Nutrients A-Z (gnv64) PDF

Nutrients A 7
M 4 Dr Michael Sharon A User's Guide to Foods, Herbs, Vitamins, Minerals &, Supplements
T h e hope of humanity lies in the prevention of degenerative and mental diseases, not in the care of their symptoms.
Dr Alexis Carrel
To All Health Seekers
Also from Carlton the companion title COMPLETE N U T R I T I O N H o w to Live in Total Health
Dr Michael Sharon
NUTRIENTS
A Z
TO
A USERS GUIDE TO FOODS, HERBS, VITAMINS, MINERALS & SUPPLEMENTS
Dr Michael
Sharon
With Best Compliments from gnv64
CARLTON
BOOKS
T h i s fifth e d i t i o n p u b l i s h e d in 2 0 0 9 b y Carlton Books Limited 2 0 M o r t i m e r Street L o n d o n W I T 3JW First p u b l i s h e d in 1998 by P r i o n B o o k s Ltd 10 9 8 7 6 5 T e x t c o p y r i g h t D r M i c h a e l S h a r o n 1 9 9 8 , 1999, 2 0 0 0 , 2 0 0 5 , 2 0 0 9 Design copyright Carlton Publishing G r o u p 2009 All r i g h t s r e s e r v e d . T h i s b o o k is sold s u b j e c t t o t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t it m a y n o t b e r e p r o d u c e d , s t o r e d in a retrieval system or t r a n s m i t t e d in any f o r m o r b y any m e a n s , e l e c t r o n i c , m e c h a n i c a l , p h o t o c o p y i n g , r e c o r d i n g o r o t h e r w i s e w i t h o u t t h e Publisher's p r i o r c o n s e n t . A C I P c a t a l o g u e r e c o r d for this b o o k is available f r o m t h e British Library ISBN 97S 1 84732 263 0 T v p e s e t by Ellipsis B o o k s L i m i t e d , G l a s g o w P r i n t e d a n d b o u n d in India b y G o p s o n s P a p e r s Ltd.
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PREFACE
Nutritional knowledge is in high demand. 'Back to nature' awareness has become a way of life for many thousands of people and nutritional supplements, organic produce, health foods and rediscovered herbs are the talk of the day. People are taking more responsibility for their own well-being and the result is a greater need for nutritional information, conveniently available and easily understood. This book is intended to serve as a nutritional dictionary, a quick reference book for lay people as well as professionals. It is meant to provide basic information on various nutritional issues, and can easily be used at home or while shopping in the health food store. We each react differently to foods, and this includes health foods, nutrients and herbs. Sometimes, we even have opposite effects and reactions.This should be remembered when trying a supplement for the first time: nutrients and herbs must be adapted to the individual. It should also be remembered that the information included in this book is based on average effects that apply to most people, but not necessarily to everybody. Most important of all do not self-diagnose. In cases of conditions suggestive of symptoms discussed in this book, please consult a natural health care specialist or a holistic doctor for professional advice. Following the success ofits more comprehensive predecessor, Complete Nutrition, I hope that this new book will serve to increase public awareness of the exciting connection between nutrition, well-being and longevity. Due to misinformation, many people unknowingly consume harmful foods which act as an enemy. Let us make food our allv. In the words of
viii N U T R I E N T S A T O Z
Hippocrates, 'Let us make food our medicine'. My acknowledgements go to Deborah Ackland MSc, for her continuous advice and support; to my publisher Barry Winkleman, the inspiring force behind this publication; and to my dedicated editors Andrew Goodfellow and Mary Warren, who together spared no effort in editing the manuscript. May they all be blessed.
Dr Michael Sharon
HOW TO SOURCE YOUR NUTRIENTS

T h e various nutrients outlined in the following pages fruit, vegetables, oils, herbs, vitamins, minerals and supplements can be found in a wide variety of locations from the obvious to the less obvious. Increasingly, supermarkets and grocers are stocking a wider variety of produce from around the world and many of the foods, herbs and spices that were once thought of as rare can now be readily located with a minimum of effort. As health becomes more of an issue too, foods with a healing dimension are increasingly available in supermarkets, local stores and grocers. For more specialist nutrients you may need to take a trip to your local health food store where help and advice is available. Here, in addition to nutritious foods and herbs, you will find a multitude of vitamins, minerals and nutrients in capsule form and the many compound nutritional formulas that are often tailored toward helping a specific condition. Health food stores obviously vary in size and some of the more specialist nutrients may be available only from larger outlets. Pharmacies also increasingly serve the health food market with a wide range of vitamins, minerals and supplements. Specialist herbs may again be harder to find, especially fresh herbs. Whereas the health food shop is an increasingly familiar sight on our streets and may offer a range of herbal products, the herbalist is still something of a rarity. At the back of the book is a list of helpful addresses which includes herbalist associations that can offer general advice, herbal suppliers and mail-order companies in both the UK and the USA.
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NUTRIENTS
TO
Information on sourcing a nutrient is contained within each individual entry. For dosage you should always consult the instructions on the packaging and, for specific conditions, always consult a knowledgeable medical practitioner.
Within the following A to Z, as well as entries on every kind of nutrient, there are also entries on key terms and more general topics within the field of nutrition. They are intended to go some way in helping to guide the reader through the vast field of information available on the subject. Where relevant, within each entry, some of the other key terms or nutrients discussed have been marked in bold to let the reader know that there is a separate entry in the book on that particular subject. The index at the back of the book complements the main A to Z by covering all the medical and health complaints that are mentioned within these nutritional entries.
A
ACACIA
(ACACIA SLXLGAL)
Also known as gum arabic, it is obtained from the sap of the variety of acacia tree native to North Africa, and has traditionally been used to soothe inflammations of the respiratory, digestive and urinary tracts. Gum arabic is usually dissolved in water to make a mucilage (14 teaspoonfuls per cup of water) which can be used to alleviate coughs, sore throats, diarrhoea and dysentery. In addition to its medicinal uses, gum arabic is also used commercially in the making of confectionery, particularly Middle Eastern sweetmeats, and as a thickener (E414) in the preparation and cooking of some foods. Available from larger health food stores, commercial food suppliers and herbalists.
ACID-ALKALINE BALANCE
Although the body has its own natural acid-alkaline balancing mechanisms, an over-indulgence of acidic foods especially the rich and spicy foods that tend to form the basis of the modern Western diet can impair this delicate balance. A healthy body needs to be slightly alkaline (pH 7.357.45) to counteract these effects. This alkalinity serves as a natural buffer against acid-forming conditions such as stress, lack of exercise, poor eating habits and chronic constipation. The digestion of acid-forming foods (meat, fish, poultry, eggs, most dairy products, and most grains and pulses)
produces acidic residues which need to be eliminated. Excess acidity in body tissues (acidosis) can result in metabolic and respiratory problems, and cause many diseases from arthritis to colds and infections. Severe acidosis can occur in diabetes and kidney disease. Excess alkalinity (alkalosis) is quite rare; it can result from taking too many antacid drugs or because of frequent vomiting. Since alkalinity neutralizes acidity, in conditions of mild acidity, the balance can be restored by a diet containing plenty of alkaline foods. Most fruits and vegetables are alkalizing, as are soybeans, lima beans, millet and b u c k w h e a t . Milk is neutral. A m o n g the most alkaline-forming foods are figs, carrots, celery and pineapple.
ACIDOPHILUS, LACTOBACILLUS
Intestinal bacteria (flora), which are the 'friendly' bacteria living in the gut, are vital for the proper absorption of nutrients; they also inhibit the growth of the Candida albicans yeast (thrush). The Lactobacillus acidophilus bacteria are abundant in yogurts and serve to strengthen the intestinal flora. They can alleviate, and even prevent, a wide range of conditions, including intestinal putrefaction (food decaying in the intestines), vaginal yeast infections, constipation and flatulence. Their main antagonists are antibiotics, which kill all micro-organisms, whether 'friend' or 'foe'. Thus, when on antibiotics, it is very important to replenish the flora by eating plenty of yogurt and by supplementing with acidophilus capsules.
viii AGAR, AGAR-AGAR
NUTRIENTS A TO
A gelatinous substance produced from certain species of Japanese seaweeds, especially the Gelidium variety. Agar is unaffected by e n z y m e s and, since seaweed is rich in minerals and vitamins, it provides an important source of nutrients. It is often used as a stabilizing agent (E406) in ice cream and other foods, and has traditionally been used by the Japanese as a form of gelatin. As such, agar is superior to the animal-derived gelatins in that it contains no calories, has a firmer texture and does not easily melt. It is available from health food shops as either flakes or bars, and dissolves readily in boiling water. It is easily digestible, making it particularly beneficial for sick people and children, and, due to its ability to absorb water and increase in bulk, it is also useful as a laxative. (See also CARRAGEENAN.)
AGRIMONY
(AC.RIMO.XIA
EUPAIORIA)
A perennial herb that grows wild in Northern Europe, it has astringent and anti-inflammatory properties and contains tannins which can tone the mucous membranes of the gut. Prepared as a herbal tea or infusion, it can have a very beneficial effect on the digestive organs stomach, intestines, gallbladder and liver and can also alleviate inflammation of the intestines caused by food irritants or infection (enteritis). As an infusion, it can be used as a gargle for treating mouth infections and is also helpful in the treatment of diarrhoea. Available from herbalists and health food stores.
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ALCOHOL
Although the consumption of alcoholic beverages has been central to the social rituals of mankind throughout recorded history, nutritionally, alcohol has little to recommend it. As with wine and beer, if consumed in moderation, particularly in a social setting, it can add to the pleasure of the occasion and thereby reduce stress. However, it can become addictive and, consumed to excess, alcohol has extremely detrimental effects on the body's metabolism. The alcohol in beverages is produced by the fermentation of fruit sugars and, when this is metabolized by the body, it produces a harmful chemical called acetaldehyde. It is this that causes the well-known aftereffects, or 'hangovers', that so often afflict drinkers. As in the case of refined sugar, alcohol can deplete the body of essential B vitamins, vitamin C, vitamin K, zinc, m a g n e s i u m and potassium. Even moderate consumption of 3 units was recently found to increase the risk of breast cancer, while higher consumption can result in liver and brain damage, ruptured blood vessels, agglutinated blood, varicose veins, haemorrhoids, thrombosis, damage to the prostate gland and sterility. In the final months of pregnancy, alcohol is suspected to increase the risk of premature birth. Alcohol can also increase the possibility of developing age-related conditions such as heart attacks, cataracts and skin wrinkles, and psychological disorders such as anxiety, depression, mental retardation and distorted emotions. Vitamin B l , niacin, vitamin C and the a m i n o acid cysteine can be helpful in protecting the body from some of the harmful effects of alcohol, and cravings can be alleviated by nutritional supplementation. The Chinese herb kudzu as well as the amino acid L -glutamine can
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be effective in this way and both are available in health food shops. Sometimes, the craving can be due to hypoglycaemia (low blood sugar). This can be verified by a Glucose Tolerance Test ( G T T ) , and in this case a suitable diet prescribed by a nutritionist can help.
ALDER
(ALNUS
GLGTIXOSA)
A small tree which is found wild throughout the British Isles and Europe. Traditionally, infusions of the shredded bark can relieve constipation and stimulate bile secretion, which is necessary for the process of digestion. Decoctions (boiled and simmered teas) can be used to make poultices to ease rheumatic joints, while infusions of the leaves can be used to treat inflammations. Available from larger health food stores or herbalists.
ALFALFA
(MUDICAGO
SATIVA)
A legume, it is a member of the pea family and is widely grown in Europe, North and South America, Asia and Australia. The seeds and sprouts of the plant are an excellent source of beta carotene and many key nutrients. They are especially rich in minerals (potassium, iron, phosphorus, m a g n e s i u m and calcium) and vitamins B l , B3, B12, D, C, E and K ) . T h e sprouts are widely available in supermarkets and health food shops and are popularly eaten in salads; they can also be used to make alfalfa tea. Alfalfa acts as a tonic, stimulant, appetizer and diuretic, and can assist in the relief of urinary disorders and the alleviation of water retention (oedema).
viii N U T R I E N T S A T O Z ALLERGY, F O O D
A tood allergy is an abnormal immune-system reaction to a substance in food. Normally, when hostile substances enter the blood, the immune system promptly reacts by producing antibodies to engulf and destroy them. In allergic conditions, however, the immune system reacts with the same hostility to certain 'innocent' substances, releasing histamine. This can cause a wide variety of distressing symptoms, from a simple rash to headaches and hypertension. The causes of allergies are not fully understood by science, although it is known that the protein parts of foods and dust can trigger allergies. Two common causes of food allergies are low levels of stomach acid and a shortage of certain pancreatic digestive enzymes. The pancreas secretes enzymes which break down protein into its components, the a m i n o acids. A shortage of these enzymes can result in partly digested protein, and it is these protein fragments that can induce food allergies in the intestines which produce not only physical, but also mental, symptoms. Some common food additives, such as b e n z o i c acid (E210) and tartrazine (El02) are known to cause allergicreactions in people with sensitivities, especially children. The most common allergenic foods are cow's milk, eggs, chocolate, oranges, wheat, cheese, tomatoes, beef and maize, while among the least allergenic foods are rice, peas and avocados. A craving for a specific food can signal a food allergy, and the detection of these allergycausing foods can be done by the 'pulse test' (see Complete
Nutrition).
A number of nutrients can alleviate or cure these allergies, including vitamin C and quercetin, both potent antihistamines, vitamin B6, zinc, vitamin E and
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calcium. In fact, some nutritionists believe that allergies may be caused by nutrient deficiencies.
ALMOND
(PRU.XI
DULCIS)
Used historically as food and medicine, almonds are a rich source of nutrients. They are 20 per cent protein and contain vitamin E, calcium, m a g n e s i u m , potassium, iron and zinc. High in fat (up to 60 per cent), they are an excellent source of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated oils. Consequently, almonds have been shown to lower total cholesterol and to have an anticancer effect. Valued in traditional Indian medicine (ayurveda), almonds can help relieve phlegm, alleviate coughs and lubricate the intestines. Prepared as a drink (almond milk) by soaking them overnight in water, peeling off the brown skin and then blending the nuts with water in a blender, they make baby food. A few raw almonds can help alleviate heart burn. Almond oil is mainly used for cosmetic purposes.
ALOE VERA
A perennial plant indigenous to tropical areas of the Far East, southern Africa and the West Indies, it is now cultivated in some of the arid states of the USA, and is also grown in many places as a decorative plant. Nutritionally and medicinally, the plant is useful for the thick juice of its long leaves which has strong anti-fungal and anti-bacterial properties. The aloe vera juice contains many important vitamins and minerals, as well as beta carotene, e n z y m e s , a m i n o
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acids and the complex carbohydrate mucopolysaccharide. These are responsible for its many healing actions, which include the soothing of inflammations of the digestive tract and the relief of constipation, flatulence and the symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). The gelatinous juice of the fresh leaves can also be used externally. It is reputed to heal wounds and can also be rubbed on the skin to alleviate sunburns, wrinkles, skin irritations and minor cuts. Infusions are good for bathing wounds and eyes. The juice has a somewhat repellent taste so, when taken orally, it is usually blended with fruit juice to make it more palatable. Pure American aloe vera juice is now readily available in most health foods shops.
ALUMINIUM
Everyday sources of this toxic element are processed cheeses, baking soda, antacid tablets, table salt and antiperspirants (El73). It can also be ingested through the use of aluminium cookware and utensils. Aluminium disturbs the calciumphosphorus balance and causes the loss of vitamin B1 and excesses of aluminium salts, which can accumulate in the brain and are implicated in memory loss, presenile dementia and Alzheimer's disease. Vitamin C is recommended to counteract the build up of these salts in the body, as is garlic, seaweeds and wheat grass.
AMARANTH
(AAIARAXTIII
S HYPOCHOXDRIACI
~SA)
This grain is also known as Inca wheat and was the mam staple of the Aztec diet due to its high protein content. It I1now cultivated commercially in the American Midwest and
is incorporated into some breakfast cereals. The crimson flowers have an astringent property and infusions of these can be effective in the treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery; they can also be used to reduce excessive menstrual bleeding. Amaranth is normally sold as a prepared cereal, but the flowers are also obtainable from some herbalists.
AMASAKE
A naturally processed sweetener of the macrobiotic range, which is becoming increasingly popular. Amasake is a fermented sweet rice, produced by cooking the whole rice grain in water with koji, a starter treated with a special yeast culture, Aspergillus oryzae, which converts the starch in the rice into simpler sugars. By the end of the fermentation stage, amasake resembles a thick rice pudding with a subtly balanced sweetness. Amasake is rich in maltose, but its sugars are not as refined or concentrated as honey. Being derived from whole rice, amasake is also nourishing.
A M I N O ACIDS
Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. They are made up of a nitrogen-containing group, known as the amino group (NH2), and a carboxyl group containing carbon, oxygen and hydrogen ( C O O H ) . Specific ammo acids may also contain sulphur and iron and, to create the many forms of protein in the body, the amino acids link together into the various chain structures (peptides) that give each kind of protein - whether in bone. hair, nails or blood its specific characteristics. The formation of these
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proteins is governed by other proteins, the nucleic acids D N A and R N A , often described as the genetic blueprint of the body. D N A contains the master code and R N A conveys its instructions to cells where different kinds of proteins are formed. Protein synthesis is vitally important for sustaining life as ceils are constantly being broken down and must be recreated. O f the 24 known amino acids that make up the thousands of differing protein combinations, eight of these leucine, isoleucine, valine, methionine, threonine, lysine, phenylalanine and tryptophan - are known as the 'essential amino acids' as all eight must be present simultaneously in the diet, and in the right proportions, in order to form what is termed 'complete protein'. N o n e of these can be synthesized by the human body for itself and must be acquired from food. If even one is absent, or in a disproportionately low ratio to the others, then protein synthesis is halted or reduced. In this case, what is termed 'incomplete protein' results. This can happen in the diets of strict vegetarians or vegans subsisting on 'incomplete' vegetable protein, as it is the animal foods such as m e a t , fish, eggs and dairy produce that contain all the 'essentials' and form 'complete protein'. Individual free amino acids have been found to have specific beneficial effects, such as burning off fat, treating baldness, building muscle or relieving stress and, as such, they can be used as nutritional supplements. Some amino acids such as arginine, which are not adequately produced in many people, are considered 'semi-essential'.
ANGELICA
(AXC.HLICA
ARCIH\<
.ILICA)
Angelica is a large aromatic plant native to Northern
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NUTRIENTS A TO
Europe and Asia, which can be either biennial or perennial. It is found in damp places such as river banks and is also cultivated. For nutritional and medicinal purposes, the useful parts of the plant are its roots and seeds. Angelica tea, produced trom both the roots and the seeds, will aid digestion, relieve flatulence and stimulate appetite. It is useful for a number of digestive problems, including ulcers, vomiting and colic. Applied externally as a lotion, angelica can help relieve rheumatic pain and gout. A decoction of the root can be applied to the skin to treat scabies or itching. An infusion can be made by adding half a cup of boiling water to one teaspoon of crushed seeds and steeping; a decoction can be made by boiling one teaspoon of crushed root in three-quarters of a cup of water, and then steeping for five minutes. For convenience, angelica is sold as a liquid extract by some herbalists and the larger health food stores. This can be taken in a dosage of 1030 drops in liquid, three times daily. Caution: Angelica must not be taken by diabetics as it tends to elevate b l o o d sugar levels.
ANISE, ANISEED
(PIMI>INI;IA,\
AN/SUM)
Anise is an aromatic plant native to the Mediterranean regions, but is also cultivated. Its sweet seeds are used in Mediterranean cooking, mainly for flavouring. As an infusion, anise helps digestion, relieves flatulence, improves appetite and alleviates cramps, nausea and colic m children. As a tisane, anise can be used to stimulate milk production in nursing mothers and an infusion of the seeds is reputed to bring on delayed menstruation. A tisane is made by boiling half a teaspoon of crushed Need m halt a pint of water and straining it. An infusion is
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TO
made with one teaspoon of crushed seed boiled with a cup ot water and allowed to steep for 10 minutes. Anise is also known to promote energy circulation and increase the metabolic rate, which is valuable 111 any weight-loss programme. Available from larger health food stores and herbalists.
ANTACIDS
Antacid drugs bring only temporary relief, not a permanent cure, and, unless prescribed, anyone using antacids should realize that the symptoms of too much acid in the stomach are similar to those of having too little. In the latter case, therefore, taking antacids will only serve to exacerbate the problem. In addition, some antacids contain aluminium, a toxic element which can build up in the body and give rise to an array of disorders. Heartburn resulting from low acidity in the stomach can be relieved with betaine HC1 tablets. In fact, since stomach secretions are known to diminish with age, some authorities recommend that anyone over 40 should use a HC1 supplement with each main meal. In some cases, digestive e n z y m e s such as pancreatin tablets can help, but correct f o o d c o m b i n a t i o n s are considered to be the simplest and most effective way of preventing stomach over-acidity, heartburn and dyspepsia. For quick relief, taking 2 - 3 d o l o m i t e tablets with each meal is best. In the author's experience, a glass of cold milk or a few raw a l m o n d s can be very effective in cases of heartburn. Another simple way to avoid heartburn is to drink fluids before meals, rather than after, as this dilutes gastric juices.
viii ANTIBIOTICS
NUTRIENTS A TO
Once thought to eradicate all infectious diseases, the use of antibiotics is beginning to decline. While sensitivities to the drugs are on the increase, their actual effectiveness in treatments has decreased. Several strains of bacteria have developed immunity and resist antibiotic treatments. It is now estimated that 20 per cent of infections contracted in hospitals fail to respond to antibiotic treatment, and in the USA alone more than 100,000 people die each year from such infections. Originally, antibiotics were very powerful and their use in emergencies saved many lives. Unfortunately, doctors developed a tendency to prescribe antibiotics indiscriminately and eventually, as a result ot overuse, many bacteria developed resistance to the drugs and it became necessary to prescribe higher and higher doses. In time, a vicious circle was formed as the higher doses created stronger side-effects. Since antibiotics are unable to distinguish between nncro-orgamsms, they kill the 'friendly' intestinal bacteria (flora) needed for food absorption along with the pathogenic bacteria. O n e of the results of this has been a proliferation of vaginal yeast infections in women w h o have been prescribed tetracyclines. Antibiotics can also neutralize the effects of the contraceptive pill. As a result, doctors are now reserving the use of antibiotics as a last resort, and there is a growing tendency to prepare patients :>>r surgery by fortifying their immune system over a period ot time with balanced, well-supplemented diets.
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ANTIDEPRESSANTS, NUTRITIONAL
Nutritional treatment of depression, stress and anxiety can include two of the a m i n o acids: DLPA (DL-phenylalamne), which increases levels of noradrenaline and d o p a m i n e in the brain, and GABA (gamrna-aminobutyric acid), which is gaining popularity for its anti-anxiety effects. The latter is derived in the body from glutamic acid and acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter. That is, it slows down the frantic activity of the nerve cells in the brain's lymbic system, which is the body's emotional alarm bell. Calcium is a well-known calming mineral which can even alleviate insomnia if taken at bedtime at closes of 500 mg. Helpful vitamins for treating stress and depression are vitamin C and the B vitamins, expecially B l , niacin and pantothenic acid, while beneficial herbs include hawthorn, kava kava, linden, St John's wort and valerian. Among the foods that can acerbate depression and anxiety and should be avoided are white sugar, white flour, caffeine and a high-fat diet. Similarly, alcohol consumption and smoking should be reduced or cut out completely.
ANTIOXIDANTS
Antioxidants are substances that neutralize free radicals. These are atoms or molecules that are formed during food metabolism, or by pollutants, smoking and radiation, and are electronically unbalanced. In stable molecules, electrons come in pairs, but free radicals have unpaired electrons either one is missing or there is an extra one and to restabilize themselves they grab an electron from another molecule. In this wav, another tree radical is created and a destructive chain reaction is begun or continued.
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Free radicals, unless or until they are neutralized, damage various body cells. For instance, they can distort the D N A genetic blueprint, thus causing many of the degenerative diseases of ageing, such as heart disease, cancer and strokes; they also attack blood vessels, producing blood clots and atherosclerosis, and they can damage brain cells, creating memory loss and senility. The antioxidants serve as free radical scavengers, neutralizing and defending the body from their oxidative damage. The body protects itself with various antioxidant e n z y m e s , such as superoxide dismutase ( S O D ) and catalase or glutathione peroxide. Free radicals are also neutralized bv antioxidant nutrients such as the vitamins A, C, E, B l , B5, B6, niacin and PABA, the a m i n o acid cysteine (found in eggs), minerals zinc and selenium, catechols (found in bananas and potatoes), pbenolics (found in grapes and other fruits), quercetin (found in onion and garlic), rutin (found in buckwheat) and hesperidin (found in citrus rind). Other foods high in natural antioxidants include w h e a t grass, berries and dark green vegetables. Commercially, chemical antioxidants such as BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole) and B H T (butylated hydroxytoluene) are used in processed foods to protect them from spoilage and to prevent colour change from oxidation. BHA, which is widely used as a preservative (E320) in many foods, can be harmful to the kidneys, while BHT, its chemical cousin (E321), can cause even more damage to 'he kidneys.
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APPETITE
For anyone wishing to reduce weight, or needing to curb their appetite for other reasons, the following nutrients can be helpful if included in the diet: avocados, bran and fibrous foods, celery stalks, guar gum, hydroxycitric acid (HCA) as in Citrimax tablets, together with the amino acid L-phenylalanine, and also freshly squeezed l e m o n juice. For those needing to stimulate their appetite, the following foods are recommended: alfalfa sprouts, apples, carrot juice, cayenne pepper, celery leaves, chicken, cider vinegar, corn, grapefruit, liver, mushrooms, oranges, strawberries and tomatoes. In addition, herbs such as agrimony, anise and camomile, together with the vitamin B complex, zinc and brewer's yeast are also useful.
APPLES
(M,\i.rs)
Apples are a highly nutritious and cleansing fruit, as well as a good source ot vitamins A and B l ; they are also rich in a number of minerals including potassium, calcium, phosphorus and s o d i u m , and the bioflavonoid quercetin. In addition, they contain malic and tartaric acids, which inhibit gastric fermentation and bacteria proliferation in the digestive tract. In fact, a Cornell University study showed that apple extracts can significantly reduce the risk ot colon cancer. An average apple weighs 140 g and contains about 80 calories and 5 g of dietary fibre. The fruit are rich in pectin, which has numerous uses: it can help reduce high cholesterol levels and remove toxic metals such as lead and mercury from the bodv: it is verv beneficial tor intestinal problems and it binds
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radioactive residues and excretes them from the body. It is also used as a stabilizer (E440b) in the commercial production of foods such as jams and preserves. Apples can help cleanse the lungs of phlegm and protect them from smoking; they also boost immunity and stimulate the appetite. In addition, apple juice is very cleansing for the liver and gall bladder.
APRICOTS
(PRCXVS
ARMUNIACA)
Originating from China, apricots are a popular seasonal fruit which ripen in June and July. Ripe apricots are an excellent source of vitamins A and potassium. A serving of 100 g contains over 80 g of vitamin A. Apricots are recommended eating in cases of lung conditions. They are also high in copper and cobalt and can therefore be beneficial in the treatment of anaemia. In addition, they contain substantial amounts of calcium, silicon, phosphorus and vitamin C. Caution: Apricots should be used cautiously during pregnancy and avoided in cases of diarrhoea.
A R A C H I D O N I C A C I D (AA)
It is one of the essential fatty acids, which have numerous duties, and cause the production of prostaglandins (PG) of the type PGE2. These are hormone-like compounds which stimulate and control many bodily functions. PGE2 accelerates blood clotting and increases water retention, but excesses of it, which arise primarily from consumption of animal products, can cause pain and inflammation. AA also releases leukotrienes: these are substances w hich can help to
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heal wounds and injuries but, in excess, will stimulate such conditions as breast lumps and arthritis, especially rheumatoid arthritis, asthma, psoriasis and lupus erythematosus. Aspirin and steroid drugs inhibit the synthesis of PGE2 and can therefore reduce blood clotting, pain and fever. Indeed, aspirin is now widely used to protect vulnerable people from heart attacks. However, as it also inhibits PGE1, which counteracts the action of PGE2, a better choice is to increase the level of PGE1, which has a natural anti-inflammatory action. This can be done by taking evening primrose oil and excluding animal foods (except for some fish).
A R G I N I N E (L-ARGININE) Argimne is a semi-essential amino acid which, with its derivative ornithine, stimulates the secretion by the pituitary gland of growth h o r m o n e in the brain. This is essential not only for children's growth, but also for adults, since it promotes repair of worn tissues and helps to heal wounds. In addition, it stimulates the growth of T-lymphocytes immune cells that identify, engulf and destroy invading bacteria and carcinogenic chemicals. In this respect, arginine can be extremely useful in the treatment ot autoimmune diseases such as arthritis and multiple sclerosis. Arginine and ornithine have also been reported to stimulate weight loss and increase sperm count and motility. Supplemental arginine can raise nitric oxide levels, a compound that increases blood flow and facilitates penile erection. Arginine is usually stomach, preferablv at growth hormones are hour before strenuous Caution: Arginine taken in doses of 24 g on an emptv bed time, as peak secretion of released after falling asleep, or one exercise. ami ornithine should not be used bv
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children or pregnant and lactating women. Arginine is contra-indicated in herpes.
ARNICA
(ARSICA
MOXTASA)
A perennial plant, also known as mountain tobacco, it grows in the mountainous regions of Europe, Siberia, northern Asia and the western United States and Canada. It has been widely used for centuries as a healing herb, especially for bruising and trauma in cases of accident or injury. However, it should never be used on broken skin or open wounds. An infusion prepared from the root will stimulate perspiration and help to reduce temperature in a feverish cold; it can also be used to soothe inflamed mucous membranes and nasal passages, and act as a diuretic and general stimulant. Infusions can also be applied externally as a hair tonic. Available from larger health food stores and herbalists.
AROMATHERAPY
rhis is an ancient art which uses aromatic plant essences which, although not oily in texture, are known as essential oils. These can be extracted from the flowers, leaves, stems, fruits, seeds and/or roots of the plants, and their effects are many and varied. As inhalations or applied to the skin, these essential oils can be used to relieve physical conditions, restore mental and physical balance, and create a teeling of well-being. Aromatic herbs have been used for thousands ot years tor both healing and cosmetic purposes. For instance, ancient Ayurvedic texts include aromatic essences m manv of their treatments, but modern aromatherapy was
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rediscovered in the 1920s by Rene-Maurice Gattefosse, a French chemist, w h o studied the therapeutic effects of essentia] oils after accidentally discovering the beneficial effects of lavender oil in the treatment of burns. More recently, with the resurgence of interest 111 natural living and complementary medicines, aromatherapy has become increasingly popular. Around three thousand essential oils are used by trained aromatherapists, most of w h o m use a holistic approach, i.e. they do not treat merely the symptom, but consider the complete physical and emotional state as an entity. An essential oil may contain many different compounds, all working together to provide benefit. Many aromatherapy blends are available which are carefully balanced to produce specific effects such as relaxation, sensuality, clarity and inspiration. For example, a sensual blend can be made from ylang ylang, lavender and sandalwood, while premenstrual tension can be eased with a blend of clary, sage and geranium. Essential oils are quickly absorbed, and inhalation is very effective for delivering the active ingredients to the bloodstream. Many essential oils arcalso very effective as antimicrobial and antifungal agents.
A R T I C H O K E <(.' N IH I M.ON III Y

A large, thistle-like perennial plant which originated in the Mediterranean region and was traditionally used by ancient Greeks and Romans as a remedy for digestive disorders, the globe artichoke is now widely cultivated in temperate climates. The flower heads are commonly eaten as vegetables but extracts of leaves and roots were once used to treat liver disorders, jaundice and atherosclerosis. Artichokes provide a number of vitamins and minerals, and one of their key .tcnve ingredients, cvnarin, was shown by clinical studies to
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stimulate bile flow from the gall bladder, thus mobilising fatty stores and reducing cholesterol. Other studies found that artichoke extracts can help digestive complaints such as poor appetite, nausea and abdominal discomfort.
A S C O R B I C A C I D SEE V I T A M I N C
ASPARAGINE
This is a non-essential a m i n o acid which, with glutamic acid, is most commonly found in the brain. It is thought to regulate brain and nerve metabolism, and is used in the treatment of mental and emotional disorders. Available from health food stores.
A S P A R A G U S <.T>,'U' 1.,' S
OFHLCI.XAUS)
A nutritious green vegetable, it is a perennial that originated in the Mediterranean region and m Africa. It grows best in moderate climates and the young shoots, which are mainly used in cooking, are a rich source of vitamins and minerals. It is especially rich in vitamin E and 2 oz can provide a good daily dose. Asparagus contains asparagine, an a m i n o acid, which has calming properties. The plant is also a diuretic and can aid the elimination of " ater through urination, a special boon in cases of water retention (oedema). Asparagus can be used to treat many kidney conditions, but it should not be used in cases of inflammations. It is also helpful in cleansing cholesterol from arteries and hence is useful in treating vascular problems such as hypertension and arteriosclerosis.
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Caution: In excessive amounts, asparagus can irritate the kidneys.
ASPARTAME
This is a popular artificial sweetener used widely in diet products, from soft drinks to cereals, but also sold as a tabletop sweetener tor tea and coffee under such brand names as Nutrasweet or Equal. Made up of aspartic acid, phenylalanine and methanol, aspartame is 1 80 times sweeter than sugar and lacks the bitter aftertaste of saccharin. It is unsuitable for use in cooking because its flavour is changed when heated. Phenylalanine, an amino acid component of aspartame, poses a problem for people with phenylketonuria (PKU), a congenital hereditary condition caused by the body's inability to oxidise phenylalanine to tyrosine due to a defective enzyme. Such people risk brain damage if they use aspartame and that is why Nutrasweet diet products carry the warning 'contains phenylalanine.' Although no serious adverse effects were documented, a small segment of the population is known to be sensitive to aspartame. High intake of aspartame through excessive use of diet sodas is claimed to cause complaints such as headaches, nausea, dizziness or irritabilty, probably by overconsumption of phenylalanine and methanol.
ASPARTIC A C I D
A non-essential a m i n o acid, it has chelating effects - that is. it can bind toxic elements such as lead and mercury, and assist in their excretion from the body. Aspartic acid, with phenylalanine, produces the popular artificial sweetener
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aspartame, which is 180 times sweeter than sugar and is used mainly in diet soft drinks and sweetening tablets.
ASPIRIN
Aspirin is an anti-inflammatory drug originally isolated from willow bark which is readily obtainable over-the-counter and has become widely used as an inexpensive painkiller. It is commonly used to treat the aches and pains of conditions such as migraine and arthritis. However, aspirin is not a cure; it can only mitigate or alleviate pain and, in spite of its popularity and being freely available, it is not totally harmless. Not only does it deplete the body's supply of vitamin C, large or frequent dosing with aspirin can irritate the stomach and cause stomach haemorrhages and ulcers. In recent years, aspirin has been widely prescribed in the treatment of arthritis and to protect from heart disease, as it is known to block the production of PGE2, a prostaglandin. This is a hormone-like compound and excesses of it can increase b l o o d c l o t t i n g and contribute to heart attack. However, aspirin also inhibits PGE1 and PGE3, which are beneficial prostaglandins that counteract the effects of PGE2. A preferable choice of treatment, therefore, is to increase the body's levels of PGE1 by using supplements such as evening p r i m r o s e oil while, at the same time, reducing the intake of animal foods.
ASTRAGALUS
(ASIRAGAU
S MAMBRA.XACLI
sj
A traditional Chinese herb, its root was found to increase ivsistance to disease by fortifying the immune system. For example, it increases the body's secretion of interferon.
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which fights viruses. According to Chinese studies, astragalus reduces susceptibility to colds and their duration. Astragalus is indicated, together with echinacea and ginseng, for use in the degenerative conditions of ageing such as heart disease, cancer and arthritis. Since it is a diuretic, astragalus can be useful to reduce water retention (oedema). During the past decade, astragalus has been 'discovered' by Western science, and is increasingly being incorporated into nutritional formulas sold in health food shops.
AUBERGINE
(SOLAXUM
MULONGUSA)
Originating in China and brought over to Europe in the Middle Ages, aubergine, also known as eggplant, is a nonstarchy fruit which combines well with other foods as a versatile ingredient in casseroles, dips and salads. It is high 111 dietary fibre, low in fat and contains an array of nutrients such as vitamins A , B l , B3, B6, folic acid, and the minerals iron, calcium, m a g n e s i u m , copper, manganese, phosphorus and especially potassium. It is also rich in anthocvanin flavonoids, particularly one called nasunm, a potent antioxidant and free-radical scavenger known to protect the cell membranes, whose integrity is crucial for proper metabolic activity and general health. In addition, the mucilaginous fibre of aubergine can help to lower cholesterol levels, while its potassium content is useful 111 the prevention of water retention. Aubergine is reputed to reduce bleeding and has traditionally been used for the treatment of haemorrhoids and bleeding in general. It is an astringent food and is useful in the treatment of diarrhoea. It is also very suitable for inclusion in weight loss programmes as one cup of cooked cubes contains only 27 calories. 3 nig ot s o d i u m
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and a trace of fat, but, due to its high fibre content, it provides a feeling of fullness. It is best bought fresh when it is firm, weighty, and free of scars and cuts.
AVOCADO
(PERSEA
AMERICA,\A)
Native to Mexico, Guatemala and other Central and South American countries, avocados are now grown in many tropical and subtropical regions, particularly in Florida and California. Containing an abundance of vitamins and minerals, avocados are particularly rich in vitamins E, A and B and potassium. O n e avocado has the potassium content of two bananas. Avocados are an excellent source of monounsaturated fatty acids, second only to olives. They contain about 20 per cent fat, and their oils include oleic and linoleic acid, which can help lower cholesterol levels. Avocados provide an excellent source of nutritious protein and are often recommended for nursing mothers. As an oily fruit, avocado is a good internal lubricator, and can be used to soothe stomach and duodenal ulcers. It is also known to beautify the skin. Avocado is rich in lecithin, a fat emulsifier which promotes brain function, and most of its calorific value (80 per cent) comes from easily digested fat. It is very beneficial for hypoglycaemics (people with low b l o o d sugar levels) as it contains mannoheptulose, a special type ri t sugar which depresses the secretion of insulin; thus, in contrast to white sugar, it helps stabilize proper blood sugar levels. For this reason, avocados can be a valuable contribution to weight loss programmes since they help to satisfy hunger for longer periods of time. Avocados are also a useful ingredient for correct f o o d - c o m b i n i n g diets, as
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they combine well with both proteins and starches. Just one 100 g serving (about half an avocado) provides 160 calories, 2 g protein, 8.5 g carbohydrates, 6.7 g fibre and 14.7 g fat. O f this, 9.8 g is monounsaturated fat, 2.8 g polyunsaturated fat and only 2.1 g is saturated fat.
AYURVEDA
A traditional Indian approach to healthy living and longevity, ayurveda means 'Science of Life.' With more and more ayurvedic formulas sold in health food stores, ayurveda is increasingly becoming a Western alternative medicine modality. First mentioned in ancient Sanscrit texts, it is a complete natural health care system, treating both body and mind, using various healing therapies to ensure and maintain health and well-being and, ultimately, to reach a state of bliss. Ayurveda is thus the first holistic system of diagnosis and treatment, integrating nutrition, herbalism, meditation and awareness. Ayurvedic medicine uses complex herbal and mineral formulations to restore the balance of every bodily function, preferably before minor imbalances become diseases. Sometimes, this preventive approach is reinforced to cure a fully developed disease. But even then, ayurveda aims at restoring the power of the body to heal itself, thus ensuring that the treatment is effective and permanent. In doing so, ayurveda treats first the patient, not just the symptoms. Ayurvedic medicines include formulations consisting of plants and minerals in fixed, precise proportions according to a vast pharmacopoea.
B
BABIES, F O O D
It is most important to breast feed for the baby's first six months at least, if at all possible. The mother's milk (colostrum) in the first few days after delivery is rich in antibodies and lymphocytes, which boost the immunity of the child to diseases. Once established, breast feeding largely determines the baby's health, not only in the first few months but for many years to come, and saves needless miseries such as ear infections, colic and allergies. Research has shown that the substitution of cow's milk in the early months can be correlated with later obesity and heart disease. It would seem that the high cholesterol level in a mother's milk as opposed to low cholesterol in cow's milk serves in fact to establish lower cholesterol levels in later years. Recent studies have also indicated that when cow's milk is introduced before four months of age, this may trigger the autoimmune process and increase the risk of diabetes developing in later years (see Complete Nutrition) From the age of six months, mashed vegetables and other foods should be introduced gradually, while at the same time decreasing the consumption of milk. Then, when the first molar appears usually at about 18 months - this is a sign that the pancreatic e n z y m e s in the intestines are ready to synthesize more solid foods. Of course, this is only a general timetable and every baby is different: some can be weaned at i very early age while others will refuse weaning even after tlie first birthday. When mother's milk is not available it is
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advisable to use either the milk from another mother (a wet nurse) or goat's milk, or a combination of both. Babies born to vegan mothers are known to thrive on a l m o n d milk or soya milk.
BACTERIA, INTESTINAL see PROBIOTICS
BAKING SODA, BAKING POWDER

