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TRAINING MODULE OBJECTIVE
This Training manual is intended to help engineers to understand the
fundamentals of rotating machinery alignment. Thus, in this module, an
effort has been made to provide, a much-needed source of information in
the field of alignment fundamentals & its execution.
To make the module easy to use, contents are divided into short sections
like:
Scope & Introduction to shaft alignment.
Understanding alignment.
Effect of misalignment..
Types of misalignment.
Summary of overall alignment job.
Pre alignment checks.
Alignment techniques & examples
Cold Alignment & Hot Alignment.
Interpretation of data & Calculation.
Machine Movement.
It is hoped that users may suggest improvements in future editions, to
make this module more useful.
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CONFIDENTIALITY STATEMENT
This Training manual is prepared exclusively for the technical knowledge
enhancement of the personnel of Reliance Group of Industries.
No part of this document may be reproduced in any form, in an electronic
retrieval system or otherwise. The document must be returned or when the
recipient has no further use of the same. The document or any part of the
document is not allowed to be taken out of the respective site or to be
shared with any person outside Reliance Group.
Reliance Group of Industries reserves the right to refuse access to the
above document on the grounds of confidentiality.
Authorization for information disclosure is allowed with the written
permission of the respective Site Engineering Head.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
S/N Description Page
1. Scope 6
2. Introduction 6
3. Understanding alignment 7-9
4. Effect of misalignment. 9-10
5. Types of misalignment. 10-11
6. Summary of overall alignment job. 12
7. Pre alignment checks. 13-18
7.1 Foundations & grouts.
7.2 Excessive run-out conditions.
7.3 Machine casing to base plate interface- problems (soft foot).
7.4 Piping forces
8. Couplings 18-23
9. Alignment tolerances 24
10. Measurement Instruments & alignment tools. 26-29
11. Selecting the machine to be adjusted or moved. 30
12. Alignment techniques. 30-35
12.1 Straight edge & feeler gauge.
12.2 Shaft alignment using dial indicators :
a) Face-Rim method
i) Two indicator method.
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S/N Description Page
ii) Three indicator method.
b) Reverse indicator method
c) Face-Face-Distance method.
12.3 Laser alignment method.
13. Bracket sag or Indicator sag. 36-38
14. Data recording, Interpretation & Calculation. 39-51
14.1 Data Recording
14.2 Data Interpretation
14.3 Calculation of corrective movements
a) Graphical Method
i) Example of Face-OD (Two indicator)
ii) Example of Face-OD (Three indicator)
iii) Example of Reverse Indicator Method
b) Calculation of corrective move by formula
Example of Face-OD (Two indicator)
15. Moving Machinery in the field. 51
16. Hot alignment 52
17. Dos 53
18. Donts 54
19. References 55
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1. SCOPE:
Scope of this manual is limited to rotating machinery shaft
alignment fundamentals, techniques & execution methods.
This excludes v-belt & pulley alignment.
2. INTRODUCTION:
For most of rotating machines used in process industries, the trend is
toward higher speeds, higher horsepower per machine, and less sparing.
The first of these factors increases the need for precise balancing &
alignment. This is necessary to minimize vibration & premature wear of
components like bearings, shaft seals & couplings etc.
Balancing deservedly has long received attention from machinery
manufacturers & users as a way to minimize vibrations & wear. While
alignment, which is equally important, has received proportionately less
notice than its importance justifies.
As such alignment of rotating machinery is not a new subject. However
till today as per statistics 20-30 % of total break down across the industry
are caused by misalignment. It indicates the magnitude of attention and
effort required to improve upon.
Accurate alignment & systematic approach to achieve this is a
responsibility of all concerned i.e. technician, engineer & manager.
The alignment technology had been continuously upgraded since the age
of straight edge & feeler gauge to the laser alignment which achieves
higher accuracy in a much shorter time.
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In following chapters, basics of alignment & systematic approach had
been covered in details.
3. UNDERSTANDING ALIGNMENT:
Alignment primarily for rotating machinery is the activity to check that
centerlines of rotation of two shafts (Driver & Driven machine) are in line
i.e. collinear with each other at operating conditions.
