Factorial Designs

Factorial Designs
Table Of Contents
Table Of Contents
Factorial Designs ................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Factorial Designs Overview.............................................................................................................................................. 5
Factorial Experiments in Minitab ...................................................................................................................................... 6
Choosing a Factorial Design ............................................................................................................................................ 6
Create Factorial Design.................................................................................................................................................... 7
Define Custom Factorial Design..................................................................................................................................... 29
Preprocess Responses for Analyze Variability............................................................................................................... 31
Analyze Factorial Design................................................................................................................................................ 36
Analyze Variability .......................................................................................................................................................... 45
Factorial Plots................................................................................................................................................................. 54
Contour/Surface Plots .................................................................................................................................................... 59
Overlaid Contour Plot ..................................................................................................................................................... 63
Response Optimizer ....................................................................................................................................................... 66
Modify Design................................................................................................................................................................. 73
Display Design................................................................................................................................................................ 77
References - Factorial Designs ...................................................................................................................................... 78
Index .................................................................................................................................................................................... 79
Copyright © 2003–2005 Minitab Inc. All rights reserved. 3

Factorial Designs
Factorial Designs
Factorial Designs Overview
Factorial designs allow for the simultaneous study of the effects that several factors may have on a process. When
performing an experiment, varying the levels of the factors simultaneously rather than one at a time is efficient in terms of
time and cost, and also allows for the study of interactions between the factors. Interactions are the driving force in many
processes. Without the use of factorial experiments, important interactions may remain undetected.
Screening designs
In many process development and manufacturing applications, the number of potential input variables (factors) is large.
Screening (process characterization) is used to reduce the number of input variables by identifying the key input variables
or process conditions that affect product quality. This reduction allows you to focus process improvement efforts on the
few really important variables, or the "vital few." Screening may also suggest the "best" or optimal settings for these
factors, and indicate whether or not curvature exists in the responses. Optimization experiments can then be done to
determine the best settings and define the nature of the curvature.
In industry, two-level full and fractional factorial designs, and Plackett-Burman designs are often used to "screen" for the
really important factors that influence process output measures or product quality. These designs are useful for fitting first-
order models (which detect linear effects), and can provide information on the existence of second-order effects
(curvature) when the design includes center points.
In addition, general full factorial designs (designs with more than two-levels) may be used with small screening
experiments.
Full factorial designs

In a full factorial experiment, responses are measured at all combinations of the experimental factor levels. The
combinations of factor levels represent the conditions at which responses will be measured. Each experimental condition
is a called a "run" and the response measurement an observation. The entire set of runs is the "design."
The following diagrams show two and three factor designs. The points represent a unique combination of factor levels.
For example, in the two-factor design, the point on the lower left corner represents the experimental run when Factor A is
set at its low level and Factor B is also set at its low level.
Two factors Three factors
Two levels of Factor A Two levels of each factor

Three levels of Factor B
Two-level full factorial designs

In a two-level full factorial design, each experimental factor has only two levels. The experimental runs include all
combinations of these factor levels. Although two-level factorial designs are unable to explore fully a wide region in the
factor space, they provide useful information for relatively few runs per factor. Because two-level factorials can indicate
major trends, you can use them to provide direction for further experimentation. For example, when you need to further
explore a region where you believe optimal settings may exist, you can augment a factorial design to form a central
composite design.
General full factorial designs

In a general full factorial design, the experimental factors can have any number levels. For example, Factor A may have
two levels, Factor B may have three levels, and Factor C may have five levels. The experimental runs include all
combinations of these factor levels. General full factorial designs may be used with small screening experiments, or in
optimization experiments.

Factorial Designs
Fractional factorial designs

In a full factorial experiment, responses are measured at all combinations of the factor levels, which may result in a
prohibitive number of runs. For example, a two-level full factorial design with 6 factors requires 64 runs; a design with 9
factors requires 512 runs. To minimize time and cost, you can use designs that exclude some of the factor level
combinations. Factorial designs in which one or more level combinations are excluded are called fractional factorial
designs. Minitab generates two-level fractional factorial designs for up to 15 factors.
Fractional factorial designs are useful in factor screening because they reduce down the number of runs to a manageable
size. The runs that are performed are a selected subset or fraction of the full factorial design. When you do not run all
factor level combinations, some of the effects will be confounded. Confounded effects cannot be estimated separately
and are said to be aliased. Minitab displays an alias table which specifies the confounding patterns. Because some
effects are confounded and cannot be separated from other effects, the fraction must be carefully chosen to achieve
meaningful results. Choosing the "best fraction" often requires specialized knowledge of the product or process under
investigation.
Plackett-Burman designs
Plackett-Burman designs are a class of resolution III, two-level fractional factorial designs that are often used to study
main effects. In a resolution III design, main effects are aliased with two-way interactions.
Minitab generates designs for up to 47 factors. Each design is based on the number of runs, from 12 to 48, and is always
a multiple of 4. The number of factors must be less than the number of runs.
More Our intent is to provide only a brief introduction to factorial designs. There are many resources that provide a
thorough treatment of these designs. For a list of resources, see References.
Factorial Experiments in Minitab

Performing a factorial experiment may consist of the following steps:
1 Before you begin using Minitab, you need to complete all pre-experimental planning. For example, you must
determine what the influencing factors are, that is, what processing conditions influence the values of the response
variable. See Factorial Designs Overview.
2 In MINITAB, create a new design or use data that is already in your worksheet.
• Use Create Factorial Design to generate a full or fractional factorial design, or a Plackett-Burman design.
• Use Define Custom Factorial Design to create a design from data you already have in the worksheet. Define
Custom Factorial Design allows you to specify which columns are your factors and other design characteristics.
You can then easily fit a model to the design and generate plots.
3 Use Modify Design to rename the factors, change the factor levels, replicate the design, and randomize the design.
For two-level designs, you can also fold the design, add axial points, and add center points to the axial block.
4 Use Display Design to change the display order of the runs and the units (coded or uncoded) in which Minitab
expresses the factors in the worksheet.
5 Perform the experiment and collect the response data. Then, enter the data in your Minitab worksheet. See Collecting
and Entering Data.
6 Use Analyze Factorial Design to fit a model to the experimental data. Use Analyze Variability to analyze the standard
deviation of repeat or replicate responses.
7 Display plots to look at the design and the effects. Use Factorial Plots to display main effects, interactions, and cube
plots. For two-level designs, use Contour/Surface Plots to display contour and surface plots.
8 If you are trying to optimize responses, use Response Optimizer or Overlaid Contour Plot to obtain a numerical and
graphical analysis.
Depending on your experiment, you may do some of the steps in a different order, perform a given step more than
once, or eliminate a step.
Choosing a Factorial Design

The design, or layout, provides the specifications for each experimental run. It includes the blocking scheme,
randomization, replication, and factor level combinations. This information defines the experimental conditions for each
test run. When performing the experiment, you measure the response (observation) at the predetermined settings of the
experimental conditions. Each experimental condition that is employed to obtain a response measurement is a run.
Minitab provides two-level full and fractional factorial designs, Plackett-Burman designs, and full factorials for designs with
more than two levels. When choosing a design you need to
• identify the number of factors that are of interest
• determine the number of runs you can perform
6 Copyright © 2003–2005 Minitab Inc. All rights reserved.

Factorial Designs
• determine the impact that other considerations (such as cost, time, or the availability of facilities) have on your choice
of a design
Depending on your problem, there are other considerations that make a design desirable. You may want to choose a
design that allows you to
• increase the order of the design sequentially. That is, you may want to "build up" the initial design for subsequent
experimentation.
• perform the experiment in orthogonal blocks. Orthogonally blocked designs allow for model terms and block effects to
be estimated independently and minimize the variation in the estimated coefficients.
• detect model lack of fit.
• estimate the effects that you believe are important by choosing a design with adequate resolution. The resolution of a
design describes how the effects are confounded. Some common design resolutions are summarized below:
− Resolution III designs − no main effect is aliased with any other main effect. However, main effects are aliased
with two-factor interactions and two-factor interactions are aliased with each other.
− Resolution IV designs − no main effect is aliased with any other main effect or two-factor interaction. Two-factor
interactions are aliased with each other.
− Resolution V designs − no main effect or two-factor interaction is aliased with any other main effect or two-factor
interaction. Two-factor interactions are aliased with three-factor interactions.
Create Factorial Design

2-Level
Stat > DOE > Factorial > Create Factorial Design
Generates 2-level designs, either full or fractional factorials, and Plackett-Burman designs. See Factorial Designs
Overview for descriptions of these types of designs.
Dialog box items
Type of Design
2-level factorial (default generators): Choose to use Minitab's default generators.
2-level factorial (specify generators): Choose to specify your own design generators.
Plackett-Burman design: Choose to generate a Plackett-Burman design. See Plackett-Burman Designs for a
complete list.
General full factorial design: Choose to generate a design in which at least one factor has more than two levels.
Number of factors: Specify the number of factors in the design you want to generate.
Creating 2-Level Factorial Designs

Use Minitab's 2-level factorial options to generate settings for 2-level
• full factorial designs with up to seven factors
• fractional factorial designs with up to 15 factors
You can use default designs from Minitab's catalog (these designs are shown in the Display Available Designs subdialog
box) or create your own design by specifying the design generators.
The default designs cover many industrial product design and development applications. They are fully described in the
Summary of 2-Level Designs.
To create full factorial designs when any factor has more than two levels or you have more than seven factors, see
Creating General Full Factorial Designs.
Note To create a design from data that you already have in the worksheet, see Define Custom Factorial Design.
To create a two-level factorial design

1 Choose Stat > DOE > Factorial > Create Factorial Design.
2 If you want to see a summary of the factorial designs, click Display Available Designs. Use this table to compare
design features. Click OK.
3 Under Type of Design, choose 2-level factorial (default generators)
4 From Number of factors, choose a number from 2 to 15.

Factorial Designs
5 Click Designs.
6 In the box at the top, highlight the design you want to create. If you like, use any of the dialog box options.
7 Click OK even if you do not change any of the options. This selects the design and brings you back to the main dialog
box.
8 If you like, click Options, Factors, and/or Results to use any of the dialog box options. Then, click OK in each dialog
box to create your design.
Factorial Design − Available Designs

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Create Factorial Design > choose a 2-level or Plackett-Burman option > Display Available
Designs
Displays a table to help you select an appropriate design, based on
• the number of factors that are of interest,
• the number of runs you can perform, and
• the desired resolution of the design.
This dialog box does not take any input. See Summary of two-level designs and Summary of Plackett-Burman designs.
Factorial Design − Designs (default generators)

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Create Factorial Design > choose 2-level factorial (default generators) > Designs
Allows you to select a design, add center points and replicates, and block the design.
Dialog box items
The list box at the top of the Design subdialog box shows all available designs for the number of factors you selected in
the main Create Factorial Design dialog box. Highlight your design choice. The design you choose will affect the possible
choices for the options below.
Number of center points per block: Choose the number of center points to be added per block to the design. When you
have both text and numeric factors, there really is no true center to the design. In this case, center points are called
pseudo-center points. See Adding center points for a discussion of how Minitab handles center points.
Number of replicates for corner points: Choose the number of replicates.
Number of blocks: Choose the number of blocks you want (optional). Click the arrow for the number of blocks to see a
list of possible choices. This list contains all the possible blocking combinations for the selected design with the number of
specified replicates. If you change the design or the number of replicates, this list will reflect the new set of possibilities.
Factorial Design − Designs (specify generators)

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Create Factorial Design > choose 2-level factorial (specify generators) > Designs
Allows you to select a design, and add center points and replicates.
Dialog box items
The list box at the top of the Design subdialog box shows all available designs for the number of factors you selected in
the main Create Factorial Design dialog box. Highlight your design choice. The design you choose will affect the possible
choices for the options below.
Number of center points per block: Specify the number of center points to be added per block to the design. When you
pseudo center points. See Adding center points for a discussion of how Minitab handles center points.
Number of replicates for corner points: Enter the number of replications of each corner point. Center points are not
replicated.
Factorial Design − Generators

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Create Factorial Design > choose 2-level factorial (specify generators) > Designs >
Generators
Allows you to add factors to your model and define the blocks to be used.
Dialog box items
Add factors to the base design by listing their generators (for example, F=ABC): Specify additional factors to add to
the design. This allows you to customize designs rather than use a design in Minitab's catalog. The added factors must be
given in alphabetical order and the total number of factors in the design cannot exceed 15. You can use a minus
interaction for a generator, for example D = -AB. If you add factors, you must specify your own block generators.

Factorial Designs
Define blocks by listing their generators (for example, ABCD): Specify the terms to be used as block generators. You
must specify your own block generators if you added any factors to the design.
Generators for 2-Level Designs

The first line for each design gives the number of factors, the number of runs, the resolution (R) of the design without
blocking, and the design generators. On the following lines, there is one entry for each number of blocks. The number
before the parentheses is the number of blocks, in the parentheses are the block generators, and the number after the
parentheses is the resolution of the blocked design.
factor runs R Design Generators

2 4 − Full
2(AB)3
3 4 3 C=AB
no blocking
3 8 − Full
2(ABC)4 4(AB,AC)3
4 8 4 D=ABC
2(AB)3 4(AB,AC)3
4 16 − Full
2(ABCD)5 4(BC,ABD)3 8(AB,BC,CD)3
5 8 3 D=AB,E=AC
2(BC)3
5 16 5 E=ABCD (E=ABC for 8 blocks)
2(AB)3 4(AB,AC)3 8(AB,AC,AD)3
5 32 − Full
2(ABCDE)6 4(ABC,CDE)4 8(AC,BD,ADE)3 16(AB,AC,CD,DE)3
6 8 3 D=AB,E=AC,F=BC
2(BE)3
6 16 4 E=ABC,F=BCD
2(ACD)4 4(AE,ACD)3 8(AB,BC,BF)3
6 32 6 F=ABCDE
2(ABF)4 4(BC,ABF)3 8(AD,BC,ABF)3 16(AB,BC,CD,DE)3
6 64 − Full
2(ABCDEF)7 4(ABCF,ABDE)5 8(ACE,ADF,BCF)4
16(AD,BE,CE,ABF)3 32(AB,BC,CD,DE,EF)3
7 8 3 D=AB,E=AC,F=BC,G=ABC
no blocking
7 16 4 E=ABC,F=BCD,G=ACD
2(ABD)4 4(AB,AC)3 8(AB,AC,AD)3
7 32 4 F=ABCD,G=ABDE
2(CDE)4 4(CF,CDE)3 8(AB,AD,CG)3
7 64 7 G=ABCDEF
2(CDE)4 4(ACF,CDE)4 8(ACF,ADG,CDE)4 16(AB,AC,EF,EG)3
7 128 − Full
2(ABCDEFG)8 4(ABDE,ABCFG)5 8(ABC,AFG,DEF)4 16(ABE,ADG,CDE,EFG)4
32(AC,BD,CE,DF,ABG)3 64(AB,BC,CD,DE,EF,FG)3

Factorial Designs
8 16 4 E=BCD,F=ACD,G=ABC,H=ABD
2(AB)3 4(AB,AC)3 8(AB,AC,AD)3
8 32 4 F=ABC,G=ABD,H=BCDE
2(ABE)4 4(EH,ABE)3 8(AB,AC,BD)3
8 64 5 G=ABCD,H=ABEF
2(ACE)4 4(ACE,BDF)4 8(BC,FH,BDF)3 16(BC,DE,FH,BDF)3
8 128 8 H=ABCDEFG
2(ABCD)5 4(ABCD,ABEF)5 8(ABCD,ABEF,BCEG)5
16(BF,DE,ABG,AEH)3 32(AC,BD,BF,DE,AEH)3
9 16 3 E=ABC,F=BCD,G=ACD,H=ABD,J=ABCD
2(AB)3 4(AB,AC)3
9 32 4 F=BCDE,G=ACDE,H=ABDE,J=ABCE
2(AEF)4 4(AB,CD)3 8(AB,AC,CD)3
9 64 4 G=ABCD,H=ACEF,J=CDEF
2(BCE)4 4(ABF,ACJ)4 8(AD,AH,BDE)3 16(AC,AD,AJ,BF)3
9 128 6 H=ACDFG,J=BCEFG
2(CDEJ)5 4(ABFJ,CDEJ)5 8(ACF,AHJ,BCJ)4 16(AE,CG,BCJ,BDE)3
10 16 3 E=ABC,F=BCD,G=ACD,H=ABD,J=ABCD,K=AB
2(AC)3 4(AD,AG)3
10 32 4 F=ABCD,G=ABCE,H=ABDE,J=ACDE,K=BCDE
2(AB)3 4(AB,BC)3 8(AB,AC,AH)3
10 64 4 G=BCDF,H=ACDF,J=ABDE,K=ABCE
2(AGJ)4 4(CD,AGJ)3 8(AG,CJ,CK)3 16(AC,AG,CJ,CK)3
10 128 5 H=ABCG,J=BCDE,K=ACDF
2(ADG)4 4(ADG,BDF)4 8(AEH,AGK,CDH)4 16(BH,EG,JK,ADG)3
11 16 3 E=ABC,F=BCD,G=ACD,H=ABD,J=ABCD,K=AB,L=AC
2(AD)3 4(AE,AH)3
11 32 4 F=ABC,G=BCD,H=CDE,J=ACD,K=ADE,L=BDE
2(ABD)4 4(AK,ABD)3 8(AB,AC,AD)3
11 64 4 G=CDE,H=ABCD,J=ABF,K=BDEF,L=ADEF
2(AHJ)4 4(FL,AHJ)3 8(CD,CE,DL)3 16(AB,AC,AE,AF)3
11 128 5 H=ABCG,J=BCDE,K=ACDF,L=ABCDEFG
2(ADJ)4 4(ADJ,BFH)4 8(ADJ,AHL,BFH)4 16(BC,DF,GL,BFH)3
12 16 3 E=ABC,F=ABD,G=ACD,H=BCD,J=ABCD,K=AB,L=AC,M=AD
2(AG)3 4(AF,AG)3
12 32 4 F=ACE,G=ACD,H=ABD,J=ABE,K=CDE,L=ABCDE,M=ADE
2(ABC)4 4(DG,DH)3 8(AB,AC,AD)3
12 64 4 G=DEF,H=ABC,J=BCDE,K=BCDF,L=ABEF,M=ACEF
2(ABM)4 4(AB,AC)3 8(AB,AC,BM)3 16(AB,AD,BE,BM)3
12 128 4 H=ACDG,J=ABCD,K=BCFG,L=ABDEFG,M=CDEF
2(ACF)4 4(BG,BJ)3 8(BG,BJ,AGM)3 16(BG,BJ,FM,AGM)3

Factorial Designs
13 16 3 E=ABC,F=ABD,G=ACD,H=BCD,J=ABCD,K=AB,L=AC,M=AD,N=BC
2(AG)3
13 32 4 F=ACE,G=BCE,H=ABC,J=CDE,K=ABCDE,L=ABE,M=ACD,N=ADE
2(ABD)4 4(CG,GH)3 8(AB,AC,AD)3
13 64 4 G=ABC,H=DEF,J=BCDF,K=BCDE,L=ABEF,M=ACEF,N=BCEF
2(AB)3 4(AB,AC)3 8(AB,AC,AN)3 16(AB,AD,BE,BM)3
13 128 4 H=DEFG,J=BCEG,K=BCDFG,L=ABDEF,M=ACEF,N=ABC
2(ADE)4 4(AB,AC)3 8(AB,AC,AGK)3 16(AB,AC,ABM,AGK)3
14 16 3 E=ABC,F=ABD,G=ACD,H=BCD,J=ABCD,K=AB,L=AC,M=AD,N=BC,O=BD
2(AG)3
14 32 4 F=ABC,G=ABD,H=ABE,J=ACD,K=ACE,L=ADE,M=BCD,N=BCE, O=BDE
2(ACL)4 4(AB,ACL)3 8(AC,AL,AO)3
14 64 4 G=BEF,H=BCF,J=DEF,K=CEF,L=BCE,M=CDF,N=ACDE,O=BCDEF
2(ABC)4 4(BC,BE)3 8(BC,BE,BG)3 16(AB,BC,BE,BG)3
14 128 4 H=EFG,J=BCFG,K=BCEG,L=ABEF,M=ACEF,N=BCDEF,O=ABC
2(ADE)4 4(AB,AC)3 8(AB,AC,BM)3 16(AB,AC,BM,DG)3
15 16 3 E=ABC,F=ABD,G=ACD,H=BCD,J=ABCD,K=AB,L=AC,M=AD,N=BC,O=BD,P=CD
no blocking
15 32 4 F=ABC,G=ABD,H=ABE,J=ACD,K=ACE,L=ADE,M=BCD,N=BCE,O=BDE, P=CDE
2(ABP)4 4(AB,BP)3 8(AB,AD,AK)3
15 64 4 G=ABC,H=ABD,J=ABE,K=ABF,L=ACD,M=ACE,N=ACF,O=ADE,P=ADF
2(ABL)4 4(AM,ABL)3 8(AB,AC,AD)3 16(AB,AC,AD,AE)3
15 128 4 H=ABFG,J=ACDEF,K=BEF,L=ABCEG,M=CDFG,N=ACDEG,O=EFG,
P=ABDEFG
2(ADE)4 4(EG,GP)3 8(EG,GP,OP)3 16(BO,EG,GP,OP)3
To add factors to the base design by specifying generators

2 Under Type of Design, choose 2-level factorial (specify generators).
4 Click Designs.
5 In the box at the top, highlight the design you want to create. The selected design will serve as the base design
6 If you like, choose a number from Number of center points per block and Number of replicates for corner points.
7 Click Generators.
8 In Add factors to the base design by listing their generators, enter the generators for up to 15 additional factors in
alphabetical order. Click OK in the Generators and Design subdialog boxes.
9 If you want to block the design, in Define blocks by listing their generators, enter the block generators. Click OK in
the Generators and Design subdialog boxes.
10 If you like, click Options, Factors, and/or Results to use any of the dialog box options, then click OK in each dialog
box to create your design.
Example of specifying generators

Suppose you want to add two factors to a base design with three factors and eight runs.
2 Choose 2-level factorial (specify generators).
3 From Number of factors, choose 3.
4 Click Designs.
5 In the Designs box at the top, highlight the row for a full factorial. This design will serve as the base design.