Baking soda or baking powder, which are commonly used to leaven bread, deplete two of the B vitamins thiamine and folic acid - and neutralize v i t a m i n C. They also contain a l u m i n i u m salts, which can accumulate in the brain and damage brain cells, causing memory loss and presenile dementia. O n e way to avoid this is by using the sourdough leavening process. In this method, the starter is made from just flour and water which is allowed to stand for three days, by which time live airborne yeast will have turned the mix sour. Baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) provides a very useful dentrifice as it neutralizes acidic plaque and prevents gum infections. It can also eliminate bacteria that cause tooth decay. A simple cure for athlete's foot is to dust the affected area with baking soda. Caution: Baking soda should not be used as an antacid for stomach over-acidity or heartburn by people on lows o d i u m diets.
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BALM, L E M O N BALM
(MELISSA
OFFICINALIS)
A perennial plant, originally native to the eastern Mediterranean, it can now be found growing wild throughout most of Europe, and is cultivated mainly as a culinary herb for its lemon-scented leaves. An infusion of the leaves can be used to dull pain, ease toothache, and relieve flatulence, cramps, indigestion and colic. Since it increases perspiration, it is useful in treating colds by reducing feverishness. Traditionally, it has been used to treat nervousness, depression and insomnia, and it is also claimed to stimulate the onset of menstruation and relieve period pains. T h e leaves can be used to prepare a pleasant, aromatic tea with soothing and relaxing properties. Available from larger health food stores and herbalists.
BANANA
(MUSA)
An aromatic fruit, which originated in Asia, it is now grown in the hot, damp climates of tropical and subtropical countries. Bananas are rich in potassium and low in sodium: an average-size banana contains a whopping 440 mg potassium and only 1 m g sodium. As such, bananas are used to treat hypertension and detoxify the body. Their principal aroma is amyl acetate and they contain large amounts of tryptophan, an amino acid that is converted to serotonin, an inhibiting brain neurotransmitter which makes bananas a calming food, especially when taken with milk before bedtime. Bananas serve as a good internal lubricator for the intestines as they moisten dryness and, although they are commonly given to children, they are suitable for everyone, especially for people who tend to suffer from hypertension,
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weak digestion and general weakness. Bananas are astringent before fully ripened, which makes them useful in the treatment of diarrhoea and haemorrhoids. W h e n fully ripe, bananas can be beneficial in the treatment of constipation and ulcers. Traditionally, the African Zulus used to rub banana peels on their skins as a tribal medicine for any skin condition. Modern resarch has found that banana peel rubbed on the red, scaly patches of psoriasis can provide relief without the side-effects of conventional treatments. The active ingredients in banana peels, the esterified fatty acids, have been isolated and incorporated in to a patented lotion, Exorex Lotion, which is now being marketed.
BARBERRY
(BERBERIS
VULGARIS)
The common barberry is a deciduous shrub that grows wild throughout Europe and the eastern United States. Both its roots and berries can be used in infusions. An infusion of the root promotes the secretion of bile and is therefore beneficial in liver disorders. The bark of the root has a laxative effect. Decoctions of either the root or berries make a good mouthwash or gargle for mouth and throat irritations. Available from herbalists. Caution: Neither high nor low blood pressure should be treated with barberry.
BARLEY
(HORDEVM)
Probably one of the first cultivated cereals, barley is grown in almost all the temperate regions of Europe and North America. It is a nutritious and easily digested cereal,
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providing a good source of fibre, iron, c a l c i u m and protein. It is known to strengthen the stomach and intestines and to soothe inflamed membranes, and is believed to help reduce tumours and oedema. It can be used in the alleviation of painful urination and as a mild laxative. Sprouted barley is even more nutritious and can help indigestion and abdominal bloating. It is also a strong blood purifier. Barley grass, which can be grown at home, is richer in chlorophyll, vitamin A and e n z y m e s , making it easier to digest. It also contains the antioxidant enzyme S O D and mucopolysaccharides which give it anti-inflammatory properties. Barley grass has a high protein content of 20 per cent, about the same as that of meat. Barley malt is a sweetener prepared from sprouted barley. During sprouting, starch is converted to maltose, which does not harm teeth as sugar does and is therefore a much safer and more nutritious sweetener. Ground roasted barley is frequently used as an ingredient in several brands of coffee substitute and is recommended as a relief for fatigue. Available in health food shops.
BASIL
(OCIMUM
BASIUCUM)
An annual with a pungent aroma, the plant is native to India but has been grown throughout the Mediterranean regions for thousands of years. It is now cultivated throughout southern and western Europe as an aromatic culinary herb. The leaves have appetite -stimulating properties and are generally used as a culinary flavouring. Infusions of the leaves can be used to relieve flatulence, fermentation, stomach cramps and constipation, and the plant is also said to relieve nausea. Available from supermarkets.
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BAY LEAVES see LAUREL
BEANS see L E G U M E S
BEARBERRY
(ARCTOSTAPHYLOS
UVA-VRSI)
Bearberry, also called uva ursi, is an evergreen shrub of the Ericaceae family. It has small, bitter leaves and produces juicy but insipid berries. T h e leaves contain tannins, which are astringent, and glycosides, which are excellent antiseptics and anti-bacterial. Until the advent of antibiotics, bearberry was used as a urinary tract antiseptic. The astringent properties of the leaves can also be utilized in an infusion to help alleviate diarrhoea and bleeding. Bearberry also has diuretic properties and can be used to reduce uric acid levels, for the relief of pain caused by kidney stones and gravel, and for the alleviation of the symptoms of chronic cystitis. Available from larger health food stores and herbalists. Caution: Excessive use of bearberry can cause stomach pain.
BEE POLLEN
Pollen is the yellowish dust produced by the anthers of male flowers. It is transferred by bees to the ovaries of the female flowers resulting in their fertilization and the development of fruit or seeds. Specific types of pollen are also collected by bees for storage in their hives as food for the young bees. The composition of bee pollen varies according to the
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type of flower it has come from but, whatever its source, it is one the most nourishing foods available to mankind. O n average, it contains 30 per cent a m i n o acids (protein), 50 per cent carbohydrates, 14 per cent polyunsaturated fatty acids, a large concentration of minerals and trace elements, many of the A, C, D, E and B - c o m p l e x vitamins and bioflavonoids. The protein is complete and rates higher than meat in essential amino acids. Nutritionally, it is so perfectly balanced that, in itself, it represents a complete survival food. Bee pollen has been extensively studied for its beneficial effects. It has been given to athletes as it has been found to improve energy and endurance; in the Republic of Georgia, the consumption of bee pollen has been correlated with longevity. Bee pollen has also been found to prevent colds and flu, help the immune system to fight virus infections, relieve fatigue, improve appetite, increase sexual potency and fertility, alleviate painful menstruation, reduce the hot flushes of menopause for women and alleviate enlarged prostate in men. Bee pollen is considerably less allergenic than windborne pollens. It should be taken regularly for at least one month: up to 20 g a day provides a normal supplement, while 40 g constitutes a therapeutic dosage. Available from larger health food stores.
BEER
Considered a low-alcohol recreational drink, beer is drunk socially in large quantities, more like a soda than an alcoholic drink. Made from malted barley, flavoured with hops and brewed by slow fermentation, beer can contain anything
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from four to eight per cent alcohol. Therefore, large consumption of beer can easily become an alcohol abuse. Beer can also contain additional flavourings and additives, particularly caramel (El50), which gives many beers their colour. Beers flavoured with hops contain small amounts of xanthohumol, a powerful antioxidant compound in hops that protects against heart disease and cancer. T h e amounts however, are too small to be preventative. Perceptions of the safety of beer are conflicting and are expressed by both enthusiastic proponents and opponents. Sensible consumption seems to raise the level of the 'good' H D L cholesterol and helps prevent blockages in the heart arteries of healthy people. But do not rush to use beer to lower your high cholesterol: a famous German study revealed that the alcohol did not benefit people with existing high cholesterol. Several studies suggested that light beer drinkers have less heart disease than heavy drinkers. And cobalt added to beer to preserve its foam was shown to contribute to heart disease in heavy beer drinkers. Heavy beer drinkers should remember that beer is also high in purines, digestive by-products that convert to uric acid, the build-up of which can bring on or worsen gout. Heavy beer drinking was found to increase the risk of rectal and lung cancer in men, and breast cancer in women. Higher alcohol consumption may also lead to cirrhosis of the liver, high blood pressure, varicose veins and haemorrhoids, heart irregularities, coronary thrombosis and foetal defects. A study done in Finland in 1997 confirmed the danger of beer binges. Drinking six cans of beer a day increased fourfold the risk of cardiovascular disease compared to those who drank only one or two cans. In addition, a high rate of behavioural problems, such as aggressiveness and
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violence, were observed in beer bingers. N o wonder that more brands of non-alcoholic or low-alcohol beer are now available. Practising moderation in beer drinking seems to be good advice.
BEET
(BETA
VULGARIS)
Table beet is a vegetable that originally grew wild in the Mediterranean regions. It is rich in iron and also contains vitamins B l , B2, C and the minerals potassium, manganese, phosphorus and silicon. Although it is normally the root part of the plant that is eaten, in fact its leaves are a very good source of beta carotene. Beet has a number of useful medicinal properties. For instance, it can be used for purifying the blood, improving circulation, promoting menstruation and stimulating the bowels. Beet can also be helpful for the treatment of liver problems. Some healers recommend beet for intestinal cleansing of parasites. In addition, it can help calm nervousness and is of benefit in vascular congestions. Available from supermarkets and grocers. Caution: Green beets are rich in oxalic acid but, if eaten in excess, they can interfere with calcium metabolism and promote the formation of calcium-oxalate kidney stones.
BELLADONA
(ATROPA
BELLADONA)
Commonly known as deadly nightshade, this poisonous plant grows wild throughout Europe and many Asian countries. It contains several alkaloids, including atropine, which relieves asthma, hyoscyiamine, which induces sleep and can cause paralysis, belladonine, which is a narcotic and painkiller, and scopolamine, another painkiller which
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reduces high blood pressure and produces twilight sleep. Caution: The narcotic action of belladona affects the central nervous system and can cause paralysis. It is available on prescription in tinctures and extracts, and it should only be used under medical supervision.
BENZOIC A C I D
A commonly used preservative (E210) in many processed foods, it is known to cause allergies in sensitive people. Children are especially vulnerable and allergic reactions can include hyperactivity, abdominal pains, diarrhoea, asthma and rashes. Saccharin is a derivative of benzoic acid.
BETA C A R O T E N E
Beta carotene is a v i t a m i n A precursor (also called provitamin A) and one of the many plant pigments known collectively as carotenoids. It is the most prevalent cartenoid in plants. These plant pigments are potent antioxidants, protecting the plants from destruction by the free radicals generated by dangerous sun rays, and without these protective carotenoids the plants would quickly shrivel. People can acquire the same protection from antioxidants by eating foods high in beta carotene, such as carrots, sweet potato, cantaloupe, p u m p k i n and leafy green vegetables. T h e microalgae spirulina and dunaliella are among the highest sources of beta carotene. Although beta carotene is converted to vitamin A in the body, it has additional biological properties of its own. It is a stronger antioxidant than vitamin A and studies have shown that it protects the body from several types of
37 N U T R I E N T S A T O
cancer, especially lung cancer. Beta carotene also acts as a filter, protecting the eye lens from cataract. In addition, it boosts the immune system and stimulates the T-cells, providing a strong protection to the thymus gland.
BETAINE H C l
This is a stomach acid supplement available in health food shops for people with low gastric secretion. A betaine H C l tablet taken after a meal can improve food tolerance and digestion, and its use can also help conditions resulting from low stomach acid, such as heartburn. Since low stomach acid is known to cause allergies, betaine HCl can also help reduce various allergy symptoms. Gastric secretions are known to be reduced with age and Dr Alan Nitder, author of A New Breed of Doctor, recommends that everyone over the age of 40 should take betaine HCl tablets as a matter of course.
BILBERRY
(VACCINIUM
MYRTILLUS)
Also known as whortleberry, this small perennial plant grows wild in the poor soil of sandy areas and moors and both its berries, which are black, and its leaves can be used for medicinal purposes. Bilberry is rich in flavonoids, particularly proanthocyanidins and anthocyanidins, both of which are powerful antioxidants and have an antiinflammatory effect, strengthening capillaries and collagen. Bilberry extracts, which are rich in anthocyanidin compounds, are now increasingly used to treat eye conditions such as near-sightedness, and to improve night vision and reverse diabetic retinopathy. An infusion of the leaves is antiseptic and can be used to treat diarrhoea and
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dysentery; it can also act as a diuretic. Capsules and formulas for improving eyesight are available from larger health food stores.
BILE
A thick fluid secreted by the liver, bile is produced from cholesterol through the action of an enzyme and with the help of v i t a m i n C. It is used by the duodenum to emulsify fats and assist with the absorption of fatty acids. Excess bile is stored in the gall bladder, where it is discharged into the duodenum as it is needed. A high level of vitamin C in the diet helps to promote bile production, which, in turn, assists in the reduction of cholesterol levels. At the same time, dietary improvement can help to increase the production of bile since, when a diet is low in protein or high in sugar, little bile is produced. As a result of this, fats are poorly dissolved in the digestive tract and parts of the undissolved fats will then combine with calcium and iron from food to form insoluble soaps. These can be harmful in two respects: they can prevent absorption of calcium and iron, causing deficiencies, and can also harden the stools, causing constipation. A fat-free diet is also undesirable because it does not stimulate bile flow and, as a result of this, sediments may form which can promote the development of gallstones.
BIOAVAILABILITY
This term specifies to what extent various micronutrients in food are absorbed and become available to their target tissues or organs after eating. In other words, it is not a matter of
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what is consumed, but what the body is able to absorb and assimilate from the foods ingested. There is a variety of factors that can influence bioavailability, such as ageing, food processing, reduced digestive secretions, shortage of e n z y m e s in the body, and nutrient interaction in which some nutrients inhibit or increase absorption of other nutrients.
BIOFLAVONOIDS (VITAMIN P)
Bioflavonoids are complex compounds closely associated with vitamin C and found in a wide range of plants, particularly the citrus fruits. All the bioflavonoids enhance the effectiveness of vitamin C, and are recognized as potent antioxidants. Together with vitamin C, they strengthen the capillaries and help prevent excessive menstrual bleeding. They are also anti-viral and anti-inflammatory, protect from free radicals and inhibit histamine release. Bioflavonoids are therefore indicated in inflammatory and allergic conditions. As a group, several hundred flavonoids have been identified in fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, leaves and flowers. O n i o n s and garlic provide rich sources of quercetin, a bioflavonoid with potent anti-carcinogenic activity which has been shown to inhibit the growth of several types of cancer cells, including breast cancer, ovarian cancer and leukaemia. Quercetin has also been found to be effective in healing wounds, preventing diabetic cataracts and in treating oral herpes. Cherries, hawthorn berries, blueberries and other berries are rich in anthocyanidins and proanthocyanidins, the flavonoids that give these berries their dark reddish-blue colour and which are powerful antioxidants, preventing free radical damage and helping to maintain healthy collagen and capillaries. Buckwheat is rich in the bioflavonoid rutin,
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which is a well-known treatment for haemorrhoids, varicose veins and hypertension. Hesperidin, the predominant flavonoid in citrus fruits, is chemically similar to rutin. Since bioflavonoids strengthen the capillaries, they can assist in the treatment of duodenal ulcers and retinal haemorrhages.
BIOTIN
A water-soluble B vitamin, biotin is stable when heated. It is involved in the utilization of glucose by increasing insulin action, and can be used in the control of sugar levels in diabetes. It also assists with the utilization of protein, folic acid and vitamin B12. Biotin is synthesized in the body by the intestinal bacteria (flora) so that healthy flora are an important factor in the maintenance of correct biotin levels and the prevention of deficiency symptoms. In this respect, eggs are best eaten cooked since raw egg white is rich in avidin, a protein that binds biotin and prevents its absorption. Biotin helps to maintain the skin in a healthy condition and alleviate eczema and dermatitis. It also eases muscle aches and is reputed to prevent the hair from greying. Its deficiency symptoms include eczema and dermatitis, lack of appetite, fatigue and muscle pains. Biotin is useful in the treatment of hair and scalp conditions. For instance, it is sometimes used in case of hair loss, and a scalp condition in infants known as seborrheic dermatitis appears to improve with biotin supplements. The best natural sources of biotin are brewer's yeast, liver, brown rice, nuts, egg yolk, milk and fruits. The recommended daily dosage is 150300 meg. The body's requirement of biotin increases during pregnancy and lactation.
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BIRCH, WHITE BIRCH
(BETULA
ALBA)
Also known as the paper birch because its bark separates into sheets almost like paper, this is a tall, slender tree which grows wild in northern Europe and North America. Its leaves and bark are astringent, diuretic and promote perspiration, and infusions of the leaves are claimed to dissolve kidney stones and eliminate gravel. Birch can also stimulate kidney functions and help with the elimination of uric acid. A decoction of the leaves provides a mild sedative when taken at bedtime. T h e decoction is made with one tablespoon of fresh leaves boiled in half a cup of water. This should be left to steep for two hours, after which half a teaspoon of bicarbonate of soda should be added. An infusion can be made with one tablespoonful of leaves soaked in half a cup of hot water. Available from larger herbalists.
BIRTH C O N T R O L PILLS
Birth control pills are known to deplete several important vitamins in the body such as B 6 , folic acid and B12. Prolonged use of oral contraceptives can create typical deficiency symptoms of these nutrients such as weight gain, oedema, allergies, anaemia, fatigue, depression and even loss of sex drive. To prevent such symptoms, longterm users of the pill would do well to supplement their diets with these vitamins.
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NUTRIENTS A
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BIRTHWORT
(ARISTOLOCHIA
CLEMATITIS)
A perennial plant which grows wild in hedges and along fences, both its roots and clustered flower heads can be used for medicinal purposes. The ancient Egyptians used the plant as a remedy for snake bites, and infusions of the roots have traditionally been used to heal ulcers and also to arrest tumours in animals. In addition, infusions of the root and flowers will stimulate perspiration, act as a diuretic, reduce fever and stimulate delayed menstruation. Available from larger health food stores and herbalists. Also incorporated in nutritional formulas.
BISHOP W E E D
(AMMI
VISNAGA)
A Middle Eastern herb commonly used in Yemenite and other Arab folk medicine, it contains the glycoside khellin, which has been found to reduce the pain of kidney stones by relieving muscle spasms caused by their pressure. It is also known to alleviate the pain of angina pectoris by dilating the arteries of the heart. Available from larger herbalists.
BITTER M E L O N
(MOMORDICA
CHARANTIA)
A tropical fruit, also known as balsam pear, bitter melon is a vegetable widely cultivated in Asia, Africa and South America. The fresh juice and the extract of the unripe fruit have been found in various studies to have a b l o o d sugar lowering effect. As such, bitter melon is extensively used in folk medicine as a treatment for diabetes. Bitter melon contains several compounds that have antidiabetic properties. O n e of them, charantin, is an efficient
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sugar-lowering agent composed of mixed steroids. Another active ingredient, momordica, is a polypeptide (protein) which reduces blood sugar levels, in much the same way as insulin, when injected into insulin-dependent diabetics. Drinking 5060 ml of the juice has also shown positive results in clinical trials. Available from larger health food stores and herbalists.
BLACKBERRY
(RUBUS
VILLOSUS)
A perennial bramble whose sour fruits are rich in v i t a m i n C and, especially, anthocyanins, the potent antioxidants of its pigments. Fresh berries are well known for their bloodbuilding properties. Used traditionally as a tonic and to treat anaemia and sore throats, new research shows that blackberries can reduce oestrogen activity and as such are now being tested for use against lung cancer in women.
BLACK C O H O S H R O O T
(CIMICIFUGUA
RACEMOSA)
A perennial plant, native to N o r t h America, it grows wild from Maine to Missouri, mainly on hillsides. Infusions of the root are astringent, diuretic and anti-spasmodic. Black cohosh was traditionally used by the American Indians to treat female complaints such as menstrual cramps, delayed menstruation and hot flushes of menopause. The root contains 27-deoxyacetin, an active ingredient with oestrogen-like activity. Studies have shown that black cohosh can increase oestrogenic activity and thus alleviate the symptoms of menopause. R e c o m m e n d e d for PMT, hot flushes, depression and nervousness. Do not use when pregnant. Available at health food stores.
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NUTRIENTS A TO
BLACKCURRANT
(RIBES
NIGRUM)
Best grown in northern regions where the weather is generally cool and wet, blackcurrants were traditionally used, much like blackberries, to prepare delicious drinks, teas or home-made syrups. Blackcurrants are extremely rich in vitamin C, containing four times as much as the equivalent weight of oranges. A 100 g serving can contain up to four times the R e c o m m e n d e d Daily Allowance of vitamin C! The purple-black skins of blackcurants contain anthocyanidins, important antioxidant flavonoids with an antiinflammatory effect, which explains the practice of sipping hot blackcurrant syrup for sore throats in folk medicine. Blackcurant seed oil contains essential fatty acids and is one of the richest sources of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) in fact it contains about 15 per cent more GLA than evening p r i m r o s e oil and is sold in capsules under different brand names in health food stores. Applied externally, blackcurrant seed oil can improve skin softness and suppleness.
BLACK NIGHTSHADE
(SOLANUM
NIGRUM)
An annual which grows wild on sea cliffs and cultivated land, mainly in England and Wales, although it has been introduced into Scotland and Ireland. It contains several alkaloids, including atropine, solanine and solasodine, a derivative of diosgenin from which plant steroids are made. Caution: All nightshades (see B E L L A D O N N A ) are highly poisonous and must be used only under strict medical supervision.
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BLOOD C L O T T I N G
Normal blood clotting is necessary for healing wounds. Vitamin K promotes blood clotting and is used to prevent or control internal bleeding and reduce excessive menstrual flow. However, excessive blood clotting is dangerous and can result in coronary thrombosis and thrombophlebitis, the main causes of heart attacks, as well as strokes. The risk of excessive blood clotting is increased by nutrient deficiencies, alcohol and excess arachidonic acid (AA), an essential fatty acid prevalent in meat, dairy products, eggs and peanuts. A vegetarian diet can therefore be beneficial in such cases. A reduction in bloodclotting can be induced by foods such as garlic, onion and oily fish (such as salmon, mackerel and sardines), and the use of supplements such as vitamin E, calcium, evening primrose oil, omega-3 fatty acids (MaxEPA), lecithin, kelp and octacosanol, contained in wheat g e r m oil.
BLOOD S U G A R
-"'"I-FI 1 I I,, ,|I,iIII.-nII-IINI'NII urn v'if... I1111 .'I. 'I..IM.U' ''*'' I -jr^-XTCT^m-qirnro?'^
Since the body burns sugar (glucose) for energy, it is imperative that a consistently adequate blood sugar level is niaintained in order to retain a feeling of well-being an ideal blood sugar level is 90100 mg glucose per 100 cc of blood. At this level we are energetic and feel good, but when the level drops to 70 mg, hunger, fatigue and irritability set in. At levels below this, exhaustion, dizziness, heart palpitations and nausea are common. The pancreas is the major sugar regulator, and the body has a complicated hormonal balancing mechanism which keeps blood sugar at a fairly constant level. When the level is too high, the pancreas secretes insulin which converts glucose to glycogen: when the level is too low, the pancreas
46
NUTRIENTS A TO
secretes glucagon and the adrenal glands secrete adrenalin, two hormones that convert glycogen back to glucose. However, if this balancing mechanism gets out of order, it can produce either low blood sugar (hypoglycaemia) or high blood sugar (diabetes). Factors that can affect the blood sugar balance include an excessive use of white sugar, prolonged stress and nutrient deficiencies. Elimination of white sugar from the diet, together with supplements of the B-complex vitamins, c h r o m i u m picolinate or GTF chromium, zinc and brewer's yeast will help to restore and stabilize blood sugar to a more acceptable level.
BLUEBERRIES
(VACCINIUM
MYRTILLUS)
Growing wild in America, Europe and Asia in many varieties, blueberries have been consumed since prehistoric times. But it was only in the twentieth century that they became commercially cultivated. Blueberries are truly a super food. They are the richest of most fruits and vegetables in anthocyanidins, powerful antioxidant bioflavonoids contained in their blue, purple and red pigments. With their exceptional antioxidant activity, blueberries were found beneficial in protecting the brain against Alzheimer's disease and the eyes against age-related macular degeneration (AMD). They are now used as an aid in the treatment of urinary tract infections, helping to protect the urethra and bladder from E. coli. Blueberries are also a good source of vitamin C, fibre, pectin, manganese, v i t a m i n E and vitamin B2. 100 g provide 57 calories, traces of protein and fat, and 14.5 g carbohydrates which consist of 2.4 g fibre and only 9.9 g natural sugars (fructose and glucose).
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BLUE G U M T R E E see EUCALYPTUS
BLUE-GREEN ALGAE
(APHANIZOMENON
FLOS-AQUAE)
Blue-green algae, or AFA, is one of the fastest growing items in the health food market. This unique algae, which is found in Upper Klamath Lake in South Oregon, is considered to be a perfect 'green food' as it contains 60 per cent highquality protein, together with all the essential a m i n o acids required for full utilization. It is the richest known source of chlorophyll, which is a blood purifier, is high in beta carotene and contains a vast array of vitamins, minerals and trace elements, including a high concentration of vitamin B12. AFA has been found to have many beneficial effects and regular users report experiencing increased energy and mental alertness, as well as an improvement in conditions such as depression, diabetes, hypoglycaemia, anaemia and Alzheimer's disease. AFA is available from health food shops in capsule, tablet and powder form. Caution: At the time of publication, some reports have indicated that the supplement may contain toxins linked to paralysis and long-term liver damage.
BONEMEAL
Usually derived from cattle bones, this is a c a l c i u m phosphorus supplement that is sold in health food shops lr t both tablet and powder form. However, since the bonemeal calcium is not chelated, it is best taken with a protein meal.
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NUTRIENTS A
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BORAGE OIL
A native of the Mediterranean regions, borage (also called starflower) was brought to Britain by the Romans. The oil of borage is used as a dietary source for gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) and, in fact, has been found to provide a more concentrated source of GLA than the more generally used evening p r i m r o s e oil some batches can be as high in GLA as 20 per cent. A recent study has shown that borage oil can lower hypertension and, as a dietary supplement, has brought about a reduction in high blood pressure within a period of seven weeks. Available from health food stores.
BORON
This trace element was recently found to promote the absorption of c a l c i u m and m a g n e s i u m . Boron also interacts with potassium, vitamin D and m e t h i o n i n e , and has been found to raise the level of estradiol in women, the most active type of oestrogen. Boron can therefore be beneficial in the menopause, when oestrogen levels drop and calcium absorption is impaired. Boron has also been found to be effective in alleviating symptoms of arthritis, especially juvenile arthritis. Deficiency symptoms of boron include bone demineralisation, brittle bones, arthritis, low oestrogen levels in menopause and reduced growth. T h e best natural sources of the element are fruits, vegetables and supplements - 3 mg a day provides a normal intake. Although no R D A was established for boron, an upper limit is officially set at 20 mg a day. Available from health food stores on its own or in combination with calcium and multi-mineral formulas.
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BRAN
Bran is made up of the fibrous husks that cover grain seeds. It contains 12 per cent polysaccharides (cellulose, pectin and lignin) and also protein, fat, vitamins and minerals. Contrary to its common description as 'roughage' food, it is not irritating to the bowels. W h e a t bran contains 2.5 per cent cellulose (the indigestible part), which compares favourably with apples (3.6 per cent) and grapes (7 per cent). However, bran is recommended not so much for its nutritional value, but rather for the ability of its fibre to absorb water and give bulk to the faeces. It expands in the colon, stimulating bowel movement and elimination. Highfibre diets speed up waste transit time through the colon, preventing constipation, appendicitis, diverticulosis (pockets in the colon), haemorrhoids and varicose veins, obesity and high blood pressure, cancer of the colon and coronary heart disease. With slow-moving stools, unfriendly bacteria in the colon have time to convert bile acids to carcinogens, whereas fast-moving stools facilitate bile excretion, reducing cholesterol, hypertension and heart attacks. Wheat bran, oat bran and rice bran are among the most popular. Oat bran has an outstanding soluble fibre content, much more than wheat bran, for example. In many studies, 5 0 100 g a day of oat bran were found effective in lowering high cholesterol levels, selectively reducing the L D L ('bad' cholesterol) level. Oat bran was also found to reduce the need for insulin by 2550 per cent in adult-onset diabetes. And since oat bran is bulk-forming, it can also contribute to weight loss by curbing the appetite. Available from supermarkets and health food stores. Caution: Consumption of large quantities of raw bran
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NUTRIENTS A
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can result in a deficiency of minerals such as calcium unless supplements of multi-mineral tablets are taken.
BRANCHED C H A I N A M I N O A C I D S (BCAA)
This group contains three essential a m i n o acids: leucine, isoleucine and valine. BCAA are essential for muscle growth and repair, and also help to heal muscle tears, sprains and tired muscles. They are mostly used, therefore, by athletes and body builders. BCAA can also help to strengthen weak muscles after a period of being bedridden and are good stress relievers. They are available from health food stores as a food supplement.
BRASSICA
A family of cruciferous vegetables that includes cabbage, broccoli, brussels sprouts, cauliflower and kale. They are rich in vitamins and minerals, particularly sulphur, the 'beauty mineral' which produces collagen and boosts the immune system against germs and viruses. They also contain compounds with anti-cancer properties, such as dithiolthiones and indoles which protect against breast and colon cancer. This family of vegetables also has a beneficial effect on the liver.
BREAST FEEDING see BABIES, FOOD
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BREWER'S YEAST
A unicellular micro-organism, brewer's yeast was originally a by-product of the brewing industry that grew on hops, grain or malt, and which had to be debittered. Now, due to is high nutritional value, brewer's yeast is mainly produced as a supplement. The best types are those graded 'primary'. These are usually grown on molasses or sugar beets and are pleasant-tasting. Brewer's yeast is a well-balanced food, containing excellent concentrations of B - c o m p l e x vitamins, including even v i t a m i n B12 in some cases. It is up to 45 per cent complete protein, containing 17 a m i n o acids, including all the essential ones, and is a rich source of D N A and R N A , which together form 12 per cent of dried yeast. It also contains an abundance of minerals and trace elements. For example, it is high in iron and copper, making it helpful in the treatment of anaemia. In addition, it contains high amounts of c h r o m i u m and glucose tolerance factor (GTF) which benefits diabetics and hypoglycaemics. It also contains s e l e n i u m in fact, some yeasts are actually grown on selenium, making them 'selenium-rich yeast'. This selenium, in particular, is easily absorbed. Initially, only small amounts of brewer's yeast should be taken on a daily basis; then, as the body adapts to it, the amounts can gradually be increased. It is available from health food shops in tablet, flake or powder form. Caution: Brewer's yeast is contra-indicated in cases of Candida (thrush).
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NUTRIENTS A
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BROCCOLI
(BRASSICA
OLERACEA)
A member of the Brassica family, broccoli is a green vegetable that can be eaten either raw or cooked. Broccoli is exceptionally nutritious, containing an abundance of sulphur, iron and chlorophyll, which purifies the blood; it is also rich in vitamins A, B - c o m p l e x and especially C. In fact, it contains more vitamin C than oranges - one cup provides as much as 70 mg of vitamin C. Known for its great cancer-combating ability, broccoli was found to contain sulphoraphane, a sulphur-based compound, which helps to kill cancer-causing substances in food. W h e n sulphoraphane is released in the gut, it steps up production of powerful enzymes that destroy carcinogenic substances such as those found in heavily barbecued meat. Another naturally occurring compound found in broccoli I3C - was found in a US study to increase D N A repair proteins, thus preventing genetic information damage and lowering the risk of developing cancer. And a recent British study with people w h o had precancerous prostate cells confirmed that a diet rich in broccoli produced changes in gene activity that stopped or slowed down cancer cell growth. Caution: Broccoli should be avoided in cases of thyroid deficiency.
BROMELAIN
A protein -splitting enzyme present in pineapple, which has traditionally been used in the Caribbean regions as m e a t tenderizer. This is why pineapple can combine well with meat dishes. As a supplemental digestive aid, bromelain is available in health food shops in tablet and capsule form.
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NUTRIENTS A TO
BRUSSELS S P R O U T S
(BRASSICA
OLERACEA)
A member of the Brassica family of vegetables, Brussels sprouts are similar to cabbage in flavour and nutrient content and provide an excellent source of vitamins C , B1 and beta carotene. Similarly, they are also rich in potassium, c a l c i u m and sulphur but, unlike cabbage and broccoli, which can be enjoyed both raw and cooked, Brussels sprouts are palatable only as a cooked vegetable.
BUCHU
(BOROSMA
BETULINA)
A small shrub native to South Africa, where its leaves are dried and used as a tea that is drunk as a tonic. It is also exported to Britain and the USA, where it is recognized as an excellent herb tea for those w h o suffer from cystic, urinary gravel and other urinary problems. Available from health food stores.
BUCKWHEAT, KASHA
Buckwheat is an alkali-forming grain which, w h e n roasted, is known as 'kasha'. It is rich in fibre and silica and strengthens the intestines, which makes it a useful food in the treatment of chronic diarrhoea and dysentery. Buckwheat is noted for being a very rich source of rutin, the bioflavonoid that is known to strengthen capillaries, mhibit inner bleeding, treat and prevent haemorrhoids and varicose veins, and help reduce high blood pressure. Sprouted buckwheat is rich in chlorophyll, vitamins and en z y m e s . Available from supermarkets and health food stores.
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NUTRIENTS A
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BURDOCK
(ARCTIUM
LAPPA)
A small biennial plant which grows wild in North America, and Europe, its leaves, roots and seeds all have nutritional I and medicinal uses. It is a diuretic and blood cleanser, j promotes perspiration and stimulates digestion. In addition, ' burdock also has anti-fungal, anti-bacterial and anti-tumour factors. As such it is used to treat chronic skin disorders like eczema and help prevent cancerous growths. ; Burdock also contains the polysaccharide inulin, which is known to reduce inflammation and, as an anti-bacterial, ; it can help with the treatment of staph infections. The fresh plant is used in macrobiotic cooking. For infusions and decoctions, the fresh root can be grated to a juice, or used dried. It is available from health food stores , in capsule form. It is also incorporated in nutritional i formulas and is available as a dried herb from herbalists.
BUTCHER'S BROOM
(Ruscus
ACULEATUS)
An evergreen shrub of the lily family, the rhizome of the plant has medicinal properties as it contains active alkaloids : that have many physiological effects. For instance, they are : anti-inflammatory and can constrict blood vessels. The plant was traditionally used in treating vein disorders, both internally and externally, such as haemorrhoids and varicose veins. In addition, infusions made from the rhizome are recognized as a good herbal drink for jaundice, oedema and gout. Capsules are available from health food stores. It is also incorporated in nutritional formulas and is available as a dried herb from herbalists.
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BUTTER, B U T Y R I C A C I D
Produced by churning pasteurized cream, butter consists mainly of saturated fat with some water and a scant amount of protein (casein), unsaturated fatty acids, lactose and minerals. Although, like any saturated fat it contains cholesterol, it is still less harmful than standard margarine. For instance, butter contains from 46 per cent essential fatty acids, which help to prevent heart attacks, while margarine contains only 25 per cent. While butter can only have salt as one added ingredient, margarines have colourings, emulsifiers, preservatives and synthetic vitamins added to them. Nutritionists are now increasingly realizing that it is the saturated fats in foods like margarine, not dietary cholesterol, that raise blood cholesterol levels. Butter is a rich source of easily absorbed v i t a m i n A and butyric acid, a short-chain fatty acid needed for cell health and repair, especially of the colon. It is also a natural source of vitamins E, K and D . Among its trace minerals, it contains selenium, an important cancer-protecting element which is commonly deficient in many people. As with other fats, when heated above certain temperatures, butter oxidises and decomposes, producing irritating substances in the digestive tract. For frying purposes, it is important to note that the fatty acids in butter decompose at 226F (108C). It is best to adjust frying temperatures accordingly, and never re-fry previously heated butter.
c
CABBAGE
(BRASSICA OLERACEA)
O n e of the Brassica family, cabbage provides a rich source of vitamin C in fact, the vitamin C content of cabbage is greater than that of oranges. It also contains a large number of minerals, including iodine, sulphur, calcium, m a g n e s i u m and potassium. The outer leaves contain more v i t a m i n E and calcium than the inner leaves. If prepared as sauerkraut, it makes an excellent food for strengthening the intestines and promoting a healthy flora. Cabbage is recommended in natural medicine practice for improving digestion, treating constipation, preventing the common cold and alleviating depression. It also contains a factor called vitamin U, which is a remedy for ulcers, and raw cabbage juice has been reported to assist in the cure of both peptic and duodenal ulcers. The recommended method is to drink half a cup of freshly made cabbage juice two or three times a day between meals, on an empty stomach. Many of the healing properties of cabbage as a blood purifier are due to its high sulphur content. Grated cabbage can also be made into a poultice to be applied externally in the treatment of wounds, varicose veins and leg ulcers.
CADMIUM
Cadmium is a highly toxic element - as little as one-half to one ppm in water can be toxic and, once in the
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body, cadmium displaces z i n c and accumulates in the kidneys, liver and blood vessels, probably for life. Cadmium occurs naturally in zinc ores, but is also a typical environmental pollutant and, since it is present in car exhaust fumes, it pollutes the air of all major cities. It is also found in cigarette smoke a 20-pack of cigarettes contains 20 mg of cadmium, half of which is absorbed during smoking. Nickel-cadmium battery plants are wellknown sources of pollution, as are incinerators of discarded cars, and zinc- and copper -smelting plants. Cadmium is also contained in phosphate fertilizers, via which it can contaminate vegetation. Cadmium is also found in drinking water from corroded pipes, especially soft water which increases corrosion. Cadmium is one of the major contributors to high blood pressure, atherosclerosis, strokes and heart attacks. Emphysema patients have been found to have more cadmium in their kidneys and liver than healthy people cigarette smoking, in particular, has been associated with emphysema because of the cadmium content of cigarette smoke. Nutritional protection from the toxic effects of cadmium can be provided by zinc, which replaces cadmium, and by large doses of vitamin C.
CAFFEINE, COFFEE
Caffeine is the most prevalent stimulant in western society S1 nce it is present in coffee, tea, cocoa, chocolate and c las, as well as in many over-the-counter stimulants and drugs such as analgesics. It has been estimated that the average daily caffeine consumption per person is 150225 75 per cent of which comes from coffee. A cup of coffee contains 50150 mg of caffeine, while a cup of tea
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NUTRIENTS A
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contains about 50 mg and a 340 g can of cola contains about 35 mg. However, caffeine consumption in heavy coffee drinkers is far higher in some cases this can be anything up to 7,500 m g a day! The excessive and prolonged intake of coffee can cause 'caffeinism' symptoms such as anxiety, nervousness, insomnia, depression, constipation, frequent urination, duodenal ulcers, high cholesterol, hypertension and heart disease; it is also believed to be involved in a proneness to breast lumps, while coffee drinking during pregnancy is thought to increase the risk of miscarriage. People w h o are sensitive to caffeinism can exhibit some of these symptoms from as few as two cups of coffee a day. In addition, caffeine inhibits absorption of iron, promoting anaemia, it can create deficiencies of inositol, calcium and m a g n e s i u m as it interferes with their absorption, and, since it raises the cholesterol level, it can increase susceptibility to heart attack. Coffee is not recommended for people with gout or kidney stones. Caffeine contains purines, which break-down in the body to uric acid, promoting the formation of kidney stones and gouty crystals. However, a new Harvard study suggests that two to three cups of coffee a day can lower the risk of developing gallstones. Externally, coffee can be used in anemas and in poultices to heal bruises.
CALCIUM
Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the human body, with almost all of it - 99 per cent - found in the bones and the teeth, helping to build bone mass and preventing osteoporosis (bone loss). However, the remaining 1 per cent, which is in blood, is of paramount importance to the
body as it normalizes nerve and muscle function, regulates heart-beat, enables b l o o d clotting, helps to maintain a proper acid-alkaline balance, induces sleep and promotes skin health. Unfortunately, absorption of calcium in the body is very inefficient and there are a number of factors needed for its proper absorption, including stomach acid (HC1), vitamins A, C and D, m a g n e s i u m and protein. In addition, regular exercise will promote calcium deposition in bones, while a sedentary lifestyle depletes it, causing porous bones. Pregnant and menopausal women, especially, are very vulnerable to calcium deficiencies and bone loss unless they take calcium supplements. Older men can also be prone to calcium deficiency and also people with digestive disorders, such as ulcers or Crohn's disease, because of the accompanying reduction in stomach secretions. Coffee, alcohol, soft drinks, diuretics, antacids and excess protein can all deplete calcium levels. Deficiency symptoms include brittle bones, tooth decay, nervousness, muscle aches, leg cramps, excessive menstrual flow and impaired growth. A high supplement of calcium (12 g per day) not only helps to reverse osteoporosis, but also treats conditions such as high cholesterol levels and hypertension. Among the best natural sources are dairy products, sesame seeds, soya beans, peanuts, green vegetables, sunflower seeds, bone-marrow soups and calcium tablets. Calcium citrate is considered to be the niost efficiently absorbed form of calcium, and has the least risk of causing kidney stones. The normal R e c o m m e n d e d Daily Allowance of calcium for adults is 800 mg, while the recommended daily dosage for pregnant and lactating women is 1,200 mg. However, niany experts recommend higher doses of up to 1,5000 m g per day.
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NUTRIENTS A
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C A L C I U M ASCORBATE
This is the acid-free form of v i t a m i n C in which calcium is used to buffer the acidity of vitamin C. It is usually recommended for people who suffer from stomach overacidity, those prone to ulcers and people with frequent heartburn.
CALENDULA
(CALENDULA
OFFICINALIS)
Commonly known as marigold, calendula is an annual garden plant. An infusion of the flowers, or the fresh juice, can be used for digestive tract problems such as stomach cramps, gastritis, ulcers, colitis and diarrhoea. It has a soothing effect and can also be used for boils, bruises and wounds. Calendula has been traditionally used for its beneficial effects on skin problems. Calendula extracts penetrate the skin tissue, relax the skin and reduce swellings. Special calendula extracts are claimed to tighten the skin and improve the complexion. Available in health food stores in dried form and creams.
CALORIE
A calorie is a unit of energy that represents the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 34F (1C). In terms of human nutrition, calories are a measurement of the energy produced when food is metabolized by the body. Thus, calorific values denote the amount of heat energy yielded by different foods, and are usually expressed on food labels as Kcal (kilo calorie) units. Different types of foods supply different amounts of
calories for instance, proteins and carbohydrates provide 4 Real per g each, while fats provide 9 Kcal per g and the calories received from food are 'burned' in the course of our daily activities. Thus, in a perfect situation, the amount of calories consumed from food should equal the amount of calories spent. In such cases, the energy flow is balanced. However, when more calories are eaten than spent, the excess calories are stored as fat and the result is weight gain. Conversely, eating fewer calories than the body requires will result in weight loss. So 0.4 kg of body fat equals 3,500 calories, but the daily calorie requirement for each individual varies greatly according to age, sex, body type, genetic predisposition and lifestyle. However, not all calories are created equal. Slimmers should remember that sugar calories are more fattening than protein or complex carbohydrate calories.
CALORIE-RESTRICTED DIETS
Calorie-restricted diets with proper supplementation have been found to extend the life span of laboratory animals. Young animals restricted to 60 per cent of their normal food intake lived up to 50 per cent longer than animals with no food limits. In addition, the animals that ate less were much healthier and looked youthful into their old a ge. The anti-ageing effects of calorie restriction were discovered as early as 1934, but until recently it was not known how this works. However, research has now shown that food restriction retards the ageing of the pineal gland. This is the gland that produces melatonin, a h o r m o n e that greatly influences our health and well-being, and production of which decreases with age. Studies done by 'ife insurance companies have shown that, statistically,
62
overweight people have the shortest life span while those whose weight is just below the average have the longest life span.
CAMOMILE
(MATRICARIA
CHAMOMILLA)
An annual plant, native to the Mediterranean countries, it is now widely cultivated in more temperate regions such as the British Isles. T h e herb has long been used for its calming effect and has also been found beneficial in the treatment of indigestion, colic, spasms, stomach cramps and insomnia. Camomile also has antiseptic properties and can be used for the alleviation of inflammation of the digestive tract. In addition, it is used in mouthwashes and gargles, as well as in sitz-baths to relieve haemorrhoids, and in enema solutions. T h e dried flowers are very popular as a herb tea, which is obtainable either as tea bags or loose, in bulk. Available from supermarkets and health food stores.
CANOLA OIL
This is produced from the canola variety of rapeseed which has a high content of a monounsaturated fat, oleic acid. Canola oil is often recommended because of its low saturated fat content (6 per cent), its o m e g a - 3 fatty acids (10 per cent) and especially for its monounsaturates (60 per cent), which make it safer and healthier than most other vegetable oils. T h e oil is used by food processing companies to make cooking oil and products such as margarine and salad dressings.
NUTRIENTS A
TO Z
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CAPRYLIC A C I D
A naturally occurring fatty acid commercially derived from c o c o n u t oil. Caprylic acid has been f o u n d to have antifungal properties and is used to treat Candida albicans (thrush). It is absorbed in the intestines, and the tablets should be enteric-coated, or time-release, to protect them during their passage through the stomach, until they reach the intestines. Available from health food stores.
CARAWAY
(CARUM
CARVI)
A biennial cultivated herb, its seed are c o m m o n l y used for flavouring foods, especially bread. Caraway can stimulate the appetite, relieve flatulence and improve digestion. It can also p r o m o t e the onset of menstruation and alleviate uterine cramps. To prepare an infusion, use one teaspoon of crushed seeds boiled in half a cup of water. Available from supermarkets or health food stores.
CARBOHYDRATES
As a group of organic chemical compounds, carbohydrates are classified as macronutrients. Carbohydrates molecules are made u p of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and are the body's chief source of energy. As such they are k n o w n as 'energy food'. Carbohydrates are supplied mainly from plant foods, such as grains, pulses, fruits and vegetables. Sugar is 100 per cent carbohydrate, cornflakes are 85 per cent, rice 79, flour 73, pasta 70, oats 61, bread 47, potato 20, banana 21 and apple 12 per cent. Carbohydrates come in several varieties and types:
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TO
monosaccharides, or simple sugars, which include glucose, fructose and galactose, found in fruits and honey; disaccharides, the more complex sugars, which include sucrose (in cane and beet sugar), lactose (in milk) and maltose (in malted barley); and finally, polysaccharides, or complex carbohydrates, which include starch, cellulose (fibre) and glycogen. All carbohydrates except cellulose are ultimately converted in the body to glucose. This is the sole usable form of energy, and the body depends on a continuous supply of it for all its activities, mental and physical. Carbohydrates yield 4 calories per g. The most widely used carbohydrate is sucrose, or refined sugar. Calories derived from sugar through sweetened foods and drinks have been termed 'empty calories', because these foods lack the essential vitamins, minerals and other nutrients that accompany whole natural fruits in nature, such as the sugar cane and beets from which they are derived. Excess consumption of refined sugar can have many detrimental effects, from tooth decay, obesity and fatigue to high cholesterol levels, hypoglycaemia and diabetes. Sugar is also a stressing food.
CARDAMOM
(ELETTARIA
CARDAMOMUM)
A perennial plant that grows wild in India, it is now cultivated in other tropical areas of the world. The seeds of the plant, which are enclosed in fruity pods, have both medicinal and culinary uses. Cardamom is known as a carminative, relieving flatulence, stimulating the stomach and aiding digestion. However, it is mainly used as a cooking spice or for flavouring drinks and medicines. In Arab countries it is commonly added to coffee. Widely available.
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CARNITINE, L - C A R N I T I N E
A non-essential amino acid that plays a part in the utilization of fats in the body, it also helps to transport fatty acids to the mitochondria, the tiny power plants in the cells that convert fat to energy. Thus, by reducing triglyceride levels, supplemental carnitine can help to reduce angina pectoris attacks and provide protection from heart failure. Carnitine also inhibits the development of fatty liver disease induced by alcohol, and assists with weight loss, fighting fatigue and the release of more energy. Carnitine is supplied mostly from animal food (meat and dairy) but is also manufactured by the body (in the liver and kidneys) from the a m i n o acids lysine and methionine. Carnitine deficiencies can occur in people on low -protein diets or when vitamins B and C and iron are in short supply. Carnitine supplements are widely available in health food shops and pharmacies. People likely to benefit most from carnitine supplements include strict vegetarians and vegans, slimmers on crash diets, body builders, senior citizens and people with heart or kidney disease.
CAROB
(CERATONIA
SILIQUA)
Also called locust bean, carob has been known since biblical times as St John's bread. The carob is an evergreen tree, native to Mediterranean countries, which is found both wild and cultivated. The carob produces long pods containing both gum and seeds, both of which have culinary and medicinal uses. The gum, which has a flavour similar to cocoa, is rich m natural sugars such as galactomannan, c a l c i u m and minerals. Carob powder, produced from the dried gum, is
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TO
now increasingly used commercially in confectionery and biscuits as a chocolate substitute for people allergic to chocolate. T h e lood industry also uses carob as an emulsifier and stabiliser (E410) in many foods, such as ice creams, soups and salad dressings. Carob powder is available in health food stores as a cocoa substitute for home baking purposes.
CAROTENOIDS
This is the c o m m o n name for several hundred plant pigments which are powerful antioxidants. Found in fruits such as cantaloupe, papaya and p u m p k i n and vegetables such as carrots, t o m a t o e s and red grapes, carotenoids absorb the dangerous sun rays that produce free radicals. These free radicals are extremely harmful, not only to plants but also to humans where they can cause the degenerative diseases of ageing such as heart disease, cancer and arthritis. Thus, the inclusion in the diet of plenty of fresh fruit and vegetables containing carotenoids can help to provide protection from the damaging effects of free radicals. Some carotenoids, such as alpha, beta and gamma carotenes, are also v i t a m i n A precursors. Non-provitamin A dietary carotenoids include l y c o p e n e , lutein and zeaxanthin. There are indications that lycopene, found mainly in tomatoes, may help to lower the risk of prostate cancer, while alpha carotene, found in carrots, may provide protection from other forms of cancer. Lutein and zeaxanthin found in green vegetables such as peppers, spinach, collards green and kale, were found to prevent age-related macular degeneration of the eye (AMD) which can lead to loss of central vision in people over 50. Carotenoids are also
available in capsules as nutritional supplements, particularly in antioxidant formulas.
CARRAGEENAN
Carrageenan is a jellying compound extracted from red seaweeds (algae). Traditionally, the Irish extracted it from Irish moss (Chondrus crispus) and used it as a food and a remedy for respiratory diseases. Commercially, carrageenan was not produced until the Second World War, when an alternative to the Japanese agar (E406) was needed. Carrageenan is composed of several hydrocolloids, rather than a single substance. It consists of varying amounts of calcium, m a g n e s i u m , ammonium, potassium and s o d i u m salts of sulphate esters of galactose and 3,6anhydrogalactose copolymers. The carrageenan used in food has a high molecular weight and comprises all the long chain molecules of the copolymers. This is termed 'food grade carrageenan'. Degraded carrageenan has a low molecular weight with no jellying properties. Carrageenan comes in the form of a dried, translucent mucilage that swells in cold water, dissolving partially to make a jelly. It is used (in low concentrations of up to 1 per cent) in the food industry as a stabilizing, thickening, suspending and jellying agent. For example, it is extensively used as a stabilizer of milk proteins in such products as ice cream, milk shakes and milk chocolate (E407). Degraded carrageenan was found to cause ulcerative colitis and tumours in animals. This is why use was forbidden by E E C statutory regulations, which has led to public confusion about the safety of carrageenan. However, although carrageenan undergoes some degradation in the ac id environment of the stomach, small amounts do not
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appear to cause any harm; it is only in large amounts that it is suspected of being a health hazard.
CARROT
(DAUCUS
CAROTA)
A c o m m o n root vegetable, it is one of the richest sources of beta carotene, a v i t a m i n A precursor. Carrots are also an excellent source of v i t a m i n s B 1 and B2 and of the minerals p o t a s s i u m , s o d i u m and silicon. Carrots have been reported to help night vision, inhibit cataracts, treat indigestion and protect against cancer. They are also thought to be useful in treating infections of the lung, digestive system and urinary tract. Regular inclusion in the diet of raw or cooked carrots can improve skin appearance and c a l c i u m absorption, while cooked carrots can benefit people with weak digestion. Carrot juice, while pleasant on its own, also provides a good basis for the addition of other less palatable juices such as celery or beet. Caution: It is recommended that the intake of carrot juice should be limited to no more than four cups a day since over-consumption can cause yellowing of the skin, a condition known as xanthosis.
CARTILAGE, SHARK A N D BOVINE

Sharks have long been known for their high resistance to disease and wound healing ability. Unlike other vertebrates, the shark's skeleton in composed of a special cartilage, and it is to this that its healing properties are attributed. The cartilage of the shark has been found to have strong anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory effects which,
when used on humans, can help to restore flexibility to arthritic joints and inhibit the growth of malignant tumours. Recently, attention has also been focused on bovine cartilage which appears to have similar properties. Most of the studies done have confirmed its efficacy and, in fact, suggest that much lower doses of bovine than shark cartilage are required to be effective, making its use more practical. Available from health food stores.
CASCARA SAGRADA
CATHARTICUS)
(RHAMNUS
PURSHIANA
OR
R.
A small tree or shrub that is native to N o r t h America, its Spanish name means 'sacred bark', and it is the bark of the tree that has traditionally been used as a herbal laxative. In some countries it is dispensed as a prescription herb, and its active ingredients include certain glycosides (anthraquinones) and bitter principles which act on the bowels, increasing their movement and promoting evacuation. Cascara is generally considered safe. However, when used in excessive dosages or over prolonged periods of time, it can cause toxic reactions. Cascara is available in several forms, such as the dried herb and as an extract, and it is increasingly used in laxative formulas sold in health food shops.
CASHEW N U T
A bean-shaped nut that grows on a tropical evergreen tree, it was originally native to Central America but is now also grown in India, Brazil and several African countries. It is rich in protein, minerals (especially m a g n e s i u m ) , some
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B vitamins and fat, and has become increasingly popular in recent years as a snack food. It is also marketed as 'cashew butter'. Due to its high fat content, it is better eaten raw than roasted. Caution: T h e cashew tree is related to poison ivy, and the shell of the cashew nut contains an irritating poison which, if touched, can sometimes cause skin blistering. However, this poison is present only in the shells the kernels, which are normally sold shelled, are harmless in this respect.
CAT'S CLAW
(UNCARIA
TOMENTOSA)
A herb which originates from the Amazon rainforest, it has been hailed in recent years as an immune system booster and has been found to be particularly beneficial in the treatment of cancer and AIDS. The herb is currently being researched in several countries, with studies checking its possible benefits in the treatment of arthritis, allergies, ulcers, cancer and acne, and there has been an increasing demand for cat's claw in health food shops where it is sold as a tea and as capsules.
CATNIP
(NEPETA
CATARIA)
Also known as catmint, this is an aromatic perennial herb of the mint family. Its leaves can be used to make an effective infusion for an upset stomach, colic and flatulence. It can also be used in enemas. Available from health food stores, incorporated in nutritional formulas, and from herbalists.
CAULIFLOWER
(BRASSICA
OLERACEA)
A very nutritious vegetable of the Brassica family, it is rich in vitamins C, B1 and B2 and is a good source of calcium, m a g n e s i u m , phosphorus, p o t a s s i u m and sulphur. It is usually cooked but can be eaten raw or is pickled. It should be stored in the refrigerator, and when selecting cauliflower look for fresh compact heads, with no discoloration; if the buds are spread out or spotted, this means that the cauliflower is old or has been exposed too long to the sun. Anyone with a sensitive digestion may find that the raw vegetable causes flatulence or bloating and, in such cases, it is advisable to slightly cook or saute the cauliflower.
CAYENNE PEPPER
(CAPSICUM
FRUTESCENS)
Originally a perennial plant native to the tropical regions of Central America, it is now cultivated elsewhere as an annual. The fruits, or hot peppers, commonly known as chillis, contain capsaicin, a stimulant that helps to control pain and dissolve blood clots. Chillis can stimulate the appetite and digestion, release phlegm and increase sweating and resistance to colds. In moderation, powdered chillis can help heal stomach and duodenal ulcers, promoting tissue growth through the release of histamine. Cayenne pepper is also effective in the treatment of ailments as diverse as arthritis, asthma, diabetes, high blood pressure, kidney infections, sinusitis and other respiratory problems, as well as reputedly providing a remedy for hangovers.
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CELERY
(APIUM
GRAVEOLENS
VAR.
DULCE)
A popular vegetable related to carrots and parsley, it probably originated in the Mediterranean regions. The vegetable is available all-year round and provides a good source of vitamins A, B1 and B2, as well as the minerals calcium, phosphorus and silicon. Especially rich in p o t a s s i u m and s o d i u m , four fresh stalks of celery provide 341 m g potassium and 126 m g sodium, and their juice makes a great electrolyte replacement drink. Coumarin compounds in the celery appear to be useful in toning the heart and blood vessels. These compounds can also be useful in cases of migraine. O n e of them, 3-n-butyl phthalide, was found to significantly lower blood pressure. The stalks of the plant, which are rich in iron, m a g n e s i u m and carotene, are usually eaten raw in salads or with dips, or are used in soups and as a garnish for other foods. They are high in roughage and, when eaten between meals, can help with appetite control. O n the other hand, the leaves are thought to stimulate the appetite, and also increase urination and bring on menstruation. Celery juice has been used to alleviate oedema, treat rheumatism and clear skin problems and, combined with a little l e m o n juice, it can help to prevent a cold developing. Both the stalks and roots are used to treat hypertension, and the seeds are used as a sedative and to relieve flatulence. A decoction of the seeds can be used as a remedy for rheumatism and bronchitis, and for calming frayed nerves. Dried ground celery is sold as a salt substitute for low s o d i u m diets.
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CELLULOSE
As a fibrous from of complex carbohydrate, cellulose is a component of plant cell walls that is indigestible and insoluble in water. However, it has the ability to bind with water and increase stool mass and weight, promoting bowel movement and elimination. Moreover, it also speeds up stool transit time, i.e. the time needed for food to travel from mouth to anus. Thus, it helps to prevent severe colon conditions such as constipation, diverticulitis and cancer of the colon. Small parts of cellulose ferment and degrade in the colon, and this degradation produces short chain fatty acids which are important for the energy metabolism of the colon. A major source of cellulose is wheat bran.
CENTAURY
(CENTAURIUM
ERYTHRAEA)
This small annual herb grows wild on chalk downs and sandy soils throughout Europe. The small pink or white flowers are taken as an infusion before meals to stimulate appetite and aid digestion by encouraging the liver to secrete bile. It can also act as a blood purifier and help to reduce fever. Applied externally, centaury is reputed to repel fleas and lice. Available from larger health food stores and herbalists.
CETYL MYRISTOLEATE (CM)

Discovered in the 1960s, C M has recently received much publicity due to its beneficial effect in treating various types of arthritis. Cetyl myristoleate is an ester of a fatty
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acid which occurs in very small amounts in all fats and oils. It is made by taking the fatty acid myristoleic acid, obtained from the palmitic acid in c o c o n u t and palm oils, and combining it with a long chain alcohol molecule. Commercially, C M is known as a super lubricant. At room temperature it is a waxy, buttery substance. C M was found to be beneficial in several ways for both osteoarthritis and rheumatic arthritis. It lubricates not only the inflamed joints, but also the entire body, softening the tissues, making them more pliable and enabling muscles to glide more smoothly over each other and over bursas and bones. And as a good fatty acid, C M also helps reduce inflammations. Moreover, C M appears to modulate the immune system, which may explain its beneficial effect in treating such auto-immune diseases as rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis and lupus erythematosus. Several studies showed that C M can be effective in treating up to 87 per cent of various forms of arthritis. C M is sold as a food supplement on its own, but also in formulas combining such compounds as g l u c o s a m i n e sulphate, hydrolyzed cartilage and M.S.M. for increased effect.
CHASTE TREE
(AGNUS
CASTUS)
SEE
VITEX
CHELATION
The Greek 'chele' means 'claw', and chelation is the process by which minerals such as iron, c h r o m i u m , zinc and m a g n e s i u m , which are poorly absorbed, can be transported from the intestines to the bloodstream. The ions of these minerals contain electrical charges that are repelled by the cells of the membranes and, to overcome
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this, they have to be held ('clawed'), or bonded, by other chemicals, usually a m i n o acids, which neutralize the ions. As a result, the minerals, now no longer electrically charged, can easily cross the intestinal wall to the bloodstream to be utilized by the body. Nowadays, most minerals marketed are 'amino acid chelates'. For example, c h r o m i u m is chelated with picolinic acid and is usually sold as 'chromium picolinate'.
CHERRY
(PRUNUS)
The fruit of an attractive tree, native to Europe and Western Asia, and extensively grown in America in sour and sweet varieties, cherries were traditionally used in folk medicine as an effective treatment for arthritis, gout and rheumatism. Cherries are rich sources of flavonoids such as anthocyanidins and proanthocyanidins which give the fruits their deep red-blue colour. These flavonoids are potent antioxidants which make them useful in treating a variety of inflammations by inhibiting histamine release. They protect collagen from free radical damage, help to prevent wrinkles and also reduce uric acid levels, thus benefiting gout. 225 g of the fresh fruit a day constitutes a treatment for lowering uric acid levels and preventing attacks of gout.
CHOLESTIN
I his is the brand name of a strain of yeast grown on rice. It is also known as red yeast rice, and is used in food throughout Asia. Cholestin was found to contain natural ingredients that can lower cholesterol levels in a very safe way. It was reported that in conjunction with proper diet
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and exercise, Cholestin can reduce cholestrol levels by an average of 2540 points. Caution: People w h o are already taking cholestrolreducing drugs should consult their doctors before taking Cholestin.
CHICKWEED
(STELLARIA
MEDIA)
A common annual weed that can be found growing in almost all soils, the whole herb is useful for both culinary and medicinal purposes. Infusions of the plant relieve flatulence and constipation, and can also be used with soothing effect to bathe bruises and skin irritations. T h e herb can be eaten cooked as a vegetable, like spinach, or used raw in salads. The potassium in chickweed reduces food cravings, so regular infusions taken three times a day can be beneficial to slimmers. Available from health food stores, incorporated in nutritional formulas, and from herbalists.
CHICORY
(CLCHORIUM
INTYBUS)
A perennial plant that is cultivated in N o r t h America and Europe, mainly for its edible leaves and roots, it was popular with both the Ancient Egyptians and Greeks for its culinary and medicinal properties. Infusions or decoctions of the root or flowers can stimulate the appetite, aid digestion, promote bile secretion and help to relieve the pain and discomfort caused by gallstones. Dried ground chicory is used as a coffee substitute, either on its own or, combined with cereals, in cereal coffees. Available from supermarkets, grocers and health food stores.
NUTRIENTS A TO Z
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CHILLI see CAYENNE PEPPER
CHLORELLA
A green freshwater algae, chlorella is now being marketed in health food shops as a food supplement. About 60 per cent of chlorella is in the form of high-quality protein, about 20 per cent consists of carbohydrates and 10 per cent is fat. It contains more than 20 different vitamins and minerals, is a rich source of beta carotene and contains more vitamin B12 than beef liver. Chlorella contains appreciable amounts of iron, iodine, zinc and cobalt. It is also one of the richest sources of chlorophyll and D N A . Due to its richness in essential nutrients, many beneficial effects have been attributed to chlorella. It is reputed to stimulate the immune system and help to reduce the risk of some cancers; it has also been used to treat anaemia, fatigue, hypertension, diabetes and constipation. In addition, its high chlorophyll content makes chlorella a useful blood purifier.
CHLOROPHYLL
Chlorophyll is the green pigment in plants that enables photosynthesis, i.e. it enables sunshine to combine carbon dioxide with water, creating carbohydrates and oxygen. By utilizing light, chlorophyll is a primary source of plant energy. Its chemical structure is similar to haemoglobin (the red blood pigment that carries oxygen), which is why is used in the treatment of certain anaemias. It can promote growth, metabolism and respiration and has the ability to stimulate tissue growth and wound
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healing. Chlorophyll cream has been used to treat skin ulcers and when injected it can help to reduce cholesterol levels. It is also known as a blood purifier, detoxifier and deodorizer. Chlorophyll has many commercial and therapeutic applications. For instance, it is widely used in colouring food and cosmetics (El40), and a common brand of breath-refreshing chewing gum contains chlorophyll.
CHOCOLATE
A delicious recreational food, chocolate is one of the yummy 'sins' of civilization. Chocolate is made from the beans of the cocoa tree (Theobroma cacao), a native of Mexico since the time of the Aztecs w h o named it 'chocolatl', and w h o also used its beans as currency. The beans are ground to a fatty paste, which contains the cocoa butter, and sugar and additives like lecithin and vanilla are added. (In commercial cocoa powder drinks the fatty cocoa butter is removed and starch is added.) Cocoa butter is also used as a fatty ingredient in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. In spite of their high fat content, cocoa beans are rather nutritious; they supply useful amounts of protein, some B vitamins and trace elements, particularly iron and m a g n e s i u m . Chocolate however, is high in sugar, a stressing food which counteracts the nutritional advantage by depleting the B vitamins. In fact, most chocolate contains more sugar than cocoa mass. Consequently, chocolates are loaded with calories; a 100 g bar of milk chocolate contains 520 calories. Chocolate is a rich source of flavonoids such as proanthocyanidins, which make it a potent antioxidant food
TO
providing protection from free-radical damage. The saturated fat in chocolate does not elevate cholesterol as much as meat or dairy foods since cocoa butter contains plant sterols, such as sitosterol, which inhibit cholesterol absorption. Chocolate contains arginine, and the stimulants betaphenylethylamine (PEA) and theobromine. PEA is a mood elevator, which can explain chocolate cravings and why some people will gorge themselves on chocolate when depressed. Theobromine is a milder stimulant than caffeine and is known to stimulate the release of endorphins ('feel good' chemicals in the brain). Its downside is that it stimulates the overproduction of fibrous tissue and formation of breast lumps (fibrocytic breast disease). Chocolate can give only a short-lived boost of energy because its high sugar content can rebound by triggering hypoglycemia (low b l o o d sugar), fatigue and depression. To relieve these symptoms, more chocolate is necessary and this is how chocolate becomes addictive. Migraine sufferers or insomniacs should be aware that chocolate contains 20 mg caffeine per 28 g. Chocolate is also rich in oxalic acid, which inhibits c a l c i u m absorption and promotes the formation of kidney stones in prone individuals. Its high sugar content is very damaging to teeth. Chocolate is one of the most allergenic foods and can trigger or enhance a variety of allergy symptoms in predisposed people, from laryngitis to asthma. In the author's experience, many chocolate lovers, especially children and young adults, who suffered recurring bouts of tonsilitis, were totally cured when they discontinued chocolate. But even for healthy people w h o use it as a quick energy treat, chocolate is best eaten in moderation. For concerned consumers, health food stores offer a variety f carob bars whose taste resembles chocolate (see CAROB).
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CHOLESTEROL
Cholesterol is a form of alcohol (sterol) and is a natural part of our body's cells, especially those of the brain and spinal cord, liver and kidneys. It is also abundant in egg yolks, butter and other fats and, because of this, it has been much maligned in the recent decades for its part in clogging arteries and causing heart attacks, and the medical profession has issued dire warnings about the consumption of these foods. However, cholesterol is vital to the well-being of the body. For example, it is needed to produce sex and steroid hormones and bile, synthesize v i t a m i n D, form cell membranes and insulate nerves. It is so crucial that all nucleated cells can synthesize it. T h e liver itself can produce up to 1 g a day, when only about half of this is provided by an average diet. Cholesterol comes in two main forms: L D L ('bad' cholesterol), which promotes cholesterol deposits and heart attacks, and H D L ('good' cholestrol), which protects the body from these harmful effects. Factors that raise cholesterol levels include smoking, stress, the contraceptive pill, coffee, sugar, sweets and nutritional deficiencies. Levels can be lowered by supplements of niacin, vitamin B6, vitamin C, vitamin E, c h r o m i u m , m a g n e s i u m , m a n g a n e s e , lecithin, pectin and D H E A . Beneficial foods for the maintenance of optimum cholesterol levels include garlic, onions, aubergine, soybeans and green tea. Exercise is also very important.
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CHOLINE
Choline is a lipotropic B vitamin, i.e. it emulsifies fats and helps to transport fat globules to cells. It is needed for nerve transmission, liver function and lecithin formation. The brain uses choline to produce acetylcholine, a major neurotransmitter, which conveys brain cell messages and is vital for learning and memory. Choline reduces cholesterol and maintains healthy liver, kidneys and nerves. It also reduces oestrogen, thus decreasing breast lumps and menstrual cramps. Although choline can be produced in the body, it is now considered an essential food nutrient and choline supplements are known to enhance its beneficial effects. For example, they are used in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease and to improve the memory and learning ability of students. Choline deficiency symptoms include fatty degeneration of the liver, nephritis (kidney disease), gallstones, high cholesterol and hypertension. Its best natural sources are egg yolk, liver, lecithin, brewer's yeast and leafy green vegetables. A recommended average daily intake is about 1000 mg. As a supplement, choline is commonly available as choline bitartrate, citrate or chloride, either on its own, or included in nutritional formulas.
C H O N D R O I T I N SULPHATES (CS)
Chondroitin sulphates are a group of thick gelatinous materials called mucopolysaccharides or glycosaminoglycans (G AGs). These are types of water-bonded, long-chain sugars which are formed in the body. They are found throughout the cartilage, collagen and connective tissues and help attract water into them, preserving their flexibility and protecting their matrix.
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The production of chondroitin sulphate in the body decreases with age, and studies have shown that this decline may result in degeneration of joints (osteoarthritis). Its richest source is the extract of sea cucumber, a marine animal related to starfish. CS and sea cucumber extracts are reported to improve various arthritic conditions, as well as tendonitis, bursitis and sport injuries. CS supplements are now available in health food stores and can counter osteoarthritis by helping replenish cartilage, often in combination with other beneficial supplements such as glucosamine sulphate.
CHROMIUM
Chromium is an essential micronutrient which is mostly removed from basic foods such as sugar and flour by refining. Consequently, it is a commonly deficient nutrient in the adult population. It is principally involved in the metabolism of glucose and the synthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol. It is also the central constituent of GTF, the glucose tolerance factor, which enhances the function of insulin and normalizes blood sugar levels. Chromium-rich diets and chromium supplements are therefore a must for diabetics, hypoglycaemics and for anyone with a high cholesterol level suffering from hypertension. Chromium has also been shown to assist in weight loss and to increase energy levels, fighting fatigue. Chromium is best utilized in the form of chromium picolinate, which is an elemental chromium that is chelated (combined) with picolinic acid for better absorption. The best natural sources of chromium are brewer's yeast, raw wheat germ, meat, shellfish and clams, but supplements of chromium picolinate are recommended as a safeguard against chromium deficiency. The estimated daily
TO
requirement of the mineral is 50200 meg for adults, and 20-80 meg for children. Available from health food stores.
CIDER VINEGAR
Cider vinegar is produced by the fermentations of fresh apple juice. It is both a food and a medicine, being used equally by naturopaths and cooks. It contains a combination of minerals, organic matter and acetic acid that provides its characteristic taste and smell. There are many beneficial effects attributed to cider vinegar. First of all, it is a natural astringent and inhibits diarrhoea. It improves digestion in people with low stomach acid and acts as an intestinal antiseptic, inhibiting the decaying processes in the intestines. It also helps to overcome bad breath, increases b l o o d clotting and wound healing, alleviates allergies, increases energy and promotes hair growth. Cider vinegar does not work in the same way for everyone, but for sufferers of any of the above symptoms it is worth a try. W h e n used as a medicine, the normal method is to add two teaspoons of the cider vinegar to a glass of water, one to three times a day before meals. A teaspoon of honey added to the drink will make it more palatable. It has many culinary uses and it makes a good replacement for malt vinegar in many dishes, especially salad dressings.
CILANTRO see CORIANDER
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CINNAMON
(CLNNAMOMUM
ZEYLANICUM)
A popular spice used in cooking and for flavouring sweets and preserves, it comes from the inner bark of the cinnamon tree, grown mainly in Sri Lanka, Brazil and India. The powdered bark (sold as 'ground cinnamon') is used as a spice and also to make aromatic infusions. Cinnamon is a sedative. In folk medicine it has been used in various conditions such as insomnia, menstrual cramps, flatulence and nausea. Cinnamon stabilizes blood sugar levels. A teaspoon of cinnamon a day has recently been reported to prevent or delay the onset of non-insulin dependent diabetes which develops in older age, and can also reduce cholesterol.
CLAY
Clay has traditionally been used for thousands of years as a natural cure for various conditions. Ancient civilizations in Latin America, Egypt and China knew the remarkable therapeutic properties of clay and used it as a medicine, both internally and externally. Nowadays, clay is obtained by digging along clean river banks. It is sun dried, purified, ground to powder and sold in bags in health food stores. Good clay, such as green clay from France or the white clay of Wyoming, is sand-free. Composed mainly of aluminium silicate, clay contains an abundance of minerals, trace elements and electrolytes such as calcium, iron, magnesium, manganese, sodium and potassium, which are all easily absorbed and assimilated. Clay has an exceptional purifying action. When dissolved in water, its particles have a negative electrical charge, which attracts and absorbs positively charged impurities. Clay
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is known to help stabilize acid/alkaline (pH) balance, neutralizing and disposing of toxins via natural elimination, and helps improve vitality and well-being. It protects from unfriendly intestinal bacteria, which can cause a host of illeffects such as headaches, stomach aches, food poisoning, foul body odour and fatigue. Clay helps maintain a healthy immune system and cell function, even in older people, revitalizing them without side-effects. It can be very helpful to desensitize hyperactive children whose condition may be caused by intolerances to commercial food colourings and additives. Clay can also support the treatment of most conditions, from carbuncles to arthritis. Generally, as an internal detoxifyer for adults, 1 teaspoon of clay powder dissolved in a glass of water is taken twice daily on an empty stomach. Its use in specific conditions however, should be prescribed by a qualified practitioner. Externally, clay is now used in soap, toothpaste and shampoo. It is also used for skin applications such as face masks or clay baths. Its application absorbs impurities, promoting deep cleansing and improved circulation, resulting in younger-looking skin. Several clinics and sanatoriums in France and Germany provide a course of clay cure.
COBALT
Cobalt is an essential trace element in v i t a m i n B12, which stimulates the production of red blood cells and is needed in minute amounts measured in micrograms. Cobalt is abundant in animal foods, meat, dairy and seafood, and particularly in shrimp, scallops and cod. Cobalt mtake can be a problem only in strict vegetarians or v egans, since all vegetables are low in cobalt.
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Even though cobalt stimulates the production of red blood cells, its use as a therapeutic agent is not advised. Overdose of cobalt can cause death in children and symptoms such as loss of appetite and nausea in adults. Cobalt added to beer to preserve its foam was shown to contribute to heart disease in heavy beer drinkers.
C O C O A SEE CHOCOLATE
COCONUT
Native to the islands of the Pacific Ocean, coconut palm trees (Cocos) are now grown in many tropical regions for both food and medicine. Coconut contains small amounts of B vitamins and larger amounts of minerals such as phosphorus, iron, m a g n e s i u m and zinc. Most of the fruit, however, consists of saturated fat, which was once wrongly implicated in raising cholesterol levels because of a confusion with hydrogenated coconut oil. Coconut has strong antiviral properties due to its high level of lauric acid, a medium-chain fatty acid which abounds only in human milk. This is now being tested for the treatment of AIDS. T h e fruit is also used as a tonic for weakness conditions.
C O D LIVER OIL
C o d liver oil, which is obtained from the livers of codfish, is rich in v i t a m i n s A and D , and in o m e g a - 3 fatty acids. As a supplement, in either capsule or liquid form, it supplies the important fatty acids EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and D H A (docosahexaenoic acid). EPA is used by the
body to produce prostaglandins, hormone-like substances that help reduce stickiness of the blood, making it less prone to develop blood clots and thrombosis. EPA also reduces triglyceride levels and high blood pressure. These combined effects can significantly reduce the risk of heart disease, and the mortality of those w h o have already suffered a heart attack. D H A , a fatty acid found only in fish oil, is a vital component of the brain, and is needed for brain development, especially during the late stages of pregnancy. D H A is very important for children and nursing mothers since it affects learning ability. It provides an important supplement to a vegetarian diet. D H A is also produced in the body from linolenic acid, which is found in linseed oil and evening primrose oil. (See also FATS) Pure cod liver oil has been a traditional remedy for both rheumatoid and osteoarthritis arthritis. The first written reference to its use as the best cure for arthritis was made by a Dutch doctor in 1849, and since the turn of the century modern science has been actively studying its benefits. Cod liver oil was found to lubricate the joints and reduce the dryness and friction in the joint bones that cause the pain and inflammation of arthritis. Unlike normal fats, which are first absorbed by the liver, the tiny droplets of cod liver oil go directly into the blood and can readily reach the joint linings. In these linings, cod liver oil is converted to mucin and hyaluronic acid, two by-products that thicken the joint fluid and help prevent bone friction at the joints. Cod liver oil has also gained a reputation for helping to cure other conditions, such as dry eyes, dry ears, dry skin, bursitis, hair loss and arteriosclerosis. Fish oils are especially beneficial for children. A recent Australian study has shown that six capsules of cod liver oil a day helped overcome attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children without the side effects of Ritalin.
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C O E N Z Y M E Q 1 0 (CoQIOJ
C o Q I O is an essential nutrient that is found in every plant and animal cell. It is mainly supplied by food and, as its name implies, it is a vital catalyst a spark plug in the conversion of food to energy within cells. In fact, C o Q I O releases 95 per cent of the energy required for life and, in this respect, a deficiency of this nutrient can cause fatigue, hypertension and heart disease. C o Q I O also has many other important roles: it is a strong antioxidant, protects oxidation of fats and prevents brown age spots; it strengthens and protects heart function by reducing heartbeat irregularities, hypertension and angina pectoris. C o Q I O supplementation has been found to be very beneficial in halting gum recession, one of the main causes of tooth loss. It can also help stimulate weight loss, while increasing energy and avoiding fatigue. The richest food sources of this nutrient are found in beef heart and other organ m e a t s such as liver and kidney. Smaller amounts are contained in plants such as spinach, alfalfa, soybeans and potato. Supplemental capsules of C o Q I O are widely available in health food shops.
COFFEE see CAFFEINE, COFFEE
COLLAGEN TYPE II
Research from the early nineties has revealed a new natural, safe supplement that can efficiently benefit various arthritic conditions. Type II collagen is normally extracted from the sternal cartilage of chickens and should not be confused with collagen sold in beauty
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stores which is neither the right kind nor properly purified. Type II chicken collagen is a protein that is the main structural part of cartilage. The painful symptoms of arthritis are due to damage to or wearing out of the cartilage around joints with ensuing inflammation. Collagen II helps rebuild joint cartilage by supplying it with the necessary proteins needed for growth and maintenance. Healthy, strong cartilage is the key to painfree movement and elastic joints. Collagen II was found essential to stop cartilage deterioration and to repair joint cartilage, keeping it strong and elastic. Moreover, collagen II also contains naturally occuring glucosamine and chondroitin sulphates, both of which are well known to help repair surrounding tissues of the joints. In this sense, collagen II is a complete arthritis formula, with many patients attesting to its pain-relief ability. Available from health food stores, collagen II is best made from organic, hormone-free chickens, free from any additives and preservatives. Collagen II is considered a safe, non-toxic nutritional supplement with no known side effects. Its powder is normally taken in 1 heaped teaspoon 3 times a day before meals.
COMFREY
(SYMPHYTUM
OFFICINALIS)
A perennial plant, which grows widely in Europe and North America, comfrey leaves were often added to salads. Its root, the part used medicinally, is rich in c a l c i u m and mucilaginous substances. The root is soothing and was used to provide intestinal lubrication while inhibiting germs s uch as E. coli. It is also rich in allantoin, a substance which promotes wound healing when applied topically in
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poultices. It can also be added to bath water to improve the complexion. Until the 1980s, comfrey tablets and teas were available in health food shops. Due to its astringent qualities, the herb was used to halt diarrhoea and internal bleeding, and particularly to help heal gastric and duodenal ulcers. However, comfrey was then found to contain pyrroliziidine alkaloids, compounds reported to cause liver disease and cancer if taken over a long period of time. As a result, the free sale of comfrey tablets and teas was banned by the US FDA, and comfrey is now mainly available as ointments, extracts and salves for external use.
COPPER
Copper is an abundant trace element that aids the absorption of iron. It is also involved in many enzyme activities and reduces histamine levels, alleviating allergies. Although an essential element, only very small amounts of copper are required by the body and even small excesses can be dangerous, causing disorders such as depression, arthritis, hypertension and heart attack. Among those most vulnerable in this respect are users of drinking water supplied from copper pipes, smokers and women on the contraceptive pill. Zinc supplements can help to reduce excess copper levels, while the best natural sources are soybeans, legumes, whole wheat, prunes, liver, seatood and molasses. The normal daily requirement for adults is 2 mg. To protect from overdose damage, an upper intake limit was set at 10 mg per day.
CORIANDER
(CORIASDRUM
SATIVUM)
A small annual plant native to Mediterranean countries, its leaves are used for their distinctive flavour in salads and cooking. However, medicinally, the seeds are the most important part of the plant and an infusion of coriander seeds taken after meals can strengthen digestion and relieve flatulence; it is also beneficial for arthritis and rheumatism. Up to 3 infusions a day can be consumed. Widely available from supermarkets and health food stores.
CORN
(ZEA
MAYS)
Also called maize, corn is a cereal grass related to grains such as wheat, rice, oats and barley, and was used for thousands of years as a staple grain by the Indians of Central America. Its food value and wide variety of uses make it not only one of the foremost crops currently grown in the USA, but also one of the most important crops in the world. Cornmeal, which has extensive culinary uses, is widely available and a vitally important ingredient in the coeliac diet. Fresh corn on the cob has a delicate sweet flavour which is lost soon after harvesting. It provides a good source of vitamins A, B l , B2, niacin, and minerals such as iron, copper, phosphorus and m a g n e s i u m . Cornsilk, the fine tassel on the top of the corn cob, can be made into an infusion which soothes the urinary passages and aets as a diuretic. This can be very beneficial in cases of kidney stones and cystitis, but to be effective several cups f the infusion should be drunk each day.
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CRANBERRIES
(VACCINIUM
MACROCARPON)
Fresh cranberries are a good source of vitamin C, as well as m a n g a n e s e , copper and fibre. Cranberries are also rich in anthocyanidins, antioxidant pigments which give fruits their blue, purple and red colours. In recent years, fresh cranberries and cranberry juice gained wide acclaim as a treatment for bladder infections such as cystitis. A study of people suffering from urinary tract infections found that a dose of 500 ml of cranberry juice had a beneficial effect in 73 per cent of the cases. Urinary tract infections can occur when bacteria adhere to the lining, or mucosa, of the bladder and urethra and infect it. Cranberry juice contains components that reduce the ability of bacteria to stick to the mucosa, thus preventing the infections. Cranberry juice and tablets are available from health food stores.
C R E A M OF TARTAR
Cream of tartar or potassium bitartrate (E336) is a natural leavening agent derived from grape juice, which is used both at home and commercially. It is a white crystalline powder, C 4 H 5 K 0 6 , which is also used for its buffering and emulsifying action and for its beneficial antioxidant effect. Cream of tartar is more suitable than baking soda for hypertensive people on low -sodium diets because it contains potassium, not sodium. It is also non-irritating and better tolerated by people with weak digestion or low gastric secretions. Baking soda is known to cause various symptoms in sensitive people, such as heartburn and dyspepsia. Baking powder may be even worse since, in addition to sodium
bicarbonate, another chemical, acid sodium pyrophosphate, is often added. Another point to consider is that cream of tartar is required in much smaller amounts than baking soda or powder. Cream of tartar is often balanced in equal quantities vvith baking soda when cooking very acid fruit to take away the sour taste and economize on sugar. For a better raising effect, one part of sodium bicarbonate is sometimes added to two parts of cream of tartar.
CREATINE
A new dietary supplement in health food stores, recently creatine caused great excitement when studies showed its ability to improve athletic performance. Creatine supplementation was first used by the British field and track competitors, w h o won gold medals in the 1992 Olympics in Barcelona. Shortly afterwards, U S champion athletes began to use creatine supplements, and from there its use spread to the rest of the athletic world. Creatine is not a steroid or a drug. It is a natural chemical that is synthesized in the body from the three amino acids, arginine, m e t h i o n i n e and glycine. It is mainly stored in the skeletal muscles as phosphocreatine, the precursor of ATP, the body's prime energy chemical. Creatine is a part of a system that supplies immediate energy, and creatine supplements can produce a burst of energy. Creatine boosts muscle mass and builds voluminous, massive muscles, which is a great boon to body builders; it also increases energy, endurance and power, and can speed recovery, enabling frequent increase in exercise. The richest dietary sources of creatine are m e a t and fish, especially beef, which contains 2 g per 0.4 kg. Typically, about 2 g a day are normally synthesized by the
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body and an additional 2 g can come from food metabolism. To increase sports performance, creatine supplements are usually taken in 5 g doses, 1 - 4 times a day, depending on whether the athlete is starting to load the muscles with creatine or is just maintaining its level. Creatine absorption is greatly improved when taken with insulin-releasing carbohydrates, such as grape juice. Vegetarians usually have a low intake of creatine.
CUCUMBER
(CUCUMIS
SATIVUS)
A c o m m o n garden vegetable, cucumber was originally native to southern Asia, but is now cultivated as an annual in many parts of the world. T h e fruit of the plant can be preserved by pickling in vinegar, but it is normally eaten raw as a popular addition to salads. Cucumber has diuretic properties, which can help to eliminate water from the body, and it also contains an enzyme that splits protein and cleanses the intestines. Cucumber juice is beneficial to internal inflammations, such as stomach and kidney inflammations and sore throats. Cucumbers are best eaten with the skin, which is rich in chlorophyll and silicon. Externally, a blend of juiced cucumber with equal parts of glycerine and rose water makes a soothing lotion for chapped hands and lips.
C U M I N (CI \II\L \I CI U/V \S)