Definition of misalignment makes the term alignment easy to understand
More precisely shaft misalignment is the deviation of relative shaft
position from a collinear axis of rotation measured at the points of power
transmission when equipment is running at normal operating conditions.
To better understand above definition lets go word by word: collinear
means in the same line or in the same axis. If two units are collinear then
they are aligned. The deviation of relative shaft position accounts for the
measured difference between the actual centerline of rotation of one shaft
& projected centerline of rotation of the other shaft.
Attached fig.1 Shows typical misalignment situation on a motor and
pump.
Most often words shaft alignment and coupling alignments are
interchanged. It is necessary to understand that prime interest of alignment
is to set the centerline of rotation of shaft for two or more pieces of
rotating machinery collinear. However, in practice alignment check is
performed on the coupling & it is assumed that coupling hub bore & shaft
are concentric with each other. So its necessary to ensure that coupling
hub bores & shaft centerlines are concentric to each other.
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Misalignment is the deviation of relative shaft position from a collinear axis of rotation measured
at the points of power transmission when equipment running at normal operating conditions.
MOTOR
PUMP
A
Details at A
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Here its worthwhile to note that the operating of two shafts in line with
each other at operating condition is essential. However most of the
alignment checks & corrections are performed when machine is at stand
still, hence it is very much essential to know the movement of machine
shaft from position of rest to the operating condition.
As the equipment begins to rotate, a wide variety of factors contribute to
moving the shafts from the position of rest:
Dynamic forces generated by fluid movement or gas compression.
Differential heating up of various components when operating
temperatures are higher.
Piping force due to dynamic fluid reaction & thermal expansions.
Foundation setting & movement.
The expected shaft position at operating condition is normally provided by
the equipment vendor or can be calculated by the methods described later
in this manual under hot alignment.
The difference between the shaft positions from the point of rest to
operating conditions needs to be taken care of.
4. EFFECTS OF MISALIGNMENT
Misaligned rotating machinery have caused and is continuing to cause a
tremendous financial loss to industry worldwide through consequential
losses & effects, the most severe being the production loss on account of
premature machinery failure & continued energy loss.
It has been universally accepted that good alignment is an essential pr-
requisite for safe & smooth running of rotating equipment.
It is apparent that when two machines are misaligned, it creates
undesirable reactionary forces on machine that adversely affect the shafts,
the bearings, the seals and the couplings.
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Failure to properly align rotating machinery can cause:
1) Increased vibrations subsequently leading to other problems.
2) Shaft seal failure.
3) Accelerated failure of close clearance machine parts.
4) Bearing overload/Failure.
5) Coupling failure.
6) Shaft fretting/failure.
5. TYPES OF MISALIGNMENT:
Shaft misalignment can occur two basic ways: Parallel and angular.
Actual field conditions usually have a combination of both parallel and
angular misalignment.
Parallel Misalignment: Parallel misalignment is a condition in which
two shafts center lines are parallel but do not lie along the same line.
See fig.-2. This type of misalignment is also known as Radial or Offset
misalignment.
Angular (Axial) Misalignment: Angular misalignment is a condition,
which describes the angularity between the centerlines of two shafts. As
shown in fig.-2.If misalignment is strictly angular can be corrected by
rotating a shaft about the center of its coupling face.
Combined angular & Parallel misalignment: Most often two shafts
when are misaligned, the misalignment is both parallel & angular. This
occurs when the centerlines of two shafts are not lying along the common
centerline and the one coupling face is not parallel to other coupling face
in any of the one plane horizontal or vertical. See fig.-2.
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MOTOR
PUMP
MOTOR
PUMP
MOTOR
PUMP
PARALLEL MISALIGNMENT
ANGULAR MISALIGNMENT
COMBINED MISALIGNMENT
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6. SUMMARY OF OVERALL ALIGNMENT JOB:
There are basic eight steps involved in aligning rotating machinery.
