August 2012 This month's newsletter is the first in a multi-part series on using the ANOVA method for an ANOVA

Gage R&R study. This method simply uses analysis of variance to analyze the results of a gage R&R study instead of the classical average and range method. The two methods do not generate the same results, but they will (in most cases) be similar. This newsletter focuses on part of the ANOVA table and how it is developed for the Gage R &R study. In particular it focuses on the sum of squares and degrees of freedom. Many people do not understand how the calculations work and the information that is contained in the sum of squares and the degrees of freedom. In the next few issues, we will put together the rest of the ANOVA table and complete the Gage R&R calculations. In this issue: Sources of Variation Example Data The ANOVA Table for Gage R&R The ANOVA Results Total Sum of Squares and Degrees of Freedom Operator Sum of Squares and Degrees of Freedom Parts Sum of Squares and Degrees of Freedom Equipment (Within) Sum of Squares and Degrees of Freedom Interaction Sum of Squares and Degrees of Freedom Summary Quick Links Any gage R&R study is a study of variation. This means you have to have variation in the results. On occasion, I get a phone call from a customer wondering why their Gage R&R study is not giving them any useful information. And, in looking at the results, I discover that each result is the same - for each part and for each operator. There is no variation. I am asked - Isn't it good that there is no variation in the results? No, not in a gage R&R study. It means that the measurement process cannot tell the difference between the samples. So remember, a gage R&R study is a study in variation - this means that there must be variation. If you are not familiar with how to conduct a Gage R&R study, please see our December 2007 newsletter. This newsletter also includes how to analyze the results using the average and range method. As usual, please feel free to leave comments at the end of the newsletter.

Sources of Variation

Suppose you are monitoring a process by pulling samples of the product at some regular interval and measuring one critical quality characteristic (X). Obviously, you will not always get the same result when measure for X. Why not? There are many sources of variation in the process. However, these sources can be grouped into three categories: variation due to the process itself variation due to sampling variation due to the measurement system These three components of variation are related by the following: where t2 is the total process variance; p2 is the process variance; s2 is the sampling variance and ms2 is the measurement system variance. Note that the relationship is linear in terms of the variance (which is the square of the standard deviation), not the standard deviation. For our purposes here, we will ignore the variance due to sampling (or more correctly, just include it as part of the process itself). However, for some processes, sampling variation can greatly impact the results. Thus, we will consider the total variance to be: Remember geometry? The right triangle? The Pythagorean Theorem? The above equation can be represented by the triangle below.

The total standard deviation, t, for a measurement is equal to the length of the hypotenuse. The process standard deviation, p, is equal to the length of one side of the triangle and the measurement system standard deviation, ms, is equal to the length of the remaining side. You can easily see from this triangle what happens as the variation in the product and measurement system changes. If the product standard deviation is larger than the measurement standard deviation, it will have the larger impact on the total standard deviation. However, if the measurement standard deviation becomes too large, it will begin to have the largest impact. Thus, the objective of improving a measurement system is to minimize the % variance due to the measurement system: % Variance due to measurement system = 100(ms2/t2)

The gage R&R study focuses on ms2. In a gage R&R study, you can break down ms2 into its two components:

Repeatability is the ability of the measurement system to repeat the same measurements on the same sample under the same conditions. It represents an assessment of the ability to get the same measurement result each time. Reproducibility is the ability of measurement system to return consistent measurements while varying the measurement conditions (different operators, different parts, etc.) It represents an assessment of the ability to reproduce the measurement of other operators. In this series, we will take a look at how the repeatability and reproducibility are determined using the ANOVA method for Gage R&R.

Example Data
We will re-use the data from our December 2007 newsletter on the average and range method for Gage R&R. In this example, there were three operators who tested five parts three times. A picture of part of the Gage R&R design is shown below.