Originating in the East, cumin is one of the oldest known culinary spices and is used as a seasoning in Asian cuisine. The plant has been grown in Mediterranean countries for many centuries; it was popular with the Romans and was
one of the most commonly used spices in Europe in the jyliddle Ages. The seeds, and their essential oils, are also used medicinally as an aid to stimulate gastric juices, increase appetite and relieve flatulence. C u m i n is also said to increase milk secretion in nursing mothers. The seeds are widely available.
C U R C U M I N SEE T U R M E R I C
CYSTEINE
Cysteine is an important a m i n o acid, formed in the body from methionine (with vitamin B6), and a major supplier of the body's metabolic sulphur. Its primary source is eggs. Cysteine has remarkable protective and detoxifying properties. It can protect from radiation and detoxify the liver. Cysteine forms the antioxidant enzyme glutathione, a potent free radical scavenger. As such, it can help prevent age-related diseases such as atherosclerosis, heart attack and cancer, and help treat osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. D u e to its ability to break down mucus, cysteine is also beneficial in the treatment of bronchitis and emphysema. It is thought to protect body cells from radiation, especially when taken in conjunction with selenium and v i t a m i n E. It is also thought to protect the liver and brain from some of the harmful effects of alcohol and smoking. Hair is eight per cent cysteine by weight and supplements can enhance hair growth. Cysteine supplements are available in health food stores and are best taken with v i t a m i n C, to inhibit oxidation to cystine. Caution: Diabetics should not experiment with cysteine, which could counteract with the effects of insulin.
D
D A M IA N A (TURNERA DIFFUSA)
A herb that grows wild in Mexico and is cultivated for its leaves, damiana is famous for its aphrodisiac properties. It is also a diuretic and a tonic, and is recommended for sufferers from exhaustion, and for convalescence after a disease. Damiana is available in capsules as a supplement in health food stores.
DANDELION
(TARAXACUM
OFFICINALE)
A wild perennial plant, known for its bright yellow flower, it grows profusely throughout the temperate regions of the world. The whole plant is highly nutritious and can be used as a tonic, diuretic and mild laxative. When prepared as an infusion, it can be used to stimulate bile formation and is also said to relieve the symptoms of jaundice and gallstones. It is useful for the relief of water retention and to cleanse the body of poisons. The fresh, young leaves, which are best used before the flower forms, can be added to salads or used for juice. Available in tea bags in health food shops.
DATES
(PHOENIX
DACIYLIFERA)
Native to the Middle East, the date palm tree has been grown for thousands of years. Available in fresh or dried form, dates are high in sugar (mostly glucose or fructose)
which ranges from 60 per cent in fresh dates to 70 per cent in dried dates. A cup of pitted dates has 490 calories. Dates, however, are rich in fibre. They contain some B vitamins, especially folic acid, and minerals such as potassium, zinc and selenium. Dates are very alkaline and can help maintain a proper acidalkaline balance in the blood. They contain a special soluble fibre called beta-D-glucan which adds bulk to stools and softens them. Dates contribute to a feeling of satiety and thus aid weight loss.
DEFICIENCY DISEASES
Nutrient deficiencies cause deficiency diseases the reasons can be many and varied. For example, a deficiency may result from poor vitamin intake due to an unbalanced diet, poor absorption of nutrients due to low digestive juices or e n z y m e s , crash diets, stress, smoking, alcohol, the contraceptive pill or medication. Similarly, deficiency diseases can have many symptoms: a deficiency of niacin can cause high cholesterol levels; v i t a m i n B12 deficiency can be reflected in fatigue and depression; c a l c i u m deficiency can cause painful leg cramps; v i t a m i n C deficiency can cause bleeding and inflamed gums; and vitamin B6 deficiency can cause kidney stones, allergies and morning sickness in pregnancy. To avoid or correct nutrient deficiencies, it is best to balance the diet with fresh unprocessed food, and the addition of food supplements such as vitamins, minerals, trace elements, e n z y m e s and a m i n o acids. Determining specific supplementation should always be done in consultation with a qualified nutritionist. However, for general maintenance purposes multivitamin formulas can be taken according to doses prescribed on labels.
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Caution: Some nutrients, especially in higher potencies, can cause reactions in sensitive persons. The use of higher potencies requires professional advice.
DESICCATED LIVER
This is dried beef liver which is available as tablets, capsules and powder for use as a food supplement. Desiccated liver is a rich source of the B - c o m p l e x vitamins, as well as vitamins A and D . It also contains minerals such as iron, calcium, copper and phosphorus, together with protein and cholesterol. Desiccated liver is good for anaemia, weakness and particularly in the alleviation of stress. The best products are those made from organically grown Argentinian beef liver.
DEVIL'S CLAW
(HARPACOPHYTUM
PROCUMBEKS)
A native of Namibia, this thorny plant has been found to reduce cholesterol and uric acid levels and is indicated in folk medicine for a variety of conditions, especially for gout and arthritis. It is available in health food stores in tablet form.
DHEA
(DEHYDROEPHNDROSTERONE)
An abundant hormone that is synthesized by the body from cholesterol. However, cholesterol levels tend to increase with age, while D H E A levels tend to drop, and this decline signals the onset of age-related diseases. D H E A deficiencies have been implicated in diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, coronary heart disease, various cancers and even obesity. D H E A is now available in health food shops as a
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supplement, and it has been found to be beneficial in m any conditions including stress relief, the treatment of diabetes, and the lowering of fat and cholesterol levels. In addition, it appears to be of benefit to overweight people and those prone to heart disease, aiding in the reduction of mortality rates from heart attacks. D H E A is now being researched for further benefits such as boosting sexual drive in both men and women.
DIETARY FIBRE SEE FIBRE
DILL
(ANHTHUM
GRAVTIOLENS)
An aromatic garden herb widely grown for its culinary and medicinal properties. Both the leaves and seeds of the plant can be used the young leaves to add flavour and nutrients to salads or soups, and the seeds prepared as an infusion. Dill tea can relieve flatulence, strengthen digestion and stimulate appetite; it can help an upset stomach. Available from supermarkets and grocers.
DLPA see PHENYLALANINE
DNA see NUCLEIC ACIDS
DOLOMITE
A mineral rock composed of calcium and m a g n e s i u m carbonates, it is sold in health food stores as dolomite
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tablets which contain approximately two-thirds calcium and one-third magnesium. Dolomite tablets are strong alkalines and can supplement both calcium and magnesium. T h e tablets can help overcome stomach acidity when taken after a meal or during heartburn. For a quick effect, dolomite powder is preferable, or 2 or 3 tablets crushed in the m o u t h before swallowing. In the early 1980s, the US FDA cautioned the public to limit its use of dolomite because of a suspected high content of lead in dolomite tablets. Recent studies involving 70 brands of calcium supplements indicated that dolomite does not contain more lead than several other types of calcium. However, dolomite should be used by adults only, since children under six years of age are less able to tolerate lead than adults. It is best to buy dolomite packaged under a reputable brand name which declares its purity.
D O N G QUAI
A Chinese herb, the leaves of which have been used in China for centuries in the treatment of women's complaints, it has now been rediscovered by the West and found to contain phytoestrogenic components which have a balancing effect on oestrogen activity and a tonic effect on the uterus. As such, dong quai is used to treat hot flushes of menopause, premenstrual tension and vaginal dryness. In Chinese medicine, dong quai has also been used to treat bladder infections (cystitis), water retention (oedema) and painful menstruation. Indeed, dong quai has been found to contain coumarins, antispasmodic ingredients which relax uterine cramps. The coumarins in dong quai act also as anticoagulants and vasodilators, opening up clogged blood vessels and preventing platelet stickiness. It is also used to promote healthy pregnancy
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a nd
delivery. Available in health food stores in capsule form, either on its own or in formulas.
DOPAMINE
This is one of the most important neurotransmitters, which are the brain chemicals that convey messages between nerve cells. Using dopamine as a neurotransmitter (dopaminergic system), the nerve cells release hormones needed not only for growth and healing, but also for the proper functioning of the immune system in later life. Dopamine deficiency has been found in some PMS sufferers as it suppresses the fluid retention hormone and stimulates elimination of water and salt. Inadequate levels of dopamine have been shown to result in Parkinson's disease with symptoms such as uncontrollable tremors of the limbs. An effective treatment in many cases is L-dopa, an amino acid which is converted in the brain to dopamine (and norepinephrine).
DULSE
(PALMARIA
PALMATA)
A red and blue pigmented seaweed, dulse grows in flat fronds shaped like mittens, 6-12 in (15-30 cm) long. Grown mostly on the coast of Maine, dulse is exceptionally high in iodine content, and is also rich in manganese. Increasingly available in health food shops in its dried form, dulse is used in soups and stews. It can also be toasted in the oven and used as a chewy snack with a distinctive sea flavour. It is claimed to induce sweating and treat seasickness. A normal daily dosage of dulse is up to 15 g.
E
ECHINACEA
(ECHINACEA ANGUSTWOLLA)
A perennial herb native to N o r t h America, echinacea was traditionally used by the American Indians for a variety of conditions, from colds to snake bites. It was considered to be a blood purifier, analgesic and antiseptic. Another variety, Echinacea purpurea, was used in Europe for similar purposes. The root, flowers and leaves of the plant contain many ingredients that boost the activity of the immune system, and it is this property that enables echinacea to be helpful in such a variety of conditions. For instance, it can help build up resistance to colds and infections, and has been found to increase the number and activity of the white blood cells of the immune system which fight cancer cells. D u e to its wide-ranging effects on the immune system, echinacea is also recommended in cases of herpes, throat infections, vaginal yeast infections, urinary tract infections, inflammatory diseases and bronchitis. The herb has recently become increasingly popular and is now available as a supplement in health food stores. Caution: Echinacea should not be used by people with auto-immune diseases such as multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis and HIV Taken continuously for extended periods may prove counter-productive by suppressing the immune system.
E G G P L A N T SEE A U B E R G I N E
NUTRIENTS A
TO Z
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EGGS
Eggs furnish more nutrients per calorie than any other animal food except milk. Eggs contain about 73 per cent water, 6 g protein, 5.7 g fat and 0.4 g carbohydrates. Eggs are considered the most nearly perfect source of utilized protein. Eggs are low in fat, rich in vitamin A, low in calories and economical. They contain an outstandingly balanced nutrition with many B vitamins ( B l , B2, B6, B12, niacin and pantothenic acid), and many minerals and trace elements like iron, zinc, selenium, phosphorus, calcium, m a g n e s i u m , potassium and especially sulphur. Egg yolk is a rich source of the important sulphurcontaining a m i n o acids, cysteine and methionine, which help build up immunity against disease. For many years eggs were maligned as contributing to an elevated cholesterol level. It is true that egg yolks contain 275 mg of cholesterol but this is balanced by an abundance of lecithin (1,700 mg), which emulsifies cholesterol, and a vast number of other nutrients that help metabolize it. T h e only people who should avoid eggs are those with the condition known as hyperlipoproteinemia who should avoid all cholesterol-containing foods. Caution: R a w egg white contains avidin, a protein which binds the B vitamin biotin and prevents its absorption.
ELDER, BLACK ELDER
(SAMBUCUS
MGRA)
This small deciduous tree, which is native to Europe, is instantly recognizable in early summer for its masses of pungent white flowers which later develop into small black berries. The leaves, blossoms, root and berries of the elder
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have all had their uses in European folk medicine for centuries. Elder contains an abundance of active ingredients such as flavonoids, alkaloids and glycosides, which have many beneficial effects, particularly as anti-inflammatories, diuretics, blood vessel dilators, blood purifiers and mild laxatives. Throughout history, a tea made of elder flowers has been used to alleviate lung infections, rheumatism, measles and scarlet fever, and many herbalists still favour a strong elder blossom tea to treat colds, flu or fever, with added peppermint leaves and ginger root. Elder also encourages sweating - a boon in the treatment of colds. Nowadays, elder is also popular as a blood purifier, in cleansing fasts for building immunity and in weight reduction regimes. It is available in health food stores in syrup, tablet or capsule form.
ELECTROLYTES
This is a common name for dietary minerals that, in solution, can conduct electricity. These electrically charged particles, which are present throughout the body, are involved in many activities, such as regulating water retention within and out-side the cells. Examples include the bulk minerals potassium, s o d i u m and chloride.
E L M , SLIPPERY E L M
(ULMVS
FULVA)
A large deciduous tree native to North America, decoctions of the bark and leaves have long been a folk remedy there for many disorders. Since elm is astringent and abundant in mucilaginous matter, which lubricates and soothes mucus membranes, the decoctions are used mainly
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TO Z
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to soothe inflammations of the throat, stomach, intestines, urinary tract and lungs. Elm is also highly recommended in the treatment of stomach or duodenal ulcers. 'Slippery Elm Food' is very nutritious and, mixed with milk, it is easily digested by people with sensitive stomachs. Externally, elm powder can be applied to cold sores, boils and burns. Elm powder and Slippery Elm Food are available in health food shops.
ENZYMES
Found in all animals and plants, enzymes are complex proteins that act as catalysts. That is, they act as agents to speed up biochemical reactions in the body, which would otherwise not take place, or that take place so slowly they appear not to be occurring. Various types of enzymes sustain life in a number of ways. For example, without digestive enzymes, digestion of food would be impossible, and without antioxidant enzymes we could not survive for very long. Apart from their amino acid structure, various enzymes also contain minerals and vitamins with which they cooperate as 'co-enzymes'. Enzymes can, for example, enable sugar and fat to burn at normal body temperatures, or combine oxygen and hydrogen to produce water in a reaction that would otherwise be explosive. Each enzyme can perform only one specific chemical reaction, and thousands of enzymes work in harmony to enable all the physiological activities in our bodies, from digestion to wound healing, to take place. The liver itself Produces over a thousand different enzymes, but the lack of even one enzyme can break the chain of biochemical factions, causing imbalances that are reflected as allergies, nutrient deficiencies and deficiency diseases.
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T h e secretion of enzymes in the body declines with age, and enzyme supplementation is highly recommended, particularly after the age of 40. Various digestive enzyme supplements of both animal and vegetable origin are available in health food stores. Some, like betaine H C l , help people with low stomach acid; others such as papain and b r o m e l a i n are protein -splitting enzymes; and pancreatin tablets contain various enzymes that split protein, starch and fat for a comprehensive enzymatic action.
ERGOT
(CLWICEPS
PURPUREA)
Ergot is a fungus that parasitizes the growing kernels of w h e a t and rye. Extract of ergot contains several important alkaloids, including ergometrine, which induces uterine contractions during childbirth, ergotamine, which stops bleeding and is effective against migraine if used in the early stages, and bromocriptine, which is used to treat female infertility, inhibit excessive milk production in lactating mothers, and relieve the symptoms of prostatitis and Parkinson's disease. Caution: Ergot is highly toxic. It contains derivatives of lysergic acid, the active ingredient of LSD, which produces dangerous hallucinations and delusions. It should be used only under strict medical supervision.
ESSENTIAL FATTY A C I D S (EFA) (VITAMIN F) SEE FATS
NUTRIENTS A
TO Z
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EUCALYPTUS, BLUE G U M
(EUCALYPTUS
GLOBULUS)
A large, evergreen tree native to Australia, its leaves are used to produce extracts and essential oils which are used as a disinfectant in many mouthwashes and toothpastes. Eucalyptus is also an expectorant. In addition, it can be used to soothe ulcers and to relax muscle cramps. An infusion of the fresh leaves rubbed into the scalp can promote hair growth. Can be picked or collected. Available at larger health food stores and herbalists.
EVENING P R I M R O S E
(OENOTHERA
BIENNIS)
A tall, elegant annual, its spectacular yellow flowers generally open only at dusk, blooming for one night only before withering the next day. The plant was known to the ancient Greeks and flourished throughout Europe and both North and South America. As well as being cultivated, it can frequently be found growing along roadsides. The plant contains mucilaginous substances with sedative, diuretic and astringent properties. Infusions of all parts of the plant can be used to soothe coughs, relieve asthma, help lift depression, and also stimulate the liver and the digestive system. They can also be used to produce a soothing ointment for skin rashes. The N o r t h American Indians used the plant to treat wounds and infections externally, and coughs and colds internally. For benefits see Evening Primrose Oil (EPO).
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EVENING P R I M R O S E OIL (EPO)

T h e oil extracted from the seeds of the evening primrose has been found to have many beneficial effects, including: inducing weight loss without dieting; lowering cholesterol levels and blood pressure; alleviating arthritis; healing or improving eczema and acne (with zinc); and relieving premenstrual tension and irritable bowel syndrome. E P O has also been found to be a rich source of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA). This is a fatty acid which is the starting point in the body for the production of prostaglandins (PGs), hormone-like compounds that regulate various bodily functions. Specific type of PGs perform diverse and sometimes contrasting roles and their balance is vital for health. For example, PGE1 inhibits b l o o d clotting and increases urination, while PGE2 accelerates blood clotting and increases water retention. Deficiencies of PGs can cause many and varied conditions such as heart disease and hypertension, arthritis, menstrual cramps, allergies, asthma and migraines. Available in capsules in health food stores and pharmacies.
EXERCISE
Exercise is a nutrient that money cannot buy and, like diet, has many health benefits. Regular exercise has been found to reduce stress by releasing brain endorphins. It also strengthens the heart muscle and its activity, helps to reduce high blood pressure and high cholesterol levels, thus reducing the risk of heart attack, aids weight reduction, relieves constipation, and improves diabetes, insomnia and varicose veins. In addition, it can prevent porous bones and osteoporosis, especially in menopausal women.
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Aerobic and non-aerobic exercises have different effects: aerobics involve intensive breathing and tone the heart, while non-aerobic activity, as in a gym workout, increase muscle tone. Exercise, like diet, should be adapted to an individual's condition and needs, preferably by a professional trainer.
F
FASTING
Fasting is one of the oldest-known therapies. Nutritionally, the purpose of fasting is detoxification since purifying the body from toxins and waste substances fortifies the action of the immune system in fighting disease and promotes health and well-being. Water is a most important part of the process. At least 2 litres of mineral or spring water should be drunk a day to help flush out the toxins. The immediate result of fasting is weight loss and well over 1kg can be lost in the first 24 hours. Fasting, however, can do much more than that. It can rejuvenate the body and help to reduce addictions to alcohol and smoking. It also releases growth h o r m o n e which strengthens immunity to disease. In various Swedish and German health clinics, fasting is used to treat virtually all degenerative diseases, from obesity, arthritis and atherosclerosis, to allergies, eczema and digestive disorders. Long fasts or fasts intended to combat chemical poisoningi should be done under medical supervision. Generally, short , fasts (one to three days) do not require medical supervision. ' Caution: Fasting can be dangerous for diabetics or for people with heart or kidney problems. Anyone with a health problem should seek medical clearance before fasting. A safer and easier type of fast is the 'raw juice ; fasting', in which small amount of freshly squeezed fruit or ' vegetable juice, such as apple, carrot and celery, are sipped several times a day.
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FATS
One of the main food groups, fats are composed of fatty acids, both saturated and unsaturated. Fats are a concentrated source of energy, and are, in fact, the body's energy reserve, supplying 9 calories per g. Hard fats are usually from animal origin, and are composed mainly of saturated fatty acids such as butter and lard. Margarine is a liquid vegetable oil which solidifies by processing it with hydrogen, in a process known as 'hydrogenation'. Liquid vegetable oils, such as sunflower, safflower and corn, consist mainly of polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acids, with the exception of palm and c o c o n u t oils, which are mostly saturated. Fish oils are also polyunsaturated, but contain o m e g a - 3 fatty acids and other beneficial factors which reduce high cholesterol levels and the incidence of heart disease. Olive and avocado oil are monounsaturated oils. They are more stable and less prone to oxidation and rancidity than the polyunsaturated. The type and structure of fatty acids determine the various types of fats whether they are oil, lard, cholesterol or triglyceride and different fats have different roles. Fats are vital to the body: they enable the utilization of the fat-soluble vitamins, A, E, D and K; fats are the only substance that stimulate gall bladder activity, without which gallstones can be formed and they are needed to produce hormones and are essential for sexual activity. Certain types of fats insulate the nerves, ensuring a healthy nerve function. Fats are also essential for >k;n health and beauty. Most fatty acids can be produced in the body; the three exceptions linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic acids (vitamin F) are known as 'essential fatty acids' (EFAs) and ar e supplied by food. EFAs are required for the function of every cell, tissue, gland and organ. They maintain a healthy
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and supple skin and produce prostaglandins h o r m o n e like compounds that reduce b l o o d clotting, lower hypertension and prevent heart attacks and strokes. EFAs also form red blood cells and promote immunity against disease and are essential for mental function half of the brain is composed of EFAs. A diet in which fat is used sparingly, mostly in the form of fresh, unrefined vegetable and marine oils, is considered beneficial in preventing heart attacks and cancer.
FENNEL
(FOENICULUM
VULGARE)
A perennial herb, which was originally native to the Mediterranean countries, it is now widely grown in Europe and North America. Infusions of the seeds and roots relieve flatulence, strengthen digestion, help suppress appetite and, as a result, aid weight loss. Fennel is also effective in treating colics and ulcers. The seeds and leaves are used to flavour fish dishes and the stems are used as a vegetable. Fennel is available from supermarkets and health food stores, either fresh or as a herb tea or syrup.
FENUGREEK
(TRIGONELLA
FOENUMGRAECUM)
An annual herb, it is one of the oldest-known herbal remedies. The seeds are used as a spice and can be used to expel mucous from nasal passages. A tea made from fenugreek seeds was traditionally known to increase milk secretion in nursing mothers. Fenugreek is also used to lower b l o o d sugar levels: in Yemenite folk medicine, it is recognized as a treatment for diabetes - a glass of water in which a tablespoon of fenugreek seeds has been soaked
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overnight is drunk each morning. T h e seeds are widely available in health food stores and supermarkets.
FEVERFEW
(CHRYSANTHEMUM
PARTHENIUM)
A cultivated perennial herb native to Europe, its leaves have a strong scent when crushed and it produces clusters of small, white, daisy-like flowers in late summer. Infusions of the dried flowers are a traditional European remedy for delayed menstruation, while studies have confirmed that the crushed leaves produce a good remedy for migraine headaches. However, migraine sufferers should first verify that their problem is not caused by a f o o d allergy. The active ingredient in feverfew leaves is parthenolide, which is claimed to relieve inflammation better than aspirin. Feverfew leaves have also been reported to alleviate depression and nervous disorders. T h e herb is available in health food stores in capsule form.
FIBRE, DIETARY
A class of complex carbohydrates, dietary fibre is found in many plant foods such as bran flakes, whole grains, beans, brown rice, psyllium seeds, fruits and vegetables. It comes in several forms, including cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin which are insoluble in water and pectin, g u m s and mucilages which are watersoluble, gel-forming fibres. Fibre adds bulk to the diet, thereby increasing stool weight and promoting bulky and speedy bowel movements. High fibre diets are known to prevent and cure many conditions, such as constipation, hypertension, high
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cholesterol, heart disease, duodenal ulcers, diverticulosis, diabetes, colon cancer, haemorrhoids, irritable bowel syndrome and obesity. Dietary fibre can also reduce the feeling of hunger and contribute to weight loss. Guar g u m , psyllium and oat bran are a few examples of the dietary fibre available in health food shops. Each type of dietary fibre has its unique characteristics. Cellulose and hemicellulose, which abound in foods such as apples, pears, whole grains and beans, are indigestible and help constipation, haemorrhoids and colitis. Lignin, which is found in foods such as whole grains, carrots, t o m a t o e s and potato, is an indigestible fibre that is useful for lowering cholesterol, preventing gallstones and colon cancer. Pectin abounds in apples and is good for diabetes, lowering cholesterol and reducing the risk of heart disease and gallstones. Gums and mucilages, found in foods such as oatmeal, oatbran and beans, help to remove toxins and regulate b l o o d sugar level and also lower cholesterol. (See also BRAN.)
F I G S (Ficus) High in calcium, the fig is considered by herbalists as a healing food. It has a detoxifying action and is one of the most alkalizing fruits. That is, it balances acidic conditions in the body, which adversely affect health (see A C I D ALKALINE BALANCE). Figs are rich in mucin, which makes them a gentle laxative for treating constipation. They also soothe the digestive tract, cleanse the intestines and are helpful in the treatment of haemorrhoids. Widely available in health food stores and supermarkets.
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FISH
Fish contains B vitamins and minerals like iodine, fluorine, cobalt, calcium, m a g n e s i u m , phosphorus, iron and copper. Some fish such as cod and haddock are virtually pure protein, having no carbohydrates and only 0.1 per cent fat. Ocean fish can also serve as protection from diseases such as atherosclerosis, heart disease, high blood pressure and cancer. Indeed, a world-wide study on fish intake and mortality rates showed that fish consumption is inversely associated with death from heart disease and stroke. Lean fish, under 5 per cent fat, include halibut, cod, haddock, sole, flounder, perch and bass. Fatty fish - 520 per cent fat include salmon, mackerel, herring, sardines, albacore and tuna. These fish are also a rich source of vitamins A and D . Cold water fish, especially the fatty group, are a rich source of omega3 fatty acids, which can reduce blood stickiness, high blood pressure and cholesterol levels. Fish can benefit arthritics, since its omega-3 fatty acids are also strong anti-inflammatory agents. Fish is a rich source of iodine, known to contribute to weight loss, treating goitre and offering protection from cancer. Being high in choline, fish is known as 'brain food'. The hazards in fish come from water pollution. Mercury can accumulate in fish in the form of methyl mercury, which is more toxic than pure mercury. Some fresh water fish may be contaminated with industrial discharge of chemical effluents such as chlorinated hydrocarbons. (See also C O D LIVER OIL.)
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FISH OILS
Fish oils have long been used by mothers as a food supplement for growing children. In recent years studies have shown that fish oils can also reduce the risk of coronary heart disease and lower high cholesterol levels. T h e properties of fish oils first became apparent in the investigation of Greenland Eskimos who consumed a very high-fat diet from seal, whale and fish, and yet had a low rate of heart disease. Fish oils were found to contain large amounts of o m e g a - 3 fatty acids: eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). These are long chain and highly unsaturated fatty acids which can prevent sudden heart attacks with a variety of actions: they have an antithrombotic action which prevents thrombosis by inhibiting the formation of thromboxane A2 from arachidonic acid in platelets; they decrease blood stickiness, preventing formation of blood clots; they lower blood levels of cholesterol and triglycerides, and prevent atherosclerosis; and they prevent irregular heartbeat (arrhythmia), reducing the risk of extremely rapid heart contractions (ventricular fibrillation). (See also O M E G A - 3 FATTY ACID.)
FLAXSEED
(LINUM
USITATISSIMUM)
Also known as linseed, this annual herb is one of mankind's oldest cultivated crops. First grown in the Middle East, and then Egypt, its cultivation spread to Western Europe in about 1000 B C and then later to North America. It is now grown worldwide for both fibre and oil production. The seeds of the plant are used for medicinal purposes. A traditional treatment for constipation is to eat one to
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tablespoons of ripe whole seeds, which have previously been soaked or ground, with plenty of water. The seeds swell up in the intestines and encourage bowel movements. A decoction of the seeds can be soothing to the digestive tract, and can also be used for respiratory and urinary disorders. Linseed oil is the richest source of o m e g a - 3 fatty acids, linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid. These essential fatty acids (EFAs) are vitally important for strengthening immunity and preventing many degenerative conditions such as heart disease. Taking a tablespoonful of linseed oil and then lying down for half an hour is reputed to help with the elimination of gallstones. Available from health food stores and herbalists.
t wo
FLUORINE
Fluorine is a non-metallic essential trace element, which is concentrated in trace amounts in the bones and teeth. In its natural form, it occurs as c a l c i u m fluoride and s o d i u m fluoride (used for fluoridating drinking water). Fluorine builds strong, hard bones and teeth. Its deficiency can cause tooth decay in children and fractured hips in the elderly. Tea is a good dietary source of fluorine. Although small amounts of fluorine are important, excesses can be harmful. Excess fluorine neutralizes important e n z y m e s and interferes with calcium ab sorption, creating calcium deficiencies, which can cause mottled teeth, brittle bones and nervousness. A fluorinated drinking water supply should contain no more than 1 part per million (ppm), since a concentration of over 2 ppm converts fluorine from friend to foe. Brushing teeth with fluorinated toothpaste should be done carefully to avoid
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swallowing the paste. Estimated adequate daily intakes are: adults 1.54 mg; children 1.52 mg. Caution: An intake of 20 mg fluorine or over is toxic.
FOLIC A C I D
Folic acid, or folacin, is one of the water-soluble B vitamins which are partly synthesized by the intestinal flora. Although its requirements are low and measured in micrograms, folic acid is a very important vitamin. Together with v i t a m i n B12, it is crucial to the production of red blood cells, preventing anaemia, and for the synthesis of nucleic acids (DNA), ensuring proper cell division. It is especially critical to the development of nerves in the foetus, and a deficiency in pregnant women is linked to birth defects such as spina bifida. However, folic acid has many other beneficial effects, in that it stimulates stomach secretions and improves digestion, increases oestrogen levels and improves lactation, promotes mental and emotional health, helps the body to produce brain neurotransmitters (chemicals that transmit messages between nerve cells), and raises histamine levels, thereby benefiting nervous disorders. The typical Western diet is normally deficient in folic acid as it is easily destroyed in the body by such antagonists as antibiotics, alcohol, contraceptive pills and anticonvulsant drugs. Pregnant and lactating women, as well as women on the pill, are particularly vulnerable to a deficiency of the vitamin and should take folic acid supplements. The symptoms of folic acid deficiency include megaloblastic anaemia, depression, psychosis and epileptic fits, atherosclerosis, osteoporosis, acne, lack of appetite and sore tongue. Folic acid received its name from the Latin 'folium',
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meaning foliage, and, in fact, some of its best natural sources include leafy green vegetables such as spinach, kale and beet greens. Other sources include brewer's yeast, soya flour, w h e a t germ, beans, asparagus, liver, egg yolk, whole grains and avocados. The Recommended Daily Allowance of folic acid is 200 meg for adults, 100 meg for children and 400 meg for pregnant women. Caution: Excess folic acid supplementation can mask the anaemia caused by B12 deficiency since both vitamins are closely related. These two vitamins are therefore best taken simultaneously.
FOOD ALLERGIES SEE ALLERGIES, F O O D
FOOD C O M B I N A T I O N
Correct food combinations are regarded by nutritionists as the simplest and most effective way to prevent many common ailments. For instance, they are particularly beneficial to people with sensitive digestion as correct food combinations have been found to prevent stomach acidity, heartburn, bloating, indigestion, constipation and headaches. They can also alleviate allergies, calm nervousness and contribute to weight loss without dieting. The principle behind food combination is that different groups of foods require different e n z y m e s and chemical environments for proper digestion and absorption. If, at the same meal, the body is presented with a range of ingredients each with differing requirements, it becomes confused and is not fully able to supply all the enzymes and secretions at the right time. T h e result can be fermentation, with all its associated discomforts.
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For correct digestion, protein foods require an acid medium and proteolytic enzymes, as supplied by the stomach, while starches require an alkaline medium with starch-splitting enzymes, as supplied by the intestines. Fats and oils are digested slowly, mostly in the intestines, and do not interfere much with either protein or starch digestion. Sugars are the quickest to digest; some are even absorbed in the stomach, while most are absorbed through the intestines. All this means that proteins and starches make a poor combination and should not be eaten together at the same meal as they require different chemical environments and digestive processes. O n the other hand, proteins and fats, or starches and fats, may be eaten together since their digestion does not interfere with one another, but proteins should be eaten only with acid fruits, such as oranges and grapefruits. Sweet fruits are best eaten with starches and, although sugars can be eaten with starches, they are best eaten on their own as they are absorbed very quickly. Green vegetables and non-starchy vegetables, such as avocado, aubergine and squashes, are neutral and can be eaten with both protein and starch meals. People with sensitive digestions may find that eating simple meals, with as few foods as possible, will alleviate their discomforts and contribute most to their well-being.
(See also Complete Nutrition.)
F O O D IRRADIATION
Food irradiation is used to preserve foods. Irradiation started in 1963 in the USA, when permission was given to irradiate wheat and wheat flour. Its main purpose was to destroy germs and insects that spoil wheat, and inhibit ripening or sprouting. In later years, many foods were
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irradiated, including potato, spices, teas, pork, poultry, fruits and vegetables. During irradiation, foods are exposed to extremely strong radioactive gamma rays provided by cobalt -60 or caesium-137. Although irradiation does not make the food itself radioactive, it does cause chemical changes in it, and increasing concern has been expressed on the potential hazards of irradiation. The process disrupts molecule bonds, which can recombine with other molecules, and this can produce new substances called radiolytic products, which poses a question of safety since they are impossible to test. For example, some a m i n o acids (protein) and carbohydrate groups break down and enzyme action is modified. There is also increasing evidence that irradiation destroys certain nutrients in the food such as vitamins A, B, C, E and K. Food irradiation has been banned or severely restricted in many countries, including Britain, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Australia and N e w Zealand.
FOOD P Y R A M I D
The Food Guide Pyramid is a guide to daily food choices that was compiled by the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) in 1992. It reflects the need for an increased consumption of vegetables, fruit grain and fibre and replaces the former dietary guidelines of the Basic Four Food Groups which promoted animal protein and fat. USDA has acknowledged that, due to over-reliance on convenience foods, Western populations tend to be overfed but undernourished, consuming far more fat and far less fresh fruit and vegetables than is desirable. As a result, the West is plagued by the many degenerative diseases of
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ageing, such as heart disease, cancer and arthritis, which are scarcely found in the Asian countries with their higher consumption of fruit and vegetables. The food pyramid contains at its base - the widest part the starchy group, with a recommended 611 daily servings of bread, cereal, rice and pasta. The next narrowest part of the pyramid is divided into two groups: the fruit group with 24 servings, and the vegetable group with 35 servings. Next, as the pyramid narrows, it is again divided into even smaller groups: the meat, fish, eggs, beans and nut group with 23 servings, and then the milk, yogurt and cheese group with 2 - 3 servings. The small apex at the top of the pyramid represents the group comprising fats, oils and sweets, which, it is recommended, should be used only sparingly. Therefore, in order to meet the new USDA guidelines, one would need to eat daily, for example, one apple, one banana, one orange, four ounces of broccoli, four ounces of Brussels sprouts, four ounces of cauliflower and 113 g of spinach. Unfortunately, few of us actually eat accordingly, but we should become more conscious of the fact that it is vitally important to increase our resistance to disease by the use of the health-promoting dietary nutrients found in fresh food. Taking vitamin and mineral supplements to bridge the gap is a practical solution, but these will not replace the many auxiliary, non-vitamin nutrients contained in fresh foods.
FOOD SUPPLEMENTATION
Food supplements of vitamins, minerals, a m i n o acids, e n z y m e s and other nutrients are becoming increasingly popular. Supplementation serves to replace the nutrients
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jost in food processing, intensive farming and spraying, all of which remove nutrients from food, making it nutritionally inferior. Supplementation also corrects wrong eating habits and poor food choices, such as occasions when the diet is short of fresh fruit and vegetables, resulting in reduced intakes of nutrients. O u r affluent society may be overfed, but, for the most part, it is definitely undernourished. Another reason for food supplementation is that some people require more vitamins than others. Some burn vitamins quicker, while others may have absorption defects that create nutrient deficiencies. Stress, smoking and alcohol also deplete nutrients. However, this is only part of the answer. More people are becoming increasingly aware of their nutritional needs. The symptoms of mild nutrient deficiencies, such as headaches, nervousness, fatigue, constipation, premenstrual tension and high cholesterol, are no longer acceptable as part of our lot in life. More and more people want an optimal feeling of well-being, not just absence of disease which is the medical definition of health.
FREE RADICALS see ANTIOXIDANTS
FRENCH PARADOX
This term describes the unexpectedly low incidence of heart disease found in the French population, whose average diet is rich in saturated fat and alcohol. The French e at 30 per cent more fat than Americans and drink nine times more wine, but suffer 40 per cent fewer heart at tacks. The French paradox is explained by the fact that
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production of red wine includes the grape seeds, which contain important antioxidant flavonoids, such as quercetin, tannins and proanthocyanidins (OPC). These ingredients of red wine have been found to provide protection from heart attacks.
FRUCTO-OLIGO SACCHARIDES (FOS)

These are a new class of carbohydrates, that are becoming increasingly popular in health food shops. FOS are natural sugars present in small amounts in everyday fruits, vegetables and grains, such as bananas, t o m a t o e s , artichokes, onions, garlic, w h e a t and oats. They are indigestible and are not absorbed in the body as are normal sugars. Instead, they have a great beneficial effect on the intestinal flora. FOS actually feed selectively only the friendly intestinal bacteria, such as bifidobacteria and Lactobacillus acidophilus, but not the unfriendly bacteria such as Clostridium petfringens, salmonella or E. coli. In one study, a daily addition of 8 g FOS to the diet, resulted in a ten-fold increase of the friendly bifidobacteria. T h e use of FOS has far-reaching implications. By improving the intestinal flora and keeping it slightly acidic, FOS can relieve constipation, neutralize body odours and improve nutrient absorption from food. The use of FOS is particularly important when taking antibiotics, which kill all intestinal bacteria, both friendly and unfriendly, causing conditions such as diarrhoea, yeast infections and fatigue. FOS can also benefit diabetics, reducing their levels of sugar and cholesterol.
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FRUCTOSE
Fructose, also called fruit sugar, is a natural sugar present in fruits and honey. As part of the g l u c o s e molecule, it is produced from sucrose sources, such as corn. Fructose releases less insulin than sugar and over a longer period of time, and is therefore used by some mild diabetics as a sweetener.
G
G A B A (GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID) An amino acid supplement that is gaining popularity for its; anti-anxiety effects, GABA is produced in the body from glutamic acid and acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter. That is, it slows down activity in the part of the brain called the lymbic system, which is our emotional alarm bell. Thus, GABA is able to help reduce stressful feelings such as anxiety, fear and panic. As a natural tranquillizer, GABA can partially replace valium by binding to the same 1 brain receptors, providing tranquillization. It is also reported to help reduce frequent night-time urination by suppressing the hormone prolactin, which stimulates urination. Available from health food stores.
GAMMA-ORYZANOL
As an ester of ferrulic acid, gamma oryzanol is an antioxidant within plant cells that is widely distributed in foods such as rice, wheat, barley, oats, vegetables, olives, tomatoes and citrus fruits. Found mainly in the bran part of grains, it promotes their growth. Gamnia-oryzanol was isolated from rice-bran oil and was first used by the Japanese to treat anxiety. It is now used mainly to treat the hot flushes j of menopause, high cholesterol levels and digestive disorders ; such as ulcers, gastritis and irritable bowel syndrome. As a potent antioxidant, gamma-oryzanol can help to
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counter the damaging effects of radiation and chemotherapy. Animal studies have shown that it can also have anti-cancer effects. Many bodybuilders believe that gamma-oryzanol increases the secretion of growth h o r m o n e , since it acts on the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland, the sources of this hormone (see ARGININE). Gamma-oryzanol is considered to be a safe, natural substance and its normal total daily intake is estimated at 300 mg.
GARLIC
(ALLIUM
SATIVUM)
Garlic, a pungendy flavoured bulb of the o n i o n family, is a classic example of a combination of food and folk medicine. It contains various potent sulphur compounds such as alliin and allicin which boost immunity to diseases and which have antibacterial, antifungal and antithrombic effects. Allicin extract in cream form was recendy found in clinical trials to kill the so-called 'super bug' (MRSA), which is resistant to antibiotics in treating skin disorders such as eczema and acne. Garlic is extensively used to prevent and treat colds and flu. It has been found to lower blood pressure and reduce blood stickiness, thus preventing coronary thrombosis, heart attacks and strokes, and has also been found to be beneficial in inhibiting the growth of cancerous tumours, and treating diabetes, yeast infections, allergies and stress. The long-term use of garlic can benefit people w h o are predisposed to conditions such as heart disease, cancer or diabetes, or have a family history of them. As a strong anti-fungal, garlic has long been a folk remedy for children with intestinal parasites such as pinworms or tapeworms. It has also been used in the treatment of athlete's foot and yeast overgrowth. The strong odour of the herb can be suppressed by eating fresh
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parsley with it. There are also many brands of odourless garlic oil capsules available in health food shops.
GENETICALLY M O D I F I E D FOODS (GM)

In recent years, genetic engineering has been applied in farming with the purpose of improving certain characteristics in plants. Genetic modification consists of splicing a gene with a desired quality from one plant and inserting it into another. In nature, only closely related plants are able to mix genes, but in genetic engineering it is possible to mix genes of entirely unrelated plants or organisms. For example, a variety of tomato was made frost-resistant by the insertion of an 'antifreeze' gene from an arctic fish. However, there has been concern among many people that once new genes enter the D N A chain, they can cause genetic damage with unpredictable results. For instance, in 1989 a batch of genetically engineered L -tryptophan, a calming amino acid, caused the death of 30 people in the United States and afflicted thousands of others with a rare blood disorder. This subject eventually became a public controversy when it became known that staple grains such as soybeans and maize, for example, were being genetically modified to resist herbicides as these grains are widely used in many human foods and also in animal feeds. Scientists became concerned that G M foods could compromise the treatment of disease in animals and humans by increasing resistance to the commonly used antibiotic ampicillin, which could lead to the creation of drug-resistant bugs. It is also feared that G M plants will cross-pollinate with adjacent fields and pose a threat to wildlife. Consumer groups and supermarkets have demanded clear labelling and the segregation of G M foods, in the hope that the
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GM foods of today do not become the BSE-type problem of tomorrow.
GENISTEIN
A naturally occuring isoflavone which is mostly prevalent in soybeans, alfalfa and clover, genistein was recently introduced in health food stores as a natural food supplement due to its significant cancer-preventing effects. A recent study done by Catherine Rice-Evans at Guy's Hospital, London, has confirmed that the soy isoflavone genistein (and to a somewhat lesser degree daidzein) is a powerful antioxidant in its ability to quench free radicals. Genistein is also a phytoestrogen (plant estrogen) with both oestrogenic and anti-oestrogenic activities, a paradox that is the key to its cancer preventive properties. Compared to hormone replacement therapy (HRT), the oestrogenic activity of genistein is much milder and safer. It has been known for some time that people w h o consumed large amounts of soya beans and soy products such as soya drinks, tofu or m i s o , have a lower incidence of various cancers. Breast cancer, which according to recent statistics affects one woman in eight, is linked to higher levels of oestrogen. Genistein was found to bind to oestrogen receptors in cells, inhibiting the harmful action of excess oestrogen or cancer-causing pesticides, thus reducing the risk of breast cancer. (See also 'The Soya
R e v o l u t i o n ' in Complete Nutrition.)
GERMANIUM
^ ' f n n a n i u m is a much-acclaimed trace element. It is a semimetal and semiconductor, and was once used to make
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transistors. Nutritionally, organic germanium boosts the immune system by stimulating the production of interferon and other immune cells, increasing resistance to various diseases. Organic germanium also lowers the oxygen requirements of body organs and is a powerful antioxidant, reducing peroxidation damage, and helping prevent the debilitating diseases of ageing. As such, it was found to have a beneficial effect on ovarian malignancies, colon cancer and Hodgkin's disease. Organic germanium was also found to have anti-arthritic properties. Trace amounts of germanium are present in most foods, but richer amounts are found in ginseng, garlic, aloe vera and comfrey, which may partially explain the healthpromoting effects of these foods. Germanium is also available as a supplement in health food stores.
GINKGO BILOBA
A tree existing for millions of years, its leaves were found to contain substances capable of reversing the ageing of the brain. Powerful antioxidant compounds such as flavonoids and terpenes, gingkolides and bilobalides, which make up 47 per cent of the ginkgo extract, are considered to halt lipid peroxidation in the brain and protect brain cells. Since ginkgo increases the supplies of both blood and oxygen to the brain, it can benefit sufferers of degenerative diseases such as dementia in the elderly, which can be a result of poor flow of blood and oxygen to the brain. Indeed, various studies have shown that Ginkgo biloba extracts not only benefit cases of Alzheimer's disease, but can also improve short-term memory in students and act as an effective memory aid for all ages. Ginkgo's ability to improve blood supply was recently
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found to be beneficial in other conditions, such as male erectile dysfunction and male impotency, senile macular degeneration, hearing loss in the elderly and tinnitus. Ginkgo biloba extract capsules are widely available in health food stores. A minimum usage period of three months is normally necessary to achieve benefits.
GINGER
(ZINGIBER
OFFICINALIS)
A perennial plant grown in most of the tropical regions of the world, its powdered root has been used for centuries as a culinary spice and in infusions. Ginger is a stimulant that relieves flatulence, discharges mucus, strengthens digestion, stimulates glandular secretions and relieves vomiting. Blended with c i n n a m o n powder, ginger makes a pleasant tea and ginger root powder taken in doses of 250 mg four times a day can reduce morning sickness of pregnancy. In some African cultures, ginger is considered to be an aphrodisiac.
GINSENG
(PANAX
GINSENG)
Ginseng is the most widely used herb of Chinese medicine, hence its name, panax, which means 'cure-all'. It is a small perennial plant, native to Korea but also cultivated in China, Siberia and the USA. Ginseng is grown for its root which is said to abound with healing properties and which is used mainly as a tonic. Its many uses, however, include treatment for a great variety of disorders, from hypertension, fatigue and stress, to weak memory, arthritis and impotence. The root contains glycosides, called ginsenosides, with vitamins and minerals that fortify the immune system, increasing resistance to various diseases, and promoting physical and
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mental vigour. Ginseng is available from health food shops as teas, capsules and extracts.
GLANDULAR T H E R A P Y
Eating raw animal glands, such as the liver, is a practice that has been followed since ancient times to invigorate the body and fight disease. T h e therapeutic value of endocrine glands, which secrete hormones and e n z y m e s , has recently been gaining increased scientific recognition, and following the development of safe production methods, such as freeze-drying, which preserve the nutrients of the glands, glandular supplements have become available. The principle underlying glandular therapy is that 'like cures like'. For example, a person with a weak liver or liver disease can benefit by eating animal liver. Indeed, science has confirmed that extracts of various glands such as those of the thyroid, adrenal, thymus, pancreas or pituitary, are quite effective when taken orally because of their active hormone and enzyme content. Pancreatin, for example, is a popular digestive aid made from the pancreas gland, which contains a comprehensive range of digestive e n z y m e s . The adrenal gland is rich in hormones and its extracts are used to overcome stress and many other ailments, such as asthma, heart disease, flu, depression, headaches, irritable bowel syndrome, diabetes, PMS and arthritis. Glandular extracts are now available in health food shops in various combinations, on their own, and are included in multivitamin preparations.
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GLAZING A G E N T S
These are food additives, such as beeswax or shellac, which are used by the food industry to give foods a shiny appearance or a protective coating.
GLA see EVENING P R I M R O S E OIL
GLUCOMANNAN
A gum, which is derived from a plant tuber, it acts as dietary fibre by absorbing water and, in the intestines, can expand to 60 times its weight. It is also a fat mobilizer, combining with fat to removes it from the colon. Thus, glucomannan can be used to treat constipation, curb appetite, normalize b l o o d sugar levels, help with weight loss, reduce cholesterol levels and treat diabetes. Glucomannan is sold in capsules and, for best results, 2-3 capsules should be taken with a large glass of water half an hour before meals.
GLUCONATES
These are mineral complexes bound with gluconic acid. Gluconic acid is naturally produced by the body and used as a source of energy. The gluconate complex enables minerals to cross the intestinal wall and be absorbed into the blood stream more efficiently. Mineral gluconates, sold m health food shops, include iron, zinc, calcium, m a g n e s i u m , potassium, m a n g a n e s e and copper. (See CHELATION.)
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GLUCOSE
Also known as b l o o d sugar, it is the form of sugar that is produced in plant and animal tissues and is used to provide energy. It is the end product of assimilated foods, and a feeling of well-being and high energy levels depends upon the maintenance of normal levels of glucose in the blood, cells and muscles. T h e brain is particularly dependent on glucose as its energy source: a drop in the brain's glucose level immediately releases hormones, such as adrenaline and glucagone, to restore it. A chronic condition of low blood glucose levels is known as hypoglycaemia, while its opposite chronic high glucose levels is diabetes. Glucose is found naturally in fruits, grains and plants.
GLUCOSE TOLERANCE FACTOR SEE CHROMIUM
G L U C O S E T O L E R A N C E TEST (GTT)
This is the standard laboratory test for detecting hypoglycaemia or diabetes. To check for diabetes, the patient is normally given a solution of 100 g glucose to drink first thing in the morning, on an empty stomach, and blood samples are then taken after 30 minutes, and again after an hour, to check the glucose levels. T h e most reliable G T T for hypoglycaemia is one that lasts for 56 hours, with blood samples being taken each hour.
G L U C O S A M I N E SULPHATE (GS)
Glucosamine sulphate is a compound that occurs naturally in the joints. It is made up of glucose, an amino acid
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(glutamine) and sulphur. Its main function is to stimulate the growth of cartilage, by serving as a building block for its production. GS provides proteoglycans (PAS), protein and sugar molecules that attract and hold water, and produces a group of gelatinous compounds known as glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), which bind water in the cartilage matrix and help prevent cartilage from breaking down. GS also promotes the incorporation of sulphur into the cartilage, which means that GS is necessary not only for joint function, but also for stimulating its repair. In this sense, GS works best with chondroitin sulphate (CS) to repair cartilage damage, preventing osteoarthritis. While GS holds water in the cartilage, CS acts more like a 'water magnet'. In many people, the production of GS in the body declines with age, as cartilage loses its flexibility and thus its ability to act as a shock absorber and the result is osteoarthritis, the most common form of arthritis, which affects millions of elderly people. It has been suggested that GS deficiency is the major causative factor in osteoarthritis and, as a result, GS supplements have been tried and found successful in the treatment of the disease. GS is now widely available in health food stores as a dietary supplement. Taken orally, it is efficiently absorbed and tolerated with no known contra-indications or adverse interactions with drugs. In some cases of nausea or heartburn, it is advised that GS should be taken with meals. The standard dose is 500 mg, 3 times a day, but overweight people may require more, depending on their body weight, the guide lines being 20 mg per kg of body weight a day.
GLUTAMINE AND GLUTAMIC ACID

Glutamic acid is a non-essential amino acid that has been dubbed 'the brain fuel'. It is usually supplied by food and is
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the most prominent amino acid in wheat. Glutamic acid combines with poisonous ammonia in the brain and detoxifies it, producing glutamine, the actual brain booster. As a supplement, glutamine improves brain function, alertness and mood, and can help in the treatment of alcoholism and migraine, and also to overcome a sweet tooth. Glutamic acid, by helping produce G A B A (a calming neurotransmitter) in the brain, has an indirect calming effect. Studies during the 90s revealed that glutamine is the primary fuel for the growth of immune cells, especially intestinal lining cells. It is therefore used now in the treatment of the leaky gut syndrome, Crohn's disease, irritable bowel syndrome and ulcerative colitis. Glutamine is a liver detoxifyer and is also indicated for allergies and arthritis. A daily supplement of 35 g of glutamine powder or capsules is a normal protective dose. Higher therapeutic doses should be taken under nutritional or medical supervision. Being heat-sensitive, glutamine is best kept in the fridge.
GLUTATHIONE, L-GLUTATHIONE
A potent antioxidant, it is a peptide produced in the body from three a m i n o acids, glycine, glutamic and cysteine. Glutathione helps to prevent many of the degenerative diseases of ageing, such as heart disease, cancer and arthritis and it is also thought to increase life-span. This is a result of its participation in various enzyme systems, such as glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase, that neutralize free radicals and reduce their oxidative damage. Since glutathione is abundant in the lens, it is especially helpful in preventing the progression of eye cataracts. It also provides protection from the effects of pollution, smoking and radiation and is a detoxifier of toxic metals,
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TO Z
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by-products and hormonal waste. Glutathione thus improve detoxification of the liver by neutralizing toxins and, as an antioxidant, it protects the heart by preventing cholesterol oxidation. Its levels in the body can be raised by eating more fresh fruit and vegetables and by supplements of glutamine, cysteine, v i t a m i n C and selenium. It is available from health food stores.
can
n ietabolic
GLUTEN
This is the major wheat protein, containing sub-divisions such as gliadins and glutenins. Gluten is high in the amino acids glutamine and proline, but low in lysine. It is also found in rye, oats, barley and buckwheat. Gluten is the main allergy-causing ingredient in bread and the allergy can be manifested in a variety of symptoms. An intolerance to gluten is the cause of coeliac disease, which is an intestinal malabsorption syndrome, characterized by diarrhoea, weight loss, bleeding tendency and low c a l c i u m levels. The only treatment for coeliac disease is the maintenance of a strict gluten-free diet; this is usually high in rice and maize, and should be devised by a dietician or nutritionist. Food labels must be read carefully to avoid coeliac-causing ingredients. Recent reports also implicate gluten in gastrointestinal disorders in People with sensitive digestion, and it is also suspected to be a causative factor in schizophrenia.
GLYCAEMIC INDEX (Gl)

the prime suppliers of energy, various carbohydrates raise the b l o o d sugar level at various rates: sugars like
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glucose and sucrose are the quickest to raise blood sugar levels while complex carbohydrates like pasta and starchy foods are the slowest. GI is an index that ranks various foods from 0 to 100, each according to its ability to break down during digestion and raise the blood sugar level, whether swiftly or slowly. The GI was developed in 1981 by D r David Jenkins in the University of Toronto, Canada, to determine the most suitable foods for diabetics. Initially controversial, it later appeared that mixed meals affect blood sugar levels ' differently to single food items, and the key was the rate oi digestion. Low ranking GI foods digest slowly, provide a longer source of energy and prevent hunger pangs. They trigger a moderate secretion of insulin, the h o r m o n e that not only regulates the blood sugar level, but also acts to deposit stored fat. Therefore, the GI is now increasingly applied not only for diabetics and hypoglycaemics, but also for dieting and weight loss, for improved sports performance and for reducing the risk of heart disease.
GLYCINE
A non-essential amino acid that, as an inhibitory neurotransmitter, inhibits stress response in the spinal cord, it helps (with taurine) to relieve spasms and contractions that are due to stress or anxiety. Glycine promotes muscle tone by increasing creatine, a source of high-energy phosphate released during muscle contraction, and its inhibitory action contributes to the prevention of epilepsy. Glycine is also reported to reduce uric acid levels, thus benefiting gout, and it is involved in the production of glutathione, the important antioxidant enzyme. As a majol component of collagen, glycine can enhance the repair of
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injured tissue and wound healing. Available at health food stores.
GOLDENSEAL
(HYDRASTIS
CANADENSIS)
A small perennial herb native to N o r t h America, it is cultivated for its medicinal uses. It has a wide range of therapeutic properties which are attributed to its high content of active alkaloids, such as berberine, hydrastine and canadine. It was traditionally used by the American Indians to treat a variety of conditions, especially infections. More recently, it has been well-documented as an antibiotic and a booster of the body's immune system, thus useful in fighting diseases. Goldenseal is also known as an antiseptic, diuretic and tonic. An infusion of goldenseal can be used as a vaginal douche and as an antiseptic mouthwash. It is also particularly helpful in treating mucous membranes, making it useful for colds and catarrhal conditions. Goldenseal is available from health food stores on its own as a powder, tinctures and extract, and is increasingly included in many nutritional formulas. Caution: T h e herb must not be eaten fresh as it can produce ulceration of the digestive tract.
GOTU-KOLA
(HYDROCOIYLE
ASL4TICA,
CENTELLA
ASIATICA)
A native of India and Asia, gotu-kola is a mildly bitter herb that stimulates the central nervous system. It contains several active ingredients, such as saponins and triterpenes, which are known to improve memory and learning ability and, in addition, the herb is now being used to alleviate fatigue and
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depression, increase sex drive, treat rheumatism, increase urination, treat heart conditions and accelerate the healing of wounds. In Europe, gotu-kola is used to promote the selfhealing of skin ulcerations or bedsores from prolonged confinement to bed. In addition, in combination with cayenne and ginger, gotu-kola has been found to be an effective energy booster. This combination can be found in health food shops under different brand names, while gotukola is available on its own in capsules containing the powdered herb. A normal daily dose of the extract is 120 mg
GRAINS
Grains are a primary nutritional source of complex carbohydrates, which are mainly starch. Whole grains, anc their products, also contain large amounts of fibre, vitamins and minerals, and as such are valuable as a nutritious source of energy. This food category includes wheat, barley, buckwheat, corn, rice, millet, oats, rye, triticale, amaranth and quinoa.
GRAPEFRUIT
(CITRUS
PARADISI)
A citrus fruit, rich in v i t a m i n A and C, the grapefruit contains smaller amounts of minerals such as c a l c i u m , phosphorus and potassium. The grapefruit comes in both white and pink varieties, but the pink variety has over five times the amount of vitamin A than its white counterpart. Juice from the fresh grapefruit harvested in September-October is the richest in vitamin C, and is beneficial in colds and fevers. Grapefruit peel (rind) is rich in bioflavonoids, and has
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pungent, bitter-sweet flavour. T h e bioflavonoid activity of the peel, combined with its vitamin C content, is useful in strengthening weak gums, arteries and capillaries. To extract the properties of the peel, a tea can be prepared by simmering fresh or dried peel for 20 minutes. Externally, a compress of this tea can be used to treat frostbite by helping to restore circulation to the damaged tissue. T h e bitter grapefruit seeds, especially the grapefruit seed extract (GSE), are known as a natural antibiotic and antiseptic and to inhibit bacteria, viruses and mould. As such, it is used as a mould inhibitor in various foods. GSE contains many beneficial elements such as bioflavonoids, saccharides and phenolic acids, and is used for colds and flu, sore throats, parasites and yeast infections. It is also used to relieve indigestion and treat gastrointestinal upsets. Available as capsules, tablets and powder for external use.
a
GRAPES
(Vrns)
Grapes contain valuable cell salts, which are known to purify the blood, benefit kidneys and liver, and strengthen the immune response. Grapes also contain important polyphenolic antioxidants such as bioflavonoids and proanthocyanidins, and are an abundant source of resveratrol, a potent antioxidant compound. Various studies in recent years have shown that resveratrol can protect against heart disease, thrombosis and cancer, prevent liver damage and even improve depression. As a phytoestrogen, resveratrol was shown to inhibit the growth of breast cancer and reduce hot flushes of menopause. Grapes are diuretic (reduce water retention) and the dark varieties are beneficial for anaemia. Traditionally, they were used to treat arthritis. Grape juice can be helpful for liver conditions such as hepatitis and
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jaundice. T h e so-called 'grape cure' is a form of fasting, normally lasting a week to 10 days, during which only grapes and grape juice are consumed. Proponents of this therapy claim that, by its purifying effects, this regime is very beneficial for a wide variety of conditions as it rejuvenates the body and fortifies the i m m u n e system.
GRAPE SEED EXTRACT