1. Make the machine ready for alignment. Carry out pre-alignment
checks i.e. ensure that no piping loads are coming on the machine, the
machine is properly secured to foundation, no soft foot exists on the
machine & no excessive run out conditions.
2. Purchase or fabricate the necessary alignment tools & measuring tools.
Ensure that people involved in the job are adequately trained on
alignment techniques.
3. Obtain necessary information on equipment being aligned i.e. are there
any special tools needed to measure the alignment, is any data
available on shaft movement from position of rest, tolerance on
alignment. Determine final desired shaft positions with respect to each
other or prepare the desired final reading set.
4. Inspect the coupling for any damage or worn out components, perform
bearing clearance or looseness check, measure shaft or coupling hub
run-out.
5. Choose right alignment technique, machine to be moved & prepare the
data recording & machine movement calculation sheet.
6. Mount the alignment tools & measuring instruments, record one set of
data & determine the shaft positions with respect to each other.
Compare the shaft positions with desired shaft positions, if shaft
positions are within tolerance no movement of machine is required. If
it is not so calculate machine movement, before attempting machine
movement, ensure the readings by one more set of measurement.
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7. After carrying out the necessary machine movement, recheck the
alignment & ensure that machine or shaft positions are as desired.
8. Couple the machine & run at operating conditions. After machine
stabilization collect vibration data, bearing temperature data & ensure
that machine is operating at desired values.
7. PRE-ALIGNMENT CHECKS:
Pre alignment checks are an important step in entire alignment procedure
& perhaps the most over looked step. Ignorance of this step would largely
nullify the benefits or prevent the attainment and retention of good
alignment.
As mentioned earlier in alignment job summary preliamnry alignment
checks are performed in these areas & any abnormalities shall be
corrected prior to alignment.
Foundation & grouting.
Excessive run-out conditions i.e. Eccentric coupling bore, bent shaft.
Machine to base plate interface problems i.e. soft foot.
Excessive piping forces.
In following paragraphs all above checks are discussed in details:
7.1 Foundation & Grouting:
Adequate size and good condition of foundation is of utmost importance.
As a rule of thumb concrete weight equal to three times machine weight
for rotating machines and five times for reciprocating machines.
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Ideal grout shall result in prefect bonding between base frame &
foundation. There shall no voids or hollow spots in the grout. This can be
detected by tapping with small hammer on grouted base areas. In case
voids or hollow spots are large enough may call for regrouting, small
voids & hollow spots can be corrected by epoxy injection or pressure
grout injection.
7.2 Excessive run-out conditions: The term run-out describes out of
round or non-perpendicular conditions that exist on rotating machinery
shafts and should be one of the first thing you should you check while
attempting alignment.
Radial run-out quantifies the eccentricity of the outer surface of a
component rigidly attached to shaft with respect to shaft centerline of
rotation.
Face run-out quantifies the amount of non-perpendicularity that may
exist at the end of component rigidly attached to shaft. As a general guide
value less than 0.05mm can be accepted for face run-out in absence of any
specific guide.
Run-out checks are normally performed with dial indicators as illustrated
in fig.- 3.
In absence of any specific run-out acceptance values, a table attached
below can be used as a guideline for radial run-out.
Recommended Runout Guidelines
Machine
Speed (RPM)
Maximum Allowable
Total Indicated Runout (TIR)
0-1800 0.125 mm
1800-3600 0.05mm
3600 and up Less than 0.05mm
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Fig.-3 One of the Set-up for run-out check of coupling.
MOTOR
PUMP
Rotate this through 360 Deg.
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Fig.-4 Reasons for run-out problems
-6
+2
11
7
Bent Shaft
+0
4
Coupling hub Skew Bored
2
0
Coupling hub bored off-center
-6
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7.3 Machine casing to base plate interface problems (soft foot):
When rotating machinery is set in place on its base frame/ sole plate, one
or more than one of the feet may not make good contact at the foot
points on the frame. This can be attributed to bowed /warped frames,
improper machining of feet etc.
The soft foot problem in the machine results in different alignment
readings every time you open & tighten the machine mounting bolts. It
will vary with bolt tightening sequence.
