Lange 1

Justina Lange Mr. Schwarz Environmental Systems August 2013 Endemic Species in Hawaii The Hawaiian Islands are the most isolated group of islands in the world, situated in the middle of the Pacific Ocean more than 2,000 miles from the nearest continent. Due to its extreme isolation and climactic conditions, Hawaii is characterized by high levels of endemism in both its native animals and plants, with over 10,000 species found nowhere else on earth. For more than 70 million years, the evolution of new species vastly exceeded losses to extinction. Yet after the arrival of humans to the islands about 700 years ago, numerous extinctions have occurred and many more species are currently threatened. These losses include more than half of the endemic birds, hundreds of plant species, and possibly thousands of lesser known species such as terrestrial insects and spiders that were lost before they were ever described. Species that had evolved with dependence on other species and evolved with no predators were incredibly vulnerable to new alien species that were brought over to Hawaii both with the arrival of Western colonizers and with modern world introductions. Although comprising less than 0.2 percent of the land area of the United States, the Hawaiian Islands hold more than thirty percent of the nations federally listed species, including 317 classes of plants and animals listed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as endangered or threatened. As a result, Hawaii presents both an opportunity and a challenge for conservation.

Lange 2

Both the U.S. government and the Hawaiian state government have attempted to protect the endangered species and deter further damage to the island's ecosystem. The first steps to protect native Hawaiian forests were taken in 1903 when the Hawaiian Territorial Government created the State Forest Reserve system, which provides essential habitat for the survival of all the endangered forest birds. More recently for example, State and Federal efforts in protecting wetlands, enforcing strict hunting regulations, and educating and working with private organizations and landowners play an important role in ensuring the survival of the Hawaiian Moorhen and many other waterfowl. Private organizations such as the World Wildlife Fund and Ducks Unlimited have been actively supporting wetlands conservation. Another endemic species, the Hawaiian Stilt was once a popular game bird until waterfowl hunting was banned in 1939. Since then, local landowners and government agencies have worked together to protect waterfowl and the habitat they depend on. To help native species, under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, the law authorized the Secretaries of Interior and Commerce to acquire lands and waters for the purpose of protecting, restoring or propagating any endangered or threatened species of plants and animals. In 1986, the federal government purchased the nations' first national wildlife refuge for rain forest bird protection in the Hakalau Forest, on the Big Island. Hawaii Volcanoes National Park and Haleakala National Park are working to try and preserve their native species as well. The state has a Natural Area Reserve system that is contributing to conservation efforts, along with its state parks. While Hawaii is home to many fascinating species, it is its endemic species that are truly remarkable. Endemism is the ecological state of being unique to a defined

Lange 3

geographic location, such as an island, nation or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found elsewhere. So Hawaiis endemic species are found nowhere else on earth. Physical, climatic, and biological factors can all contribute to endemism. Endemic species are especially likely to develop on biologically isolated areas such as islands because of their geographical isolation. This includes remote island groups, such as Hawaii, the Galpagos Islands, and Socotra, biologically isolated but not island areas such as the highlands of Ethiopia, or large bodies of water like Lake Baikal. One endemic Hawaiian species, the Haleakala Silversword, grows exclusively in Haleakala National Park on Maui. Our Texas-Hawaii group actually got to see these beautiful plants during the Haleakala Crater hike and saw the rare tall stocks of many healthy plants. This unique member of the sunflower family has sword-shaped leaves on the rosettes that are covered with silvery hairs that reflect light and heat and provide insulation against the intense solar radiation and extreme aridity of the 10,000 foot elevation on the volcanic mountain. In addition, the leaves contain air spaces filled with a substance that absorbs and stores large quantities of water during the intervals between rains. This stored water is especially important when the plant blooms, because the fast-growing flower stalk requires a lot of moisture as it develops into a massive inflorescence. Silverswords live between 3 and 90 years or more. They flower once, sending up a spectacular flowering stalk three to eight feet tall, and then die soon afterward, scattering drying seeds to the wind. Silverswords have adapted to their dry environment by storing a large amount of water in their thick leaves. As the flowering stalk grows, it pulls water from the leaves