Grape seeds are one of the richest sources of plant fiavonoids k n o w n as oligomeric proanthocyanidins, or O P C s , which include quercetin, tannins and resveratrol. These O P C s , which are polyphenolic compounds, are the precursors of anthocyanins, which are the reddish-purple colouring in the skin of grapes. O P C s are potent antioxidants. They protect the body from free radicals which damage cells and contribute to the degenerative diseases of ageing like heart attack, cancer, strokes and arthritis. As such, they were found to be 20 times stronger than v i t a m i n C and 50 times stronger than v i t a m i n E. Moreover, O P C s even enhance the action of these vitamins in the body. O P C s are known to inhibit protease e n z y m e s , which break down proteins during inflammations protecting the blood vessel walls. A n d indeed, studies of O P C s have revealed their effectiveness in treating circulatory disorders by strengthening the capillaries, reducing hypertension and the risk of heart attack. Research shows that proanthocyanidins prevent the cross-linking of cells, increasing the strength and elasticity of connective tissues in skin and joints, so preventing the main cause of wrinkles and ageing. Proanthocyanidins also inhibit the release of histamine which causes the uncomfortable symptoms associated with allergies and colds. Grape seeds
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also
contain a small amount of catechins, a group of polyphenol flavonoids which have a strong antioxidant effect and were found especially to protect the liver against hepatitis. Available in health food stores, grape seed extracts come in capsules on their own or incorporated in antioxidant formulaes. Grape seed oil is also available for kitchen use. (See also F R E N C H PARADOX.)
GREEN TEA
(CAMELLIA
SINENSIS)
Green tea is produced from the same plant as the common black tea that is usually consumed in western countries. However, it is not processed, as is the case with black tea, nor is it allowed to ferment after harvesting and before drying, and so it retains most of its active ingredients. Studies made largely in the 1990s found that green tea has many beneficial effects. It contains large amounts of catechins, a group of antioxidant polyphenol flavonoids with strong anti-cancer properties, and the tea has also been found to provide protection against oesophageal cancer and to block the formation of tumours arising in the skin, lungs, digestive tract, liver and breasts. In addition, it was found to reduce cholesterol levels and lower blood pressure, and it has been claimed to fight colds and flu and prevent gum disease, dental cavities and bad breath. Green tea bags are available in health food shops. It is recommended that 3 - 5 cups of the tea are drunk each day ] n order to reap its full benefits.
GROWTH H O R M O N E (GH)
This hormone is secreted by the pituitary gland in the brain and is crucial for the growth and repair of body cells,
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as well as for stimulating the immune system. It is secreted1 mainly during the first 90 minutes of night sleep, and also in response to fasting and non-aerobic, peak-effort exercise. It is abundant in young people up to 30 years of age, and absent, or present in only small amounts, in older and/or obese people. G H has many important functions: it stimulates the growth of immune cells and is well-known to benefit auto-immune diseases such as arthritis; it speeds the healing of wounds; and it stimulates muscle growth and increases the burning of fat to energy, aiding weight loss. Supplements of several nutrients, taken on an empty stomach, can increase the release of G H in older people. G H releasers include the a m i n o acids arginine, ornithine and the prescription drug L-dopa (see A R G I N I N E ) . Caution: G H releasers should not be used by young persons who have not completed their growth or reached their full height.
GUAR AN A
(PAULINIA
CUBANA)
A tall, climbing vine native to the Brazilian Amazon, the seeds or beans of guarana are roasted and ground for use as a beverage in Latin America. Prepared in a similar way to coffee, guarana is high in stimulating alkaloids such as caffeine, saponins, tannins and guaranine. It is a very stimulating beverage that is claimed to relieve headaches and migraines quickly. Guarana also inhibits appetite and it is used as an appetite -suppressant ingredient in various slimming products. It is also used to treat arthritis and to stimulate delayed menstruation, and is reputed to be an effective sexual stimulant. It is available in a variety of forms, including tablets and as drinks.
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TO Z
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GUAR G U M
(CYAMOPSIS
THTRACONOLOBUS)
Originally grown in India as a herb for livestock feed, guar gum is now used both as a food additive and as a healthpromoting nutrient. It contains mucilaginous substances which are gel-and bulk-forming, and is used in the food industry as a stabilizer and thickening agent (E412) in the production of products such as soups, salad dressings, ice cream and toothpastes. Nutritionally, guar gum can contribute to weight loss. It benefits slimmers by acting as a bulking agent in the digestive tract. This delays stomach-emptying and the passage of food through the intestines, promoting a feeling of fullness and reducing food cravings. The gel-forming guar gum also combines with fats and promotes their excretion. Thus, it can effectively lower high cholesterol levels. Guar gum also reduces insulin levels and is beneficial for diabetics. It is available in health food stores in capsule form.
GUAVA
(PSIDIUM)
Originating in Central America, the guava is an outstanding source of v i t a m i n C, the pink varieties being richer in vitamin C than the white. O n e average fruit can provide as much as 150 m g vitamin C! Guavas are also a good source of soluble fibre and contain moderate amounts of calcium, phosphorus and niacin. They help reduce high cholesterol levels, can be useful for constipation, boost immunity and protect the heart. They we highest in nutrients when fresh and ripe. Canned in heavy syrup or made into a sugary guava nectar drink, they lose much of their nutritional value.
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GUGGUL
(COMMIPHORA
MUKUL)
This is an Eastern Indian plant used for centuries by ayurvedic medicine as a treatment for arthritis. However, modern research conducted in medical research institutions in India found that guggul can also prevent heart attacks. Various studies confirmed that the oily resin of the guggul gum, which contains a mixture of biologically active compounds called guggulsterones, reduces platelet adhesiveness and lowers the levels of blood lipids such as cholesterol and triglycerides, thus reducing the risk of atherosclerosis, thrombosis and coronary heart disease. Guggulsterones were also reported to have pronounced antioxidant activity, by protecting the important free radical scavenger enzyme S O D (superoxide dismutase), and keeping it in higher levels. S O D protects the heart by scavenging the destructive superoxide radicals and preventing oxidative damage to the heart muscle. And indeed, various studies showed that guggul gum produced a marked reversal of the metabolic changes occuring in people with reduced blood supply to the heart (ischemia). Crude guggul extracts can cause side effects such as skin rashes, diarrhoea and irregular menstruation. However, guggul capsules, which are increasingly available in health food stores, are made from the purified and standardized gum of the plant and were found to be well tolerated. They usually each contain no less than 25 mg of the bioactive components, Z and E-guggulsterones. Pregnant women should consult a qualified practitioner before using this product.
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G U M S , PLANT
Plant gums are mucilaginous resins produced by various plants, usually as a response to injury. Commercially, they are produced by making a scratch in a plant or tree and collecting the exuding thick fluid. Plant gums are watersoluble and gel-forming and are used by the food industry mainly as emulsifiers and stabilizers. Examples of these are gum arabic (E414) used in confectionery and karaya gum (E416) used in soft cheeses and brown sauces.
H
HAWTHORN
(CRATAEGUS MONOGYNA)
A European shrub, its flowers and berries contain many active flavonoid compounds. Infusions, or a few drops of tincture, are widely used in Europe in the treatment of heart disorders (particularly those of nervous origin), insomnia and hypertension. Extracts of hawthorn dilate and relax coronary vessels, reducing blood pressure and improving blood supply to the heart, and are therefore beneficial in the prevention and treatment of angina pectoris. The reddish-blue colouring of hawthorn berries is a pigment rich in anthocyanidins and proanthocyanidins. These flavonoids are potent antioxidants; they also stabilize cell membranes and fight infection. Available at health food stores and incorporated in formulas. (See also GRAPES; BIOFLAVONOIDS.)
H D L (HIGH D E N S I T Y LIPOPROTEINS) A beneficial, 'friendly' form of cholesterol carrier which transports cholesterol to the liver for metabolism and excretion from the body. Thus, H D L prevents the build-up of cholesterol deposits in the arteries, which is the cause of atherosclerosis and heart disease.
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HEMICELLULOSE
Hemicellulose is an indigestible fibre that absorbs water and expands in the digestive tract. It promotes bowel movements and can help to prevent constipation and promote weight loss. It is also useful in the prevention of colon cancer by its action in reducing cancer-causing compounds in the digestive tract. O n e of its chief sources is oat bran, but it is also found in other whole grains, fruits and vegetables, such as apples, bananas, pears, beans, corn and peppers.
HESPERIDINE SEE BIOFLAVONOIDS
HISTIDINE
A non-essential amino acid that is found abundantly in cereals. Many people are deficient in histidine. It is a precursor of histamine, which stimulates cell growth and reproduction and is very versatile in its actions, from promoting wound healing to stimulating hair growth. As a histamine precursor, histidine has a relaxing effect and can help calm anxiety feelings. It also increases gastric juices and thus prevents indigestion and ulcers. Histidine can also dispel frigidity in women and, in sufficient quantities, intensify orgasm. Available at health food stores as a supplement.
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H M B
(BETA-HYDROXY-BETA-METHYLBUTYRATE)
H M B is an exciting new food supplement w h i c h has been found to improve both health and appearance. It is not a steroid or a drug, but a natural chemical that is made in the body as a metabolite of the essential amino acid l e u c i n e . It is also present in small amounts in b o t h vegetable and animal foods. H M B is a natural c o m p o n e n t of mother's milk, which underlines its nutritive role. R e c e n t studies have shown that H M B helps to strengthen the i m m u n e system, lower high c h o l e s t e r o l levels, counteract stress and build strong muscles. In addition, studies with bodybuilders have shown that H M B can increase gains in muscle size and strength by up to 50 per cent. It has also been f o u n d to contribute to weight loss. In several studies, H M B has been shown to reduce body fat and promote leaner body mass. O n e researcher has c o m m e n t e d that it seems as though 'HMB helps melt body fat'. It is estimated that 0.251 g of H M B is produced daily by the body, depending o n the protein intake. Alfalfa and some fish are a m o n g the richest sources. A daily supplement of 1 - 2 g is considered normal to obtain reasonable results, and 3 g a day is recommended for athletes on intensive programmes. Since it is a c o m p o n e n t of breast milk, H M B is considered to be a safe supplement.
H O M O C Y S T E I N E
High levels of hazardous, pro-oxidant homosycteine were recently correlated to an increased risk of atherosclerosis, heart attack, osteoporosis and other diseases, creating great concern among health conscious people. In fact,
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homocysteine is an amino acid that is produced in the body as a metabolic by-product of methionine, an essential amino acid found in protein foods. In a healthy body, methionine is broken down to the toxic homocysteine, and then, with the help of v i t a m i n B 6 and folic acid, it is converted to cysteine and the non-toxic antioxidant cystathione, or back to methionine with the help of B12. When there is a deficiency of vitamins B6, B12 and folic acid however, the homocysteine is not converted to cysteine but instead attacks blood vessel walls and does free radical damage to arteries. It is also linked to birth defects, such as spina bifida, which arises from defective closure of the neural tube during early pregnancy. Supplementing the diet with vitamins B6, B12 and folic acid can protect against the ravages of h o m o c y s t e i n e . So does eating more raw green vegetables and reducing the intake of animal protein and saturated fat. Smoking and the contraceptive pill should be eliminated. Methylation, adding a C H 3 group, was recently found to be a great protector, by converting homocysteine to methionine. Furthermore, methylation was also found to slow down ageing. And indeed, one such methylating compound, trimethylglycine (TMG), is now available in health food stores in capsules and in homocysteine formulas.
HONEY
Raw untreated honey is a good substitute for sugar and, in fact, is sweeter than sugar and is absorbed more quickly. The colour and flavour of honey vary according to the origin of its flowers and nectar. The sweetness of honey is a combination of simple sugars: glucose, fructose, maltose and sucrose. In addition to its sugar content, it contains the
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B vitamins and some minerals and enzymes, and it does not upset the mineral balance as refined sugar does. Honey has been used therapeutically for centuries, traditionally to treat sore throats and coughs, stomach ulcers, canker sores of the mouth and lips, high blood pressure and constipation. It also has a harmonizing and calming effect. Externally, it can be applied to wounds and burns.
H O P
(HUMULUS
LUPULUS)
A perennial climbing vine found wild, it is cultivated mainly for its flowers which are used in beer making. These secrete lupulin which gives beer its bitterness and aroma. Hops are a mild diuretic and have a strong sedative action. Infusions of the dried herb have a calming effect on the nervous system and are good for stress, restlessness and insomnia. A tea prepared from hops will improve the appetite, strengthen digestion, cleanse the blood, stimulate bile secretion, and is also said to eliminate intestinal worms. Usually, no more than one cup of the tea or infusion per day is recommended. Hops are available at grocers and are also available in some health food stores in capsule form. Caution: It is important not to exceed the dosage on the label of the capsules.
HORSE CHESTNUT
(AESCULUS
HIPPOCASTANUM)
A tall deciduous tree native to Europe, N o r t h America and Asia. T h e seeds, which are contained in large, leathery, thorny capsules, known as 'conkers' in the U K and as 'buckeyes' in the USA, have traditionally been used in folk medicine for centuries to treat circulatory disorders such as
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varicose veins and haemorrhoids. Horse chestnuts were imported from Persia by the Turks w h o used it to treat bruises in horses, hence the name. The seeds contain aescin, a complex mixture of triterpenoid saponin glycosides, which has strong antiinflammatory and anti-oedema properties. Recent studies have confirmed the horse chestnuts's ability to improve circulation and reduce fragility of blood vessel walls. A study reported in 1996 in the Lancet showed that horse chestnut extract was almost as effective as compression stockings for patients with venous insufficiency. N e w studies with aescin taken orally confirmed its ability to assist in the treatment of varicose veins, thrombophlebitis and a heavy feeling in the legs. Externally, aescin can also help in the treatment of bruises. Horse chestnut capsules are increasingly available in health food stores in potencies of 150250 mg per capsule. They are made from an alcoholic extract of the seeds, which is dried and standardized to a concentration of 16 22 per cent aescin. Some formulas also include butcher's b r o o m , ginger root and rutin for a combined effect. Caution: Horse chestnut seeds can cause poisoning if eaten in sufficient amounts. It is safer to use the standardized capsules.
HORSERADISH (ARMORACIA RUSTICANA)

Valued for the pungent effect of its long, white root, horseradish is put to good use both as a flavouring and as a medicinal agent, especially in Japan. Horseradish contains mustard oil (allylisothiocyanate), which is in fact an irritant, h alleviates colds, snotty noses and sinusitis by promoting nasal discharge and releasing phlegm from lungs.
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Horseradish is available as a whole, fresh root, which can be kept fresh in the refrigerator for lengthy periods.
HORSETAIL
(EQVISKWM
ARVENSE)
A tall herb with a cane-like appearance, it is found wild in Europe and is also cultivated. Horsetail leaves are one of the richest sources of silicon and can be used as an ingredient in silica supplements. As such, horsetail can increase calcium absorption, strengthen bones, teeth and hair, and promote a healthy and attractive complexion. Horsetail also contains other minerals such as calcium, copper and zinc, and is used as a diuretic and in the treatment of kidney stones. Horsetail is available in tablets and capsules.
HUPERZINE A
Huperzine A is extracted from Huperzia serrata, a type of moss also called Qian Ceng Ta. The whole herb has been traditionally used in China for thousands of years to treat fever and inflammation. Recent studies show, however, that it may help enhance short-term memory and protect the brain from normal ageing damage. Available at health food stores.
HYSSOP
(HYSSOPUS
OFFICINALIS)
Hyssops leaves are astringent and can be used to relieve flatulence and stimulate menstruation. Infusions of the leaves are also used to improve digestion, suppress coughs and relieve intestinal congestion. Decoctions are said to relieve inflammation. Available from health food stores and herbalists. Caution: Do not use for periods longer than a few weeks
I
ICELAND M O S S
(CEBTRARIA ISLANDICA)
This is a small branched lichen found wild in cool, damp places in the northern hemisphere. Iceland moss tea is used for bronchitis and coughs, for strengthening digestion and relieving digestive disorders. It can also help to stimulate milk flow in nursing mothers. The plant itself is nourishing and can be eaten as a vegetable after being boiled for a while to make it palatable. Available from health food stores and herbalists. Caution: Prolonged use can cause liver or intestinal problems.
INOSITOL
Inositol is a lipotropic B vitamin, thus helping to metabolize fats and cholesterol. It combines with phosphorus, fatty acids and nitrogen to form phospholipids, which carry fat and form cell membranes. With choline, it forms lecithin. Inositol is concentrated in the brain, and supplements produce a calming effect. In cereals, seeds and legumes, 'nositol occurs as phytic acid, which binds with calcium, lr n, zinc and other minerals, inhibiting their absorption. To prevent this, cereals and legumes that contain phytic acid niust be cooked, leavened or sprouted. Inositol can help to lower cholesterol levels, maintain a healthy skin and lower high oestrogen levels that can lead
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to breast lumps. Inositol, which is best taken at bedtime, can, in daily doses of 2,000 mg, lower high blood pressure and induce sleep. It also has an anti-anxiety effect. The best natural sources of inositol are organ meats, brewer's yeast, wheat germ, cantaloupe, molasses and peanut butter. A R e c o m m e n d e d Daily Allowance has not yet been established, but a daily consumption of 1,000 mg is advised by many nutritionists. Available at health food stores.
INVERT S U G A R
Invert sugar is obtained by breaking down sucrose into its components, glucose and fructose. This is done chemically and enzymatically. Invert sugar is a liquid sweetener, sweeter than white sugar and is sometimes used as a processed food ingredient. It is naturally contained in h o n e y and fruits, and it is less taxing on the digestive system than normal sugar (sucrose).
IODINE
An essential trace element, iodine is a constituent of the hormone thyroxine, concentrated in the thyroid gland. As with all trace elements, a tiny amount has an enormous effect on our health. An average human body contains 25 mg iodine. The influence of iodine, through thyroxine, is felt everywhere in the body. It raises the metabolic rate, helping the body to burn excess fat, preventing the accumulation of cholesterol and helping to stabilize body
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weight. Iodine calms nerves and improves the quality of hair, skin, nails and teeth. It also regulates the rate at which cells use oxygen, and in this way promotes energy production and improves mental function. It accomplishes all this by stimulating the thyroid gland to produce thyroxine. A properly functioning thyroid is of extreme importance. An underactive thyroid, resulting from iodine deficiency, can cause symptoms such as obesity, rapid pulse, goitre, a cold body, constipation, general weakness, excessive menstruation, low resistance to colds and infections, nervousness and irritability. Iodine deficiency can also increase the risk of breast and uterine cancer. A study of Japanese women, w h o normally eat plenty of iodine-rich seafood, has shown that this diet contributed to their lower-than-average incidence of breast cancer. In cases of underactive thyroid, or when taking iodine supplements, raw vegetables of the Brassica family (broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, kale, cauliflower, turnip) should not be eaten. They contain a factor that inhibits the absorption of iodine. People living in areas where the soil has a low iodine content, such as the American Midwest, are prone to iodine deficiency and should take iodine supplements or eat an iodine-rich diet. Some of the best natural sources of iodine are kelp, seaweeds, shellfish and onions. Available supplements include iodized salt, kelp tablets, dried seaweeds and desiccated bovine thyroid tablets or capsules. The normal daily requirement is 150 meg for adults and 120 meg for children.
'PRIFLAVONE
I s
prifla\ 'one is a derivative of isoflavones from which it is ynthesized. It hardly occurs in nature and was found in
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trace amounts only in bee propolis. Discovered in the late 1960s in Hungary, ipriflavone was initially used as an additive in the feed of laboratory animals. Later human studies however, showed that ipriflavone is plant oestrogen that can mimic the beneficial effects of oestrogen and H R T without their potential risks. Various studies confirmed that . ipriflavone can improve calcium retention, enhance bone formation, promote the repair of long bone fractures and prevent osteoporosis in a safe way. Ipriflavone was also found to increase the secretion of calcitonin, the primary bonebuilding hormone. While high doses of oestrogen or H R T are known to prevent osteoporosis, they are also known to increase the risk of cancer. In this sense, ipriflavone can provide a safer complementary treatment. In a study published in Osteoporosis International Journal, ipriflavone given with very low doses of oestrogen increased bone density without the side effects associated with HRT. In combination with c a l c i u m and v i t a m i n D , ipriflavone was shown to reduce postmenopausal bone loss better than these nutrients on their own. Ipriflavone is presently marketed under the trademark Ostivone.
IRON
Iron is the most abundant trace element in the body. The average adult body contains about 5 g, bound with protein. Iron is indispensable for the production of haemoglobin, the red pigment in red blood cells, that transports oxygen to every cell. Without iron, the body cells would 'suffocate' and die. It promotes energy, relieves fatigue, prevents anaemia and increases resistance to disease. However, iron absorption can be problematic. Only about 8 per cent of ingested iron is actually absorbed and
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assimilated; for proper absorption, iron needs adequate stomach acid, a deficiency of which is common in the elderly, while protein, copper, calcium and vitamins C, B6, B12 and E are also needed for optimal iron absorption. The most easily assimilated forms of iron are the organic ones such as ferrous succinate or gluconate. Inorganic iron, such as ferrous sulphate, actually destroys vitamin E. Natural iron syrups and iron-fed brewer's yeast, which are widely available in health food stores, are also well absorbed. Small losses of iron are normal: men lose about 1 m g a day and women lose much more, due to menstruation and pregnancy. Women, children and the elderly are more vulnerable to iron deficiency: studies have found that about a quarter of British children under five are seriously deficient in iron. Among the best natural sources of iron are liver, raw clams and oysters, oatmeal, prunes, egg yolks, brewer's yeast and leafy green vegetables. Recommended Daily Allowence for iron is estimated at 10 mg for men and 18 mg for women, but requirements increase during pregnancy, lactation, and in any bleeding conditions such as excessive menstruation, ulcers or intestinal bleeding. Excess consumption of coffee and tea can cause a depletion of iron.
ISOFLAVONES
These are a class of plant flavonoids found mainly in soybeans, but also in other plants such as alfalfa and clover. They include genistein and daidzein, their sugar-containing molecules genistin and daidzin, and related compounds such as ipriflavone, biochanin A, tormononetin and ononin. Most of the isoflavones occur in the plants as glycosides (sugars), but the intestinal bacteria separates the
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sugar-containing part of the molecule, yielding the more potent antioxidant isoflavones genistein and daidzein. Various studies showed that the isoflavones, particularly genistein and to a somewhat lesser degree daidzein, are powerful antioxidants and have significant cancerpreventing effects. All the other isoflavones were found to have a much lesser antioxidant activity and ononin had virtually no antioxidant effect. Isoflavones are also plant oestrogens. Their molecular structure is similar to that of oestrogen and can substitute oestrogen in the cells' oestrogen receptors. But while oestrogen and H R T have been associated with increased risk of cancer in postmenopausal women, isoflavones help reduce the risk of cancer. In the body, isoflavones are converted into weak oestrogens, about one-thousandth as potent as the body's oestrogen, but nevertheless potent enough to exert beneficial effects such as promoting bone building and helping to prevent osteoporosis.
ISOLEUCINE
Isoleucine is one of the essential a m i n o acids. It also one of the three branched chain amino acids, and as such is used by the muscles. Together with leucine and valine, isoleucine builds up muscle, helps to repair muscle injuries and combats stress. Isoleucine is needed for haemoglobin (blood) formation and for the regulation of b l o o d sugar levels. Natural sources of isoleucine include l e g u m e s such as soybeans. As a supplement, isoleucine is sold as a free amino acid, but it is normally combined in a formula with leucine and valine, the other two branched chain amino acids.
J
JASMINE
(JASMINUM OFFICINALIS)
A vine with both deciduous and evergreen varieties, it was originally native to the warm regions of the eastern hemisphere. The plant is now widely cultivated in Europe and North America, mainly for its sweet-smelling white flowers which have medicinal properties. Jasmine tea (widely available in supermarkets and health food stores), which is highly scented, has a calming effect on the nerves and can also stimulate perspiration and help to reduce fever.
JUNIPER
(JUNIPERUS
COMMUNIS)
An evergreen shrub or small tree, it grows throughout the northern hemisphere in countries with a cold climate. Juniper berries are so rich in natural sugars that they are used in the fermentation of gin, which partly retains the flavour of juniper oil. T h e berries, which are also used in cooking to add flavour, or made into infusions, can stimulate the appetite. They contain bitter principles, which stimulate gastric acid secretion and improve digestion, and terpenes (essential oils), which are antiseptic and help to alleviate respiratory diseases and expel phlegm from lungs. Juniper berries are also beneficial for digestive tract infections and cramps. Caution: Juniper is not recommended for people with
kidney problems.
K
KALE
(BRASSICA OLERACEA)
An ancient member of the Brassica family, kale is a very nutritious green vegetable. It is a rich source of vitamins A, B l , B2, C and niacin, as well as chlorophyll and many minerals, such as calcium, m a g n e s i u m , iron, sulphur, sodium and potassium. The juice of kale can be used to treat stomach and duodenal ulcers, while the leaves and stalks, when eaten as a vegetable, provide a rich source of roughage.
KAVA-KAVA
(PIPER
METHYSTICUM)
A perennial shrub, it is native to Polynesia and other Pacific islands where its roots and rhizomes were produced as drinks that were traditionally used as both a folk medicine and for ceremonial purposes. Nowadays, kava is used to alleviate anxiety, tension and restlessness. Since its rhizomes contain kava lactones, active ingredients which promote relaxation without loss of mental sharpness, this makes it very useful for the daytime management of anxiety. In addition to its relaxation properties, kava is reported to increase mental acuity, improve memory, promote restful sleep and reduce pain. Kava is now available from health food shops in tea bags and capsule form. A normal daily dose is 100 m g and a usage period of four weeks is recommended for its antianxiety action to be effective.
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Caution: Kava-kava is not recommended for pregnant or lactating women. Its only reported side effect is a niild gastrointestinal disturbance, but prolonged use may cause a temporary skin yellowing. This indicates that its use should be discontinued as overdose can lead to skin rash.
KELP
Kelp includes any of a variety of large brown seaweeds that are found in cold waters throughout the world, growing underwater and on rocky shores; it does not grow in tropical waters. In many countries, kelp is harvested from the ocean to be used as a food, or dried and sold in powder, tablet or capsule form. Kelp contains an abundance of minerals and trace elements, but it is mainly valued for being one of the richest sources of iodine: fresh kelp contains about 100,000 meg iodine per 0.4 kg, while dried kelp contains nearly 10 times as much. In addition to iodine, kelp contains carbohydrates in the form of both sugar and starches. Its sugar is mannitol, which is not very sweet and is a mild laxative. As mannitol does not raise b l o o d sugar levels, it is excellent for use by diabetics. Kelp also contains small amounts of v i t a m i n s A, B and C and a substance, s o d i u m alginate, that binds with radioactive strontium-90, preventing its absorption and promoting its excretion from the body. Thus, kelp can provide protection from radioactive fallout. Through its high iodine content, it can also reduce the risk of cancer. T h e high iodine diet of the Japanese, w h o eat plenty of seaweed, has been linked to the low incidence of breast cancer in Japan.
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Caution: People with an overactive thyroid, pregnant or lactating women should consult a doctor before using kelp.
KIWI FRUIT
(ACTINIDIA
DELICIOSA)
Originating in China as Chinese gooseberry, but developed and popularised by N e w Zealand growers who named it after their national bird, kiwi is a treasure of nutritional bounty. As one of the acidic fruits that combines well with protein, kiwi is an outstanding source of vitamin C. It provides more vitamin C than orange and more fibre than an apple. One kiwi fruit supplies up to 70 mg vitamin C, which cleanses the body and helps to boost resistance to disease. It is best eaten fresh, right after harvesting, but even when stored for a few months, it still retains most of its vitamin C. Kiwis are also extremely rich in potassium, an average kiwi supplies 250 mg, making it suitable for people with high blood pressure or oedema. Kiwis contain fibre, mucilage and a special enzyme called actinidin which can help digestion, making kiwis a recommended food for people with weak digestion or a tendency for constipation. Kiwis should be bought firm, but not rock-hard. They should yield slightly to pressure and are best peeled just before eating. Nutritionally, they are best eaten raw.
KOHLRABI
(BRASSICA
OLERACEA)
A green vegetable of the Brassica family, it is grown for its large, edible stem which has a slight bitter-sweet flavour similar to turnip. Kohlrabi can improve blood circulation, strengthen digestion and help to stabilize b l o o d sugar levels, making it beneficial for diabetics and hypoglycaemics.
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It can also help to relieve painful urination, stop internal bleeding, and purify the body from toxins and alcohol. T h e juice is considered a remedy for nosebleeds.
KOLA, KOLA N U T
(COLA
VERA)
The kola is a large tree that grows wild in West Africa and is also cultivated in South America. The kola nut contains caffeine and is well known as a nerve stimulant. It fights fatigue and promotes strength, and endurance, and is also used as a heart tonic. Kola nut is used in the production of some popular soft drinks.
KOMBU
Kombu is a seaweed related to kelp. It contains a number of minerals and is especially high in iodine. It is usually available from health food stores as dried leaves that can be added to soups and stews. Because of its high mineral content, kombu greatly enhances the nutritional value of any foods prepared with it. It is especially useful when added to beans and l e g u m e s as it increases their digestibility. As with any high-iodine food, it improves thyroid function and can help in treating all conditions resulting from iodine deficiency.
KOMBUCHA
A recently rediscovered mushroom beverage, which has been known for centuries in Asian countries and was originally used by Zen sages as a reviving drink,
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Kombucha tea is now gaining popularity in the West for its great healing benefits. Although it appears to be a mushroom, kombucha is in fact a colony of yeast and bacteria. It grows and propagates in a solution of weak tea and sugar, which, as the kombucha grows, begins to ferment, producing carbon dioxide and alcohol. When the kombucha has doubled in size, it is removed from the solution to start a new batch. The resulting liquid, which is biologically active, is kept refrigerated, to be drunk daily in 185 g doses. The tea has antibiotic, antibacterial and antiviral properties, and purifies the body by binding to toxins and promoting their excretion. It contains digestive enzymes and valuable lactobacilli which improve metabolism, several of the B vitamins and glucoronic acid, a known liver detoxifier. Kombucha cleanses the liver and kidneys, creating several health benefits such as increasing energy and vitality, strengthening digestion, improving skin conditions and promoting a feeling of well-being. Although these benefits may vary in individuals, people have reported amazing improvements in a range of chronic conditions, from psoriasis, constipation and fatigue to thyroid deficiency, hair loss and brittle nails. Ready-made kombucha tea is now available in many health food shops in bottles and as extract drops. Caution: Kombucha tea is not recommended for diabetics.
KUDZU
(RADIX
PUERARIAE)
A Chinese herb, kudzu is a fast-growing vine native to the Orient that was introduced to the USA during the latter part of the nineteenth century. Although it is known in
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the southern United States as a weed, kudzu has long been used in traditional Chinese medicine for the management of alcohol abuse. A recent study carried out by the Medical School of Harvard University confirmed that kudzu can reduce the craving for alcohol by as much as 90 per cent. Two isoflavone compounds in kudzu, daidzein and daidzin, were identified as being responsible for the anti-alcohol effect. To help in the treatment of alcohol abuse and overindulgence, capsules of kudzu are now freely available in health food stores, either on its own or in combination formulas including factors like cysteine (NAC), lipoic acid, vitamin C and other 'liver friendly' herbs, for a more comprehensive effect.
L
LACTOBACILLUS
This is the comprehensive name for a group of bacteria in the intestines. They are non-motile, do not produce spores and are acid resistant. They convert carbohydrates to lactic acid in the intestines, and are used to sour milk and make yogurts. T h e family of Lactobacillus include, for
e x a m p l e , Lactobacillus acidophilus a n d Lactobacillus bulgaricus.
(See also PROBIOTICS.)
LACTOFERRIN
An iron-binding enzyme in milk which is also made in the human body by immune cells such as neutrophils and macrophages, lactoferrin inhibits microbial growth by depriving germs of the iron needed for their growth. Abundantly found in mother's milk, lactoferrin is part of the protection that breast feeding gives the baby against gastrointestinal infections. Cow's milk contains much lower amounts of lactoferrin than mother's milk and commercial formulas even less. Lactoferrin slows down the growth of many kinds of microbes and some yeasts, and can also directly kill some bacteria. It also enhances the effect of antibiotic drugs thus enabling lower doses to be used. Lactoferrin is presently beginning to be available by means of recombinant gene technology, i.e., by combining genetic material from
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different sources. Although so far no negative side effects have been observed, it should be used cautiously until more results are available.
LACTOSE, LACTOSE I N T O L E R A N C E
Lactose is milk sugar obtained from the evaporation of cow's milk. As a disaccharide, it is made up of glucose and galactose. In the souring of milk (as in the production of yogurt), lactose is converted to lactic acid. The milk of mammals contains between 4 and 7 per cent lactose, which cannot be absorbed as such. To absorb lactose, newborns have to secrete the enzyme lactase which breaks down lactose to its components, glucose and galactose, which are absorbable. However, after weaning and growing to adulthood, many people lose their ability to secrete lactase and cannot therefore digest milk or dairy products. This condition is known as 'lactose intolerance' and affects some 70-90 per cent of oriental, black, native American and Mediterranean adults, whereas the rate among northern and western Europeans is as low as 15 per cent. The symptoms of lactose intolerance include abdominal discomfort, bloating and diarrhoea in response to drinking even small amounts of milk. For people with lactose intolerance w h o wish to drink milk, the enzyme lactase is obtainable from some health food shops as a supplement.
LAUREL, BAY T R E E (LAURUS NOBIUS)

An evergreen tree that grows wild in European and Mediterranean countries, the laurel is cultivated for its lathery, lanceolate leaves and fruit. Commonly known as
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bay leaves, they are used as a flavouring in cooking, but they are astringent and can also be used to stimulate digestion and relieve flatulence. The essential oil (available from larger health food stores in the aromatherapy section) made from the fruit and leaves is used for the relief of rheumatism, bruises and skin problems.
L A V E N D E R
(LAVANDULA
OFFICINALIS)
A native of the Mediterranean regions, lavender is an evergreen shrub that has for many centuries been widely cultivated for its aromatic flowers. An infusion or the essential oil of the scented flowers is a sedative, and can be used to alleviate cramps and muscle pain. It is also used to treat flatulence, headaches and dizziness. Lavender oil is widely used in aromatherapy and perfumery. Available from larger health food stores in the aromatherapy section.
L D L (LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS)
These are a dangerous form of cholesterol carrier which j transport cholesterol in the bloodstream to the tissues, thuSj promoting cholesterol deposits, clogging of the arteries, atherosclerosis and heart disease. Lowering L D L levels in ; the blood can significantly reduce the risk of heart attack, t
LEAD
Lead is a highly toxic element, which even in very small < j amounts of less than 1 mg a day can be harmful, while ; larger amounts can be fatal. Its sources in our environment'
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a re
many and varied: car fumes, industrial emissions, cigarette smoke and lead-based paints in old houses are just a few. Inhaled lead is the most dangerous because it is absorbed in the body much more efficiently than ingested lead. Lead attacks the brain causing nervousness, depression, apathy, mental retardation in adults and hyperactivity in children. Higher levels of lead poisoning can cause sterility, hypertension and death. Those most at risk are garage workers, painters, plasterers and workers in battery factories. There are various nutrients that can help to prevent the build-up of lead in the body. For example, c a l c i u m prevents lead accumulation, v i t a m i n C neutralizes lead, vitamin A activates the e n z y m e s that prevent lead absorption and kelp contains s o d i u m alginate, which combines with lead and excretes it through the bowels. Some cases of lead poisoning have been found to respond to penicillamine, a chelating agent that binds with lead, increasing its elimination in the urine.
LECITHIN
Lccithin is a waxy substance found in all body cells and in various foods. It is composed mainly of two B vitamins, phosphatidyl choline and phosphatidyl inositol, and the amino acid methionine. Lecithin is vitally essential to the body: 30 per cent of the brain's dry weight, and 73 per ce n t of the liver's fat are composed of lecithin. As a fatty Product, lecithin aids transportation of fat throughout the body and, with cholesterol, produces bile. Lecithin has a re niarkable emulsifying ability. It can help to dissolve minor gallstones, reduce the size of the fatty particles in blood, lower cholesterol levels and prevent atherosclerosis.
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Lecithin is reputed to be a 'brain food' as its ingredient choline is converted in the brain to a neurotransmitter, improving mental function and memory (see C H O L I N E ) . Lecithin supplements can be useful to people engaged in mental work. The best natural sources of lecithin are unrefined, fresh vegetable oils, egg yolks, nuts, seeds and soybeans. Supplemental lecithin made from soybeans is available in granule and capsule forms from health food shops. In the food industry, soybean lecithin is extensively used as an invaluable emulsifier (E322) in such foods as chocolate, confectionery, ice cream and desserts. Lecithin lowers the surface tension of water in these foods, allowing oils and fats to combine with water. In margarine, it prevents water leakage and in breads it is used to increase loaf volume, soften the crust and extend shelf-life.
LEEK
(ALLIUM
PORRUM)
A vegetable related to the onion, it probably originated in the eastern Mediterranean region. Nowadays, it is popular in northern European countries, especially as a flavouring vegetable in soups and casseroles. It has mild astringent qualities which makes it helpful in the treatment of diarrhoea and internal bleeding.
LEGUMES
The bean family is a group of highly nutritious foods that is an excellent source of complex carbohydrates and dietary fibre. In addition, beans provide energy and encourage elimination, and are an inexpensive source of
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protein, B vitamins and minerals such as calcium, potassium and iron. From a culinary point of view, they are very adaptable and can be prepared in a variety of ways to satisfy most tastes. Sprouted beans (see SPROUTS), which are more easily digested, provide a rich source of vitamin C and e n z y m e s . W h e n combined with grains in the right proportions, legumes can provide a complete protein that is equal to meat in nutritional value. Members of this food group include black, lima, kidney, pinto, adzuki and mung beans, and peas, chickpeas, lentils, peanuts and soybeans.
LEMON
(CITRUS
LIMON)
An excellent source of v i t a m i n C and bioflavonoids, lemons also contain small amounts of calcium, phosphorus, potassium and carotene and, being acidic, can substitute for vinegar in the kitchen. Lemon juice is antiseptic and is a home remedy for many disorders, particularly colds, sore throats, laryngitis, rheumatism, allergies and diarrhoea. It destroys hostile germs, cleanses the blood, promotes weight loss, strengthens weak blood vessels and aids digestion when taken before meals. Lemon juice is normally used by blending the juice of two average-size lemons with water, to which h o n e y can be added to make it less sharp. A course of lemon juice treatment can dissolve kidney stones and gravel when taken on an empty stomach. In this case, the juice of between 510 lemons should be dissolved in water, which is then sipped throughout the day for a period of 2 - 4 weeks. Fresh lemon can also be used in salad dressings, as ^monade or as lemon tea, which is made by adding a little
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lemon juice to a glass of hot water. Lemon rind, too, is very useful: it can be used for flavouring or, if sweetened, it can be eaten on its own as a candy, or with the full lemon. To reap the full benefit of the fruit, it is important to use only fresh lemons, not bottled juice, and to consume them as soon as possible after buying.
L E M O N B A L M SEE B A L M
LEMON GRASS
(CYMBOPOGON
CITRATUS)
A fragrant tropical grass, it is rich in two volatile (essential) oils, citral and citronellal, and some terpenes. It is used mainly for its antiseptic and antibacterial qualities, but it can also be helpful in the treatment of fever. Scientific studies of lemon grass have found the herb to be an effective treatment for flu and cholera. Available from supermarkets and specialist ethnic grocers.
LENTILS
(LENS
CULINORIS)
Lentils are a mildly flavoured legume that come in a great variety of colours and are widely available. India alone produces more than fifty varieties. Generally, however, the green, brown and red varieties are the most commonly used in western countries. All the varieties are a nutritious source of the B vitamins, iron and fibre. Lentils are the quickest cooking of the legumes. They are also used as sprouts.
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LETTUCE
(LACTUCA
SATIVA)
One of the most popular of the salad vegetables, lettuce is rich in vitamins A and C, chlorophyll, iron, p o t a s s i u m and silicon. The darker-leafed varieties contain about six times as much vitamin A and have three times the vitamin C content of the paler varieties such as iceberg. They are also a better source of potassium. Lettuce can be used to increase the production of mother's milk, improve urination and help in the treatment of haemorrhoids. Lettuce leaves contain a bitter principle (lactucarium) which is an excellent sedative. A large dish of fresh lettuce leaves eaten before bedtime can calm nervousness and induce sleep.
LEUCINE
Leucine is one of the essential a m i n o acids fundamental to the utilization of protein in the body. It is also one of the three branched chain amino acids and, as such, is used by the body to build and repair muscle tissue. It is also recommended for convalescence after a period of being bed-ridden. Since leucine lowers b l o o d sugar levels, it must be taken in moderation as it can adversely affect hypoglycaemia.
L I C O R I C E (GLYCYRRHIZA GLABRA)
A perennial herb native to southern Europe and Asia, it is also cultivated elsewhere for its root which contains a glycoside (glycyrrhizin) that acts like a mild cortisone. As it ls fifty times sweeter than sugar, it is often used to sweeten
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medicines and is also as a flavouring agent. Traditionally, Middle Eastern Arabs used it to prepare a strong infusion called soos, which was served cool and used to help digestive disorders. Licorice tea, or as an infusion, is diuretic and mildly laxative. It is also an expectorant and is used to relieve phlegm. As such, it is commonly used for colds, coughs and mucous congestions. Licorice is also a soothing, emollient herb that can be helpful in healing peptic ulcers. In addition, licorice root, which contains oestrogen precursors, is used in Asian countries for female problems such as irregular menstruation. Licorice is available in health food shops in powder and capsule form, and also as syrups and candies.
LIGNINS
Lignins are types of fibre found mainly in plant foods such as whole grains, beans, peas, carrots, t o m a t o e s and potato. They have various beneficial effects, such as anticancer, antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal activity. They can also help to lower high cholesterol levels and prevent the formation of gallstones by binding with the bile acids. Plant lignins are converted in the intestines into two compounds, enterolactone and enterodiol, which protect from cancer. They are especially beneficial in preventing cancer of the colon and breast cancer.
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LILY O F T H E VALLEY
(CONVALLARIA
MAJALIS)
A perennial plant found growing wild in Europe and North America in damp, shady places, lily of the valley is also a popular garden plant. It is antispasmodic and diuretic, but is mainly recommended as a heart tonic that can safely strengthen the heart. In larger doses, it can act as a laxative. Available at health food stores and herbalists. Caution: Lily of the valley should be used only under medical supervision. It contains glycosides which, if taken in incorrect doses, can cause irregular heartbeat and upset stomach.
LINDEN
(TILIA
EUROPAEA)
Also known as lime, this tall, deciduous tree is native to many parts of the northern hemisphere, particularly Europe and N o r t h America. An infusion of the leaves and bark is pleasantly aromatic and can be used as a mild sedative. Linden infusions also promote perspiration and are a traditional home remedy for colds, coughs and sore throats. They can also be used as a gargle. Linden flowers produced as a tea provide a delicious and relaxing remedy for stress conditions, and it is especially good as a bedtime drink. Available at health food stores.
LINSEED OIL see FLAX
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LIPIDS
A general descriptive term for any group of fats or fat-like substances found in the body. This term includes free fatty acids, triglycerides, cholesterol, bile acids, phospholipids and lipoids. Unless protected by antioxidant nutrients and e n z y m e s , lipids are easily oxidized in the body creating dangerous superoxides and free radicals that attack cells and D N A , and cause heart disease, cancer and other degenerative diseases of ageing.
LIPOIC A C I D
A once obscure nutrient, lipoic acid is now rapidly gaining popularity for its many beneficial effects in the body. Lipoic acid, which has many vitamin-like functions, is synthesized in the body, although not always in sufficient quantity. It is a potent antioxidant and a sulphurcontaining coenzyme; as such, it is an energizer and plays a vital role in 'burning' b l o o d sugar to energy. It is of benefit to diabetics as it helps to normalize blood sugar levels. Because lipoic acid is both water-soluble and fat-soluble, it is a universal antioxidant and can also enhance the action of other antioxidant vitamins, such as water-soluble vitamin C and fat-soluble vitamin E. By quenching free radicals, lipoic acid protects cells and helps to prevent the various degenerative diseases of ageing such as heart disease, cancer, diabetes, arthritis, cataracts and Alzheimer's disease, along with many others. It is also a chelating agent - that is, it binds to toxic metals such as lead, c a d m i u m and mercury and removes them from the body.
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Lipoic acid supplementation can increase energy and slow down the ageing process; supplementation is particularly important in later years, when the synthesis of lipoic acid in the body is reduced. Supplementation can also benefit diabetics. Foods richest in lipoic acid include liver, yeast, spinach, broccoli and tomatoes. However, these foods contain alpha-lipoic acid which is bound to protein (lipoyllysine) and is not as biologically active as the free alpha-lipoic acid found in supplements which are available in capsule form from health food stores. T h e normal daily allowance for adults is 2050 mg.
L - M E T H I O N I N E SEE M E T H I O N I N E
LYCOPENE
The red carotenoid in t o m a t o e s with an exceptional antioxidant action, lycopene has been found by numerous studies to be a powerful quencher of free radicals, stronger even than beta carotene or other carotenes, with outstanding anti-cancer properties. A study published in Anti-Cancer Drugs reported that lycopene increased the number o f T 4 cells and normalized the T4 and T 8 ratio, creating an improved immune function. Lycopene is now available in capsule form as a nutritional supplement from health food shops. A study done at the Aviano Cancer Centre in Italy found that people w h o eat raw t o m a t o e s at least seven times a week cut their risk of stomach, bladder and colon cancers by half. A Japanese study showed that lycopene suppressed the development of breast tumors in mice. Lycopene worked partly by blocking the activity of
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transforming growth factor alpha, which is known to promote cancer. A recent Harvard University study of various carotenoids showed that increased consumption of lycopene significantly reduced the risk of prostate cancer in men. Lycopene, which incidentally is richer in tomato sauce than in fresh t o m a t o e s , is also used as a colouring (E160d) in the food industry.
LYSINE
An essential amino acid that is needed to form protein in the body, lysine is known to boost the immune system by effectively helping suppress the herpes simplex virus, which manifests in symptoms like mouth blisters and cold sores. Consequently, lysine supplements are now widely recommended for the treatment of herpes. Daily lysine supplements of 500 mg were also found to increase the blood levels of ferritin (an iron-binding protein) in women with iron-deficiency anemia. Lysine is also needed to form collagen, the subskin and connective tissues, and is essential for c a l c i u m absorption. Since it is lacking in grains, nuts and seeds, lysine supplements can help to prevent calcium deficiencies, particularly among strict vegetarians and the elderly. Lysine also combines with methionine, to form carnitine, an important amino acid that aids weight reduction and helps to prevent heart disease. Lysine supplements are widely available in health food stores, either on their own or incorporated in specific formulas.
M
M A C A D A M IA N U T S
(MACADAMIA INTEGRIFOLIA)
An evergreen tree native to tropical Australia, it was taken to Hawaii in the nineteenth century and the nuts are now an important crop there. They are considered by many to be the finest-tasting nuts and, since they provide a very concentrated food, rich in natural oils, particularly monounsaturates, they are often used as a substitute for m e a t . Widely available in supermarkets.
MAGNESIUM
Magnesium is an important mineral which, together with calcium and phosphorus, is found mainly in the bones. Smaller amounts in the blood activate hundreds of e n z y m e s and participate in various biochemical activities. Magnesium maintains strong bones and tooth enamel, calms the nervous system, regulates heartbeat, strengthens digestion, maintains a healthy prostate in men, prevents swelling, keeps calcium soluble, prevents kidney stones and regulates the thyroid. It also improves urine retention and so helps to control incontinence in the elderly and prevent bed-wetting in children. Magnesium can be depleted in the body by alcohol, sweet foods, and the excessive consumption of milk enriched with vitamin D . Magnesium deficiencies are manifested in irregular heartbeat and heart attacks, jumpy nerves and weak muscles,
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convulsions and seizures, prostate enlargement, fatigue, bedwetting and kidney stones. Its best natural sources include green vegetables, figs, lemons, yellow corn, apples and raw wheat germ. D o l o m i t e is a natural supplement. The normal daily requirement is 350 mg for adults and 250 mg for children; pregnant and lactating women need 450 mg per day. As a supplement, magnesium is available in tablet and capsule form.
MA HUANG
(EPHEDRA
SINICA)
Ma huang is the Chinese name for ephedra, a low-growing evergreen shrub native to the arid and desert regions of the Americas and Asia. It contains ephedrin, an alkaloid that has been shown to reduce excess weight in overweight animals by speeding up the burning of fat into energy and by satisfying hunger. Its action is improved when used with caffeine and theophylline. Caution: Ma huang has been incorporated as an ingredient in a number of weight loss formulas over the past few years. However, its action is similar to that of adrenalin in that it stimulates the central nervous system, thereby increasing heartbeat and blood pressure. Therefore, ma huang should not be used by hypertensive people or by those with a heart condition.
MAITAKE
(GRIFOLA
FRONDOSA)
A newly rediscovered ancient mushroom, native to northeast Japan, maitake was traditionally highly prized in Japan as both a culinary ingredient and a herbal medicine. Oriental folk medicines used it as an important aid to
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well-being, to maintain health, preserve youth and increase longevity. The maitake grows in clusters at the base of trees, and in bygone times it was exchanged for its weight in silver. Maitake contains many important vitamins and minerals like B l , B2, B3, C and D, calcium, m a g n e s i u m , potassium and protein. N e w research also shows that, besides those nutrients, maitake contains a special class of polysaccharides such as beta glucan and, more specifically, its D-fraction. These are complex sugar polymers in maitake extracts, which were found to boost the immune system. Most studies by Japanese scientists, done with the D-fraction of maitake extract, showed maitake to have anti-tumour and anti-cancer properties. Further research is presently being conducted at the Cancer Treatment Center of America to evaluate its anti-cancer properties. A recent study in N e w York with a group of hypertensive human volunteers showed that two 500 mg capsules of maitake a day taken orally for six weeks lowered blood pressure. D r Abram Ber, a homoeopathic physician from Phoenix, Arizona, is reported to treat hypertension with higher doses: 3 g maitake per day for the first week, 4 g per day for the second week, then 5 g per day as blood pressure indicated, since blood pressure is dose-related. Other studies have demonstrated maitake's ability to inhibit uterine fibroids, counteract diabetes and even to help weight loss without a change in the diet! Maitake capsules and tablets, as well as the D-fractions, are now increasingly being sold in health food stores as herbal extracts. A significant body of research shows that maitake is the most effective of the other medicinal m u s h r o o m s such as shiitake and reishi. Maitake doses should best be determined by a qualified practitioner.
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MANGANESE
Manganese is a trace element with a wide range of effects. It forms part of many e n z y m e s , such as those involved in sugar metabolism, and is needed to form thyroxine, the thyroid hormone. It also helps in the synthesis of cholesterol and fats, and is important for the production of breast milk and sex hormones, promoting fertility and male potency. Manganese was found important in reversing osteoporosis, by stimulating the production of mucopolysaccharides, protein-like molecules that help the calcification of bones. Manganese can be used in the prevention of diabetes and nerve-muscle disorders and its best natural sources include whole grains, nuts, leafy green vegetables and tea. T h e estimated daily requirement is 2.5-5 mg, although lactating women may need up to 9 mg a day. In tea-drinking countries, an average one-third of the daily manganese requirement is obtained from this beverage. Supplements available from health food stores and as multi-vitamin formulas.
MANGO
(MANGIFERA
INDICA)
A delicious and highly nutritious fruit originating in India from which it has spread to many parts of the world, the mango is one of the most popular tropical fruits. Mangoes are very rich in the antioxidant vitamins C, A , E and bioflavonoids. O n e mango provides more than the Recommended Daily Allowance of vitamin C, two-thirds of vitamin A and a third of vitamin E. Mangoes are also an excellent source of potassium, iron and niacin. Easily digestible, mangoes are especially suitable for people with sensitive digestion.
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MARGARINE
Margarine is made from vegetable oil which undergoes hydrogenation. D u r i n g this process, hydrogen is added to the oil, saturating its fatty acids and rendering it solid or semi-solid. Saturated fatty acids are not biologically as active as unsaturated ones and they adversely affect cell membranes, leading to various disorders, including high cholesterol levels and diabetes. T h e hydrogenation process also changes the structure of the fatty acids from the natural type of cis-fatty acids to the unnatural type of trans-fatty acids that interfere with the utilization of essential fatty acids and, in fact, they are not 'recognized' by the body chemistry. For example, they prevent fatty acid transformation to i m m u n e cells, inhibiting the synthesis of GLA and prostaglandins (see E V E N I N G P R I M R O S E OIL). In the U S A and the U K , most of the consumption of trans-fatty acid consists of margarine and shortening. In a recent analysis of the connection between eating habits and disease from the ongoing Framingham study in the USA, researchers found that margarine, but not butter, was linked to a higher risk of coronary heart disease. T h e researchers concluded that this supports the hypothesis that 'margarine intake increases the risk of coronary heart disease'.
M A R J O R A M (ORIGANUM M A J O R A N A )
A scented, perennial herb, sometimes a subshrub, it was originally native to n o r t h e r n African and south-western Asia. Nowadays, it is widely cultivated as a popular culinary herb and is available from supermarkets and grocers. Sweet tnaijoram tea is pleasantly carminative. It can relieve
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flatulence and colic in children upset stomachs and gastritis can be soothed, both internally and externally, by massaging the abdomen with a clockwise rotation. The essential oil of sweet marjoram is also used externally for arthritis, gout, rheumatism and varicose veins. It is claimed to have a calming effect and can be used to alleviate grief. Caution: Marjoram should not be used during pregnancy.
MARSH MALLOW
(ALTHEA
OFFICINALIS)
A wild, perennial plant with soft, hairy leaves, it is found mainly in marshy areas and damp, watery places. Marshmallow leaves and roots have long been known for their demulcent, soothing and softening properties, and infusions prepared from the plant are excellent for the treatment of coughs and cystitis, and for soothing the digestive tract in cases of ulcers. Externally, a poultice prepared from the leaves steeped in boiling water can be applied to boils and abscesses.
MATE
(ILEX
PARAGUAYENSIS)
Also called Paraguay tea, mate tea is a stimulating beverage made from the dried leaves of a South American oak which is very popular in Latin America. The dried leaves are also exported and are available in many health food stores. Mate tea has a high caffeine content and is renowned as a tonic and stimulant, increasing alertness and mental acuity. It contains iron and is useful in the treatment of iron-deficiency anaemia. It is also a diuretic, stimulating the kidneys, and alleviating arthritis and gout. Mate tea is very satisfying and can help slimmers lose
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weight. Once made, the tea should be drunk fresh as it becomes black and bitter if allowed to stand. C a u t i o n : People with cardiovascular or nervous conditions, or those allergic to caffeine, should avoid mate. Excessive consumption can cause diarrhoea.
MEADOW SAFFRON
(COLCHICUM
AUTUMNALE)
A perennial herb that grows wild in damp places, but is also cultivated in the USA for its bulb and seeds. It contains colchicine, a poisonous alkaloid, which inhibits cell multiplication. It is used medicinally in very tiny amounts in the treatment of gout and arthritis. Caution: The whole herb is poisonous and must not be used as a home remedy.
MEAT
Meat is the principal provider of high-quality protein and fat with other important vitamins such as B12 and minerals such as zinc. Organ meats, like liver, heart and kidney, are the most nutritious. Generally, meat is considered a tonic: blood-building and helping relieve general weakness. However, its metabolic by-products in the body are very toxic. People on meat-centred diets are often thirsty; they need fluids to flush these toxins out. More and more studies published in the media are advising the public to cut down on red meat. With higher standards of living in the west meat consumption soared. The accelerating incidence of heart disease and cancer has been linked with beef consumption, which has increased from 120 kg per person in 1950 to
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almost 300 kg today. Beef in the 1950s provided more nutrients and was much leaner, with 5-10 per cent carcass fat, largely unsaturated. Today's cattle, intensively raised on high-energy feeds, deprived of grazing and treated with antibiotic drugs, hormones and tranquillisers, have 30 per cent fat. Most of these drugs, hormones and pesticide sprays accumulate in this fat. Meat is often treated with nitrites to preserve it. These can combine in the stomach to form nitrosamines, potent carcinogens that were found to produce cancer in rats after only one dose. Cooked meat has other hidden hazards. W h e n meat is grilled or barbecued at high temperatures, carcinogenic substances called HCAs (heterocyclic amines) are created. These substances generate free radicals, which hasten ageing and increase the risk of cancer and heart disease. Most HCAs are found in fried bacon. Stewing, boiling and poaching meat is much safer: they generate virtually no HCAs. Pre-marinating meat in garlic-based sauce was found to cut down the rate of HCAs. Processed ground meat products like sausages and hot dogs are the most dangerous, since poor grade meats and preservatives, which can be used in their preparation, are hard to detect in these highly seasoned products. Livers of beef, calf, veal, lamb and pork have been known to strengthen the body in stressful conditions. Chicken liver is known to strengthen both liver and kidneys, helping in treating conditions such as irondeficiency anaemia, impotence, tendency to miscarry, blurred vision and urinary incontinence. D e s i c c a t e d liver tablets are available at health food stores.
M E D I U M C H A I N TRIGLYCERIDES (MCTS)
M C T s are a special type of saturated fat derived from coconut oil and are used by the body differently to most
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other fats. In the main, fats such as butter, margarine, animal fats and even edible oils are composed of long chain trigly c e r ides (LCTs), which are absorbed into the lymph system and stored for future use. They take a long time to be converted into energy. M C T s , on the other hand, have much shorter molecules so that they can pass easily through the liver and are directly absorbed into the bloodstream. In this way, they are converted much more rapidly into utilized energy rather than being deposited as fat. M C T s have been found to promote weight loss, increase energy and are also useful for treating epilepsy. They are now increasingly available in supplements and also as M C T oils, which can be used in the kitchen in the same way as any of the other edible oils.
MELATONIN
Melatonin is a natural sleep-inducing hormone secreted in the pineal gland, a pea-sized gland in the mid-brain. It is actually produced by pineal e n z y m e s that are respectively activated and depressed by darkness and light. As a result, the pineal secretes melatonin at night, thus promoting sleep. As a natural sleeping aid, melatonin supplements are now commonly used to combat jet lag and insomnia, and to alleviate depression. Melatonin was also found to be a powerful antioxidant. As such, it boosts the immune system by stimulating the production of immune cells, protecting the D N A and preventing the degenerative diseases of ageing such as heart disease and cancer. Lights at night, however, inhibit melatonin secretion. N e w studies have shown that reduced levels of melatonin, which occur in children w h o sleep with the light on, or women w h o work night shifts, increase the risk of child leukaemia and breast cancer. While
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freely sold in the USA in potencies of 1-5 mg, melatonin is available in the U K as a prescription drug.
MELISSA SEE B A L M MERCURY

Mercury is a toxic element and a common pollutant. Its main sources are fish, pesticides, fungistats (which prevent mould in seeds), emissions from coal burning and cigarette smoke. The mercury that pollutes lakes and oceans is methyl mercury, a compound that is fifty times more toxic than pure mercury. Methyl mercury is dumped into rivers and lakes by various industrial plants, such as paper mills which use mercury to protect paper from mould. As a result of this dumping, fish can become a highly concentrated source of mercury. For example, in Lake Erie (between Canada and the USA) irreversible pollution with mercury means that fishing has been strictly prohibited. A build-up of mercury in the body can cause damage to the brain, kidneys and nervous system resulting in, for example, paralysis and blindness. The commonest uses of mercury in everyday life are batteries, mercury vapour lamps, dental fillings and mercury thermometers. Some nutrients, such as selenium, counteract mercury in the body. A m o n g the other protective nutrients are calcium, vitamins A, C, E and B c o m p l e x , lecithin and stomach acid, which is sold as betaine HC1 capsules.
METHIONINE, L-METHIONINE
Methionine is an essential amino acid needed for the synthesis of protein in the body. It is a sulphur-
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containing amino acid and a lipotropic, which means that it has an affinity to fats. As such, it helps to produce lecithin, which emulsifies fats and breaks down fatty deposits, preventing their build-up in the liver and arteries and thus reducing the risk of heart and circulatory diseases. Methionine is a strong detoxifier and combines with toxic elements such as lead, c a d m i u m and m e r c u r y to eliminate them from the body, preventing many related conditions such as hypertension, depression and kidney damage. It is also a strong antioxidant, which neutralizes free radicals, the underlying cause of ageing diseases such as heart disease, cancer and diabetes. Methionine is an antihistaminic and, as such, can be used in the treatment of allergies. It is best utilized with supplements of v i t a m i n B6. Available from health food stores.
MILK
Once promoted as the 'perfect food', cow's milk is an excellent source of proteins and calcium. Its principal proteins are casein, albumin and globulin. The latter is identical to human blood globulin and, as such, strengthens the immune system by providing antibodies. Milk also provides fat, which aids the absorption of calcium, and its phosphorus content offers an ideal calcium-phosphorus ratio, which is required for calcium utilization. In addition, milk contains a good balance of vitamins A, D, E, K and B2 and 1 1 of milk a day can supply approximately all the required calcium phosphorus and fat. Milk is a fully digestible food except for those individuals w h o are unable to digest milk sugar, in a condition known as lactose intolerance. However, milk has its drawbacks. It is low in vitamin C, iron, and copper, and is increasingly
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considered to be a polluted food in that it may contain residues of pesticides, hormones, DDT, steroids and antibiotics (used in udder inflammations). It is also a common allergen and there are many people, including children, who must avoid it. Nevertheless, for most people, milk remains a nourishing food, although many nutritionists now advise that the average daily intake should be less than previously recommended. Organic dairy milk which is preferable, is now becoming increasingly available. However, for babies, cow's milk cannot be considered a good substitute for human milk. Compared to mother's milk, cow's milk is deficient in vitamins A, B l , C and E; its mineral content is three times that of mother's milk and contained in different proportions, and it has more protein and bigger fat globules, which are suited to raising calves but not human babies. The type of lactose in cow's milk (alpha lactose) does not encourage the growth of intestinal flora in babies as does the lactose contained in mother's milk (beta lactose). Goat's milk is a much more tolerable and suitable form of milk for babies than that of cows. In fact, since the time of Hippocrates, physicians have recommended goat's milk for infants and convalescents because it is so easily digested. Compared to cow's milk, goat's milk has less protein, smaller fat globules, a little more calcium and vitamin A, and nearly 10 times the fluorine needed to build strong bones and teeth. Goat's milk is usually given to infants w h o are allergic to cow's milk or w h o cannot tolerate the mother's milk. Although goat's milk provides less than 3 per cent of the world milk supply, whole populations in Asia and Africa consume it because 70 per cent of the world's goats are found in those countries.
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MILK T H I S T L E
(CARDUUS
MARLINUS)
An annual plant that grows wild in dry, rocky soils in parts of Europe and N o r t h America, its leaves provide a bitter tonic and its seeds contain flavones (silydanin and silymarin) which stimulates the evacuation of bile. Both the leaves and seeds are used in the treatment of liver diseases and to protect the liver from toxins. Milk thistle is also very beneficial in the treatment of hepatitis and chirrhosis of the liver. And as a general detoxifyer, it can also be useful in the treatment of psoriasis. In folk medicine, milk thistle was traditionally used to increase milk flow in nursing mothers. It is now widely available in capsules from health food stores or herbalists.
MILLET
(PANICUM,
SORGHUM)
A small golden pearl grain popular in Asia and Africa, millet is highly nutritious. It is rich in vitamins and minerals, exceptionally high in protein and is the only alkali-forming grain. Millet is rich in silicon, which is important for the health of skin, hair and nails. Millet contains no gluten and is therefore suitable for coeliacs. It is very easily digested and useful for diarrhoea, indigestion ttid diabetes. Millet can be used as a thickener in soups, stews and vegetable casseroles.
MINERALS
Pound abundantly on the earth's crust, minerals are es sential constituents of all cells. They form mostly the hard parts of the body (bones, teeth, nails), but are equally es sential as components of gland secretions and enzyme
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systems which sustain life. Minerals regulate the permeability of cell membranes, control the excitability of muscles and nerves, maintain a proper acid-alkali balance and regulate blood volume. Minerals are generally classified into bulk minerals and trace elements. Bulk minerals like calcium, phosporus, sodium, m a g n e s i u m , potassium and sulphur are needed in gram amounts. Trace elements, which are needed in minute amounts measured in milligrams or micrograms, include iron, zinc, copper, manganese, c h r o m i u m , iodine, selenium, fluorine, boron and m o l y b d e n u m . Mineral salts are daily used and excreted from the body and must be replaced through food. Minerals are as essential to the body as oxygen; the body can tolerate a deficiency of vitamins for longer periods of time than it can a deficiency of minerals. A slight change in the concentration of some minerals in blood can endanger life. Obviously the mineral content of both plant and animal foods depends entirely on the mineral content of the soil. Different parts of the earth's crust may be deficient in some. The soil of the American Midwest for example, is naturally poor in iodine and in these areas iodized salt is commonly used. O n the other hand, intensive farming methods are not always matched by full mineral restoration and this leads to minerally depleted soils and mineral deficiencies in humans. The recent news that selenium levels in English soils have been severely dropping is causing great concern in the UK. O n the other hand, the wide consumption of highly refined foods like white sugar and white flour, from which most of the trace elements have been removed during milling, also create mineral shortages. The refining of whole w h e a t to white flour, for example, depletes 80 per cent of its magnesium, 87 per cent of its chromium and 88 per cent of its manganese.
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Eating mostly unrefined foods like brown rice and wholewheat bread, and cutting down on white sugar, are the first steps towards meeting basic mineral needs. Minerals are not absorbed as efficiently as vitamins. Minerals like calcium require a strong acid medium in the stomach to be absorbed, while trace elements require protein to enable their absorption into the blood stream (see C H E L A T I O N ) . Mineral supplementation is therefore needed by most people to ensure adequate intake and prevent deficiency symptoms. Special conditions require even higher doses. Iron and calcium, for example, are considered a must for pregnant and lactating women. It is important though not to exceed dosages, as excesses can impair the delicate mineral equilibrium of the body and in extreme cases can even become toxic.
MINT SEE P E P P E R M I N T MISO