Factorial Designs
6 Click Generators. In Add factors to the base design by listing their generators, enter D = AB E = AC. Click OK
in each dialog box.
Session window output

Fractional Factorial Design
Factors: 5 Base Design: 3, 8 Resolution: III

Runs: 8 Replicates: 1 Fraction: 1/4
Blocks: 1 Center pts (total): 0
* NOTE * Some main effects are confounded with two-way interactions.
Design Generators: D = AB, E = AC
Alias Structure (up to order 3)
I + ABD + ACE
A + BD + CE
B + AD + CDE
C + AE + BDE
D + AB + BCE
E + AC + BCD
BC + DE + ABE + ACD
BE + CD + ABC + ADE
Interpreting the results

The base design has three factors labeled A, B, and C. Then Minitab adds factors D and E. Because of the generators
selected, D is confounded with the AB interaction and E is confounded with the AC interaction. This gives a 2(5-2) or
resolution III design. Look at the alias structure to see how the other effects are confounded.
Adding center points

Adding center points to a factorial design may allow you to detect curvature in the fitted data. If there is curvature that
involves the center of the design, the response at the center point will be either higher or lower than the fitted value of the
factorial (corner) points.
The way Minitab adds center points to the design depends on whether you have text, numeric, or a combination of text
and numeric factors. Here is how Minitab adds center points:
• When all factors are numeric and the design is:
− Not blocked, Minitab adds the specified number of center points to the design.
− Blocked, Minitab adds the specified number of center points to each block.
• When all of the factors in a design are text, you cannot add center points.
• When you have a combination of numeric and text factors, there is no true center to the design. In this case, center
points are called pseudo-center points. When the design is:
− Not blocked, Minitab adds the specified number of center points for each combination of the levels of the text
factors. In total, for Q text factors, Minitab adds 2Q times as many centerpoints.
− Blocked, Minitab adds the specified number of center points for each combination of the levels of the text factors
to each block. In each block, for Q text factors, Minitab adds 2Q times as many centerpoints.
For example, consider an unblocked 23 design. Factors A and C are numeric with levels 0, 10 and .2, .3, respectively.
Factor B is text indicating whether a catalyst is present or absent. If you specify 3 center points in the Designs
subdialog box, Minitab adds a total of 2 x 3 = 6 pseudo-center points, three points for the low level of factor B and
three for the high level. These six points are:
5 present .25
5 present .25
5 present .25
5 absent .25
5 absent .25
5 absent .25

Factorial Designs
Next, consider a blocked 25 design where three factors are text, and there are two blocks. There are 2 x 2 x 2 = 8
combinations of text levels. If you specify two center points per block, Minitab will add 8 x 2 = 16 pseudo-center points
to each of the two blocks.
Blocking the Design

Although every observation should be taken under identical experimental conditions (other than those that are being
varied as part of the experiment), this is not always possible. Nuisance factors that can be classified can be eliminated
using a blocked design. For example, an experiment carried out over several days may have large variations in
temperature and humidity, or data may be collected in different plants, or by different technicians. Observations collected
under the same experimental conditions are said to be in the same block.
The way you block a design depends on whether you are creating a design using the default generators or specifying your
own generators.
• If you use default generators to create your design, Minitab blocks the design for you. See Generators for two-level
designs.
• If you specify your own generators, you must specify your own block generators because Minitab cannot automatically
determine the appropriate generators when you add factors.
Suppose you generate a 64 run design with 8 factors (labeled alphabetically) and specify the block generators to be
ABC CDE. This gives four blocks which are shown in "standard" (Yates) order below:
Block ABC CDE

1 − −
2 + −
3 − +
4 + +
Note Blocking a design can reduce its resolution. Let r1 = the resolution before blocking. Let r2 = the length of the
shortest term that is confounded with blocks. Then the resolution after blocking is the smaller of r1 and (r2 +
1).
To block a design created by specifying your own generators

1 In the Designs subdialog box, click Generators.
2 In Define blocks by listing their generators, type the block generators. Click OK.
To block a design created with the default generators

1 In the Create Factorial Design dialog box, click Designs.
2 From Number of blocks, choose a number. Click OK.
The list shows all the possible blocking combinations for the selected design with the number of specified replicates. If you
change the design or the number of replicates, the list will reflect a new set of possibilities.
If your design has replicates, Minitab attempts to put the replicates in different blocks. For details, see Rule for blocks with
replicates for default design.
Rule for blocks with replicates for default designs

For a blocked default design with replicates, Minitab puts replicates in different blocks to the extent that it can.
The following rule is used to assign runs to blocks: Let k = the number of factors, b = the number of blocks, r = the number
of replicates, and n = the number of runs (corner points).
Let D = the greatest common divisor of b and r. Then b = B∗D and r = R∗D, for some B and R. Start with the standard
design for k factors, n runs, and B blocks. (If there is no such design, you will get an error message.) Replicate this entire
design r times. This gives a total of B∗r blocks, numbered 1, 2, ... , B, 1, 2, ... , B, ... , 1, 2, ... , B. Renumber these blocks
as 1, 2, ... , b, 1, 2, ... , b, ... , 1, 2, ... , b. This will give b blocks, each replicated R times, which is what you want.
For example, suppose you have a factorial design with 3 factors and 8 runs, run in 6 blocks, and you want to add 15
replicates.
Then k = 3, b = 6, r = 15, and n = 8. The greatest common divisor of b and r is 3. Then B = 2 and R = 5. Start with the
design for 3 factors, 8 runs, and 2 blocks. Replicate this design 15 times. This gives a total of 2∗15 = 30 blocks, numbered
1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2, ... , 1, 2. Renumber these blocks as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ... , 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. This gives 6 blocks,
each replicated 5 times.

Factorial Designs
Factorial Design − Factors (2-level factorial or Plackett-Burman design)

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Create Factorial Design > Factors
Allows you to name or rename the factors and assign values for factor levels. If your factors could be continuous, use
numeric levels; if your factors are categorical, use text levels. Continuous variables can take on any value on the
measurement scale being used (for example, length of reaction time). Categorical variables can only assume a limited
number of possible values (for example, type of catalyst).
Use the arrow keys to navigate within the table, moving across rows or down columns.
Dialog box items
Factor: Shows the number of factors you have chosen for your design. This column does not take any input.
Name: Enter text to change the name of the factors. By default, Minitab names the factors alphabetically, skipping the
letter I.
Type: Choose to specify whether the levels of the factors are numeric or text. For information on how Minitab handles
centerpoints when you have a combination of text and numeric factors, see Adding center points.
Low: Enter the value for the low setting of each factor. By default, Minitab sets the low level of all factors to −1. Factor
settings can be changed to any numeric or text value. If one of the settings for a factor is text, Minitab interprets the other
setting as text.
High: Enter the value for the high setting of each factor. By default, Minitab sets the high level of all factors to +1. Factor
setting as text.
Note For information on how Minitab handles centerpoints when you have a combination of text and numeric factors,
see Adding center points.
To name factors
1 In the Create Factorial Design dialog box, click Factors.
2 Under Name, click in the first row and type the name of the first factor. Then, use the arrow key to move down the
column and enter the remaining factor names. Click OK.
More After you have created the design, you can change the factor names by typing new names in the Data window,
or with Modify Design.
To assign factor levels

When creating a design
2 Under Low, click in the factor row you would like to assign values and enter any numeric or text value. Use the arrow
key to move to High and enter a value. For numeric levels, the High value must be larger than the Low value.
3 Repeat step 2 to assign levels for other factors. Click OK.
After creating a design
To change the factor levels after you have created the design, use Modify Design. Unless some runs result in botched
runs, do not change levels by typing them in the worksheet.
Factorial Designs − Options (2-level factorial design)

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Create Factorial Design > Options
Allows you to fold the design, which is a way to reduce confounding, specify the fraction to be used for design generation,
randomize the design, and store the design (and design object) in the worksheet.
Dialog box items
Fold Design
Do not fold: Choose to not fold the design.
Fold on all factors: Choose to fold the design on all factors.
Fold just on factor: Choose to fold the design on one of the factors, then choose the factor you want to fold on.
Fraction If the design is a fractional factorial, you can specify which fraction to use.
Use principal fraction: Choose to use the principal fraction. This is the fraction where all signs on the design
generators are positive.

Factorial Designs
Use fraction number: Choose to use a specific fraction, then specify which fraction you want to use. Minitab numbers
the fractions in a "standard order" using the design generators.
Randomize runs: Check to randomize the runs in the data matrix. If you specify blocks, randomization is done separately
within each block and then the blocks are randomized.
Base for random data generator: Enter a base for the random data generator. By entering a base for the random
data generator, you can control the randomization so that you obtain the same pattern every time.
Note If you use the same base on different computer platforms or with different versions of Minitab, you may not get
the same random number sequence.
Store design in worksheet: Check to store the design in the worksheet. When you open this dialog box, the Store
design in worksheet option is checked. If you want to see the properties of various designs (such as alias tables) before
selecting the one design you want to store, you would uncheck this option. If you want to analyze a design, you must store
it in the worksheet.
Folding the Design

Folding is a way to reduce confounding. Confounding occurs when you have a fractional factorial design and one or more
effects cannot be estimated separately. The effects that cannot be separated are said to be aliased.
Resolution IV designs may be obtained from resolution III designs by folding. For example, if you fold on one factor, say
A, then A and all its 2-factor interactions will be free from other main effects and 2-factor interactions. If you fold on all
factors, then all main effects will be free from each other and from all 2-factor interactions.
For example, suppose you are creating a three-factor design in four runs.
• When you fold on all factors, Minitab adds four runs to the design and reverses the signs of each factor in the
additional runs.
• When you fold on one factor, Minitab adds four runs to the design, but only reverses the signs of the specified factor.
The signs of the remaining factors stay the same. These rows are then appended to the end of the data matrix.
Original fraction Folded on all factors Folded on factor A

A B C A B C A B C
- - + - - + - - +
+ - - + - - + - -
- + - - + - - + -
+ + + + + + + + +
+ + - + - +
- - -
- + +
+ - + + + -
- - - - + +
When you fold a design, the defining relation or alias structure of the design is usually shortened because fewer terms are
confounded with one another. Specifically, when you fold on all factors, any word in the defining relation that has an odd
number of the letters is omitted. When you fold on one factor, any word containing that factor is omitted from the defining
relation. For example, you have a design with five factors. The defining relation for the unfolded and folded designs (both
folded on all factors and just folded on factor A) are:
Unfolded design I + ABD + ACE + BCDE
Folded design I + BCDE

If you fold a design and the defining relation is not shortened, then the folding just adds replicates. It does not reduce
confounding. In this case, Minitab gives you an error message.
If you fold a design that is blocked, the same block generators are used for the folded design as for the unfolded design.
To fold the design

1 In the Create Factorial Design dialog box, click Options.
2 Do one of the following, then click OK.
• Choose Fold on all factors to make all main effects free from each other and all two-factor interactions.
• Choose Fold just on factor and then choose a factor from the list to make the specified factor and all its two-
factor interactions free from other main effects and two-factor interactions.
Choosing a Fraction
When you create a fractional factorial design, Minitab uses the principal fraction by default. The principal fraction is the
fraction where all signs are positive. However, there may be situations when a design contains points that are impractical
to run and choosing an appropriate fraction can avoid these points.

Factorial Designs
A full factorial design with 5 factors requires 32 runs. If you want just 8 runs, you need to use a one-fourth fraction. You
can use any of the four possible fractions of the design. Minitab numbers the runs in "standard" (Yates) order using the
design generators as follows:
1 D = -AB E = -AC
2 D = AB E = -AC
3 D = -AB E = AC
4 D = AB E = AC
In the blocking example, we asked for the third fraction. This is the one with design generators D = −AB and E = AC.
Choosing an appropriate fraction can avoid points that are impractical or impossible to run. For example, suppose you
could not run the design in the previous example with all five factors set at their high level. The principal fraction contains
this point, but the third fraction does not.
Note If you choose to use a fraction other than the principal fraction, you cannot use minus signs for the design
generators in the Generators subdialog box. Using minus signs in this case is not useful anyway.
Randomizing the Design

By default, Minitab randomizes the run order of the design. The ordered sequence of the factor combinations
(experimental conditions) is called the run order. It is usually a good idea to randomize the run order to lessen the effects
of factors that are not included in the study, particularly effects that are time-dependent.
However, there may be situations when randomization leads to an undesirable run order. For instance, in industrial
applications, it may be difficult or expensive to change factor levels. Or, after factor levels have been changed, it may take
a long time for the system to return to a steady state. Under these conditions, you may not want to randomize the design
in order to minimize the level changes.
Every time you create a design, Minitab reserves and names C1 (StdOrder) and C2 (RunOrder) to store the standard
order and run order, respectively.
• StdOrder shows what the order of the runs in the experiment would be if the experiment was done in standard
order − also called Yates' order.
• RunOrder shows what the order of the runs in the experiment would be if the experiment was run in random order.
If you do not randomize, the run order and standard order are the same.
If you want to re-create a design with the same ordering of the runs (that is, the same design order), you can choose a
base for the random data generator. Then, when you want to re-create the design, you just use the same base.
Note When you have more than one block, MINITAB randomizes each block independently.
More You can use Display Design to switch back and forth between a random and standard order display in the
worksheet.
Storing the design

If you want to analyze a design, you must store it in the worksheet. By default, Minitab stores the design. If you want to
see the properties of various designs, such as alias structures before selecting the design you want to store, uncheck
Store design in worksheet in the Options subdialog box.
Every time you create a design, Minitab reserves and names the following columns:
• C1 (StdOrder) stores the standard order.
• C2 (RunOrder) stores run order.
• C3 (CenterPt or PtType) stores the point type. If you create a 2-level design, this column is labeled CenterPt. If you
create a Plackett-Burman or general full factorial design, this column in labeled PtType. The codes are: 0 is a center
point run and 1 is a corner point.
• C4 (Blocks) stores the blocking variable. When the design is not blocked, Minitab sets all column values to 1.
• C5− Cn stores the factors/components. Minitab stores each factor in your design in a separate column.
If you name the factors, these names display in the worksheet. If you did not provide names, Minitab names the factors
alphabetically. After you create the design, you can change the factor names directly in the Data window or with Modify
Design.
If you did not assign factor levels in the Factors subdialog box, Minitab stores factor levels in coded form (all factor levels
are −1 or +1). If you assigned factor levels, the uncoded levels display in the worksheet. If you assigned factor levels, the
uncoded levels display in the worksheet. After you create the design, you can change the factor levels with Modify Design.
Caution When you create a design using Create Factorial Design, Minitab stores the appropriate design information in
the worksheet. Minitab needs this stored information to analyze and plot data. If you want to use Analyze
Factorial Design, you must follow certain rules when modifying the worksheet data. If you do not, you may

Factorial Designs
corrupt your design. See Modifying and Using Worksheet Data.

If you make changes that corrupt your design, you may still be able to analyze it with Analyze Factorial Design
after you use Define Custom Factorial Design.
Studying specific interactions

When you are interested in studying specific interactions, you do not want these interactions confounded with each other
or with main effects. Look at the alias structure to see how the interactions are confounded, then assign factors to
appropriate letters in Minitab's design.
For example, suppose you wanted to use a 16 run design to study 6 factors: pressure, speed, cooling, thread, hardness,
and time. The alias structure for this design is shown in Example of a fractional factorial design. Suppose you were
interested in the 2-factor interactions among pressure, speed, and cooling. You could assign pressure to A, speed to B,
and cooling to C. The following lines of the alias table demonstrate that AB, AC, and BC are not confounded with each
other or with main effects
AB + CE + ACDF + BDEF
AC + BE + ABDF + CDEF
...
AE + BC + DF + ABCDEF
You can assign the remaining three factors to D, E, and F in any way.
If you also wanted to study the three-way interaction among pressure, speed, and cooling, this assignment would not work
because ABC is confounded with E. However, you could assign pressure to A, speed to B, and cooling to D.
Factorial Design − Results (2-level factorial)

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Create Factorial Design > Results
You can control the output displayed in the Session window.
Dialog box items
Printed Results
None: Choose to suppress display of the results.
Summary table: Choose to display a summary of the design. The table includes the number of factors, runs, blocks,
replicates, center points, and the resolution, the fraction and the design generators.
Summary table, alias table: Choose to display a summary of the design and the alias structure.
Summary table, alias table, design table: Choose to display a summary of the design, the alias structure, and a table
with the factors and their settings at each run.
Summary table, alias table, design table, defining relation: Choose to display a summary of the design, the alias
structure, a table with the factors and their levels at each run, and the defining relation.
Contents of Alias Table
Default interactions: Choose to display all interactions for designs with 2 to 6 factors, up to three-way interactions for
7 to 10 factors, and up to two-way interactions for 11 to 15 factors.
Interactions up through order: Specify the highest order interaction to print in the alias table. Specifying a high order
interaction with a large number of factors could take a very long time to compute.
Summary of 2-Level Designs

The table below summarizes the two-level default designs and the base designs for designs in which you specify
generators for additional factors. Table cells with entries show available run/factor combinations. The first number in a cell
is the resolution of the unblocked design. The lower number in a cell is the maximum number of blocks you can use.
Number of factors

Factorial Designs
Number 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
of runs
full III
4
2 1
full IV III III III
8
4 4 2 2 1
full V IV IV IV III III III III III III III
16
8 8 8 8 8 4 4 4 4 2 2 1
full VI IV IV IV IV IV IV IV IV IV
32
16 16 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
full VII V IV IV IV IV IV IV IV
64
32 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16
full VIII VI V V IV IV IV IV
128
64 32 16 16 16 16 16 16 16
Example of creating a fractional factorial design

Suppose you want to study the influence six input variables (factors) have on shrinkage of a plastic fastener of a toy. The
goal of your pilot study is to screen these six factors to determine which ones have the greatest influence. Because you
assume that three-way and four-way interactions are negligible, a resolution IV factorial design is appropriate. You decide
to generate a 16 run fractional factorial design from Minitab's catalog.
3 Click Designs.
4 In the box at the top, highlight the line for 1/4 fraction. Click OK.
5 Click Results. Choose Summary table, alias table, design table, defining relation.
6 Click OK in each dialog box.

Factors: 6 Base Design: 6, 16 Resolution: IV

Design Generators: E = ABC, F = BCD
Defining Relation: I = ABCE = BCDF = ADEF
Alias Structure
I + ABCE + ADEF + BCDF
A + BCE + DEF + ABCDF

B + ACE + CDF + ABDEF
C + ABE + BDF + ACDEF
D + AEF + BCF + ABCDE
E + ABC + ADF + BCDEF
F + ADE + BCD + ABCEF
AB + CE + ACDF + BDEF
AC + BE + ABDF + CDEF
AD + EF + ABCF + BCDE
AE + BC + DF + ABCDEF
AF + DE + ABCD + BCEF
BD + CF + ABEF + ACDE
BF + CD + ABDE + ACEF
ABD + ACF + BEF + CDE
ABF + ACD + BDE + CEF

Factorial Designs
Design Table (randomized)
Run A B C D E F
1 + - - - + -
2 - + + - - -
3 - - - - - -
4 - - - + - +
5 - - + - + +
6 + + - + - -
7 - + + + - +
8 + - + + - -
9 + + + + + +
10 - - + + + -
11 + - - + + +
12 + + + - + -
13 + - + - - +
14 + + - - - +
15 - + - + + -
16 - + - - + +

The first table gives a summary of the design: the total number of factors, runs, blocks, replicates, and center points.
With 6 factors, a full factorial design would have 26 or 64 runs. Because resources are limited, you chose a 1/4 fraction
with 16 runs.
The resolution of a design that has not been blocked is the length of the shortest word in the defining relation. In this
example, all words in the defining relation have four letters so the resolution is IV. In a resolution IV design, some main
effects are confounded with three-way interactions, but not with any 2-way interactions or other main effects. Because 2-
way interactions are confounded with each other, any significant interactions will need to be evaluated further to define
their nature.
Because you chose to display the summary and design tables, Minitab shows the experimental conditions or settings for
each of the factors for the design points. When you perform the experiment, use the order that is shown to determine the
conditions for each run. For example, in the first run of your experiment, you would set Factor A high, Factor B low, Factor
C low, Factor D low, Factor E high, and Factor F low, and measure the shrinkage of the plastic fastener.
Minitab randomizes the design by default, so if you try to replicate this example your run order may not match the order
shown.
Example of creating a blocked design

You would like to study the effects of five input variables on the impurity of a vaccine. Each batch only contains enough
raw material to manufacture four tubes of the vaccine. To remove the effects due to differences in the four batches of raw
material, you decide to perform the experiment in four blocks. To determine the experimental conditions that will be used
for each run, you create a 5-factor, 16-run design, in 4 blocks.
1 Choose Stat >DOE > Factorial > Create Factorial Design.
3 Click Designs.
4 In the box at the top, highlight the line for 1/2 fraction.
5 From Number of blocks, choose 4. Click OK.
6 Click Results. Choose Summary table, alias table, design table, defining relation. Click OK in each dialog box.