Lange 4

and they begin to droop. They have adapted to cold temperatures in their range by creating for themselves a sort of reflector oven: their leaves are covered with shiny silver hairs, and are curved into a parabolic shape that focuses the warm sunlight on the plant's growing point. This can raise the temperature of the growing point by up to forty degrees Fahrenheit. The Haleakala Silversword is a member of the Silversword Alliance, a group of about thirty plant species throughout Hawaii which are believed to have evolved millions of years ago from tarweed plants in California. These tarweed seeds are believed to have floated over 2000 miles on the open ocean to colonize the Hawaiian Islands. Both silverswords and tarweeds are members of the sunflower family. Although some members of the Silversword Alliance look very similar to the Haleakala Silversword, others look nothing like it. Each is adapted to one of the wide variety of habitats in Hawaii. This is a classic example of adaptive radiation, where a single ancestor evolves into very different species, each adapted to its local environment. Delicate silverswords once ripped up and taken home by visitors as souvenirs now depend on management efforts for survival. They were once so populous in Haleakala that people uprooted them and rolled them down the slopes of the crater for sport. The plants were also used for decorative purposes in the Orient where they were sent after being harvested and dried. These actions in combination with vandalism and predation by introduced goats and insects made the silversword population plummet rapidly. By 1927, only about one hundred plants were left in the Haleakala Crater. The National Park Service has instituted conservation programs, and today Haleakala park staff fence out silversword-munching animals, destroy invasive plants that would crowd out silverswords, and educate park visitors to stay on trails to avoid

Lange 5

stepping on fragile silversword seedlings and root systems. The unique plants have made a comeback and now thrive in the crater. Our group was in awe at how many blooming tall stalks we saw as we walked along the sandy crater path. It is truly a biological miracle that the plants survive the intense sunlight, low humidity, and fluctuating temperatures in Haleakala; I myself barely did! Unfortunately, climate change may now present a new threat to these unique plants. An observed trend towards hotter temperatures and lower rainfall threaten the hardy silversword. Researchers with the University of Hawaii work with park staff to evaluate the effects of drought conditions on silverswords, and preserve these unique plants for generations to come. Also, two introduced species pose a threat to the silversword: the Argentine ant and the Vespula wasp. The Argentine ant is preying on the native insects that pollinate the silverswords, and since silverswords flower only once in their long life, the small window for their pollination is critical to their survival. After being pollinated, and spreading its seeds to the Hawaiian winds, the silversword dies. It is the Hawaii Islands endemic species, found nowhere else in the world, that give it a unique identity and produce a natural lab for scientists to learn and work to protect them. Endemic species carry a much higher risk of extinction than other broadly distributed species do, and in Hawaii many native species interact within ecosystems to thrive together; the loss of one endemic specie results in harm and potential loss of other species. By definition, endangered species require action or they will be lost forever. Endemic species also require attention because of their often limited distributions and consequent vulnerability to endangerment. If their habitat needs are

Lange 6

not fulfilled where they occur, they will decline and disappear. To help prevent biodiversity loss, the protection of endemic species is paramount to prevent endangerment or extinction. During our trip to the Hawaiian Islands, we encountered two specific endemic animals that stood out not only physically, but also in their importance to Hawaiian culture and identity: the nn and the Hawaiian monk seal. Both animals are prime examples of the uniqueness endemism creates, and how different groups of people can work to conserve the special creatures. The first of these species is a true symbol of Hawaii, for it is the Hawaiian state bird: the nn. The nn is a medium-sized descendant of the Canada goose with a light gray-brown coloring, a mostly black head, cream-colored neck with dark furrows, and black tail and feet. As an adaptation to rough lava-field terrain, its feet have lost much of their webbing. Prior to human arrival, nn were common on the main Hawaiian Islands; however, of the over thirteen Hawaiian duck, geese, and swan species in the fossil record, the nn is Hawaiis only native resident goose to survive into modern times. It is currently listed as a Federal and State endangered species. Historically, nn occupied grasslands, grassy shrub lands, and dry land forests. Today, nn can be found living in a variety of native and non-native habitats in Hawaii such as grasslands, croplands, water bodies, shrub lands, and sparsely vegetated lava flows. One of our first main encounters with these birds was at the taro fields we visited at the bottom of the YMCA Camp Keanae on Maui. The fields have been cultivating taro for more than 500 years and the woman who talked to us was a member of a family that had been working in the fields for seven generations. She talked about how the taro

