Power and RMS Values of Fourier Series
Power and RMS Values of Fourier Series
Power and RMS Values of Fourier Series
1. Average power
Let us consider the transmission of i(t)
Let us investigate the relationship between the harmonic content of the voltage and current
waveforms, and the average power. Substitution of the Fourier series, Eq. (1), into Eq. (3)
yields
T
∞ ∞
ΣV ΣI
1 (4)
Pav = V0 + n cos nωt – ϕ n I0 + n cos nωt – θ n dt
T 0
n=1 n=1
To evaluate this integral, we must multiply out the infinite series. It can be shown that the
integrals of cross-product terms are zero, and the only contributions to the integral comes
from the products of voltage and current harmonics of the same frequency:
T
0 if n ≠ m
Vn cos nωt – ϕ n I m cos mωt – θ m dt =
V nI n
cos ϕ n – θ n
0
if n = m
2
(5)
The average power is therefore
∞
Pav = V0I 0 + Σ
n=1
V nI n
2
cos ϕ n – θ n
(6)
So net energy is transmitted to the load only when the Fourier series of v(t) and i(t) contain
terms at the same frequency. For example, if v(t) and i(t) both contain third harmonic, then
v(t) 1
1 i(t) v(t), i(t)
0.5
0.5
0
0
-0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
1
p(t) = v(t) i(t)
1
p(t) = v(t) i(t)
0.5 Pav = 0.5
0.5
Pav = 0
0
0
-0.5
-0.5
-1 -1
Fig. 2. Voltage, current, and instantaneous Fig. 3. Voltage, current, and instantaneous
power waveforms, example 1. The power waveforms, example 2. The voltage
voltage contains only fundamental, and and current each contain only third harmonic,
the current contains only third harmonic. and are in phase. Net energy is transmitted at
The average power is zero. the third harmonic frequency.
2
Supplementary notes on Fourier series
R.W. Erickson ECEN 2260
V 3I 3
cos ϕ 3 – θ 3 (7) 0.5
2 i(t)
Here, V3I3/2 is equal to the rms volt-amperes of 0.0
3
Supplementary notes on Fourier series
R.W. Erickson ECEN 2260
The rms value can also be expressed in terms of the Fourier components. Insertion of Eq.
(1) into Eq. (10), and simplification using Eq. (5), yields
∞
V 2n
(rms value) =
2
V0 + Σ
n=1 2 (11)
Again, the integrals of the cross-product terms are zero. This expression holds when the
waveform is a current:
∞
I 2n
(rms current) = I0 +
2
Σ
n=1 2 (12)
Thus, the presence of harmonics in a waveform always increases its rms value. In
particular, in the case where the voltage v(t) contains only fundamental while the current i(t)
contains harmonics, then the harmonics increase the rms value of the current while leaving
the average power unchanged. This is undesirable, because the harmonics do not lead to
net delivery of energy to the load, yet they increase the Irms2R losses in the system.
3. Power factor
Power factor is a figure of merit which measures how effectively energy is
transmitted between a source and load network. It is measured at a given surface as in Fig.
15.1, and is defined as
(average power)
power factor = (13)
(rms voltage) (rms current)
The power factor always has a value between zero and one. The ideal case, unity power
factor, occurs for a load which obeys Ohm’s Law. In this case, the voltage and current
waveforms have the same shape, contain the same harmonic spectrum, and are in phase.
For a given average power throughput, the rms current and voltage are minimized at
maximum (unity) power factor, i.e., with a linear resistive load. In the case where the
voltage contains no harmonics but the load is nonlinear and contains dynamics, then the
power factor can be expressed as a product of two terms, one resulting from the phase shift
of the fundamental component of the current, and the other resulting from the current
harmonics.
4
Supplementary notes on Fourier series
R.W. Erickson ECEN 2260
5
Supplementary notes on Fourier series
R.W. Erickson ECEN 2260
Hence, as in Example 1 (Fig. 2), harmonics cause the load to draw more rms current from
the source, but not more average power. Increasing the current harmonics does not cause
more energy to be transferred to the load, but does cause additional losses in series resistive
elements Rseries.