Factors: 5 Base Design: 5, 16 Resolution with blocks: III

* NOTE * Blocks are confounded with two-way interactions.
Design Generators: E = ABCD

Factorial Designs
Block Generators: AB, AC
Defining Relation: I = ABCDE
Alias Structure
I + ABCDE
Blk1 = AB + CDE
Blk2 = AC + BDE
Blk3 = BC + ADE
A + BCDE
B + ACDE
C + ABDE
D + ABCE
E + ABCD
AD + BCE
AE + BCD
BD + ACE
BE + ACD
CD + ABE
CE + ABD
DE + ABC
Run Block A B C D E
1 1 + - - - -
2 1 - + + - +
3 1 - + + + -
4 1 + - - + +
5 3 - + - + +
6 3 + - + - +
7 3 + - + + -
8 3 - + - - -
9 4 + + + + +
10 4 + + + - -
11 4 - - - + -
12 4 - - - - +
13 2 + + - - +
14 2 - - + + +
15 2 - - + - -
16 2 + + - + -

The first table gives a summary of the design: the total number of factors, runs, blocks, replicates, center points, and
resolution. After blocking, this is a resolution III design because blocks are confounded with 2-way interactions.
Because you chose to display the summary and design tables, Minitab shows the experimental conditions or settings for
each of the factors for the design points. When you perform the experiment, use the order that is shown to determine the
conditions for each run.
The first four runs of your experiment would all be performed using raw material from the same batch (Block 1). For the
first run in block one, you would set Factor A high, Factor B low, Factor C low, Factor D low, and Factor E low, and
measure the impurity of the vaccine.
Minitab randomizes the design by default, so if you try to replicate this example your run order may not match the order
shown.
Plackett-Burman

Factorial Designs
Dialog box items

Type of Design
complete list.
Creating Plackett-Burman Designs

Plackett-Burman designs are a class of resolution III, 2-level fractional factorial designs that are often used to study main
effects. In a resolution III design, main effects are aliased with two-way interactions. Therefore, you should only use these
designs when you are willing to assume that 2-way interactions are negligible.
Minitab generates designs for up to 47 factors. Each design is based on the number of runs, from 12 to 48, and is always
a multiple of 4. The number of factors must be less than the number of runs. For example, a design with 20 runs allows
you to estimate the main effects for up to 19 factors. See Summary of Plackett-Burman Designs.
Minitab displays alias tables only for saturated 16-run designs. For 12-, 20-, and 24-run designs, each main effect gets
partially confounded with more than one two-way interaction thereby making the alias structure difficult to determine.
After you create the design, perform the experiment to obtain the response data, and enter the data in the worksheet, you
can use Analyze Factorial Design.
Summary of Plackett-Burman Designs

These are the designs given in [4], up through n = 48, where n is the number of runs. In all cases except n = 28, the
design can be specified by giving just the first column of the design matrix. In the table below, we give this first column
(written as a row to save space). This column is permuted cyclically to get an (n − 1) x (n − 1) matrix. Then a last row of all
minus signs is added. For n = 28, we start with the first 9 rows. These are then divided into 3 blocks of 9 columns each.
Then the 3 blocks are permuted (rowwise) cyclically and a last column of all minus signs is added to get the full design.
Each design can have up to k = (n − 1) factors. If you specify a k that is less than (n − 1), just the first k columns are used.
12 Runs
++−+++−−−+−
20 Runs
++−−++++−+−+−−−−++−
24 Runs
+++++−+−++−−++−−+−+−−−−
28 Runs
+−++++−−−−+−−−+−−+++−+−++−+
++−+++−−−−−++−−+−−−++++−++−
−+++++−−−+−−−+−−+−+−+−++−++
−−−+−++++−−+−+−−−++−+++−+−+
−−−++−++++−−−−++−−++−−++++−
−−−−+++++−+−+−−−+−−+++−+−++
+++−−−+−+−−+−−+−+−+−++−+++−
+++−−−++−+−−+−−−−+++−++−−++
+++−−−−++−+−−+−+−−−++−+++−+
32 Runs
−−−−+−+−+++−++−−−+++++−−++−+−−+
36 Runs
−+−+++−−−+++++−+++−−+−−−−+−+−++−−+−
40 Runs (note, derived by duplicating the 20 run design)
++−−++++−+−+−−−−++−++−−++++−+−+−−−−++−

Factorial Designs
44 Runs
+ + − − + − + − − + + + − + + + + + − − − + − + + + − − − − − + − − − + +− + − + + −
48 Runs
+++++−++++−−+−+−+++−−+−−++−++−−−+−+−++−−−−+−−−−
To create a Plackett-Burman design

2 If you want to see a summary of the Plackett-Burman designs, click Display Available Designs. Use this table to
compare design features. Click OK.
3 Choose Plackett-Burman design.
5 Click Designs.
6 From Number of runs, choose the number of runs for your design. This list contains only acceptable numbers of runs
based on the number of factors you choose in step 4. (Each design is based on the number of runs, from 12 to 48,
and is always a multiple of 4. The number of factors must be less than the number of runs.)
7 If you like, use any of the options in the Design subdialog box .
Even if you do not use any of these options, click OK. This selects the design and brings you back to the main dialog
box.
8 If you like, click Options or Factors to use any of the dialog box options, then click OK to create your design.

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Create Factorial Design > choose a 2-level or Plackett-Burman option > Display Available
Designs
Displays a table to help you select an appropriate design, based on
• the number of factors that are of interest,
• the number of runs you can perform, and
• the desired resolution of the design.
This dialog box does not take any input. See Summary of two-level designs and Summary of Plackett-Burman designs.
Factorial Design − Designs (Plackett-Burman)

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Create Factorial Design > choose Plackett-Burman > Designs
Specifies the number of runs, center points, replicates, and blocks.
Dialog box items
Number of runs: Choose the number of runs in the design you want to generate. The design generated is based on the
number of runs, and must be specified as a multiple of 4 ranging from 12 to 48. If the number of runs is not specified,
Minitab sets the number of runs to the smallest possible value for the specified number of factors. Plackett-Burman
Designs lists the designs that Minitab generates.
Number of center points per replicate: Enter the number of center points (up to 50) to add to the design. When you
pseudo center points. See Adding center points for a discussion of how Minitab handles center points.
Number of replicates: Enter a number up to 50. Suppose you are creating a design with 3 factors and 12 runs, and you
specify 2 replicates. Each of the 12 runs will be repeated for a total of 24 runs in the experiment.
Block on replicates: Check to block the design on replicates. Each set of replicate points will be placed in a separate
block.
Adding center points

Adding center points to a factorial design may allow you to detect curvature in the fitted data. If there is curvature that
involves the center of the design, the response at the center point will be either higher or lower than the fitted value of the
factorial (corner) points.
The way Minitab adds center points to the design depends on whether you have text, numeric, or a combination of text
and numeric factors. Here is how Minitab adds center points:
• When all factors are numeric and the design is:
− Not blocked, Minitab adds the specified number of center points to the design.

Factorial Designs
− Blocked, Minitab adds the specified number of center points to each block.
• When all of the factors in a design are text, you cannot add center points.
• When you have a combination of numeric and text factors, there is no true center to the design. In this case, center
points are called pseudo-center points. When the design is:
− Not blocked, Minitab adds the specified number of center points for each combination of the levels of the text
factors. In total, for Q text factors, Minitab adds 2Q times as many centerpoints.
− Blocked, Minitab adds the specified number of center points for each combination of the levels of the text factors
to each block. In each block, for Q text factors, Minitab adds 2Q times as many centerpoints.
For example, consider an unblocked 23 design. Factors A and C are numeric with levels 0, 10 and .2, .3, respectively.
Factor B is text indicating whether a catalyst is present or absent. If you specify 3 center points in the Designs
subdialog box, Minitab adds a total of 2 x 3 = 6 pseudo-center points, three points for the low level of factor B and
three for the high level. These six points are:
5 present .25
5 present .25
5 present .25
5 absent .25
5 absent .25
5 absent .25
Next, consider a blocked 25 design where three factors are text, and there are two blocks. There are 2 x 2 x 2 = 8
combinations of text levels. If you specify two center points per block, Minitab will add 8 x 2 = 16 pseudo-center points
to each of the two blocks.
Factorial Design − Factors (2-level factorial or Plackett-Burman design)

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Create Factorial Design > Factors
measurement scale being used (for example, length of reaction time). Categorical variables can only assume a limited
number of possible values (for example, type of catalyst).
Dialog box items
letter I.
Type: Choose to specify whether the levels of the factors are numeric or text. For information on how Minitab handles
centerpoints when you have a combination of text and numeric factors, see Adding center points.
setting as text.
setting as text.
Note For information on how Minitab handles centerpoints when you have a combination of text and numeric factors,
To name factors

Factorial Designs

When creating a design
2 Under Low, click in the factor row you would like to assign values and enter any numeric or text value. Use the arrow
key to move to High and enter a value. For numeric levels, the High value must be larger than the Low value.
3 Repeat step 2 to assign levels for other factors. Click OK.
After creating a design
To change the factor levels after you have created the design, use Modify Design. Unless some runs result in botched
runs, do not change levels by typing them in the worksheet.
Create Design − Options

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Create Factorial Design > choose Plackett-Burman or General full factorial design > Options
Allows you to randomize the design, and store the design (and design object) in the worksheet.
Dialog box items
Store design in worksheet: Check to store the design in the worksheet. When you open this dialog box, the "Store
design in worksheet" option is checked. If you want to see the properties of various designs before selecting the one
design you want to store, you would uncheck this option. If you want to analyze a design, you must store it in the
worksheet.

worksheet.
Storing the design


Factorial Designs
Design.
Factorial Design − Results (full factorial or Plackett-Burman)

Dialog box items
Printed Results
replicates, and center points.
Summary table and design table: Choose to display a summary of the design and a table with the factors and their
settings at each run.
Example of creating a Plackett-Burman design with center points

Suppose you want to study the effects of 9 factors using only 12 runs, with 3 center points. In this 12 run design, each
main effect is partially confounded with more than one 2-way interaction.
2 Choose Plackett-Burman design.
4 Click Designs.
5 From Number of runs, choose 12.
6 In Number of center points per replicate, enter 3.
7 Click Results. Choose Summary table and design table. Click OK in each dialog box.

Plackett - Burman Design
Factors: 9 Replicates: 1
Base runs: 15 Total runs: 15
Base blocks: 1 Total blocks: 1
Center points: 3

Factorial Designs
Run Blk A B C D E F G H J
1 1 - - - + + + - + +
2 1 + + + - + + - + -
3 1 + - + - - - + + +
4 1 + - + + - + - - -
5 1 - + + - + - - - +
6 1 + + - + - - - + +
7 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
8 1 - - - - - - - - -
9 1 + - - - + + + - +
10 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
11 1 - + - - - + + + -
12 1 - - + + + - + + -
13 1 - + + + - + + - +
14 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
15 1 + + - + + - + - -

In the first table, Total runs shows the total number of runs including any runs created by replicates and center points. For
this example, you specified 12 runs and added 3 runs for center points, for a total of 15.
Minitab does not display an alias tables for this 12 run design because each main effect is partially confounded with more
than one 2-way interaction.
Minitab shows the experimental conditions or settings for each of the factors for the design points. When you perform the
experiment, use the order that is shown to determine the conditions for each run. For example, in the first run of your
experiment, you would set Factor A low, Factor B low, Factor C low, Factor D high, Factor E high, Factor F high, Factor G
low, Factor H high, and Factor J high.
Minitab randomizes the design by default, so if you try to replicate this example your runs may not match the order shown.
General full factorial

Dialog box items
Type of Design
complete list.
Creating Full Factorial Designs

Use Minitab's general full factorial design option when any factor has more than two levels. You can create designs with
up to 15 factors. Each factor must have at least two levels, but not more than 100 levels.
If all the factors have two levels, use one of the 2-level factorial options.
Note To create a design from data that you already have in the worksheet, see Define Custom Factorial Design.
To create a general full factorial design

2 Choose General full factorial design.
4 Click Designs.
5 Click in Number of Levels in the row for Factor A and enter a number from 2 to 100. Use the arrow key to move down
the column and specify the number of levels for each factor.

Factorial Designs
6 If you like, use any of the options in the Design subdialog box.
7 Click OK. This selects the design and brings you back to the main dialog box.
8 If you like, click Options or Factors and use any of the dialog box options , then click OK to create your design.

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Create Factorial Design > choose General full factorial design > Display Available
Designs
This dialog box does not take any input.
Factorial Design − Designs

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Create Factorial Design > choose General full factorial design > Design
Allows you to name factors, specify the number of levels for each factor, add replicates, and block the design.
Dialog box items
Name: Enter text to change the name of the factors. By default, Minitab names the factors alphabetically.
Number of Levels: Enter a number from 2 to 100 for each factor. Use the arrow keys to move up or down the column.
Number of replicates: Enter a number up to 50. Suppose you are creating a design with 3 factors and 12 runs, and you
specify 2 replicates. Each of the 12 runs will be repeated for a total of 24 runs in the experiment.
Block on replicates: Check to block the design on replicates. Each set of replicate points will be placed in a separate
block.
Factorial Design − Factors

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Create Factorial Design > choose General full factorial design > Designs > Factors
measurement scale being used (for example, length of reaction time). In contrast, categorical variables can only assume a
limited number of possible values (for example, type of catalyst).
Dialog box items
letter I.
Type: Choose to specify whether the levels of the factors are numeric or text.
Levels: Shows the number of levels for each factor. This column does not take any input.
Level Values: Enter numeric or text values for each level of the factor. You can have up to 100 levels for each factor. By
default, Minitab sets the level values in numerical order 1, 2, 3, ... .
To name factors

2 Under Level Values, click in the factor row to which you would like to assign values and enter any numeric or text
value. Enter numeric levels from lowest to highest.
3 Use the arrow key to move down the column and assign levels for the remaining factors. Click OK.
More To change the factor levels after you have created the design, use Modify Design. Unless some runs result in
botched runs, do not change levels by typing them in the worksheet.

Factorial Designs
Create Design − Options

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Create Factorial Design > choose Plackett-Burman or General full factorial design > Options
Allows you to randomize the design, and store the design (and design object) in the worksheet.
Dialog box items
Store design in worksheet: Check to store the design in the worksheet. When you open this dialog box, the "Store
design in worksheet" option is checked. If you want to see the properties of various designs before selecting the one
design you want to store, you would uncheck this option. If you want to analyze a design, you must store it in the
worksheet.

worksheet.
Storing the design

Design.

Factorial Designs
Factorial Design − Results (full factorial or Plackett-Burman)

Dialog box items
Printed Results
replicates, and center points.
Summary table and design table: Choose to display a summary of the design and a table with the factors and their
settings at each run.
Define Custom Factorial Design

Define Custom Factorial Design
Stat > DOE > Factorial > Define Custom Factorial Design
Use Define Custom Factorial Design to create a design from data you already have in the worksheet. For example, you
may have a design that you created using Minitab session commands, entered directly into the Data window, imported
from a data file, or created with earlier releases of Minitab. You can also use Define Custom Factorial Design to redefine a
design that you created with Create Factorial Design and then modified directly in the worksheet.
Define Custom Factorial Design allows you to specify which columns contain your factors and other design
characteristics. After you define your design, you can use Modify Design, Display Design, and Analyze Factorial Design.
Dialog box items
Factors: Enter the columns that contain the factor levels.
2-level factorial: Choose if all the factors in your design have only two levels.
General full factorial: Choose if any of the factors in you design have more than two levels.
To define a custom factorial design

1 Choose Stat > DOE > Factorial > Define Custom Factorial Design.
2 In Factors, enter the columns that contain the factor levels.
3 Depending on the type of design you have in the worksheet, choose 2-level factorial or General full factorial.
4 By default, for each factor, Minitab designates the smallest value in a factor column as the low level; the highest value
in a factor column as the high level.
• If you do not need to change this designation, go to step 5.
• If you need to change this designation, click Low/High.
1 Under Type, choose either numeric or text for each factor.
2 Under Low, click in the factor row you would like to assign values and enter the appropriate numeric or text
value. Use the arrow key to move to High and enter a value. For numeric levels, the High value must be
larger than Low value.
3 Repeat step 2 to assign levels for other factors.
4 Under Worksheet Data Are, choose Coded or Uncoded.
5 Click OK.
5 Do one of the following:
• If you do not have any worksheet columns containing the standard order, run order, center point indicators, or
blocks, click OK in each dialog box.

Factorial Designs
• If you have worksheet columns that contain data for the blocks, center point identification (two-level designs only),
run order, or standard order, click Designs.
1 If you have a column that contains the standard order of the experiment, under Standard Order Column,
choose Specify by column and enter the column containing the standard order.
2 If you have a column that contains the run order of the experiment, under Run Order Column, choose
Specify by column and enter the column containing the run order.
3 For two-level designs, if you have a column that contains the center point identification values, under Center
points, choose Specify by column and enter the column containing these values. The column must contain
only 0's and 1's. Minitab considers 0 a center point; 1 not a center point.
4 If your design is blocked, under Blocks, choose Specify by column and enter the column containing the
blocks.
Define Custom 2-Level Factorial − Design

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Define Custom Factorial Design > choose 2-level factorial > Designs
Allows you to specify which columns contain the standard order, run order, center point indicators, and blocks.
Dialog box items
Standard Order Column
Order of the data: Choose if the standard order is the same as the order of the data in the worksheet.
Specify by column: Choose if the standard order of the data is stored in a separate column, then enter the column.
Run Order Column
Order of the data: Choose if the run order is the same as the order of the data in the worksheet.
Specify by column: Choose if the run order of the data is stored in a separate column, then enter the column.
Center Points
No center points: Choose if your design does not contain center points.
Specify by column: Choose if your design contains center points, then enter the column containing the center point
identifiers.
Blocks
No blocks: Choose if your design is not blocked.
Specify by column: Choose if your design is blocked, then enter the column containing the blocks.
Define Custom General Full Factorial − Design

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Define Custom Factorial Design > choose General full factorial > Designs
Allows you to specify which columns contain the standard order, run order, point type, and blocks.
Dialog box items
Standard Order Column
Order of the data: Choose if the standard order is the same as the order of the data in the worksheet.
Specify by column: Choose if the standard order of the data is stored in a separate column, then enter the column.
Run Order Column
Order of the data: Choose if the run order is the same as the order of the data in the worksheet.
Specify by column: Choose if the run order of the data is stored in a separate column, then enter the column.
Point Type Column
Unknown: Choose if the type of design points is unknown.
Specify by column: Choose if your design contains point types, then enter the column containing the point type
identifiers.
Blocks
No blocks: Choose if your design is not blocked.
Specify by column: Choose if your design is blocked, then enter the column containing the blocks.

Factorial Designs
Define Custom 2-Level Factorial − Low/High

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Define Custom Factorial Design > choose 2-level factorial > Low/High
Allows you to define the low and high levels for each factor and specify whether worksheet data are in coded or uncoded
form.
Dialog box items
Low and High Values for Factors
Factor: Shows the factor letter designation. This column does not take any input.
Name: Shows the name of the factors. This column does not take any input.
Type: Choose either numeric or text for each factor.
Low: Enter the value or category for the low level for each factor.
High: Enter the value or category for the high level for each factor.
Worksheet data are
Coded: Choose if the worksheet data are in coded form(-1 = low; +1 = high).
Uncoded: Choose if the worksheet data are in uncoded form. That is, the worksheet values are in units of the actual
measurements.
Preprocess Responses for Analyze Variability

Preprocess Responses/Analyze Variability Overview
Experiments that include repeat or replicate measurements of a response allow you to analyze variability in your response
data, which enables you to identify factor settings that produce less variable results. Minitab calculates and stores the
standard deviations (σ) of your repeat or replicate responses and analyzes them to detect differences, or dispersion
effects, across factor settings.
For example, you conduct a spray-drying experiment with replicates and find that two settings of drying temperature and
atomizer speed produce the desired particle size. By analyzing the variability in particle size at different factor settings,
you find that one setting produces particles with more variability than the other setting. You choose to run your process at
the setting that produces the less variable results.
Once you have created your design, analyzing variability is a two-step process:
1 Preprocess Responses − First, you calculate and store the standard deviations and counts of your repeat or replicate
responses or specify standard deviations that you have already stored in the worksheet. You can analyze and graph
stored standard deviations as response variables using other DOE tools, such as Analyze Variability, Analyze
Factorial Design, Contour Plots, and Response Optimization.
2 Analyze Variability − Second, you fit a linear model to the log of the standard deviations you stored in the first step to
identify significant dispersion effects. Once you fit a model, you can use other tools, such as contour and surface
plots, and response optimization to better understand your results. You can also store weights calculated from your
model to perform weighted regression when analyzing the location (mean) effects of your original responses in
Analyze Factorial Design.
Preprocess Responses for Analyze Variability

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Preprocess Responses for Analyze Variability
To preprocess your responses, first either:
• Create and store a 2-level factorial design with repeats or replicates, using Create Factorial Design
• Create a 2-level factorial design from data that you already have in the worksheet, using Define Custom Factorial
Design
Preprocess responses with your 2-level factorial design to:
• Calculate and store the standard deviations of repeat or replicate measurements
• Calculate and store the means of repeat measurements
• Define your precalculated standard deviations
Dialog box items
Standard deviation to use for analysis:
Compute for repeat responses across rows : Choose to compute standard deviations from repeat measurements.
Repeat responses across rows of: Enter the columns containing the repeat measurements.

