1 t?e ;<e?isto<y oB ?=C@n soAiety to @ ADoseF

BbC
ART AND DEOLO$Y
Ext<@Ats B<oC The $erman Ideology. 2<oC !arx and &ngels on )iterature and Art. -osAo>1 ,<oE<ess ,=bDis?e<s1 !9.)1 ;;F &0-&1 .'-3F O<iEin@D ;=bDiA@tion !"&#()F

T%E 'ROD!"T ON O= DEAS1 oB AonAe;tions1 oB AonsAio=sness1 is @t Bi<st di<eAtDy inte<>oven >it? t?e C@te<i@D @Ativity @nd t?e C@te<i@D inte<Ao=<se oB Cen - t?e D@nE=@Ee oB <e@D DiBeF ConAeivinE1 t?inJinE1 t?e Cent@D inte<Ao=<se oB Cen @t t?is st@Ee stiDD @;;e@< @s t?e di<eAt eBBD=x oB t?ei< C@te<i@D be?@vio=<F %?e s@Ce @;;Dies to Cent@D ;<od=Ation @s ex;<essed in t?e D@nE=@Ee oB t?e ;oDitiAs1 D@>s1 Co<@Dity1 <eDiEion1 Cet@;?ysiAs1 etAF1 oB @ ;eo;DeF -en @<e t?e ;<od=Ae<s oB t?ei< AonAe;tions1 ide@s1 etAF1 t?@t is1 <e@D1 @Ative Cen1 @s t?ey @<e Aonditioned by @ deBinite deveDo;Cent oB t?ei< ;<od=Ative Bo<Aes @nd oB t?e inte<Ao=<se Ao<<es;ondinE to t?ese1 =; to its B=<t?est Bo<CsF ConsAio=sness 8das Bewusstsein9 A@n neve< be @nyt?inE eDse t?@n AonsAio=s beinE 8das 'ewusste Sein91 @nd t?e beinE oB Cen is t?ei< @At=@D DiBe;<oAessF IB in @DD ideoDoEy Cen @nd t?ei< <eD@tions @;;e@< =;side-do>n @s in @ camera o'scura1 t?is ;?enoCenon @<ises G=st @s C=A? B<oC t?ei< ?isto<iA@D DiBe-;<oAess @s t?e inve<sion oB obGeAts on t?e <etin@ does B<oC t?ei< ;?ysiA@D DiBe-;<oAessF In di<eAt Aont<@st to Ge<C@n ;?iDoso;?y >?iA? desAends B<oC ?e@ven to e@<t?1 ?e<e it is @ C@tte< oB @sAendinE B<oC e@<t? to ?e@venF %?@t is to s@y1 not oB settinE o=t B<oC >?@t Cen s@y1 iC@Eine1 AonAeive1 no< B<oC Cen @s n@<<@ted1 t?o=E?t oB1 iC@Eined1 AonAeived1 in o<de< to @<<ive @t Cen in t?e BDes?/ b=t oB settinE o=t B<oC <e@D1 @Ative Cen1 @nd on t?e b@sis oB t?ei< <e@D DiBe-;<oAess deConst<@tinE t?e deveDo;Cent oB t?e ideoDoEiA@D <eBDexes @nd eA?oes oB t?is DiBe-;<oAessF %?e ;?@ntoCs Bo<Ced in t?e b<@ins oB Cen @<e @Dso1 neAess@<iDy1 s=bDiC@tes oB t?ei< C@te<i@D

-40DiBe-;<oAess1 >?iA? is eC;i<iA@DDy ve<iBi@bDe @nd bo=nd to C@te<i@D ;<eCisesF -o<@Dity1 <eDiEion1 Cet@;?ysiAs1 @nd @DD t?e <est oB ideoDoEy @s >eDD @s t?e Bo<Cs oB AonsAio=sness Ao<<es;ondinE to t?ese1 t?=s no DonEe< <et@in t?e seCbD@nAe oB inde;endenAeF %?ey ?@ve no ?isto<y1 no deveDo;Cent/ b=t Cen1 deveDo;inE t?ei< C@te<i@D ;<od=Ation @nd t?ei< C@te<i@D inte<Ao=<se1 @Dte<1 @DonE >it? t?is t?ei< @At=@D >o<Dd1 @Dso t?ei< t?inJinE @nd t?e ;<od=Ats oB t?ei< t?inJinEF It is not AonsAio=sness t?@t dete<Cines DiBe1 b=t DiBe t?@t dete<Cines AonsAio=snessF 2o< t?e Bi<st C@nne< oB @;;<o@A? t?e st@<tinE-;oint is AonsAio=sness t@Jen @s t?e DivinE individ=@D/ Bo< t?e seAond C@nne< oB @;;<o@A?1 >?iA? AonBo<Cs to <e@D DiBe1 it is t?e <e@D DivinE individ=@Ds t?eCseDves1 @nd AonsAio=sness is Aonside<ed soDeDy @s their AonsAio=snessF %?is C@nne< oB @;;<o@A? is not devoid oB ;<eCisesF It st@<ts o=t B<oC t?e <e@D ;<eCises @nd does not @b@ndon t?eC Bo< @ CoCentF Its ;<eCises @<e Cen1 not in @ny B@nt@stiA isoD@tion @nd Bixity1 b=t in t?ei< @At=@D1 eC;i<iA@DDy ;e<Ae;tibDe ;<oAess oB deveDo;Cent =nde< deBinite AonditionsF As soon @s t?is @Ative DiBe-;<oAess is desA<ibed1 ?isto<y Ae@ses to be @ AoDDeAtion oB de@d B@Ats1 @s it is >it? t?e eC;i<iAists t?eCseDves stiDD @bst<@At$1 o< @n iC@Eined @Ativity oB iC@Eined s=bGeAts1 @s >it? t?e ide@DistsF W?e<e s;eA=D@tion ends1 >?e<e <e@D DiBe st@<ts1 t?e<e AonseH=entDy beEins <e@D1 ;ositive sAienAe1 t?e ex;o=ndinE oB t?e ;<@AtiA@D @Ativity1 oB t?e ;<@AtiA@D ;<oAess oB deveDo;Cent oB CenF EC;ty ;?