Lange 7

fields were home to a small population of nn. Unfortunately pesky non-native mongooses eat their eggs and harm the stability of the birds. While we were getting muddy picking taro roots we were able to see nn fly above us. We also encountered nn during the Haleakala Crater hike. These rare geese are found on Haleakala between the elevations of 6,000-8,000 feet. The Haleakala summit area is not where these birds were once primarily found, but was chosen as a protective area to reestablish the species; the birds were originally more common at much lower elevations. Since the nn evolved with no natural predators, they lay their eggs right on the ground which makes them easily susceptible to predation from rats, mongoose, cats and dogs. While in the Haleakala Crater we stopped at a cabin for lunch, around seven or so miles into the hike. As our exhausted legs received a much needed rest and we avidly dined on our Power Bar and peanut butter sandwich lunches, three nn eagerly approached us interested in our food. That behavior was the result of inappropriate treatment of the nn by uneducated hikers over the years. Hikers on lunch breaks used to feed the nn and admire how close they were able to come to the birds when doing so. Not only did certain foods harm the birds, but now the in the crater will approach humans with no sense of caution. Another reason the nn is poorly adapted to its modern world is because it never needed to avoid predators, for before the introduction of alien species the nn had no native predators. Fossil records show that the nn used to live on all the main Hawaiian Islands. It is believed that they were historically abundant, with around 25,000 birds populating

Lange 8

the Big Island before the arrival of Captain James Cook in 1778. Today, the Big Island is the only place where they are found naturally in the wild. Scientists believe that the Maui population became extinct before 1890. The decline in numbers was accelerated during the period of 1850 to 1900 due to aggressive hunting of the birds and collecting of their eggs. In 1951, the Nene population was estimated at only thirty birds. Between 1960 and 1977 the general pattern of the population was one of increasing numbers, during which time over 1,000 Nene were reintroduced. Between 1981 and 1982 a sharp decline occurred which coincided with the cessation of releasing birds. Between 1982 and 1990 an average of thirty birds were released each year. Although these creatures are still precariously endangered, the nn is actually a Haleakala conservation success. This number on Haleakala, Maui is sustained at a higher level than other nn populations. The current distribution of nn is heavily influenced by the location of release sites of captive-reared birds. Nearly all birds are the result of an aggressive captive propagation and release program which was initiated by the Territorial government in 1949 and continues on a smaller scale today. When the population in Haleakala was at its lowest, in the 1960s and 70s, a captive breeding program in England bred and then reintroduced the birds to Haleakala Park. This was because after years of being preyed on by introduced species and harmed by humans, the nn became virtually extinct, with only thirty individuals remaining. This program is credited with bringing nn back from the brink of extinction. Today a stable population of about 250 wild individuals populates the park. However, despite some successes the species still faces major obstacles on the road to recovery.

Lange 9

The nn faces many threats to its continued survival. In general, nn populations are limited by lack of adequate nutrition in the highlands and introduced predators in the lowlands; however both threats can occur in high and low elevations. Habitat loss and degradation contribute to nutrient-poor forage for nn, and proper nutrition is critical for successful reproduction. Nn had no natural predators prior to human arrival, so introduced predators are one of the greatest threats to them. The birds are particularly vulnerable to domestic dogs and cats because they have little instinctive fear of them. During molt, adults are flightless and extremely vulnerable to predation. Nn also have been affected by avian disease. Introduced avian disease, especially malaria and pox, are believed by many workers in Hawaii to have played a major role in depletion of many endemic land birds. Also, there are many human activities that negatively impact nn. Collisions with vehicles and other objects are a major cause of bird mortality. In many areas, nn habitat is bisected by roads; nesting and roosting occurs on one side, foraging on the other. This poses a serious threat, particularly during the breeding season, when adults walk goslings across roads. When we drove through Hawaii, we noticed many yellow signs that acknowledged this threat and cautioned drivers to go slow. Today, Nn conservation management has two main aspects: predator control and propagation. Effective predator control is known to increase nn survival and reproduction rates. The main successful solution to this is with nn fences that have been built in Hawaii. Nn fences are specially designed to keep out predators while still giving the birds enough room to roam and inhabit the area. These fences vary in style based on location, target predator species, and other management objectives.