Factorial Designs
Store standard deviations in: Enter a storage column for the standard deviations.
Store number of repeats in: Enter a storage column for the number of repeat responses for each run.
Store means in (optional): Enter a storage column for the means of repeat responses.
Compute for replicates in each response column:
Response: Enter a column containing the replicates, one for each response. You can calculate standard deviations for
up to 10 responses at once. Enter each response column in a separate row.
Store standard deviations in:Enter a storage column for the standard deviations for each response.
Store number of replicates in: Enter a storage column for the number of replicates for each response.
Adjust for covariates: Enter columns containing covariates for which to adjust in the calculation of the standard
deviations for replicates.
Standard deviations already in the worksheet: Choose to enter precalculated standard deviations already in the
worksheet.
Precalculated standard deviations in worksheet:
Use Std Devs in: Enter a column containing the precalculated standard deviations for each response.
Use Counts in: Enter a constant or column containing the number of repeats or replicates for each response.
Data − Preprocess Responses

To use Preprocess Responses, you must create or define a 2-level factorial design and enter response data that includes
at least one of following:
• Repeat responses
• Replicate responses
• Precalculated standard deviations for your repeat or replicate responses
Each row in your worksheet contains data corresponding to one run of your experiment. You enter repeat and replicate
responses differently from each other following the examples below. You can have both repeat and replicate
measurements for the same response. Response columns must be equal in length to the design variables in the
worksheet. Enter data in any columns not occupied by the design data.
Repeats
Enter up to 200 repeats for one response in numeric columns, one column for each repeated measurement. You must
have at least two repeats at each run for Minitab to calculate a standard deviation. Each run need not have the same
number of repeats. In this case, you must type the missing value symbol "∗" in the empty cells (see the example below).
Enter your data following this example:
Three Repeats of Response Y
Design Obs 1 Obs 2 Obs 3

A B
- - 5 3 4
+ + 8 10 9
+ - 9 7 ∗
- + 4 2 3
Replicates
Enter your replicate observations for a response in one column, in the row corresponding to the appropriate run of the
experiment. You can calculate standard deviations for up to 10 different responses at a time. You need not have the same
number of replicates for each combination of factor settings, but you must have at least two at each run for Minitab to
calculate a standard deviation. Enter your data following this example:
Three replicates Design Obs for Response Y
A B
Replicate 1 - - 5
+ + 8
+ - 9
- + 4
Replicate 2 - - 10
+ + 12
+ - 8
- + 1

Factorial Designs
Replicate 3 - - 3
+ + 14
+ - 15
- + 6
Note If you create your design in Stat > DOE > Factorial > Create Factorial Design, you should specify the
number of replicates in your experiment so the worksheet contains the correct number of rows in which to
enter your response data. You can also change the number of replicates in your design in Stat > DOE >
Modify Design.
Precalculated standard deviations
Enter your precalculated standard deviations, one column for each response, in the row corresponding to the appropriate
run. You can store up to 10 columns of standard deviations at a time. You must enter a column or a constant indicating
the number of repeats or replicates in your experiment.
For replicates, enter the standard deviation in the row where each combination of factor settings first appears. Minitab
enters missing values in the empty cells. Because the columns must be equal in length to the design variables in the
worksheet, you may need to enter a missing value in the last row to make the column length correct.
Covariates
Enter covariates in columns equal in length to the design variables in the worksheet in the row corresponding to the
appropriate run. Minitab can adjust replicate standard deviations for up to 50 covariates.
Analyzing design with botched runs
A botched run occurs when the actual value of a factor setting differs from the planned factor setting. When a botched run
occurs, you need to change the factor levels for that run in the worksheet. If you have botched runs for replicates of the
same combination of factor settings, Minitab does not recognize them as replicates. You must have two or more replicates
at the same combination of factor settings to compute a standard deviation.
Note Minitab omits missing data from all calculations.
To preprocess responses for analyze variability

1 Choose Stats > DOE > Preprocess Responses for Analyze Variability.
• If your response measurements are repeats:
1 Choose Compute for repeat responses across rows.
2 In Repeat responses across rows of, enter the columns containing repeat response measurements.
3 In Store standard deviations in, enter the storage column for the standard deviations.
4 In Store number of repeats in, enter the storage column for the number of repeats.
5 In Store means in (optional), enter the storage column for the means of the repeats.
• If your response measurements are replicates:
1 Choose Compute for replicates in each response column. Under Replicates in individual response
columns, complete the table as follows:
2 Under Response, enter a column containing replicate responses in the first row.
3 Under Store Std Dev in, enter the storage column for the standard deviations for the response in the first row.
4 Under Store number of replicates in, enter the storage column for the number of replicates for the response
in the first row.
5 In Adjust for covariates, enter columns containing covariates for which you want to account in the standard
deviations for replicates. Minitab uses the same set of covariates for each response.
6 If you have more than one response with replicates, repeat steps 1−4 for each response in the next available
row.
• If you have already stored standard deviations for your repeat or replicate measurements, you need to define
them before Minitab can use them in Analyze Variability.
1 Choose Standard deviations already in worksheet. Under Precalculated standard deviations in
worksheet, complete the table as follows:
2 Under Store Std Dev in, enter the column containing the standard deviations of your repeat or replicate
response in the first row.

Factorial Designs
3 Under Number of repeats or replicates, enter the column or constant containing the number of repeats or
replicates in the first row.
4 If you have more than one column with stored standard deviations, repeat steps 2 and 3 for each stored
column in the next available row.
3 Click OK.
Repeat Versus Replicates

Repeat and replicate measurements are both multiple response measurements taken at the same combination of factor
settings; but repeat measurements are taken during the same experimental run or consecutive runs, while replicate
measurements are taken during identical but distinct experimental runs, which are often randomized.
It is important to understand the differences between repeat and replicate response measurements. These differences
influence the structure of the worksheet and the columns in which you enter the response data, which in turn affects how
Minitab interprets the data. You enter repeats across rows of multiple columns, while you enter replicates down a single
column. For more information on entering repeat and replicate response data into the worksheet, see Data − Preprocess
Responses.
Whether you use repeats or replicates depends on the sources of variability you want to explore and your resource
constraints. Because replicates are from distinct experimental runs, usually spread over a longer period of time, they can
include sources of variability that are not included in repeat measurements. For example, replicates can include variability
from changing equipment settings between runs or variability from other environmental factors that may change over time.
Replicate measurements can be more expensive and time-consuming to collect. You can create a design with both
repeats and replicates, which enables you to examine multiple sources of variability.
Example of repeats and replicates
A manufacturing company has a production line with a number of settings that can be modified by operators. Quality
engineers design two experiments, one with repeats and one with replicates, to evaluate the effect of the settings on
quality.
• The first experiment uses repeats. The operators set the factors at predetermined levels, run production, and measure
the quality of five products. They reset the equipment to new levels, run production, and measure the quality of five
products. They continue until production is run once at every combination of factor settings and five quality
measurements are taken at each run.
• The second experiment uses replicates. The operators set the factors at predetermined levels, run production, and
take one quality measurement. They reset the equipment, run production, and take one quality measurement. In
random order, the operators run each combination of factor settings five times, taking one measurement at each run.
In each experiment, five measurements are taken at each combination of factor settings. In the first experiment, the five
measurements are taken during the same run; in the second experiment, the five measurements are taken in different
runs. The variability among measurements taken at the same factor settings tends to be greater for replicates than for
repeats because the machines are reset before each run, adding more variability to the process.
Analyzing Location and Dispersion Effects

Minitab enables you to analyze both location and dispersion effects in a 2-level factorial design. To examine dispersion
effects, you must have either repeat or replicate measurements of your response.
• Location model − examines the relationship between the mean of the response and the factors
• Dispersion model − examines the relationship between the standard deviation of the repeat or replicate responses and
the factors
Once you have determined your design and gathered data, you can analyze both location and dispersion models. Listed
below are steps for analyzing location and dispersion models in Minitab, with options to consider at each step:
1 Calculate or define standard deviations of repeat or replicate responses (Preprocess responses). Consider whether to:
• Adjust for covariates in calculating standard deviation for replicates
• Store means of repeats so you can analyze the location effects
2 Analyze dispersion model (Analyze Variability). Consider whether to:
• Use least squares or maximum likelihood estimation methods, or both
• Store weights − using fitted or adjusted variance− to use when analyzing the location model
3 Analyze location model (Analyze Factorial Design). Consider:
• Which response column to use:
– If you have repeats, use the column of stored means calculated in Preprocess Responses.
– If you have replicates, use the column containing the original response data.

Factorial Designs
Here is an example: A 23 factorial design with four repeats has eight experimental runs with four measurements
per run. Minitab calculates the mean of the four repeats at each run, giving you a total of eight observations. The
same design with four replicates has 32 experimental runs. In this case, each measurement is a distinct
observation, giving you 32 observations. Experiments with replicate measurements have more degrees of
freedom for the error term than experiments with repeats, which provide greater power to find differences among
factor settings in the location model.
• Whether to use weights stored in the dispersion analysis
Adjusting for Covariates in Replicates

Because covariates are not controlled in experiments, they can vary across replicates measurements. Minitab enables
you to adjust for up to 50 covariates in the calculation of the standard deviations of your replicate responses. In adjusting
for the covariate, Minitab removes the variability in the measurements due to the covariate, so that the variability is not
included in the standard deviation of the replicates.
For example, you conduct an experiment with replicates during one day. The temperature, which you cannot control,
varies greatly from morning to afternoon. You are concerned that the temperature differences may influence the
responses. To account for this variability, at each run of the experiment, you record the temperature and adjust for it when
calculating the standard deviations.
You do not need to adjust for covariates with repeat measurements. For repeats, the standard deviation is calculated from
the same run or consecutive runs. Covariates are measured once at each run of the experiment. As a result, there is only
one covariate value for each group of repeats and, therefore, no covariate variability to account for in the standard
deviation calculation.
Storing Means for Repeats

When you have repeat measurements of your response, Minitab calculates the mean of the repeats for each row and
stores them in a column. You can then analyze these stored means in Analyze Factorial Design. If you have repeats with
some replicated points and you can use the row means to store adjusted weights when you analyze variability of the
repeats.
Pre-calculated standard deviations

If you have already calculated the standard deviations of your repeat or replicate measurements, you need to specify in
which columns the standard deviations are located so Minitab makes them available in Analyze Variability and other DOE
functions.
Example of preprocessing responses for analyze variability

You are investigating how processing conditions affect the yield of a chemical reaction. You believe that three processing
conditions (factors)−reaction time, reaction temperature, and type of catalyst−affect the variability in yield. You decide to
conduct a 2-level full factorial experiment with 8 replicates so you can analyze the variability in the responses at different
factor settings.
In order to analyze the variability in your responses, you must first preprocess the replicate responses to calculate and
store the standard deviations and number of replicates.
1 Open the worksheet YIELDSTDEV.MTW. (The design and response data have been saved for you.)
2 Choose Stat > DOE > Factorial > Preprocess Responses for Analyze Variability.
3 Under Standard deviation to use for analysis, choose Compute for replicates in each response column.
3 Under Response, in the first row, enter Yield.
4 Under Store Std Dev in, in the first row, type StdYield to name the column in which the standard deviations are
stored.
5 Under Store number of replicates in, in the first row, type NYield to name the column in which the number of
replicates are stored. Click OK.
Data window output

Note Preprocessing responses does not produce output in the Session window. Instead, columns are stored in the
worksheet.

Factorial Designs
StdOrder RunOrder CenterPt Blocks Time Temp Catalyst Yield StdYield NYield
3 1 1 1 20 200 A 45.1931 1.0240 8
24 2 1 1 50 200 B 59.6118 10.0303 8
35 3 1 1 20 200 A 44.8025 ∗ ∗
33 4 1 1 20 150 A 43.2365 0.2800 8
64 5 1 1 50 200 B 38.8697 ∗ ∗
47 6 1 1 20 200 B 47.2578 2.0003 8
29 7 1 1 20 150 B 42.3529 0.4915 8
30 8 1 1 50 150 B 40.7675 3.9723 8
58 9 1 1 50 150 A 48.4485 3.0456 8
42 10 1 1 50 150 A 49.7662 ∗ ∗
22 11 1 1 50 150 B 48.3112 ∗ ∗
55 12 1 1 20 200 B 46.2602 ∗ ∗
60 13 1 1 50 200 A 56.4470 8.0317 8
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
In the example, Minitab calculates and stores the standard deviations of the replicates of yield in the column StdYield.
Minitab calculates and stores the number of replicates in the column NYield. Minitab stores one standard deviation and
the number of replicates for each combination of factor settings in the row where that combination first appears. In this
example, Minitab stored 8 standard deviations and 8 numbers of replicates, filling the remaining rows with the missing
data symbol (∗).
To analyze this data using Analyze Variability, see Example of analyzing variability. Keep this worksheet active in order to
use the stored standard deviations and number of replicates in the analyzing variability example.
Note If this data contained repeats instead of replicates, the worksheet will look different than the worksheet
above, but the results produced by analyzing the variability in the data will be the same.
Analyze Factorial Design

Analyze Factorial Design
Stat > DOE > Factorial > Analyze Factorial Design
To use Analyze Factorial Design to fit a model, you must
• create and store the design using Create Factorial Design, or
• create a design from data that you already have in the worksheet with Define Custom Factorial Design
You can fit models with up to 127 terms.
When you have center points in your data set, Minitab automatically does a test for curvature. When you have pseudo-
center points, Minitab calculates pure error but does not do a test for curvature. For a description of pseudo-center points,
You can also generate effects plots − normal and Pareto − to help you determine which factors are important and
diagnostic plots to help assess model adequacy. For the diagnostic plots, you have the choice of using regular residuals,
standardized residuals, or deleted residuals − see Choosing a residual type.
Dialog box items
Responses: Select the column(s) containing the response variable(s). If there is more than one response variable,
Minitab fits separate models for each response. You can have up to 25 responses.
Collecting and Entering Data

After you create your design, you need to perform the experiment and collect the response (measurement) data. To print
a data collection form, follow the instructions below. After you collect the response data, enter the data in any worksheet
column not used for the design. For a discussion of the worksheet structure, see Storing the design.
Printing a data collection form
You can generate a data collection form in two ways. You can simply print the Data window contents, or you can use a
macro. A macro can generate a "nicer" data collection form − see %FORM in Session Command Help. Although printing
the Data window will not produce the prettiest form, it is the easiest method. Just follow these steps:

Factorial Designs
1 When you create your experimental design, Minitab stores the run order, block assignment, and factor settings in the
worksheet. These columns constitute the basis of your data collection form. If you did not name factors (or
components) or specify factor levels (or lower bounds) when you created the design, and you want names or levels to
appear on the form, use Modify Design.
2 In the worksheet, name the columns in which you will enter the measurement data obtained when you perform your
experiment.
3 Choose File > Print Worksheet. Make sure Print Grid Lines is checked, then click OK.
More You can also copy the worksheet cells to the Clipboard by choosing Edit > Copy Cells. Then paste the
Clipboard contents into a word-processing application, such as Microsoft WordPad, or Microsoft Word, where
you can create your own form.
Data for Analyze Factorial Design

Enter up to 25 numeric response data columns that are equal in length to the design variables in the worksheet. Each row
will contain data corresponding to one run of your experiment. You may enter the response data in any column(s) not
occupied by the design data. The number of columns reserved for the design data is dependent on the number of factors
in your design.
If there is more than one response variable, Minitab fits separate models for each response.
Minitab omits missing data from all calculations.
Note When all the response variables do not have the same missing value pattern, Minitab displays a message.
Since you would get different results, you may want to repeat the analysis separately for each response
variable.
Analyzing designs with botched runs
A botched run occurs when the actual value of a factor setting differs from the planned factor setting. When this
happens, you need to change the factor levels for that run in the worksheet. You can only have botched runs with two-
level designs; general factorial designs cannot have botched runs. Minitab can automatically detect botched runs and
analyze the data accordingly.
Note When you have a botched run, you need to determine the extent to which the actual factor settings deviate
from the planned settings. When the executed settings fall within the normal range of their set points, you may
not wish to alter the factor levels in the worksheet. The variability in the actual factor levels will simply
contribute to the overall experimental error. However, if the executed levels differ notably from the planned
levels, you should change them in the worksheet.
To analyze a factorial design

1 Choose Stat > DOE > Factorial > Analyze Factorial Design.
2 In Responses, enter up to 25 columns that contain the response data.
3 If you like, use any of the dialog box options, then click OK.
Analyze Factorial Design − Terms (2-level factorial design)

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Analyze Factorial Design > Terms
Allows you to specify which terms to include in the model.
Dialog box items
Include terms in the model up through order: Use this drop-down list to quickly set up a model with a specified order.
Choose the maximum order for terms to include in the model. For example, if you choose 2,
• all main effects and estimable 2-way interactions display in Selected Terms, and
• Minitab removes all estimable three-way and higher-order interactions from Selected Terms and displays them in
Available Terms.
Available Terms: Shows all terms that are estimable but not included in the fitted model.
Selected Terms: Minitab includes terms shown in Selected Terms when it fits the model.
Include blocks in the model: Check to include blocks in the model. Minitab only enables this checkbox if you specified
more than one block in the Create or Define Factorial Design dialog box.
Include center points in the model: Check to include center points as a term in the model. Minitab only enables this
checkbox if you specified more than one distinct value in the CenterPt column of the worksheet.

Factorial Designs
Analyze Factorial Design − Terms (general full factorial design)

Specifies which terms to include in the model.
Dialog box items
• all main effects and estimable two-way interactions display in Selected Terms, and
• Minitab removes all estimable three-way and higher-order interactions from Selected Terms and displays them in
Available Terms.
Include blocks in the model: Check to include blocks in the model. Minitab only enables this checkbox if you specified
more than one block in the Create or Define Factorial Design dialog box.
Analyze Factorial Design − Terms (Plackett-Burman design)

Allows you to specify which terms to include in the model.
Dialog box items
Include terms in the model up through order: This option is not available. Plackett-Burman designs only include main
effects.
Include blocks in the model: This option is not available. Plackett-Burman designs are not blocked.
checkbox if you specified more than one distinct value in the CenterPt column of the worksheet.
Analyze Factorial Design − Covariates

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Analyze Factorial Design > Covariates
You can include up to 50 covariates in your model. Covariates are fit first, then the blocks, then all other terms.
Dialog box items
Covariates: Select the column(s) containing covariates to include in the model. The covariates are fit first, then the
blocks, then all other terms. You may have up to 50 covariates.
Analyze Factorial Design − Graphs

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Analyze Factorial Design > Graphs
You can display effects plots and five different residual plots for regular, standardized, or deleted residuals (see Choosing
a residual type). You do not have to store the residuals and fits in order to produce these plots.
Dialog box items
Effects Plots (Effects plots are not available with General Full Factorial designs)
Normal: Check to display a normal probability plot of the effects.
Pareto: Check to display a Pareto chart of the effects.
Alpha: Enter a number between 0 and 1 for the α-level you want to use for determining the significance of the effects.
The default α-level is 0.05. You can set your own default α-level by choosing Tools > Options > Individual Graphs >
Effects Plots.
Residuals for Plots You can specify the type of residual to display on the residual plots.
Regular: Choose to plot the regular or raw residuals.
Standardized: Choose to plot the standardized residuals.
Deleted: Choose to plot the Studentized deleted residuals.

Factorial Designs
Residual Plots
Individual plots: Choose to display one or more plots.
Histogram: Check to display a histogram of the residuals.
Normal plot: Check to display a normal probability plot of the residuals.
Residuals versus fits: Check to plot the residuals versus the fitted values.
Residuals versus order: Check to plot the residuals versus the order of the data in the run order column. The row
number for each data point is shown on the x-axis − for example, 1 2 3 4... n.
Four in one: Choose to display a histogram of residuals, a normal plot of residuals, a plot of residuals versus fits, and a
plot of residuals versus order in one graph window.
Residuals versus variables: Check to display residuals versus selected variables, then enter one or more columns.
Minitab displays a separate graph for each column you enter in the text box.
Effects plots
The primary goal of screening designs is to identify the "vital" few factors or key variables that influence the response.
Minitab provides two graphs that help you identify these influential factors: a normal plot and a Pareto chart. These graphs
allow you to compare the relative magnitude of the effects and evaluate their statistical significance.
Normal Probability Plot of the Effects

In the normal probability plot of the effects, points that do not fall near the line usually signal important effects. Important
effects are larger and further from the fitted line than unimportant effects. Unimportant effects tend to be smaller and
centered around zero.
If there is no error term, Minitab uses Lenth's method [2] to identify important effects. If there is an error term, Minitab uses
the corresponding p-values shown in the Session window to identify important effects. The normal probability plot uses α
= 0.05, by default. You can change the α-level in the Graphs subdialog box.
This plot shows that terms B, C, and BC are significant.
Note If the standard errors of the coefficients are zero, Minitab does not display the Normal effects plot.
Pareto Chart of the Effects

Use a Pareto chart of the effects to determine the magnitude and the importance of an effect. The chart displays the
absolute value of the effects and draws a reference line on the chart. Any effect that extends past this reference line is
potentially important.
The method Minitab uses depends on whether an error term exists:
• If no error term exists, Minitab uses Lenth's method [2] to draw the line and displays the unstandardized effects.
• If an error term exists, Minitab uses the corresponding p-value shown in the Session window to identify important
effects and displays the standardized effects. The reference line corresponds to α = 0.05, by default. You can change
the α-level in the Graphs subdialog box.