A savoury fermented soybean paste used for seasoning, miso has traditionally been used in China and Japan for many thousands of years. Miso soup is a popular dish in Japanese and Chinese restaurants. Miso is made from cooked soybeans, grain (barley or rice), salt and water which are combined with a mould starter. The mixture is then allowed to ferment for between six months and a year. Miso comes in many varieties and colours and, because ^ is usually very salty, can be used as a substitute for salt or soy sauce. As a result of fermentation, it is a live food, containing friendly micro-organisms that are beneficial to the intestinal flora. It is therefore best consumed uncooked. Many varieties of miso are available in health food shops.
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MISTLETOE
(VISCUM
ALBUM)
An evergreen, semi-parasitic plant which grows on the branches of host trees, it has long been revered as a sacred plant in many European religions and closely associated with magic and healing. Both the leaves and berries are known to be useful in the regulation of high and low blood pressure. Mistletoe has also been used as a nerve tonic in the treatment of tension, insomnia and depression and, prepared as a tea from the leaves and berries, it is a diuretic and stimulant and can be used for strengthening the heart. Available at health food stores and herbalists and as formulas. Caution: Mistletoe is potentially toxic and should not be used in doses greater than 4 g of the crude herb, or for extended periods, except under the supervision of a naturopath.
MOLASSES
Molasses is a concentrated syrup, a by-product of sugar refining, which precipitates as residue after the sugar crystals have been separated from the sugar-cane juice. Molasses is rich in nutrients and low in sugar and, in fact, the nutrients in molasses are 30 times more concentrated than in the original cane juice. It provides an excellent source of minerals and trace elements, including iron, calcium, potassium, m a g n e s i u m , copper, c h r o m i u m , manganese, m o l y b d e n u m and zinc. O n e tablespoon of molasses supplies as much calcium as a glass of milk and as much iron as nine eggs. Molasses also contains high levels of B vitamins, and is an alkali-forming food. It is reported to have a beneficial effect on many conditions such as anaemia, fatigue, arthritis, ulcers and colitis. It also
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has a strong laxative effect and is used to counteract constipation. Unsulphured molasses is better than that preserved with sulphur, and crude black molasses is preferable to the sweeter varieties. A normal intake is 13 teaspoons a day. Available in health food stores. Caution: It is recommended that teeth are rinsed after taking molasses because, like sugar, molasses can cause tooth decay.
MOLYBDENUM
Molybdenum is a trace element widely present in raw foods and an essential part of several important e n z y m e s . Molybdenum prevents tooth decay and anaemia, and is also thought to prevent oesophageal cancer and increase sexual potency in older men. Since most of the molybdenum content is lost during the milling of whole grains and the refining of raw sugar, a diet based on these refined foods can result in a deficiency. T h e best natural sources of molybdenum are l e g u m e s , whole grain cereals and dark green leafy vegetables, and a balanced diet should supply adequate amounts of it. T h e newly set R D A is 45 meg.
M O N O S O D I U M GLUTAMATE (MSG)
As a food ingredient, MSG is a flavour enhancer that deserves a special mention since it is commonly used in many processed foods (E621), and especially in Chinese restaurants. An amino acid, MSG is the s o d i u m salt of glutamic acid (E620). MSG was first isolated at the Tokyo University in 1908 from a seaweed (Laminaria japonica) which was long known
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by Japanese cooks to improve food taste. Initially considered safe, MSG was later linked to many allergic symptoms often referred to as 'Chinese Restaurant Syndrome' because they were observed mainly after eating Chinese food. These symptoms include thirst and nausea, water retention, muscle numbness, palpitation, dizziness, headaches and cold sweats. It should be noted that many foods naturally contain various amounts of glutamate, the highest of which are in tomatoes, meatloaves, m u s h r o o m s and Parmesan cheese. Mother's milk contains 10 times more glutamate than cow's milk. But while the body metabolizes food glutamates and MSG in the same way, many people who are allergic to MSG find that they can safely eat glutamate-containing foods like tomatoes or mushrooms. O n average, Americans are considered to consume daily 11 g of glutamate from natural sources and less than 1 g of glutamate from added MSG. It is estimated that some 25 per cent of the western population is allergic to MSG, in one way or another. Anyone allergic to MSG should realize that, while some food labels may claim ' N o MSG', the presence of MSG can be disguised with vague or technical language, such as: glutamic acid; natural flavours; seasoning; modified food starch; autolyzed food yeast.
MSM
A nutritional supplement newly arrived in health food stores, Methylsulphonylmethane, or M S M for simplicity, is a form of organic sulphur, the fourth most abundant mineral in the body. A safe, natural and highly assimilable food derived from the ocean, MSM is a white, odourless crystalline powder, which does not produce the intestinal gas or body odour that may occur with other forms of
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sulphur. The many benefits of sulphur stem from its help in proper cell function, and in creating healthy and flexible cells. MSM supplements are therefore indicated for a variety of reasons such as improving skin, hair and nails, relieving arthritic pain, increasing intestinal fitness and improving conditions like constipation, diarrhoea, overacidity and even food allergies. Considering the fact that sulphur is a widely deficient mineral that much of it is lost in food preparation, M S M supplementation is becoming increasingly popular. Average daily supplements of M S M range between 1,000 mg and 3,000 mg or more (up to 6,000 mg), depending on body size, age, diet and the nature and severity of the conditions being treated. Caution: People prone to kidney stones should use MSM cautiously, starting with a low dose. (See SULPHUR.)
MUSHROOMS
Fungi, in the wild, grow most commonly in woods and damp areas; the cultivated varieties are available all-year round. Cultivated mushrooms are one of the most valuable horticultural crops in the U K and the USA. T h e white Agaricus bisporus mushrooms account for over 95 per cent of consumption while speciality or exotic cultivated mushrooms account for the remaining less than 5 per cent. Mushrooms of the button variety are rich in potassium, Phosphorus, c o p p e r and iron. They are also a good source of thiamine (vitamin B l ) and riboflavin (vitamin B2) . As mushrooms mature, their caps open and expose their gills. It is best to avoid wide open caps and also to select mushrooms that are firm, not spongy.
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Mushrooms are known to be beneficial in reducing blood fat levels and to have antibiotic properties; they are also claimed to have anti-tumour actions and to boost the immune system action against disease-producing microorganisms by increasing white blood cell count. Mushrooms are easily digested and are recommended for anyone suffering with digestive problems.
MUSTARD
(BRASSICA
NIGRA)
An annual plant native to the temperate regions of the ; northern hemisphere, it is also widely cultivated for its seeds which contain a strong volatile oil. Mustard is a i popular culinary herb that stimulates the appetite and helps digestion. A weak tea of mustard seeds can be used, in small amounts, for bronchitis or coughs. For external applications, mustard is used mainly as an irritant to promote blood flow in cases of rheumatism and colds. Mustard seed powder is mixed with wheat flour and water . to form a thick paste, and this is then spread on a linen cloth to form a poultice which is laid on the affected area causing the skin to heat up. The poultice must not be used; on sensitive areas and it should be removed when the heat becomes too uncomfortable. Wheat flour is added in order to reduce the warming effects of the mustard, and its quantity in the poultice should be adjusted according to the amount of warming desired. Diluted mustard seed oil can also be used externally for similar conditions.
N
N A C (N-ACETYL CYSTEINE) As part of glutathione, N A C is a powerful antioxidant and antiviral. It provides protection from free radical damage and strengthens resistance to disease by increasing immune cell levels. As an antioxidant, N A C helps detoxify the liver, prevents cholesterol oxidation, reduces the risk of heart attacks and facilitates the removal of mucous in cystic fibrosis and bronchitis. Available at health food stores.
N A D H (NICOTINAMIDE ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE) A vitamin B3-dependent coenzyme, N A D H is essential for cellular energy metabolism and helps produce energy from food. A potent antioxidant and stimulant of adrenaline and dopamine, N A D H is used to relieve chronic fatigue (CFS) and treat Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases. Available as a supplement called 'Enada' in health food stores.
NETTLE, S T I N G I N G (URTICA DIOICA)

Although a coarse herb that grows freely as a weed across Europe, Asia and North America, the leaves, flowers and seeds of the stinging nettle contain a wide range of useful medicinal and culinary properties. The plant makes an
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effective tonic and can be used to promote appetite and eliminate intestinal worms, while its fresh juice will stimulate digestion and promote milk flow in nursing mothers. It is also an astringent and can inhibit urinary tract bleeding, haemorrhoids and excessive menstrual flow. As a decoction, nettle can be used to strengthen the hair and, when used as a wash, to rejuvenate the skin. The leaves of the nettle, which are rich in vitamins and minerals, are often used to flavour salads and make infusions.
N E U R O T R A N S M I T T E R S (NT)
Neurotransmitters are special chemicals that carry messages between brain cells. All learning, remembering, sleeping and emotions depend upon the ability of the brain cells to produce and deliver neurotransmitters to other brain cells, as well as to respond to messages from other brain cells. Neurotransmitters are produced from nutrients absorbed from food. For example, acetylcholine, which is needed by the brain for learning, memory and long-term planning, is made in the body from choline, a B vitamin found in egg yolk, grains, legumes, leafy green vegetables and lecithin, which is rich in phosphatidyl choline. Another neurotransmitter, norepinephrine (brain adrenalin), which is needed for wakefulness, sex, learning and body movement, is produced in the brain by phenylalanine and tyrosine, two a m i n o acids that are found in m e a t , eggs and cheese. A deficiency of norepinephrine can cause stress, depression and low sex drive. Other important neurotransmitters include d o p a m i n e , G A B A , melatonin and serotonin. Some neurotransmitters, such as norepinephrine, have an excitatory action, while others such as serotonin, have a calming effect.
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NIACIN SEE V I T A M I N B3
NIGHTSHADES
The nightshades are a class of vegetable that includes potato, t o m a t o e s , aubergine, peppers and tobacco. They all contain solanin, a toxic alkaloid that can cause headaches, osteoarthritis, diarrhoea and vomiting in sensitive people. Solanine is usually neutralized by cooking, baking, roasting or frying.
NITRATES, NITRITES
These are chemicals that are used to treat and preserve bacon and other meats, to give them an attractive red colouring and to prevent botulism and aflatoxin mould. Nitrates are toxic as they react with protein to form nitrosamines, which are cancer-causing substances. However, this risk can be reduced by taking supplemental vitamin C.
NORI
A seaweed with fibrous, jade-coloured fronds, nori has the highest protein content of all the seaweeds (48 per cent dry weight) and is also rich in iodine, s o d i u m , vitamins A, B 1 and niacin. It can help in the treatment of goitre, and is also used to reduce cholesterol levels, alleviate painful urination, reduce high blood pressure and aid digestion. It is sold in sheets in health food stores and used in cooking. Nori is best known for its use in the preparation of sushi.
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NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic acids are special proteins that contain the genetic code and heredity information for the human body. They are present in all cells and supervise their growth, multiplication and functioning. They consist of D N A (deoxyribonucleic acid), which contains the master 'blueprint', and R N A (ribonucleic acid), which acts as the messenger to the cells. Nucleic acids are vulnerable to free radical damage in that free radicals oxidize the nucleic acids and cross-link their molecules, distorting their information. This distorted information can lead to mutations in cell multiplication and performance, cancer and premature ageing. D N A and R N A can be protected by antioxidant vitamins and nutrients. Nucleic acids are available as nutritional supplements. Caution: Nucleic acid supplements are not suitable for people with gout as they increase uric acid levels.
NUTMEG
(MYRJSTICA
FRAGRANS)
A tropical evergreen tree native to the Molucca (Spice) Islands, it is now cultivated in Indonesia, the West Indies, Brazil, India and Sri Lanka for its aromatic seeds which are used mainly as a culinary spice, also known as mace. The ground seeds improve appetite, stimulate digestion and relieve flatulence. It is also a mild hallucinogenic. Caution: Eating nutmeg in more than seasoning amounts can be dangerous. Overdoses can produce poisoning symptoms such as stomach pain, dizziness and delirium. Widely available ground or whole in supermarkets.
o
OATS
( A VENA SATIVA)
Oats are an exceptional cereal and are used primarily for their outstanding nutritional value. They are a few times higher in protein and fat content than any other cereal and are also rich in v i t a m i n E, some of the B vitamins and minerals, particularly zinc, m a n g a n e s e and silica. They are high in fibre and, prepared as a porridge, can help to prevent constipation, soothe the digestive system, reduce cholesterol and strengthen the heart. They are also useful in conditions such as weakness, diabetes, hepatitis, indigestion and bloating. Oats help to strengthen bones as they are rich in silica, and a tincture of oats has been reported to reduce cravings for cigarettes. In addition to porridge, oats are also used in soups, puddings, breads and desserts. Although oats do not contain gluten, the issue of oats for coeliacs is not entirely clear.
OCTACOSANOL
An ingredient of w h e a t g e r m oil, it has been found to 'ncrease energy, endurance and strength by increasing oxygen utilization in muscles during exercise. Octacosanol a lso benefits muscular dystrophy and other nerve-muscle disorders. It is available on its own or incorporated into nutritional formulas (see W H E A T G E R M OIL).
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OLIVE OIL
O n e of the most desirable culinary oils, especially w h e n it is extra virgin, cold pressed and unrefined, the main fatty acid in olive oil, oleic acid, is a monounsaturated, omega-9 fatty acid. Being monounsaturated, olive oil is more stable, less vulnerable to rancidity and more resistant to heat than, polyunsaturated oils such as safflower, sunflower and corn. It is therefore highly recommended for cooking. Olive oil is also excellent used fresh in salad dressings, and is a popular folk remedy in Mediterranean countries for ; gallstones; it is also claimed to help flush out kidney stones, particularly w h e n a tablespoon of olive oil is taken following fresh l e m o n juice made of two medium-size lemons. Olive oil is also used for constipation and its continuous use is well-known to help lower high cholesterol levels. Externally, olive oil can be used to treat, burns, bruises and sprains.
OLIVE T R E E LEAVES
A f o o d and medicine since biblical times, olive leaves have n o w b e e n 'rediscovered' as an energizing f o o d with antiviral and antibacterial properties. As far back as 1855, i n f o r m a t i o n started to spread that drinking bitter tea brewed f r o m olive tree leaves was a potential cure for malaria. M o r e recently, the active ingredients in the leaves, t w o phenolic c o m p o u n d s (oleuropein and elenolate), have b e e n isolated. O l e u r o p e i n has been found to inhibit t w o types of fermentative bacteria which, incidentally, is w h y olives are often cracked before pickling and the phenols removed, since they inhibit fermentation.
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Olive leaf extract is increasingly used as a supplement to treat chronic fatigue and boost the immune system. It is also recommended for sore throats, coughs and sinus problems. Oleuropein has been found to be an effective antioxidant, preventing cholesterol from oxidization. As such, it is used to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease in vulnerable people, since oxidized cholesterol is easily deposited, causing blocked blood vessels. Olive leaf extract is now available in capsule form from the Allergy Research Group in San Leandro CA, USA.
O M E G A - 3
FATTY
A C I D S
These are types of essential, polyunsaturated fatty acids. They include EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and D H A (docosahexaenoic acid) which are found mainly in ocean fish like salmon, mackerel and sardines, and ALA (alphalinolenic acid) found mainly in flaxseed oil. T h e omega-3 fatty acids are very important to the body's health. They reduce blood stickiness, b l o o d clotting, cholesterol levels, blood pressure and inflammations. In this way they help to prevent heart attacks and strokes. In one study, a daily consumption of 15 g of omega-3 fatty acids was found to reduce the death risk of coronary heart disease in men by 40 per cent. Supplemental EPA was shown to reduce the levels of triglycerides and fibrinogen, a protein involved in blood clotting. ALA can be converted in the body to EPA and, similarly, EPA can be converted to D H A . EPA however, is considered the most beneficial of the omegas. It is the best source for the body's own production of beneficial prostaglandins that also help reduce inflammation. As such, EPA is considered very helpful in heart disease and
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inflammatory conditions like arthritis, and is the reason why heart patients and arthritics are often advised to eat ocean fish instead of meat. EPA is now also available in capsule form, and is sold as a food supplement in health food stores. D H A is particularly important for the eye tissue and for brain development in infancy.
O N I O N
(ALLIUM)
Probably first grown in central or south-western Asia, nowadays onions are grown throughout the world, mainly for their culinary properties, although for many centuries they have been recognized also for their medicinal value. The healing properties of onions are now scientifically established and are attributed to their many important components, such as quercetin, mustard oils and sulphur-containing compounds. Onions can reduce blood stickiness, preventing blood clots and heart attacks. Crude extracts of onion have been shown to lower high blood pressure and cholesterol levels. Onions are also used to expel phlegm and alleviate coughs, colds and inflammations of the nose and throat. Onion soup can help cure hangovers and is good for coughs, colds and bronchitis.
O R A N G E
(CITRUS
SINENSIS)
The orange is among the oldest known cultivated fruits and has been grown for more than 4,000 years. It probably originated in the south-western regions of Asia, but nowadays is cultivated in subtropical climates worldwide. Orange is an acidic fruit, best known for its high vitamin C content 60 mg per 100 g edible fruit which
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is always highest in the early part of the season and much lower in the late season. Oranges also contain vitamin A, potassium, calcium, phosphorus and folic acid. The white part of the rind is a rich source of pectin, which lowers cholesterol, and of bioflavonoids, which benefits weak gums, capillaries and blood vessels. In fact, sweetened orange peel is a popular Middle Eastern treat. T h e fruit itself has strong anti-inflammatory effects and can be used as a general tonic; it improves digestion and is beneficial for conditions such as colds, arthritis and fevers. The oil derived from the orange rind can relieve flatulence.
O R E G A N O
(ORIGANUM
VULGARE)
A perennial herb, native to the Mediterranean regions, oregano is commonly used as a culinary herb. Infusions of the leaves, flowers and stalks can benefit an upset stomach, colic, headaches, nervousness, coughs, whooping cough and other respiratory disorders. Oregano also promotes perspiration, relieves flatulence and expels phlegm. Oregano tea can be used to relieve abdominal cramps in women and regulate the menstrual cycle when taken three or four days before the period is due. Caution: Oregano should not be used during pregnancy.
ORNITHINE,
L - O R N I T H I N E
Ornithine is derived from arginine, and shares its properties in that it is a g r o w t h - h o r m o n e releaser and strengthens the immune system. However, supplemental ornithine should be taken in half the quantities recommended for arginine.
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O X A L I C
A C I D
Oxalic acid is a nutrient found in various vegetables and fruits, particularly in spinach, rhubarb, beets and cranberries; it is also found in chocolate. Consumption of oxalic acid-containing foods can increase any tendency to kidney stones or gravel since the oxalic acid in the food may combine with calcium, resulting in calcium-oxalate kidney stones. People with a known tendency to kidney stones or gravel would therefore do well to cut down on the amount of oxalic acid-containing foods in their diet.
O K R A
(ABF.LMOSCHUS
ESCULENTUS)
A native of Africa, okra also known as gumbo, ladies' fingers or bamia is grown in large quantities in the southern states of the USA. It is also very popular in Middle Eastern cooking. An annual, the vegetable is produced for its green pods which contain large amounts of vitamins A and C, calcium, phosphorus, potassium and m a g n e s i u m . Okra is the number one vegetable source of manganese. The plant is also rich in mucilaginous substances, which lubricate the intestines and are recommended for soothing duodenal ulcers and reducing high cholesterol levels.
O Y S T E R S
Found mainly in oceans and coastal regions with mild to tropical climates, oysters are one of the richest sources of zinc and are often recommended as an aphrodisiac to increase fertility and sex drive. Fresh oysters contain 149
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pig zinc per 100 g of the edible portions. T h e shell is a rich source of c a l c i u m and is sometimes used in calcium supplements. Caution: Because of their zinc content, oysters should be eaten only in moderation.
p
P A B A (PARA A M I N O B E N Z O I C A C I D ) An antioxidant vitamin related to folic acid, PABA is the 'sun screen' vitamin that protects the skin from sunburn. It is known for its ability to absorb ultraviolet (UV) light, thus preventing wrinkling of the skin and reducing the risk of skin cancer. It is therefore widely used in sunblock preparations. PABA also has other beneficial effects. It corrects loss of pigmentation in skin and hair, prevents hair greying and retards hair loss. It also protects the lungs from ozone damage, acts as a c o e n z y m e in the utilization of protein and assists the formation of red blood cells. Deficiency symptoms include skin conditions such as eczema and wrinkles, fatigue, irritability and depression, senility, arthritis and bursitis. A m o n g its best natural sources are organ meats, brewer's yeast, whole grains, raw wheat germ and molasses. N o R e c o m m e n d e d Daily Allowances have been established, but an allowance of between 30 m g and 100 mg is considered reasonable. In spite of the fact that the body synthesizes PABA, it may not be sufficient for maximum protection and therefore PABA supplements can usefully enhance its beneficial effects.
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PANCREATIN
This is the name given to digestive-aid tablets containing pancreatic e n z y m e s such as protease, lipase and amylase. These enzymes break down proteins, fats and starch, and assist in their digestion. Pancreatin tablets can prevent bloating, stomach discomfort, indigestion and gastroenteritis (inflammation of the stomach and intestines), and are normally taken after main meals to strengthen digestion. Since the secretion of digestive enzymes is reduced with age, pancreatin tablets are often recommended by some nutritionists even for healthy people over 40. Pancreatin can also prevent food allergies that arise from by-products of incomplete digestion.
P A N G A M I C
A C I D
Pangamic acid, or vitamin B15, is used mainly in Russia to improve heart conditions and athletic performance. It is still not fully officially accepted in the west. It is an antioxidant and prevents the formation of destructive superoxide radicals, a major cause of ageing. It is also an antipollutant, eliminating environmental toxins from the body. Being a lipotropic substance, it lowers cholesterol levels and prevents fat accumulation in the liver. A lack of pangamic acid can cause reduced oxygenation of the blood, leading to fatigue and lowered fitness. Its best natural sources are brewer's yeast, brown rice, whole grains, p u m p k i n and sesame seeds. There are no Recommended Daily Allowances, but a daily intake of 25 100 mg is normal. It is sometimes available as a supplement called 'calcium pangamate'.
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P A N T O T H E N I C
A C I D
Although pantothenic acid, also called v i t a m i n B5, occurs in small amounts in most foods, a deficiency of the vitamin is commonplace. It is involved in a number of metabolic functions, such as fat and sugar metabolism and the production of adrenalin, which is needed in stress conditions. It also helps to maintain normal b l o o d sugar levels and increase energy, particularly in stressful situations which is why it is often called the 'stress vitamin'. It is also used to treat rheumatoid arthritis and allergies. Pantothenic acid is an important ingredient of royal jelly and cod's roe, hence its use for improving fertility and reproduction. Some indications of a deficiency of the vitamin include stress, irritability or depression, low blood sugar levels, fatigue, indigestion, constipation, ulcers, arthritis and allergies. A m o n g the best natural sources are royal jelly, cod's roe, brewer's yeast, organ meats, raw wheat germ, whole grains, beans, molasses and nuts. The Recommended Daily Allowance for pantothenic acid is set at 10 mg, but most nutritionists recommend 3050 mg a day. It is available as a supplement on its own, and is also included in B complex and multivitamin supplements.
P A P A I N SEE
PAPAYA
PAPAYA, PAWPAW,
PAPAIN
(CARICA
PAPAYA)
A sweet tropical fruit, which is eaten fresh and is best known for its ability to aid digestion. Papaya contains the enzyme papain which helps to digest proteins and is
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therefore useful for the relief of dyspepsia and weak digestion. It is also helpful in cases of food allergies caused by incomplete digestion of protein fragments. In tropical regions, papaya has long been used as a m e a t tenderizer, a nd it is also known to expel worms, treat dysentery and relieve rheumatic pain. Papaya is a rich source of beta carotene (provitamin A) and vitamins B and C, making it a very nutritious food. It is increasingly used in the manufacture of commercial digestive aids and skin creams.
P A R S L E Y
(PETROSEUNUM
CRISPUM)
Parsley is a very popular biennial herb with aromatic leaves that are used as a culinary flavouring. T h e leaves are either eaten fresh in salads or steeped for tea. Parsley is an excellent diuretic and is useful for kidney disorders and the elimination of stones and gravel. Both the fresh juice and a tea made from the leaves or seeds can be used to relieve water retention (oedema) and strengthen digestion. Parsley also stimulates delayed menstruation and promotes menstrual flow.
PARSNIP
(PASTINACA
SATIVA)
A sweet culinary root vegetable and mildly diuretic, it lubricates the intestines and is beneficial for soothing stomach and intestinal irritations. It helps to clean the liver and gall bladder and, used in soups or teas, it promotes perspiration and is beneficial for coughs, colds, headaches and arthritis. Caution: Only the root part of the plant should be eaten. Parsnip leaves are poisonous.
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P A S S I O N
F L O W E R
(PASSIFLORA
INCARNATA)
A strong climbing vine which grows wild and is also cultivated as a garden plant, the flowers are used mainly to calm nervousness and hysteria, relieve headaches and induce sleep. A tea (available from health food stores) prepared from the flowers is effective against involuntary cramps and for high blood pressure caused by nervous conditions. T h e fruit is sold as a delicacy in some shops and can be used for conserving and flavouring.
P A U
D ' A R C O
(TABEVULIA)
A South American bitter herb which is antibacterial, antifungal and a booster of the immune system. It has traditionally been used to control Candida (thrush) and help in the treatment of cancer. It is also used to cleanse the blood, treat liver disease, infections, diabetes, ulcers, allergies and tumours. Pau d'arco is available as tea bags in many health food shops.
P A W P A W SEE
PAPAYA
P E A S
(PISUM
SATIVUM)
Native to temperate climates, fresh peas are sweet and juicy, and one of the most digestible and non-gassy legumes. They contain 78 per cent water, with only traces of fat, are low in s o d i u m and provide a good source of iron and vitamins A, C, B l , B2 and niacin. Peas have a diuretic and mildly laxative effect and are recommended for
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strengthening digestion, reducing water retention and helping to promote elimination. They are popular as a summCT vegetable and also make a nutritious addition to salads, soups and casseroles.
P E A C H
(PRUNUS
PERSICA)
A deciduous tree, grown in temperate climates, it is believed that the peach was originally native to China where it has been grown for several thousand years. It was spread throughout Europe by the Romans and first taken to North America in the sixteenth century by the Spanish explorers. Peaches are a delicious fruit, providing a rich source of beta carotene, iron and calcium, together with some v i t a m i n C and niacin. The fruit is astringent and tends to limit perspiration. It can also be used to alleviate coughs and gastrointestinal inflammations.
P E A N U T S
(ARACHIS
HYPOGAEA)
A legume that is now grown throughout the warm regions of the world, particularly in Africa and Asia, the peanut was originally native to South America. Peanuts are high in fat and rich in protein, niacin, c a l c i u m and m a g n e s i u m . Due to their high oil content, they are best eaten raw or lightly roasted and, since they contain almost 49 per cent fat, they are not very suitable for dieters. Peanuts lubricate the intestines and are useful for the alleviation of ulcers or digestive tract tumours. They are known to increase milk flow in nursing mothers, to curb internal bleeding and nuprove hearing. A tea made from the shells was traditionally used to lower high blood pressure. Eaten in
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moderation, peanuts can benefit underweight people. Caution: Large amounts can cause skin problems. Peanuts are a heavily sprayed nut and are subject to aflatoxin, a carcinogenic fungus. It is safer, therefore, to eat organically grown peanuts.
P E A R
(PYRUS
COMMUNIS)
Closely related to the apple and the quince, pears are grown throughout the temperate regions of the world. The fruit is high in water and fibre but low in vitamin C and minerals. Pears can be used to alleviate constipation, coughs and sore throats; the fibre will soothe intestinal inflammations. Caution: Excessive use of pears is not recommended, especially during pregnancy, since their fibre taxes digestion.
P E C A N
(CARYA)
Native to N o r t h America, the tree is grown throughout the southern states of the USA and, to a lesser extent, in South Africa, Australia and the Middle East. It is valued for its fruit, the pecan nut, which is rich in fat and provides one of the highest sources of unsaturated fatty acids. About 75 per cent of its total calories come from its fat content. The pecan nut is therefore very calorific and although, nutritionally, it is high in p o t a s s i u m and B vitamins, it contains far too many calories for the amount of protein it provides. Pecans are delicious and best eaten fresh before their oils become rancid but, due to their high calorific value, they are not very suitable for anyone w h o is overweight or on a weight-reducing diet.
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PECTIN^
pectin is a gel-forming dietary fibre that forms part of plant cells and is found mainly in the skins, peels and rinds 0 f fruits and vegetables. Orange rind contains 30 per cent pectin, apple peel 15 per cent and o n i o n skin 12 per cent. Pectin has several nutritional roles: it binds cholesterol and bile acids in the intestines, promoting their excretion and thus helping to lower high cholesterol levels; pectin also binds with toxic metals such as lead, mercury and c a d m i u m , and with radioactive residues, and excretes them from the body. Pectin supplements sold in health food stores have been found to be helpful in controlling diabetes, treating constipation and reducing the risk of heart attacks. Pectin is also used as a stabilizer and thickener (E440b) in commercially processed jams and preserves.
P E P P E R S
(CAPSICUM)
Originating in South America and brought to Europe in the sixteenth century, the pepper is n o w grown throughout much of the world - as a perennial in tropical regions and, in temperate areas, as an annual. Its colourful fruit red, green and yellow peppers, or capsicums provide an excellent source of beta carotene and v i t a m i n C; they also contain high amounts of calcium, phosphorus, sodium and potassium. Peppers also contain two other important carotenoids, lutein and zeaxanthin, both of which can help protect against age-related macular degeneration (AMD), which can lead to a loss of central vision in the elderly. Peppers can improve appetite and digestion, promote circulation and reduce swellings.
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Caution: Peppers are a known allergen chat can cause reactions in many people. If an allergy is suspected, it is best to avoid peppers for a week, then try them again to check for any recurrence of symptoms. Usually, people allergic to raw peppers will find they can safely eat them if cooked.
PEPPERMINT,
M I N T
(MENTHA)
A perennial herb of the mint family, w h i c h grows best in moist soils, it is widely cultivated in the temperate regions of Europe and N o r t h America. T h e herb contains menthol and is popular as both a flavouring agent and a tea. It is also well k n o w n for its carminative effects that is, it helps to relieve flatulence and indigestion. Since menthol is also an appetite stimulant, digestive and sedative, peppermint can be used to prevent or alleviate cramps, insomnia and vomiting; it is also claimed to be an aphrodisiac. In addition, peppermint has antiviral properties: its tannins have been found to suppress the activity of the flu virus and inhibit Herpes simplex. Peppermint oil is used to relieve the symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).
P E R S I M M O N
(DIOSPYROS
VIRGINIANA)
A small tree that belongs to the ebony family, two of its species are grown for their pulpy, edible fruits. O n e of these, the kaki or Japanese persimmon, is native to central and northern China, while the other, the c o m m o n persimmon, is native to the south-eastern United States. R i p e persimmons are sweet fruits that soothe the digestive tract and help to relieve gastro-intestinal inflammations such as enteritis. Persimmons contain
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diospyrol, an active ingredient found effective against parasitic infections, and in Thailand the fruit is used to expel worms. Unripe persimmons contain tannins and are astringent, which makes them beneficial in treating diarrhoea, dysentery, hypertension and coughs. However, it is important not to eat them in large quantities, certainly not more than one or two at a time, as it is known to cause intestinal blockage in some people.
PHENYLALANINE (PA), L-PHENYLALANINE

An essential amino acid that is abundant in m e a t and cheese, and without which the body cannot synthesize protein, PA has many important roles. It helps to form insulin, a h o r m o n e controlling b l o o d sugar levels, and it is a precursor of tyrosine, which is needed by the thyroid gland to produce its hormone, thyroxine. PA is converted in the brain to epinephrine and norepinephrine, excitatory types of brain adrenalines which promote mental alertness, alleviate depression and suppress appetite very effectively, thus assisting in weight loss. PA comes in two forms, L-phenylalanine (LPA) and D-phenylalanine (DPA), which are mirror images of each other: LPA has the nutritional value, while DPA has painkilling and depression-alleviating properties. A third form, DL-phenylalanine (DLPA) is both nutritional and therapeutic. Studies have shown that DLPA can alleviate the pains of chronic conditions such as arthritis, lower back pain and headaches by protecting endorphins the natural painblocking hormones secreted by the nerve cells. Available at health food stores. Caution: Excessive doses of phenylalanine or DLPA can cause irritability, insomnia and elevated blood pressure.
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People with hypertension would do best to consult a nutritionist before taking DLPA. They should be started on a low dose (100 mg daily), which is then gradually increased while, at the same time, a check is kept on their blood pressure which should be monitored frequently.
PHOSPHATIDYLSERINE (PS)
Phosphatidylserine is a relatively recently discovered nutrient that is normally produced by the brain. However, deficiencies of certain nutrients such as folic acid, vitamin B12 and essential fatty acid can inhibit its production. PS is a vital phospholipid that maintains the integrity of brain cells, and its supplementation has been found to improve mental function by increasing the levels of acetylcholine, which transmits brain messages. However, its primary use is in the treatment of memory loss, depression, and behavioural and age-related brain changes in the elderly. Phosphatidylserine supplements, which are available in formulas in combination with other brain-enhancing nutrients, are becoming increasingly popular in health food shops.
PHOSPHORUS
Phosphorus is the second most abundant mineral in the body. It co-operates with c a l c i u m to ensure good bone mineralization and is present in every cell of the body. It is a constituent of D N A , the holder of our genetic blueprint, and of myelin, which insulates nerves. It is vital for the release of energy, converting glucose to glycogen (stored sugar) and helping to form lecithin. Phosphorus maintains
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strong bones and teeth, promotes growth and body repair, provides energy by helping to metabolize carbohydrates and fats, ensures proper functioning of nerves and maintains an acid-alkaline balance. Phosphorus deficiencies are rare, but the mineral can be depleted by sugar and antacids, and deficiency symptoms include weak bones and teeth, rickets, gum infections, arthritis, loss of appetite and muscle weakness. Its best natural sources include meat, eggs, fish, whole grains, raw wheat germ, nuts and seeds. The normal daily requirement for adults is 800 mg, and for lactating women 1,200 mg.
PHYTIC A C I D
Phytic acid, or inositol hexaphosphate, is a form of inositol, one of the B vitamins. A component of the bran contained in grains, seeds and l e g u m e s , phytic acid binds with c a l c i u m , m a g n e s i u m , iron, zinc and other minerals, preventing their absorption in the body. Thus, in order to prevent mineral deficiencies, it must be deactivated, and this can be done by bread-leavening, baking, or seed-sprouting. Caution: Consumption of large quantities of raw bran can result in a deficiency of minerals such as calcium unless supplements of multi-mineral tablets are taken.
PINEAPPLES
(ANANAS)
Although pineapples are a rich source of vitamin C and potassium, they are low in other nutrients. However, they contain bromelain, a protein -splitting enzyme which increases digestion ability, and they can therefore be usefully
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eaten after a m e a t dish. Bromelain is also sold in capsules as a supplemental digestive aid. Pineapples are also diuretic and can be used to increase appetite, strengthen digestion, treat diarrhoea, destroy worms and reduce oedema. Caution: Since unripe pineapples are acidic, they should not be eaten by anyone with a stomach or duodenal ulcer. Their acidity can also damage teeth.
PINE N U T S
Also known as pignolias, pine nuts are the seeds found in the cones of the pine tree, and in the past have been used as a staple food by both the Chinese and the American Indians. However, like many nuts, they are high in essential fatty acids and provide a poor source of protein. Medicinally, pine nuts can be used to lubricate the intestines and soothe inflammations; they are also a mild laxative and helpful in treating dry cough. Caution: Since pine nuts can quickly become rancid, they should be kept sealed in the refrigerator.
PLANTAIN see PSYLLIUM
PLUMS, PRUNES
(PRIJNUS)
Grown mainly in the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, plums are high in potassium, and also contain moderate levels of calcium and iron. Due to their low fat content, they are a low-calorie food, and some of the golden varieties are a good source of beta carotene. Plums are diuretic and can be used in the treatment of
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liver conditions such as cirrhosis. Prunes are the dried fruit of a sweet variety of plum which is m u c h richer in sugars, calcium and iron than standard plums. They contain a substance (dihydroxyphenyl isatin) which stimulates the bowels. Stewed prunes, or prune juice, have a laxative effect and are a traditional remedy for constipation.
POMEGRANATE
(PUNICA
CRANATUM)
The fruit of a plant native to the warm climates of India and the Middle East, pomegranates have a potent antioxidant activity due to their punicalagins, which are valuable in the maintenance of a healthy cardiovascular system. Pomegranates are a sweet-and-sour fruit, rich in iron and astringent. They are used to control diarrhoea and expel intestinal worms, but can also be helpful for treating bladder disturbances, strengthening gums and soothing mouth ulcers.
POPPY
(PAPAVBR
SOMNIFERUM)
An annual herb, which is found wild in Asia and across Europe, it is noted for its brilliant red flowers. Although the seeds and oil of the plant have traditionally been used in cooking particularly in bread and cake-making the acutely poisonous nature of the seeds should not be dismissed. W h e n the unripe seed pods are crushed, they yield a milky juice that quickly hardens and this is opium. O p i u m contains 25 different alkaloids, most of which are highly addictive; these include morphine, the Well-known pain-reliever, codeine and heroin. Caution: Both the plant and its derivatives are poisonous and should be used only on prescription.
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POTASSIUM
Potassium is a bulk mineral which constitutes 5 per cent of the total mineral content of the body. It is found mainly in intracellular fluids (i.e. fluids within cells), and has a multitude of functions. Together with sodium, potassium regulates the sodium-potassium balance that affects water retention and stimulates kidney function; it also promotes insulin secretion and is involved in nerve transmission and muscle contraction. In addition, potassium promotes the disposal of the body's wastes, enhances mental alertness by increasing oxygen supply to the brain, reduces blood pressure, benefits diabetics by stimulating insulin production and helps digestion by stimulating stomach secretions. Potassium deficiency symptoms include water retention (oedema), hypertension, irregular heartbeat, nervousness, fatigue and arthritis. Among the best natural sources of the mineral are citrus fruits, leafy green vegetables, bananas, potato, t o m a t o e s and pineapples. Potassium deficiencies are rare, but can occur in cases of excessive diarrhoea or vomiting, or in the prolonged use of diuretics. In such cases, potassium supplements are necessary, and they are also sometimes recommended for diabetics to improve their insulin sensitivity. N o daily requirements are set for potassium, but an average daily consumption for adults of 1.9-5.6 g is considered normal.
POTATO
(SOLANUM
TUBEROSUM)
A member of the nightshade family, Solanaceae, the potato is a native of South America and was first introduced into Europe in the mid-sixteenth century. Nowadays, it is the world's most widely grown vegetable and one of its most
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important foods. Potatoes have a high nutritional value and are grown in most countries. They are a highly starchy food and, w h e n eaten with the skin or peel, a good source of vegetable protein, potassium, v i t a m i n C, iron, phosphorus, niacin and e n z y m e s although old potatoes are low in v i t a m i n C. Medicinally, potatoes can help to relieve arthritis and reduce water retention due to their high potassium content. They also neutralize body acids, and potato juice can be used to treat stomach and duodenal ulcers. The fresh juice is sometimes used to reduce hypertension and promote intestinal flora. Potatoes are a member of the solanum family which contains poisonous solanine. Potatoes that develop green skin colouring after flowering are poisonous because of an accumulation of solanine, and can cause indigestion or affect the nervous system. The plant leaves are totally indigestible.
PREGNENOLONE
A recently highlighted natural h o r m o n e (also known as preg), it is formed from cholesterol in the organs that produce steroid hormones, such as the adrenal glands, and is a precursor of D H E A . Apart from its conversion to D H E A or progesterone, preg has also been claimed to improve energy, enhance mental acuity, regulate mood disorders and relieve fatigue. In addition, it is reputed to improve memory and learning capabilities. It is currently used mainly for its benefits in chronic conditions such as arthritis, psoriasis and pre-menstrual syndrome. However, although pregnenolone is now being sold over the counter in the USA, it should be used with caution since, to date, relatively little research has been done on it.
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PRESERVATIVES
Preservatives are additives, usually chemicals such as nitrates and phosphates, that are added during the processing of food to prevent spoilage and reduce foodpoisoning risks by inhibiting the growth of bacteria, viruses and fungi. Nowadays, a wide range of foods are commercially preserved, from soft drinks, jams and cheeses to beer, w i n e and meats. Some of the most popular preservatives, such as b e n z o i c acid, benzoates, sulphur dioxide and particularly sulphites have been reported to trigger allergic reactions such as asthma in susceptible people.
PROANTHOCYANIDINS see BIOFLAVONOIDS
PROBIOTICS
This is a general descriptive name for all products that regenerate the intestines and rejuvenate the whole body. Probiotics enhance the growth of intestinal flora the friendly bacteria in the intestines while reducing diseasecausing bacteria. In general, they promote healthy biological systems, as opposed to antibiotics and the contraceptive pill which do the opposite, promoting decaying processes in the gut. Probiotics include yogurts, buttermilk and other sour milks, digestive e n z y m e s , F O S and fermented foods such as sauerkraut, m i s o and tofu. Yogurts and sour milks contain cultures of friendly bacteria, including Lactobacillus acidophilus,
Lactobacillus bulgaricus, Bifidobacteria longurn a n d Streptococcus
thermophilus, which are usually listed on the food labels.
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When consumed regularly, these friendly bacteria are highly beneficial to the body. They assist food absorption, increase the production of vitamins, maintain proper acidity in the intestines, increase resistance against disease and prevent the development of colon cancer and thrush (candida). F O S are types of sugars that feed selectively only the friendly bacteria and enhance their growth. Overgrowth of pathogenic bacteria in the intestines is associated with conditions such as allergies, eczema, bad breath, constipation, arthritis, headaches, sinus congestion, high cholesterol, colitis, Candida, yeast infections and cystitis.
PROLINE, L - P R O L I N E
O n e of the non-essential a m i n o acids, proline supplements are recommended in the treatment of shortterm depression. They are claimed to give many people a sense of relief and happiness. Proline is also involved in the production of collagen and can therefore improve skin texture. Available at health food stores and as formulas.
PROPOLIS
Hailed as a natural antibiotic, propolis is a resinous substance collected by bees from plants and trees. Propolis is composed mostly of resins, balsams and waxes, and partly of pollen and essential oils, which are all mixed by the bees' salivary glands and used in the construction of the hive. It has been used throughout history for a wide range of conditions and its name, pro-polis, which signifies its protective effects, comes from the Greek, meaning 'defence before the city'.
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Propolis contains a great variety of a m i n o acids, vitamins, minerals and bioflavonoids and, in the same way that it is used by the bees as a sticky filler to seal, protect and sterilize the hive, propolis can be used for similar beneficial effects on the human body. For instance, the Greeks used it to treat wounds and Hippocrates himself, the father of modern medicine, prescribed propolis for sores and ulcers. During the past twenty years, scientific studies have 'rediscovered' propolis and found it to be a great booster of the immune system, enhancing the immune response and resistance against disease by stimulating the formation of immune cells. A recent study at Oxford University has revealed that propolis can help to cure inflammations, while Chinese research has found propolis effective in treating hypertension and arteriosclerosis, and Russian scientists have shown that propolis can prevent ulcers. Having a potent antibacterial and antifungal action, propolis is now increasingly used to treat conditions as wide-ranging as colds, sore throats, coughs, allergies, vaginal infections, painful menstruation, acne and herpes. W h e n buying propolis it is important to check on the quantity in each capsule. The recommended dosage is 1.53 g per day, which should be taken on an empty stomach, preferably first thing in the morning or at bedtime. The main flavonoid ingredients required to identify it as genuine propolis are galanagin, chrysin and pinocembrin.
PROSTAGLANDINS see EVENING PRIMROSE OIL (EPO); FATS
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PROTEIN
As a macronutrient, protein is the most plentiful component of the body, after water. It not only builds up body structures such as cells, tissues and skeleton, but also creates the body's functional factors, such as hormones, antibodies, D N A and digestive secretions. Protein enables children's growth, and is equally important in adulthood, when growth has ceased, to supply 'spare parts' to counteract the wear and tear of daily living. Various proteins, such as those in red blood cells, hormones and immune cells, are constantly being broken down and need to be rebuilt. Proteins also serve as a source of energy and heat, providing 4 calories per g. Their richest dietary sources are animal foods such as eggs, m e a t , fish and dairy products. Protein is made up of a m i n o acids, in the same way that a wall is composed of bricks, and during the digestion process it is broken down in the body to its basic 'bricks', the amino acids, which are then absorbed into the bloodstream and reassembled for new protein synthesis. Twenty-two amino acids are linked together in various forms to create the many and varied types of proteins, such as hair, bone or nails, and these processes are supervised by the nucleic acids R N A and D N A , the specific proteins that contain our genetic blueprint. Eight of these amino acids, which cannot be produced by the body and must be supplied by food, are classified as 'essential amino acids', namely: leucine, isoleucine, valine, methionine, threonine, lysine, phenylalanine and tryptophan. An adequate supply of dietary protein is of utmost miportance in order to maintain optimal health, growth, function and rejuvenation of the body. Symptoms ot protein deficiency are many and varied, ranging from hair
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loss, brittle nails and rough skin to fatigue, anaemia and low sex drive. In addition to creating protein, various amino acids, both essential and non-essential, have been found to have specific beneficial effects on health, and these amino acids are available as nutritional supplements.
PSYLLIUM, PLANTAIN
(PLANTAGO OVATA, PLANTAGO MAJOR)
Psyllium is a perennial herb which is mainly cultivated in Asia. T h e seeds are rich in both mucilaginous substances and fibre. T h e leaves of P major, the greater or common plantain, which grows prolifically as a weed throughout the British Isles, also contain tannins. Psyllium is an intestinal lubricant that soothes the digestive tract and is beneficial in cases of internal infections, ulcers and diverticulosis. It is also an astringent and its decoctions, which promote blood-clotting, are used on wounds and haemorrhoids. However, its most common use is in fighting constipation. Mixed with water, the powdered seeds make an excellent laxative as, like bran, they absorb water in the intestine and swell, stimulating a natural bowel movement. Psyllium husk powder in bulk and capsule form is available in health food shops.
PULSES see LEGUMES
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PUMPKIN
(CUCURBITA)
Pumpkin is a sweet vegetable which probably originated in North America, where it is still widely grown and eaten. It provides a good source of beta carotene, calcium, iron and some B v i t a m i n s and can also help to regulate b l o o d sugar levels, and is thus of benefit to hypoglycaemics. Pumpkin promotes the expulsion of mucus from the throat, bronchi and lungs, and its regular use is said to benefit bronchial asthma. Pumpkin seeds are rich in zinc, and are known for their ability to destroy parasitic intestinal worms, in both children and adults.
PYCNOGENOL
Pycnogenol is the trade name for a group of bioflavonoids called proanthocyanidins. Although these flavonoids can be extracted from various foods such as fruits, grains, vegetables and grape seeds, pycnogenol is derived under patent, from the French maritime pine tree
(.Pinus maritima).
The proanthocyanidins in pycnogenol are powerful antioxidants and free radical scavengers. In this respect, pycnogenol is a supernutrient supplement. It has been found to be 50 times better than v i t a m i n E and 20 times better than v i t a m i n C in scavenging free radicals. Pycnogenol has anti-ageing properties and is usually taken to boost the immune response and prevent the degenerative diseases of ageing, such as cancer, atherosclerosis, heart attack, arthritis and diabetes.
PYRIDOXINE SEE VITAMIN B6
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PYRUVATE
A new dietary supplement in health food stores, pyruvate is a salt of pyruvic acid, a naturally occuring carbohydrate found in the body and diet. Abundant in foods such as red apples, beer, red wines and certain cheeses, it is formed in the body as a by-product of carbohydrate metabolism, during the breakdown of glucose to ATP - the energy compound stored mostly in muscles. Pyruvate has been researched for 25 years, and although it was initially known among athletes and bodybuilders to increase exercise endurance, promote fat loss and regulate b l o o d sugar, over 100 health benefits were claimed for it. These include enhancement of weight loss and prevention of weight gain with overeating; protecting the heart and increasing its efficiency; reducing blood sugar level in diabetics; lowering cholesterol; inhibiting cancer growth and scavenging free radicals. Several studies showed that in strenuous training before competitions, pyruvate dramatically extended athletic performance by increasing glucose and glycogen stores in muscles. In these studies a mixture of pyruvate and dihydroxyacetone (DHAP) was used. In daily doses of 6 g given to obese women on a 2,000 calorie -a-day diet, pyruvate was found to reduce fat accumulation in the liver, promoting both fat loss and weight loss, while increasing muscle mass. Other studies showed that pyruvate lowers blood lipids, increases heart efficiency, improves glucose metabolism in diabetics, curbs appetite, increases the conversion of food to energy and acts as a powerful antioxidant. Pyruvate is available as capsules, powder or drinks, and the R e c o m m e n d e d Daily Allowence is 2 - 5 g, divided into two daily doses.
Q
QUERCETIN
A bioflavonoid, which is becoming increasingly popular, quercetin serves as a backbone for other flavonoids and is considered to be the most active of them all. Quercetin has a wide range of beneficial effects. It has been found to be a powerful antioxidant, neutralizes free radicals, which are the underlying causes of the degenerative diseases of ageing such as heart disease, cancer and arthritis; it has also been reported to possess strong and prolonged anti-inflammatory and wound-healing properties. In addition, it is reported to be effective against viruses, especially oral herpes. Quercetin has also been shown to have anti-cancer properties, and studies have revealed that it can inhibit the proliferation of malignant cells in breast and ovarian cancers and leukaemia. It has also been found to inhibit histamine release, making it useful in the treatment of allergies. Additional studies have reported on the ability of quercetin to delay the onset of cataract, and, since it is able to enhance insulin secretion, it is also useful in the control of diabetes. Quercetin is abundant in fruits and vegetables such as citrus rind, garlic, onions and b l u e - g r e e n algae, and supplements of quercetin are now available in health food shops in capsule form. Caution: High doses of quercetin supplements may cause diarrhoea.
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QUINOA
(CHENOPODIUM
QUINOA)
A grain, which thrives in the high, cold altitudes of the Andes Mountains of South America where it has been grown for thousands of years, it was one of the staple foods of the Aztecs and was known as the 'mother grain'. T h e protein content of quinoa is the highest of any of the grains, both in quantity and in quality. It also contains more fat than other grains, and has more calcium than milk. In addition, it is a very good source of iron, B vitamins, vitamin E and phosphorus. The grain is still cultivated in the Andes, and remains one of the chief foods of Andean Indians. It is also exported to the USA, where it is processed and marketed as grain, flour or pasta. Quinoa can be cooked in the same way as other grains, such as rice; it is also included in breakfast cereals.
R
RADISH
(RAPHANUS SATIVUS)
An annual plant, cultivated for its succulent tubers, radish is eaten raw and mainly used in salads. It is an astringent and diuretic, and is used to promote bile flow. Radishes and their juice are an old home remedy for coughs, rheumatism and gall bladder problems. The leaves of the plant, which are usually discarded, are very nutritious, containing almost 10 times as much vitamin C as the roots. They are also rich in calcium, iron, s o d i u m , phosphorus, sulphur and potassium. In Yemenite folk medicine, radishes are used to eliminate kidney stones. Half a cup of fresh radish juice each morning on an empty stomach usually dissolves even the most stubborn stones, passing them out of the body in the urine. Caution: Large kidney stones can scratch the urinary passage and cause bleeding as they are passed out. Two tablespoons of olive oil can supply lubrication and ease the elimination. Radishes are not recommended for people with gastro-intestinal inflammations or ulcers.
R a s p b e r r y (rubus idaeus)
A widespread shrubby plant which grows wild, raspberry is cultivated for its red berries. It is an effective astringent and the leaves are rich in vitamins, minerals and fragarine, a substance which prevents uterine contractions.
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Infusion of the leaves can be used to prevent premature labour and painful menstruation. Fresh raspberry juice is an excellent cooling beverage for fevers. Raspberry leaf tea, which is available from health food stores as tea bags, can be used to stop diarrhoea, treat stomach and intestinal ulcers, and help with the healing of wounds. It is also used as a gargle.
RAW J U I C E FASTING SEE FASTING
R D A ( R E C O M M E N D E D DAILY ALLOWANCES) These are the amounts of vitamins and minerals required on a daily basis by the average adult. The R D A values have been created by calculating the amounts of nutrients in average diets and then adding a 'margin of safety'. However, R D A values tend to be set extremely low and have been challenged by many nutritional authorities, especially as RDAs represent average amounts for populations, rather than individuals, and people are biochemically very different from each other. For example, some people burn vitamins quicker than others, and some may have absorption defects of certain nutrients and therefore need an additional intake of these nutrients. Initially, RDAs were intended to prevent nutrient deficiencies, but today the major public trend is towards optimal nutrition, which provides an optimal feeling of well-being and an optimal lifespan. This is the reason why many people use nutritional supplements, sometimes supplementing their diets many times above the R D A levels.
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REISHI
(GANODERMA
LVCIDUM)
This is an exceptional Chinese m u s h r o o m that has long been highly rated in traditional Chinese medicine as a cure-all and has been used in the treatment of a variety of disorders. It is believed to promote health and longevity and to be the best booster of the body's immunity against diseases. Reishi contains g e r m a n i u m and is considered to have a powerful effect against tumours and cancers. Recent research has found reishi to be beneficial in relieving fatigue and stress, treating viral infections and joint inflammations, lowering high cholesterol and triglycerides, reducing heart disease symptoms, regenerating the liver, alleviating allergies, calming the nervous system, helping with the treatment of diabetes and reducing the side effects of chemotherapy. Reishi mushrooms (available from health food stores as capsules) are now increasingly incorporated as an ingredient in many multivitaminmineral supplements.
RENNIN, C H Y M O S I N
Rennin, or chymosin, is a protein-splitting enzyme which is used to coagulate milk in the making of cheese. It is contained in rennet, a substance found in the lining of calves' stomachs. Rennin is used to make the milk separate into curds and whey. The curds are then pressed to drain off the whey and, at this point, they can form a soft cheese, such as cottage cheese, or be allowed to mature to form the harder cheeses.
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RETINOL
Retinol is the fat-soluble, absorbable form of vitamin A which is present only in animal food (especially liver), fish, dairy foods and eggs. It is thought to serve as a precursor < to two active forms of vitamin A, retinal and retinoic acid. Retinal is mainly involved with improving vision and reproduction, while retinoic acid performs the other duties of vitamin A, such as proper growth and skin health. Ninety per cent of the body's retinol is stored in the liver. The vegetable form of vitamin A, beta carotene or provitamin A, cannot be used as such and must first be converted in the body to retinol.
RHODIOLA
(RHODIOLA
ROSEA)
Native to Russia and Scandinavia, rhodiola root has been used for centuries to help people cope with the Siberian climate. Indeed, it was found to promote serotonin, the 'feel good' hormone. Pilot studies showed that it alleviates stress, reduces fatigue and aids heart function. Available from health food stores.
RHUBARB
(RHEUM
PALMATUM)
A perennial vegetable that grows wild in China, it is used mainly for its roots and rhizomes. As an appetite stimulant and astringent, rhubarb is effective for both constipation and diarrhoea, depending on the amounts used. Large amounts can promote diarrhoea while tiny amounts will have a constipative effect.
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Caution: The leaves are high in oxalic acid, which can bind with calcium and promote calcium crystals in people susceptible to kidney stones.
RICE
.1.... 1
(ORYZA)
;;]i? ], --I-Iirri- . ;IL lIi-itfMIf ip-ir11" rin; at; J-MSB^V-,,. . W S M S S ? S W
Rice is a cereal grain, which is one of the world's most important food crops. It forms the main diet of more than half of the world's population, most of w h o m live in Asia, from where the grain is thought to have originated. It thrives in the warm, wet climates of tropical areas and is available in several types and shapes. Natural rice is a rich source of the B vitamins, vitamin E, fibre and unsaturated fatty acids, but unfortunately refining removes most of these nutrients - wholegrain brown rice is both nutritious and easily digestible, while white rice is nutritionally inferior. Rice is the least allergenic of the cereal grains and is well tolerated even by infants and people with digestive disorders. It provides a good home remedy for diarrhoea, nausea and diabetes. Its B vitamins nourish the nervous system and help to relieve depression; it is also used by coeliacs because it does not contain gluten. Short grain rice has a nuttier flavour and a thicker consistency and is better for nervousness than the longgrain, which is less sticky. Basmati rice is slightly aromatic and lighter in texture than other varieties, making it more suitable for the overweight. Wild rice, which is known to benefit the kidneys and bladder, is a grass native to North America and is more related to corn than to rice. Rice can also be sprouted and used for people with weak digestion and poor appetite. (See SPROUTS.)
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NUTRIENTS A TO
ROSE HIPS
(ROSA
CANINA)
Shiny red oval berries, rose hips are the fruits of the dog rose and grow wild in hedgerows all over Europe and America between August and November. Exceedingly rich in vitamin C, one cup of 30 berries contains as much vitamin C as 40 oranges! Rose hips also contain vitamins A, D and E and have a powerful antioxidant activity. Rose hip infusions have been traditionally used for various conditions such as colds, headaches, dizziness and mouth sores. They are mild laxatives and useful as nerve tonics; new studies have also shown that powdered rose hips can help reduce the pain of osteoarthritis better than paracetamol. Dried rose hips are available in tea bags for infusions or as a dried powder in vitamin C supplements. Caution: The seeds of fresh rose hips can irritate the mouth and stomach and should be discarded.
ROSEMARY
(ROSMARINUS
OFFICINALIS)
A beautiful, fragrant evergreen shrub which is native to the Mediterranean regions, it has a variety of herbal uses. An infusion of the leaves and flowering tops is a sedative that can be used to relieve flatulence and headaches, promote perspiration, increase bile flow and stimulate menstruation. Rosemary, especially its young leaves, contains carnosic acid, a powerful antioxidant. R e c e n t research identified rosemary as one of the first plants that can improve memory by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase (a brain chemical which switches off the connection between nerve cells). Rosemary leaves are used as a culinary seasoning and to make essential oils for aromatherapy. They are also used externally, mainly in shampoos and other hair preparations.
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ROYAL JELLY
A bee product, royal jelly is a thick, milky substance that is produced by young nurse bees from pollen and honey. It is the food that converts a regular 'worker' bee to a 'queen' bee, w h o is then able to lay eggs and reproduce. Royal jelly contains the B vitamins, and is particularly rich in pantothenic acid, the B vitamin that relieves stress and promotes fertility and healthy reproduction. Royal jelly also contains vitamins A, C, D and E, together with minerals, hormones, a vast number of a m i n o acids, and antibiotic and antibacterial components, not all of which are isolated. Royal jelly is known to strengthen the immune system and to help in such conditions as fatigue, low sex drive, liver disease, stomach ulcers, kidney disease and skin problems. Royal jelly spoils easily, and is therefore usually sold blended with honey, or in capsules. It is best kept refrigerated and taken on an empty stomach.
R U E
(RUTA
GRAVEOLENS)
An aromatic, perennial plant native to the Mediterranean countries, it is also widely cultivated elsewhere. The aromatic leaves are high in rutin, the bioflavonoid that strengthens capillaries and blood vessels. An infusion of the leaves is diuretic, slightly increases blood pressure and has an abortifacient effect (induces abortion). In Yemenite folk medicine, rue is used to treat nervous breakdowns and to stimulate the onset of delayed menstruation. Caution: R u e must not be taken during pregnancy. Available from specialist ethnic grocers and herbalists.
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RUTIN
R u t i n is a crystalline glucoside, a bioflavonoid closely related to hesperidin. It is present in many plants but its richest source is buckwheat. R u t i n strengthens fragile capillaries and blood vessels, inhibits internal haemorrhages, reduces blood pressure and increases blood circulation to the hands and feet. It is also used in the treatment of haemorrhoids. Rutin is an antioxidant and can help to prevent radiation damage: its action is greatly increased when combined with v i t a m i n C. R u t i n is available in capsules as a supplement.
R Y E
(SECALE
CEREALE)
A cereal grain widely grown in the cool climates of northern Europe, Asia, and N o r t h America, it formed the major ingredient of the bread eaten in medieval Europe. R y e is a very nourishing hard grain, regarded by many as nutritionally superior to wheat. It is high in protein, c a l c i u m and iron, and is a good source of vitamins B l , B 2 and niacin. R y e bread increases strength and stamina, cleans arteries, prevents anaemia, and aids the growth of hair and nails. Rich in fluorine, rye sprouts or soaked rye flakes can strengthen teeth enamel and help bone formation. Rye flour is ideally suited to making sourdough bread. Widely available.
s
SAFFLOWER SEED AND OIL
Safflower (Carthanus tinctorius) is an annual grain cultivated in the USA and Europe. A tea made from the flowers is diuretic and increases perspiration. O f all the kitchen oils, safflower oil is highest in polyunsaturated fatty acids. Its 79 per cent polyunsaturates, which contain the essential linoleic and linolenic acids, are known to lower cholesterol levels and prevent heart attacks and strokes. However, this is only a nutritional asset when the oil is fresh because the higher its content of unsaturates, the more vulnerable an oil is to oxidation and rancidity and, once rancid, the unsaturated fatty acids are converted to irritating substances. Widely available.
SAFFRON
(CROCUS
SATIVUS)
A small perennial plant cultivated in many parts of the world, including Europe and Asia, saffron is both an expensive aromatic spice and a medical herb with several benefits. Traditionally, its flower stigmas are a well-known aphrodisiac. Saffron is also believed to strengthen the appetite, soothe the alimentary canal, increase bile flow, clear liver stagnancy, help menopausal difficulties and relieve phlegm. In small doses, saffron has been used to treat coughs, bloated stomach, colic and insomnia, and it is sometimes used in herb liqueurs as an appetite stimulant. Widely available. Caution: Saffron contains a poison that can damage the kidneys and nerves, and 10 g can be a fatal dose for humans. It should therefore be used only in small amounts.
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NUTRIENTS A TO
SAGE
(SALVIA
OFFICINALIS)
A perennial shrub that grows wild in the Mediterranean regions, sage is also widely cultivated for its culinary and medicinal properties. Traditionally used to improve mental acuity, new research now suggests that sage may restore mental functions and improve memory. Sage tea is astringent, sedative and expels gas; it clears the respiratory tract, makes a good gargle for sore throats and helps overcome colds. Sage is useful for night sweats as it reduces sweating. It also reduces milk flow in nursing mothers prior to weaning, prevents the formation of kidney stones by dissolving residues of uric acid, and regularizes menstruation. An infusion of sage can be applied to the scalp to reduce dandruff. Widely available.
SALMON
The salmon is a fish with the least saturated fat and cholesterol. It contains a valuable source of the highly beneficial o m e g a - 3 fatty acids, EPA and D H A . These essential fatty acids are effective in preventing serious cardiovascular conditions, such as hardening of the arteries, blood clots, hypertension, high cholesterol levels, heart attacks and strokes.
SALMONELLA
Salmonella is a bacteria that can be found in spoiled foods, raw eggs, unpasteurized milk, and also in the intestines of animals. It is the commonest cause of food poisoning and is mainly contracted from contaminated foods, particularly
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chicken and m e a t products poorly cooked meats are a great risk. It is also easily transmitted by unhygienic food preparation, storing and handling, and unclean cutlery or cooking utensils. The effects of salmonella poisoning can vary in severity and range from diarrhoea, cramps and vomiting to fever and infections, and these can sometimes be fatal, particularly in those whose immune system is weak, such as infants and the elderly.
etrgs,
SALT
The richest contributor of s o d i u m in the average diet, table or culinary salt has been indiscriminately condemned as a risky food, leaving many people confused about its use. It should be remembered, however, that in the right amounts, sodium is a much-needed mineral in the body. For example, it stimulates the kidneys and also gastric juices, enabling proper digestion; it promotes sweating and energy, helps to maintain a proper acid-alkaline balance and assists the transmission of nerve messages (see S O D I U M ) . Salt has been incriminated for increasing water retention and elevating blood pressure. Until recently, people w h o were overweight or hypertensive, and those with heart conditions, were warned to avoid salt and many were put on sodium-free diets. However, a new study of thousands of hypertensive patients has shown that reducing salt intake is unnecessary, unless people are aged over 45 and suffer from high blood pressure. Lowering the salt intake of younger people, even with hypertension, has been found to be of limited value. The study recommends instead that patients should take more exercise and drink less alcohol. The harmful effects of severe salt restriction on a large scale are only now becoming appreciated.
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SAM (S-ADENOSYLMETHIONINE)
Recently becoming increasingly popular, SAM is naturally formed in the body by an enzymatic reaction between methionine and ATP (the energy molecule). SAM works (with folic acid and vitamin B12) as a methyl donor, donating methyl molecules necessary to restore brain compounds. SAM acts as an anti-depressant, improves memory and can benefit Alzheimer's patients. As an antioxidant, SAM protects from free radical damage, helps detoxify the liver and prevent allergies, heart disease and cancer. As a component of joints, it protects cartilage and prevents arthritis.
SARSAPARILLA
(SMILAX
OFFICINALIS)
A tropical perennial plant, which is found wild in South America, its root is used to make root beer, a popular beverage in North America, particularly in the American Midwest. A tea prepared from the root has both tonic and diuretic properties, and is used to expel gas and increase perspiration. It is also said to help in the treatment of colds, fevers, gout and rheumatism. In Spanish folk medicine, sarsaparilla was claimed to have a regenerative effect on the genital organs, and was used to help the treatment of venereal diseases such as syphilis and gonorrhoea. Available from health food stores, herbalists and as formulas.
SASSAFRAS
(SASSAFRAS
ALBIDUM)
A tree of the laurel family, it grows wild in the eastern and Pacific north-west regions of the USA. A tea prepared
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from the bark is a strong stimulant and was used by the American Indians as an aphrodisiac. An infusion promotes perspiration and urination, purifies the blood, and is used in conditions such as gout, rheumatism and arthritis. Sassafras tea was once popular as a tonic drink. Available from larger health food stores and herbalists.
SAUERKRAUT
A healthy probiotic food, sauerkraut is made by fermenting (pickling) cabbage, with or without salt. It is easily made at home by crushing raw cabbage and storing it in a ceramic or glass container for about a week. Cabbage can be combined with a variety of herbs and vegetables, such as garlic, carrots or seaweeds, to produce different types of sauerkraut, which can be stored in the refrigerator for several months, although the salted variety has a longer storage life. Sauerkraut can regenerate the intestines and rejuvenate the body by increasing the intestinal flora; it balances stomach secretions and improves digestion. Saltless sauerkraut helps to maintain a correct acid-alkali balance, strengthen the immune system, improve resistance to disease, stimulate blood formation, and increase energy and well-being. For best results, sauerkraut should be eaten on a daily basis by adding a small amount to meals.
SAW P A L M E T T O
(SERESOA
SERRULATA)
A small palm tree that grows wild in coastal regions of North America, it is also known as 'dwarf palm'. Saw palmetto was traditionally used as a food by the south-
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eastern American Indians, and it has recently made headlines in the media as a treatment for enlarged prostate in men. The therapeutic value of saw palmetto lies in its berries which contain an unusual mix of fatty acids, phytosterols and alcohols, that have been found to have a beneficial effect on the size and health of the prostate. This is a muscular gland that surrounds the urethra of males at the base of the bladder, and it becomes enlarged when its cells reproduce quicker than normal as a result of over-secretion of hormones. This can be due to age-related changes, so that enlargement of the prostate gland can be a potential problem for any man over 50. Enlargement of the prostate can produce several uncomfortable symptoms such as difficult or frequent urination, interrupted sleep patterns due to frequent night-time visits to the bathroom, or incomplete emptying of the bladder. In extreme cases, the prostate can develop inflammation or cancer. Saw palmetto berries have been found to inhibit the hormonal secretion of the prostate and relieve much of the discomfort. Saw palmetto extracts are available in capsule form at health food shops. T h e normal recommended dose is 160 mg, taken once or twice daily.
SEAWEEDS
Seaweeds, or marine algae, is a general descriptive name for sea vegetables. They are extremely rich in iodine and in other minerals, such as c a l c i u m , iron, and fluorine, and have been known for centuries for their ability to promote health. They are especially beneficial to thyroid function, and can also lower cholesterol, alkalize the blood, remove radioactivity residues, help with weight loss and are important in bone mineralization and density. Seaweeds are
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used to treat conditions such as goitre, water retention (oedema) and swollen lymph glands. They come in several colours brown, red, green, blue-green and yellow-green - each of which has its own individual properties in addition to the properties common to all. The most commonly used seaweeds include kelp, agar, dulse, hijiki, kombu, arame, wakame, nori and Irish moss.
SELENIUM
Selenium is a trace element that works best when combined with v i t a m i n E. It is needed by the body to form glutathione peroxidase, an important antioxidant enzyme that protects the body from the damaging effects of free radicals and prevents the degenerative diseases of ageing. In fact, selenium deficiency is a known factor in premature ageing, heart attacks and cancer, and it has been estimated that if the majority of people took selenium supplements, the incidence of cancer could be reduced by 70 per cent! In conjunction with v i t a m i n E, selenium helps the body to eliminate toxic elements such as lead, c a d m i u m and mercury. The beneficial effects of selenium are many and varied. It increases immunity to diseases, slows down ageing, alleviates menopausal discomfort, promotes energy and sexual potency, and helps to prevent auto-immune diseases such as arthritis and multiple sclerosis, and degenerative diseases such as cancer and atherosclerosis. Some of the deficiency symptoms of selenium are manifested as fatigue, susceptibility to infections, premature ageing, predisposition to cancer and low sexual potency selenium is concentrated in the male sex glands and is lost in ejaculated semen. Dietary sources of selenium are
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limited as plants do not require selenium for growth and can happily prosper in selenium-poor soils. Among the best natural sources are brewer's yeast, raw wheat germ, tuna onions, nuts and seeds. An average daily consumption for adults of 50200 meg is recommended, with a range of 5080 meg for children. Selenium is available as a supplement in health food shops.
SENNA
(CASSIA
ACUTIFOLIA)
T h e dried pods and leaves of the cassia tree, which grows wild in North African countries, senna contains two active glycosides and is a well-known remedy for chronic constipation. An infusion of the leaves and pods will act as a strong laxative. Senna is often combined with other substances to eliminate intestinal worms; it can also help to counteract bad breath. Available from health food stores and widely incorporated in laxative formulas. Caution: Senna should not be used in cases of haemorrhoids.
S E R I N E SEE PHOSPHATIDYLSERINE(PS)
SEROTONIN
Serotonin has recently been receiving considerable media attention for its many beneficial effects. It is one of the neurotransmitters, i.e. brain chemicals that carry messages between the nerve cells, and unlike other excitatory neurotransmitters, such as adrenalin, serotonin is an inhibiting or calming neurotransmitter and reduces brain
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cell activity. It counteracts depression, anxiety and fear, lifting the spirits; it also increases libido, induces sleep, improves memory and concentration, supresses the appetite and aids weight reduction. In fact, drugs which raise serotonin levels are now being used to help with weight loss. Unfortunately, serotonin cannot be taken as a supplement because it is broken down during digestion. It is derived in the body from the amino acid tryptophan which is abundant in foods such as m i l k and bananas. Starchy foods such as potatoes, pasta and breads can also help to raise serotonin levels by increasing insulin, which in turn raises tryptophan levels.
SESAME SEEDS
(SESAMUM
INDICUM)
A annual herb that originated in Africa or India, it is now widely cultivated in the tropical regions of China, India, Japan, Mexico and the south-western states of the United States. Sesame seeds are very nutritious and provide an excellent source of protein, calcium, omega-6 fatty acids, m a g n e s i u m , iron, zinc, vitamins A and E and niacin. Available hulled or unhulled, the unhulled seeds as used in breads or grain dishes are more nutritious because most of the mineral content of the seed is contained in the hull. T h e hull is high in minerals. However, the hull also contains aflatoxins and oxalic acid which deplete calcium. Hulled sesame seeds are purer, safer, more digestible and more alkaline. Hulled sesame seeds are commonly available as sesame butter, called tahini, which can be used in a number of ways. Combined with honey, tahini makes a delicious spread; blended with water,
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l e m o n and garlic, it provides a base for a healthy salad dressing which is very popular in the Middle East. Allowed to stand for a while, the oil separates from tahini and can be used as an excellent cooking oil; it can also be used externally to soothe skin problems. Tahini can be combined with water to prepare sesame milk, which is used to lubricate the intestines, to help relieve constipation, and is also recommended for stiff joints, weak knees, nervous spasms and increasing milk secretion in nursing mothers.
SHELLFISH
Shellfish are highly nutritious, easily digested foods. They are high in protein, low in fat and rich in essential minerals. Except for sea clams and mussels, however, most shellfish are highly polluted. Since poisonous shellfish cannot be detected by their appearance or smell, they should be bought fresh from reliable, uncontaminated sources.
S H E P H E R D ' S PURSE
(CAPSELLA
BURSA-PASTORIS)
A widespread annual herb, growing wild throughout Europe, particularly in poor soils and wastelands, it is rich in calcium, sodium, and vitamins C and K. The whole plant has medicinal properties and is an effective blood coagulant, which can be used to stop bleeding, both external and internal, including excessive menstrual bleeding. It is also a diuretic. Available from health food stores and incorporated in nutritional formulas.
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SHORT-CHAIN FATTY A C I D S (SCFA)