Operator 1 will test 5 parts three times each. In the figure above, you can see that Operator 1 has tested Part 1 three times. What are the sources of variation in these three trials? It is the measurement equipment itself. The operator is the same and the part is the same. The variation in these three trials is a measure of the repeatability. It is also called the equipment variation in Gage R&R studies or the "within" variation in ANOVA studies. Operator 1 also runs Parts 2 through 5 three times each. The variation in those results includes the variation due to the parts as well as the equipment variation. Operator 2 and 3 also test the same 5 parts three times each. The variation in all results includes the equipment variation, the part variation, the operator variation and the interaction between operators and parts. The variation in all results is the reproducibility. The data from the December 2007 newsletter are shown in the table below. Operator A Part 1 Results 3.41

3.29

3.64

2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

2.44 4.34 3.47 2.2 3.08 2.53 4.19 3.01 2.44 3.04 1.62 3.88 3.14 1.54

2.32 4.17 3.5 2.08 3.25 1.78 3.94 4.03 1.8 2.89 1.87 4.09 3.2 1.93

2.42 4.27 3.64 2.16 3.07 2.32 4.34 3.2 1.72 2.85 2.04 3.67 3.11 1.55

The operator is listed in first column and the part numbers in the second column. The next three columns contain the results of the three trials for that operator and part number. For example, the three trial results for Operator A and Part 1 are 3.29, 3.41 and 3.64. We will now take a look at the ANOVA table, which is used as a starting point for analyzing the results.

The ANOVA Table for Gage R&R

In most cases, you will use computer software to do the calculations. Since this is a relatively simple Gage R&R, we will show how the calculations are done. This helps understand the process better. The software usually displays the results in an ANOVA table. The basic ANOVA table is shown in the table below for the following: k = number of appraisers r = number of replications n= number of parts

The first column is the source of variability. Remember that a Gage R&R study is a study of variation. There are five sources of variability in this ANOVA approach: the operator, the part, the interaction between the operator and part, the equipment and the total. The second column is the degrees of freedom associated with the source of variation. The degrees of freedom are simply the number of values of a statistic that are free to vary. For example, suppose you have a sample that contains n observations. We use the sample to estimate something - usually an average. When we want to estimate something, it costs us one degree of freedom. So, if we have n observations and want to estimate the average, then we have n - 1 degrees of freedom left. The third column is the sum of squares (SS) associated with the source of variation. The sum of squares is a measure of variation. It measures the squared deviations around an average. Remember what the equation for the variance is? The variance of a set of number is given by:

The sum of squares for the source of variation is very similar to the numerator. You just take the sum of squares around different averages depending on the source of variation. The fourth column is the mean square associated with the source of variation. The mean square is the estimate of the variance for that source of variability based on the amount of data we have (the degrees of freedom). So, the mean square is the sum of squares divided by the degrees of freedom. Note the similarity to the formula for the variance above.

The fifth column is the F value. This is the statistic that is calculated to determine if the source of variability is statistically significant. It is the ratio of two variances (or mean squares in this case).

The ANOVA Results

The data above were analyzed using the SPC for Excel software. The resulting ANOVA table is shown below. Source Operator Part Operator by Part Equipment Total df 2 4 8 30 44 SS 1.630 28.909 0.065 1.712 32.317 MS 0.815 7.227 0.008 0.057 F 100.322 889.458 0.142 p Value 0.0000 0.0000 0.9964

Let's see where the numbers come from.

Total Sum of Squares and Degrees of Freedom

The total sum of squares (SST) is the sum of the other sources of variability. So, SST = SS0 + SSP + SS0*P + SSE The total sum of squares is the squared deviation of each individual result from the overall average - the average of all results. The overall average of the 45 results is:

The total sum of squares is then given by:

where Xijm is the result for the ith operator running the jth part for the mth trial. This equation is simply a fancy way of saying that you subtract the average from an individual result and square that result. This is shown in the figure below for the squared deviation of the first result.

If you do this for each point and add up the results, you will obtain the following: SST = 32.317 The calculations are shown in the table below. Operator Part Trial Trial Trial 1 1 2 3 Squared Deviation Squared Deviation Squared Deviation

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

3.29 2.44 4.34 3.47 2.2 3.08 2.53 4.19 3.01 2.44 3.04 1.62 3.88 3.14 1.54

3.41 2.32 4.17 3.5 2.08 3.25 1.78 3.94 4.03 1.8 2.89 1.87 4.09 3.2 1.93

3.64 2.42 4.27 3.64 2.16 3.07 2.32 4.34 3.2 1.72 2.85 2.04 3.67 3.11 1.55 Sum

Trial 1 0.120 0.254 1.949 0.277 0.553 0.019 0.171 1.553 0.004 0.254 0.009 1.752 0.877 0.039 1.971