Factorial Designs
This plot shows that terms B, C, and BC are significant.
Note If the standard errors of the coefficients are zero, Minitab does not display the reference line on the Pareto plot.
Analyze Factorial Design − Results (2-level factorial design)

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Analyze Factorial Design > Results
You can control the display of Session window output.
Dialog box items
Display of Results
Do not display: Choose to suppress display of the coefficients, analysis of variance table, and a table of unusual
observations.
Coefficients and ANOVA table: Choose to display the coefficients and analysis of variance table.
Unusual observations in addition to the above: Choose to display the coefficients, analysis of variance table, and a
table of unusual observations (default).
Full table of fits and residuals in addition to the above: Choose to display the coefficients, analysis of variance
table, a table of unusual observations, and a table of fits and residuals.
Display of Alias table Allows you to specify how to display the alias table.
Do not display: Choose to suppress display of the alias table.
Default interactions: Choose to display the default interactions. All interactions are displayed for 2 to 6 factors, up to
three-way interactions for 7 to 10 factors, and 2-way interactions for more than 10 factors. If the design is not
orthogonal and there is partial confounding, Minitab will not print alias information.
Interactions up through order: Choose to specify the highest order interaction to display in the alias table, then
choose the order from the drop-down list. Be careful! A specification larger than the default could take a very long time
to compute.
Display of Least Squares Means You can display adjusted (also called least squares) means.
Available Terms: Shows all terms that you can display means for. Use the arrow buttons to move terms from one list
to the other. Select a term in one of the lists, then press an arrow button. The double arrows move all the terms in one
list to the other. You can also move a term by double-clicking it.
Selected Terms: Minitab displays means terms shown in Selected Terms. Use the arrow buttons to move terms from
one list to the other. Select a term in one of the lists, then press an arrow button. The double arrows move all the terms
in one list to the other. You can also move a term by double-clicking it.
Analyze Factorial Design − Results (general full factorial design)

Dialog box items
Display of Results
Do not display: Choose to suppress display of the covariate coefficients, analysis of variance table, and a table of the
unusual observations.
ANOVA Table: Choose to display only the analysis of variance table.

Factorial Designs
ANOVA Table, covariate coefficients, unusual observations: Choose to display the covariate coefficients, analysis
of variance table, and a table of the unusual observations (default).
ANOVA Table, all coefficients, unusual observations: Choose to display the analysis of variance table, all of the
coefficients, and a table of the unusual observations.
Analyze Factorial Design − Results (Plackett-Burman design)

Dialog box items
Analyze Factorial Design − Storage

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Analyze Factorial Design > Storage
You can store the residuals, fitted values, and many other diagnostics for further analysis (see Checking your model).
Minitab stores the checked values in the next available columns and names the columns
Dialog box items
Fits and Residuals
Fits: Check to store the fitted values. One column is stored for each response variable.
Residuals: Check to store the residuals. One column is stored for each response variable.
Standardized residuals: Check to store the standardized residuals.
Deleted residuals: Check to store Studentized residuals.
Model Information
Effects: Check to store the effects. Minitab stores one column for each response. These are the effects that are printed
on the output.
Note Effects are not printed or stored for the constant, covariates, or blocks. (This dialog box item is not available for
General Full Factorial.)
Coefficients: Check to store the coefficients. One column is stored for each response variable. These are the same
coefficients as are printed in the output. If some terms are removed because the data cannot support them, the
removed terms do not appear on the output.
Design matrix: Check to store the design matrix corresponding to your model. If the design was blocked into k blocks,
there are (k−1) columns for block dummy variables. Fit Model uses the same method of coding blocks as General
Linear Model. The block dummy variables are followed by one column for each component. When the model has 2-way
interactions, the design matrix contains a column for each interaction. The column for a 2-way interaction is the product
of the corresponding two components. When the model has 3-way interactions, the design matrix contains a column for
each interaction. The column for a 3-way interaction is the product of the corresponding three components. When the
model has additional terms for a full cubic, then the design matrix contains one column for each additional term. For
example, the column for a term such as X1∗X3∗(X1−X3), with X1 in C1 and X3 in C3 is calculated using the equation
C1∗C3∗(C1−C3).
When terms are removed because the data cannot support them, the design matrix does not contain the removed
terms. The columns of the stored matrix match the coefficients that are printed and/or stored.
Factorial: Check to store the information about the equations fit, using one column for each response.

Factorial Designs
Other
Hi [leverage]: Check to store leverages.
Cook's distance: Check to store Cook's distance.
DFITS: Check to store DFITS.
Analyze Factorial Design − Prediction

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Analyze Factorial Design > Prediction
You can calculate and store predicted response values for new design points.
Dialog box items
New Design Points (columns and/or constants)
Factors: Type the text or numeric factor levels, or enter the columns or constants in which they are stored. The
number of factors must equal the number of factors in the design.
Covariates: Type the numeric covariate values, or enter the columns or constants in which they are stored. The
number of covariates must equal the number of covariates in the design.
Blocks: Type the text or numeric blocking levels, or enter the column or constant in which they are stored. The values
must equal one of the blocking levels in the design. You do not have to enter a blocking level.
Confidence level: Type the desired confidence level (for example, type 90 for 90%). The default is 95%.
Storage
Fits: Check to store the fitted values for new design points.
SEs of fits: Check to store the estimated standard errors of the fits.
Confidence limits: Check to store the lower and upper limits of the confidence interval.
Prediction limits: Check to store the lower and upper limits of the prediction interval.
To predict responses in factorial designs

1 Choose Stat > DOE > Factorial > Analyze Factorial Design > Prediction.
2 In Factors, do any combination of the following:
• Type text or numeric factor levels.
• Enter stored constants containing text or numeric factor levels.
• Enter columns of equal length containing text or numeric factor levels.
Factors must match your original design in these ways:
− The number of factors and the order in which they are entered
− The units and data type (text or numeric) of factor levels
3 In Covariates, do any combination of the following:
• Type numeric covariate values.
• Enter stored constants containing numeric covariate values.
• Enter columns containing numeric covariate values, equal in length to factor columns.
The number of covariates must equal the number of covariates in your design and be entered in the same order.
4 In Blocks, do one of the following:
• Type a text or numeric blocking level.
• Enter a stored constant containing a text or numeric blocking level.
• Enter a column containing a text or numeric blocking level, equal in length to factor columns.
The blocking level must be one of the blocking levels in your design.
5 In Confidence level, type a value or use the default, which is 95%.
6 Under Storage, check any of the prediction results to store them in your worksheet. Click OK.
Analyze Factorial Design − Weights

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Analyze Factorial Design > Weights
You can specify weights for your model to perform weighted regression, a method to handle data with observations that
have different variances. Store weights based on the variability in your response across factor settings in Analyze
Variability.

Factorial Designs
Dialog box items

Do a weighted fit, using weights in: Enter a column containing weights for your response. The column must equal the
length of the design variables.
To specify weights
1 Choose DOE > Factorial > Analyze Factorial Design > Weights.
2 In Do a weighted fit, using weights in, enter one column containing weights for your response. Use one of the
following:
• The weight column you stored for your response in Analyze Variability - Storage
• Another weight column appropriate for your response
The weight column must equal the length of the response column. If you have multiple response variables with
different weight columns, you must run the analyses for each response separately.
Example of analyzing a full factorial design with replicates and blocks

You are an engineer investigating how processing conditions affect the yield of a chemical reaction. You believe that three
processing conditions (factors) − reaction time, reaction temperature, and type of catalyst − affect the yield. You have
enough resources for 16 runs, but you can only perform 8 in a day. Therefore, you create a full factorial design, with two
replicates, and two blocks.
1 Open the worksheet YIELD.MTW. (The design and response data have been saved for you.)
2 Choose Stat > DOE > Factorial > Analyze Factorial Design.
3 In Responses, enter Yield.
4 Click Graphs. Under Effects Plots, check Normal and Pareto. Click OK in each dialog box.

Factorial Fit: Yield versus Block, Time, Temp, Catalyst
Estimated Effects and Coefficients for Yield (coded units)
Term Effect Coef SE Coef T P

Constant 45.5592 0.09546 477.25 0.000
Block -0.0484 0.09546 -0.51 0.628
Time 2.9594 1.4797 0.09546 15.50 0.000
Temp 2.7632 1.3816 0.09546 14.47 0.000
Catalyst 0.1618 0.0809 0.09546 0.85 0.425
Time*Temp 0.8624 0.4312 0.09546 4.52 0.003
Time*Catalyst 0.0744 0.0372 0.09546 0.39 0.708
Temp*Catalyst -0.0867 -0.0434 0.09546 -0.45 0.663
Time*Temp*Catalyst 0.0230 0.0115 0.09546 0.12 0.907
S = 0.381847 R-Sq = 98.54% R-Sq(adj) = 96.87%
Analysis of Variance for Yield (coded units)
Source DF Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F P

Blocks 1 0.0374 0.0374 0.0374 0.26 0.628
Main Effects 3 65.6780 65.6780 21.8927 150.15 0.000
2-Way Interactions 3 3.0273 3.0273 1.0091 6.92 0.017
Residual Error 7 1.0206 1.0206 0.1458
Total 15 69.7656

Factorial Designs
Estimated Coefficients for Yield using data in uncoded units
Term Coef
Constant 39.4786
Block -0.0483750
Time -0.102585
Temp 0.0150170
Catalyst 0.48563
Time*Temp 0.00114990
Time*Catalyst -0.0028917
Temp*Catalyst -0.00280900
Time*Temp*Catalyst 0.000030700
Alias Structure
I
Blocks =
Time
Temp
Catalyst
Time*Temp
Time*Catalyst
Temp*Catalyst
Time*Temp*Catalyst
Graph window output

Factorial Designs

The analysis of variance table gives a summary of the main effects and interactions. Minitab displays both the sequential
sums of squares (Seq SS) and adjusted sums of squares (Adj SS). If the model is orthogonal and does not contain
covariates, these will be the same. Look at the p-values to determine whether or not you have any significant effects. The
effects are summarized below:
Effect P-Value Significant*

Blocks 0.628 no
Main 0.000 yes
Two-way interactions 0.017 yes
Three-way interactions 0.907 no
* significant at alpha = 0.05
The nonsignificant block effect indicates that the results are not affected by the fact that you had to collect your data on
two different days.
After identifying the significant effects (main and two-way interactions) in the analysis of variance table, look at the
estimated effects and coefficients table. This table shows the p-values associated with each individual model term. The p-
values indicate that just one two-way interaction Time * Temp (p = 0.003), and two main effects Time (p = 0.000) and
Temp (p = 0.000) are significant. However, because both of these main effects are involved in an interaction, you need to
understand the nature of the interaction before you can consider these main effects. See Example of factorial plots for an
experiment with three factors for a discussion of this interaction.
The residual error that is shown in the ANOVA table can be made up of three parts: (1) curvature, if there are center
points in the data, (2) lack of fit, if a reduced model was fit, and (3) pure error, if there are any replicates. If the residual
error is just due to lack of fit, Minitab does not print this breakdown. In all other cases, it does.
The normal and Pareto plots of the effects allow you to visually identify the important effects and compare the relative
magnitude of the various effects.
You should also plot the residuals versus the run order to check for any time trends or other nonrandom patterns.
Residual plots are found in the Graphs subdialog box. See Residual plots choices.
Analyze Variability
Preprocess Responses/Analyze Variability Overview
Experiments that include repeat or replicate measurements of a response allow you to analyze variability in your response
data, which enables you to identify factor settings that produce less variable results. Minitab calculates and stores the
standard deviations (σ) of your repeat or replicate responses and analyzes them to detect differences, or dispersion
effects, across factor settings.
For example, you conduct a spray-drying experiment with replicates and find that two settings of drying temperature and
atomizer speed produce the desired particle size. By analyzing the variability in particle size at different factor settings,
you find that one setting produces particles with more variability than the other setting. You choose to run your process at
the setting that produces the less variable results.
Once you have created your design, analyzing variability is a two-step process:
1 Preprocess Responses − First, you calculate and store the standard deviations and counts of your repeat or replicate
responses or specify standard deviations that you have already stored in the worksheet. You can analyze and graph
stored standard deviations as response variables using other DOE tools, such as Analyze Variability, Analyze
Factorial Design, Contour Plots, and Response Optimization.
2 Analyze Variability − Second, you fit a linear model to the log of the standard deviations you stored in the first step to
identify significant dispersion effects. Once you fit a model, you can use other tools, such as contour and surface
plots, and response optimization to better understand your results. You can also store weights calculated from your
model to perform weighted regression when analyzing the location (mean) effects of your original responses in
Analyze Factorial Design.
Analyze Variability
Stat > DOE > Factorial > Analyze Variability
You can analyze the variability in your 2-level factorial design by examining the standard deviations of repeat or replicate
responses stored using Pre-process Responses.
Dialog box items
Response (standard deviations): Enter a column containing the stored standard deviations of your repeat or replicate
response.

Factorial Designs
Number of repeats or replicates: Minitab automatically enters the column of counts corresponding to the column of
standard deviation.
Estimation method
Least squares regression: Choose to analyze the standard deviations using least squares regression.
Maximum likelihood: Choose to analyze the standard deviations using maximum likelihood estimation.
Data − Analyze Variability

Before you use Analyze Variability, you must:
1 Create or define a 2-level factorial design that includes repeat or replicate measurements of your response.
2 Enter your response data into the worksheet following the instructions in Data − Pre-process Responses.
3 Store the standard deviations and number of repeats or replicates using Pre-process Responses.
You can fit a model with one response variable at a time. Minitab automatically omits missing data from the calculations.
To analyze variability in a 2-level factorial design

1 Choose Stat > DOE > Factorial > Analyze Variability.
2 In Response (standard deviations), enter the column containing the stored standard deviations of your response.
3 In Number of repeats or replicates, Minitab automatically enters the column containing the number of repeats or
replicates in your design corresponding to the response.
4 If you like, use any dialog box options, then click OK.
Repeat Versus Replicates

Repeat and replicate measurements are both multiple response measurements taken at the same combination of factor
settings; but repeat measurements are taken during the same experimental run or consecutive runs, while replicate
measurements are taken during identical but distinct experimental runs, which are often randomized.
It is important to understand the differences between repeat and replicate response measurements. These differences
influence the structure of the worksheet and the columns in which you enter the response data, which in turn affects how
Minitab interprets the data. You enter repeats across rows of multiple columns, while you enter replicates down a single
column. For more information on entering repeat and replicate response data into the worksheet, see Data − Preprocess
Responses.
Whether you use repeats or replicates depends on the sources of variability you want to explore and your resource
constraints. Because replicates are from distinct experimental runs, usually spread over a longer period of time, they can
include sources of variability that are not included in repeat measurements. For example, replicates can include variability
from changing equipment settings between runs or variability from other environmental factors that may change over time.
Replicate measurements can be more expensive and time-consuming to collect. You can create a design with both
repeats and replicates, which enables you to examine multiple sources of variability.
Example of repeats and replicates
A manufacturing company has a production line with a number of settings that can be modified by operators. Quality
engineers design two experiments, one with repeats and one with replicates, to evaluate the effect of the settings on
quality.
• The first experiment uses repeats. The operators set the factors at predetermined levels, run production, and measure
the quality of five products. They reset the equipment to new levels, run production, and measure the quality of five
products. They continue until production is run once at every combination of factor settings and five quality
measurements are taken at each run.
• The second experiment uses replicates. The operators set the factors at predetermined levels, run production, and
take one quality measurement. They reset the equipment, run production, and take one quality measurement. In
random order, the operators run each combination of factor settings five times, taking one measurement at each run.
In each experiment, five measurements are taken at each combination of factor settings. In the first experiment, the five
measurements are taken during the same run; in the second experiment, the five measurements are taken in different
runs. The variability among measurements taken at the same factor settings tends to be greater for replicates than for
repeats because the machines are reset before each run, adding more variability to the process.

Factorial Designs
Using Least Squares and Maximum Likelihood Estimation

Minitab provides two methods to analyze the natural log of standard deviation (σ): Least squares estimation (LS) and
maximum likelihood estimation (MLE). The methods produce equivalent estimates in the saturated model, when a
separate parameter is estimated for each data point.
In many cases, the differences between the LS and MLE results are minor, and the methods can be used
interchangeably. You may want to run both methods and see whether the results confirm one another. If the results differ,
you may want to determine why. For example, MLE assumes that the original data are from a normal distribution. If your
data may not be normally distributed, LS may provide better estimates. Also, LS cannot calculate results for data that
contain a standard deviation equal to zero. MLE may provide estimates for these data, depending on the model.
One guideline for using LS and MLE together, for different parts of the analysis, is discussed in [4]. This approach states
that LS provides better p-values for the effects, while MLE provides more precise coefficients. Based on this approach,
follow these steps to conduct your analysis:
1 Use least squares regression to select the model, determining which terms are not significant from the p-values of the
coefficients
2 Refit the model, excluding nonsignificant terms to identify the appropriate reduced model
3 Use MLE to estimate the final coefficients of the model and to determine the fits and the residuals
For more information on these methods or this approach, see [4].
Analyze Variability − Terms

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Analyze Variability > Terms
You can specify which terms to include in your model.
Dialog box items
• all main effects and two-way interactions display in Selected Terms, and
• Minitab removes all three-way and higher-order interactions from Selected Terms and displays them in Available
Terms.
Available Terms: Shows all possible terms that could be included in the fitted model, but have not been selected yet.
Include blocks in the model: Check to include blocks in the model. Minitab only enables this checkbox if you have two
or more values in the block column.
checkbox if you have at least one center point, indicated by a zero, in the CenterPt column.
Analyze Variability − Covariates

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Analyze Variability > Covariates
You can fit up to 50 covariates in your model.
Dialog box items
Covariates: Select the columns containing covariates to include in the model.
Caution For replicates, there can be problems estimating covariate effects in the dispersion model. If you have different
covariate values for each replicate, the analysis may be inaccurate because Minitab only uses the value of the
covariate that is in the same row as the standard deviation for each factor level combination.
For example, your data include four replicates. Minitab stores the standard deviation of the replicate
measurements in the first row where each factor level combination appears, and enters missing data in the
remaining three cells. When analyzing the model, Minitab uses the covariate value that is in the same row as
the one in which the standard deviation is stored and ignores the covariate values of the other replicates.
Analyze Variability − Graphs

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Analyze Variability > Graphs
You can display effects plots and residual plots for ratio, log, or standardized log residuals. You do not have to store the
residuals and fits to produce these plots.

Factorial Designs
Dialog box items

Effects Plots
Normal: Check to display a normal probability plot of the effects.
Pareto: Check to display a Pareto chart of the effects.
Alpha: Enter a number between 0 and 1 for the α-level you want to use for determining the significance of the effects.
The default value is 0.05. You can set your own default α-level by choosing Tools > Options > Individual Graphs >
Effects Plots.
Residuals for Plots
Ratio: Choose to plot the ratio residuals.
Log: Choose to plot the log residuals.
Standardized log: Choose to plot the standardized log residuals.
Residual Plots
Individual plots: Choose to display one or more plots.
Histogram: Check to display a histogram of the residuals.
Residuals versus fits: Check to plot the residuals versus the fitted values.
Residuals versus order: Check to plot the residuals versus the order of the data in the run order column. The row
number for each data point is shown on the x-axis − for example, 1 2 3 4... n.
Three in one: Choose to display a layout of a histogram of the residuals, a plot of residuals versus fits, and a plot of
residuals versus order.
Residuals versus variables: Check to display residuals versus selected variables, then enter one or more columns.
Minitab displays a separate graph for each column.
Analyze Variability − Results

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Analyze Variability > Results
Dialog box items
Display of Results
Do not display: Choose to suppress display of the coefficients, analysis of variance table, and a table of unusual
observations.
Coefficients and ANOVA table: Choose to display the coefficients and analysis of variance table (default).
Unusual observations in addition to the above: Choose to display the coefficients, analysis of variance table, and a
table of unusual observations.
Full table of fits and residuals in addition to the above: Choose to display the coefficients, analysis of variance
table, a table of unusual observations, and a table of fits and residuals.
Display of Alias table Allows you to specify how to display the alias table.
Do not display: Choose to suppress display of the alias table.
Default interactions: Choose to display the default interactions. All interactions are displayed for 2 to 6 factors, up to
three-way interactions for 7 to 10 factors, and two-way interactions for more than 10 factors. If the design is not
orthogonal and there is partial confounding, Minitab will not print alias information.
Interactions up through order: Choose to specify the highest order interaction to display in the alias table, then
choose the order from the drop-down list. Be careful! A specification larger than the default could take a very long time
to compute.
Display of Fitted Means You can display adjusted means. The means are in the same scale as the standard deviations,
not the log of the standard deviations.