Lange 10

Propagation programs are actively operated by many public and private organizations to help reestablish the nn in the wild. The State of Hawaii reintroduced them to Kilauea Point and Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuges. The National Park Service has programs at Hawaii Volcanoes National Park and Haleakala National Park. The Wildfowl Trust in England has also played a major role in their survival; they propagate and distribute the Nn to many zoos and aviaries, in addition to wild releases. Today Nn are being raised in captivity at the Maui Bird Conservation Center at Olinda and the Keauhou Bird Conservation Center on the Big Island, both operated by the Peregrine Fund. Young birds are then released into protected habitats by the state. Promising strategies for the future are captive breeding, habitat conservation and protection, educating the public about nn endangerment, implementation of protective regulation, and predation control. However, further research into nutrition, genetics, predator control methods, and population dynamics are much needed. With all of those efforts this beautiful endemic species can survive and further contribute to Hawaiis unique and diverse bird population. Another endemic species important to the Hawaiian archipelago is the Hawaiian monk seal. The most significant encounter we had with this animal was at Poipu Beach in Kauai. Poipu Beach is famous for the endangered Hawaiian monk seals that commonly sunbathe on the shore and are seen quite frequently at that particular beach. As we walked up to the crowded shoreline, there was a large taped-off gap in the multitude of sunbathers. Within the taped off area was a deep brown Hawaiian monk seal, soaking up the warm sun rays. Many tourists were gathered around snapping pictures but were careful not to cross the tape that gave the seal its peace. Later, the

Lange 11

seal eventually rolled back into the waters and instantly we heard a loud speaker from the lifeguard station ordering snorkelers and swimmers to evacuate the waters if they were near the seal. The seal was then able to swim in peace and not be harmed or disturbed by the crowded Poipu Beach human population. There was a team at the beach dedicated to the protection of the Hawaiian monk seals that visit it. It is actions like those that help protect these endangered animals. The Hawaiian monk seal has thrived for the past 13 million years in the oceanic waters and coral reefs of the Hawaiian Islands. Today, the Hawaiian monk seal is critically endangered and headed toward possible extinction. Over the last 50 years, the monk seal population has declined by more than 60 percent. The second most endangered pinniped species in the world, most inhabit the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, as well as having main reproductive populations at French Frigate Shoals, Laysan Island, Lisianski Island, Pearl and Hermes Reef. The Hawaiian monk seal population was hunted to near extinction during commercial sealing expeditions in the mid-19th century, and other opportunistic hunters further depleted the surviving population during the late 1800s and the early 1900s; it was thought to be extinct by the early 20th century. Though the population began to slowly rebuild after this time period, standardized beach counts suggested that the population again declined rapidly from 1985 to 1993, prior to becoming relatively stable. Today, there are an estimated 1,300 to 1,400 Hawaiian monk seals that remain in the wild. The Hawaiian monk seal is one of two remaining species of ancient seals, the other being the Mediterranean monk seal. Both are critically endangered. A third member of this group, the Caribbean monk seal, went extinct in the 1950s.

Lange 12

Because Hawaiian monk seals evolved in the absence of land predators and did not develop the need to flee, during the late eighteenth century they often became victim to sealer's clubs. In the early nineteenth century, Hawaiian monk seals, which were taken for their oil and pelts, suffered the same mass hunting as many of the other fur seals of the world. They were easy targets as they lay quietly basking on the beaches, and it wasn't long until sealers came in great numbers to the islands to get rich on this new source of quick profits. From the early 1900's until the beginning of World War II, the few monk seals that remained were given a respite from human activity as the United States Government declared the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands a protected area- the Hawaiian Bird Reservation. During this time the monk seal population rebounded somewhat although still extremely sensitive to human activity. Monk seal entanglement in marine debris continues to affect them despite international law prohibiting the intentional discard of debris from ships at sea. The number of annual entanglements has varied over the last twenty-one years, but there was a peak in the number of entanglements occurring in 1999, when twenty-five incidents were reported. Commercial fishing around the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands has led to this entanglement of monk seals in fishing nets and lines. Some researchers claim that because monk seals are curious and playful by nature that they may be "attracted" to the fishing gear and unfortunately become entangled in the process. The Marine Mammal Commission has recommended that all future fisheries within the protected species management zone be subject to assessment of their likely impact on monk seals before they are allowed to take place.