<@ses @bo=t AonsAio=sness end1 @nd <e@D Jno>DedEe ?@s to t@Je t?ei< ;D@AeF W?en t?e <e@Dity is desA<ibed1 @ seDB-s=BBiAient ;?iDoso;?y 8die sel'st8ndige Philoso(hie9 Doses its Cedi=C oB existenAeF At t?e best its ;D@Ae A@n onDy be t@Jen by @ s=CCinE-=; oB t?e Cost Eene<@D <es=Dts1 @bst<@Ations >?iA? @<e de<ived B<oC t?e obse<v@tion oB t?e ?isto<iA@D deveDo;Cent oB CenF %?ese @bst<@Ations in t?eCseDves1 divo<Aed B<oC <e@D ?isto<y1 ?@ve no v@D=e >?@tsoeve<F %?ey A@n onDy se<ve to B@AiDit@te t?e @<<@nEeCent oB ?isto<iA@D C@te<i@D1 to indiA@te t?e seH=enAe oB its se;@<@te st<@t@F B=t t?ey by no Ce@ns @BBo<d @ <eAi;e o< sA?eC@1 @s does ;?iDoso;?y1 Bo< ne@tDy t<iCCinE t?e e;oA?s oB ?isto<yF On t?e Aont<@<y1 t?e diBBiA=Dties beEin onDy >?en one sets @bo=t t?e ex@Cin@tion @nd @<<@nEeCent oB t?e C@te<i@D - >?et?e< oB @ ;@st e;oA? o< oB t?e ;<esent - @nd its

@At=@D ;<esent@tionF 8O9 %?e ide@s oB t?e <=DinE AD@ss @<e in eve<y e;oA? t?e <=DinE ide@s7 iFeF1 t?e AD@ss >?iA? is t?e <=DinE material Bo<Ae oB soAiety is @t t?e s@Ce tiCe its <=DinE intellectual Bo<AeF %?e AD@ss >?iA? ?@s t?e Ce@ns oB C@te<i@D ;<od=Ation @t its dis;os@D1 AonseH=entDy @Dso Aont<oDs t?e Ce@ns oB Cent@D ;<od=Ation1 so t?@t t?e ide@s oB t?ose >?o D@AJ t?e Ce@ns oB Cent@D ;<od=Ation @<e on t?e >?oDe s=bGeAt to itF %?e <=DinE ide@s @<e not?inE Co<e t?@n t?e ide@D ex;<ession oB t?e doCin@nt C@te<i@D <eD@tions/ t?e doCin@nt C@te<i@D <eD@tions E<@s;ed @s ide@s/ ?enAe oB t?e <eD@tions >?iA? C@Je t?e one AD@ss t?e <=DinE one1 t?e<eBo<e1 t?e ide@s oB its doCin@nAeF %?e individ=@Ds AoC;osinE t?e <=DinE AD@ss ;ossess @ConE ot?e< t?inEs AonsAio=sness1 @nd t?e<eBo<e t?inJF InsoB@<1 t?e<eBo<e1 @s t?ey <=De @s @ AD@ss @nd dete<Cine t?e extent @nd AoC;@ss oB @n ?isto<iA@D e;oA?1 it is seDB-evident t?@t t?ey do t?is in its >?oDe <@nEe1 ?enAe @ConE ot?e< t?inEs <=De @Dso @s t?inJe<s1 @s ;<od=Ae<s oB ide@s1 @nd <eE=D@te t?e ;<od=Ation @nd dist<ib=tion oB t?e ide@s oB t?ei< @Ee7 t?=s t?ei< ide@s @<e t?e <=DinE ide@s oB t?e e;oA?F 2o< inst@nAe1 in @n @Ee @nd in @ Ao=nt<y >?e<e <oy@D ;o>e<1 @<istoA<@Ay @nd bo=<Eeoisie @<e AontendinE Bo< doCin@tion @nd >?e<e1 t?e<eBo<e1 -&!doCin@tion is s?@<ed1 t?e doAt<ine oB t?e se;@<@tion oB ;o>e<s ;<oves to be t?e doCin@nt ide@ @nd is ex;<essed @s @n 5ete<n@D D@>5F %?e division oB D@bo=<1 >?iA? >e @D<e@dy s@> @bove @s one oB t?e A?ieB Bo<Aes oB ?isto<y =; tiDD no>1 C@niBests itseDB @Dso in t?e <=DinE AD@ss @s t?e division oB Cent@D @nd C@te<i@D D@bo=<1 so t?@t inside t?is AD@ss one ;@<t @;;e@<s @s t?e t?inJe<s oB t?e AD@ss its @Ative1 AonAe;tive ideoDoEists1 >?o C@Je t?e Bo<C@tion oB t?e iDD=sions oB t?e AD@ss @bo=t itseDB t?ei< A?ieB so=<Ae oB DiveDi?ood$1 >?iDe t?e ot?e<s5 @ttit=de to t?ese ide@s @nd iDD=sions is Co<e ;@ssive @nd <eAe;tive1 beA@=se t?ey @<e in <e@Dity t?e @Ative CeCbe<s oB t?is AD@ss @nd ?