Factorial Designs
Analyze Variability − Storage

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Analyze Variability > Storage
You can store the fits and residuals, model information, and weights. Minitab stores the checked values in the next
available columns and names the columns.
Dialog box items
Fits and Residuals
Fits: Check to store the fitted values.
Ratio Residuals: Check to store the ratio residuals.
Log residuals: Check to store the log residuals.
Standardized log residuals: Check to store the standardized log residuals.
Model Information
Effects: Check to store the effects, which are also displayed in the output. Effects are not displayed or stored for the
constant, covariates, or blocks.
Coefficients: Check to store the coefficients, which are also displayed in the output. If Minitab removes some terms
because the data cannot support them, the removed terms do not appear in the output.
Design matrix: Check to store the design matrix corresponding to your model. Analyze Variability uses the same
method of coding blocks as General Linear Model.
When terms are removed because the data cannot support them, the design matrix does not contain the removed
terms. The columns of the stored matrix match the coefficients that Minitab displays and stores.
Factorial: Check to store the information about the fitted equation.
Ratio effects: Check to store the ratio effects.
Other
Hi (leverage): Check to store leverages.
Weights (1/Fit^2): Check to store weights based on the fitted variances for use in Analyze Factorial Design. The weights
are the reciprocal of the fitted variances.
Adjusted weights: Check to store adjusted weights only if you have repeat measurements with some replicated points.
Weights are the reciprocal of the adjusted variance.
For means in: Enter the column containing the means of your repeats associated with the standard deviations. You can
calculate and store the means in Pre-process responses.
and covariates (optional): Check to adjust for covariates and enter one or more columns containing the covariates.
Storing Weights
You can store weights for your response using fitted or adjusted variances. Whether you use fitted or adjusted variances
depends on whether you have repeat or replicate measurements. Once you have stored the weights, you can specify
them in Analyze Factorial Design > Weights to perform weighted regression when analyzing the location model.
Weighted regression is a method for handling data with observations that have different variances. If the variances are not
constant, observations with:
• Large variances should be given relatively small weight
• Small variances should be given relatively large weight
If the variability of responses differ significantly response across factor settings, you may want to consider using weighted
regression if you analyze the location effects of your response.
Fitted variance (unadjusted weights)
Store unadjusted weights using the fitted variance, if the data contain replicate measurements. Use the unadjusted
weights when analyzing the location effects of replicates in Analyze Factorial Design.
The weights are the reciprocal of the fitted variance (1 / fitted variance). Minitab stores weights in every row of your
design, even though the standard deviation is missing in some rows. In this case, Minitab uses the same weight at
identical combinations of factor settings, unless there are covariates in your model.
Adjusted variance (adjusted weights)
Store adjusted weights using the adjusted variance, if your data contain repeat measurements with some replicated
points. If you have only repeat measurements, you cannot store adjusted weights from your model. Use the adjusted
weights when analyzing the location effects of the stored means of repeat measurements. You must specify these means
in DOE > Factorial >Analyze Variability > Storage for Minitab to use them in calculating the adjusted weights.

Factorial Designs
The weights are estimates of the reciprocal variance of the means. This variance includes both the variance of repeats
from your analysis and the variance of the replicates. The adjustment adds in the contribution due to the replicate
variance, which is assumed to be constant across factor settings.
If you have covariates in your location model, you may want to account for them in the adjusted variance.
Adjusting for Covariates in Replicates

Because covariates are not controlled in experiments, they can vary across replicates measurements. Minitab enables
you to adjust for up to 50 covariates in the calculation of the standard deviations of your replicate responses. In adjusting
for the covariate, Minitab removes the variability in the measurements due to the covariate, so that the variability is not
included in the standard deviation of the replicates.
For example, you conduct an experiment with replicates during one day. The temperature, which you cannot control,
varies greatly from morning to afternoon. You are concerned that the temperature differences may influence the
responses. To account for this variability, at each run of the experiment, you record the temperature and adjust for it when
calculating the standard deviations.
You do not need to adjust for covariates with repeat measurements. For repeats, the standard deviation is calculated from
the same run or consecutive runs. Covariates are measured once at each run of the experiment. As a result, there is only
one covariate value for each group of repeats and, therefore, no covariate variability to account for in the standard
deviation calculation.
Analyzing Location and Dispersion Effects

Minitab enables you to analyze both location and dispersion effects in a 2-level factorial design. To examine dispersion
effects, you must have either repeat or replicate measurements of your response.
• Location model − examines the relationship between the mean of the response and the factors
• Dispersion model − examines the relationship between the standard deviation of the repeat or replicate responses and
the factors
Once you have determined your design and gathered data, you can analyze both location and dispersion models. Listed
below are steps for analyzing location and dispersion models in Minitab, with options to consider at each step:
1 Calculate or define standard deviations of repeat or replicate responses (Preprocess responses). Consider whether to:
• Adjust for covariates in calculating standard deviation for replicates
• Store means of repeats so you can analyze the location effects
2 Analyze dispersion model (Analyze Variability). Consider whether to:
• Use least squares or maximum likelihood estimation methods, or both
• Store weights − using fitted or adjusted variance− to use when analyzing the location model
3 Analyze location model (Analyze Factorial Design). Consider:
• Which response column to use:
– If you have repeats, use the column of stored means calculated in Preprocess Responses.
– If you have replicates, use the column containing the original response data.
Here is an example: A 23 factorial design with four repeats has eight experimental runs with four measurements
per run. Minitab calculates the mean of the four repeats at each run, giving you a total of eight observations. The
same design with four replicates has 32 experimental runs. In this case, each measurement is a distinct
observation, giving you 32 observations. Experiments with replicate measurements have more degrees of
freedom for the error term than experiments with repeats, which provide greater power to find differences among
factor settings in the location model.
• Whether to use weights stored in the dispersion analysis
Example of analyzing variability

In the Example of preprocessing responses, you decided to conduct a 2-level factorial experiment with 8 replicates to
investigate how three variables−reaction time, reaction temperature, and type of catalyst−affect the variability of the yield.
Use Analyze Variability to determine which terms (main effects and two-way interactions) are significantly related to
differences in the variability of yield. Before you can analyze the variability of this data, you must first do the Example of
preprocessing responses to store the standard deviations and number of replicates of the response.
The analysis for this example is performed in two steps. In the first step, you use least squares regression to fit and
reduce the model. Once you identify an appropriate reduced model, in step two, analyze the reduced model using
maximum likelihood estimation to obtain the final model coefficients.

Factorial Designs
Step 1: Analyze the design using least squares regression estimation

2 In Response (standard deviations), enter StdYield.
3 Click Terms.
4 In Include terms from the model up through order, choose 2 from the drop-down list. Click OK.
5 Click Graphs. Under Effects plots, check Normal and Pareto. Click OK in each dialog box.

Preprocess: Yield versus Time, Temp, Catalyst
Analysis of Variability: StdYield versus Time, Temp, Catalyst
Regression Estimated Effects and Coefficients for Natural Log of StdYield

(coded units)
Ratio
Term Effect Effect Coef SE Coef T P
Constant 0.7020 0.01879 37.35 0.017
Time 2.0371 7.6682 1.0185 0.01879 54.19 0.012
Temp 1.1491 3.1552 0.5745 0.01879 30.57 0.021
Catalyst 0.4300 1.5373 0.2150 0.01879 11.44 0.056
Time*Temp -0.2011 0.8178 -0.1005 0.01879 -5.35 0.118
Time*Catalyst -0.1861 0.8302 -0.0931 0.01879 -4.95 0.127
Temp*Catalyst 0.0159 1.0160 0.0079 0.01879 0.42 0.746
R-Sq = 99.98% R-Sq(adj) = 99.83%
Analysis of Variance for Natural Log of StdYield
Source DF Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F P

Main Effects 3 136.942 136.942 45.647 1334.07 0.020
Residual Error 1 0.034 0.034 0.034
Total 7 138.800
Regression Estimated Coefficients for Natural Log of StdYield (uncoded units)
Term Coef
Constant -7.33855
Time 0.114823
Temp 0.0323653
Catalyst 0.376572
Time*Temp -2.68115E-04
Time*Catalyst -0.0062036
Temp*Catalyst 0.0003176
Alias Structure
I
Time
Temp
Catalyst
Time*Temp
Time*Catalyst
Temp*Catalyst

Factorial Designs
Graph window output
Interpreting the Results

In the first step of the analysis, you used least squares regression to fit the model. One approach to analyzing the
variability of data suggests using least squares regression to determine which factors are significantly related to the
response. Once a reduced model is identified, use maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) to determine the final model
coefficients. If you have terms that are borderline significant, you may want to examine both the regression and MLE
results to determine which factors to retain in your model. See [4] for more information. In many cases, the differences
between the least squares and MLE results are minor.
For this example, the analysis of variance table provides a summary of the main effects and interactions. Minitab displays
both the sequential sums of squares (Seq SS) and adjusted sums of squares (Adj SS). If the model is orthogonal and
does not contain covariates, these will be the same. Look at the p-values to determine whether or not you have any
significant effects. The results indicate that the two-way interactions are not significant (p = 0.172). The main effects are
significant at an α-level of 0.05 (p = 0.020).
The results indicate that time and temperature are significant at the 0.05 α-level. The variable catalyst is almost significant
at the 0.05 α-level. The interactions are not significant at the 0.05 α-level.
The normal and Pareto plots of the effects allow you to visually identify the important effects and compare the relative
magnitude of the various effects. The plots confirm that time and temperature are significant at the 0.05 α-level.
At this point, you should reduce the model using the least squares regression method to determine which terms to retain
in the model. For purposes of this example, the model with time, temperature, and catalyst main effects is used as the
reduced model. This model is just one of the possible reduced models you could have chosen. In practice, you may need
to fit several models to find the appropriate model.
Note If the data in this example were repeats, not replicates, the results and output would be exactly the same as
the output shown above. Despite this, the results may have different practical implications depending on the
sources of variability that you analyzed.

Factorial Designs
If you plan on analyzing this data in Analyze Factorial Design, you may want to consider using weights to
adjust for the differences in variance among factors levels.
Step 2: Analyze the reduced model using maximum likelihood estimation

2 In Response (standard deviations), enter StdYield.
3 Under Estimation method, choose Maximum likelihood.
4 Click Terms.
5 In Include terms from the model up through order, choose 1 from the drop-down list. Click OK.
6 Click Graphs. Under Effects plots, uncheck Normal and Pareto. Click OK in each dialog box.

Preprocess: Yield versus Time, Temp, Catalyst
Analysis of Variability: StdYield versus Time, Temp, Catalyst
MLE Estimated Effects and Coefficients for Natural Log of StdYield (coded
units)
Ratio
Term Effect Effect Coef SE Coef Z P
Constant 0.7213 0.09449 7.63 0.000
Time 2.0379 7.674 1.0189 0.09449 10.78 0.000
Temp 1.1559 3.177 0.5779 0.09449 6.12 0.000
Catalyst 0.4374 1.549 0.2187 0.09449 2.31 0.021
MLE Estimated Coefficients for Natural Log of StdYield (uncoded units)
Term Coef
Constant -5.70171
Time 0.0679285
Temp 0.0231172
Catalyst 0.218693
Alias Structure
I
Time
Temp
Catalyst
Interpreting the Results
After choosing an appropriate reduced model using least squares estimation, you refit the model using maximum
likelihood estimation to obtain the most precise effects and coefficients. The results indicate that:
• Time has the strongest effect at 2.0379. The ratio effect indicates that the standard deviation increases by a factor of
7.7 when time is changed from the low to high level.
• Temperature has the next strongest effect at 1.1559. The ratio effect indicates that the standard deviation increases by
a factor of 3.2 when temperature is changed from the low to high level.
• Catalyst has the smallest effect at .4374. The ratio effect indicates that the standard deviation increases by a factor of
1.5 when catalyst is changed from the low to high level.
You should also plot the residuals versus the run order to check for any time trends or other nonrandom patterns.
Residual plots are found in the Graphs subdialog box.
Note If the data in this example were repeats, not replicates, the results and output would be exactly the same as
the output shown above. Despite this, the results may have different practical implications depending on the
sources of variability that you analyzed.
If you plan on analyzing this data in Analyze Factorial Design, you may want to consider using weights to
adjust for the differences in variance among factors levels.

Factorial Designs
Factorial Plots
Factorial Plots
Stat > DOE > Factorial > Factorial Plots
You can produce three types of factorial plots to help you visualize the effects − main effects, interactions, and cube plots.
These plots can be used to show how a response variable relates to one or more factors.
Factorial Plots is unavailable until you have used Create Factorial Design or Define Custom Factorial Design.
Dialog box items
Main effects: Check to display a main effects plot, then click <Setup>.
Interaction: Check to display an interactions plot, then click <Setup>.
Cube: Check to display a cube plot, then click <Setup>.
Type of Means to Use in Plots
Data means: Choose to plot the means of the response variable for each level of a factor.
Fitted means: Choose to plot the predicted values for each level of a factor.
Factorial Plots (General Full Factorial)

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Factorial Plots
You can produce two types of factorial plots with general full factorial designs to help you visualize the effects − main
effects and interactions. These plots can be used to show how a response variable relates to one or more factors.
Factorial Plots is unavailable until you have used Create Factorial Design or Define Custom Factorial Design.
Dialog box items
Main effects (response versus levels of 1 factor): Check to display a main effects plot, then click <Setup>.
Interaction (response versus levels of 2 factors): Check to display an interactions plot, then click <Setup>.
Type of Means to Use in Plots
Data means: Choose to plot the means of the response variable for each level of a factor.
Fitted means: Choose to plot the predicted values for each level of a factor.
Data − Factorial Plots

You must create a factorial design, and enter the response data in your worksheet for both main effects and interactions
plots.
For cube plots, you do not need to have a response variable, but you must create a factorial design first. If you enter a
response column, Minitab displays the means for the raw response data or fitted values at each point in the cube where
observations were measured. If you do not enter a response column, Minitab draws points on the cube for the effects that
are in your model.
If you are plotting the means of the raw response data, you can generate the plots before you fit a model to the data. If
you are using the fitted values (least squares means), you need to use Analyze Factorial Design before you can display a
factorial plot.
To display factorial plots

1 Choose Stat > DOE > Factorial > Factorial Plots.
2 Do one or more of the following:
• To generate a main effects plot, check Main effects, then click Setup.
• To generate a interactions plot, check Interaction, then click Setup.
• To generate a cube plot, check Cube, then click Setup. (available for two-level factorial and Plackett-Burman
designs only)
The setup subdialog box for the various factorial plots will differ slightly.
3 In Responses, enter the numeric columns that contain the response (measurement) data. Minitab draws a separate
plot for each column. (You can create a cube plot without entering any response columns.)
4 Move the factors you want to plot from the Available box to the Selected box using the arrow buttons. Click OK.
You can plot up to 50 factors with main effects, up to 15 factors with interactions plots, and up to 8 factors with cube
plots.

Factorial Designs
• to move the factors one at a time, highlight a factor then click a single arrow button
• to move all of the factors, click one of the double arrow buttons
You can also move a factor by double-clicking it.
5 If you like, use any dialog box options, then click OK.
Main effects plots

A main effects plot is a plot of the means at each level of a factor. You can draw a main effects plot for either the
• raw response data − the means of the response variable for each level of a factor
• fitted values after you have analyzed the design − predicted values for each level of a factor
To create a main effects plot, see Factorial Plots - Main Effects (setup).
For a balanced design, the main effects plot using the two types of responses are identical. However, with an unbalanced
design, the plots are sometimes quite different. While you can use raw data with unbalanced designs to obtain a general
idea of which main effects may be important, it is generally good practice to use the predicted values to obtain more
precise results.
Minitab plots the means at each level of the factor and connects them with a line. Center points and factorial points are
represented by different symbols. A reference line at the grand mean of the response data is drawn.
Minitab draws a single main effects plot if you enter one factor, or a series of plots if you enter more than one factor. You
can use these plots to compare the magnitudes of the various main effects. Minitab also draws a separate plot for each
factor-response combination.
A main effect occurs when the mean response changes across the levels of a factor. You can use main effects plots to
compare the relative strength of the effects across factors.
The plot shows that tensile strength:

• Remains virtually the same when you move from process A to process B.
• Increases when you move from the low level to the high level of pressure.
Note Although you can use these plots to compare main effects, be sure to evaluate significance by looking at the
effects in the analysis of variable table.
Factorial Plots − Main Effects − Setup

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Factorial Plots > choose Main Effects > Setup
Allows you to select the factors to include in the main effects plot.
Dialog box items
Responses: Select the column(s) containing the response data. When you enter more than one response variable,
Minitab displays a separate plot for each response.
Factors to Include in Plots Use the arrow buttons to move terms from one list to the other. Select a term in one of the
lists, then click an arrow button. The double arrows move all the terms in one list to the other. You can also move a term
by double-clicking it.
Available: Lists all factors in your model.
Selected: Lists all factors that will be included in the main effects plot(s). You can have up to 50 factors in the Selected
list.

Factorial Designs
Factorial Plots − Main Effects − Options

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Factorial Plots > check Main Effects > Setup > Options
You can add your own title to the plot.
Dialog box items
Title: To replace the default title with your own custom title, type the desired text in this box.
Interaction plots
You can plot two-factor interactions for each pair of factors in your design. An interactions plot is a plot of means for each
level of a factor with the level of a second factor held constant. You can draw an interactions plot for either the:
• raw response data − the means of the response variable for each level of a factor
• fitted values after you have analyzed the design − predicted values for each level of a factor
To create an interaction plot, see Factorial Plots - Interaction (setup).
For a balanced design, the interactions plot using the two types of responses are identical. However, with an unbalanced
design, the plots are sometimes quite different. While you can use raw data with unbalanced designs to obtain a general
idea of which interactions may important, it is generally good practice to use the predicted values to obtain more precise
results.
Minitab draws a single interactions plot if you enter two factors, or a matrix of interactions plots if you enter more than two
factors.
An interaction between factors occurs when the change in response from the low level to the high level of one factor is not
the same as the change in response at the same two levels of a second factor. That is, the effect of one factor is
dependent upon a second factor. You can use interactions plots to compare the relative strength of the effects across
factors.
Interaction Plot (Process by Speed) Interaction Plot (Pressure by Speed)
The change in tensile strength when you move from the low The change in tensile strength when you move from the low
level to the high level of speed is about the same at both level to the high level of speed is different depending on the
levels of process. level of pressure.
Note Although you can use these plots to compare interaction effects, be sure to evaluate significance by looking at
the effects in the analysis of variable table.
Factorial Plots − Interaction − Setup

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Factorial Plots > choose Interaction > Setup
Allows you to select the terms to include in the interaction plot.
Dialog box items
Responses: Select the column(s) containing the response data. When you enter more than one response variable,
Minitab displays a separate plot for each response.

Factorial Designs
Selected: Lists all factors that will be included in the interactions plot(s). You can have up to 15 factors in the Selected
list. Minitab draws all two-way interactions of the selected factors.
Factorial Plots − Interaction − Options

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Factorial Plots > check Interaction > Setup > Options
You can display the interaction plot matrix and add your own title to the plot.
Dialog box items
Draw full interaction plot matrix: Check to display the full interaction matrix when you specify more than two factors
instead of displaying only the upper right portion of the matrix. In the full matrix, the transpose of each plot in the upper
right displays in the lower left portion of the matrix. The full matrix takes longer to display than the half matrix.
Cube Plots
Cube plots can be used to show the relationships among two to eight factors − with or without a response measure − for
two-level factorial or Plackett-Burman designs. Viewing the factors without the response allows you to see what a design
"looks like." If there are only two factors, Minitab displays a square plot. You can draw a cube plot for either the:
• Data means − the means of the raw response variable data for each factor level combination
• Fitted means after analyzing the design − predicted values for each factor level combination. To plot the fitted means,
you must fit the full model.
Cube Plot − No Response Cube Plot − With Response
Note Although you can use these plots to compare effects, be sure to evaluate significance by looking at the effects
in the analysis of variable table.
To create a cube plot, see Factorial Plots - Cube (setup).
Factorial Plots − Cube − Setup

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Factorial Plots > choose Cube > Setup
You can to select the 2-level factors to include in the cube plot. The number of factors you can plot depends on the data
you are fitting:
• With data means, you can fit up to 8 2-level factors
• With fitted means, you can fit up to 7 2-level factors. You must fit the full model (e.g., model must include all interaction
terms).
Dialog box items
Responses (optional): Select the column(s) containing the response data. For cube plots, the response variable is
optional. If you do not enter a response variable, you will get a cube plot which only displays the design points. This is a
nice way to visualize what a factorial design looks like. When you enter more than one response variable, Minitab displays
a separate plot for each response.

Factorial Designs

Selected: Lists all factors that will be included in the cube plot(s). You must plot at least 2 but no more than 8 factors.
Example of factorial plots

In the Example of analyzing a full factorial design with replicates and blocks, you were investigating how processing
conditions (factors) − reaction time, reaction temperature, and type of catalyst − affect the yield of a chemical reaction.
You determined that there was a significant interaction between reaction time and reaction temperature and you would
like to view the factorial plots to help you understand the nature of the relationship. Because the effects due to block and
catalyst are not significant, you will not include them in the plots.
1 Open the worksheet YIELDPLT.MTW. (The design, response data, and model information have been saved for you.)
2 Choose Stat > DOE > Factorial > Factorial Plots.
3 Check Main effects plot and click Setup.
4 In Responses, enter Yield.
5 Click to move Time to the Selected box.
6 Click to move Temp to the Selected box. Click OK.

7 Repeat steps 3-6 to set up the interaction plot. Click OK.
Graph window output

The Main Effects Plot indicates that both reaction time and reaction temperature have similar effects on yield. For both
factors, yield increases as you move from the low level to the high level of the factor.