SCFAs are produced naturally in the intestines from dietary fibre by the intestinal flora. The three SCFAs, acetic acid, propionic acid and butyric acid, have important functions. Acetate and propionate are stored in the liver and used for energy production. Butyrate is an important energy source for the metabolic activity of the colon. It has effective anti-cancer effects and is thought to be responsible for the cancer-inhibiting properties of dietary fibre. Butyrate is also used in enemas in the treatment of ulcerative colitis. Different fibres produce differing amounts of SCFAs in the colon. Pectins from apples, guar g u m and legume fibres produce more SCFAs than oat bran or c o r n fibre.
SHOYU
A wheat -containing type of soy sauce, shoyu is a traditional Japanese seasoning made from soybeans, wheat, salt and koji (a fermentation starter made from a special yeast culture, aspergillus oryzae).The fermentation of shoyu usually takes a few months. It is commonly used to salt and flavour foods. Caution: People with an allergy to wheat or coeliacs should not use shoyu. Instead they can use tamari.
SILICON
Although, as a constituent of sand and rocks, silicon is the most abundant element contained in the earth's crust, in the human body it is found in only trace amounts as silica (silicon dioxide). In spite of this small overall amount,
a
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however, silica is present in almost every tissue of the body and is essential for cell growth. It is especially concentrated in the hair, nails and connective tissues such as the skin. It can inhibit the greying of hair, keep the skin smooth and supple and prevent brittle nails. For these reasons, it is incorporated into many cosmetic formulas. However, a distinction should be made between water-soluble silica and the controversial silicone breast implants. Despite the similarity in the name, natural silica differs considerably from breast implant silicone, which is an industrial polymer containing controversial hydrocarbons suspected of being carcinogenic. Silica and silica gel have been reported to be beneficial in treating many disorders, including heartburn, ulcers, gastritis, colitis, varicose veins, bronchitis, arteriosclerosis, gum recession, allergic rashes and many others. The best natural sources of silica include horsetail herb, oats, millet, barley, onions, whole wheat and red beet. Silica supplements, for both internal and external use, are available from health food shops in many forms, such as effervescent or chewable tablets, capsules, powders and silica gel. All come with directions for use.
SLIPPERY ELM see E L M
SOD
This very important antioxidant enzyme, which includes c o p p e r and zinc, is found naturally within cells. It protects cells and tissues from the damage of superoxide free radicals and is a general anti-ageing enzyme. It is reported to be especially helpful in preventing the damage
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to joints, membranes and lubricating fluids that occurs in rheumatoid arthritis. It also helps to prevent cataracts. S O D is available as a supplement although, when taken orally, it is mostly destroyed in the digestive tract. However, when administered by injection, it is reported to have been beneficial for both osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis.
SODIUM
The main component of salt is sodium, a mineral prevalent in the body that is found mainly in the fluids surrounding body cells rather than within them. Sodium is highly important in maintaining osmotic pressure in tissues, enabling oxygen and nutrients to move in or out of cells; it stimulates the kidneys and keeps c a l c i u m soluble, preventing kidney stones; it also stimulates the secretion of gastric juices, helping digestion, promotes sweating and helps to prevent heatstroke, and improves feelings of lassitude in people with low blood pressure. Together with potassium, it participates in nerve transmissions and maintains a correct acid alkaline balance. Excessive sodium tends to elevate blood pressure, constrict blood vessels and cause water retention, resulting in oedema and hypertension. People with high blood pressure, heart disease, oedema, or those w h o are overweight, are usually advised to avoid salt and use lowsodium diets. This can be done by using potassium-based salt substitutes, as well as herb powders such as celery, basil, caraway, mustard or parsley. Salt deficiency is very uncommon, but can occur as a result of excessive perspiration. Some of the best natural sources include table salt, kelp and seaweeds, meats, beets, carrots, chard and dandelion greens.
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Caution: Excessive sodium intake should be balanced by increased potassium, since sodium causes the excretion of potassium in the urine.
SORBITOL
Sorbitol is a type of sugar, that is commercially refined from glucose and sucrose. It is about 60 per cent as sweet as sugar and is popular among diabetics since it does not raise insulin levels as sharply as table sugar. Most sorbitol is converted in the body to carbon dioxide and fructose, with only a small part of it being converted to glucose; this is then absorbed through the intestines over a relatively long period of time so that a sharp insulin release is not triggered as is the case with table sugar. Since insulin is known to promote detrimental changes in the cardiovascular system, sorbitol is therefore a much more desirable sweetener than ordinary sugar, even for healthy people. In addition, the slow metabolism of sorbitol does not tax the sugar-balancing glands and causes much less tooth decay. Sorbitol also increases the absorption of certain vitamins, such as B12, which is why it is included in many multi-vitamin tablets.
SOYBEAN
An ancient staple crop of Asia, the soybean is a legume noted for its high vegetable protein content (38 per cent), which is greater than the protein content of milk. T h e crop has long been considered a solution to famine in Asia, since an acre of soybeans produces 20 times more usable protein than the same acreage used for grazing beef or growing fodder.
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In recent years, soybeans have developed into one of the world's major sources of vegetable oil and texturized vegetable protein (TVP) and, as such, they are included in many foods, including ice cream, soy sauce, beansprouts and tofu. Soya milk does not contain the saturated fat, cholesterol and toxic residues of dairy milk. It has, to a large extent, replaced dairy milk in many people's diets and revolutionized their eating habits. Soybeans have been found to be a storehouse of phytochemicals beneficial antioxidant nutrients, such as saponins, phytosterols and phenolic acids which protect the body from free radical damage, reducing the risk of the degenerative diseases of ageing, such as heart attack, cancer and strokes. Two of the best anticarcinogens in soya are some plant oestrogens, which prevent breast cancer, and genistein, which inhibits the growth of cancer cells. In fact, soybeans have a mild oestrogenic activity due to their isoflavones, also called phytoestrogens. Eating soya products can therefore be beneficial for women in H R T and can help offset some postmenopausal symptoms. Soy beans have also been found to be beneficial in reducing cholesterol levels and preventing heart attack. A new Canadian University study found that three glasses of soya milk and one soya dessert consumed daily lowered the 'bad' L D L cholesterol by 11 per cent and increased the 'good' H D L by 9 per cent in 70 per cent of the subjects. Research has shown that the substitution of soya products in the daily diet for just part of the normal m e a t and dairy milk intake can provide a number of health benefits. All widely available. (See also SPROUTS.)
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SPINACH
(SPINACIA
OLERACEA)
A popular garden vegetables native to south-east Asia, spinach is an excellent source of iron, calcium, chlorophyll, beta carotene (provitamin A), vitamin C, riboflavin, s o d i u m and potassium. It is a diuretic and laxative, and can also be used to stop minor haemorrhaging such as nosebleeds. As it is rich in iron and chlorophyll, spinach builds the blood, while its sulphur content helps to clean the liver and relieve herpes irritations. In addition, its v i t a m i n A content can help to prevent night blindness. Although spinach provides an exceptional source of calcium, it is also high in oxalic acid, which can partly interfere with the absorption of the calcium. Caution: People with a tendency to kidney stories should eat spinach sparingly since its high oxalic acid can tend to form calcium-oxalate kidney stones in susceptible individuals.
SPIRULINA
Spirulina is a blue-green, single-cell algae, which is spiralshaped hence its name. It thrives in warm alkaline lakes such as Lake Chad in Africa and Lake Texcoco in Mexico. T h e algae, which appears to be a floating green scum, is collected from the lake and dried. Spirulina was so highly valued as a sustaining food by the ancient Aztecs that it was used by them as currency and m o d e r n science has recently discovered why. Spirulina contains over 65 per cent complete protein, a rarity among plant foods, and this protein, which is predigested by the algae, is so well-balanced that it is easier to digest than m e a t . Spirulina absorbs and retains many minerals
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from the lake, including p o t a s s i u m , c a l c i u m , zinc, m a g n e s i u m , m a n g a n e s e , s e l e n i u m , iron and phosphorus. In addition, it is a rich source of the B vitamins, including usable amounts of B12, as well as v i t a m i n E, beta carotene, GLA (essential fatty acid) and chlorophyll. Spirulina has toning and cleansing properties and can be used to detoxify the liver and kidneys, cleanse the arteries, build and enrich the blood and promote intestinal flora. It is also very beneficial for weight control, not only because it is a low-calorie nutrient, but also because it contains high amounts of phenylalanine, the amino acid which curbs the appetite. Spirulina has been used in the treatment of anaemia, weakness, malnutrition, hepatitis, inner inflammations, diabetes, hypoglycaemia and poor skin tone. It is a versatile food supplement which strengthens the immune system and increases resistance to disease and inflammations. It also contains a blue pigment, phycocyanin, which is a protein known to inhibit cancer. Since it is grown and harvested in unpolluted areas, totally free of environmental pollutants, spirulina is one of the safest foods available. It is sold in health food shops in both powder and tablet form.
SPROUTS
Sprouts (young shoots from recently germinated seeds), mainly soybean, have been a part of the Chinese diet for thousands of years. Sprouts are rich in chlorophyll, vitamins A, C, D, E, K and B c o m p l e x , and in minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, potassium, m a g n e s i u m and iron. They are also abundant in quality protein and e n z y m e s , making them easily digestible.
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Sprouts have been described as 'the most living food in the world' since, unlike most plants, they are eaten at the peak of their freshness and vitality while they are still growing, and anyone w h o eats sprouts regularly will experience this vitality and increased energy. Sprouts are diuretics and appetizers and detoxify the body. They are used for weight loss, arthritis, oedema, peptic and duodenal ulcers, and by people with weak digestion. Miraculous things happen w h e n grain or legume seeds begin to germinate the starches and oils contained in the seeds are converted to vitamins, proteins, enzymes and simple sugars. For example, vitamin C increases six-fold so that a 100 g serving of soybean sprouts will contain 120 m g vitamin C, which is double the recommended daily amount. T h e protein content of alfalfa sprouts rises to between 16 and 31 per cent, and their carotene content equals that of carrots. T h e B vitamins, enzymes and other nutrients also increase spectacularly, making sprouts an easily digested f o r m of nourishment. Alfalfa sprouts are a m o n g the most popular and, because they contain more minerals, they are more nutritious than other sprouts. T h e roots of the alfalfa plant can penetrate as deeply as 30 m (100 feet), where access to minerals is highest, and thus the sprout can contain concentrated amounts of iron, calcium, magnesium, potassium, z i n c , phosphorus, s o d i u m , sulphur, silicon, chlorine and cobalt. Sprouts are commonly sold in both health food shops and supermarkets. Seeds such as peas, chickpeas, w h e a t sesame and c o r n are easily sprouted at h o m e using plastic sprouters available in health food stores.
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SQUASH, WINTER
(CVCURBITA)
A gourd-shaped vegetable native to N o r t h America, winter squash provides an outstanding source of alpha and beta carotenes (provitamin A), and contains good amounts of calcium, phosphorus and potassium. Squash can benefit the stomach, reduce inflammations and improve circulation, and squash seeds are reputed to be effective in destroying worms. Some healers recommend that a handful of seeds should be eaten daily for three weeks in order to eliminate parasitic worms.
STEVIA
(STEVIA
REBAIJDIANA)
Increasingly sought-after for its sweet leaves and flower buds, stevia is a small plant that grows in south-western USA and throughout Latin America, where it is called yerba dulce. Thirty times sweeter than sugar and with negligible calories, stevia was adopted by the Japanese, who use it widely in many processed foods. As a herb, stevia has its own beneficial properties. O n e of the greatest is that unlike sugar stevia does not promote tooth decay. A study done by Hiroshima University's School of Dentistry revealed that stevia suppresses the growth of dental bacteria, in contrast to sugar which promotes dental bacteria. Other studies have shown that stevia does not interfere much with b l o o d sugar regulation, and is therefore well-tolerated by both hypoglycaemics and diabetics. American studies found stevia to be a tonic and diuretic, to treat mental and physical tiredness, regulate digestion and blood pressure, and help weight loss. Stevia is increasingly available in health food stores (especially in the USA) as a powder or liquid extract.
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Stevia has great sweetening power: 1 - 3 drops of the extract can sweeten one cup of a drink. Stevia can be used for hot drinks, cooking and baking; its sweetness is not affected by heat. Stevia is recommended as a sweetener particularly for overweight people, and for those suffering from Candida (thrush) or water retention (oedema).
ST J O H N ' S W O R T
(HYPERICUM
PERFORATUM)
A yellow-flowered herb, w h i c h is both cultivated and found wild in the U K and Europe. O n e explanation for its name is that its flowers are most abundant around 24 June, the birthday of J o h n the Baptist. Traditionally used in folk medicine, infusions of the flowers can have a beneficial effect on metabolism and bile secretion and can positively affect m o o d ; they can stimulate appetite, improve circulation and have a general anti-inflammatory effect. A tea of the leaves is said to stimulate expulsion of phlegm or mucous, and is beneficial in coughs. R e c e n t studies indicated however, that St John's w o r t extracts can ease the symptoms of anxiety and depression, alleviate stress, promote sleep, boost energy and relieve PMS symptoms. A recent pilot study showed that the herb's extract (in daily doses of 135235 mg) can reduce fatigue or depression linked to tiredness. These extracts contain 0.2 per cent of the active ingredient hypericin, and capsules made of the standardized extracts can be a natural alternative to prescription anti depressant drugs such as Prozac, M A O inhibitors and tricyclics. T h e capsules, extracts and herbs are widely available from health food stores. Positive benefits may be experienced within 46 weeks of initial use.
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STRAWBERRIES
(FRAGRARIA)
A delicious acidic fruit that combines well with a protein meal, strawberries are an exceptional source of vitamin C. A 100 g serving of fresh, ripe strawberries provides 60 mg vitamin C, more than the UK R D A . They are low in s o d i u m and high in potassium, a boon for hypertensive people on low-sodium diets. They are rich in silicon which is useful in repairing and strengthening connective tissue and arteries. Strawberries are also high in pectin, the soluble fibre that helps eliminate cholesterol. Strawberries have a strong antioxidative action and are a useful fruit to eat in the treatment of heart and circulatory diseases. They contain a considerable amount of an anti-cancer compound, ellagic acid, which helps reduce the risk of cancer. They provide modest amounts of iron, which is well assimilated due to the presence of vitamin C, and they can therefore be helpful in the treament of fatigue and anaemia. Traditionally, strawberries were used by herbalists to treat athritis, gout and rheumatism and to relieve urinary difficulties. Eaten before meals, strawberries can help poor digestion. They are best eaten fresh and ripe. If sugar needs to be sprinkled on them, then they are not ripe. Allergic reactions are often caused by eating unripe strawberries.
SUGAR see CARBOHYDRATES
SULPHUR
Dubbed as 'the beauty mineral', sulphur is important for smooth, glossy hair and healthy skin and nails. It is a nonmetallic mineral, abundant in nature and present in every
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cell. It is needed for the formation of collagen, one of the most prevalent proteins, which is found in skin, bone and cartilage. As such, sulphur contributes to a healthy looking skin. It also has a laxative effect due to its ability to absorb water in the intestines - Epsom salts are in fact sulphates of m a g n e s i u m . Sulphur detoxifies the body, cleans the arteries and helps the body to rid itself of damaging toxic elements. Together with proteins, sulphur forms the vitally important sulphur-containing a m i n o acids cysteine, taurine and methionine. Cysteine and methionine are needed to form the important anti-ageing, antioxidant e n z y m e s that neutralize dangerous peroxide free radicals and help prevent the degenerative diseases of ageing, such as arthritis. In fact, sulphur has long been known to benefit arthritis, and one of its best sources is eggs, which are high in sulphur-containing cysteine. Used externally, in ointments and in the spa waters of regions such as the Dead Sea, sulphur has traditionally been considered beneficial for the treatment of psoriasis, eczema and dermatitis. Deficiency symptoms of sulphur can include arthritis, dry hair, brittle nails and rough skin. Some of the best natural sources of the mineral are eggs, meat, o n i o n s , alfalfa, broccoli, cabbage and watercress. (See also MSM.)
SUNFLOWER SEED AND SUNFLOWER OIL

Sunflowers (Helianthus), which originated in North America and were cultivated by the American Indians, were first introduced into Europe in the sixteenth centuryNowadays, vast fields of the flowers are a familiar sight
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across many European landscapes in the summer months. Sunflower seeds are sun-energized nutritional powerhouses and it is no wonder that in pre-revolutionary Russia field soldiers received a kilo of sunflower seeds as emergency rations on which to subsist if stranded. The seeds are rich in protein (24 per cent), polyunsaturated fatty acids (66 per cent), vitamins A , E, D and several B vitamins, calcium, m a g n e s i u m , phosphorus, iron, zinc, potassium, fluorine and iodine. Sunflower seeds can be used as a snack, a topping for salads, as a nut butter spread, or can be included in bread. The seeds have been described as beneficial to eyesight, skin and fingernails, and are a useful adjunct in the treatment of hypertension and irritated nerves. Sprouted sunflower seeds are easily digestible and rich in v i t a m i n E, lecithin and pectin. As a supplement, 2 tablespoons of sunflower seeds a day are recommended, even for people on reducing diets. Both are widely available. Sunflower seed oil is one of the richest sources of essential fatty acids. It contains as m u c h as 66 per cent essential omega-6 fatty acids, and has the highest content of all seeds of the essential linoleic acid. T h e oil can be used as an all-purpose kitchen oil, although it is best used fresh and raw as a base in salad dressings to obtain its full nutritional value. It can also be blended with butter, thereby enriching the butter with its essential fatty acids.
SWEET POTATOES
AND
YAMS
(DIOSCOREA)
A vegetable with large, fleshy, edible roots, sweet potatoes are believed to have originated in South America. Today, they are grown throughout the world and are an important
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food in many countries - about 85 per cent of the world's sweet potato crop is grown in China. Outstandingly rich in v i t a m i n A (many times more so than potatoes), sweet potatoes also provide vitamin C, calcium, iron, potassium, phosphorus and s o d i u m , but they must be baked or boiled in their skins to retain these nutrients. Due to their exceptional vitamin A content, sweet potatoes can be used to improve night vision. They are also reported to increase milk secretion in nursing mothers, remove toxins from the body and treat underweight and diarrhoea. Sweet potatoes are best selected when fresh looking, firm to the touch, and preferably either with a dark grey skin colour (yams) or red skin colour (sweet potatoes) most 'yams' sold in the USA are in fact sweet potatoes with red flesh. The vegetables should not be refrigerated as this can cause chilling injuries. However, if stored in a cool, dry place they can be kept for several months. They are widely available. Caution: Since sweet potatoes can cause indigestion and abdominal swelling, they should be eaten in moderate servings.
T
TAHINI SEE SESAME
TAMARI
A wheat -free soy sauce, made from soybeans, sea salt and koji (a fermentation starter made of a special yeast culture, aspergillus oryzae), tamari is traditionally a by-product of m i s o production. It is made from the liquid that exudes from the soybean paste as the miso ferments. Good tamari is allowed the to ferment and age for at least a year. Although similar in appearance and flavour to shoyu, tamari has a stronger, sharper taste and aroma. It is used instead of salt and to add complex flavour.
TAMARIND
(TAMARINDUS
INDICA)
An evergreen tree native to India, it bears small, sweet fruits in pods. Tamarind fruit is well known as a gentle laxative and is sometimes used as an ingredient in laxative preparations. T h e leaves are reputed to destroy parasitic intestinal worms. In Asia, tamarind fruit is eaten as a food; it is also made into a refreshing and cooling beverage, which is particularly suitable for people with fever. Tamarind is exported and is available in specialist shops in the west.
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TAPIOCA
An edible starch obtained from the fleshy rootstock of the tropical cassava shrub, also called manioc, native to Central and South America. It has been the prime source of starch for the native Brazilians w h o gave it its name. R a w cassava contains toxic glycosides, which is why it has to be soaked and cooked. Tapioca is available in several forms, such as flakes or flour, and is widely used in puddings and as a thickener in soups and other liquid foods.
TARRAGON
(ARTEMISIA
DRACUNCULUS)
A green perennial shrub, its aromatic leaves are commonly used as a culinary herb. T h e fresh leaves and oil are used in tarragon mustard and tarragon vinegar, and also in the cooking of fish or chicken. Infusions of tarragon leaves can be used to stimulate digestive secretions and appetite, relieve digestive disorders, bring on delayed menstruation, and promote urination by stimulating the kidneys. Tarragon tea, taken at bedtime, can help to relieve insomnia.
TAURINE
Taurine is a sulphur -containing, non-essential amino acid. However, it is one of the most abundant a m i n o acids in the body and an antioxidant that neutralizes free radicals. It also helps to raise c a l c i u m levels in the body by transporting calcium (and sodium) across the intestinal wall into the bloodstream. In addition, taurine is a component of bile, which is essential for the digestion of fats, the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and for
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controlling cholesterol levels. Taurine is produced in the body from cysteine with the help of vitamin B6, and is concentrated in excitable tissues such as the heart, muscles and nerve tissues, but it is not commonly found in food. It is thought to have an inhibitory action on epilepsy and has been used to reduce seizures. Its inhibitory action can also help to counteract anxiety and stress, especially when combined with histidine and glycine. Taurine is available as a food supplement and beneficial levels range between 500 and 3,000 mg daily.
T E A
(CAMELLIA
SINENSIS)
The tea plant is an evergreen that is grown in many tropical and subtropical regions of the world, particularly in India and China, which together produce the bulk of the world's tea supplies. The flavours of the teas produced vary from country to country, and are dependent not only on soil type and processing methods, but also on the elevation of the plantations, with the finest tea coming from higher, cooler areas as the plant grows more slowly in cool air, adding to its flavour. Black tea is a stimulating, refreshing and diuretic beverage provided it is not strongly steeped, only lightly infused. It is traditionally used to aid digestion, especially after a heavy meal; it also quenches thirst, relieves flatulence and counteracts diarrhoea. A popular tea variety, 'Earl Grey' consists of black tea blended with bergamot oil, which is in itself refreshing, relaxing and calming, and adds these properties in the blending to the tea. C o m m o n tea contains stimulating and astringent substances, including theophylline, theine and tannins, which are known to stimulate overproduction of cellular
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products, such as fibrous tissue and cyst fluid. Strong tea is used medicinally to halt dysentery and treat chronic inflammations such as gastritis and enteritis. It is also used externally for certain skin conditions. Tea includes the minerals s o d i u m , potassium, m a g n e s i u m , c a l c i u m and manganese. In tea-drinking countries, a third or more of the daily consumption of manganese comes from tea. Excessive drinking of tea has been found to contribute to constipation, nervousness, breast lumps and, in sensitive individuals, to mimic the many symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome. Some milder types of tea, which are made from the branches of certain tea plants, are exported from Japan and marketed as 'bancha twig tea' or 'kukicha'. (See also G R E E N TEA.)
TEA TREE OIL
(MELALEUCA
ALTERNIFOLIA)
Tea tree is a native of Australia where it is cultivated especially for its valuable oil, which is extracted from the leaves by steam distillation. This oil has been found to be an effective antiseptic, with strong germicidal and fungicidal actions. For many years, the Australian aboriginals bathed in the healing waters of swampy areas in which the tea tree grew. They used the plant on their skins by crushing the leaves and spreading the pulp on affected areas. When discovered in 1700 by British explorers, tea tree was named by Captain Cook when he observed the aboriginals brewing tea from the leaves. Since then, the tea tree has been studied scientifically and found to contain 48 compounds, including terpine 4-ol, one of its most therapeutic ingredients. These
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compounds, not all of which have been identified, have been found to be beneficial in healing infected wounds, skin inflammations, carbuncles and pus-filled infections; as such, they were used during World War II by Australian troops. Tea tree oil has since been found to be very beneficial in the treatment of various conditions such as bladder inflammation (cystitis), athlete's foot, nappy rash, insect bites, sunburn, cuts, fungi, dandruff and itchy scalp. Nowadays, tea tree oil is incorporated into many personal care products, such as dandruff shampoos and conditioners, deodorants, toothpastes, antiseptic mouthwashes, ointments for treating acne and fungal infections, and as a douche for vaginal yeast infections.
TEMPEH
The most popular soya food in Indonesia, tempeh originated in Java more than 200 years ago and is now sold in thousands of shops in Java alone, and in increasing numbers of health food shops in the USA and other western countries. Tempeh is a fermented soya product made from cooked soybeans bound together by a dense fungus (rhizopus) and then moulded into compact patties. Sold fresh, refrigerated or frozen, the patties can be sliced and fried until crisp, and their flavour and texture resemble southern-fried chicken. Different varieties of tempeh are produced by combining the soybeans with grains such as wheat, rice, millet or coconut. Soya tempeh is highly nutritious. It contains 18 per cent protein and is an exceptional vegetarian source of vitamin B12. Popular western recipes include tempeh burgers, seasoned crisp tempeh and tempeh sandwiches.
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THEOBROMINE
An ingredient found mainly in cocoa and chocolate, theobromine is a stimulating alkaloid and one of the methylxanthines, a group of compounds that includes caffeine and theophylline. Theobromine expands blood vessels in the heart, increases urination, reduces c a l c i u m absorption, and is a mild stimulator of the nervous system. It is known to stimulate overproduction of cellular products, such as fibrous tissue and cyst fluid.
THEOPHYLLINE
An alkaloid found in tea, theophylline is a methylxanthine, diuretic and a mild stimulator.
T H I A M I N E SEE VITAMIN Bl
THREONINE
An essential amino acid which helps to maintain protein balance in the body, it is important for the synthesis of collagen. Threonine is concentrated in the heart, nervous system and skeletal muscles, and also helps the liver to handle fats in combination with aspartic acid and methionine.
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THYME
(THYMUS
VULGARIS)
A small, scented garden plant native to the Mediterranean regions, thyme was used by the R o m a n s as both a culinary and a therapeutic herb. Its aromatic and spicy tasting leaves, which are rich in essential oils, are used in cooking and in infusions. Thyme is a good tonic for the stomach and nerves. Its tea relieves flatulence, promotes appetite, strengthens digestion, loosens phlegm and increases perspiration. Infusions have a calming effect, relax muscle spasms and alleviate exhaustion. Extracts and infusions are also used to treat bronchitis, laryngitis and coughs. Thyme vinegar was used for centuries to relieve headaches. Essential oil of thyme makes a good antiseptic mouthwash, and is also used externally for warts and for a relaxing bath. Caution: Too much thyme can overstimulate the thyroid and cause poisoning symptoms.
T O C O P H E R O L see VITAMIN E
TOCOTRIENOLS
This is a group of natural compounds related to tocopherols (vitamin E). Whereas the tocopherol molecule consists of a ring and a long saturated side chain, the tocotrienol differs by having three double-bond as their side chain. However, the tocotrienols are less widely distributed in nature. While tocopherols are found mainly in wheat germ, corn and soybean oils, tocotrienols are particularly rich in palm, rice bran and barley oils. Once thought to be of a lesser nutritional
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value, tocotrienols were f o u n d be stronger a n t i o x i d a n t s than tocopherols, and to have a better effect as antit u m o u r and cholesterol-reducing agents. T h e tocotrienols are considered to have a better penetration of fatty tissues such as brain and liver, w h i c h accounts for their improved performance. T h e tocotrienols consist of alpha, beta, gamma and delta. Gamma, delta and alpha being the most used. A mix of alpha tocopherol and tocotrienols is now considered the best approach, and the first formulas are available in health food shops in capsule form.
TOFU
A c o m m o n staple of Japanese cuisine, tofu is a cheese -like s o y b e a n curd which has n o w become extremely popular in western countries and various types, such as silken tofu, firm tofu or tofu puddings, are currently available in health food shops. Tofu has been praised for its high protein content of 35 per cent, and for its high protein quality, which includes all the essential a m i n o acids. Indeed, many people in Asia depend on tofu for their daily protein, and it is n o w considered a good replacement for m e a t , thus allowing more people to b e c o m e vegetarians. As a serving of 250 g provides only 147 calories, it is ideal as a diet food an equal amount of beef would contain five times the calories. Tofu is also low in saturated fats and cholesterol, but is rich in c a l c i u m and it is a good source of the B v i t a m i n s , v i t a m i n E , p o t a s s i u m and s o d i u m . As such, it is beneficial for conditions such as diabetes, heart disease and atherosclerosis. Fresh tofu will keep for about five to seven days w h e n
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refrigerated; deep-fried tofu will keep up to 10 days; and special types of silken tofu can be kept sealed in their containers for up to six months. Available from health food stores and supermarkets.
TOMATOES
(LYCOPERSICON
ESCULENTUM)
Tomatoes originated in South America and were brought to Europe from Mexico in the mid-sixteenth century. Tomatoes belong to the solanum family and, historically, early varieties were high in solanine and considered poisonous until safer types were developed. They are rich in vitamins A and C and a good source of calcium, phosphorus, potassium and s o d i u m . They detoxify the body, purify the blood, strengthen digestion and are useful in cases of poor appetite, poor digestion and constipation. Although tomatoes are considered an acidic food, they alkalize the blood after digestion and are useful in treating acidic conditions such as gout. Tomatoes contain lycopene, a powerful antioxidant carotenoid that neutralizes damaging free radicals. Lycopene has been found to be outstandingly effective in quenching singlet oxygen, which is a very reactive type of free radical that damages the D N A blueprint (which supervises cell division), causing mutations and cancer. In fact, the results of one study have indicated that increasing dietary lycopene levels may provide a significant protection from digestive tract cancers. Lycopene is now being incorporated as an ingredient in various multivitamin preparations. Caution: Tomatoes can interfere with calcium absorption and should be avoided in cases of arthritis. More than four tomatoes a day are not recommended.
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TRYPSIN
A protein-splitting enzyme secreted by the pancreas, trypsin enables the digestion of proteins in the intestines. It is included in many digestive-aid tablets such as pancreatin.
TRYPTOPHAN
An an essential a m i n o acid, tryptophan has several crucial roles. Used in the body as a building block of protein, tryptophan helps manufacture antibodies, produce niacin (vitamin B3), and create serotonin, which is an inhibitory neurotransmitter a brain chemical that conveys calming messages between brain cells. Serotonin induces sleep at night and relaxation during the day. It helps alleviate stress, reduce depression, treat insomnia, control hyperactivity in children, stabilize blood pressure and protect the heart. Moreover, an Italian study found that tryptophan (the 5 - H T P form) is also useful for dieting. It can help overweight people lose weight by naturally reducing the appetite and carbohydrate intake, seemingly due to the release of the calming serotonin. Tryptophan needs vitamin B6 and C to be converted to serotonin, and an adequate level of vitamin B3 is also important. W h e n these are in short supply, less serotonin is available, and this can be manifested by symptoms such as insomnia, depression, anxiety and hypertension. Tryptophan rich foods include milk and bananas. The form of tryptophan currently available from health food stores is 5-Hydroxy Tryptophan (5-HTP), derived from the beans of an African bush, Griffonia simplicifolia. The Recommended Daily Allowance is 100200 mg taken between meals. (See Genetically Modified Foods.)
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TURMERIC
(CURCUMA
LONGA)
A common culinary spice, its source is the roots of a plant which is native to Asia. Turmeric was traditionally used by both Indian and Chinese systems of medicine to treat inflammations and cure sprains. It contains a yellow pigment, curcumin, an active ingredient that has been used for centuries not only to season foods but also as a food preservative and colouring agent. T h e curcuminoids in turmeric are a group of phenolic acids that have been found to have unique antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. They retard age-related diseases by preventing free radical damage, inhibit the growth of cancer cells, protect the liver from toxins, help to dissolve gallstones, lower cholesterol levels, alleviate joint swellings, increase joint flexibility and reduce menstrual pain. Studies with HIV patients have shown that turmeric also has a beneficial effect in the treatment of AIDS. Used externally in a poultice, turmeric mixed with lime is an ancient household remedy for sprains, muscular pain and inflamed joints. It is available as a nutritional supplement in capsule form.
TURNIPS
(BRASSICA
CAMPESTRIS)
Turnips are a member of the cruciferous vegetable family, which also includes broccoli and cabbage. Although popularly considered as a starchy root vegetable, both the turnip root and its green leaves are edible. The root is rich in vitamins A, B and C, and minerals such as sulphur, c a l c i u m , potassium, s o d i u m and phosphorus. It is also rich in fibre and contains far fewer calories than potato. A serving of 100 g has only 22 calories. Turnip greens
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supply many times the nutritional content of the root. They are excellent sources of vitamins and minerals. Turnips detoxify the body and alkalize the blood, promoting sweating, releasing mucous and improving the appetite. They are also generally beneficial in conditions such as indigestion, diabetes and jaundice. Turnip greens have traditionally been used in Asia in the treatment of lung congestions, bronchitis, asthma and sinus problems. Although raw turnips have a somewhat pungent smell, this is neutralized in cooking.
TYROSINE, L - T Y R O S I N E
A non-essential amino acid, tyrosine has many vital effects in the body such as fighting depression, maintaining energy and controlling weight. Together with iodine, tyrosine produces thyroxine, the vital thyroid hormone that controls the rate of metabolism, weight, energy and growth. With phenylalanine, tyrosine produces norepinephrine (adrenalin) and d o p a m i n e , two important neurotransmitters the chemicals that enable brain cells to communicate with each other. Norepinephrine is important in the control of stress, anxiety, fatigue and allergies, while dopamine controls motivation, movement and emotions. Tyrosine participates in the production of endorphins, the brain's natural pain relievers and m o o d elevators. Tyrosine is abundant in animal food and is also available as a nutritional supplement from health food stores. Caution: Tyrosine should not be used by people with melanoma.
u/v
UMEBOSHI
Umeboshi is a Japanese salty-sour plum (ume).The p l u m s are pickled with sea salt and sundried for three to four days in the hottest days of the summer, then pickled again with sisho leaves. Increasingly available in western health food shops, umeboshi is highly alkaline and antibiotic. It is revered in Japan as a digestive aid, blood purifier, general tonic and intestine regulator.
UVA URSI SEE BEARBERRY
VALERIAN
(VALERIANA
OFFICINALIS)
A wild herb with fragrant flowers, valerian is cultivated for its root and its essential oil. A tincture of the oil is well k n o w n as a strong sedative that counteracts anxiety, calms nervousness, and reduces heart palpitations, spasms and epileptic fits. Valerian is a wonderfully soothing herb which promotes sleep and is a good painkiller. Traditionally used to prevent fainting, valerian can help in the treatment of digestive ulcers and reduce the urge to smoke. Available from health food stores, pharmacies and herbalists. Also widely incorporated in nutritional formulas.
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Caution: Valerian should not be prepared as a tea unless prescribed by a doctor. Prolonged use of the herb can cause depression.
VALINE
An essential amino acid needed for the formation of protein in the body, valine has a stimulating effect. It is one of the three branched chain a m i n o acids and, in combination with the other two, leucine and isoleucine, valine benefits muscles. It assists the repair of muscle tissue in cases of injury. Available from health food stores and in nutritional formulas.
VANADIUM
Vanadium has recently been discovered as an essential nutrient in human nutrition. Named after the Scandinavian goddess of beauty, vanadium is a trace element that appears to improve insulin action. Vanadium supplements (mostly as vanadyl sulphate) have improved glucose tolerance in animals, inhibited cholesterol and increased bone mineralization. As a result, vanadyl sulphate is n o w commonly used by diabetics. Vanadyl sulphate is found in many foods. Its best sources include buckwheat, parsley, m u s h r o o m s , black pepper, dill and shellfish. N o deficiency symptoms of vanadium have been noted so far, but a daily intake of 1060 meg is considered normal. An upper limit was recently set at 1.8 mg a day.
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V E G A N DIET
T h e vegan diet is a strict form of vegetarianism that promotes the use of fruits, vegetables and spring water, and excludes any animal foods, even those accepted by many vegetarians, such as dairy foods or eggs. Vegan diets have proved beneficial in detoxifying the blood, preventing various diseases such as hypertension, high cholesterol, heart disease, cancer and osteoporosis, while curing inflammations and allergic conditions such as asthma and hay fever. Allergies and inflammations are known to arise from leukotrienes, metabolic derivatives of arachidonic acid. This is an essential fatty acid found exclusively in animal products. T h e elimination of animal products, as in the vegan diet, is thought to prevent the formation of leukotrienes and their related diseases. Obviously, a strict, long-term vegan diet is not suitable for everyone, and could create deficiencies in nutrients such as v i t a m i n B12, zinc and proteins, leading to fatigue and anaemia. However, this effect can be avoided by the use of concentrated foods such as brewer's yeast, bee pollen, spirulina, blue-green algae, chlorella, or by taking supplements. Another way to avoid protein deficiency among vegans is to eat the correct plant protein combinations, for instance, by combining grains and l e g u m e s at the same meal and in the correct proportions to yield usable protein (see Complete Nutrition). Soya products such as m i s o and tofu are also very helpful for increasing protein intake. It should be remembered, however, that nutrient requirements vary from person to person, and that for many people strict dietary restrictions can cause nutrient shortages and deficiency symptoms unless supplements are used.
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VEGETARIAN DIET
A vegetarian diet excludes the use of animal meats, but not necessarily the use of other animal products such as eggs, milk, yogurt and cheese. It depends on the individual interpretation of vegetarianism. However, all vegetarian diets are high in fibre and, usually, the protein problem is less acute than in the vegan diet since vegetarians use some animal protein, which supplies v i t a m i n B12, and they also use high-protein soya products freely, such as tofu and m i s o . In general, vegetarian diets have been shown to be effective in lowering high cholesterol levels and hypertension, preventing atherosclerosis and heart disease, alleviating constipation and reducing the risk of colon cancer, breast cancer and kidney stones. A vegetarian diet can also help to prevent osteoporosis, since a high protein diet and sugar are known to increase excretion of c a l c i u m in the urine.
VERVAIN, V E R B E N A
(VERBENA
OFFICINALIS)
A herb that grows wild in meadows and roadside verges, it is also widely cultivated as a garden plant. It was traditionally regarded as a 'sacred' herb, and infusions of verbena leaves are used by both herbalists and homeopaths. Taken in a single dose, these infusions are diuretic, they loosen phlegm so that it can be coughed up, stimulate vomiting, promote perspiration, relieve indigestion, and can benefit ulcers and colitis. Vervain is also a sedative, relieving depression and anxiety, inducing sleep and alleviating certain types of migraine.
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V I N E LEAVES
(Vms
VINIFERA)
Vine leaves are commonly used in Mediterranean cooking and contain important bioflavonoids, such as anthocyanidins which are potent antioxidants, and other flavonoids. These factors promote blood circulation, strengthen veins and capillaries, and help retain their flexibility. The leaves are also recommended in the treatment of varicose veins and haemorrhoids. Available from specialist ethnic grocers.
VITAMINS
Vitamins are micronutrients, a group of about 20 organic substances other than proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals or salts. Vitamins are extremely complex chemical substances. Being essential to human nutrition, they are found in minute amounts in foods. The first ones were discovered in 1911 by D r Casimir Funk, but by now they have been isolated and synthesized. Like their name implies, they contain a vital part, with an amine group attached. Vitamins do not contain calories and are not a source of energy, but they are vitally important as constituents of e n z y m e s , the organic catalysts that release energy and sustain life. Vitamins are indispensable for normal metabolism, growth, well-being, body development and reproduction. Vitamins work together, enhancing each other's effects, and their shortage is known to cause deficiency diseases. Vitamins are not formed in the body but must be supplied by plant or animal foods. The few exceptions include vitamin A which can be formed in the body from its precursor, beta carotene; vitamin D formed by
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the action of ultraviolet light on the skin; and v i t a m i n K formed by intestinal bacteria. As a general rule, vitamins are unstable, easily destroyed by air, oxidation, heat, light, drugs and aging. Vitamins are broadly classified into watersoluble vitamins (such as the B c o m p l e x and C) which are measured in milligrams, and fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) measured in international units (i.u.). Although each one of us basically needs the same vitamins, we are all individuals biochemically. Personal requirements vary with metabolic rate, food intolerance, genetic makeup, lifestyle, sex, age and body size. Requirements for vitamins A and C for example, can vary up to twentyfold between different people. Vitamins are seriously depeleted in the body by smoking, alcohol, drugs, stress, the contraceptive pill, crash diets and by common diets rich in refined carbohydrates such as white sugar, polished rice and white flour, from which most vitamins have been removed during processing. Balancing diet shortages with vitamin supplements, above the Recommended Daily Allowances, is therefore highly recommended by nutritionists to prevent deficiency symptoms and sustain a feeling of well being. Megavitamin supplementation, that is, taking vitamins in extremely high doses for specific conditions, should be done only under the supervision of a qualified nutritionist.
VITAMIN A
Vitamin A is an antioxidant, fat-soluble vitamin that occurs in two forms. In animal foods such as fish oils and liver, it occurs as retinol which is readily used by the body or stored in the liver. In vegetable foods, it occurs as beta carotene and other carotenoids (provitamin A) which
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must first be converted in the body to retinol, before becoming usable as vitamin A. Vitamin A is important for growth, development and fertility. It boosts the immune system and helps to fight colds, increasing resistance to infections of mucous tissue linings such as eyes, ears, throat, lungs and bladder. Together with beta carotene it improves vision, especially night vision, by forming a photosensitive pigment called visual purple. Vitamin A maintains a healthy-looking skin, preventing acne, dermatitis and skin cancer. High doses of retinol and beta carotene can also prevent cancer of the lungs, bladder and breasts. Deficiency symptoms include red itchy eyes, impaired vision, dry or rough skin and a predisposition to colds and infections. Vitamin A is stored in the liver until needed and, in spite of its wide prevalence, deficiencies do occur. Most vulnerable are dieters, people on low fat regimes and vegans, since only a small part of the beta carotene is converted to retinol if the fat intake is low. Vitamin A supplements are therefore important in unbalanced diets. T h e R e c o m m e n d e d Daily Allowance for adults is 5,000 i.u., and for children 3,000 i.u. Requirements increase during illness, but decrease w h e n using oral contraceptives. Most nutritionists recommend a daily dose of 10,000 i.u. for adults. Excessive doses in the order of 50,000 i.u., taken regularly over periods of a few months, can produce toxic effects.
VITAMIN B COMPLEX
B complex is a group of water-soluble B vitamins that occur together in many vegetables and animal foods. R i c h sources include liver, brewer's yeast, raw wheat germ and
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brown rice. Although certain functions of many B vitamins overlap, all have their own characteristics and they cannot replace one another. Moreover, they interact with each other in many bodily functions. They are vital for such activities as energy production, carbohydrate metabolism and proper nerve function. They have a wide range of effects, from alleviating stress to preventing atherosclerosis. Their deficiency symptoms include fatigue, nervousness, depression, anaemia, weak digestion, poor appetite, constipation, hair loss and high cholesterol levels. B vitamins are depleted by refined sugar and flour, and by a l c o h o l and, being water-soluble, the B vitamins in raw vegetables readily dissolve into the cooking water, enriching the soup or cooking liquid. It is important therefore to save the cooking water of vegetables or brown rice as this provides a rich source of B vitamins. W h e n taking supplements of B vitamins, it is best to consume the whole B complex. Excessive supplementation of only one of the B vitamins disrupts the balance and can promote elimination of the others. W h e n a specific B vitamin is needed to treat a particular condition, say B6 for dieting, it is best to take an additional source of B complex in order to maintain a proper balance of the other B vitamins.
VITAMIN BL (THIAMINE)
This was the first B vitamin to be identified and, as it was discovered in rice husks, thiamine became commonly known as the cure for beri-beri, a fatal Asian disease caused by eating polished rice. It was realized that the symptoms of beri-beri, such as mental disturbances, muscle
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wasting, hypertension and heart attacks, could be cured simply by eating raw brown rice. As a c o e n z y m e , thiamine is essential for energy production, carbohydrate metabolism and nerve function. As an antioxidant, it can help to prevent arthritis and atherosclerosis caused by free radical damage. Together with v i t a m i n C and cysteine, thiamine also helps to protect from the damage caused by smoking and smog. Thiamine has been called the 'morale vitamin' due to its salutary effect on the nerves. It promotes a feeling of optimism, helps to overcome stress, depression, anxiety and poor memory, stabilizes appetite and maintains normal heart function; it is important to growth, lactation and fertility. Deficiency symptoms include fatigue, water retention, poor appetite, heart palpitations, low thyroid function, nervous exhaustion, irritability, fear, anxiety and confusion. Among the best natural sources of thiamine are brewer's yeast, rice bran, raw wheat germ, whole grains, peanuts and green and yellow vegetables. T h e vitamin is destroyed by alcohol, coffee, tea and raw fish. The Recommended Daily Allowance is 1.4 mg for adults and 0.7 mg for children, but many people use supplements containing 50 mg to ensure a feeling of well-being. Requirements increase during stress, lactation or illness.
V I T A M I N B2 (RIBOFLAVIN)
First identified as the yellow-green pigment in milk, riboflavin is vital for metabolism and energy production. Together with vitamin A, it contributes to good vision and promotes growth and fertility. Large doses have been reported to prevent athlete's foot, improve eczemas and allergies, and counteract a sweet tooth.
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Riboflavin is not destroyed by cooking, but it is sensitive to light which is why milk, which is a good source of riboflavin, should not be kept in clear containers or exposed to strong sunlight. Riboflavin deficiency symptoms include the cracking of the lips at the corner of the mouth, tongue inflammations, a sensation of sand in the eyes, cataracts, migraine, scaly skin on the face, dental problems, anaemia and heart disease. Among the best natural sources of the v i t a m i n are milk, liver, brewer's yeast, dairy products, leafy green vegetables, fish and eggs. T h e Recommended Daily Allowance is 1.7 mg for adults and 1 mg for children, although most popular supplements contain 50 mg. Since riboflavin is excreted through the kidneys, excessive consumption or supplementation will result in yellowishgreen urine, but this is perfectly normal.
VITAMIN B3 (NIACIN)
Also called nicotinic acid, niacin was discovered while searching for the cause of pellagra, a common endemic disease of the eighteenth century, which is characterized by the three Ds dermatitis, dementia and diarrhoea. It is a water-soluble v i t a m i n available in two forms, niacin and niacinamide. Niacin assists metabolism, digestion and energy production, and improves blood circulation, preventing blood clots and heart attacks; it lowers high cholesterol levels effectively when taken in daily doses of 3 g or more and is vital to a healthy nervous system, alleviating nervousness, mental disorders and suicidal tendencies. It also enhances insulin secretion and has been reported to benefit new cases of diabetes. In higher doses of 50 mg,
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niacin releases histamine which produces a temporary hot skin flush for a few minutes. This reaction can be prevented by using niacinamide instead of niacin or by using 'flush free' niacin products. (Histamine is a chemical released during allergic reactions, but which is also vital to various functions of the body such as growth, wound healing and orgasm.) Severe deficiencies of niacin can bring about the symptoms of pellagra, although nowadays this is somewhat rare. However, lower deficiencies are very common and symptoms can include fatigue, indigestion, bad breath, arthritis, headaches, high cholesterol levels and lost sense of humour. Megadoses of a few grams of niacin a day have been used successfully to treat clinical depression and schizophrenia, and it is assumed that such illnesses are indicative of a much higher requirement for niacin. Niacin supplements have also been used to treat alcoholism and smoking. Among the best natural sources of niacin are liver, brewer's yeast, eggs, fish, rice bran, w h e a t bran, peanuts, sunflower seeds and w h e a t germ. The R e c o m m e n d e d Daily Allowance is 20 mg for adults and 13 m g for children. However, niacin supplementation of 50100 m g a day can be safely used for greater benefits. Niacin and niacinamide supplements are available on their own or in B complex or multivitamin formulations. Niacin supplements are best taken with meals.
V I T A M I N B5 SEE P A N T O T H E N I C A C I D
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VITAMIN B6 (PYRIDOXINE)
O n e of the busiest of the B vitamins, pyridoxine is an antioxidant v i t a m i n and is involved with more than sixty e n z y m e s , taking part in many varied metabolic functions. It promotes muscle energy by releasing stored sugar from the liver; it helps to metabolize fats and control obesity, lowers cholesterol and prevents atherosclerosis; it regulates the sodium potassium balance, preventing water-retention; it maintains a correct acidalkaline ratio and assists the functions of nerves. Pyridoxine also inhibits the release of histamine and is therefore beneficial to asthmatics and allergy sufferers, and it helps to synthesize nucleic acids, antibodies and red blood cells. In addition, it promotes healthy pregnancies, strengthens the immune system and assists blood formation. Pyridoxine supplements of 50 mg daily can effectively prevent morning sickness in pregnancy, and higher doses of 200 mg daily are reported to be effective in treating carpal tunnel syndrome, reducing the need for surgery. Pyridoxine is also involved in brain chemistry, promoting the production of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, and it has been found helpful for controlling occurrences of epileptic seizures. Together with m a g n e s i u m , pyridoxine inhibits the formation of oxalic acid salts, such as calcium oxalate, thus helping to prevent kidney stones. Pyridoxine is not stored in the body, and is depleted in milk by pasteurization, partially destroyed by cooking, and mostly removed from grains by refining. Alcohol and the contraceptive pill are among its greatest antagonists, and any woman on the pill should consider taking pyridoxine supplements. Deficiency symptoms include water retention, linear nail ridges, tongue inflammations, inability to tan, numbness of hands and feet, convulsions in children,
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depression, tremors, hypoglycaemia, diabetes, appetite loss, high cholesterol levels, kidney stones, osteoporosis, arthritis, allergies, asthma, anaemia and poor dream recollection. Some of the best natural sources of pyrodoxine are brewer's yeast, liver and kidney, sunflower seeds, raw wheat germ, walnuts, molasses, cabbage, milk and eggs. T h e Recommended Daily Allowance for adults is 2.2 mg, and 1.7 mg for children. T h e normal nutritional supplementation range is between 50 and 100 mg daily. As it is a water-soluble vitamin, pyridoxine supplementation is best divided throughout the day and taken at intervals.
VITAMIN B12 (COBALAMIN)