@ve Dess tiCe to C@Je =; iDD=sions @nd ide@s @bo=t t?eCseDvesF Wit?in t?is AD@ss t?is ADe@v@Ee A@n even deveDo; into @ Ae<t@in o;;osition @nd ?ostiDity bet>een t?e t>o ;@<ts1 b=t >?eneve< @ ;<@AtiA@D AoDDision oAA=<s in >?iA? t?e AD@ss itseDB is end@nEe<ed t?ey @=toC@tiA@DDy v@nis?1 in >?iA? A@se t?e<e @Dso v@nis?es t?e @;;e@<@nAe oB t?e <=DinE ide@s beinE not t?e ide@s oB t?e <=DinE AD@ss @nd ?@vinE @ ;o>e< distinAt B<oC t?e ;o>e< oB t?is AD@ssF %?e existenAe oB <evoD=tion@<y ide@s in @ ;@<tiA=D@< ;e<iod ;<es=;;oses t?e existenAe oB @ <evoD=tion@<y AD@ss/ @bo=t t?e ;<eCises oB t?e D@tte< s=BBiAient ?@s @D<e@dy been s@id @boveF IB no> in Aonside<inE t?e Ao=<se oB ?isto<y >e det@A? t?e ide@s oB t?e <=DinE AD@ss B<oC t?e <=DinE AD@ss itseDB @nd @tt<ib=te to t?eC @n inde;endent existenAe1 iB >e AonBine o=<seDves to s@yinE t?@t t?ese o< t?ose ide@s >e<e doCin@nt @t @ Eiven tiCe1 >it?o=t bot?e<inE o=<seDves @bo=t t?e Aonditions oB ;<od=Ation @nd t?e ;<od=Ae<s oB t?ese ide@s1 iB >e t?=s iEno<e t?e individ=@Ds @nd >o<Dd Aonditions >?iA? @<e t?e so=<Ae oB t?e ide@s1 t?en >e A@n s@y1 Bo< inst@nAe1 that during t?e tiCe t?@t t?e @<istoA<@Ay >@s doCin@nt1 t?e AonAe;ts ?ono=<1 Doy@Dty1 etAF1 >e<e doCin@nt1 d=<inE t?e doCin@nAe oB t?e bo=<Eeoisie t?e AonAe;ts B<eedoC1 eH=@Dity1 etAF %?e <=DinE AD@ss itseDB on t?e >?oDe iC@Eines t?is to be soF %?is AonAe;tion oB ?isto<y1 >?iA? is AoCCon to @DD ?isto<i@ns1 ;@<tiA=D@<Dy sinAe t?e eiE?teent? Aent=<y1 >iDD neAess@<iDy AoCe =; @E@inst t?e ;?enoCenon t?@t eve< Co<e @bst<@At ide@s ?oDd s>@y1 iFeF1 ide@s >?iA? inA<e@sinEDy t@Je on t?e Bo<C oB =nive<s@DityF 2o< e@A? ne> AD@ss >?iA? ;=ts itseDB in t?e ;D@Ae oB one <=DinE beBo<e it is AoC;eDDed1 Ce<eDy in o<de< to A@<<y t?<o=E? its @iC1 to ;<esent its inte<est @s t?e AoCCon inte<est oB @DD t?e CeCbe<s oB soAiety1 t?@t is1 ex;<essed in ide@D Bo<C7 it ?@s to Eive its ide@s t?e Bo<C oB =nive<s@Dity1 @nd ;<esent t?eC @s t?e onDy <@tion@D1 =nive<s@DDy v@Did onesF %?e AD@ss C@JinE @ <evoD=tion AoCes Bo<>@<d B<oC t?e ve<y st@<t1 iB onDy beA@=se it is o;;osed to @ class1 not @s @ AD@ss b=t @s t?e <e;<esent@tive oB t?e >?oDe oB soAiety1 @s t?e >?oDe C@ss oB soAiety

AonB<ontinE t?e one <=DinE AD@ssF It A@n do t?is beA@=se initi@DDy its inte<est <e@DDy is @s yet CostDy AonneAted >it? t?e AoCCon inte<est oB @DD ot?e< non-<=DinE AD@sses1 beA@=se =nde< t?e ;<ess=<e oB ?it?e<to existinE Aonditions its inte<est ?@s not yet been @bDe to deveDo; @s t?e ;@<tiA=D@< inte<est oB @ ;@<tiA=D@< AD@ssF Its viAto<y1 t?e<eBo<e1 beneBits @Dso C@ny individ=@Ds oB ot?e< AD@sses >?iA? @<e not >inninE @ doCin@nt ;osition1 b=t onDy insoB@< @s it no> en@bDes t?ese individ=@Ds to <@ise t?eCseDves into t?e <=DinE AD@ssF W?en t?e 2<enA? bo=<Eeoisie ove<t?<e> t?e <=De oB t?e @<istoA<@Ay1 it t?e<eby C@de it ;ossibDe Bo< C@ny ;<oDet@<i@ns to <@ise t?eCseDves @bove t?e ;<oDet@<i@t1 b=t onDy insoB@< @s t?ey beA@Ce bo=<EeoisF Eve<y ne> AD@ss1 t?e<eBo<e1 @A?ieves doCin@tion onDy on @ b<o@de< b@sis t?@n t?@t oB t?e AD@ss <=DinE ;<evio=sDy/ on t?e ot?e< ?@nd t?e o;;osition oB t?e non-<=DinE AD@ss to t?e ne> <=DinE AD@ss t?en deveDo;s @DD t?e Co<e s?@<;Dy @nd ;<oBo=ndDyF Bot? t?ese t?inEs