Factorial Designs
However, the interaction plot shows that the increase in yield is greater when reaction time is high (50) than when reaction
time is low (20). Therefore, you should be sure to understand this interaction before making any judgments about the
main effects.
Although you can use factorial plots to compare the magnitudes of effects, be sure to evaluate significance by looking at
the effects in an analysis of variance table or the normal or Pareto effects plots. See Example of analyzing a full factorial
design with replicates and blocks.
Contour/Surface Plots
Contour/Surface Plots
Stat > DOE > Factorial > Contour/Surface Plots
You can produce two types of plots to help you visualize the response surface − contour plots and surface plots. These
plots show how a response variable relates to two factors based on a model equation.
Dialog box items
Contour Plot: Check to display a contour plot, then click <Setup>.
Surface Plot: Check to display a surface plot, then click <Setup>.
Data − Contour/Surface Plots

Contour plots and surface plots are model dependent. Thus, you must fit a model using Analyze Factorial Design before
you can generate response surface plots. Minitab looks in the worksheet for the necessary model information to generate
these plots.
To plot the response surface

1 Choose Stat > DOE > Factorial > Contour/Surface Plots.
2 Do one or both of the following:
• to generate a contour plot, check Contour plot and click Setup. If you have analyzed more than one response,
from Response, choose the desired response.
• to generate a surface plot, check Surface plot and click Setup. If you have analyzed more than one response,
from Response, choose the desired response.
3 If you like, use one or more of the available dialog box options, then click OK in each dialog box.
Contour and Surface Plots (Factorial Design)

Contour and surface plots are useful for establishing desirable response values and operating conditions.
• A contour plot provides a two-dimensional view where all points that have the same response are connected to
produce contour lines of constant responses.
• A surface plot provides a three-dimensional view that may provide a clearer picture of the response surface.
The illustrations below show a contour plot and 3D surface plot of the same data. The lowest Y-values are found where
X1 and X2 both at their low settings. As X1 and X2 move toward their high settings, values for Y increase steadily.
Contour Plot 3D Surface Plot

Factorial Designs
Note When the model has more than two factors, the factor(s) that are not in the plot are held constant. Any
covariates in the model are also held constant. You can specify the values at which to hold the remaining
factors and covariates in the Settings subdialog box.
Contour/Surface Plots − Contour − Setup

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Contour/Surface Plots > check Contour > Setup
Generates a response surface contour plot for a single pair of factors or separate contour plots for all possible pairs of
factors.
Dialog box items
Response: Select the column containing the response data.
Factors:
Select a pair of factors for a single plot: Choose to display a graph for just one pair (x,y) factors. The graph is
generated by calculating responses (z-values) using the values in the x- and y-factor columns and giving the other
factors the values chosen in the Hold extra settings at option in the <Settings> subdialog box.
X Axis: Choose a factor from the drop-down list to plot on the x-axis.
Y Axis: Choose a factor from the drop-down list to plot on the y-axis.
Generate plots for all pairs of factors: Choose to generate graphs for all possible combinations of (x,y) factors with
the calculated response (z).The graphs are generated by calculating responses (z-values) using the values in the x-
and y-factor columns and giving the other factors the values chosen in the Hold extra settings at option in the
<Settings> subdialog box. With n factors, (n∗(n−1))/2 different contour plots will be generated.
In separate panels of the same page: Choose to display all plots on one page.
On separate pages: Choose to display each plot on a separate page.
Display plots using
Coded units: Choose to display points on the response surface plots using the default coding: −1 for the low level, +1
for the high level, and 0 for a center point.
Uncoded units: Choose to display points on the response surface plots using the values that you assign in the Factors
subdialog box.
Contour/Surface Plots − Surface − Setup

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Contour/Surface Plots >check Surface > Setup
Draws a surface plot. Surface plots show how a response variable (the z-variable) relates to two factors (the x- and y-
variables).
Response: Choose the column containing the response data.
Factors
Select a pair of factors for a single plot: Choose to display a graph for just one pair (x,y) factors. The graph is
generated by calculating responses (z-values) using the values in the x- and y-factor columns and giving the other
factors the values chosen in the Hold extra settings at option in the <Settings> subdialog box.
Generate plots for all pairs of factors: Choose to display a separate graph for each possible combination of (x,y)
factors with the calculated response (z). The graphs are generated by calculating responses (z-values) using the values
in the x- and y-factor columns and giving the other factors the values chosen in the Hold extra settings at option in the
<Settings> subdialog box. With n factors, (n∗(n−1))/2 different contour plots will be generated.
Display plots using
Coded units: Choose to display points on the response surface plots using the default coding: 1 for the low level, +1
for the high level, and 0 for a center point.
Uncoded units: Choose to display points on the response surface plots using values that you assigned in the Factors
subdialog box.
Contour/Surface Plots − Contour − Contours

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Contour/Surface Plots > check Contour > Setup > Contours
Specify the number or location of the contour levels, and the way Minitab displays the contours.

Factorial Designs
Dialog box items

Contour Levels Controls the number of contour levels to display.
Use defaults: Choose to have Minitab determine the number of contour lines (from 4 to 7) to draw.
Number: Choose specify the number of contour lines, then enter an integer from 2 to 11 for the number of contour lines
you want to draw.
Values: Choose to specify the values of the contour lines in the units of your data. Then specify from 2 to 11 contour
level values in strictly increasing order. You can also put the contour level values in a column and select the column.
Data Display
Area: Check to shade the areas that represent the values for the response, which are called contours.
Contour lines: Check to draw lines along the boundaries of each contour.
Symbols at design points: Check to display a symbol at each data point.
To control plotting of contour levels (factorial design)

1 In the Contour/Surface Plots dialog box, check Contour plot and click Setup.
2 Click Contours.
3 To change the number of contour levels, do one of the following:
• Choose Number and enter a number from 2 to 11.
• Choose Values and enter from 2 to 11 contour level values in the units of your data. You must enter the values in
increasing order.
Contour/Surface Plots − Settings

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Contour/Surface Plots > Setup > Settings
You can set the holding level for factors that are not in the plot at their highest, lowest, or middle (calculated mean)
settings, or you can set specific levels to hold each factor.
Dialog box items
You may select one of the three choices for settings OR enter your own by typing a value in the table
Hold extra factors at
High settings: Choose to set variables that are not in the graph at their highest setting.
Middle settings: Choose to set variables that are not in the graph at the calculated median setting.
Low settings: Choose to set variables that are not in the graph at their lowest setting.
Factor: Shows all the factors in your design. This column does not take any input.
Name: Shows all the names of factors in your design. This column does not take any input.
Setting: Enter a value to hold each factor that is not being plotted. Use the up and down arrows to move in the Setting
column.
To set the holding level for factors not in the plot (factorial design)
1 In the Contour/Surface Plots dialog box, click Setup.
2 Click Settings.
• To use the preset values, choose High settings, Middle settings, or Low settings under Hold extra factors at
and/or Hold covariates at. When you use a preset value, all factors or covariates not in the plot will be held at
their specified settings.
• To specify the value at which to hold a factor or covariate, enter a number in Setting for each one you want to
control. This option allows you to set a different holding value for each factor or covariate.
4 Click OK.
Contour/Surface Plots − Options

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Contour/Surface Plots > Setup > Options
You can determine the title of your plot.

Factorial Designs
Dialog box items

Example of a contour plot and a surface plot (factorial design)

In the Example of analyzing a full factorial design with replicates and blocks, you were investigating how processing
conditions (factors) − reaction time, reaction temperature, and type of catalyst − affect the yield of a chemical reaction.
You determined that there was a significant interaction between reaction time and reaction temperature and you would
like to view the response surface plots to help you understand the nature of the relationship. Because the effects due to
block and catalyst are not significant, you did not include them in the plots.
You can also view main effects and interactions plots.
1 Open the worksheet YIELDPLT.MTW. (The design, response data, and model information have been saved for you.)
2 Choose Stat > DOE > Factorial > Contour/Surface Plots.
3 Check Contour plot and click Setup. Click OK.
4 Check Surface plot and click Setup. Click OK in each dialog box
Graph window output

Both the contour plot and the surface plot show that Yield increases as both reaction time and reaction temperature
increase. The surface plot also illustrates that the increase in yield from the low to the high level of time is greater at the
high level of temperature.

Factorial Designs
Overlaid Contour Plot

Overlaid Contour Plot
Stat > DOE > Factorial > Overlaid Contour Plot
Use overlaid contour plot to draw contour plots for multiple responses and to overlay multiple contour plots on top of each
other in a single graph. Contour plots show how response variables relate to two continuous design variables while
holding the rest of the variables in a model at certain settings.
Dialog box items
Responses
Available: Shows all the responses that have had a model fit to them and can be used in the contour plot. Use the
arrow keys to move up to 10 response columns from Available to Selected. (If an expected response column does not
show in the Available list, fit a model to it using Analyze Factorial Design.)
Selected: Shows all responses that will be included in the contour plot.
Factors
Display plots using
Coded units: Choose to display the plot using coded units.
Uncoded units: Choose to display the plot using uncoded units (the default).
To create an overlaid contour plot

1 Choose Stat > DOE > Factorial > Overlaid Contour Plot.
2 Under Responses, move up to ten responses that you want to include in the plot from Available to Selected using
the arrow buttons. (If an expected response column does not show in Available, fit a model to it using Analyze
Factorial Design.)
• To move the responses one at a time, highlight a response, then click or
• To move all of the responses, click or
You can also move a response by double-clicking it.
3 Under Factors, choose a factor from X Axis and a factor from Y Axis.
Note Only numeric factors are valid candidates for X and Y axes.
4 Click Contours.
5 For each response, enter a number in Low and High. See Defining contours. Click OK.
6 If you like, use any of the available dialog box options, then click OK.
Data − Overlaid Contour Plot

1 Create and store a design using Create Factorial Design or create a design from data that you already have in the
worksheet with Define Custom Factorial Design.
2 Enter up to ten numeric response columns in the worksheet
3 Fit a model for each response using Analyze Factorial Design.
Note Overlaid Contour Plot is not available for general full factorial designs.
Overlaid Contour Plot − Contours

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Overlaid Contour Plot > Contours
Define the low and high values for the contour lines for each response. For a discussion, see Defining contours.
Dialog box items
Low: Enter the low value for the contour lines for each response.
High: Enter the high value for the contour lines for each response.

Factorial Designs
Defining Contours
For each response, you need to define a low and a high contour. These contours should be chosen depending on your
goal for the responses. Here are some examples:
• If your goal is to minimize (smaller is better) the response, you may want to set the Low value at the point of
diminishing returns, that is, although you want to minimize the response, going below a certain value makes little or no
difference. If there is no point of diminishing returns, use a very small number, one that is probably not achievable.
Use your maximum acceptable value in High.
• If your goal is to target the response, you probably have upper and lower specification limits for the response that can
be used as the values for Low and High. If you do not have specification limits, you may want to use lower and upper
points of diminishing returns.
• If your goal is to maximize (larger is better) the response, again, you may want to set the High value at the point of
diminishing returns, although now you need a value on the upper end instead of the lower end of the range. Use your
minimum acceptable value in Low.
In all of these cases, the goal is to have the response fall between these two values.
Overlaid Contour Plot − Settings

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Overlaid Contour Plot > Settings
You can set the holding level for factors that are not in the plot at their highest, lowest, or middle (calculated median)
settings, or you can set specific levels to hold each factor.
The hold values for extra factors and covariates must be expressed in uncoded units.
Note If you have text factors in your design, you can only set their holding values at one of the text levels.
Dialog box items
You may select one of the three choices for settings OR Enter your own setting by typing a value in the table. (Settings
represent uncoded levels.)
Hold extra factors at
High settings: Choose to set variables that are not in the graph at their highest setting.
Middle settings: Choose to set variables that are not in the graph at the calculated median setting.
Low settings: Choose to set variables that are not in the graph at their lowest setting.
column.
Hold covariates at
High settings: Choose to set covariates at their highest setting.
Middle settings: Choose to set covariates at the calculated median setting.
Low settings: Choose to set covariates at their lowest setting.
column.
To set the holding level for extra factors and covariates

1 Choose Stat > DOE > Factorial> Overlaid Contour Plot > Settings.
2 Do one of the following to set the holding value for extra factors or covariates:
• To use the preset values for factors, covariates, or process variables, choose High settings, Middle settings, or
Low settings. When you use a preset value, all variables not in the plot will be held at their high, middle
(calculated median), or low settings.
• To specify the value at which to hold the factor, covariate, or process variable, enter a number in Setting for each
of the design variables you want control. This option allows you to set a different holding value for each variables.
3 Click OK.

Factorial Designs
Overlaid Contour Plot − Options

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Overlaid Contour Plot > Options
You can determine the title of your plot.
Dialog box items
Example of an overlaid contour plot for factorial design

This contour plot is a continuation of the factorial response optimization example. A chemical engineer conducted a 2∗∗3
full factorial design to examine the effects of reaction time, reaction temperature, and type of catalyst on the yield and cost
of the process. The goal is to maximize yield and minimize cost. In this example, you will create contour plots using time
and temperature as the two axes in the plot and holding type of catalyst at levels A and B respectively.
Step 1: Display the overlaid contour plot for Catalyst A
1 Open the worksheet FACTOPT.MTW. (The design information and response data have been saved for you.)
2 Choose Stat > DOE > Factorial > Overlaid Contour Plot.
3 Click to move Yield and Cost to Selected.

4 Click Contours. Complete the Low and High columns of the table as shown below. Click OK
Name Low High
Yield 35 45
Cost 28 35
5 Click OK in the Overlaid Contour Plot dialog box.
Step 2: Display the overlaid contour plot for Catalyst B
6 Repeat steps 2-4, then click Settings. Under Hold extra factors at, choose High settings. Click OK in each dialog
box.
Graph Window Output

Factorial Designs

Displayed are two overlaid contour plots. The two factors, temperature and time, are used as the two axes in the plots and
the third factor, catalyst, has been held at levels A and B respectively.
The white area inside each plot shows the range of time and temperature where the criteria for both response variables
are satisfied. Use this plot in combination with the optimization plot to find the best operating conditions for maximizing
yield and minimizing cost.
Response Optimizer
Response Optimization Overview
Many designed experiments involve determining optimal conditions that will produce the "best" value for the response.
Depending on the design type (factorial, response surface, or mixture), the operating conditions that you can control may
include one or more of the following design variables: factors, components, process variables, or amount variables.
For example, in product development, you may need to determine the input variable settings that result in a product with
desirable properties (responses). Since each property is important in determining the quality of the product, you need to
consider these properties simultaneously. For example, you may want to increase the yield and decrease the cost of a
chemical production process. Optimal settings of the design variables for one response may be far from optimal or even
physically impossible for another response. Response optimization is a method that allows for compromise among the
various responses.
Minitab provides two commands to help you identify the combination of input variable settings that jointly optimize a set of
responses. These commands can be used after you have created and analyzed factorial designs, response surface
designs, and mixture designs.
• Response Optimizer − Provides you with an optimal solution for the input variable combinations and an optimization
plot. The optimization plot is interactive; you can adjust input variable settings on the plot to search for more desirable
solutions.
• Overlaid Contour Plot − Shows how each response considered relates to two continuous design variables (factorial
and response surface designs) or three continuous design variables (mixture designs), while holding the other
variables in the model at specified levels. The contour plot allows you to visualize an area of compromise among the
various responses.
Response Optimizer − Factorial

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Response Optimizer
Use response optimization to help identify the combination of input variable settings that jointly optimize a single response
or a set of responses. Joint optimization must satisfy the requirements for all the responses in the set, which is measured
by the composite desirability.
Minitab calculates an optimal solution and draws a plot. The optimal solution serves as the starting point for the plot. This
optimization plot allows you to interactively change the input variable settings to perform sensitivity analyses and possibly
improve the initial solution.
Note Although numerical optimization along with graphical analysis can provide useful information, it is not a
substitute for subject matter expertise. Be sure to use relevant background information, theoretical principles,
and knowledge gained through observation or previous experimentation when applying these methods.

Factorial Designs
Dialog box items

Select up to 25 response variables to optimize
Available: Shows all the responses that have had a model fit to them and can be used in the analysis. Use the arrow
keys to move the response columns from Available to Selected. (If an expected response column does not show in
the Available list, fit a model to it using Analyze Factorial Design.)
Selected: Shows all responses that will be included in the optimization.
Data − Response Optimizer − Factorial Design

Before you use Minitab's Response Optimizer, you must
1 Create and store a design using Create Factorial Design or create a design from data that you already have in the
worksheet with Define Custom Factorial Design.
2 Enter up to 25 numeric response columns in the worksheet.
3 Fit a model for each response Analyze Factorial Design.
Note Response Optimization is not available for general full factorial designs.
You can fit a model with different design variables for each response. If an input variable was not included in the model for
a particular response, the optimization plot for that response-input variable combination will be blank.
Minitab automatically omits missing data from the calculations. If you optimize more than one response and there are
missing data, Minitab excludes the row with missing data from calculations for all of the responses.
To optimize responses for a factorial design

1 Choose Stat > DOE > Factorial > Response Optimizer.
2 Move up to 25 responses that you want to optimize from Available to Selected using the arrow buttons. (If an
expected response column does not show in Available, fit a model to it using Analyze Factorial Design.)
• to move responses one at a time, highlight a response, then click or
• to move all the responses at once, click or
You can also move a response by double-clicking it.
3 Click Setup.
4 For each response, complete the table as follows:
• Under Goal, choose Minimize, Target, or Maximize from the drop-down list.
• Under Lower, Target, and Upper, enter numeric values for the target and necessary bounds as follows:
1 If you choose Minimize under Goal, enter values in Target and Upper.
2 If you choose Target under Goal, enter values in Lower, Target, and Upper.
3 If you choose Maximize under Goal, enter values in Target and Lower.
For guidance on choosing bounds, see Specifying bounds.
• In Weight, enter a number from 0.1 to 10 to define the shape of the desirability function. See Setting the weight for
the desirability function.
• In Importance, enter a number from 0.1 to 10 to specify the relative importance of the response. See Specifying
the importance for the composite desirability.
5 Click OK.
6 If you like, use any of the available dialog box options, then click OK.
Method − Response Optimization

Minitab's Response Optimizer searches for a combination of input variables that jointly optimize a set of responses by
satisfying the requirements for each response in the set. The optimization is accomplished by:
1 obtaining the individual desirability (d) for each response
2 combining the individual desirabilities to obtain the combined or composite desirability (D)
3 maximizing the composite desirability and identifying the optimal input variable settings
Note If you have only one response, the overall desirability is equal to the individual desirability.

Factorial Designs
Obtaining individual desirability

First, Minitab obtains an individual desirability (d) for each response using the goals and boundaries that you have
provided in the Setup dialog box. There are three goals to choose from. You may want to:
• minimize the response (smaller is better)
• target the response (target is best)
• maximize the response (larger is better)
Suppose you have a response that you want to minimize. You need to determine a target value and an allowable
maximum response value. The desirability for this response below the target value is one; above the maximum
acceptable value the desirability is zero. The closer the response to the target, the closer the desirability is to one. The
illustration below shows the default desirability function (also called utility transfer function) used to determine the
individual desirability (d) for a "smaller is better" goal:
d = desirability
Upper bound
any response
value greater
than the upper
Target bound has a
any response desirability
value less of zero
than the
target value
has a
desirability of
one
As the response decreases, the desirability increases.
The shape of the desirability function between the upper bound and the target is determined by the choice of weight. The
illustration above shows a function with a weight of one. To see how changing a weight affects the shape of the
desirability function, see Setting the weight for the desirability function.
Obtaining the composite desirability
After Minitab calculates an individual desirability for each response, they are combined to provide a measure of the
composite, or overall, desirability of the multi-response system. This measure of composite desirability (D) is the weighted
geometric mean of the individual desirabilities for the responses. The individual desirabilities are weighted according to
the importance that you assign each response. For a discussion, see Specifying the importance for composite desirability.
Maximizing the composite desirability
Finally, Minitab employs a reduced gradient algorithm with multiple starting points that maximizes the composite
desirability to determine the numerical optimal solution (optimal input variable settings).
More You may want to fine tune the solution by adjusting the input variable settings using the interactive optimization
plot. See Using the optimization plot.
Response Optimizer − Setup

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Response Optimizer > Setup
Specify the goal, boundaries, weight, and importance for each response variable.
Dialog box items
Response: Displays all the responses that will be included in the optimization. This column does not take any input.
Goal: Choose Minimize, Target, or Maximize from the drop-down list.
Lower: For each response that you chose Target or Maximize under Goal, enter a lower boundary.
Target: Enter a target value for each response.
Upper: For each response that you chose Minimize or Target under Goal, enter an upper boundary.
Weight: Enter a number from 0.1 to 10 to define the shape of the desirability function.
Importance: Enter a number from 0.1 to 10 to specify the comparative importance of the response.

Factorial Designs
Specifying Bounds
In order to calculate the numerically optimal solution, you need to specify a response target and lower and/or upper
bounds. The boundaries needed depend on your goal:
• If your goal is to minimize (smaller is better) the response, you need to determine a target value and the upper bound.
You may want to set the target value at the point of diminishing returns, that is, although you want to minimize the
response, going below a certain value makes little or no difference. If there is no point of diminishing returns, use a
very small number, one that is probably not achievable, for the target value.
• If your goal is to target the response, you should choose upper and lower bounds where a shift in the mean still
results in a capable process.
• If your goal is to maximize (larger is better) the response, you need to determine a target value and the lower bound.
Again, you may want to set the target value at the point of diminishing returns, although now you need a value on the
upper end instead of the lower end of the range.
Setting the Weight for the Desirability Function

In Minitab's approach to optimization, each of the response values are transformed using a specific desirability function.
The weight defines the shape of the desirability function for each response. For each response, you can select a weight
(from 0.1 to 10) to emphasize or de-emphasize the target. A weight
• less than one (minimum is 0.1) places less emphasis on the target
• equal to one places equal importance on the target and the bounds
• greater than one (maximum is 10) places more emphasis on the target
The illustrations below show how the shape of the desirability function changes when the goal is to maximize the
response and the weight changes:
Weight Desirability function
d = desirability
target
0.1
A weight less than one places less
emphasis on the target. a response
value far from the target may have a
high desirability.
target
1
A weight equal to one places equal
emphasis on the target and the
bounds. The desirability for a response
increases linearly.
target
10
A weight greater than one places more
emphasis on the target. A response
value must be very close to the target
to havea high desirability.
The illustrations below summarize the desirability functions:

Factorial Designs
When the goal is to ...
minimize the response

Below the target the response
desirability is one; above the
upper bound it is zero.
target the response

Below the lower bound the
response desirability is zero;
at the target it is one; above
the upper bound it is zero.
maximize the response

Below the lower bound the
response desirability is zero;
above the target it is one.
Specifying the Importance for Composite Desirability

After Minitab calculates individual desirabilities for the responses, they are combined to provide a measure of the
composite, or overall, desirability of the multi-response system. This measure of composite desirability is the weighted
geometric mean of the individual desirabilities for the responses. The optimal solution (optimal operating conditions) can
then be determined by maximizing the composite desirability.
You need to assess the importance of each response in order to assign appropriate values for importance. Values must
be between 0.1 and 10. If all responses are equally important, use the default value of one for each response. The
composite desirability is then the geometric mean of the individual desirabilities.
However, if some responses are more important than others, you can incorporate this information into the optimal solution
by setting unequal importance values. Larger values correspond to more important responses, smaller values to less
important responses.
You can also change the importance values to determine how sensitive the solution is to the assigned values. For
example, you may find that the optimal solution when one response has a greater importance is very different from the
optimal solution when the same response has a lesser importance.
Response Optimizer − Options

Stat > DOE > Factorial > Response Optimizer > Options
Define a starting point for the search algorithm, suppress display of the optimization plot, and store the composite
desirability values.

