With scheduled transportation modes the operating characteristics (q

k and V) can be decided by the central controller, of course, subject to

their satisfying q = k . V
For scheduled modes the three terms in this formula mean: q(frequency);
k (number of vehicles/length of route); V (average speed including stops).
In public transportation systems. for instance. one can select the density,
k by fixing the number of buses on a line; one can also (to a certain extent)
fix their average round-trip speed by providing different numbers of stops.
Once this is done, the frequency of service, q. is fixed.
The values of k and V , however, cannot be arbitrarily selected because
of safety reasons. For a certain value of k, there is a value V(k) which
cannot be exceeded; this relationship is analogous to the one in the previous
section and, thus, defines a fundamental i.e., for any given k we can
find V(k) and q = kV(k) , the maximum safe speed (including stops) and flow .
However, since speeds smal l er than V(k) are also safe, (q, k. u) combinations
in the shaded area (see figure below) are also feasible.
k
DENSITY
The density-volume diagram for railroads operating on a single track with a
"Block Signal Control System" (a system of traffic lights that always ensures a
minimum distance, b , between the rear end of a train and the beginning of the
next one) is obtained as an example. We assume that there are no stops.
85



37
We know that the spacing between trains must be larger than the length of
a train, i , and the block distance, b ; thus:
and
spacing b + i
k
< I
-b+i
The maximum safe operating speed of the trains is selected to ensure that
a train can brake to a stop in less than b distance units. For this example,
we will assume that the train must be able to stop in b/2 distance units.
It is well known that the braking distance of a moving object at a constant
deceleration rate, f . g , (f is the coefficient of friction and g the accelera-
tion of gravity) is:
v
2
braking distance =
This formula can be obtained with the methods in Section 3.1. For safety we have:
and
is:
v
2
b
--<-
2fg 2
V<Jb.fg'
The diagram and set of possible operating points for a block length, b

p

o
>
DENSITY
86



38
One can now explore what happens to the maximum operating speed, density, and
flow (point P above) when. the block length, b, and/or the length of the
trains is changed.
The same type of analysis can be carried out when there are stops on the
way; however, in that case it is more convenient to obtain the maximum flow
directly from the time-space diagram. The diagram below depicts the time-space
trajectories of ~ o consecutive trains as they stop at ~ o continguous stations:
x
b + 2.
V'
STATION 2
~ average speed excluding stops
= b + 2.
STATION 1
t
It can be seen that the trajectory of the following train is identical to the
traj ec tory of the first train but shif ted to the right by an amount: d + (b + l) /V I.
This is the. minimum safe headway and, thus, the maximum frequency is:
1 V'
~ x d + b + 2. b + 1 + V! d
V'
The time-space diagram is very useful to analyze situations where the tra-
jectory of one vehicle is affected by the trajectory of other vehicles. The
uses of the time-space diagram are best explained by means of examples. The
next section provides some solved problems (some of which have appeared in
previous exams) covering the material in this chapter and illustrating different
uses of the time-space diagram.
87



39
3.4. Examples
Problem 1
Rapid transit service is offered on a 40 km. long (round trip) route with
a total of 10 stops (one stop every 4 kms.) Trains stop at the stations for 30
sees. If the average speed of the trains excluding stops is 80 km/hr., calculate
the maximum possible service frequency and the required number of trains if trains
must be separated at all times by at least 1 km. and they are 200 meters long.
Solution:
From a time space diagram such as the last one, we' find that
v'
= b + i + V'd
____ _ D 42.86 veh/hr.
1 + 0.2 + 80 x
3600
The average speed of the trains is
v
40 40
= = 68.57 km./hr.
Round Trip Time 40 x 30
80 + 10 3600
and the density
42.86
k :z -V- = 68.57 :z 0.625
The number of trains is N k x 40 .. 25.
At this point we note that instead of q" V k we could have used (this
is always possible for public transportation) q K N/(Round Trip Time) since
v = Length
Trip Time
Problem 2
and
Number of Vehicles
k =
Length
We now study a one-way railroad line without stops. Assuming that the top
speed of a train is V* (a function of the length of the train and the number and
power of the engines) find the block length that allows the largest possible
frequency.
gg