A soft foot primarily exist if all the foot of the machine are not in one
plane i.e. one of the foot is short than the others, or if any individual feet
is not flat enough to its mounting area or vice versa.
Follow the steps to detect & correct the soft foot problem.
1) For machine already in operation, it is necessary to ensure that
cause of soft foot is not external i.e. Piping Load or Cable Pull. For
new installation, it is recommended to check the soft foot before
piping & cable connection.
2) Before machine installation on its base frame, ensure that all
mounting pads on base frame are flat enough (Check with straight
edge across the pads & no gap underside of the straight edge). If
pad is not flat enough, correction can be done by machining the
frame.
3) Clean the mounting area & install the machine on base frame.
4) Fully tighten all mounting bolts. Place dial indicator at one of the
feet near the bolthole with stem resting on frame. Loosen all bolts
one by one & observe the dial movement, if is not exceeding
0.05mm, no correction are required & no soft foot exists.
5) In case of higher movement, mark the feet, which had caused the
movement. Check the gap between the feet & mounting pad, if gap
exist & its uniform, install the shim of thickness equal to the gap.
If gap is not uniform than preferably, it shall be corrected by
correcting the machine feet flatness (Mounting pads flatness is
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already ensured). If it is not feasible, can be corrected by taper shim
or partial shim of j, L shapes.
6) After correcting the soft foot, repeat the step-3 to verify that soft
foot had been removed.
7.4 Piping forces:
It is shall be ensured that all piping connected to rotating equipment are
well fitted, supported & sufficiently flexible, so that no more than 0.003
in vertical & horizontal movement occurs at the flexible coupling when
the last pipe flanges are tightened.
The above-mentioned method may ensure safe piping load and parallelism
of pipe flanges with machine flange in cold condition (ambient). However
no direct checks are possible on the machine to ensure safe piping loads
while machine is at operating temperature. Vibration analysis or some
indirect measure like comparison of actual pipe support movement w.r.t.
to calculated one etc. can be depended upon with necessary modifications.
Well designed piping shall restrict pipe loads coming on to the equipment
below the limits set by relevant codes & keeping the alignment within the
limits specified.
Normally pipe loads are exerted on equipment can be higher if pipe
support systems are not sufficiently flexible or restricts the pipe thermal
growth at operating temperature.
Normally to resolve piping related problems, Piping support & piping
system modifications are called for.
8. COUPLINGS:
Coupling is an important component of drive system, which connects two
rotating shafts together. Since it is nearly impossible to maintain perfectly
collinear centerlines of rotation between two or more shafts, flexible
couplings are designed to withstand certain degree of initial or running
misalignment.
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Couplings are broadly classified in two types, Flexible & Rigid Coupling.
Flexible coupling: As described above this type of couplings have in built
ability to with stand certain degree of misalignment depending upon the
type.
Following are some of the most commonly available flexible coupling
types, each one of them are discussed in detail in following paragraphs.
1. Mechanically Flexible
2. Elastomeric
3. Metallic membrane/ disk
Rigid Couplings: Rigid couplings are the older type of couplings, before
flexible coupling came in existence rigid couplings were used to connect
two shafts. Unlike flexible coupling, they do not use any mechanism,
which in addition to power transmission will allow misalignment. Hence
rigid coupling will find its use only in the applications where there is no
room for misalignment or very minor misalignment.
Typical application is vertical pumps where shaft of the drive has to
support weight of driven shaft.
In selection of coupling other than power transmission capacity lot of
other considerations like: Misalignment capability, Torsional flexibility,
Temperature limits, Overhung weight limits, Axial spacing etc. plays vital
role.
Following is a brief description of each flexible coupling along with its
limitations. Depending upon the service requirement any one of these can
be chosen with due considerations for its limitations.
Note: Here values of allowable misalignment for each type are not given
for two reasons 1) Manufacturer of similar couplings will never agree to
same tolerance values.2) Manufacturer will never specify that
misalignment values are combined or separate for angular & axial.