Isolated from liver extract in 1948, vitamin B12 was identified as the food factor that prevents the fatal condition pernicious anaemia. The vitamin is water soluble and contains the mineral cobalt, hence its name. It comes in several forms, of which cyanocobalamin is the most common. Although cobalamin is required in tiny amounts, measured in micrograms, it is essential for the functioning of all cells and is principally involved in energy metabolism, immune function and nerve function. Together with folic acid, the vitamin forms red blood cells to prevent anaemia, and promotes growth and appetite in children, increases energy, improves brain functions such as memory and learning ability, maintains a healthy nervous system, stabilizes menstruation and prevents post-natal depression. Vitamin B12 is used to treat a wide range of conditions, such as fatigue, depression, Alzheimer's disease, asthma, infertility, multiple sclerosis, noise-induced hearing loss and AIDS.
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The absorption of B12 depends on a stomach secretion called the 'intrinsic factor'. Many people with reduced secretion suffer unknowingly from a deficiency of the vitamin, which can take years to manifest since B12 is stored in the liver unlike the other water-soluble vitamins. B12 deficiency is thought to be especially common in the elderly, and affects primarily the brain and nervous system. Apart from fatigue and depression, deficiency symptoms include a pins-and-needles sensation, impaired memory, red tongue, diarrhoea, shortness of breath, heart palpitation and apathy. More acute deficiencies include symptoms such as loss of co-ordination and senile dementia. B12 is found in significant quantities only in animal products, and its richest sources are liver, kidneys, sardines, eggs, fish and cheese. In non-animal foods, B12 is found in fermented soya products (miso, tofu, tempeh), algae (spirulina, chlorella, blue-green algae) and bee pollen. Vegans and strict vegetarians are well advised to take B12 supplements to prevent deficiencies. T h e typical Recommended Daily Allowance is 2 meg for adults and 1 meg for children. Supplements are available in potencies of 60-2,000 meg. Some people are not able to absorb B12 easily, and therefore need to take high supplementary dosages, either orally or by injection.
VITAMIN B15 SEE P A N G A M I C A C I D
V I T A M I N C ( A S C O R B I C ACID) Vitamin C is a water-soluble nutrient that was recognized as a cure for scurvy long before it was isolated in 1933. In recent years, it has received a great deal of public attention
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as a cure for the common cold. But vitamin C does much more than just prevent scurvy and colds. For example, as an antioxidant, it delays ageing and prevents age-related diseases from arthritis to Parkinson's disease; as an antihistamine, it alleviates allergies; and as an antipollutant, it eliminates toxins from the body. However, the chief function of vitamin C is the production of collagen, the structural protein that holds our bodies together. As such, it hastens the healing of wounds, prevents bleeding gums and strengthens capillaries and blood vessels, preventing heart attacks and strokes. Collagen is also the subcutaneous 'cement', and facial wrinkles can be a sign ot a life-long deficiency in vitamin C. Vitamin C is also a powerful booster of the immune system and is well known for its ability to increase resistance to infection and disease by increasing the production of anti-bodies and interferon, which fight microbes and viruses. Scientific studies have confirmed that megadoses of vitamin C can reduce the risk of a wide range of cancers, and also inhibit tumour development and prolong the survival of cancer patients. In dosages of at least 1,000 mg a day, vitamin C helps to lower cholesterol by speeding its conversion to bile. Vitamin C also aids the absorption of iron, preventing anaemia and provides protection against the devastating effects of smoking and alcoholism. Deficiency symptoms of vitamin C include susceptibility to colds, infections and allergies, easy bruising and the slow healing of wounds, inflamed gums and defective teeth, fatigue and anaemia, and nervousness, anxiety and depression. Among the best natural sources of the v i t a m i n are fresh citrus fruits, peppers, guavas, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, papaya and kiwi. The natural vitamin C in fruits and vegetables is highly
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perishable as the vitamin is unstable and disintegrates, not only in cooking, but also in peeled fruits and vegetables. The R e c o m m e n d e d Daily Allowances of vitamin C are 60 mg for adults and 45 mg for children. However, these are ridiculously low dosages and the main effect is to prevent scurvy. For optimal benefits, doses of a few grams a day are recommended. Vitamin C tablets that contain bioflavonoids are preferable.
VITAMIN D
Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin, known as the 'sunshine vitamin' because the sun's ultraviolet rays convert subcutaneous cholesterol to vitamin D. There are two major forms of vitamin D D 2 (ergocalciferol) and D 3 (cholecalciferol). D2 is the form added to milk. Vitamin D promotes the absorption of c a l c i u m and phosphorus, both vital for strong bones and teeth. It also assists the assimilation of v i t a m i n A and maintains a healthy nervous sytem, normal heartbeat and efficient b l o o d clotting. N e w research has shown that increasing the intake of vitamin D through exposure to sunlight or eating oily fish can help in the treatment of asthma, and provide protection against prostate cancer. Vitamin D is mainly stored in the liver. Typical deficiency symptoms include porous bones (leading to rickets in children), tooth decay, fatigue and arthritis, and one report links myopia (short-sightedness) to vitamin D deficiency. The vitamin is scarce in vegetables and its best natural sources include fish liver oil, sardines, herring, salmon, tuna and fortified milk. The recommended daily allowance is 400 i.u. for adults and children.
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Caution: Prolonged daily doses above 1,600 i.u. can lead to over-accumulation and toxicity symptoms such as diarrhoea, calcification of the arteries and kidney damage.
VITAMIN E
Vitamin E is a fat-soluble vitamin composed of a group of substances known as tocopherols, which are subdivided into alpha, beta, gamma, and so forth. O f these, alpha tocopherol is the most active. Vitamin E is available in both natural and synthetic forms, with the natural forms designated'd' on supplement labels, as in d-alphatocopherol, and the synthetic forms designated 'dl', as in dl-alpha-tocopherol. The two forms are mirror images of one another, but only the natural 'd'-form is recognized by the body. 'Tocopherol' is derived from two Greek words meaning 'childbearing', since early studies of vitamin E involved fertility problems. Vitamin E is a most important lipid antioxidant. It binds oxygen and protects the fats in our bodies from the damaging effects of uncontrolled oxidation, peroxides and free radicals. These peroxides attack body cells, immune cells and cholesterol, reducing resistance and causing the degenerative diseases of ageing, such as cancer, heart attacks, strokes, arthritis, senility and diabetes. By binding oxygen, vitamin E alleviates some of the primary causes of death and helps to extend life-span. Vitamin E improves cell respiration (a boon to joggers), promotes fertility and sexual potency, is very effective in preventing the hot flushes of menopause and miscarriages, and protects the body from common pollutants such as ozone, radiation and toxic elements. The vitamin is used in the treatment of
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many conditions, including atherosclerosis, angina, hypertension, cancer, haemolytic anaemia, allergies, cataracts, eczema, acne, premenstrual syndrome, skin ulcers, burns and digestive ulcers. A recent study has shown that a daily dose of 2,000 i.u. taken regularly can slow the deterioration resulting from Alzheimer's disease. Vitamin E deficiency symptoms include fatigue and premature ageing, sterility and miscarriage, muscular dystrophy, haemolytic anaemia (which is not responsive to iron intake), circulatory disorders such as coronary thrombosis, varicose veins and thrombophlebitis, lameness due to poor circulation (claudication), kidney inflammation, degeneration of sex glands, and slow healing of wounds and burns. Among its best natural sources are raw w h e a t germ and wheat g e r m oil, vegetable oils, soybeans, whole grains, eggs and leafy green vegetables. The R e c o m m e n d e d Daily Allowance of vitamin E is 15 i.u. for adults and 10.5 i.u. for children. However, for optimal protection, much higher doses are recommended. Vitamin E is available in potencies between 100 i.u. and 1,000 i.u. on its own, and it is also included in nutritional formulas. The most popular daily supplement is 400 i.u.
VITAMIN K
A fat-soluble vitamin, vitamin K tends to be a neglected nutrient because it is rarely deficient. It is known for its role in producing blood-clotting factors, such as prothrombin and, in this way, it contributes to the prevention of internal haemorrhaging and reduces excessive menstrual flow. It is also used to prevent haemorrhagic diseases in babies. In addition, vitamin K has recently been
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found to promote the building of healthy bones and to prevent osteoporosis. Vitamin K occurs in three forms: K1 (phylloquinone), the natural vitamin K from plants; K2 (menaquinone), derived from intestinal bacteria; and K3 (menadione), which is the synthetic version of vitamin K available for those w h o cannot absorb it from food. To ensure adequate absorption and production of vitamin K in the body, cultured milk products such as yogurt and buttermilk, as well as vegetable oils, should be included in the daily diet. Antibiotics and over-consumption of sugar and sweets inhibit vitamin K absorption. Deficiency symptoms include delayed blood-clotting of wounds, haemorrhages such as nose bleeds, and a low level of blood platelets. Deficiencies of the vitamin are usually caused by a defect in metabolism, a malfunction of the liver, or by coeliac disease. Coeliac patients should emphasize vitamin K-rich foods in their diet and supplement with vitamins K, A, D and E, and also with calcium and the B - c o m p l e x vitamins. The best natural sources of vitamin K include kale, green tea, alfalfa, spinach, broccoli, lettuce, cabbage, watercress, yogurt, egg yolk, fish liver oil and soybean oil. N o official Recommended Daily Allowance has been established, but 300 meg is generally considered adequate for an adult.
V I T A M I N P SEE BIOFLAVONOIDS
VITEX, C H A S T E T R E E
(AGNUS
CASTUS)
Vitex is a shrub with fmger-shaped leaves and violet flowers that grows on river banks in the Mediterranean
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region. A traditional European plant used already by ancient Greeks, its other name 'chaste tree' is derived from the belief that the ripe fruit of the plant would suppress the libido of women taking it. Vitex was used for centuries in Europe to treat premenstrual syndrome (PMS) and the side effects of menopause. Although it does not contain hormones, it helps correct progestrone deficiencies and balance women's hormonal system. It stimulates the pituitary gland to increase production of luteinizing hormone. This in turn increases the level of progestrone during the second half of a woman's cycle, normalizing the oestrogen-progestrone ratio. Vitex also reduces high prolactin levels in the second half of the menstrual cycle which causes breast tenderness and pain. It is commonly used by European herbalists to treat female complaints such as irregular or excessive menstruation, amenorrhoea (lack of menstruation), infertility, menopausal hot flushes, fibroid tumors and cervical dysplasia (abnormal cell growth on the cervix as shown by Pap test). Vitex is now being rediscovered by women looking for a natural alternative to h o r m o n e replacement therapy (HRT). Vitex is increasingly available in health food shops in liquid extracts which are taken in drops once daily. It is best used over a period of several months continuously. Once improvement has occurred, treatment should be continued for another month. Side effects are rare. Less than 2 per cent of the users reported a minor tummy upset and mild skin rash. Caution: Vitex is not recommended during pregnancy or during HRT.
w
W A K A M E (UNDARIA PINNATIFIDA)
A popular dark-green Japanese seaweed, wakame grows in wing-like fronds up to 50 cm (20 in) long in sea water. Wakame is one of the seaweeds highest in c a l c i u m content (more than 10 times the calcium of milk). It is also rich in iron, thiamine and niacin. And as with all other seaweeds, it contains small amounts of many minerals and trace elements of the sea water. Wakame is widely available in health food shops in its dried form. Used in cooking, it can soften beans and the hard fibres of foods cooked with it. Wakame is an indispensable part of the Japanese diet and a basic component of m i s o soup. In the Japanese tradition it is used to purify the mother's blood after childbirth. A normal daily consumption of dry wakame, before soaking with other foods, is 515 g.
W A L N U T S
QUGLANS
NIGRA)
O n e of the oldest food trees, walnuts have been used for food and medicine throughout history. Two of its species, the English walnut and the American black walnut, are the most popular. Apart from the value of the tree as timber, the walnuts are highly nutritious. They are rich in protein and antioxidants, vitamin E and minerals such as iron, calcium, m a g n e s i u m , m a n g a n e s e and phosphorus. Walnuts contain monounsaturated fats including o m e g a - 3
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fatty acids and, uniquely, alpha-linolenic acid. Walnuts are known to help reduce the 'bad' LDL cholesterol. Walnuts also contain antioxidants, particularly ellagic acid, which help protect cells from free-radical damage.
W A T E R
The most vital nutrient in our bodies, water makes up two-thirds of the body's mass and is involved in nearly every bodily process. Good, pure water is not only enlivening but also nutritious. Pure water acts in the body as a solvent, lubricant and coolant. Recently, pure water was found to function as an electromagnetic enhancer. As such, pure water reduces the risk of heart disease, helps release contaminants from fat cells assisting weight loss, and reduces water retention by dispersing salt, just like common diuretics. Although 'soft' water can be kinder to the skin when used externally, 'hard' water is nutritionally more beneficial to the body: it contains various minerals, especially calcium and m a g n e s i u m , and is known to reduce the incidence of heart disease. Unfortunately, contamination of tap water has become commonplace in recent years, due partly to the chemicals added at treatment plants and partly to contamination collected in the course of water distribution. Tap water is chlorinated and may cause allergies, diarrhoea or depression, as well as destroying friendly intestinal bacteria. It can also contain anti-corrosion chemicals added by some water boards, as well as environmental pollutants and industrial wastes. In addition, it may carry germs, algae, scale and rust particles which can contaminate the blood and lymph, overburdening the liver and kidneys with poisons, and lead to reduced energy and a lower resistance
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to disease. Since the purity and quality of water so greatly affects general health and well being, it is no wonder that there is a growing public demand for higher-quality water and that people are increasingly using bottled mineral waters, water filters and water purifiers. As with any other nutrient, the body requires water in sufficient amounts. Insufficient water intake is known to promote constipation, an accumulation of toxins, kidney damage, fatigue, apathy and dehydration. Meat -based diets increase the need for water because they overload the body with urea and other toxic by-products of protein metabolism that need water for their dispersal and elimination. As a rule, vegetarians require less water than meat-eaters since many fruits and vegetables contain over 90 per cent water. Water is best drunk before or between meals. Water drunk right after meals can dilute digestive juices and is a common cause of heartburn. Individual water requirements vary from person to person, and although thirst is considered the best indicator of need, it is often unreliable. O n average, due to a gradual loss of the thirst sensation, we do not drink enough water. Yes, we drink a lot of sodas, tea and coffee, but all these cannot replace the body's demand for water. They only serve as vehicles to stimulating chemicals such as caffeine,
a s p a r t a m e a n d sugar. I n his b o o k , Your Body's Many Cries
for Water, Dr F. Batmanghelidj presents his revolutionary concept that chronic dehydration of body cells can cause many diseases. He cites many varied conditions, like stomach ulcers, arthritis, headaches, hypertension, high cholesterol, diabetes and even obesity, all of which were successfully treated by drinking at least 2 1 of water a day. Caution: Do not self-treat the above conditions. Seek professional help.
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WATERCRESS
(NASTURTIUM
OFFICINALIS)
A perennial herb of the mustard family, it grows naturally in running water, especially the beds of streams, but is grown commercially in watercress beds or is raised as a winter crop in greenhouses. Watercress is cultivated for its leaves, which are used mainly in salads and are rich in vitamins and minerals, especially vitamins A and C, zinc and iron. The plant is also rich in potassium, calcium, phosphorus and iron, with good quantities of iodine, s o d i u m and m a g n e s i u m . Although the healing powers of watercress have long been known, recent scientific studies have shown that it can inhibit the growth of some cancerous tumours. N e w research has revealed that fresh watercress contains high levels of P E I T C (phenethyl isothiocyanate), which neutralizes a dangerous carcinogen in tobacco called N N K and one study indicated that the consumption of 60 g of fresh watercress three times a day for three days will help to protect smokers from lung cancer. For more lasting protection, this process can be repeated once a month. A tea prepared from the leaves can strengthen digestion, increase urination, and cleanse the respiratory system by releasing phlegm and mucus. Watercress is also recommended for the treatment of catarrh, anaemia, weak digestion and gout. Caution: Excessive or prolonged use of watercress may cause kidney problems, and it should not be used in pregnancy. Since, nowadays, wild watercress grows mainly in polluted waters, it may contain various pollutants as well as the deadly liver fluke. Therefore, wild watercress is unsafe for gathering, and only watercress grown commercially in filtered, shallow, gravelled-bottom beds should be consumed.
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WHEAT
(TRITICUM
AESTIVUM)
Traditionally termed 'the staff of life', whole wheat is a highly nutritious grain and includes several varieties, such as bulgur and durum. Wheat starch contains anywhere between 6 and 20 per cent protein made up of eight a m i n o acids. Wheat germ is a rich source of vitamin E, B vitamins and minerals such as zinc, iron, c o p p e r and iodine. The brain is rich in fibre and the amino acid lysine. Wheat encourages growth and can be used in conditions such as nervousness, insomnia and irritability. Being mildly astringent, wheat can be used for bedwetting, diarrhoea and night sweats. Sprouted wheat, particularly w h e a t grass, is an increasingly popular form of easily digested wheat. Standard white flour is made from the inner starchy part of the grain, with all the germ and bran removed. This results in a loss of up to 80 per cent of the essential nutrients in wheat. In addition, white flour may be bleached with chlorine dioxide, which destroys all the vitamin E. 'Enriched' flours make up for only a few of the missing nutrients, usually vitamins B l , B2, B3 and iron. Gluten, the elastic protein in wheat, is used as a popular source of vegetable protein in many dishes around the world. However, it can cause allergies and people with coeliac disease cannot digest it at all. The symptoms of coeliac disease, which is quite widespread, include diarrhoea, abdominal pain, flatulence, intestinal damage, weight loss and spasms. Coeliacs must not only avoid wheat, but all other gluten-containing cereals as well, and subsist on a gluten-free diet.
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WHEAT G E R M OIL
Produced from the life-giving part of the wheat kernel, wheat germ oil has been found to have many beneficial effects on the human body. It is the richest source of vitamin E, the great antioxidant and fertility vitamin. It is also the richest source of octacosanol, a type of waxy alcohol, the effects of which have a variety of effects on the body, including increased energy, endurance and strength, improved resistance to stress, alleviation of arthritis and improved heart function. In experiments done with the US Marines, wheat germ oil was found to relieve fatigue, dizziness, drowsiness and fear. In addition, animal studies have shown that wheat germ oil increases pregnancy rates and reduces miscarriages. Octacosanol has been found to have a remarkable therapeutic effect on muscular dystrophy and nerve-muscle disorders such as multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, cerebral palsy, encephalitis and myasthenia gravis. It has also been reported to regulate the b l o o d clotting hormones, preventing blood clots and heart attacks. The best wheat germ oil is cold pressed, fresh and packed in amber bottles. It is best kept in the refrigerator and taken in a dosage of a teaspoon on empty stomach, 13 times daily. Caution: Wheat germ oil contains significant amounts of oestrogen, the female sex hormone, and large doses over a prolonged period can cause testicular degeneration and loss of sex drive in men. For higher levels of supplementation, octacosanol tablets are safer and more beneficial.
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WHEAT GRASS
(AGROPYRON)
Considered a 'living food', wheat grass is very rich in vitamin E, chlorophyll and many nutrients. It cleanses the blood, rejuvenates the body and increases resistance to disease. It is a tonic and helps to treat conditions such as fatigue, anaemia, toxaemia and cancerous growths. Wheat grass juice is a powerful detoxifying agent. It helps to increase the enzyme level in the body cells, aiding the rejuvenation of the body and the digestion of nutrients. Wheat grass juice is best taken fresh on an empty stomach, starting off with 30 g a day, a daily dose that can gradually be increased to 125 g. It is usually diluted with carrot or apple juice to make it more palatable. More common in the USA in larger health food stores where it can be bought as freshly squeezed juice.
WHEY
Whey is the water separated from milk during cheesemaking after the milk has coagulated. It is considered highly nutritious and is the richest source of lactose (milk sugar). It is often added in dry form to processed foods, but is not suitable for people with lactose intolerance or for those allergic to milk. Whey has recently been found to contain certain proteins that can speed up the healing of wounds and ulcers. Initial studies were successfully conducted by Australian scientists w h o plan to use these whey ingredients in the form of dressings to accelerate wound repair. Other studies suggest that whey proteins may have anti-cancer and anti-microbial effects, as well as improving immune function. Some products on the market already use whey. Estee
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Lauder sells a moisturizer, whey protein to mimic a in skin, which instructs it claimed that it makes the
called Nutritious, which uses natural cellular messenger found to produce more collagen. It is skin stronger and more supple.
WILD YAM SEE Y A M
WINE
The oldest beverage known to man, written records on the dietary and therapeutic properties of wine date back 4,000 years. Most of today's wines come from a species of vine that originated in the Middle East, while many varieties were crossbred with species native to North America and Canada. Drunk in moderation, wine appears to be more than just an alcoholic or romantic drink. Wine constituents have a relaxing effect and are known to promote the absorption of essential minerals like calcium, magnesium, phosphorus and zinc. R e d wine has been found to increase blood levels of H D L ('good' cholesterol) while decreasing L D L ('bad' cholesterol), and recent scientific research has indicated that two glasses of red wine a day can help prevent blood clots, lower cholesterol, reduce the risk of heart attack and contribute to a longer life. R e d wine is brewed from whole grapes, with skin and seeds, unlike white wine, and contains important antioxidant polyphenolic flavonoids, such as quercetin, catechins and tannins. But the most exciting polyphenol found in wine is resveratrol, a natural plant antibiotic produced by plants to combat fungal and bacterial attacks. R e d wine is particularly rich in resveratrol; one glass of red
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wine contains 650 meg while a handful of peanuts contains only 75 meg resveratrol. Recent clinical studies have shown that as a potent antioxidant, resveratrol not only helps protect the heart but also helps prevent cancer, reduce the risk of osteoporosis and alleviate depression. Being a phytoestrogen, resveratrol was also found to act as a natural replacement for oestrogen and to improve menopausal symptoms like hot flushes and mood swings. And recent American research revealed that resveratrol can also help prevent herpes. The scientists found that dabbing the infectious sores with red wine can hamper their growth and can stop the sufferer passing it on. In general, higher concentrations of resveratrol are found in wines associated with cooler and more humid climates such as Burgundy, Bordeaux, Switzerland, Oregon and Canada, while wines from warmer and drier climates tend to have lower concentrations. R e d wine is known to cause headaches or nasal congestions in some people and, although a controversial issue, it is suspected that these are allergic reactions to sulphites which are added to the wine to inhibit oxidation and microbial growth. Although most wine makers add sulphites, an increasing number are going 'organic', producing wine with no additives. (See also GRAPES.)
W I T C H HAZEL
(HAMAMELIS
VIRGINIANA)
A deciduous tree, native to N o r t h America, it was traditionally endowed with magical properties, hence its name. It is now grown in many other temperate regions of the world, including the British Isles. The leaves of the witch hazel have an astringent, tonic
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and sedative effect. A decoction can be used for diarrhoea. Extracts of witch hazel, which are available from most herbalist, should be used only externally. As a skin lotion, the extract can be applied to bruises, insect bites and minor sunburn. A poultice is said to help in the treatment of haemorrhoids. T h e decoction can also be used as a mouth-wash and as a vaginal douche for vaginitis. Available from health food stores and herbalists.
WORMWOOD
(ARTF.MISIA
ABSINTHIUM)
A silky perennial herb prevalent in arid roadside verges in Europe and N o r t h America, the leaves and flower tops of wormwood are used for several conditions. T h e leaves contain herbal bitters and santonin, which is effective against intestinal worms, and are used to prepare a bitter oil and also infusions. Wormwood is antiseptic and carminative, and can be used to stimulate the appetite and to treat indigestion. Wormwood oil is a cardiac stimulant and improves blood circulation. Caution: Pure w o r m w o o d oil is poisonous and should be used only in correct dosages as indicated by a herbalist. Available from larger health food stores and herbalists.
Y
YAM, W I L D YAM
(DIOSCOREA VILLOSA)
Wild yam is a perennial vine with a tuberous rootstock that is native to North America. Its roots yields an alkaloid which is a muscle relaxant, and it was used to treat abdominal cramps and bilious colics during the American Civil War. It can also be used to regularize menstruation and relieve menstrual cramps. O n e particular species of wild yam, D. vitata, has been found to contain up to 40 per cent diosgenin, a glycoside that can easily be converted to the hormone progesterone. (This hormone was previously produced from horse's urine.) In a study carried out over a four-year period, wild yam was found to be effective as an oral contraceptive, but without the side effects of the pill.
YARROW
(ACHILLEA
MILLEFOLIUM)
A herb that commonly grows wild along roadside verges, yarrow contains an essential oil and two acids, w h i c h together produce an astringent infusion that is aromatic and has a bitter taste. Traditionally, yarrow tea was used to induce sweating during a cold, and it is still recommended by herbalists for this purpose. An infusion of the plant can be used to alleviate digestive upsets, and arrest internal bleeding and heavy menstrual flow. Externally, it can be used as a soothing application for
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wounds, sore haemorrhoids, and also as a m o u t h w a s h in cases of g u m inflammation and as a hair tonic. It is widely available f r o m herbalists. Caution: Yarrow can cause dermatitis in some people.
YEAST SEE BREWER'S YEAST
YOGURT
Increasingly publicized as a health food, yogurt has been used for centuries by many of the long-living ethnic societies. N o w rediscovered as a p r o b i o t i c food, yogurt is simply m i l k that has been fermented by several strains of bacteria, such as Lactobacillus acidophilus and Bifidobacteria bifidum. T h e bacteria curdle the m i l k by converting the milk sugar to lactic acid. O n e of the main nutritional benefits of yogurt is to reinforce the intestines with additional 'friendly' bacteria, promoting the growth of intestinal flora. T h e bacteria of the intestinal flora aid digestion and absorption of food, produce B v i t a m i n s , prevent the growth of pathogenic bacteria (such as Candida) which cause diseases, and inhibit internal decay; they also promote a healthy intestinal acidity. In this respect, yogurt is especially beneficial to people on antibiotics, and for those w h o have a sweet tooth or w h o drink chlorinated water, all of which deplete friendly bacteria. Yogurt also helps to synthesize v i t a m i n K, preventing internal haemorrhages, and it lowers cholesterol levels and reduces the risk of cancer, especially colon cancer. However, apart from these benefits, yogurt is also a highly nutritious food. It is a good source of quality
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protein, vitamins and minerals: it contains vitamins A, B c o m p l e x , E and D , is an excellent source of easily absorbed calcium, p o t a s s i u m and phosphorus, and contains only a moderate amount of sodium. Yogurt is also easily digested in fact, most of its protein is digested within an hour. It is also a highly valuable food for the treatment of gastro-enteritis, colitis, constipation, bilious disorders, flatulence, bad breath, high cholesterol, migraine and nervous fatigue. In addition, yogurt can often be taken by people w h o cannot use other forms of milk due to lactose intolerance.
YOHIMBE
(PAUSINYSTALIAJOHIMBE)
In recent years, yohimbe capsules have swept health food stores in the USA as a potent aphrodisiac. The bark of the yohimbe plant, which is a native of South America, contains yohimbine, and this was approved by the US FDA for the treatment of erectile dysfunction. Although yohimbine can increase sex drive, its primary action is to increase blood flow to the erectile tissue. It has no effect, however, on testosterone levels. W h e n used on its own, yohimbe can help about a third of cases. However, its side effects, which include depression, anxiety, hallucinations, headaches, hypertension, dizziness and skin flushing, make it difficult to use. Both yohimbe and yohimbine are therefore best used under medical supervision.
ZINC
An essential trace element, zinc is found in every cell of the body and performs numerous useful functions. It is a component of some 200 e n z y m e s and is involved in more enzymatic reactions than any other mineral. It is a constituent of insulin, growth h o r m o n e s and sex hormones, and is richly contained in human sperm. It takes part in carbohydrate metabolism, the breakdown of alcohol and the synthesis of nucleic acids. Together with vitamins A, B6 and B12, zinc is necessary for proper growth. It also aids the excretion of toxic c a d m i u m found in cigarette smoke (which causes hypertension), and neutralizes the bad effects of excess copper (a cause of arthritis). Zinc is crucial to the maturation of the sex glands and for their function, particularly the prostate. It prevents enlargement of the prostate, which can block urine flow and is a source of distress for many men over 45. Together with v i t a m i n B6, zinc inhibits histamine production and is therefore helpful in treating allergies. It soothes nerves and depression and is used in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease and some types of schizophrenia. Zinc can also speed up the healing of wounds and is used to cure ulcers resulting from cortisone treatment. Due to its presence in insulin, zinc increases the insulin effect and is therefore helpful in the treatment of diabetes. It has also been found to boost natural immunity against disease, and is well-known for its ability to promote skin health and
NUTRIENTS A
TO Z
315
alleviate psoriasis. For this reason, it is sometimes used as an ingredient in skin creams. The symptoms of zinc deficiency are many and varied. They include swollen prostate, sterility and impotence, and delayed sexual maturation in children, stunted growth, menstrual irregularities, susceptibility to infections and poor wound healing, joint pains, atherosclerosis and poor circulation, slow learning and mental retardation, loss of sense of taste and smell, allergies, acne, stretch marks in pregnant women, white spots in the nails, offensive perspiration, and susceptibility to diabetes. Zinc is depleted by alcohol and smoking, and profuse sweating can cause a loss of up to 3 mg a day. A m o n g the best natural sources of the mineral are raw oysters, clams, m e a t , fish, raw wheat germ, brewer's yeast, m u s h r o o m s , p u m p k i n seeds, egg yolks and l e g u m e s . T h e Recommended Daily Allowance is 15 mg for adults and 10 mg for children. Requirements increase during pregnancy or lactation. Zinc supplements in strengths of up to 40 mg are available in health food stores.
316
NUTRIENTS A TO
HELPFUL ADDRESSES FOR GENERAL HERBAL ADVICE
UK
T h e British Herbal M e d i c i n e Association ( B H M A ) , Sun C h u r c h Street, Stroud, Gloucestershire G L 5 1JL Gate, House,
T h e National Institute o f M e d i c a l Herbalists, 9 Palace Exeter, D e v o n E X 1 1JA
T h e H e r b Society, 7 7 G r e a t Peter Street, L o n d o n www.herbsociety.co.uk
SW1,
General C o u n c i l and R e g i s t e r of Consultant Herbalists,
Grosvenor 7SA
H o u s e , 4 0 Sea Way, M i d d l e t o n - o n - S e a , West Sussex P 0 2 2
USA
T h e A m e r i c a n B o t a n i c a l C o u n c i l , P.O. B o x 2 0 1 6 6 0 , Austin, Texas 78720
T h e H e r b R e s e a r c h F o u n d a t i o n , 1007 Pearl Street, Suite 200, Boulder, Colorado 80302 95672 95436
A m e r i c a n H e r b Association, P.O.B. 353, R e s c u e , C A
California S c h o o l o f H e r b a l Studies, P.O.B. 39, Forestvffle, C A
Australia
N a t i o n a l Herbalist Association of Australia, 27 Leith Street, C o o r p a r o o , Queensland 4151
HERBAL
SUPPLIERS
UK
Potters Herbal Suppliers, Leyland Mill Lane, W i g a n , WN1 2 S B Tel: 0 9 4 2 34761 Lancashire
C u l p e p p e r Ltd,
www.culpepper.co.uk London
Neal'sYard R e m e d i e s , 15 Neal's Yard, C o v e n t G a r d e n , WC2H 9 D P Tel: 0 2 0 7 3 7 9 7222
A. Nelson & Co. Ltd,
www.nelsonshomeopathy.co.uk
NUTRIENTS A
TO Z
317
USA
Nature's Herbs, 113 N o r t h Tel: 8 0 1 2 2 5 4443 Utah Industrial Park Drive, O r e m , U t a h 84057
Nature's Way, 1 3 7 5 N . M o u n t a i n Springs Parkway, Springville, 8 4 6 6 3 Tel: 8 0 1 4 8 9 1500 M a r k e t Street, Portland, O r e g o n
E c l e c t i c I n s t i t u t e , 1 1 2 3 1 S.E. Tel: 8 0 0 3 3 2 4372
97216
W a k u n a g a , 2 3 5 0 1 M a d e r o , M i s s i o n V i e j o , C a l i f o r n i a 9 2 6 9 1 Tel: 8 0 0 5800 Acta H e a l t h Products, 1979 East Locust Street, Pasadena, California 91107 F o u r Seasons H e r b C o m p a n y , 17 B u c c a n e e r Street, M a r i n a l D e l C a l i f o r n i a 9 0 2 9 2 (specializes in oriental herbs)
544
Rey,
B i o - B o t a n i c a , Inc., 75 C o m m e r c e Drive, H a u p p a u g e , N e w York Tel: 5 1 6 2 3 1 5522 94915
11788
Earthrise C o m p a n y , P.O. B o x 1196, San R a f a e l , California Tel: 4 1 5 4 8 5 0521
T h r e s h o l d , 2 3 J a n e s w a y , S c o t t s Valley, C a l i f o r n i a 9 5 0 6 6 T e l : 4 0 8 4 3 8 E x c e l , 3 2 8 0 W e s t H a c i e n d a , Las Vegas, N e v a d a 8 9 0 4 1 Tel: 7 0 2 7 9 5 Yerba P r i m a , P.O. B o x 5 0 0 9 , Berkeley, C a l i f o r n i a 9 4 7 0 5 Tel: 4 1 5 7477
1144 7464
632
Canada
T r o p h i c C a n a d a Ltd, 2 6 0 O k a n a g a n A v e n u e East, P e n t i c t o n , B C Tel: 6 0 4 4 9 2 8820 V2A357
Flora Distributors Ltd, 7 4 0 0 Fraser Park Drive, Burnaby, B C V S J 5 B 9 Tel: 6 0 4 4 3 8 1133 Ontario
Swiss H e r b a l R e m e d i e s , 181 D o n P a r k R o a d , M a r k h a m , L 3 R I C 2 Tel: 4 1 6 4 7 5 6345
Q u e s t , 1 7 8 1 W e s t 7 5 t h A v e n u e , V a n c o u v e r , B C V 6 P 6 P 2 Tel: 6 0 4
261
0611
T h e H e r b W o r k s , P O B o x 4 5 0 , F e r g u s , O n t a r i o N 1 M 1 N 8 Tel: 5 1 9 4280 Vita H e a l t h , 150 B e g h i n A v e n u e , W i n n i p e g , M B R 1 J 3 W 2 Tel: 2 0 4 8386 Bio-Force, 4001 C o t e Verth, Montreal, P Q H 4 R 1 R 5 Tel: 5 1 4 3 3 5 9393 661 824
INDEX
A A see a r a c h i d o n i c a c i d Abelmoschus okra abortion induction 243 abscesses 1 8 6 a c a c i a ( Acacia senega!) 1 acetaldehyde 4 acetic acid 2 5 5 Achillea millefolium yarrow acid-alkaline balance 1-2,59,85,97, 223, 247,249, 257,292 a c i d o p h i l u s ( Lactobacillus acidophylus) see esculentus see age-related macular degeneration ( A M D ) 46, 66, food 6-7,215 caffeine 187 chocolate 6 6 , 7 9 fruit 265 gluten 137 lactose 1 6 9 , 1 9 1 leukotrienes 283 milk 169,191 monosodium glutamate 198 preservatives 3 6 vegetables 2 2 0 remedies bioflavonoids 39 cat's c l a w 7 0 fruit 1 4 2 , 1 7 3 , 2 1 5 garlic 1 2 7 glutamine 136 herbs 216 minerals 90 propolis 230 quercetin 235 reishi 2 3 9 vegan diet 2 8 3 vitamins 2 1 4 , 2 8 9 , 292, 2 9 5 , 2 9 8 Allium see o n i o n see l e e k see g a r l i c see a l d e r see A. porrum A. sativum 5 Alnus Althea
216
ageing process alcohol effects 4 calorie restriction 61 c o e n z y m e Q 1 0 88 fruit 75, 142 premature 204, 251, 298 see also a n t i - a g e i n g p r o p e r t i e s and degenerative diseases o f a g e i n g aggression, alcoholrelated 3 4 - 5 Agnus castus see v i t e x (Agrimony 3 see w h e a t eupatoria) Agrupyron grass A I D S see a c q u i r e d immune deficiency syndrome a l c o h o l / a l c o h o l abuse 4-5,33-5,136, 167,308-9 a l d e r ( A l n u s glutinosa) alfalfa ( Medicago sativa) 5,262 algae 3 6 , 4 7 , 7 7 , 2 6 0 - 1 alkaline-acid balance hippocastanum 1-2,59,85,97, 223, 247, 249, 257,292 allergies alcoholic drinks 309 agrimony
2,168,
228
acidosis 2 acne cat's c l a w 7 0 e v e n i n g p r i m r o s e oil
108
folic acid 118 propolis 230 vitamins 287, 298 acquired i m m u n e deficiency s y n d r o m e (AIDS) 70,102,279,293 Actinidia deliciosa see k i w i fruit addiction, alcohol 4 aescin 153 Aesculus see h o r s e c h e s t n u t A F A see b l u e - g r e e n algae agar 3
almond 7,12,28 glutinosa officinalis aloe vera 7 - 8
marshmallow aluminium 8,12, 28 A l z h e i m e r ' s disease A F A 47 aluminium 8 blueberries 46
320
NUTRIENTS A
TO
c h o l i n e 81 fruit 46 g i n k g o 130 lipoic acid 178 N A D H 201 SAM 248 vitamins 293, 298 zinc 3 1 4 a m a r a n t h (Amaranthus hypochondriacusa) 8-9 amasake 9 A M D see a g e - r e l a t e d macular degeneration amenorrhoea 300 a m i n o acids 9 - 1 0 , 5 0 , 231-2 Ammi visnaga see b i s h o p weed anaemia 232 AFA47 algae 7 7 , 2 6 1 caffeine 58 folic acid 118, 119 fruit 1 7 , 4 3 , 1 4 1 , 2 6 5 iron intake 158 liver 9 8 lysine 1 8 0 m a t e tea 186 minerals 197 molasses 196 rye 244 vitamins 2 9 3 , 2 9 5 , 2 9 8 watercress 3 0 4 w h e a t grass 3 0 7 Ananas Anethum see p i n e a p p l e graveolens see dill a n g e l i c a ( Angelica archangelica) 88, 1 4 8 , 2 9 8 anise (Pimpinella 11-12 antacids 1 2 , 2 8 anthocyanidins 37, 46, 75, 148, 2 8 5 anisum) 10-11 angina pectoris 42, 65,
anti-ageing properties calorie-restricted diets 61 fruit 75 PABA 212 p a n g a m i c acid 2 1 3 pycnogenol 233 selenium 251 S O D 256 vitamins 295 Anti-Cancer Drugs (journal) 179 anti-inflammatories alder 5 barley 31 bioflavonoids 39 butcher's b r o o m 54 cartilage 6 8 elder 104 elm 105 f a t t y acids 2 0 7 fruit 44, 209 g u m arabic 1 herbs 3,154, 264 horse chestnut 153 propolis 230 quercetin 235 turmeric 279 vegetables 94, 208, 263 antibiotics 2 , 1 3 , 1 2 4 , 127,141 antidepressants, n u t r i t i o n a l 14 antioxidants 14-15,24, 36,66 antiseptics 1 0 2 , 1 3 9 , 1 4 1 , 161,173,310 anxiety GABA 14,126,136 g a m m a - o r y z a n o l 126 glycine 138 herbs 2 8 1 , 2 8 4 histidine 149 inositol 156 kava-kava 162 taurine 271 Aphanizomenoti flos-aquae
see b l u e - g r e e n algae aphrodisiacs g i n g e r 131 herbs 9 6 , 2 2 0 oysters 2 1 0 saffron 245 sassafras 2 4 9 yohimbe 313 see also s e x d r i v e Apium graveolens see c e l e r y appendicitis 49 a p p e t i t e s t i m u l a n t s 16 alfalfa 5 a n i s e 11 bee pollen 33 caraway 63 cayenne pepper 71 cumin 95 fruit 17,224, 277 herbs 1 1 , 3 1 , 7 3 , 7 6 , 99,202, 220,245, 264,270,275,210 h o p 152 j u n i p e r 161 mustard 200 nutmeg 204 peppers 219 vegetables 2 1 , 7 2 , 2 4 0 , var. duke
280
vitamins 293 a p p e t i t e s u p p r e s s a n t s 16 algae 2 6 1 bran 49 g l u c o m a n n a n 133 guarana 144 herbs 112 minerals 86 phenylalanine 221 serotonin 253 tryptophan 278 vegetables 72 a p p l e (Mains) 16-17 17 a p r i c o t ( Prunus armeniaca) 17-18 a r a c h i d o n i c acid (AA)
NUTRIENTS A
TO Z
321
Arachis Arctium
hypogaea peanut lappa see burdock
see
minerals 4 8 , 1 2 9 - 3 0 , 251,266 molasses 196 M S M 199 see phenylalanine 221 p r e g n e n o l o n e 227 probiotics 229 pycnogenol 233 quercetin 235 SAM 248 sassafras 2 4 9 vegetables 215, 227, 262 vitamins 289 w h e a t g e r m oil 3 0 6 see also o s t e o a r t h r i t i s and r h e u m a t o i d see arthritis artichoke (Cynara scolymus) C asparagine 21 a s p a r a g u s ( Asparagus offinalis) aspartame 22 aspartic acid 2 2 - 3 a s p i r i n 18, 2 3 asthma causes 1 8 , 3 6 , 2 2 8 remedies belladona 35 cayenne pepper 71 evening primrose 107,108 vegan diets 2 8 3 vegetables 233, 280 vitamins 2 9 2 , 2 9 3 astralagus (Astralagus mambranaceus) 23-4 astringents amaranth 9 bearberry 32 b i r c h 41 black c o h o s h root 4 3 cider vinegar 83 e v e n i n g p r i m r o s e 107 21 20-1 a s c o r b i c a c i d see V i t a m i n
fruit 2 4 , 4 3 , 2 1 7 , 2 2 1 , 225, 237 herbs 3 , 1 5 4 , 2 0 2 , 246 laurel 170 psyllium 232 vegetables 172, 237, 240 w i t c h hazel 3 0 9 atherosclerosis causes 5 7 , 1 1 8 , 1 4 8 , 150,170 remedies artichoke 20 fish 115,116 guggul 146 lecithin 171 minerals 251 tofii 2 7 6 vegetarian diets 284 vitamins 289, 292, 298 athlete's f o o t 2 8 , 1 2 7 , 273, 289 Atropa belladona see belladona
Arctostaphylos
uva-ursi
bearberry arginine (L-arginine) 1819 Aristolochia Armoracia clematitis see birthwort rusticana see montana) horseradish a r n i c a ( Arnica 19 aromatherapy 1920,170, 242 arrhythmia 116,226 Artemisia absinthium see wormwood A. dracunculus tarragon arteries, h a r d e n i n g 2 4 6 arteriosclerosis 2 1 , 8 7 , 230,256 see also a t h e r o s c l e r o s i s arthritis causes 89, 90, 212, 277 remedies A A 18 arginine 18 aspirin 2 3 cayenne p e p p e r 71 C M 73-4 c o l l a g e n t y p e II 8 9 devils claw 98 evening primrose oil 1 0 8 f a t t y acids 2 0 8 fruit 7 5 , 1 4 1 , 2 0 9 , 265 glutamine 136 glutathione 136 guarana 144 guggul 146 herbs 2 4 , 7 0 , 9 1 , 131,186,187 m a t e tea 1 8 6
aubergine 24-5 Australia 272, 273, 307 a u t o - i m m u n e disorders see a r t h r i t i s ; l u p u s erythematosus; m y a s t h e n i a gravis and m u l t i p l e sclerosis Arena sativa see o a t s 25-6 a v o c a d o ( Persea americana) Ayurveda 26 babies 2 7 - 8 , 1 9 2 see also n a p p y rash back pain 221 b a c t e r i a 13, 1 6 6 see also i n t e s t i n a l bacteria bad breath 8 3 , 1 4 3 , 2 2 9 , 252,291,313
322
NUTRIENTS A
TO
see also b r e a t h f r e s h e n e r s and mouthwashes baking p o w d e r / s o d a 28, 92-3 b a l d n e s s 10 b a l m ( Melissa officinalis) 29 b a l s a m p e a r see b i t t e r melon b a m i a see o k r a b a n a n a (Musa) barberry vulgaris) basil ( O c i m u m 31 B a t m a n g h e l i d j , D r F. 3 0 3 b a y t r e e ( Laurus nobilis) 169-70 B C A A s see b r a n c h e d c h a i n a m i n o acids b e a r b e r r y ( Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) bedsores 140 bee pollen 3 2 - 3 beef 9 8 , 1 8 7 - 8 beer 33-5,152 b e e t (Beta vulgaris) belladona (Atropa 35-6 belladona) b e n z o i c acid 36 Ber, D r A b r a m 183 Berberis vulgaris see barberry beri-beri 288 beta carotene 3 6 - 7 beta-hydroxy-betam e t h y l b u t y r a t e see HMB Beta vulgaris see b e e t betame HC1 12,37 Betula alba see b i r c h B H A see b u t y l a t e d hvdroxyanisole B H T see b u t y l a t e d hydroxytoluene 35 32 bed-wetting 181,305 29-30 30 basUicum) (Berberis
bilberry bile 3 8
(Vaccinium 37-8
see also b l o o d c l o t t i n g blindness, night 2 6 0 bloating 3 1 , 7 1 , 2 0 5 , 213,245 b l o o d c l o t t i n g 45, 108 A A 17 aspirin 2 3 calcium 59 c a y e n n e p e p p e r 71 cider vinegar 83 f a t t y acids 2 0 7 fish 2 4 6 psyllium 232 shepherds purse 254 vegetables 2 0 8 vitamins 2 9 6 , 2 9 9 w h e a t g e r m oil 3 0 6 b l o o d pressure regulation f a t t y acids 2 0 7 garlic 1 2 7 g r e e n tea 1 4 3 minerals 226 mistletoe 196 rutin 244 stevia 2 6 3 see also h i g h b l o o d pressure blood purifiers AFA 47 algae 7 7 b a r l e y 31 burdock 54 chlorophyll 78 elder 104 fruit 1 4 1 , 1 7 3 , 2 7 7 ,
myrtillus)
excretion 21, 4 9 , 1 9 3 , secretion alder 5 barberry 30 herbs 73, 76, 96, 242, 264 h o p 152 saffron 2 4 5 bioavailability 3 8 - 9 bioflavonoids 3 9 - 4 0 , 46, 142,233,285 see also q u e r c e t i n and rutin biotin 4 0 , 1 0 3 b i r c h (Betula alba) 41 birth control 1 3 , 4 1 , 9 0 , 151,287,311 b i r t h w o r t ( Aristolochia clematitis) bishop weed visnaga) bites insect 2 7 3 , 3 1 0 snake 4 2 , 1 0 2 bitter melon charantia) (Cimicifuga racemosa) 4 3 b l a c k e l d e r see e l d e r black nightshade (Solanum 44-5 blackberry (Rubus villosus) nigrum) 43 44 b l a c k c u r r a n t { Ribes bladder cancer 1 7 9 , 2 8 7 b l e e d i n g 2 4 , 3 2 , 106 gums 295 internal 90, 165,172, 217,244,311,312 n o s e b l e e d s 165, 2 6 0 , 299 u r i n a r y tract 2 0 2 nigrum) (Momordica 42-3 42 (Ammi 42
barley (Hordeum) 3 0 - 1
black cohosh root
281
herbs 7 3 , 1 0 2 , 2 1 6 h o p 152 rose 2 4 2 sassafras 2 4 9 vegetables 35, 5 6 wakame 301 b l o o d stickiness 116, 127,207,208 b l o o d sugar 4 5 - 6 , 64, 133, 1 3 4 , 2 1 4 , 263
NUTRIENTS A
TO Z
323
see also d i a b e t e s and hypoglycaemia b l o o d vessels alcohol effects 4 constrictors 54 dilators 104 f r e e radicals 15 hardening 246 s t r e n g t h e n e r s 173, 244,285, 295 b l u e - g r e e n algae (Aphanizomenon ftos-aquae; 47 b l u e g u m see e u c a l y p t u s b l u e b e r r y ( Vaccinium myrtilllus) b o d y o d o u r 124 b o d y w e i g h t see o b e s i t y and w e i g h t loss boils 6 0 , 1 0 5 , 1 8 6 bonemeal 47-8 bones brittle 4 8 , 5 9 , 1 1 7 , 2 2 3 building 117,299 s t r e n g t h e n e r s 117, 154,158,181,205 b o r a g e oil 4 8 boron 48 Borosma betulina see buchu bowel movements cascara s a g r a d a 6 9 fibre 4 9 , 1 4 9 flaxseed 116 see also c o n s t i p a t i o n and d i a r r h o e a brain damage alcohol 4 baking powder/soda 46 AFA)
branched chain a m i n o acids ( B C A A s ) 5 0 Brassica 5 0 , 1 5 7 B. campestris see t u r n i p B. nigra see m u s t a r d B. oleracea see B r u s s e l s sprouts; cabbage; cauliflower; kale and k o h l r a b i breast cancer causes 3 4 , 1 8 9 remedies bioflavonoids 39 fibre 176 fruit 141 genistein 129 iodine 157 kelp 163 l y c o p e n e 179 quercetin 235 soybeans 259 v e g e t a r i a n diets 2 8 4 vitamins 287 breast feeding 27 breast implants 2 5 6 breast l u m p s a r c h i d o n i c a c i d 18 caffeine 58 chocolate 79 choline 81 inositol 156 tea 2 7 2 b r e a t h see b a d b r e a t h breath fresheners 78, 83 b r e w e r ' s yeast 51 brittle bones 4 8 , 5 9 , 1 1 7 , 223 broccoli 52 bromelain 52 bronchitis cysteine 95 herbs 1 0 2 , 2 7 5 Iceland moss 155 mustard 200 N A C 201 silica 2 5 6 vegetables 72, 208, 280
bruises arnica 19 calendula 60 chickweed 76 horse chestnut 153 laurel 170 olive oil 2 0 6 witch hazel 3 1 0 B r u s s e l s s p r o u t s (Brassica oleracea) 5 3 b u c h u (Borosma 53 b u c k w h e a t 39, 53 b u r d o c k (Arctium 54 burns 2 0 , 1 0 5 , 1 5 2 , 2 0 6 , 298 see also s u n b u r n bursitis 8 2 , 8 7 , 2 1 2 butcher's b r o o m aculeatus) butter 55 butylated hydroxyanisole ( B H A ) 15 butylated hydroxytoluene ( B H T ) 15 butyric acid 55, 255 c a b b a g e (Brassica oleracea) 56,249 cadmium 56-7 caffeine 5 7 - 8 , 1 8 6 caffeinism 58 c a l c i u m 38, 5 8 - 9 , 180, (Ruscus 54 lappa) betulina)
260
calcium ascorbate 60 calcium-phosphorus supplements 47 calendula (Calendula 60 officinalis) fruit 29 glutaniine 136 h e r b s 2 9 , 6 2 , 1 7 0 , 186, 275,281 histidine 149 h o n e y 152
28
f r e e radicals 15 lead 171 m e r c u r y 190 phenylalanine 22 brain f o o d 1 7 2 , 2 2 2 see also g l u c o s e bran 49-50
calming properties
324
NUTRIENTS A
TO
h o p 152 j a s m i n e 161 kava-kava 162 passion flower 2 1 6 reishi 2 3 9 serotonin 202 tea 2 7 1 vegetables 2 1 , 3 5 , 72 vitamins 155 wheat 305 calorie-restricted diets 61-2 calories 6 0 - 1 , 6 4 Camellia sinensis see g r e e n tea c a m o m i l e ( Matricaria chamomilla) Canada glycaemic index 138 soya s t u d i e s 2 5 9 cancer causes 3 4 , 9 0 , 1 8 7 c h e m o t h e r a p y 127, 239 remedies algae 7 7 , 2 6 1 beta carotene 37 bioflavonoids 39 burdock 54 carotenoids 66 cartilage 6 8 fibre 176 fish 1 1 5 fruit 265 gamma oryzanol 127 garlic 1 2 7 genistein 129 glutathione 136 herbs 2 4 , 7 0 , 2 1 6 , 304 isoflavones 160 maitake 183 minerals 251 pyruvate 234 quercetin 235 reishi 2 3 9 SCFAs 255 62
turmeric 279 vegan diets 2 8 3 vegetables 50, 52, 6 8 vitamins 2 9 5 , 2 9 8 w h e a t grass 3 0 7 whey 307 types bladder 179,287 breast 39, 5 0 , 1 4 1 , 179,287 colon 16,49,50, 73,114,130,149, 179,229,284,312 leukaemia 39,189, 235 lung 34,287,304 o e s o p h a g u s 143, 197 ovarian 3 9 , 2 3 5 prostate 5 2 , 6 6 , 1 8 0 rectal 3 4 skin 2 1 2 , 2 8 7 stomach 179,277 see also t u m o u r s Cancer Treatment C e n t e r of America 183 Candida 2, 51, 6 3 , 2 1 6 , 229,264,312 see also v a g i n a l yeast infections c a n o l a oil 6 2 caprylic acid 6 3 Capsella bursa-pastoris see see shepherd's purse Capsicum frutescens c a r a w a y (Carum F O S 124 fructose 6 4 , 1 2 5 glucose 4 5 - 6 , 6 4 , 1 3 4 g l y c a e m i c i n d e x (GI) 137-8 invert sugar 156 lactose 169 m a n n i t o l 163 molasses 1 9 6 - 7 cayenne pepper carvi) 6 3 carbohydrates 63-4
sorbitol 258 c a r d a m o m ( Elettaria cardamomum) Carduus marianus see m i l k thistle 64
Carica papaya see p a p a y a carnitine (L-carnitine) 65 c a r o b ( Ceratonia siliqua) 65-6 carotenoids 3 6 , 6 6 - 7 , 179-80,277 carpal t u n n e l s y n d r o m e 292 carrageenan 67-8 c a r r o t ( D a u c u s carota) 6 8 cartilage 6 8 - 9 , 8 8 - 9 , 1 3 5 , 248 Carum carvi see c a r a w a y Carya see p e c a n cascara s a g r a d a ( R h a m n u s purshiana/R. catharcticus) cashew nut 69-70 Cassia acutijolia see s e n n a cataracts 3 7 , 3 9 , 6 8 , 136, 178,235,257, 290,298 c a t n i p ( N e p e t a cataria) 70 cat's c l a w (Uncaria 70 tomentosa) oleracea) 71 cayenne pepper (Capsicum frutescens) Cebtraria 71 islandica see 69
c a u l i f l o w e r ( Brassica
Iceland moss c e l e r y ( A p i u m graveoletis vat duke) cellulose 7 3 c e n t a u r y (Centaurium ery'thraea) Centella Ceratonia kola siliqua see c a r o b c e r e b r a l palsy 3 0 6 73 asiatica see g o t u 72
NUTRIENTS A
TO Z
325
cetyl myristoleate ( C M ) 73-4 c h a s t e t r e e see v i t e x chelation 7 4 - 5 , 1 7 1 , 1 7 8 chemotherapy 127,239 Chenopodium quinoa c h e r r y ( Prunus) 75 chickweed media) intybus) 237-8 children babies 2 7 - 8 , 1 9 2 colic 1 1 , 1 8 6 hyperactivity 36, 85, 87,171 China a p r i c o t s 17 astralagus 2 3 - 4 aubergine 24 d o n g quai 100-1 ginseng 131-2 huperzine A 154 kudzu 4,166-7 m a h u a n g 182 miso 195 monosodium glutamate 197-8 propolis 2 2 9 - 3 0 reishi 2 3 9 sprouts 2 6 1 - 2 walnut 301-2 C h i n e s e g o o s e b e r r y see kiwi fruit Chinese Restaurant S y n d r o m e 198 chlorella 77 chlorophyll 77-8 chocolate 78-9 cholera 174 cholesterol 38, 80, 82, 8 6 boosters beer 34 butter 55 eggs 1 0 3 (Stellaria 76 76 quinoa see
L D L 170 margarine 185 reducers almond 7 artichoke 21 avocado 25 breast feeding 27 chlorophyll 78 choline 81 c i n n a m o n 84 evening primrose oil 1 0 8 exercise 8 0 , 1 0 8 f a t t y acids 2 0 7 fibre 4 9 , 1 1 4 , 1 7 6 , 219 fish 1 1 6 , 2 4 6 fruit 1 6 , 2 4 , 1 4 5 , 209,265 gamma-oryzanol 126 g l u c o m a n n a n 133 g r e e n tea 143 guar g u m 145 guggul 146 H D L 148 HMB 150 hormones 98-9 LDL 302 l e c i t h i n 171 minerals 156 oats 2 0 5 olive oil 2 0 6 o l i v e t r e e leaves 2 0 7 p a n g a m i c acid 2 1 3 pyruvate 234 reishi 2 3 9 safflower 2 4 5 seaweeds 203, 250 turmeric 279 vegan diets 2 8 3 vegetables 21, 210, 259 vegetarian diets 2 8 4 vitamins 155,290, 292,295 wine 308 veast 7 5 - 6
yoghurt 312
Cholestin 75-6
choline 81 c h o n d r o i t i n sulphates (CS) 8 1 - 2 c h r o m i u m 51, 8 2 - 3 Chrysanthemum parthenium feverfew c h y m o s i n see r e n n i n Cichorium intybus see chicory cider vinegar 8 3 c i l a n t r o see c o r i a n d e r Cimicifuga racemosa see black cohosh root cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) 84 circulation disorders 142,152-3,191 see also h a e m o r r h o i d s and v a r i c o s e v e i n s circulation improvers buckwheat 53 butcher's b r o o m 54 gingko 130 grapefruit 41 herbs 2 6 4 , 3 1 0 rutin 244 vegetables 3 5 , 7 2 , 1 6 4 , 219,263 v i n e leaves 2 8 5 vitamins 290 c i r r h o s i s o f t h e liver 3 4 , 193,225 Citrus limon see l e m o n C. x paradisi see grapefruit C . sinensis see o r a n g e Claviceps purpurea see ergot clay 8 4 - 5 C M see c e t y l myristoleate c o b a l a m i n see V i t a m i n B12 cobalt 34, 8 5 - 6 see
c h i c o r y ( Cichorium childbirth 4 , 1 0 0 - 1 , 1 0 6 ,
cocoa see chocolate
326
NUTRIENTS A
TO
coconut 86 c o d liver oil 8 6 - 7 c o e l i a c disease 9 1 , 1 3 7 , 193,241,255, 299,305 coenzyme Q 1 0 ( C o Q I O ) 88 coffee 57-8 Cola vera see k o l a Cokhicum autumnale see m e a d o w saffron cold remedies bee pollen 3 3 elder 104 evening p r i m r o s e 107 f r u i t 1 4 0 , 141, 1 4 2 , 173,209 goldenseal 139 g r e e n tea 143 herbs 19,24, 2 9 , 1 0 2 , 176,246,311 horseradish 153 linden 177 mustard 200 propolis 230 sarsparilla 2 4 8 vegetables 5 6 , 7 2 , 127, 208,215 vitamins 287, 295 c o l d sores see h e r p e s colic anise 11 herbs 2 9 , 6 2 , 7 0 , 1 1 2 , 186,209,245 colitis 1 9 6 , 2 2 9 , 2 5 6 , 284,313 collagen 88-9, 274, 295 colon cancer brassicas 5 0 fibre 4 9 , 7 3 , 1 1 4 , 1 4 9 , 176 f r u i t 16 l y c o p e n e 179 m i n e r a l s 130 probiotics 229 vegetarian diets 2 8 4 yoghurt 312
comfrey (Symphytum officinalis) Commiphora 89-90 see mukul
c o r i a n d e r (Coriandrum sativum) c o r n ( Z e a mays) cough remedies almond 7 e v e n i n g p r i m r o s e 107 fruit 2 1 7 , 2 1 8 , 2 2 1 g u m arabic 1 herbs 154, 1 7 6 , 1 8 6 , 2 0 9 , 2 4 5 , 264, 275 h o n e y 152 Iceland moss 155 linden 177 mustard 200 o l i v e t r e e leaves 2 0 7 pine nuts 224 propolis 230 vegetables 2 0 8 , 2 1 5 , 237 cramps 6 3 , 1 0 0 , 1 0 7 , 161,170,209, 216,220,311 cranberries 92 Crataegus monogyna see hawthorn cream o f tartar 9 2 - 3 creatine 9 3 - 4 Crocus sativus see s a f f r o n C r o h n ' s disease 5 9 , 1 3 6 cucumber sativus) Cucurbita (Cucumis 94 see p u m p k i n 91 91
guggul c o m p l e t e p r o t e i n 10 confectionery, g u m arabic 1 constipation causes 2 7 2 remedies alder 5 algae 7 7 a l o e vera 8 bran 49 exercise 108 fibre 113, 1 4 9 , 2 1 9 F O S 124 fruit 30, 1 4 5 , 2 1 8 , 225 glucomannan 133 herbs 3 1 , 7 6 , 2 3 2 , 254 h o n e y 152 k o m b u c h a 166 Lactobacillus acidophilus molasses 197 M S M 199 oats 2 0 5 o l i v e oil 2 0 6 probiotics 229 psyllium 232 senna 252 vegetables 56 vegetarian diets 284 yoghurt see also laxatives contraceptives 13,41, 287,311 c o n v a l e s c e n t aids 9 6 , 175 Convallaria majalis see lily o f t h e valley Cook,James 272 copper 90 C o Q I O see Q10 coenzyme 2, 168
C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y 16
and s q u a s h , w i n t e r cumin (Cuminum cyminum) Curcuma turmeric c u r c u m i n see t u r m e r i c Cyamopsis Cymbopogon Cynara tetragonolobus citratus see see see g u a r g u m l e m o n grass scolymus artichoke cvnarin 20 c y s t e i n e 4, 9 5 cystic f i b r o s i s 2 0 1 94-5 longa see
NUTRIENTS A
TO Z
327
cystitis bearberry 32 buchu 53 c o r n 91 cranberries 92 d o n g quai 100 marshmallow 186 probiotics 229 tea t r e e oil 2 7 3 d a m i a n a ( Turnera diffusa) 96 d a n d e l i o n ( Taraxacum officinale) d a t e (Phoenix L.) Daucus 96 dactylifera dandruff 246, 273 96-7
AFA47 chocolate 79 evening primrose 107 folic acid 118 herbs 29, 1 1 3 , 1 4 0 , 284 melatonin 189 mistletoe 196 neurotransmitters 202 PABA 212 phenylalanine 221 phosphatidylserine 222 proline 229 rice 241 serotonin 253 tyrosine 280 vegetables 56 vitamins 14,289, 293 zinc 314 dermatitis 40,266, 287, 290,312 d e s i c c a t e d liver 9 8 detoxifiers algae 2 6 1 a m i n o acids 191 clay 8 4 - 5 fasts 1 1 0 fruit 2 9 , 1 1 4 , 1 4 1 , 2 7 7 g l u t a m i n e 136 herbs 9 6 , 1 9 3 k o m b u c h a 166 minerals 266 N A C 201 v e g a n diets 2 8 3 vegetables 1 6 5 , 2 1 5 , 262,268,280 vitamins 295 w h e a t grass 3 0 7 devil's c l a w (Harpagophytum procumbens) D H A see docosahexaenoic acid 98
DHEA (dehydroepiandrosterone) 9 8 - 9 diabetes 46, 134 c a u t i o n s 11, 9 5 , 1 6 6 g l u c o s e t o l e r a n c e test 134 glycaemic index 137-8 remedies AFA 47 algae 77, 2 6 1 bitter m e l o n 4 2 - 3 breast f e e d i n g 27 b r e w e r ' s yeast 51 c a y e n n e p e p p e r 71 chromium 82 c i n n a m o n 84 exercise 108 fibre 1 1 4 , 2 1 9 g l u c o m a n n a n 133 herbs 1 1 2 , 1 4 5 , 2 1 6 h o r m o n e s 98, 99 lipoic acid 1 7 8 , 1 7 9 maitake 183 mannitol 163 minerals 184, 226, 314 oats 2 0 5 pyruvate 234 quercetin 235 reishi 2 3 9 rice 241 tofu 276 vanadium 282 v e g e t a b l e s 1 2 7 , 164, 280 vitamins 290 diarrhoea causes 3 6 , 1 8 7 , 2 0 3 , 235, 247 remedies amaranth 9 buckwheat 53 cider vinegar 83 fruit 24, 30, 32, 37, 4 3 , 173, 2 2 1 , 2 2 4 , 225, 238
carota see c a r r o t belladona
d e a d l y n i g h t s h a d e see decongestants 43 d e f i c i e n c y diseases 9 7 - 8 d e g e n e r a t i v e diseases o f ageing 233, 235, 259,279 carotenoids 66 food pyramid 121-2 ginkgo 130 glutathione 136 grape seed extract 142 herbs 24 lipoic acid 178 m e l a t o n i n 61, 189 m e t h i o n i n e 191 vitamins 2 9 5 , 2 9 7 see also A l z h e i m e r ' s disease; a r t h r i t i s ; c a n c e r and h e a r t disease d e h y d r a t i o n see w a t e r dehydroepiandrosterone see D H E A d e m e n t i a 8 , 2 8 , 130, 2 9 0 see also A l z h e i m e r ' s disease deodorizers 78 d e p r e s s i o n 4, 9 0 remedies
328
NUTRIENTS A
TO
g u m arabic 1 herbs 3 , 9 0 M S M 199 rice 241 tea 2 7 1 vegetables 1 7 2 , 2 4 0 ,
vegetables 56, 164, 217,219,249,262 vitamin B3 290 digestive tract problems cancer 277 remedies aloe vera 8 calendula 60 gamma-oryzanol
see also p h e n y l a l a n i n e DNA 15,204,277 (DHA) 86-7,116, 207, 208 dolomite 99-100 d o n g quai 100-1 d o p a m i n e 101 dream recollection 293 drowsiness 3 0 6 d u l s e (Palmaria palmata) d o c o s a h e x a e n o i c acid
268
vitamins 290 wheat 305 w i t c h hazel 3 1 0 d i e t a r y f i b r e see 61-2 see also w e i g h t loss d i g e s t i v e aids alder 5 a n g e l i c a 11 anise 11 burdock 54 caraway 6 3 cardamom 64 cayenne pepper 71 cider vinegar 8 3 coriander 91 evening primrose 107 flaxseed 117 f o o d c o m b i n a t i o n s 12, 25,119-20 fruit 1 6 , 1 1 4 , 1 4 1 , 1 6 4 , 173,209,214-15, 223-4, 265, 277, fibre diets, c a l o r i e - r e s t r i c t e d
126
g u m arabic 1 herbs 6 2 , 7 0 , 1 7 6 , 270,311 vegetables 6 8 dill ( A n e t h u m 99 Dioseorea villosa see y a m , wild Diospyros diuretics arnica 19 birch 41 black c o h o s h root 4 3 burdock 54 c o r n 91 elder 104 evening primrose 107 fruit 3 2 , 3 8 , 1 4 1 , 2 2 4 herbs 2 4 , 4 2 , 9 6 , 1 3 9 , 154,176,243, 254,263,284 h o p 152 lily o f t h e valley 1 7 7 m a t e tea 186 mistletoe 196 safflower 2 4 5 sarsaparilla 2 4 8 sprouts 262 vegetables 5 , 2 1 , 9 4 , 216,237,260 diverticulosis 4 9 , 7 3 , 114,232 dizziness 22, 4 5 , 1 7 0 , 204,242, 306 DLPA (DLp h e n y l a l a m n e ) 14 virginiana see persimmon graveolens)
101
dunaliella 3 6 d u o d e n a l ulcers causes 2 2 4 remedies avocado 25 bioflavonoids 40 cayenne pepper 71 elm bark 105 fibre 114 herbs 90 vegetables 5 6 , 1 6 2 , 210,227,262 vitamins 298 d w a r f p a l m see s a w palmetto dysentery amaranth 9 buckwheat 53 fruit 38,215, g u m arabic 1 tea 2 7 2 dyspepsia 92, 215 E l 0 2 (tartrazine) 6 E l 4 0 (chlorophyll) 78 E 1 5 0 (caramel) 3 4 E 1 6 0 d (lycopene) 180 E 2 1 0 ( b e n z o i c acid) 6,36 E 3 2 0 ( B H A ) 15 E 3 2 1 ( B H T ) 15 E 4 0 6 (agar) 3, 6 7 E 4 0 7 (carrageenan) 67-8 E 4 1 0 (carob) 6 6 E 4 1 2 (guar g u m ) 145
281
g i n g e r 131 herbs 3 , 7 3 , 76, 99, 112,154,202, 215,220,263, 275, 304 histidine 149 h o p 152 Iceland m o s s l 5 5 j u n i p e r 161 laurel 1 7 0 minerals 1 8 1 , 2 2 6 , 2 5 7 nutmeg 204 oats 2 0 5 pancreatin 213 seaweed 203 tea 2 7 1
NUTRIENTS A
TO Z
329
E 4 1 4 ( g u m arabic) 1, 147 E 4 1 6 (karaya g u m ) 1 4 7 E 4 4 0 b (pectin) 1 7 , 2 1 9 E 6 2 0 ( g l u t a m i c acid) 197 E621 (monosodium glutamate) 197 E.coli 46,124 (Echinacea 102 ear upsets 87 echinacea angustifolia)
pyruvate 234 tyrosine 280 vegetables 249 vitamins 290,292, 293 w h e a t g e r m oil 3 0 6 e n t e r i t i s 3, 4 3 , 2 7 2 e n z y m e s 6, 3 9 , 5 2 , 105-6,189,239 E P A see eicosapentaenoic acid Ephedra sinica see m a huang epilepsy 1 1 8 , 1 3 8 , 1 8 9 , 271,281,292,306 E P O see e v e n i n g p r i m r o s e oil Equal 22 Equisetum arvense see horsetail erectile dysfunction 131, 313 e r g o t (Claviceps purpurea)
night vision 37, 68, 260,287 retinal h a e m o r r h a g e s 40 sandy sensation 2 9 0 short-sightedness 37, 296 fainting 281 fasting 1 0 4 , 1 1 0 , 1 4 2 fatigue algae 7 7 barley 31 bee pollen 33 carnitine 65 chocolate 79 c h r o m i u m 82 coenzyme Q 1 0 88 fruit 265 herbs 1 3 1 , 1 3 9 iron 158 kola n u t 165 k o m b u c h a 166 molasses 196 N A D H 201 o l i v e t r e e leaves 2 0 7 PABA212 pregnenolone 227 reishi 2 3 9 rhodiola 240 royal j e l l y 2 4 3 vitamins 2 9 3 w h e a t g e r m oil biennis) 306 w h e a t grass 3 0 7 yoghurt 313 fats 1 1 1 - 1 2 , 1 7 8 arachidonic acid 17-18 bile 3 8 butter 55 carnitine 65 cetyl myristoleate 73-4 coconut 86 m e d i u m chain triglycerides 188-9
eczema 40, 5 4 , 1 0 8 , 2 1 2 , 229, 266,289, 298 E F A see essential f a t t y acids e g g p l a n t see a u b e r g i n e eggs 102 eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) 8 6 , 8 7 , 1 1 6 , 207-8 e l d e r (Sambucus 103-4 electrolytes 104 Elettaria cardamomum see cardamom e l m (Ulmusfulva) 104-5 e m p h y s e m a 57, 9 5 emulsifiers 66, 1 7 1 , 1 7 2 Enada 201 encephalitis 306 endorphins 221,280 enemas 58, 6 2 , 7 0 energy production a n i s e 12 bee pollen 3 3 carnitine 65 c h r o m i u m 82 cider vinegar 83 coenzyme Q 1 0 88 creatine 93 g r o w t h h o r m o n e s 144 herbs 140 iron 158 lipoic acid 178 m a h u a n g 182 M C T s 189 minerals 1 5 6 - 7 , 2 5 1 nigra)
106
e s s e n t i a l a m i n o acids 10, 231-2 e s s e n t i a l f a t t y acids (EFA)'111-12 e s s e n t i a l oils 1 9 - 2 0 Estee Lauder 3 0 7 - 8 eucalyptus (Eucalyptus 107 globulus) (Oenothera
evening primrose 44, 4 8 , 1 0 7 - 8 e v e n i n g p r i m r o s e oil (EPO) 23,108 exercise 1 0 8 - 9 , 2 4 7 exhaustion 96,275 Exorex lotion 30 e x p e c t o r a n t s 1 0 7 , 176 eyes 2 0 8 , 2 6 7 , 2 8 7 , 289 AMD 46,66,216 cataracts 3 7 , 3 9 , 68, 136,235,257, 290,298 dry 87
330
NUTRIENTS A TO
o m e g a - 3 f a t t y acids 207-8 s a t u r a t e d f a t t y acids 185 see also c h o l e s t e r o l fearfulness 3 0 6 f e n n e l ( Foeniculum vulgare) 112 f e n u g r e e k ( Trigonella foenumgraecum) 112-13 f e r t i l i t y 18 bee pollen 33 minerals 184 oysters 2 1 0 royal j e l l y 2 4 3 vitamins 214, 287, 289,297 see also i n f e r t i l i t y fever reduction arnica 19 fruit 1 4 0 , 2 3 8 herbs 29, 42, 7 3 j a s m i n e 161 lemongrass 174 orange 209 sarsaparilla 2 4 8 tamarind 269 feverfew (Chrysanthemum parthenium) fibre 1 1 3 - 1 4 bran 49-50 dates 9 7 flaxseed 116-17 fruit 1 6 4 , 2 1 8 glucomannan 133 hemicellulose 149 kale 1 6 2 l i g n i n s 176 oats 2 0 5 pectm 219 SCFAs 255 f i b r o c y t i c b r e a s t disease see b r e a s t l u m p s fibroids 183,300 114 figs {Fiats) 113
fish
115,246
food supplementation 122-3 F O S see f r u c t o - o l i g o saccharides Fragaria see s t r a w b e r r i e s F r a m i n g h a m study 185 f r e e radicals 6 6 , 1 8 8 , 204, 2 3 3 , 2 7 7 see also a n t i o x i d a n t s French paradox 123-4, 308 frigidity 149 f r o s t b i t e 141 f r u c t o - o l i g o saccharides (FOS) 124 fructose 125 Funk, D r Casimir 285 G A B A (gammaaminobutyric acid) 1 4 , 1 2 6 gall b l a d d e r d i s o r d e r s 17,237 gallstones fat-free diets 3 8 fibre 176 117 flaxseed
fish oils 1 1 6 flatulence aloe vera 8 a n i s e 11 caraway 63 cardamon 64 cinnamon 84 coriander 91 c u m i n 95 g i n g e r 131 herbs 1 1 , 2 9 , 3 1 , 7 0 , 7 6 , 9 9 , 1 1 2 , 154, 170,186,209, 220,242, 275 Lactobacillus acidophylus
2
laurel 170 nutmeg 204 orange 209 tea 2 7 1 vegetables 71, 72 yogurt 313 flavonoids 159 flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) 116-17 fleas 7 3 flu r e m e d i e s garlic 1 2 7 g r a p e f r u i t 141 g r e e n tea 1 4 3 l e m o n grass 1 7 4 peppermint 220 fluorine Foeniculum 117-18 vulgare see fennel folic acid 1 1 8 - 1 9 f o o d additives 133 see also E numbers f o o d allergies see allergies: f o o d food combination 119-20 f o o d irradiation 120-1 tood poisoning 246-7 tood pyramids 121-2 75,130,
herbs 76, 96 lecithin 171 o l i v e oil 2 0 6 turmeric 279 gamma-aminobutyric a c i d see G A B A g a m m a - l i n o l e n i c acid (GLA) 44, 48,
108
gamma-oryzanol 126-7 Gatioderma reishi gargles 3 , 6 2 , 1 7 7 , 2 3 8 garlic ( A l l i u m 127-8 g a s t r i c a c i d see s t o m a c h acid gastritis 1 2 6 , 1 8 6 , 2 5 6 , 272 gastroenteritis 213, 217, 220,313 sativum) lucidum see
Finland, beer 34
NUTRIENTS A TO Z
331
Gattefosse, R e n e Maurice 20 gelatin 3 genetically-modified (GM) foods 128-9 genistein 129 Georgia, Republic of 33 germanium 129-30 G H see g r o w t h hormone G I see g l y c a e m i c i n d e x g i n g e r ( Zingiber officinalis) Ginkgo 131 biloba 1 3 0 - 1 131-2 G L A see g a m m a linolenic acid glandular therapy 132 glazing agents 133 g l u c o m a n n a n 133 gluconates 133 g l u c o r o n i c acid 166 glucosamine sulphate (GS) 1 3 4 - 5 glucose 4 5 - 6 , 64, 134 see also d i a b e t e s ; f r u c t o s e and hypoglycaemia glucose tolerance factor 51 G l u c o s e T o l e r a n c e Test ( G T T ) 5, 1 3 4 g l u t a m i c acid 1 3 5 - 6 g l u t a m i n e 4, 1 3 5 - 6 glutathione (L-glutathione) 136-7 gluten 137 g l y c a e m i c i n d e x (GI) 137-8 glycine 138-9 Glycyrrhiza glabra see licorice G M see g e n e t i c a l l y modified foods g o a t ' s m i l k 2 8 , 192
goitre
115,157,203,251 canadensis) asiatica; asiatica) 139 Centella 139-40
g u a v a ( Psidium ) 1 4 5 guggul (Commiphora mukul) 146 g u m arabic 1 , 1 4 7 g u m b o see o k r a gums human bleeding 97, 295 disease 2 8 , 1 4 3 , 3 1 2 recession 88, 256 strengtheners 209, 225 plant 1 , 1 3 3 , 1 4 5 , 147 haemorrhoids c a u s e s 4, 3 4 remedies bioflavonoids 40 buckwheat 53 butcher's b r o o m 54 fibre 4 9 , 1 1 4 fruit 24, 3 0 , 1 1 4 herbs 62, 2 0 2 , 2 3 2 , 312 h o r s e chestnut 153 lettuce 175 rutin 244 v i n e leaves 2 8 5 witch hazel 310 hair dandruff 246, 273 greying 4 0 , 2 1 2 , 2 5 6 g r o w t h stimulants 83, 95,107 loss 1 0 , 4 0 , 8 7 , 1 6 6 , 212,231-2 s t r e n g t h e n e r s 154, 199,202,244 tonics 1 9 , 2 6 5 , 3 1 2 Hamamelis virginiana see witch hazel hangovers 4, 71, 2 0 8 Harpagophytum procumbens devil's clawH a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y 167, 180 see
goldenseal (Hydrastis g o t u - k o l a (Hydrocotyle
gout causes 34, 58 cautions 204 remedies butcher's b r o o m 54 devil's c l a w 9 8 fruit 75, 2 6 5 , 2 7 7 glycine 138 herbs 1 1 , 1 8 6 , 1 8 7 , 304 m a t e t e a 186 sarsaparilla 2 4 8 sassafras 2 4 9 grains 140 amaranth 8-9 barley 3 0 - 1 buckwheat 53 c o r n 91 oats 2 0 5 quinoa 236 rice 241 rye 244 wheat 305 grape seed extract 142-3 g r a p e f r u i t ( Citrus x paradisi) g r a p e s (Vitis) sinensis) grief 186 Grifola Jrondosa maitake growth hormone (GH) 18, 1 2 7 , 1 4 3 - 4 G S see g l u c o s a m i n e sulphate G T T see G l u c o s e T o l e r a n c e Test guar g u m (Cyamopsis tetragonolobus) 145 g u a r a n a (Paulinia cubana) 144 see 140-1 141-2 143
g i n s e n g ( P a n a x ginseng)
g r e e n tea ( Camellia
332
NUTRIENTS A
TO
h a w t h o r n ( Crataegus monogyna) hay fever 2 8 3 H C A s 188 H D L (high density lipoproteins) 34, 148-9 headaches causes 2 2 , 2 0 3 , 3 0 9 remedies guarana 144 herbs 170, 2 0 9 , 242, 275 passion flower 216 phenylalanine 221 probiotics 229 rose 2 4 2 vegetables 2 1 5 see also m i g r a i n e s h e a l t h f o o d s t o r e s vii hearing 1 3 1 , 2 1 7 , 2 9 3 h e a r t disease causes alcohol 34 blood clotting 45 cadmium 57 caffeine 58 copper 90 h o m o c y s t e i n e 150 margarine 5 5 , 1 8 5 meat 187 sodium 257 remedies a m i n o acids 1 9 1 aspirin 2 3 carnitine 65 c o d liver oil 8 7 coenzyme Q 1 0 88 exercise 108 f a t t y acids 2 0 7 - 8 fibre 4 9 , 1 1 4 , 2 1 9 fish 115,116,246 117 flaxseed 148
h a w t h o r n 148 H D L 148 herbs 140 h o r m o n e s 98 minerals 2 5 1 , 2 5 7 o l i v e t r e e leaves 2 0 7 quercetin 235 reishi 2 3 9 safflower 245 tofu 276 v e g a n diets 2 8 3 vegetables 7 2 , 1 2 7 , 208,259 v e g e t a r i a n diets 2 8 4 wine 122-3 see also a n g i n a p e c t o r i s and c h o l e s t e r o l h e a r t s t r e n g t h e n e d 177, 205 h e a r t b e a t , i r r e g u l a r see arrhythmia h e a r t b u r n 1 2 , 6 0 , 92, 100, 2 5 6 , 3 0 3 heatstroke 257 hemicellulose 149 hepatitis 1 4 1 , 1 4 3 , 1 9 3 , 205, 261 herbal suppliers 3 1 6 - 1 7 h e r b a l i s t s vii herpes 19,39,102,180, 220, 230,235, 260, 309 h e s p e r i d i n e see bioflavonoids high b l o o d pressure causes 3 4 , 5 7 , 2 5 7 remedies b o r a g e oil 4 8 buckwheat 53 cayenne p e p p e r 71 exercise 108 fibre fish 49 115
seaweed 203 vegetables 72, 208 vitamins 156 high density lipoproteins see H D L hip fractures 117 Hiroshima University School of Dentistry 263 histamine 149 histidine 149 H I V see a c q u i r e d immune deficiency s y n d r o m e (AIDS) H M B (Betahydroxy-betamethylbutyrate) 150 H o d g k i n ' s disease 1 3 0 holistic therapies 19-
20,26
homocysteine 150-1 honey 151-2 hop (Humulus 152 Hordeum see b a r l e y h o r m o n e replacement therapy ( H R T ) 129,158,160, 259,300 h o r m o n e s see g r o w t h h o r m o n e and oestrogen h o r s e c h e s t n u t ( Aesculus hippocastanum) 152-3 horseradish (Armoracia 153 154 rusticana) arvense) lupulus)
horsetail (Equisetum h o t flushes 3 3 , 4 3 , 100, 126,297,300 H R T see h o r m o n e replacement therapy human immunodeficiency
fruit 1 4 2 , 1 4 5 glutathione 136 glycaemic index 138 g u g g u l 146
fruit 164 h o n e y 152 mistletoe 196 passion flower 2 1 6 peanuts 217
NUTRIENTS A
TO Z
333
v i r u s ( H I V ) see acquired i m m u n e deficiency syndrome h u m o u r , lost s e n s e o f 291 Hamulus Hydrastis Hydrocotyle lupulus see h o p canadensis see H u p e r z i n e A 154 goldenseal asiatica see
b r e w e r ' s yeast 51 c h r o m i u m 82 fruit 25 vegetables 164, 2 3 3 tests GTT 5,134 154 hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis) hysteria 216 I B S see i r r i t a b l e b o w e l syndrome Iceland moss islandica) Ilex paraguayensis mate i m m u n e system algae 7 7 , 2 6 1 antioxidants 179 arginine 18 bee pollen 33 beta carotene 37 clay 8 5 C M 74 . fruit 145 g r o w t h h o r m o n e 144 (Cebtraria 155 see
i n d i g e s t i o n aids f r u i t 141 herbs 6 2 , 2 2 0 , 284, 310 oats 2 0 5 pancreatin 213 vegetables 6 8 , 2 8 0 infertility 4 , 1 0 6 , 1 7 1 , 293,300 i n f l a m m a t o r y diseases
102
see also a r t h r i t i s inositol 155-6 insect bites 2 7 3 , 3 1 0 i n s o m n i a relief belladona 35 exercise 108 h a w t h o r n 148 herbs 2 9 , 6 2 , 2 2 0 , 2 4 5 , 270 melatonin 189 mistletoe 196 wheat 305 see also s l e e p i n d u c t i o n interferon 23 intestinal bacteria 2 , 1 6 8 algae 2 6 1 biotin 40 clay 8 5 F O S 124 miso 195 probiotics 228-9 vegetables 2 2 7 , 2 4 9 yoghurt 312 i n t e s t i n a l d i s o r d e r s 3, 215,272 i n t e s t i n a l l u b r i c a n t s 7, 232 intestinal parasites remedies fruit 141,215,221, 224, 225 herbs 2 0 2 , 3 1 0 h o p 152 senna 252 tamarind 269 vegetables 35, 127, 233,263
gotu-kola hydrogenation 185 hyperactivity 36, 85, 87, 171 Hypericum perforatum see St J o h n ' s w o r t hypertension causes 8 8 , 9 0 , 9 8 , 1 7 1 , 247,257 cautions 182, 2 2 2 remedies algae 7 7 bioflavonoids 40
b o r a g e oil 4 8 c h r o m i u m 82 fibre 113 fish 2 4 6 fruit 2 9 , 1 4 2 , 2 2 1 h a w t h o r n 148 h e r b s 131 maitake 183 propolis 230 s u n f l o w e r seeds 2 6 7 vegan diets 2 8 3 vegetables 21, 72, 227 vegetarian diets 2 8 4 vitamins 298 h y p o g l y c a e m i a 5, 4 6 , 134,138 causes 79 cautions 175 remedies AFA 47 algae 2 6 1
herbs 2 3 , 7 0 , 1 3 1 , 1 3 9 ,
216
HMB 150 130,251,314 melatonin 189 minerals mushrooms 200 N A C 201 o l i v e t r e e leaves 2 0 7 ornithine 209 propolis 230 pycogenol 233 reishi 2 3 9 royal j e l l y 2 4 3 vegetables 1 2 7 , 2 4 9 vitamins 287, 292, 293,295 i m p o t e n c e 131 I n c a w h e a t see a m a r a n t h i n c o m p l e t e p r o t e i n 10 i n c o n t i n e n c e 181 I n d i a n m e d i c i n e see Ayurveda
334
NUTRIENTS A
TO
intestinal p u t r e f a c t i o n 2 intestinal ulcers fruit remedies 238 invert sugar 156 i o d i n e 101, 1 5 6 - 7 , 1 6 3 Ipomoea batatus see s w e e t potato ipriflavone 157-8 iron 3 8 , 9 0 , 1 5 8 - 9 , 2 2 5 irradiation, f o o d 120-1 irritable b o w e l s y n d r o m e (IBS) 272 a l o e vera 8 e v e n i n g p r i m r o s e oil
kale (Brassica oleracea) 162 kasha see b u c k w h e a t kava-kava (Piper methysticum) 162-3 kelp 1 6 3 - 4 k i d n e y disorders 15, 2 1 , 22,71, 161,166, 190,226,243 kidney stones causes 58, 2 1 0 , cautions 3 5 , 1 9 9 , 2 1 0 , 237, 2 4 1 , 2 6 0 remedies bearberry 32 b i r c h 41 c o r n 91 f r u i t 173 herbs 4 2 , 1 5 4 , 2 1 5 , 246 minerals 1 8 1 , 2 5 7 olive oil 2 0 6 , 2 3 7 vegetables 2 3 7 v e g e t a r i a n diets 2 8 4 vitamins 292 k i w i f r u i t (Actinidia deliciosa) 164 knees 254 k o h l r a b i (Brassica oleracea) 1 6 4 - 5 k o j i 9, 2 6 9 kola (Cola vera) 165 k o i n b u 165 kombucha 165-6 k u d z u (Radix puerpariae) 4,166-7 l a b o u r 1 0 0 - 1 , 106, 237-8 lactation c a u t i o n s 19, 118, 163, 164 inhibitors 1 0 6 , 2 4 6 stimulants anise 11 f e n u g r e e k 112 herbs 1 9 3 . 2 0 2 , 2 5 4
Iceland moss 155 peanuts 217 spices 9 5 vegetables 1 7 5 , 2 6 8 Lactobacillus acidophylus 2, 168,228 lactoferrin 168-9 lactose 1 6 9 lactose i n t o l e r a n c e 169, 191 Lactuca sativa see l e t t u c e ladies' f i n g e r s see o k r a laryngitis 1 7 3 , 2 7 5 laurel (Laurus tiobilis) 169-70 l a v e n d e r (Lavandula officinalis) 2 0 , 1 7 0 laxatives agar 3 barberry 30 barley 31 e l d e r 104 fruit 225 herbs 6 9 , 9 6 , 1 7 6 lily o f t h e valley 177 minerals 266 molasses 197 pine nuts 224 senna 252 tamarind 269 vegetables 2 6 0 L D L (low-density lipoproteins) 170 lead 1 0 0 , 1 7 0 - 1 l e a k y g u t s y n d r o m e 136 lecithin 2 5 , 1 7 1 - 2 l e e k (Allium porrum) 172 leg u l c e r s 5 6 l e g u m e s (beans) 1 7 2 - 3 , 174,216-17, 217-18 see also s o y b e a n l e m o n (Citrus Union) 173-4 l e m o n b a l m see b a l m l e m o n grass (Cynibopogon citrams) 174
108
fibre 1 1 4 g a m m a - o r y z a n o l 126 glutamine 136 peppermint 220 isoflavones 1 2 9 , 1 5 9 - 6 0 i s o l e u c i n e 160 Italy l y c o p e n e studies 179 t r y p t o p h a n studies 278 i t c h i n g , skin 1 1 , 2 7 3 Japan l y c o p e n e studies 1 7 9 -
80
maitake 182-3 m i s o 195 monosodium g l u t a m a t e 197 stevia 2 6 3 wakame 301 j a s m i n e (jasminum officinalis) 161 jaundice 2 0 , 5 4 , 9 6 , 1 4 2 , 280 J e n k i n s , D r . D a v i d 138 j e t lag 189 j o i n t s 87, 8 9 , 2 5 4 , 2 7 9 Juglans nigra see w a l n u t j u m p e r (Junipems communis) 161
NUTRIENTS A
TO Z
335
l e n t i l s ( Lens culinoris) l e t t u c e ( Lactuca sativa) 175 leucine 175
174
ozone damage 212 remedies f r u i t 17 vegetables 280 lupus erythematosus 18,74 lutein 66 l y c o p e n e 66, 179-80, 277 Lycopersicon lysine 180 m a h u a n g ( Ephedra sinica) 182 macadamia nuts esculentum see tomato
Melaleuca
alternifolia
see
tea t r e e melanoma 280 m e l a t o n i n 61, 189-90 Melissa officinalis see b a l m 1 3 9 , 1 5 4 , 162, 222, 227, 242, 246, 248, 253, 293,294 menopause 59 bee pollen 33 herbs 245 minerals 48, 251 vitex 300 see also h o t 181 frondosa) menstruation heavy 9 , 3 9 , 2 0 2 , 2 5 4 , 300,311 painful bee pollen 33 black cohosh root 43 choline 81 d o n g quai 100 fruit 238 propolis 230 spices 8 4 , 2 7 9 yam 311 regulation 176,209, 246,293,311 stimulants a n i s e 11 black c o h o s h root see 43 caraway 63 guarana 144 herbs 2 9 , 4 2 , 1 1 3 , 154,215,242, 243,270 187 vegetables 35, 72 see also a m e n o r r h o e a ; f i b r o i d s and premenstrual tension m e n t a l alertness 221. 226.227 188-9 flushes and oestrogen m e m o r y 8, 130, 131,
leukaemia 3 9 , 1 8 9 , 2 3 5 l e u k o t r i e n e s 17 lice 7 3 licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) lignins 176 lily o f t h e valley (Convallaria majalis) l i m e see l i n d e n l i n d e n (Tilia 177 l i n s e e d oil see Linum flaxseed lipids 178 lipoic acid 1 7 8 - 9 hps 9 4 , 1 5 2 liver d e t o x i f i e r s 17, 1 3 7 , flaxseed see usitatissimum europaea) 177 175-6
(Macadamia integrifolia) m a i t a k e (Grifola 182-3 malaria 206 Malus see a p p l e m a n g a n e s e 101, 184 m a n g o ( M a n g i f e r a indica) 184 m a n n i t o l 163 m a r g a r i n e 185 m a r i g o l d see c a l e n d u l a m a r j o r a m (Origanum majorana) officinalis) m a t e (Ilex 186-7 Matricaria chamomilla camomile M C T s see m e d i u m chain triglycerides m e a d o w saffron (Colchicum autumnale) measles 104 meat 52,98, 187-8 Medkago sativa see alfalfa m e d i u m chain triglycerides (MCTs) 185-6 186 m a r s h m a l l o w ( Althea paraguayensis) magnesium 181-2
166,201,260
stimulants 107 liver, dessicated 98, 188 liver disease causes alcohol 4 , 3 4 , 65, 90 remedies barberry 30 fruit 141, 1 4 3 , 2 2 5 herbs 193,216 reishi 2 3 9 royal j e l l y 2 4 3 vegetables 35, 50 l o c u s t b e a n see c a r o b longevity bee pollen 33 glutathione 136 maitake 183 reishi 2 3 9 low-density lipoproteins sec L D L lubricants 74 lungs cancer 34, 287, 304
336
NUTRIENTS A
TO
m e n t a l illness 4, 21 sec also a n x i e t y ; d e p r e s s i o n and schizophrenia Mentha see p e p p e r m i n t m e r c u r y 115, 190 m e t a l s , t o x i c 16, 2 2 , 2 1 9 , 251 a l u m i n i u m 8, 12, 2 8 cadmium 56-7 lead 1 0 0 , 1 7 0 - 1 mercury 190 methionine (L-methionme) 190-1 methylsulphonylmethane see M S M migraines aspirin 2 3 e r g o t 106 glutamine 136 guarana 144 herbs 113, 2 8 4 vegetables 72 yoghurt 313 milk 27-8, 191-2 see also l a c t a t i o n ; l a c t o f e r r i n and lactose m i l k thistle ( C a r d u u s marianus) millet 193 minerals 74-5, 193-5, 238 see also e l e c t r o l y t e s ; g l u c o n a t e s and individual minerals m i n t see p e p p e r m i n t miscarriages 5 8 , 2 9 7 , 306 m i s o 195 mistletoe (Viscum 196 moisturizers 308 molasses 1 9 6 - 7 molybdenum Momordica 197 see charantia album) 193
m o n o s o d i u m glutamate (MSG) 292 m o t h e r g r a i n see q u i n o a m o u l d inhibitors 141, 190,203 m o u n t a i n t o b a c c o see arnica m o u t h infections 3 m o u t h ulcers 225, 2 4 2 m o u t h w a s h e s 30, 62, 107, 1 3 9 , 2 4 2 , 275,310,312 MRSA 127 M S G see m o n o s o d i u m glutamate M S M (methylsulphonylmethane) 198-9 m u l t i p l e sclerosis 1 8 , 7 4 , 251,293,306 Musa see b a n a n a muscles builders 5 0 , 9 3 - 4 , 2 3 4 g r o w t h 144, 150 painful 40, 279 r e p a i r 1 6 0 , 175, 2 8 2 t o n e 138 wasting 289 muscular dystrophy 205, 306 mushrooms 199-200 m u s t a r d ( Brassica nigra) 200 m y a s t h e n i a gravis 3 0 6 Myristica fragrans see nutmeg NAC (N-acetyl cysteine) 201 NADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) 201 nails 164, 1 9 9 , 2 3 2 , 2 4 4 , 256,265,267 n a p p y rash 2 7 3 197-8 m o r n i n g sickness 131,
Nasturtium nausea
officinalis see
watercress causes 2 0 3 , 2 4 7 remedies herbs 3 1 , 2 2 0 rice 241 seaweed 101 spices 8 4 , 1 3 1 vegetables 21 vitamins 292 stimulators 284 Nepeta cataria see c a t n i p nerve-muscle disorders 184, 2 0 5 , 3 0 6 nervous system breakdown 243 toxic metal b u i l d - u p 190 nettle, stinging (Urtica dioica) 2 0 1 - 2 neurotransmitters (NTs) 1 0 1 , 2 0 2 , 252, 2 7 8 n i a c i n see V i t a m i n B 3 nicotinamide adenine d i n u c l e o t i d e see NADH night blindness 260 n i g h t shift w o r k e r s 189 n i g h t sweats 2 4 6 , 3 0 5 night vision 260, 287 nightshades 203 nitrates 2 0 3 nitrites 2 0 3 Nittler, Dr. Alan 37 nori 203 nosebleeds 165 N T s see neurotransmitters n u c l e i c acids 2 0 4 n u t m e g ( Myristica fragrans) Nutrasweet 22 Nutritious 308 nuts almonds 7 cashews 6 9 - 7 0 k o l a n u t 165 204
bitter m e l o n
NUTRIENTS A TO Z
337
m a c a d a m i a s 181 peanuts 217-18 pecans 218 pine nuts 224 walnuts 301-2 oat bran 49 o a t s (Avena Orimum sativa) 205 see obesity 4 9 , 1 1 4 basilicum basil octacosanol 205, 306 oedema causes 4 1 , 2 5 7 remedies AA 24 barley 31 butcher's b r o o m 54 fruit 2 4 , 1 6 4 , 2 2 4 herbs 9 6 , 1 0 0 , 2 1 5 , 264 horse chestnut 153 minerals 226 seaweeds 251 v e g e t a b l e s 5, 2 1 , 7 2 , 217,227,262 vitamins 292 Oenothera biennis see evening primrose o e s o p h a g e a l cancer 143, 197 o e s t r o g e n 100, 3 0 6 boosters 48 HRT 129,158,160 i n h i b i t o r s 81, 1 5 5 - 6 ipriflavone 157-8 isoflavones 1 2 9 , 1 5 9 -
safflower 245 sunflower 266-7 tea tree 2 7 2 - 3 wheat germ 306 w o r m w o o d 310 o k r a ( Abelmoschus esculentus) oligomeric proanthocyanidins ( O P C s ) 142 o l i v e oil 2 0 6 o l i v e t r e e leaves 1 0 6 - 7 o m e g a - 3 f a t t y acids 207-8 o n i o n (Allium) 2 0 8 O P C s see o l i g o m e r i c proanthocyanidins opium 225 o r a n g e (Citrus 208-9 oregano Origanum (Origanum 209 see majorana vulgare) sinensis) 210 oleuropein 206-7
P A see p h e n y l a l a n i n e P A B A (para a m i n o b e n z o i c acid) 2 1 2 painkillers aspirin 2 3 balm 29 belladona 35 bishop weed 42 cayenne pepper 71 poppy 225 valerian 281 Palmaria palmata dulse Panax ginseng see g i n s e n g pancreas 6 , 4 5 - 6 pancreatin 213 pangainic acid (Vitamin B15) 213 p a n t o t h e n i c acid (Vitamin B5) 214 p a p a i n see p a p a y a Papaver somniferum poppy p a p a y a (Carica 214-15 para a m i n o b e n z o i c acid see P A B A P a r a g u a y t e a see m a t e paralysis, b e l l a d o n a 3 6 p a r a s i t e s see fleas; i n t e s t i n a l parasites and l i c e P a r k i n s o n ' s disease 1 0 1 , 106,201,295 parsley (Petroselinum 128,215 sativa) crispum) 215 passion flower (Passiflora 216 incarnata) parsnip pau d'arco (Tabevulia) papaya) see see
maijoram O, vulgare see o r e g a n o ornithine (L-ornithine) 18, 2 0 9 Oryza see r i c e 135,203,257 osteoporosis calcium 58, 5 9 exercise 108 folic acid 118 h o m o c y s t e i n e 150 ipriflavone 158 isoflavones 160 manganese 184 v e g a n diets 2 8 3 vegetarian diets 284 vitamins 299 ovarian malignancies 39, 130, 235 oxalic acid 2 1 0 O x f o r d University 230 oysters 2 1 0 - 1 1 Paulinia osteoarthritis 82, 87, 95,
p a r s n i p (Pastinaca
60
oils borage 48 canola 62 c o d liver 8 6 - 7 essential oils 1 9 - 2 0 fish 1 1 6 laurel 170 l a v e n d e r 170 m a i j o r a m 186 olive 2 0 6
Pastinaca sativa see
216
cubana see guarana Pausinystalia johimbe see yohimbe
338
NUTRIENTS A
TO
p a w p a w see p a p a y a p e a ( Pisum sativum) 216-17 p e a c h ( Prunus persica) 217 p e a n u t ( Arachis 217-18 p e a r (Pyrus communis) hypogaea)
PA) 1 6 , 2 2 , 2 2 1 - 2 , 261 phenylketonuria (PKU)
nightshades 44, 203 nutmeg 204 parsnip 215 peanuts 218 poppy 225 potato 227 saffron 2 4 5 shellfish 2 5 4 thyme 275 w o r m w o o d 310 see also m e t a l s , t o x i c pollen, bee 32-3 pomegranate granatum) p o p p y ( Papaver somniferum) 293 potassium 226 potato (Solanum tuberosum) 226-7 225 (Ptmica 225
22
p h l e g m alleviation almond 7 cayenne p e p p e r 71 fruit 17 herbs 1 7 6 , 2 0 9 , 2 4 5 , 264,275,284,304 horseradish 153 j u n i p e r 161 vegetables 2 0 8 Phoenix dactylifera L. see date p h o s p h a t i d y l s e r m e (PS)
218
pecan (Carya) 2 1 8 pectin 1 6 , 2 1 9 pellagra 290, 2 9 1 p e p p e r (Capsicum) 2 1 9 -
20
peppermint (Mentha)
220
pernicious anaemia 293 Persea americana avocado p e r s i m m o n ( Diospyros virginiana) perspiration inhibition 217, 246 n i g h t sweats 2 4 6 , 3 0 5 salt d e f i c i e n c y 2 5 7 stimulation anica 19 birch 41 burdock 54 c a y e n n e p e p p e r 71 d u l s e 101 elder 104 grains 2 4 5 herbs 29, 4 2 , 2 0 9 , 242,275,284,311 j a s m i n e 161 l m d e n 177 minerals 257 sarsaparilla 2 4 8 sassafras 2 4 9 vegetables 215, 2 8 0 Petroselinum crispum see parsley P G s see p r o s t a g l a n d i n s p h a r m a c i e s vii phenylalanine (^-phenylalanine; 220-1 see
222
phosphorus 222-3 phycocyanin 261 p h y t i c acid 2 2 3 p i g n o l i a s see p i n e n u t s Pimpinella anisum see anise pine nuts 224 pineapple (Ananas) 52, 223-4 Piper methysticum kava-kava Pisum sativum Plantago see p e a major see see
post-natal depression
pregnancy 59,100,306 c a u t i o n s 1 9 , 1 1 8 , 146, 1 6 3 , 164, 2 0 9 , 300, 304 see also m i s c a r r i a g e s pregnenolone 227 premenstrual syndrome/ tension ( P M S / PMT) 20,100, 101,108,227, 264, 2 9 8 , 3 0 0 preservatives 1 5 , 3 6 , 2 0 3 ,
psyllium P. ovata see p s y l l i u m p l a n t a i n see p s y l l i u m p l u m s (Prunus) P M S / P M T see premenstrual syndrome/tension p o i s o n o u s substances AFA 47 c a s h e w shells 7 0 comfrey 90 e r g o t 106 fluorine 117-18 horse chestnut 153 m e a d o w saifron 187 m e a t 187 m i s t l e t o e 196 224-5
228
proanthocyanidins 233 probiotics 228-9 proline (L-proline) 229 p r o p i o n i c acid 2 5 5 propolis 229-30 prostaglandins (PGs) 1718,23,108 p r o s t a t e g l a n d 181 alcohol effects 4 cancer 5 2 , 6 6 , 180 enlarged 33, 250, 314 p r o s t a t i t i s 106 p r o t e i n s 10, 2 3 1 - 2
NUTRIENTS A
TO Z
339
see aslo a m i n o acids prunes 224-5 Prunus P. armeniaca see a p r i c o t s P. persica see p e a c h see also c h e r r y and plums P S see p h o s p h a t i dylserine Psidium see g u a v a 193,227,266,315 p s y l l i u m ( Plantago ovata\ Plantago 232 pulse, rapid 157 p u l s e test 6 p u l s e s see l e g u m e s p u m p k i n ( Cucurbita) 2 3 3 Punica granatum see pomegranate p u r i f i e r s see b l o o d p u r i f i e r s and detoxifiers pycnogenol 233 p y r i d o x i n e see v i t a m i n s : B6 Pyrus communis pyruvate 234 quercetin 39, 235 quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) 236 sativus) see see p e a r major) psoriasis 18, 3 0 , 1 6 6 ,
reishi
(Ganoderma lucidum) 239
rickets 223, 2 9 6 R N A 204 r o s e (Rosa spp.) 2 4 2 rosehips 2 4 2 rosemary (Rosmarinus 242 officinalis) royal j e l l y 2 4 3 Rubus idaeus see raspberry R. villosus see blackberry r u e (Ruta graveolens) Ruscus aculeatus see 243
r e l a x a t i o n see c a l m i n g p r o p e r t i e s and sedatives rennin 239 r e s p i r a t o r y d i s o r d e r s 1, 153, 161 see also a s t h m a and bronchitis resveratrol 1 4 1 , 3 0 8 - 9 retinol 240 Rhamnus Rhamnus Rheum catharcticus see purshiana palmatum rhubarb r h e u m a t i s m aids alder 5 coriander 91 elder 104 fruit 75, 1 7 3 , 2 1 5 , 2 6 5 h e r b s 11, 1 4 0 , 1 8 6 l a u r e l oil 1 7 0 mustard 200 sarsaparilla 2 4 8 sassafras 2 4 9 vegetables 72, 237 r h e u m a t o i d arthritis A A 18 C M 74 c o d liver oil 8 7 cysteine 95 S O D 257 vitamins 214 r h o d i o l a (Rhodiola 240 rhubarb (Rheum 240-1 palmatum) idaeus) Ribes nigrum see blackcurrant r i b o f l a v i n see v i t a m i n s : B2 r i c e (Oryza) 241 see also a m a s a k e Rice-Evans, Catherine 129 rosea) see see cascara s a g r a d a cascara s a g r a d a
r o u g h a g e see f i b r e
butcher's b r o o m Russia 2 1 3 , 2 3 0 , 267 Ruta graveolens see r u e rutin 53, 243, 244 r y e (Secale cereale) 2 4 4 S-adenosyl methionine see S A M saccharin 36 s a c r e d b a r k see cascara sagrada safflower seed/oil 245 s a f f r o n (Crocus 245 s a g e (Salvia 246 salmon 246 salmonella 124, 2 4 6 - 7 salt 2 4 7 Salvia officinalis see sage S A M (S-adenosylmethionine) 248 Sambucus nigra see e l d e r (Smilax 248 248-9 sarsaparilla sassafras officinalis) sativus)
radish (Raphanus 237 Radix puerpariae kudzu Raphanus
sativus see
officinalis) albidum) 185 sauerkraut 249 saw p a l m e t t o serrulata) s c a b i e s 11 scarlet f e v e r 104
radish r a s p b e r r y (Rubus 237-8 r a w j u i c e t a s t i n g see fasting RDA (recommended daily a l l o w a n c e ) 238 rectal c a n c e r 3 4
(Sassafras
s a t u r a t e d f a t t y acids
(Serenoa 249-50
340
NUTRIENTS A
TO
S C F A see s h o r t - c h a i n f a t t y acids schizophrenia 1 3 7 , 3 1 4 scurvy 295 sea c u c u m b e r 8 2 seasickness 101 seaweeds 2 5 0 - 1 agar 3 carrageenan 67-8 dulse 101 kelp 1 6 3 - 4 k o m b u 165 nori 203 wakame 301 Secale cereale see r y e sedatives evening primrose 107 G A B A 126 herbs 220, 2 4 2 , 2 4 6 , 281,284 linden 177 spices 8 4 vegetables 7 2 , 1 7 5 witch hazel 3 1 0 see also c a l m i n g properties selenium 51, 2 5 1 - 2 self-diagnosis w a r n i n g v senile m a c u l a r d e g e n e r a t i o n 131 s e n n a ( Cassia 252 Serenoa serrulata see s a w palmetto s e r i n e see p h o s p h a t i d y l s e r i n e (PS) serotonin 2 4 0 , 2 5 2 - 3 , 278 sesame seeds indicum) sex d r i v e 2 3 2 bee pollen 33 guarana 144 herbs 140 histidine 149 minerals 184, 1 9 7 , 2 5 1 neurotransmitters 202 royal j e l l y 2 4 3 (Sesamum 253-4 acutifoha)
serotonin 253 vitamins 297 see also a p h r o d i s i a c s sexual dysfunction 131, 149 shellfish 2 5 4 shepherd's purse (Capsella pastoris) bursa254
rashes 107 rough 232,287 sunburn 8,212,273, 310 ulcers 7 8 , 1 4 0 , 2 9 8 w r i n k l e s 4, 8, 7 5 , 142,295 sleep i n d u c t i o n herbs 2 6 4 , 2 8 4 passion flower 216 serotonin 253 spices 8 4 vegetablesl75 vitamins 156 see also i n s o m n i a r e l i e f s l i p p e r y e l m see e l m Smilax officinalis see sarsaparilla s m o k i n g 14, 5 7 , 8 0 , 9 7 , 151,171,205, 281,295,304, 314 snake bites 4 2 , 1 0 2 S O D (superoxide dismutase) 31, 146,256-7 sodium 257-8 l o w - s o d i u m diets 28, 29, 7 2 , 2 5 7 s o d i u m b i c a r b o n a t e see baking powder/ soda s o d i u m c h l o r i d e see salt Solanum nigrum see b l a c k nightshade S. tuberosum sorbitol 258 sore throats barberry 30 blackcurrant 44 fruit 1 4 1 , 1 7 3 , 2 1 8 g u m arabic 1 herbs 102, 246 h o n e y 152 linden 177 o l i v e t r e e leaves 2 0 7 propolis 230 vegetables 94 see p o t a t o
s h o r t - c h a i n f a t t y acids (SCFA) 255 shoyu 255 s i c k n e s s see n a u s e a silicon 154,193,255-6 207, 2 2 9 , 2 8 0 skin beautification calendula 60 clay 8 5 fruit 25, 44 herbs 154, 2 0 2 inositol 155 M S M 199 proline 229 silicon 1 9 3 , 2 5 6 sulphur 265-6 vegetables 6 8 water 302 whey 308 conditions 3 0 , 7 2 , 76, 170,218,243, 254,267 acne 7 0 , 1 0 8 , 2 7 3 , 287,298 blistering 70 cancer 2 1 2 , 2 8 7 dermatitis 4 0 , 2 6 6 , 287 dry 8 7 , 2 8 7 eczema 4 0 , 5 4 , 108, 212,266,289,298 inflammations 60, itching 8 , 1 1 , 2 7 3 p i g m e n t a t i o n loss sinus p r o b l e m s 7 1 , 1 5 3 ,
212
psoriasis 3 0 , 193, 266,315
NUTRIENTS A TO Z
341
sources of nutrients viiviii, 3 1 6 - 1 7 sourdough leavening process 2 8 soybean 1 9 5 , 2 5 5 , 2 5 8 - 9 , 273,276-7 s p e r m c o u n t 18 spina bifida 1 1 8 , 1 5 1 s p i n a c h ( Spinacia oleracea)
c a y e n n e p e p p e r 71 elm bark 105 fruit 238 g a m m a - o r y z a n o l 126 herbs 9 0 , 1 7 6 , 1 8 6 histidine 149 h o n e y 152 royal j e l l y 1 4 3 vegetables 5 6 , 1 6 2 , 227,262 vitamins 298 s t r a w b e r r i e s ( Fragaria) 265 stress r e d u c t i o n 1 4
s u p e r o x i d e d i s m u t a s e see SOD supplementation, food 122-3 s w e a t i n g see p e r s p i r a t i o n s w e e t p o t a t o (Ipomoea batatus) sweeteners amasake 9 aspartame 22 barley malt 31 fructose 125 h o n e y 151 invert sugar 156 licorice 175-6 stevia 2 6 3 - 4 Symphytum officinalis see comfrey Tabevulia sec p a u d ' a r c o 267-8
260
spirulina 3 6 , 2 6 0 - 1 sprains 2 0 6 , 2 7 9 sprouts 2 6 1 - 2 squash, w i n t e r ('Cucurbita) St J o h n ' s w o r t (Hypericum perforatum) 145,219 staff o f life see w h e a t s t a r f l o w e r see b o r a g e oil Stellaria media see chickweed sterility 4 , 1 0 6 , 1 7 1 , 2 9 3 , 300 stevia ( Stevia 263-4 stimulants a r n i c a 19 caffeine 5 7 - 8 , 1 4 4 , 165, 186 kola 165 m i s t l e t o e 196 theobromine 79,274 vegetables 5 s t i n g i n g n e t t l e see n e t t l e , stinging s t o m a c h acid antacids 1 2 , 2 8 calcium ascorbate 60 s e c r e t i o n r a t e s 6, 3 7 , sugar rebaudiana) 264 stabilizers 3 , 1 7 , 6 6 , 6 7 , 263 S t J o h n ' s b r e a d see c a r o b
a m i n o acids 1 6 0 exercise 108 glycine 138 herbs 131,264 h o r m o n e s 99 meat 98 neurotransmitters 202 reishi 2 3 9 rhodiola 240 royal j e l l y 2 4 3 taurine 271 vegetables 127 vitamins 214, 289 w h e a t g e r m oil 3 0 6 strokes 45, 5 7 , 1 2 7 , 207, 245,246 fructose 125 glucose 4 5 - 6 , 6 4 , 134 invert sugar 156 lactose 169 mannitol 163 molasses 196 sorbitol 258 sulphur 9 5 , 1 9 8 - 9 , 2 6 5 - 6 sulphuraphane 52 sun screens 2 1 2 sunburn 8,212,273,310 sunflower seed/oil 266-7 s u n s h i n e v i t a m i n see Vitamin D suntan, inability to 2 9 2 s u p e r m a r k e t s vii
tahini 2 5 3 - 4 tamari 2 5 5 , 2 6 9 t a m a r i n d (Tamarindus indica) tapioca 270 Taraxacum officinale see dandelion t a r r a g o n ( Artemisia dracunculus) taurine 270-1 t e a (Camellia 271-2 tea tree (Melaleuca 272-3 alternifolia) teas 1 1 7 , 2 8 2 alfalfa 5 a n i s e 11 buchu 53 elder 104 fruit 141 g i n g e r 131 green 143 herbs 3,11, 29,62, 70, 1 8 5 , 2 1 5 , 2 2 0 , 270,275,304,311 h o p 152 k o m b u c h a 166 l i n d e n 177 sinensis) 270 269
161
s t o m a c h c a n c e r 179, 2 7 7 stomach irritants 23 stomach ulcers avocado 25
342
NUTRIENTS A
TO
mate 186-7 mistletoe 196 mustard seed 2 0 0 olive t r e e leaf 2 0 6 rose/rosehip 242 sassafras 2 4 8 , 2 4 9 vegetables 2 1 5 teeth damage/decay 28, 117,143,197, 224, 263 fillings 1 9 0 m o t d i n g 117 s t r e n g t h e n e d 154, 181,223,244 toothache 29 toothpastes 107, 117 see also g u m s : h u m a n tempeh 273 tendonitis 82 texturized vegetable protein (TVP) 259 t h e o b r o m i n e 79, 274 theophylline 274 t h i a m i n e see v i t a m i n s :
tocotrienols 275-6 tofu 276-7 T o k y o University 197 t o m a t o ( Lycopersicon esculenlum) tonics alfalfa 5 buchu 53 fruit 4 3 , 2 0 9 , 2 8 1 herbs 9 6 , 1 3 1 , 1 3 9 , 128, 179,180,277
t u r n i p ( Brassica campestris) 279-80 T V P see t e x t u r i z e d vegetable protein tyrosine (L-tyrosine) 2 8 0 u l c e r a t i v e colitis 2 5 5 ulcers causes 2 3 remedies avocado 25 bioflavonoids 40 eucalyptus 107 fruit 30 herbs 4 2 , 7 0 , 1 1 2 , 216,232,284 legumes 217 minerals 2 5 6 , 3 1 4 molasses 196 propolis 230 whey 307 types d u o d e n a l 25, 40, 56, 7 1 , 9 0 , 1 0 5 , 114, 162,210,224, 227, 2 6 2 , 2 9 8 leg 56 mouth 225,242 skin 7 8 , 1 4 0 , 298 s t o m a c h 25, 56, 71, 9 0 , 1 0 5 , 1 2 6 , 143, 149,152,162, 176, 1 8 6 , 2 2 7 , 238, 262, 298 Ulmus fulva see e l m see cat's see u m e b o s h i 281 Uncaria tomentosa claw IJndaria pinnatifida wakame U n i t e d States antibiotic resistance 13 athletic sports 9 3 f o o d irradiation 120 tonga) Framingham study 185 k u d z u 166 lycopene 1 80
202
lily o f t h e valley 1 7 7 m a t e tea 1 8 6 m e a t 187 sarsaparilla 2 4 8 stevia 2 6 3 w h e a t grass 3 0 7 w i t c h hazel 3 0 9 t o o t h decay 2 8 , 1 1 7 , 143, 1 9 7 , 2 6 3 toothache 29 toothpastes 1 0 7 , 1 1 7 Toronto, University of 138 toxaemia 307 tranquilizers, G A B A
B1
t h i c k e n e r s 1, 1 4 5 , 1 9 3 , 219 threonine 274 t h r o a t see s o r e t h r o a t s thrombophlebitis 153 t h r o m b o s i s 4, 3 4 , 1 1 6 , 146 t h r u s h see C a n d i d a and v a g i n a l yeast infections t h y m e ( T h y m u s vulgaris) 275 thymus gland 37 t h y r o i d f u n c t i o n 5 2 , 157, 164, 1 6 5 , 1 6 6 , 181,221,250, 275, 280 Tilia europaea see l i n d e n t i n n i t i s 131 tisanes see teas t o c o p h e r o l see v i t a m i n s : E
126
t r a n s - f a t t y acids 1 8 5 triglyceride 65 Trigonella foenumgraecum see see f e n u g r e e k Triticum aestivum wheat trypsin 278 tryptophan 278 tumours causes 6 7 remedies b a r l e y 31 herbs 4 2 , 2 1 6 mushrooms 200 peanuts 217 teas 1 4 3 t u r m e r i c (Cucuma 279 Turnera diffusa see dainiana
NUTRIENTS A
TO Z
343
maitake 183 U S D A 121-2 u r i n a r y tract disorders remedies bearberry 32 buchu 53 fruit 4 6 , 9 2 g u m arabic 1 h e r b s 102 vegetables 5, 6 8 urination bed-wetting 181,305 n o c t u r n a l 126 painful 3 1 , 1 6 5 , 2 0 3 r e t e n t i o n 181 stimulation 7 2 , 1 4 0 , 175,270, 274, 304 Urtica dioica see n e t t l e , stinging US Department of Agriculture (USDA) 121-2 u v a ursi see b e a r b e r r y Vaecinium myrtillus see blueberry V myrtillus see b i l b e r r y vaginal d o u c h e s 2 7 3 , 310 vaginal d r y n e s s 1 0 0 vaginal i n f e c t i o n s propolis 230 vaginal yeast i n f e c t i o n s 2 causes 13 remedies h e r b s 102 Lactobacillus acidophilus 2 tea tree oil 2 7 3 see also Candida vaginitis 3 1 0 valerian ( Valeriana officinalis) 2 8 1 - 2 valine 2 8 2 vanadium 282 v a r i c o s e veins causes 4, 3 4 remedies
bioflavonoids 40 buckwheat 53 butcher's b r o o m 54 exercise 108 fibre 4 9 herbs 186 horse chestnut 153 minerals 256 vegetables 5 6 v i n e leaves 2 8 5 v e g a n diet 10, 2 8 , 6 5 , 8 5 , 283,287 v e g e t a r i a n d i e t 10, 4 5 , 65,85,87,273, 284 v e i n d i s o r d e r s see h a e m o r r h o i d s and varicose veins v e n e r e a l diseases 2 4 8 Verbena officinalis see vervain v e r v a i n (Verbena officinalis) 2 8 4 v i n e leaves (Vitis vinifera) 285 violent behaviour 34-5 Viscum album see mistletoe vitamins 285-6 A 52,286-7 B c o m p l e x 40, 5 2 , 103,155-6,233, 287-8 B 1 ( t h i a m i n e ) 4, 288-9 B 2 (riboflavin) 2 8 9 - 9 0 B 3 (niacin) 2 9 0 - 1 B 5 ( p a n t o t h e n i c acid) 214 B6 (pyridoxine) 2 9 2 - 3 B 1 2 ( c o b a l a m i n ) 119, 261,273,293-4 B 1 5 ( p a n g a m i c acid) 213 C (ascorbic acid) 4, 2 3 , 38, 3 9 , 4 4 , 5 7 , 6 0 , 145, 164, 294-6
D 296-7 E 21,251,275,297-8 F 111 K 45,298-9 P (bioflavonoids) 3 9 40,140-1,142, 233 U 56 v i t e x (Agnus 300 castus) 2 9 9 -
Vitis vinifera see grapes and v i n e leaves v o m i t i n g see n a u s e a w a k a m e (Undaria pinnatifida) 301 w a l n u t (Juglans nigra) 301-2 warts 2 7 5 w a t e r 110, 3 0 2 - 3 c a d m i u m 57 chlorine 312 copper 90 fluorine 117-18 w a t e r r e t e n t i o n see oedema watercress (Nasturtium officinalis) 3 0 4 weight gain b i r t h c o n t r o l pills 4 1 sweet potatoes 268 w e i g h t loss anise 1 2 a r g i n i n e 18 carnitine 65 c h r o m i u m 82 c o e n z y m e Q 1 0 88 elder 104 e v e n i n g p r i m r o s e oil
108
fibre 114, 149 fruit 24, 25 g r o w t h h o r m o n e 144 herbs 76, 145 H M B 150 h o r m o n e s 98 m a h u a n g 182 m a i t a k e 183
344
NUTRIENTS A
TO
mace t e a 1 8 6 - 7 M C T s 189 pyruvate 234 seaweeds 2 5 0 sprouts 2 6 2 stevia 2 6 3 see also a p p e t i t e suppressants; calorie-restricted diets; e x e r c i s e ; f a s t i n g and glycaemic index w h e a t (Triticum 305 w h e a t g e r m oil 2 0 5 , 3 0 6 w h e a t grass ( A g r u p y r o n ) 307 whey 307-8 w h i t e b i r c h see b i r c h whooping cough 209 w h o r t l e b e r r y see bilberry w i l d y a m see y a m , w i l d wine 308-9 w i n t e r squash 2 6 3 witch hazel women infertility 106 see also c h i l d b i r t h ; lactation; (Hamamelis 309 virginiana) aestivum)
menopause; menstruation; pre-menstrual syndrome/tension and p r e g n a n c y w o r m s see i n t e s t i n a l parasites w o r m w o o d ( Artemisia absinthium) w o u n d healing A A 18 aloe vera 8 arginine 18 calendula 60 cider vinegar 83 evening primrose 107 fruit 238 glycine 139 growth h o r m o n e 144 herbs 8 9 , 1 4 0 , 3 1 2 h o n e y 152 minerals 314 propolis 2 3 0 psyllium 232 quercetin 235 tea t r e e oil 2 7 3 vegetables 56 vitamins 295 whey 307 w r i n k l e s 4 , 8 , 7 5 , 142, 295 Zingiber Zea mays see c o r n zeaxanthin 66,219 zinc 5 7 , 2 1 0 - 1 1 , 2 3 3 , 314-15 officinalis see ginger Zulu people 30 yeast b r e w e r ' s yeast 5 1 Cholestin 7 5 - 6 k o m b u c h a 166 yeast i n f e c t i o n s 1 2 7 , 1 4 1 , 229 see also v a g i n a l yeast infections y e r b a d u l c e see stevia yogurt 2 , 2 2 8 , 3 1 2 - 1 3 y o h i m b e ( Pausinystalia johimbe) 313 310 y a m (Dioseorea 267-8 y a m , w i l d ( Dioseorea villosa) 311 311y a r r o w ( Achillea millefolium) 12 batatas) xanthosis 68
"An easy-to-use guide to every nutrient you might ever encounter" Woman's Realm
Now in its fifth edition, Nutrients AZ is an invaluable reference aimed at helping you to navigate the increasingly confused minefield of food and health products. This fully updated new edition of Nutrients A-Z is an easyto-use dictionary of every kind of food, herb, vitamin, mineral or supplement you might encounter, f r o m the most common everyday foods, like bananas and carrots, to the oldest natural medicines in the world, like olive oil and yoghurt, and recent developments in nutritional supplements from guarana to St John's W o r t . ' E a c h entry gives a definition in plain language: what it is and where it comes from; the form it takes; how to prepare or enjoy it; its medicinal and health benefits and a recommended daily dose. Dr Michael Sharon is the author of the bestsellers Complete Nutrition, Eat to Live and Food and Health. A nutrition consultant to health food companies with his own private practice, he has a PhD from Donsbach University in California, now known as the International University for Nutritional Education.
Distributed by Research Press Health F o r sale in the Indian subcontinent only. Front cover photograph: iStockphoto.com/ Christine Balderas Back cover 8t spine photograph: iStockphoto.com 12.99
www.carltonbooks.co.uk ISBN 9 7 8 - 1 - 8 4 7 3 2 - 2 6 3 - 0