Solution
We first note that V < V* and V 5.. /b . f g' . Thus:
and k
< 1
- b+"I
As was before. q (the ordinate of point P in the figure
max
before the last one) is given by:
_m_in--.:: {_V*---!-....I.r'b:,....:-::--_f_. = . (lJ . f ' g'}
= b + i min b + i b + i
We shall find the value of b that maximizes
of b that makes V* = (b , f ' g; i. e,
Ib' f g'
- --b + i
Let b
O
be the value
The function
has a maximum
(you should check this by taking derivatives) for
b i (which is also the sought maximum if i < b
O
", Case lIin the figure
below)
If the plot of vs. i has the maximum at b b
O
(see
also the figure below).
Mi'
-
b+.t
I V*
,rjb+I
I

89
Case 1: t> b
. I)
Case II: t < b
O
The solution can be written more concisely as:
b - min (h
n
; t}

Problem 3
This problem illustrates use of the time-space diagram to analyze the inter-
action of vehicles in a narrow way.
\'--________ 1
\ _________ J
EAST WEST
___ -J ,
+,L ___ 9_m_i_l_e_s _____ J 1: ::::5 J ____ 9_mi_l_e_s __ j
The above waterway is wide enough for one ship only, except in the central siding
which is wide enough for two ships. Ships can travel at an average speed of six
miles/hour; they must be spaced at least one-half mile apart while moving in the
waterway and 0.25 miles apart while stopped in the siding. Westbound ships travel

full of cargo and are thus given high priority by the canal authorit: over the
eastbound ships which travel empty.
Westbound ships travel in four ship convoys which are regularly scheduled
every 3-1/2 hours and do not stop at the siding.
1. Find the maximum daily traffic of eastbound ships.
2. Find the maximum daily traffic of eastbound ships if the siding is expanded
to one mile in length on both sides to a total of three miles.
Note: We assume that eastbound ships wait exactly six minutes to enter
either one of the straightaways after a convoy has cleared
it. We do this to take into account that ships do not accelerate
instantaneously.
Solution

We first draw the time-space diagram for the problem at an adequate scale.
Next, we plot the trajectories of the high-priority (westbound) convoys. These
have been plotted in the figure. The dashed band (width - 1 mile) represents the
90



siding, where eastbound and westbound trajectories may cross. These dashed lines
will help us draw the eastbound trajectories.
Part 1:
We start by drawing the trajectory of a ship entering the western end of
the canal at 3:30 p.m. (the earliest possible time for that particular gap
in between convoys). Note haw it must stop at the eastern end of the siding
to yield the right of way to the last ship of the westbound convoy; note also
how it makes it within the 5 min. allowance to the eastern end of the canal.
The same process is followed successfully with the second trajectory. In that
case we must also watch for the safe spacings while moving and s t o p p e ~ . : The
third ship, however, would not be able to arrive to the western end of the siding
within the 5 min. allowance and it cannot be dispatched.
Capacity 2 2(ships per ~ hours) x 2i(hours) - 13.71 ships/day.
32(hours)
Part 2:
Enlarging the siding diminishes the length of the straightaways and, thus,
more ships can make it in time (see Figure).
Capacity - 4 x ~ = 27.42 ships/day.
~
2
Test your scheduling skills:
1
See if you can find a way of scheduling six ships per 32 hour period instead
of the 4 depicted in the figure. (Hint: you may have to stop some of the eastbound
ships in the siding) .
91
e o
e

e

l4
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1 2 3 4 6 7 5
UST
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TOO (HOURS)
. . , _ ... _. __ .. . __ ... . . -
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92



24,
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. I '
J,I
I ' 1
1 . I
I ..
I '
I
,
. ,
. , - 1 : . - - .. ----- 1- .. . - - ..
, I . . lJ ;-________ ___ -1 ___________ _
. : : : .. . : . -: ! : : : : ! : : : : l. : -- ! - : I :_i : : I
, . . . f . ---f- _ ... _ _ .- .
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_._--_._-- - -- - ._-----_ .. -._: : . . :: -
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t _
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16

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11
,
10
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! .
6 1 2 3
.. -- .- -- -.-- --------.--.-
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4 ship convoy
(It miles)
. I
----.t
3 miles
4
10
8 --- - - - - - -
_____ t ____
9
7
S
6
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7 '-
f
5
I
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r
4

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8
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TIME (HOURS)
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1 ) 1 S 1. 11 II