Trial 2 0.217 0.389 1.504 0.309 0.746 0.094 1.354 0.992 1.180 1.308 0.003 1.153 1.314 0.066 1.028 32.317

Trial 3 0.485 0.274 1.759 0.485 0.614 0.016 0.389 1.949 0.066 1.498 0.009 0.817 0.527 0.028 1.943

There were a total of 45 results. We calculated the overall average for these results. So the degrees of freedom associated with the total sum of squares are 45 - 1 = 44. This can also be calculated as nkr - 1.

Operator Sum of Squares and Degrees of Freedom

As mentioned before, you obtain the sum of squares by determining the squared deviations between two numbers. With the operator source of variability, you will obtain the squared deviations between the operator average and the overall average. Algebraically, this is given by:

where nr represents the number of results for operator i and the "i.." subscript means over all parts and trials for operator i. In this example, n = 5 and r = 3, so there are 15 results for each operator. The table below shows how the calculations are done:

Operator Parts 1 2 3 4

Trial Trial Trial 1 2 3 3.29 3.41 3.64 2.44 2.32 2.42 4.34 4.17 4.27 3.47 3.5 3.64

Operator Average 3.1567

Squared Deviation for Operator 0.0453

5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

2.2 3.08 2.53 4.19 3.01 2.44 3.04 1.62 3.88 3.14 1.54

2.08 3.25 1.78 3.94 4.03 1.8 2.89 1.87 4.09 3.2 1.93

2.16 3.07 2.9800 2.32 4.34 3.2 1.72 2.85 2.6947 2.04 3.67 3.11 1.55 Sum of Deviations 15(Sum of Deviations)

0.0013

0.0621

0.1087 1.6304

Thus, SSO = 1.6304 So, you can see that the sum of squares due to the operators is based on how the operator averages deviate from the overall average. There are three operator averages. Since we calculated the overall average, we lost one degree of freedom. The degrees of freedom associated with the operators are 3 - 1 = 2, or k -1 = 2. The variability chart below shows the results by operator by part. The horizontal blue line is the average for the operator. The horizontal green line is the overall average. The difference between those two lines is the deivation.

Parts Sum of Squares and Degrees of Freedom

The sum of square due to the parts is done in the same manner as for the operators except the average you are focusing on are the part averages. Algebraically, the equation for SSP is:

where kr is the number of results for a given part (3 operators, 3 trials) and the subscript ".j." is the average of the results for part j across all operators and trials. The table below shows the calculations. The original data has been sorted by part. Part Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Part Average Squared Deviation for Part 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 3.29 3.08 3.04 2.44 2.53 1.62 4.34 4.19 3.88 3.47 3.01 3.14 2.2 2.44 1.54 3.41 3.25 2.89 2.32 1.78 1.87 4.17 3.94 4.09 3.5 4.03 3.2 2.08 1.8 1.93 3.64 3.1689 3.07 2.85 2.42 2.1489 2.32 2.04 4.27 4.0989 4.34 3.67 3.64 3.3667 3.2 3.11 2.16 1.9356 1.72 1.55 Sum of Deviations 9(Sum of Deviations) 0.0507

0.6318

1.3343

0.1788

1.0165

3.2122 28.9094

Thus, SSP = 28.9094 Again, you can see how the sum of square due to parts is based on how the part averages deviate from the overall average. There are five parts. Again, we calculated the overall average, so one degree of freedom is lost. There are n - 1 = 5 -1 = 4 degrees of freedom associated with the parts sum of squares.

Equipment (Within) Sum of Square and Degrees of Freedom

The equipment sum of squares uses the deviation of the three trials for a given part and a given operator from the average for that part and operator. This can be expressed as:

The calculations are shown in the table below.