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1.Mechanically Flexible coupling designs:
a) Chain Couplings: The chain coupling is basically consists of two
identical gear sprocket with hardened sprocket teeth & connected by
double width roller or silent type chain. Packaged grease lubrication is
primarily used with this type of construction necessitating a sealed
sprocket.
Capacity: to 1000hp @ 1800 rpm (roller), 3000hp @1800 rpm (
silent)
Max. Speed: up to 5000 rpm.
Shaft Bores: up to 200mm.
Shaft Spacing: determined by chain width, generally 1/8 or .
Design considerations: Wear generally occurs in sprocket teeth due to
excessive misalignment or lack of lubrication. Torsional flexibility
limited by yielding of chain
Advantages:
Easy to disassemble & assemble
Fewer number of parts.
Disadvantages:
Speed limitation due to difficulties in maintaining balancing.
Require lubrication.
Limited allowable axial displacement.
b) Gear Coupling: The gear coupling consists of two hubs with external
gear teeth that are attached to the shafts. A hub cover or sleeve with
internal gear teeth engage with the shaft hubs to provide the
transmission of power. Gear tooth clearances and tooth profiles allow
misalignment between shafts. Lubrication of gear teeth is necessary
and various designs allow for grease or oil as the lubricant.
Capacity: up to 70,000hp
Max. Speed: up to 50,000rpm
Shaft Bores: up to 750mm
Shaft spacing: up to 5000mm.
Advantages:
Allows freedom of axial movements
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Capable of high speeds
Low overhung weights
Good balance characteristic with proper fit & curved tooth profile.
Disadvantages:
Requires lubrication
Temperature limitation due to lubricant.
c) Metal Ribbon coupling: The metal ribbon coupling consist of two
hubs with axial grooves on the outer diameter of the hub where a
continuous shaped grid meshes in to the grooves. Misalignment and
axial movement is achieved by flexing and sliding of the grid member
on specially tapered hub teeth.
Capacity: up to 70,000 hp/100 rpm
Max. Speed: to 6000 rpm
Shaft bores: to 500mm
Shaft spacing: to 300mm
Special design considerations: Grid fabricated from hardened, high
strength steel. Close coupled hubs with removable spacer available.
Advantages:
Easy to assemble.
Torsionally soft.
Disadvantages:
Requires lubrication.
Temperature limited.
Speed Limited.
2. Elastomeric Couplings:
A wide variety of design employs an elastomeric medium to transmit
torque and accommodate misalignment. Most of these couplings are
torsionally soft to absorb high starting torques or shock loads.
Capacity: up to 67,000 hp/100 rpm but varies widely with design.
Max. Speed: approx. 5000 rpm (vary widely with design).
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Shaft bores: up to 750mm
Shaft spacing: up to 2500mm (varies widely).
Special Design Considerations: The elastomeric medium is generally
natural or synthetic rubber, urethane, nylon, teflon or oil impregnated
bronze. Since the elastomer is markedly softer than the hubs and solid
driving elements (wedges, pins, jaws etc.), wear is minimal and
replacement of the elastomer it self is all that needed for periodic
servicing.
Advantages:
Minimal wear in coupling.
Acts as vibration damper and isolator.
Acts as electrical shaft current insulator.
Torsionally soft.
Accepts axial movement and dampens axial vibration.
No lubrication required.
Disadvantages:
Speed limited due to distortion of elastomer from high centrifugal
forces.
Deterioration of elastomer from: Temperature, oxidation of rubber,
corrosive attack from environment.
Potential safety hazard if elastomeric element released from drive
elements.
3.Metallic membrane/ disk type coupling:
a) Diaphragm Couplings:
Transmission of power occurs through two flexible metal diaphragms,
each bolted to the outer rim of the shaft hubs and connected via spacer
tube. Misalignment and axial displacement is accomplished by flexing of
the diaphragm members.
Capacity: up to 30,000hp.
Max. Speed: up to 30,000 rpm.
Shaft Bores: up to 175mm.
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Shaft spacing: 50 to 5000mm.
Special Design Considerations: Metal diaphragm couplings are a highly
reliable drive component when operated within their rated conditions.