-42dete<Cine t?e B@At t?@t t?e st<=EEDe to be >@Eed @E@inst t?is ne> <=DinE AD@ss1 in its t=<n1 @iCs @t @ Co<e deAided @nd <@diA@D neE@tion oB t?e ;<evio=s Aonditions oB soAiety t?@n Ao=Dd @DD ;<evio=s AD@sses >?iA? so=E?t to <=DeF %?is >?oDe @;;e@<@nAe1 t?@t t?e <=De oB @ Ae<t@in AD@ss is onDy t?e <=De oB Ae<t@in ide@s1 AoCes to @ n@t=<@D end1 oB Ao=<se1 @s soon @s AD@ss <=De in Eene<@D Ae@ses to be t?e Bo<C in >?iA? soAiety is o<E@nised1 t?@t is to s@y1 @s soon @s it is no DonEe< neAess@<y to <e;<esent @ ;@<tiA=D@< inte<est @s Eene<@D o< t?e 5Eene<@D inte<est5 @s <=DinEF

BcC
% STOR "AL DE?ELO'+ENT AND "!LT!RAL TRAD T ONS
Ext<@Ats B<oC $rundrisse @nd B<oC 9:th Brumaire. 2<oC !arx and &ngels on )iterature and Art. -osAo>1 ,<oE<ess ,=bDis?e<s1 !9.)1 ;;F "0-&1 .9-"!F O<iEin@D ;=bDiA@tions !"#.("1 !"#0F T%E !NEG!AL DE?ELO'+ENT O= material (roduction and e.g.- that of artF %?e AonAe;t oB ;<oE<ess is on t?e >?oDe not to be =nde<stood in t?e =s=@D @bst<@At Bo<CF -ode<n @<t1 etAF %?is dis;<o;o<tion is not @s iC;o<t@nt @nd diBBiA=Dt to E<@s; @s >it?in AonA<ete soAi@D <eD@tions1 eFEF1 in ed=A@tionF ReD@tions oB t?e United St@tes to E=<o;eF *o>eve<1 t?e <e@DDy diBBiA=Dt ;oint to be disA=ssed ?e<e is ?o> t?e <eD@tions oB ;<od=Ation @s DeE@D <eD@tions t@Je ;@<t in t?is =neven deveDo;CentF 2o< ex@C;De t?e <eD@tion oB RoC@n AiviD D@> t?is @;;Dies in sC@DDe< Ce@s=<e to A<iCin@D @nd Aonstit=tion@D D@>$ to Code<n ;<od=AtionF This conce(tion a((ears to 'e an inevita'le develo(mentF B=t vindiA@tion oB A?@nAeF *o>6 2<eedoC1 etAF1 @s >eDDF$ InBD=enAe oB t?e Ce@ns oB AoCC=niA@tionF Wo<Dd ?isto<y did not @D>@ys exist/ ?isto<y @s >o<Dd ?isto<y is @ <es=DtF$ The starting (oint is of course the naturally determined factors; 'oth su'<ective and o'<ectiveF %<ibes1 <@Aes1 etAF As <eE@<ds @<t1 it is >eDD Jno>n t?@t soCe oB its ;e@Js by no Ce@ns Ao<<es;ond to t?e Eene<@D deveDo;Cent oB soAiety/ no< do t?ey t?e<eBo<e to t?e C@te<i@D s=bst<=At=<e1 t?e sJeDeton @s it >e<e oB its o<E@nis@tionF 2o< ex@C;De t?e G<eeJs AoC;@<ed >it? Code<n 8n@tions91 o< eDse S?@Jes;e@<eF It is even @AJno>DedEed t?@t Ae<t@in b<@nA?es oB @<t1 e.g.1 t?e e(os1 A@n no DonEe< be ;<od=Aed in t?ei< e;oA?-C@JinE AD@ssiA Bo<C @Bte< @<tistiA ;<od=Ation @s s=A? ?@s beE=n/ in ot?e< >o<ds1 t?@t Ae<t@in iC;o<t@nt A<e@tions >it?in t?e AoC;@ss oB @<t @<e onDy ;ossibDe @t @n e@<Dy st@Ee in t?e deveDo;Cent oB @<tF IB t?is is t?e A@se >it? <eE@<d to diBBe<ent b<@nA?es oB @<t >it?in t?e s;?e<e oB @<t itseDB1 it is not so

<eC@<J@bDe t?@t t?is s?o=Dd @Dso be t?e A@se >it? <eE@<d to t?e enti<e s;?e<e oB @<t @nd its <eD@tion to t?e Eene<@D deveDo;Cent oB soAietyF %?e diBBiA=Dty Dies onDy in t?e Eene<@D Bo<C=D@tion oB t?ese Aont<@diAtionsF As soon @s t?ey @<e <ed=Aed to s;eAiBiA H=estions t?ey @<e @D<e@dy ex;D@inedF -&3Let =s t@Je1 Bo< ex@C;De1 t?e <eD@tion oB G<eeJ @<t1 @nd t?@t oB S?@Jes;e@<e1 to t?e ;<esent tiCeF We Jno> t?@t G<eeJ Cyt?oDoEy is not onDy t?e @<sen@D oB G<eeJ @<t1 b=t @Dso its b@sisF Is t?e AonAe;tion oB n@t=<e @nd oB soAi@D <eD@tions >?iA? =nde<Dies G<eeJ iC@Ein@tion @nd t?e<eBo<e G<eeJ 8@<t9 ;ossibDe >?en t?e<e @<e seDB-@AtinE C=Des1 <@iD>@ys1 DoAoCotives @nd eDeAt<iA teDeE<@;?s6 W?