Also, the presence of load dynamics and reactive elements, which cause the phase
of the fundamental components of the voltage and current to differ (θ 1 ≠ φ1) also reduces
the power factor. The cos(φ1 – θ 1) term in the average power Eq. (19) becomes less than
unity. However, the rms value of the current, Eq. (20), does not depend on the phase. So
shifting the phase of i(t) with respect to v(t) reduces the average power without changing
the rms voltage or current, and hence the power factor is reduced.
By substituting Eqs. (19) and (20) into (13), the power factor for the sinusoidal
voltage case can be written
I1
2
(power factor) = cos (ϕ 1-θ 1)
∞ 2
In
∑
2
I0 +
n=1
2
(21)
= (distortion factor) (displacement factor)
So when the voltage contains no harmonics, then the power factor can be written as the
product of two terms. The first, called the distortion factor, is the ratio of the rms
fundamental component of the current to the total rms value of the current
I1
2 (rms fundamental current)
(distortion factor) = =
∞ 2 (rms current)
In
∑
2
I0 +
n=1
2
(22)
The second term of Eq. (21) is called the displacement factor, and is the cosine of the angle
between the fundamental components of the voltage and current waveforms.
The Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is defined as the ratio of the rms value of the
waveform not including the fundamental, to the rms fundamental magnitude. When no dc
is present, this can be written:
∞
ΣI
n=2
2
n
(THD) = (23)
I1
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Supplementary notes on Fourier series
R.W. Erickson ECEN 2260
The total harmonic distortion and the distortion factor are closely related. Comparison of
Eqs. (22) and (23), with Io = 0, leads to
(distortion factor) = 1 (24)
1 + (THD) 2
This equation is plotted in Fig. 5. The distortion factor of a waveform with a moderate
amount of distortion is quite close to unity. For example, if the waveform contains third
harmonic whose magnitude is ten percent of the fundamental, the distortion factor is
99.5%. Increasing the third harmonic to twenty percent decreases the distortion factor to
98%, and a thirty-three percent harmonic
100%
magnitude yields a distortion factor of 95%. So
the power factor is not significantly degraded
Distortion factor
90%
by the presence of harmonics unless the
harmonics are quite large in magnitude.
80%
An example of a case in which the
distortion factor is much less than unity is the
conventional peak detection rectifier of Fig. 6. 70%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
In this circuit, the ac line current consists of THD
short-duration current pulses occurring at the
Fig. 5. Distortion factor vs. total
peak of the voltage waveform. The fundamental harmonic distortion.
component of the line current is essentially in
phase with the voltage, and the displacement
factor is close to unity. However, the low-order
current harmonics are quite large, close in
magnitude to that of the fundamental —a typical
current spectrum is given in Fig. 7. The Fig. 6. Conventional peak detection
displacement factor of peak detection rectifiers rectifier.
is usually in the range 55% to 65%. The 100% 100%
91%
percent of fundamental
Harmonic amplitude,
60%
52%
40%
32%
0%
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
Harmonic number
7
Supplementary notes on Fourier series
R.W. Erickson ECEN 2260
8
Supplementary notes on Fourier series
R.W. Erickson ECEN 2260
Imaginary
The reactive power Q does not lead to axis
S = VI*
Q
net transmission of energy between the source
I rms
and load. When reactive power is present, the = V rms
|
||S|
rms current and apparent power are greater ϕ1–θ1
than the minimum amount necessary to ϕ1 1 θ P Real axis
transmit the average power P. In an inductor, ϕ –θ
1 1
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] J. Arrillaga, D. Bradley, and P. Bodger, Power System Harmonics, New York: John Wiley and
Sons, 1985.
[2] R. Smity and R. Stratford, “Power System Harmonics Effects from Adjustable-Speed Drives”,
IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. IA-20, no. 4, pp. 973-977, July/August 1984.
[4] N. Mohan, T. Undeland, and W. Robbins, Power Electronics: Converters, Applications, and
Design, Second edition, New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1995.
[6] R. Gretsch, “Harmonic Distortion of the Mains Voltage by Switched-Mode Power Supplies —
Assessment of the Future Development and Possible Mitigation Measures,” European Power
Electronics Conference, 1989 Record, pp. 1255-1260.