Exceeding the maximum allowable angular and or parallel misalignment
values or axial spacing will eventually result in a disc failure. Since
diaphragm is in effect spring, considerations must be given to the axial
spring rate & vibration characteristics to insure the diaphragm coupling
natural frequency does not match rotating speed or harmonics in the drive
system.
Advantages:
Excellent balance characteristics.
No lubrication required.
Low coupling weight & bending forces on shafts when operated within
alignment limits.
Accepts high temperature environment.
Disadvantages:
Limited axial displacement and oscillation.
Proper shaft spacing requirements are more stringent.
c) Flexible disc couplings:
The flexible disc coupling is very similar in design & principal s to
the diaphragm coupling with the exception that multiple, thinner discs
or a non-circular flexing member is used as the flexible element
instead of circular, contoured diaphragm elements.
Capacity: Up to 65,000/100 rpm.
Max.speed: up to 30,00 rpm.
Shaft Bores: 300mm.
Shaft spacing: 5000mm.
Special design considerations: it is important to note that two disc packs
(or diaphragms) are needed to accommodate parallel misalignment
whereas a single disc can only handle pure angular misalignment.
Advantages & disadvantages are same as diaphragm couplings.
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9. ALIGNMENT TOLERANCES:
Before attempting any alignment job the person responsible shall know
the accuracy of alignment required for that machine or alignment
tolerances recommended for that machine.
It is very well accepted that perfect alignment i.e. 100% collinear shaft
alignment is not possible because of so many reasons and even efforts
made to achieve will not justify it. Hence, it is necessary to arrive at the
values, which will achieve the objective of good alignment i.e. safe &
smooth running of equipment without any premature failures of
components.
Primarily the speed of the machine & distance between shaft ends
determines the tolerances on alignment.
Various alignment tolerance charts are available, all the charts are based
on the above criteria. Normally alignment tolerance recommended by
equipment manufacture is to be followed in absence of any such values a
fig.-5 given below can be used as a guide.
10. MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTS & ALIGNMENT TOOLS:
To achieve the objective of shaft centerline measurement a below listed
tools are primarily used:
1) Straight edge.
2) Feeler gauge.
3) Taper Gauges
4) Measuring tape & ruler.
5) Alignment bracket.
6) Vernier Caliper.
7) Dial indicators.
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Fig.-5 ALIGNMENT TOLERANCES
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1) Straight edge: Straight edge is a flat machined steel bar within
an accuracy of micron per length. It is used to measure the
flatness of a surface in combination of feeler gauge.
2) Feeler Gauges: Feeler gauges are simply strips of metal stock
arranged in a fold out fan type of package design. They are
available in both Inch & mm graduations, they are used to
measure the soft foot gap & end gap of closely coupled coupling
to an accuracy of 0.05mm.
3) Taper Gauge: Taper gauges are precisely fabricated metal
wedges having scribe marks along length indicating thickness at
each particular scribe line. They are specifically used to measure
the gap between closely spaced shaft ends where accuracy of +/-
0.2 mm is required.
4) Measure tape & Ruler: These are steel tape or normal measure
tape with graduation up to 1mm.These tapes are used normally
to measure the distance between machine feet & coupling dia.,
which requires accuracy up to +/- 1mm.
5) Alignment brackets: Alignment brackets are primarily the
frameworks to hold the dial indicators in required position &
measure the readings. The sturdy & well-machined brackets are
must, this will minimize the bracket sag (Discussed in detail in
another chapter later). Various forms of brackets are required
depending upon the alignment technique or method selected.
6) Vernier Caliper: Vernier caliper is required for measurement,
which requires accuracy in hundredth of mm. In alignment
primarily they are used check shim thickness etc.
7) Dial indicator & measurement methods:
The dial indicator is the measuring tool used to determine the
physical relationships between shafts to be aligned. There are
two basic types:
Balanced Type: Having figures that read in both directions
(+ or -) from zero. With face graduated in thousandths of an inch
or millimeter, these are recommended for alignment work.