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Nutrients A 7

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HOW TO SOURCE YOUR NUTRIENTS

viii AGAR, AGAR-AGAR

Angelica is a large aromatic plant native to Northern

children or pregnant and lactating women. Arginine is contra-indicated in herpes.

A R T I C H O K E <(.' N IH I M.ON III Y

Caution: In excessive amounts, asparagus can irritate the kidneys.

BACTERIA, INTESTINAL see PROBIOTICS

BAKING SODA, BAKING POWDER

BAY LEAVES see LAUREL

BIRCH, WHITE BIRCH

BLUE G U M T R E E see EUCALYPTUS

BREAST FEEDING see BABIES, FOOD

available in capsules as nutritional supplements, particularly in antioxidant formulas.

CARTILAGE, SHARK A N D BOVINE

CETYL MYRISTOLEATE (CM)

CHILLI see CAYENNE PEPPER

CILANTRO see CORIANDER

COFFEE see CAFFEINE, COFFEE

C U M I N (CI \II\L \I CI U/V \S)

DIETARY FIBRE SEE FIBRE

DLPA see PHENYLALANINE

DNA see NUCLEIC ACIDS

ELDER, BLACK ELDER

ESSENTIAL FATTY A C I D S (EFA) (VITAMIN F) SEE FATS

EVENING P R I M R O S E OIL (EPO)

FOOD ALLERGIES SEE ALLERGIES, F O O D

FREE RADICALS see ANTIOXIDANTS

FRUCTO-OLIGO SACCHARIDES (FOS)

GENETICALLY M O D I F I E D FOODS (GM)

GM foods of today do not become the BSE-type problem of tomorrow.

GLA see EVENING P R I M R O S E OIL

GLUCOSE TOLERANCE FACTOR SEE CHROMIUM

GLUTAMINE AND GLUTAMIC ACID

GLYCAEMIC INDEX (Gl)

injured tissue and wound healing. Available at health food stores.

GRAPE SEED EXTRACT

HESPERIDINE SEE BIOFLAVONOIDS

HORSERADISH (ARMORACIA RUSTICANA)

(See also PROBIOTICS.)

LAUREL, BAY T R E E (LAURUS NOBIUS)

LINSEED OIL see FLAX

MELISSA SEE B A L M MERCURY

MINT SEE P E P P E R M I N T MISO

NETTLE, S T I N G I N G (URTICA DIOICA)

PHENYLALANINE (PA), L-PHENYLALANINE

PLANTAIN see PSYLLIUM

PROANTHOCYANIDINS see BIOFLAVONOIDS

thermophilus, which are usually listed on the food labels.

PROSTAGLANDINS see EVENING PRIMROSE OIL (EPO); FATS