Lange 13

Monk seals avoid beaches where they are often disturbed, and the consequence of disturbance ultimately leads to a reduction of available habitat and population size. Prolonged disturbance may cause seals to abandon familiar sites and preferred sites for giving birth. Such behavior may lead to increased vulnerability to shark predation, especially for pups. Shark attack is thought to be a major cause of death for Hawaiian monk seals, being particularly true for younger seals or those that are injured. Most adult seals have visible scars believed to have been inflicted by sharks. Tiger sharks, which are commonly found in the Northwest Hawaiian Islands, are believed to be the main predator. A rapid decline in beach counts of monk seals from the late 1950s to the mid1970s led to the Hawaiian monk seals designation as depleted under the Marine Mammal Protection Act, and as endangered under the Endangered Species Act in 1976. Hawaiian monk seals are currently protected under two federal laws: the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 and the Endangered Species Act of 1973. In addition, protection is provided by the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge, which includes most of the seal's current breeding islands. Protection is provided for those monk seal breeding islands that are not included as part of the National Wildlife Refuge through the State Seabird Sanctuary on Kure Atoll and by the United States Navy on Midway Islands. Hawaiian monk seals are also listed as endangered under Hawaiian State law. Violations are similar to those of the federal Endangered Species Act. Fines for violations of both these laws can be as high as $20,000. Public outreach and education remains one of the most powerful tools for reinforcing a positive ethic that promotes the

Lange 14

conservation of the Hawaiian monk seal and the habitat in which it lives. As monk seal numbers increase, so does the importance of increasing educational and conservational efforts to save the unique species. It is endemic species like the Nn and the Hawaiian monk seal that contribute to the biodiversity that is found in Hawaii. Endemic and native species give Hawaii its biological identity, and make it the special place it is. Driving down the streets of Hawaii we would constantly see yellow warning signs cautioning drivers about Nn. At places like Poipu beach and Puu Honua o Honaunau I saw Hawaiian monk seals relaxing on the beach roped off by park rangers, protecting them from people. The progression of these fragile animals into the modern world has been a tough one, but it is endemic animals like them that contribute to Hawaiis beauty and wonder. Because of this, it intensifies the need for conservation and the importance of saving these creatures. Because of their rarity and fragility, it is no easy task. Their loss, added to the past and ongoing disappearance of so many species, would leave a Hawaiian ecosystem that is diminished for future generations. We cannot allow this to happen.

Lange 15

Bibliography Antonelis, George A., Jason D. Baker, and Thea C. Johanos. "Hawaiian Monk Seal Status and Conservation Issues." NOAA Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Aug. 2013. "Haleakala Silverswords." National Parks Service. N.p., Aug. 2013. Web. 19 Aug. 2013. "Hawaiian Monk Seal." Seal Conservation Society. N.p., Aug. 2011. Web. 19 Aug. 2013. "Hawaiian Monk Seal Facts." Marine Conservation Biology Institute . N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Aug. 2013. "Hawaii's Endangered Bird Conservation Program." Hawaii Nature Guides. N.p., 13 Jan. 2006. Web. 19 Aug. 2013. Kenyon, K.W. (1981). Monk seals Monachus Fleming, 1822. In Handbook of marine mammals, eds. Ridgway, S.H. and Harrison, F.R.S. Vol. 2: Seals. Ch. 8, pp 195 220. Academic Press, London & NY. 359pp. Lange, Justina E. Journal. Thesis. Hawaii Trip, 2013. Print. Lange, Justina E. Red Book Manual. Thesis. Hawaii Trip, 2013. Print. Lilikoi. "Haleakala National Park Summit Area." Maui Guidebook. N.p., 16 Feb. 2012. Web. 19 Aug. 2013. Loope, Lloyd L., Ole Hamann, and Charles P. Stone. "Comparative Conservation Biology of Oceanic Archipelagoes." BioScience 38.4 (1988): 272-81.

Lange 16

McCormick, VIctoria. "Hawaiian Monk Seals." Earth Trust. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Aug. 2013. Melgar, Christian. "Hawai'i's State Bird: The Nene." Birding Hawaii. N.p., 2002. Web. 19 Aug. 2013. Uyehara,, Kimberly. "NeNe Habitat Enhancement and Management." Natural Resources Conservation Service. N.p., Sept. 2007. Web. 19 Aug. 2013. Yates, Steve. "On the Cutting Edge of Extinction." Audubon (1984): 62-85.