@t is @ +=DA@n AoC;@<ed >it? Robe<ts @nd CoF1 4=;ite< AoC;@<ed >it? t?e DiE?tninE Aond=Ato<1 @nd *e<Ces AoC;@<ed >it? t?e r/dit mo'ilier6 ADD Cyt?oDoEy s=bd=es1 Aont<oDs @nd B@s?ions t?e Bo<Aes oB n@t=<e in t?e iC@Ein@tion @nd t?<o=E? iC@Ein@tion/ it dis@;;e@<s t?e<eBo<e >?en <e@D Aont<oD ove< t?ese Bo<Aes is est@bDis?edF W?@t beAoCes oB 2@C@ side by side >it? ,<intinE *o=se SH=@<e6 G<eeJ @<t ;<es=;;oses G<eeJ Cyt?oDoEy1 in ot?e< >o<ds t?@t n@t=<@D @nd soAi@D ;?enoCen@ @<e @D<e@dy @ssiCiD@ted in @n =nintention@DDy @<tistiA C@nne< by t?e iC@Ein@tion oB t?e ;eo;DeF %?is is t?e C@te<i@D oB G<eeJ @<t1 not G=st @ny Cyt?oDoEy1 i.e.1 not eve<y =nAonsAio=sDy @<tistiA @ssiCiD@tion oB n@t=<e ?e<e t?e te<C AoC;<ises @DD ;?ysiA@D ;?enoCen@1 inAD=dinE soAiety$/ EEy;ti@n Cyt?oDoEy Ao=Dd neve< beAoCe t?e b@sis oB o< Eive <ise to G<eeJ @<tF B=t @t @ny <@te 8it ;<es=;;oses9 @ Cyt?oDoEy/ on no @AAo=nt ?o>eve< @ soAi@D deveDo;Cent >?iA? ;<eAD=des @ Cyt?oDoEiA@D @ttit=de to>@<ds n@t=<e1 i.e.1 @ny @ttit=de to n@t=<e >?iA? CiE?t Eive <ise to Cyt?/ @ soAiety t?e<eBo<e deC@ndinE B<oC t?e @<tist @n iC@Ein@tion inde;endent oB Cyt?oDoEyF ReE@<ded B<oC @not?e< @s;eAt7 is AA?iDDes ;ossibDe >?en ;o>de< @nd s?ot ?@ve been invented6 And is t?e Iliad ;ossibDe @t @DD >?en t?e ;<intinE ;<ess @nd even ;<intinE C@A?ines exist6 Is it not inevit@bDe t?@t >it? t?e eCe<EenAe oB t?e ;<ess b@< t?e sinEinE @nd t?e teDDinE @nd t?e C=se Ae@se1 t?@t is t?e Aonditions neAess@<y Bo< e;iA ;oet<y dis@;;e@<6 %?e diBBiA=Dty >e @<e AonB<onted >it? is not1 ?o>eve<1 t?@t oB =nde<st@ndinE ?o> G<eeJ @<t @nd e;iA ;oet<y @<e @ssoAi@ted >it? Ae<t@in Bo<Cs oB soAi@D deveDo;CentF %?e diBBiA=Dty is t?@t t?ey stiDD Eive =s @est?etiA ;De@s=<e @nd @<e in Ae<t@in <es;eAts <eE@<ded @s @ st@nd@<d @nd =n@tt@in@bDe ide@DF An @d=Dt A@nnot beAoCe @ A?iDd @E@in1 o< ?e beAoCes A?iDdis?F B=t does t?e n@TvetS oB t?e A?iDd not Eive ?iC ;De@s=<e1 @nd does not ?e ?iCseDB ende@vo=< to <e;<od=Ae t?e A?iDd5s ve<@Aity on @ ?iE?e< DeveD6 Does not t?e A?iDd in eve<y e;oA? <e;<esent t?e A?@<@Ate< oB t?e ;e<iod in its n@t=<@D ve<@Aity6 W?y s?o=Dd not t?e ?isto<iA@D A?iDd?ood oB ?=C@nity1 >?e<e it @tt@ined its Cost be@=tiB=D Bo<C1 exe<t @n ete<n@D A?@<C beA@=se it is @ st@Ee t?@t >iDD neve< <eA=<6 %?e<e @<e <=de A?iDd<en @nd ;<eAoAio=s A?iDd<enF -@ny oB t?e @nAient ;eo;Des beDonE to t?is A@teEo<yF %?e G<eeJs >e<e no<C@D A?iDd<enF %?e A?@<C t?ei< @<t ?@s Bo< =s does not AonBDiAt >it? t?e iCC@t=<e st@Ee oB t?e soAiety in >?iA? it o<iEin@tedF On t?e Aont<@<y its A?@<C is @ AonseH=enAe oB t?is @nd is inse;@<@bDy DinJed >it? t?e B@At t?@t t?e iCC@t=<e soAi@D Aonditions >?iA? E@ve <ise1 @nd >?iA? @Done Ao=Dd Eive <ise1 to t?is @<t A@nnot <eA=<F 8O9 +EN +AKE T%E R OWN ?isto<y1 b=t t?ey do not C@Je it G=st @s t?ey ;De@se/ t?ey do not C@Je it =nde< Ai<A=Cst@nAes A?osen by t?eCseDves1 b=t =nde< Ai<A=Cst@nAes di<eAtDy enAo=nte<ed1 Eiven @nd t<@nsCitted B<oC t?e ;@stF %?e t<@dition oB @DD t?e de@d Eene<@tions >eiE?s DiJe @ niE?tC@<e on t?e b<@in oB t?e DivinEF And G=st >?en t?ey seeC enE@Eed in <evoD=tionisinE t?eCseDves @nd t?inEs1