Interaction Sum of Square and Degrees of Freedom

We will make use of the equality stated earlier to find the interaction sum of squares. This equality was: SST = SS0 + SSP + SS0*P + SSE SS0*P = SST- (SS0 + SSP + SSE) SS0*P = 32.317 - (1.63 + 28.909 + 1.712) SS0*P = 0.065 The same equality holds for the degrees of freedom: df0*P = dfT - (df0 + dfP + dfE) df0*P =44 - (2 + 4 + 30) df0*P = 8

Summary
This is the first of a multi-part series on using ANOVA to analyze a Gage R&R study. It focused on providing a detailed explanation of how the calculations are done for the sum of squares and degrees of freedom. We will finish out the ANOVA table as well as complete the Gage R&R calculations in the coming issues.

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September 2012

This month's newsletter is the second in a multi-part series on using the ANOVA method for a Gage R&R study. This method simply uses analysis of variance to analyze the results of a gage R&R study instead of the classical average and range method. The two methods do not generate the same results, but they will (in most cases) be similar. With the ANOVA method, we will break down the variance into four components: parts, operators, interaction between parts and operators and the repeatability error due to the measurement system (or gage) itself. The first part of this series focused on part of the ANOVA table. We took an indepth look at how the sum of squares and degrees of freedom were determined. Many people do not understand how the calculations work and the information that

is contained in the sum of squares and the degrees of freedom. In this issue we will complete the ANOVA table and show how to determine the % of total variance that is due to the measurement system (the % GRR). In this issue: The Data The ANOVA Table for Gage R&R The ANOVA Table Results Expected Mean Squares The Variances of the Components The % Gage R&R Summary Quick Links As always, please feel free to leave a comment at the bottom newsletter.

The Data
We are using the data from our December 2007 newsletter on the average and range method for Gage R&R. This newsletter also explains how to set up a gage R&R study. In this example, there were three operators who tested five parts three times. A partial picture of the Gage R&R design is shown below.

Operator 1 tested each 5 parts three times. In the figure above, you can see that Operator 1 has tested Part 1 three times. What are the sources of variation in these three trials? It is the measurement equipment itself. The operator is the same and the part is the same. The variation in these three trials is a measure of the repeatability. It is also called the equipment variation in Gage R&R studies or just with the within variation in ANOVA studies. Operator 1 also runs Parts 2 through 5 three times each. The variation in those results includes the variation due to the parts as well as the equipment variation. Operator 2 and 3 also test the same 5 parts three times each. The variation in all results includes the equipment variation, the part variation, the operator variation and the interaction between operators and parts. An interaction can exist if the operator and parts are not independent. The variation due to operators is called the reproducibility. The data we are using are shown in the table below.

Operator

Part 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

3.29 2.44 4.34 3.47 2.2 3.08 2.53 4.19 3.01 2.44 3.04 1.62 3.88 3.14 1.54

Results 3.41 2.32 4.17 3.5 2.08 3.25 1.78 3.94 4.03 1.8 2.89 1.87 4.09 3.2 1.93

3.64 2.42 4.27 3.64 2.16 3.07 2.32 4.34 3.2 1.72 2.85 2.04 3.67 3.11 1.55

The ANOVA Table for Gage R&R

In most cases, you will use computer software to do the calculations. Since this is a relatively simple Gage R&R, we will show how the calculations are done. This helps understand the process better. The software usually displays the results in an ANOVA table. The basic ANOVA table is shown in the table below for the following where k = number of operators, r = number of replications, and n= number of parts.

The first column is the source of variability. Remember that a Gage R&R study is a study of variation. There are five sources of variability in this ANOVA approach: the operator, the part, the interaction between the operator and part, the equipment and the total.

The second column is the degrees of freedom associated with the source of variation. The third column is the sum of squares. The calculations with these two columns were covered in the first part of this series. The fourth column is the mean square associated with the source of variation. The mean square is the estimate of the variance for that source of variability (not necessarily by itself) based on the amount of data we have (the degrees of freedom). So, the mean square is the sum of squares divided by the degrees of freedom. We will use the mean square information to estimate the variance of each source of variation this is the key to analyzing the Gage R&R results. The fifth column is the F value. This is the statistic that is calculated to determine if the source of variability is statistically significant. It is based on the ratio of two variances (or mean squares in this case).