Factorial Designs
Dialog box items

Factors in design: Displays all the factors that have been included in a fitted model. This column does not take any input.
Starting values: To define a starting point for the search algorithm, enter a value for each factor. Each value must be
between the minimum and maximum levels for that factor.
Hold covariates at:
Name: Displays any covariates that have been included in a fitted model. This column does not take any input.
column.
High settings: Choose to hold any covariates in a fitted model at their high levels.
Middle settings: Choose to hold any covariates in a fitted model at the calculated median (the default).
Low settings: Choose to hold any covariates in a fitted model at their low levels.
Optimization plot: Uncheck to suppress display of the optimization plot. The default is to display the plot.
Store composite desirability values: Check to store composite desirability values.
Display local solutions: Check to display local solutions.
Response Optimizer − Levels for Input Variables

Enter a new value to change the input variable settings.
For further discussion, see Using the optimization plot.
Dialog box items
Input New Level Value: Enter a new value to change the input variable settings.
Using the Optimization Plot

Once you have created an optimization plot, you can change the input variable settings. For factorial and response
surface designs, you can adjust the factor levels. For mixture designs, you can adjust component, process variable, and
amount variable settings. You might want to change these input variable settings on the optimization plot for many
reasons, including:
• To search for input variable settings with a higher composite desirability
• To search for lower-cost input variable settings with near optimal properties
• To explore the sensitivity of response variables to changes in the design variables
• To "calculate" the predicted responses for an input variable setting of interest
• To explore input variable settings in the neighborhood of a local solution
When you change an input variable to a new level, the graphs are redrawn and the predicted responses and desirabilities
are recalculated. If you discover a setting combination that has a composite desirability higher than the initial optimal
setting, Minitab replaces the initial optimal setting with the new optimal setting. You will then have the option of adding the
previous optimal setting to the saved settings list.
Note If you save the optimization plot and then reopen it in Minitab without opening the project file, you will not be
able to drag the red lines with your mouse to change the factor settings.
With Minitab's interactive Optimization Plot you can:
• Change input variable settings
• Save new input variable settings
• Delete saved input variable settings
• Reset optimization plot to optimal settings
• View a list of all saved settings
• Lock mixture components
To change input variable settings

1 Change input variable settings in the optimization plot by:
• Dragging the vertical red lines to a new position or
• Clicking on the red input variable settings located at the top and entering a new value in the dialog box that
appears .

Factorial Designs
Note
You can return to the initial or optimal settings at any time by clicking on the Toolbar or by right-clicking and
choosing Reset to Optimal Settings.
Note For factorial designs with center points in the model: If you move one factor to the center on the optimization
plot, then all factors will move to the center. If you move one factor away from the center, then all factors with
move with it, away from the center.
Note For a mixture design, you cannot change a component setting independently of the other component settings.
If you want one or more components to stay at their current settings, you need to lock them. See To lock
components (mixture designs only).
To save new input variable settings

1 Save new input variable settings in the optimization plot by
• Clicking on the Optimization Plot Toolbar
• Right-clicking and selecting Save current settings from the menu
Note The saved settings are stored in a sequential list. You can cycle forwards and backwards through the setting
list by clicking on or on the Toolbar or by right-clicking and choosing the appropriate command from
the menu.
To delete saved input variable settings

1 Choose the setting that you want to delete by cycling through the list.
2 Delete the setting by:

• Right-clicking and choosing Delete Current Setting
To reset optimization plot to optimal settings

1 Reset to optimal settings by:
• Clicking on the Toolbar
• Right-clicking and choosing Reset to Optimal Settings
To view a list of all saved settings

1 View the a list of all saved settings by

• Right-clicking and choosing Display Settings List
More You can copy the saved setting list to the Clipboard by right-clicking and choosing Select All and then choosing
Copy.
Example of a response optimization experiment for a factorial design

You are an engineer assigned to optimize the responses from a chemical reaction experiment. You have determined that
three factors − reaction time, reaction temperature, and type of catalyst − affect the yield and cost of the process. You
want to find the factor settings that maximize the yield and minimize the cost of the process.
1 Open the worksheet FACTOPT.MTW. (We have saved the design, response data, and model information for you.)
2 Choose Stat > DOE > Factorial > Response Optimizer.
3 Click to move Yield and Cost to Selected.

4 Click Setup. Complete the Goal, Lower, Target, and Upper columns of the table as shown below:

Factorial Designs
Response Goal Lower Target Upper

Yield Maximize 35 45
Cost Minimize 28 35
Session Window Output
Response Optimization
Parameters
Goal Lower Target Upper Weight Import

Yield Maximum 35 45 45 1 1
Cost Minimum 28 28 35 1 1
Global Solution
Time = 46.062
Temp = 150.000
Catalyst = -1.000 (A)
Predicted Responses
Yield = 44.8077, desirability = 0.98077

Cost = 28.9005, desirability = 0.87136
Composite Desirability = 0.92445

Graph Window Output

The individual desirability for Yield is 0.98081; the individual desirability for Cost is 0.87132. The composite desirability for
both these two variables is 0.92445.
To obtain this desirability, you would set the factor levels at the values shown under Global Solution in the Session
window. That is, time would be set at 46.062, temperature at 150, and you would use catalyst A.
If you want to try to improve this initial solution, you can use the plot. Move the red vertical bars to change the factor
settings and see how the individual desirability of the responses and the composite desirability change.
Modify Design
Modify Design (2-level Factorial and Plackett-Burman)
Stat > DOE > Modify Design
After creating a factorial design and storing it in the worksheet, you can use Modify Design to make the following
modifications:

Factorial Designs
• rename the factors and change the factor levels.

• replicate the design.
• randomize the design.
• fold the design.
• add axial points to the design. You can also add center points to the axial block.
By default, Minitab will replace the current design with the modified design.
Dialog box items
Modification
Modify factors: Choose to rename factors or change factor levels, and then click <Specify>.
Replicate design: Choose to add up to ten replicates, and then click <Specify>.
Randomize design: Choose to randomize the design, and then click <Specify>.
Fold design: Choose to fold the design, and then click <Specify>.
Add axial points: Choose to add axial points, and then click <Specify>. This allows you to "build" up the two-level
factorial design to a central composite design. You can also add center points to the axial block.
Put modified design in a new worksheet: Check to have Minitab place the modified design in a new worksheet rather
than overwriting the current worksheet.
Modify Design (General Full Factorial)

Stat > DOE > Modify Design
After creating a factorial design and storing it in the worksheet, you can use Modify Design to make the following
modifications:
• rename the factors and change the factor levels
• replicate the design
• randomize the design
By default, Minitab will replace the current design with the modified design.
Dialog box items
Modification
Modify factors: Choose to rename factors or change factor levels, and then click <Specify>.
Replicate design: Choose to add up to ten replicates, and then click <Specify>.
Randomize design: Choose to randomize the design, and then click <Specify>.
Put modified design in a new worksheet: Check to have Minitab place the modified design in a new worksheet rather
than overwriting the current worksheet.
Modify Design − Factors (2-level Factorial and Plackett-Burman Design)

Stat > DOE > Modify Design > choose Factors > Specify
Allows you to name or rename the factors and assign values for factor settings.
Dialog box items
Type: Shows whether the factor is numeric or text. This column does not take any input.
setting as text.
setting as text.

Factorial Designs
Factorial Design − Factors

Stat > DOE > Modify Design > choose Modify factors > Specify
Allows you to name or rename the factors and assign values for factor settings.
Dialog box items
Type: Show whether the factor is numeric or text. This column does not take any input.
Levels: Shows the number of levels for each factor. This column does not take any input.
Level Values: Enter numeric or text values for each level of the factor. By default, Minitab sets the levels of a factor to the
integers 1, 2, 3, ... .
Modify Design − Replicate

Stat > DOE > Modify Design > Replicate design
You can add up to ten replicates of your design. When you replicate a design, you duplicate the complete set of runs from
the initial design. The runs that would be added to a two factor full factorial design are as follows:
Initial design One replicate added Two replicates added

(total of two replicates) (total of three replicates)
A B A B A B
- - - - - -
+ + + + + +
+ - + - + -
- + - + - +
- - - -
+ + + +
+ - + -
- + - +
- -
+ +
+ -
- +
True replication provides an estimate of the error or noise in your process and may allow for more precise estimates of
effects.
Dialog box items
Number of replicates to add: Choose a number up to ten.
To replicate the design

1 Choose Stat > DOE > Modify Design.
2 Choose Replicate design and click Specify.
3 From Number of replicates to add, choose a number up to 10. Click OK.
Modify Design − Randomize Design

Stat > DOE > Modify Design > choose Randomize design > Specify
You can randomize the entire design or just randomize one of the blocks. For a general discussion of randomization, see
Randomizing the design.
worksheet.
Dialog box items
Randomize entire design: Choose to randomize the runs in the data matrix. If your design is blocked, randomization is
done separately within each block and then the blocks are randomized.
Randomize just block: Choose to randomize one block, then choose the block to randomize from the drop-down list.

Factorial Designs
Base for random data generator: Enter a base for the random data generator. By entering a base for the random data
generator, you can control the randomization so that you obtain the same pattern every time.
To randomize the design

2 Choose Randomize design and click Specify.
• Choose Randomize entire design.
• Choose Randomize just block, and choose a block number from the list.
4 If you like, in Base for random data generator, enter a number. Click OK.
Note You can use Stat > DOE > Display Design to switch back and forth between a random and standard order
display in the worksheet.
Modify Design − Fold Design

Stat > DOE > Modify Design > choose Fold design > Specify
Folding is a way to reduce confounding. Confounding occurs when you have a fractional factorial design and one or
more effects cannot be estimated separately.
Dialog box items
Fold Design
Fold on all factors: Choose to fold the design on all factors.
Fold just on factor: Choose to fold the design on a single factor, then choose the factor from the list.
To fold the design

2 Choose Fold design and click Specify.
3 Do one of the following, then click OK.
• Choose Fold on all factors to make all main effects free from each other and all two-factor interactions.
• Choose Fold just on factors and then choose a factor from the list to make the specified factor and all its two-
factor interactions free from other main effects and two-factor interactions.
Modify Design − Add Axial Points

Stat > DOE > Modify Design > choose Add axial points > Specify
You can add axial points to a two-level factorial design to "build" it up to a central composite design. The position of the
axial points in a central composite design is denoted by α. The value of α, along with the number of center points,
determines whether a design can be orthogonally blocked and is rotatable. For a discussion of axial points and the value
of α, see Changing the value of α for a central composite design.
Dialog box items
Value of Alpha
Default (rotatable if possible): Choose to have Minitab determine the value of alpha (α) based on the design you
selected. The default value of α provides rotatability whenever possible.
Face centered: Choose to generate a face-centered design (α = 1).
Custom: Choose to specify the α value; then enter the desired value in coded units. A value less than 1 places the
axial points inside the cube; a value greater than 1 places them outside the cube.
Add the following number of center points (to the axial block): Enter a number.
To add axial points


Factorial Designs
2 Choose Add axial points and click Specify.

• To have Minitab assign a value to α, choose Default.
• To set a equal to 1, choose Face Centered. When α = 1, the axial points are placed on the "cube" portion of the
design. This is an appropriate choice when the "cube" points of the design are at the operational limits.
• Choose Custom and enter a positive number in the box. A value less than 1 places the axial points inside the
"cube" portion of the design; a value greater than 1 places the axial points outside the "cube."
4 If you want to add center points to the axial block, enter a number in Add the following number of center points (in
the axial block). Click OK.
Note If you a building up a factorial design into a central composite design and would like to consider the properties
of orthogonal blocking and rotatability, use the table in Summary of central composite designs for guidance on
choosing α and the number of center points to add.
Display Design
Display Design
Stat > DOE > Display Design
After you create the design, you can use Display Design to change the way the design points display in the worksheet.
You can change the design points in two ways:
• display the points in either random or standard order. Standard order is the order of the runs if the experiment was
done in Yates' order. Run order is the order of the runs if the experiment was done in random order.
• express the factor levels in coded or uncoded form.
Dialog box items
How to display the points in the worksheet
Order for all points in the worksheet: Minitab sorts the worksheet columns according to the display method (random
order or standard order) you select. By default, Minitab sorts a column if the number of rows is less than or equal to the
number of rows in the design. Specify any columns that you do not want to reorder in the Columns Not to Reorder dialog
box. Columns that have more rows than the design cannot be reordered.
Run order for design: Choose to display points in run order.
Standard order for design: Choose to display points in standard order.
Units for factors
Coded units: Choose to display the design points in coded units. Minitab sets the low level of all factors to −1, the high
level to +1, and center points to 0.
Uncoded Units: Choose to display the design points in uncoded units. The levels that you assigned in the Factors
subdialog box will display in the worksheet.
To change the display order of points in the worksheet

1 Choose Stat > DOE > Display Design.
2 Choose Run order for the design or Standard order for the design. If you do not randomize a design, the columns
that contain the standard order and run order are the same.
• If you want to reorder all worksheet columns that are the same length as the design columns, click OK.
• If you have worksheet columns that you do not want to reorder:
1 Click Options.
2 In Exclude the following columns when sorting, enter the columns. These columns cannot be part of the
design. Click OK twice.
To change the units for the factors

If you assigned factor levels in Factors subdialog box, the uncoded or actual levels are initially displayed in the worksheet.
If you did not assign factor levels, the coded and uncoded units are the same.
1 Choose Stat > DOE > Display Design.
2 Choose Coded units or Uncoded units. Click OK.

Factorial Designs
References - Factorial Designs

[1] G.E.P. Box, W.G. Hunter, and J.S. Hunter (1978). Statistics for Experimenters. An Introduction to Design, Data
Analysis, and Model Building. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
[2] R.V. Lenth (1989). "Quick and Easy Analysis of Unreplicated Factorials," Technometrics, 31, 469-473.
[3] D.C. Montgomery (1991). Design and Analysis of Experiments, Third Edition, John Wiley & Sons.
[4] Nair, V.N., and Pregibon, D. (1988). "Analyzing Dispersion Effects From Replicated Factorial Experiments",
Technometrics, 30, pp.247-257.
[5] Pan, G. (1999). "The Impact of Unidentified Location Effects on Dispersion-Effects Identification from Unreplicated
Factorial Designs," Technometrics, 41, 313-326.
[6] R.L. Plackett and J.P. Burman (1946). "The Design of Optimum Multifactorial Experiments," Biometrika, 34,
255−272.
Acknowledgment
The two-level factorial and Plackett-Burman design and analysis procedures were developed under the guidance of
James L. Rosenberger, Statistics Department, The Pennsylvania State University.

Index
Index
A Summary of two-level designs .............................. 17
Analyze Factorial Design ............................................ 36 Factorial Plots (Factorial)............................................ 54
Analyze Factorial Design (Stat menu) ................... 36 Factorial Plots (Stat menu).................................... 54
Analyze Variability....................................................... 45 Folding a factorial design ..................................... 14, 15
Analyze Variability (Stat menu) ............................. 45 I
B Interactions plots (DOE) ............................................. 56
Blocking a factorial design .......................................... 13 M
Botched runs............................................................... 37 Main effects plots (DOE) ............................................ 55
C Modify Design (Factorial)
Center points in a factorial design ........................ 12, 22 Modify Design (Stat menu).................................... 73
Confounding in factorial designs................................... 5 Modify Design (General Full Factorial) ....................... 74
Contour plots (DOE) ............................................. 59, 63 Modify Design (Stat menu).................................... 74
Factorial designs ................................................... 59 N
Contour/Surface Plots (Factorial)................................ 59 Normal effects plot...................................................... 39
Contour/Surface Plots (Stat menu) ....................... 59 O
Create Factorial Design .................................... 7, 20, 26 Overlaid Contour Plot (Factorial) ................................ 63
Create Factorial Design (Stat menu) ........... 7, 20, 26 Overlaid Contour Plot (Stat menu) ........................ 63
Cube plots................................................................... 57 P
D Pareto chart of the effects .......................................... 39
Define Custom Factorial Design ................................. 29 Plackett-Burman designs ............... 7, 20, 21, 26, 29, 36
Define Custom Factorial Design (Stat menu) ........ 29 Analyzing............................................................... 36
Display Design (Factorial)........................................... 77 Creating....................................................... 7, 20, 26
Display Design (Stat menu)................................... 77 Defining custom .................................................... 29
E Displaying.............................................................. 77
Effects plots ................................................................ 39 Modifying............................................................... 73
Normal ................................................................... 39 Summary............................................................... 21
Pareto .................................................................... 39 Predicting responses in DOE ..................................... 42
Entering data for designed experiments ..................... 36 Preprocess Responses for Analyze Variability........... 31
F Preprocess Responses for Analyze Variability (Stat
Factorial designs.. 5, 6, 7, 20, 26, 31, 36, 42, 45, 54, 59, menu)............................................................... 31
63, 66, 73, 74, 78 Pseudo-center points............................................ 12, 22
Analyzing ............................................................... 36 R
Analyzing variability ............................................... 45 Randomizing a design .................................... 16, 24, 28
Choosing a design................................................... 6 Replicating the design ................................................ 75
Creating ....................................................... 7, 20, 26 Factorial ................................................................ 75
Displaying .............................................................. 77 Response Optimizer (Factorial).................................. 66
Modifying - 2-level ................................................. 73 Response Optimizer (Stat menu).......................... 66
Modifying - general full .......................................... 74 S
Optimizing multiple responses............................... 66 Storing a design.............................................. 16, 24, 28
Overview.................................................................. 5 Surface plots (DOE) ................................................... 60
Plotting....................................................... 54, 59, 63 Factorial designs ................................................... 60
Predicting results ................................................... 42 V
Preprocessing responses ...................................... 31 Variability in factorial designs ............................... 31, 45
References ............................................................ 78

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What are some types of factorial designs discussed?

What are some types of factorial designs discussed?

What are some purposes of factorial designs?

What are some purposes of factorial designs?

Factorial Designs

Copyright © 2003–2005 Minitab Inc. All rights reserved. 3

Full factorial designs

Two factors Three factors

Two levels of Factor A Two levels of each factor

Two-level full factorial designs

General full factorial designs

Copyright © 2003–2005 Minitab Inc. All rights reserved. 5

Fractional factorial designs

Factorial Experiments in Minitab

Choosing a Factorial Design

6 Copyright © 2003–2005 Minitab Inc. All rights reserved.

Create Factorial Design

Creating 2-Level Factorial Designs

To create a two-level factorial design

Copyright © 2003–2005 Minitab Inc. All rights reserved. 7

Factorial Design − Available Designs

Factorial Design − Designs (default generators)

Factorial Design − Designs (specify generators)

Factorial Design − Generators

8 Copyright © 2003–2005 Minitab Inc. All rights reserved.

Generators for 2-Level Designs

factor runs R Design Generators

Copyright © 2003–2005 Minitab Inc. All rights reserved. 9

10 Copyright © 2003–2005 Minitab Inc. All rights reserved.

To add factors to the base design by specifying generators

Example of specifying generators

Copyright © 2003–2005 Minitab Inc. All rights reserved. 11

Session window output

Factors: 5 Base Design: 3, 8 Resolution: III

* NOTE * Some main effects are confounded with two-way interactions.

Design Generators: D = AB, E = AC

Alias Structure (up to order 3)

Interpreting the results

Adding center points

12 Copyright © 2003–2005 Minitab Inc. All rights reserved.

Blocking the Design

Block ABC CDE

To block a design created by specifying your own generators

To block a design created with the default generators

Rule for blocks with replicates for default designs

Copyright © 2003–2005 Minitab Inc. All rights reserved. 13

Factorial Design − Factors (2-level factorial or Plackett-Burman design)

To assign factor levels

Factorial Designs − Options (2-level factorial design)

14 Copyright © 2003–2005 Minitab Inc. All rights reserved.

Folding the Design

Original fraction Folded on all factors Folded on factor A

Unfolded design I + ABD + ACE + BCDE

Folded design I + BCDE

To fold the design

Copyright © 2003–2005 Minitab Inc. All rights reserved. 15

Randomizing the Design

Storing the design

16 Copyright © 2003–2005 Minitab Inc. All rights reserved.

corrupt your design. See Modifying and Using Worksheet Data.