in A<e@tinE soCet?inE t?@t ?@s neve< yet existed1 ;<eAiseDy in s=A? ;e<iods oB <evo-&&D=tion@<y A<isis t?ey @nxio=sDy AonG=<e =; t?e s;i<its oB t?e ;@st to t?ei< se<viAe @nd bo<<o> B<oC t?eC n@Ces1 b@ttDe A<ies @nd Aost=Ces in o<de< to ;<esent t?e ne> sAene oB >o<Dd ?isto<y in t?is tiCe-?ono=<ed disE=ise @nd t?is bo<<o>ed D@nE=@EeF %?=s L=t?e< donned t?e C@sJ oB t?e A;ostDe ,@=D1 t?e RevoD=tion oB !."9 to !"!& d<@;ed itseDB @Dte<n@teDy @s t?e RoC@n <e;=bDiA @nd t?e RoC@n eC;i<e1 @nd t?e RevoD=tion oB !"&" Jne> not?inE bette< to do t?@n to ;@<ody1 no> !."91 no> t?e <evoD=tion@<y t<@dition oB !.93 to !.9#F In DiJe C@nne< @ beEinne< >?o ?@s De@<nt @ ne> D@nE=@Ee @D>@ys t<@nsD@tes it b@AJ into ?is Cot?e< tonE=e1 b=t ?e ?@s @ssiCiD@ted t?e s;i<it oB t?e ne> D@nE=@Ee @nd A@n B<eeDy ex;<ess ?iCseDB in it onDy >?en ?e Binds ?is >@y in it >it?o=t <eA@DDinE t?e oDd @nd Bo<Eets ?is n@tive tonE=e in t?e =se oB t?e ne>F Conside<@tion oB t?is AonG=<inE =; oB t?e de@d oB >o<Dd ?isto<y <eve@Ds @t onAe @ s@Dient diBBe<enAeF C@CiDDe DesCo=Dins1 D@nton1 Robes;ie<<e1 S@int-4=st1 N@;oDeon1 t?e ?e<oes @s >eDD @s t?e ;@<ties @nd t?e C@sses oB t?e oDd 2<enA? RevoD=tion1 ;e<Bo<Ced t?e t@sJ oB t?ei< tiCe in RoC@n Aost=Ce @nd >it? RoC@n ;?<@ses1 t?e t@sJ oB =nA?@ininE @nd settinE =; Code<n 'ourgeois soAietyF %?e Bi<st ones JnoAJed t?e Be=d@D b@sis to ;ieAes @nd Co>ed oBB t?e Be=d@D ?e@ds >?iA? ?@d E<o>n on itF %?e ot?e< A<e@ted inside 2<@nAe t?e Aonditions =nde< >?iA? @Done B<ee AoC;etition Ao=Dd be deveDo;ed1 ;@<AeDDed D@nded ;<o;e<ty ex;Doited @nd t?e =nA?@ined ind=st<i@D ;<od=Ative ;o>e< oB t?e n@tion eC;Doyed/ @nd beyond t?e 2<enA? bo<de<s ?e eve<y>?e<e s>e;t t?e Be=d@D instit=tions @>@y1 so B@< @s >@s neAess@<y to B=<nis? bo=<Eeois soAiety in 2<@nAe >it? @ s=it@bDe =;-to-d@te envi<onCent on t?e E=<o;e@n ContinentF %?e ne> soAi@D Bo<C@tion onAe est@bDis?ed1 t?e @ntediD=vi@n CoDossi dis@;;e@<ed @nd >it? t?eC <es=<<eAted RoC@nity - t?e B<=t=ses1 G<@AA?i1 ,=bDiAoD@s1 t?e t<ib=nes1 t?e sen@to<s1 @nd C@es@< ?iCseDBF Bo=<Eeois soAiety in its sobe< <e@Dity ?@d beEotten its t<=e inte<;<ete<s @nd Co=t?;ieAes in t?e S@ys1 Co=sins1 Roye<CoDD@<ds1 BenG@Cin Const@nts @nd G=iKots/ its <e@D CiDit@<y De@de<s s@t be?ind t?e oBBiAe desJs1 @nd t?e ?oE?e@ded Lo=is :+III >@s its ;oDitiA@D A?ieBF W?oDDy @bso<bed in t?e ;<od=Ation oB >e@Dt? @nd in ;e@AeB=D AoC;etitive st<=EEDe1 it no DonEe< AoC;<e?ended t?@t E?osts B<oC t?e d@ys oB RoCe ?@d >@tA?ed ove< its A<@dDeF B=t =n?e<oiA @s bo=<Eeois soAiety is1 it neve<t?eDess tooJ ?e<oisC1 s@A<iBiAe1 te<<o<1 AiviD >@< @nd b@ttDes oB ;eo;Des to b<inE it into beinEF And in t?e AD@ssiA@DDy @=ste<e t<@ditions oB t?e RoC@n <e;=bDiA its ED@di@to<s Bo=nd t?e ide@Ds @nd t?e @<t Bo<Cs1 t?e seDB-deAe;tions t?@t t?ey needed in o<de< to AonAe@D B<oC t?eCseDves t?e bo=<Eeois DiCit@tions oB t?e Aontent oB t?ei< st<=EEDes @nd to Jee; t?ei< ent?=si@sC on t?e ?iE? ;D@ne oB t?e E<e@t ?isto<iA@D t<@EedyF SiCiD@<Dy1 @t @not?e< st@Ee oB deveDo;Cent1 @ Aent=<y e@<Die<1 C<oC>eDD @nd t?e EnEDis? ;eo;De ?