The ANOVA Table Results

The data was analyzed using the SPC for Excel software. The results for the ANOVA table are shown below. Source Operator Part Operator by Part Equipment Total df 2 4 8 30 44 SS 1.630 28.909 0.065 1.712 32.317 MS 0.815 7.227 0.008 0.057 F 100.322 889.458 0.142 p Value 0.0000 0.0000 0.9964

Note that there is an additional column in this output the p values. This is the column we want to examine first. If the p value is less than 0.05, it means that the source of variation has a significant impact on the results. As you can see in the table, the operator by part source is not significant. Its p value is 0.9964. Many software packages contain an option to remove the interaction if the p value is above a certain value most often 0.25. In that case, the interaction is rolled into the equipment variation. We will keep it in the calculations here though it has little impact since its mean square is so small. The next column we want to look at is the mean square column. This column is an estimate of the variance due to the source of variation. So, MSOperators = 0.815 MSParts = 7.227 MSOperators*Parts = 0.008 MSEquipment = 0.057 You might be tempted to assume, for example, that the variance due to the operators is 0.815. However, this would be wrong. There are other sources of variation present in all put one of these variances. We must use the Expected

Mean Square to find out what other sources of variation are present. We will use 2 to denote a variance due to a single source.

Expected Mean Squares

As stated above, the mean square column contains a variance that is related to the source of variation in the first column. To find the variance of each source of variation, we have to use the expected mean square (EMS). The expected mean square represents the variance that the mean square column is estimating. There are algorithms that allow you to generate the expected mean squares. This is beyond the scope of this newsletter. So, we will just present the expected mean squares. Lets start at the bottom with the equipment variation. This is really the within variation (also called error). It is the repeatability portion of the Gage R&R study. The expected mean square for equipment is the repeatability variance. The repeatability variance is the mean square of the equipment from the ANOVA table.

Now consider the interaction expected mean square which is given by:

Note that the EMS for the interaction tern contains the repeatability variance as well as the variance of the interaction between the operators and parts. This is what is estimated by the mean square of the interaction. The parts expected mean square is shown below.

Note that the EMS for parts contains the variances for repeatability, the interaction and parts. This is what is estimated by the mean square for parts. And last, the expected mean square for the operators is given by:

The EMS for operators contains the variances for repeatability, the interaction and operators. This is what the mean square for operators is estimating.

The Variances of the Components

We can solve the above equations for each individual 2. Repeatability is already related directly to the mean square for equipment so we dont need to do anything there. The other three can be solved as follows:

We can now do the calculations to estimate each of the variances.

Note that the value of the variance for the interaction between the operators and parts is actually negative. If this happens, the variance is simply set to zero.

% Gage R&R
The Measurement Systems Analysis manual published by AIAG (www.aiag.org) provides the following definition: The measurement system variation for repeatability and reproducibility (or GRR) is defined as the following: GRR2=EV2 + AV2 where EV is the equipment variance and AV is the appraiser (or operator) variance. Thus:

The total variance is the sum of the components:

We can use the total variance to determine the % contribution of each source to the total variance. This is done by dividing the variance for each source by the total variance. For example, the % variation due to GRR is given by:

The results for all the sources of variation are shown in the table below. Source Variance % of

GRR Equipment (Repeatability) Operators (Reproducibility) Interaction Parts Total

0.1109 0.0571 0.0538 0.0000 0.8021 0.9130

Total Variance 12.14% 6.25% 5.89% 0.00% 87.86% 100.00%

Based on this analysis, the measurement system is responsibility for 12.14% of the total variance. This may or may not be acceptable depending on the process and what your customer needs and wants. Note that this result is based on the total variance. It is very important that the parts you use in the Gage R&R study represent the range of values you will get from production. One of the major problems people have with Gage R&R studies is selecting samples that do not truly reflect the range of production. If you have to do that, you can begin to look at how the results compare to specifications. We will take a look at that next month as we compare the ANOVA method to the Average and Range method for analyzing a Gage R&R experiment. You could also use a variance calculated directly from a month's worth of production in place of the total variance in the analysis.

Summary
In this newsletter, we continued our exploration of the using ANOVA to analyze a Gage R&R experiment. We completed the ANOVA table, presented the expected mean squares and how to use those to estimate the variances of the components, and showed how to determine the %GRR as a percent of the total variance. In the next newsletter, we will compare the ANOVA method to the Average and Range method for Gage R&R.

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