@d bo<<o>ed s;eeA?1 ;@ssions @nd iDD=sions B<oC t?e ODd %est@Cent Bo< t?ei< bo=<Eeois <evoD=tionF W?en t?e <e@D @iC ?@d been @A?ieved1 >?en t?e bo=<Eeois t<@nsBo<C@tion oB EnEDis? soAiety ?@d been @AAoC;Dis?ed1 LoAJe s=;;D@nted *@b@JJ=JF %?=s t?e @>@JeninE oB t?e de@d in t?ose <evoD=tions se<ved t?e ;=<;ose oB EDo<iByinE t?e ne> st<=EEDes1 not oB ;@<odyinE t?e oDd/ oB C@EniByinE t?e Eiven t@sJ in iC@Ein@tion1 not oB BDeeinE B<oC its soD=tion in <e@Dity/ oB BindinE onAe Co<e t?e s;i<it oB <evoD=tion1 not oB C@JinE its E?ost >@DJ @bo=t @E@inF -&#-

"ha3ter )
+a, Weber ART AND "!LT!RAL RAT ONAL @AT ON BaC +A$ "AL REL $ ON2 SAL?AT ON REL $ ON AND T%E E?OL!T ON O= ART
Ext<@At B<oC =wischen'etrachtung# $esammelte Aufs8t"e "ur Religionsso"iologie- voDF !1 %LbinEen1 !90'(!1 ;;F &3)-.3F O<iEin@DDy ;=bDis?ed Archiv f>r So"ialwissenschaft und So"ial(olitik- !9!#F 2<oC 5%?e <eDiEio=s <eGeAtions oB t?e >o<Dd @nd t?ei< di<eAtions51 in *F Ge<t? @nd CF W<iE?t -iDDs eds$1 *rom !ax We'er# &ssays in Sociology. Ne> Yo<J1 OxBo<d Unive<sity ,<ess1 !9&)1 ;;F 3&'-3F T%E REL $ O!S ET% " O= b<ot?e<Diness st@nds in dyn@CiA tension >it? @ny ;=<;osive-<@tion@D Aond=At t?@t BoDDo>s its o>n D@>sF In no Dess deE<ee1 t?is tension oAA=<s bet>een t?e <eDiEio=s et?iA @nd 5t?is->o<DdDy5 DiBe-Bo<Aes1 >?ose A?@<@Ate< is essenti@DDy non-<@tion@D o< b@siA@DDy @nti-<@tion@DF Above @DD1 t?e<e is tension bet>een t?e et?iA oB <eDiEio=s b<ot?e<Diness @nd t?e s;?e<es oB est?etiA @nd e<otiA DiBeF -@EiA@D <eDiEiosity st@nds in @ Cost intiC@te <eD@tion to t?e est?etiA s;?e<eF SinAe its beEinninEs1 <eDiEion ?@s been @n inex?@=stibDe Bo=nt@in oB o;;o<t=nities Bo< @<tistiA A<e@tion1 on t?e one ?@nd1 @nd oB styDiKinE t?<o=E? t<@dition@DiK@tion1 on t?e ot?e<F %?is is s?o>n in @ v@<iety oB obGeAts @nd ;<oAesses7 in idoDs1 iAons1 @nd ot?e< <eDiEio=s @<tiB@Ats/ in t?e ste<eoty;inE oB C@EiA@DDy ;<oved Bo<Cs1 >?iA? is @ Bi<st ste; in t?e ove<AoCinE oB n@t=<@DisC by @ Bix@tion oB 5styDe5/ in C=siA @s @ Ce@ns oB eAst@sy1 exo<AisC1 o< @;ot<o;@iA C@EiA/ in so<Ae<e<s @s ?oDy sinEe<s @nd d@nAe<s/ in C@EiA@DDy ;<oved @nd t?e<eBo<e C@EiA@DDy ste<eoty;ed tone <eD@tions - t?e e@<Diest ;<e;@<@to<y st@Ees in t?e deveDo;Cent oB ton@D systeCs/ in t?e C@EiA@DDy ;<oved d@nAe-ste; @s one oB t?e so=<Aes oB <?yt?C @nd @s @n eAst@sy teA?niH=e/ in teC;Des @nd A?=<A?es @s t?e D@<Eest oB @DD b=iDdinEs1 >it? t?e @<A?iteAt=<@D t@sJ beAoCinE -&)-

ste<eoty;ed @nd t?=s styDe-Bo<CinE$ @s @ AonseH=enAe oB ;=<;oses >?iA? @<e est@bDis?ed onAe Bo< @DD1 @nd >it? t?e st<=At=<@D Bo<Cs beAoCinE ste<eoty;ed t?<o=E? C@EiA@D eBBiA@Ay/ in ;@<@Cents @nd A?=<A? iC;DeCents oB @DD Jinds >?iA? ?@ve se<ved @s obGeAts oB @;;Died @<tF ADD t?ese ;<oAesses @nd obGeAts ?@ve been dis;D@yed in AonneAtion >it? t?e A?=<A?es5 @nd teC;Des5 >e@Dt? BDo>inE B<oC <eDiEio=s Ke@DF 2o< t?e <eDiEio=s et?iA oB b<ot?e<Diness1 G=st @s Bo< a (riori et?iA@D <iEo<isC1 @<t @s @ A@<<ie< oB C@EiA@D eBBeAts is not onDy dev@D=ed b=t even s=s;eAtF %?e s=bDiC@tion oB t?e <eDiEio=s et?iA @nd t?e H=est Bo< s@Dv@tion1 on t?e one ?@nd1 @nd t?e evoD=tion oB t?e in?e<ent DoEiA oB @<t1 on t?e ot?e<1 ?@ve tended to Bo<C @n inA<e@sinEDy tense <eD@tionF ADD s=bDiC@ted <eDiEions oB s@Dv@tion ?@ve BoA=sed =;on t?e Ce@ninE @Done1 not =;on t?e Bo<C1 oB t?e t?inEs @nd @Ations <eDev@nt Bo< s@Dv@tionF S@Dv@tion <eDiEions ?@ve dev@D=ed Bo<C @s AontinEent1 @s soCet?inE A<e@t=<eDy @nd dist<@AtinE B<oC Ce@ninEF On t?e ;@<t oB @<t1 ?o>eve<1 t?e n@ive <eD@tion to t?e <eDiEio=s et?iA oB b<ot?e<Diness A@n <eC@in =nb<oJen o< A@n be <e;e@tedDy <esto<ed @s DonE @nd @s oBten @s t?e AonsAio=s inte<est oB t?e <eAi;ient oB @<t is n@iveDy @tt@A?ed to t?e Aontent @nd not to t?e Bo<C @s s=A?F %?e <eD@tions?i; bet>een @ <eDiEio=s et?iA @nd @<t >iDD <eC@in ?@<Conio=s @s B@< @s @<t is AonAe<ned Bo< so DonE @s t?e A<e@tive @<tist ex;e<ienAes ?is >o<J @s <es=DtinE eit?e< B<oC @ A?@<isC@ oB

5@biDity5 o<iEin@DDy C@EiA$ o< B<oC s;ont@neo=s ;D@yF %?e deveDo;Cent oB inteDDeAt=@DisC @nd t?e <@tion@DiK@tion oB DiBe A?@nEe t?is sit=@tionF 2o< =nde< t?ese Aonditions1 @<t beAoCes @ AosCos oB Co<e @nd Co<e AonsAio=sDy E<@s;ed inde;endent v@D=es >?iA? exist in t?ei< o>n <iE?tF A<t t@Jes ove< t?e B=nAtion oB @ t?is->o<DdDy s@Dv@tion1 no C@tte< ?o> t?is C@y be inte<;<etedF It ;<ovides @ salvation B<oC t?e <o=tines oB eve<yd@y DiBe1 @nd es;eAi@DDy B<oC t?e inA<e@sinE ;<ess=<es oB t?eo<etiA@D @nd ;<@AtiA@D <@tion@DisCF Wit? t?is AD@iC to @ <edeC;to<y B=nAtion1 @<t beEins to AoC;ete di<eAtDy >it? s@Dv@tion <eDiEionF Eve<y <@tion@D <eDiEio=s et?iA C=st t=<n @E@inst t?is inne<>o<DdDy1 i<<@tion@D s@Dv@tionF 2o< in <eDiEion5s eyes1 s=A? s@Dv@tion is @ <e@DC oB i<<es;onsibDe ind=DEenAe @nd seA<et DoveDessnessF As @ C@tte< oB B@At1 t?e <eB=s@D oB Code<n Cen to @ss=Ce <es;onsibiDity Bo< Co<@D G=dECents tends to t<@nsBo<C G=dECents oB Co<@D intent into G=dECents oB t@ste 5in ;oo< t@ste5 inste@d oB 5<e;<e?ensibDe5$F %?e in@AAessibiDity oB @;;e@D B<oC est?etiA G=dECents exAD=des disA=ssionF %?is s?iBt B<oC t?e Co<@D to t?e est?etiA ev@D=@tion oB Aond=At is @ AoCCon A?@<@Ate<istiA oB inteDDeAt=@Dist e;oA?s/ it <es=Dts ;@<tDy B<oC s=bGeAtivist needs @nd ;@<tDy B<oC t?e Be@< oB @;;e@<inE n@<<o>-Cinded in @ t<@dition@Dist @nd ,?iDistine >@yF %?e et?iA@D no<C @nd its 5=nive<s@D v@Didity5 A<e@te @ AoCC=nity1 @t De@st in so B@< @s @n individ=@D CiE?t <eGeAt t?e @At oB @not?e< on Co<@D E<o=nds @nd yet stiDD B@Ae it @nd ;@<tiAi;@te in t?e AoCCon DiBeF Kno>inE ?is o>n A<e@t=<eDy >e@Jness1 t?e individ=@D ;D@Aes ?iCseDB =nde< t?e AoCCon no<CF In Aont<@st >it? t?is et?iA@D @ttit=de1 t?e esA@;e B<oC t?e neAessity oB t@JinE @ st@nd on <@tion@D1 et?iA@D E<o=nds by <eso<tinE to est?etiA ev@D=@tions may ve<y >eDD be <eE@<ded by s@Dv@tion <eDiEion @s @ ve<y b@se Bo<C oB =nb<ot?e<DinessF %o t?e A<e@tive @<tist1 ?o>eve<1 @s >eDD @s to t?e est?etiA@DDy exAited @nd <eAe;tive Cind1 t?e et?iA@D no<C @s s=A? C@y e@siDy @;;e@< @s @ Aoe<Aion oB t?ei< Een=ine A<e@tiveness @nd inne<Cost seDvesF %?e Cost i<<@tion@D Bo<C oB <eDiEio=s be?@vio<1 t?e CystiA ex;e<ienAe1 is in its inne<Cost beinE not onDy @Dien b=t ?ostiDe to @DD Bo<CF 2o<C is =nBo<t=n@te @nd inex;<essibDe to t?e CystiA beA@=se ?e beDieves ;<eAiseDy in t?e ex;e<ienAe oB ex;DodinE -&.-