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Continuous Reading Type: Having figures that read only clock-wise
from zero.
The dial indicator is operated by a plunger and convention, the inward
movement of which moves the hand clock-wise or in plus (+) direction.
Out ward movement of the plunger moves the hand counter clock-wise or
in minus (-) direction. The face of the dial can be rotated for reading zero
in any plunger position.
Vertical move: The attached fig. 6, Displays that how the vertical offset
of 0.2mm of a shaft with respect to other shaft will be displayed.
If indicator reading at top is zeroed than bottom will be double than actual
offset. This is called TIR total indicated reading, which is normally
double than actual offset.
Sweep readings: To determine both vertical & horizontal offsets, it is
necessary to obtain a complete set of sweep readings. Sweep readings
are obtained by zeroing the dial indicator at the top position on the
coupling to be indicated. Slowly rotate the shaft so that the dial indicator
is rotated by 360 Deg. In 90 Deg. increments. Obtain reading at
Top (T), right (R), bottom (B) and left (L) fig.-7.
Horizontal move: The attached fig-7, displays that how the alignment
readings of two shaft having 0.2mm vertical offset & 0.2mm horizontal
offset will look like.
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Fig.-6
PROJECTD C.L. OF A
COUPLING-A
MACHINE B LOWERED 0.2 MM IN RESPECT TO MACHINEA
0
0
T READS AS 0.2MM
+20
0.2mm
-20
B READS AS +0.2MM
COUPLING-B
INDICATOR-B
INDICATOR-T
PERFECTLY ALIGNED SHAFTS
TRUE C.L. OF B
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Fig. -7
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11. SELECTING THE MACHINE TO BE ADJUSTED:
To determine the machine(s) to be moved in train, consider the type
of machine and how it is mounted. Gearboxes sometimes to be
shimmed unevenly to obtain optimum tooth contact and once set,
should not be moved unless absolutely necessary. If it is necessary
to move a gearbox tooth contact must be checked after movement
has been completed.
Once set, steam turbines are generally not moved. Centerline
mounted machines where the shim packs are readily accessible are
the easiest to move and should be moved before foot mounted
machines.
In summary fro selecting the machine to be moved following points
shall be considered.
The machine which are easy to move & can be moved in least time
with minimum effort are preferred for movement i.e.
For Pump & Motor train, motor shall be preferred for
movement.
For pump & turbine train, pump shall be preferred for
movement.
For compressor, G.box & Turbine train, first fixing the G.box &
carrying out adjustment on turbine& compressor shall be
preferred.
12. ALIGNMENT TECHNIQUES:
To measure the centerline of rotation of one shaft with respect to
each other various alignment techniques employing various tools
are available.
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The each one of them has its own advantages & disadvantages.
Depending upon the accuracy required, time & money to be spent, user
can select best suited method for their use.
This section discuss in detail the merit & demerits of all most widely used
methods.
12.1 Straight edge & feeler gauge.
12.2 Shaft alignment using dial indicators :
a) Face-Rim method
ii) Two indicator method.
ii) Three indicator method.
b) Reverse indicator method
c) Face-Face-Distance method.
12.3 Laser alignment method.
12.1 Straight edge & Feeler gauge method:
This is the oldest of all alignment technique & simplest one. It employs
the straight edge & feeler gauge / taper gauge to measure the offset &
face gap readings.
Advantages:
1) Simplest & cheapest of all methods.
2) Does not require too many tools.
3) Does not require specialized skills.
Disadvantages:
1) Least accurate of all methods.
2) Too much Scope for human errors.
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Application is limited to low RPM & non-critical machines. This can be
used to carry out rough alignment on critical machines to reduce the time
for precise alignment.
12.2 Alignment using Dial indicator methods:
a) Face-OD method:
i) Two Indicator Method: Fig.-8, Illustrates the most widely used of
the traditional alignment methods. A bracket is attached to one of
shaft and extends near the coupling hub on other shaft. Dial
indicators are attached to the brackets as shown, with the stem of
one indicator resting on OD or rim of opposite coupling hub &
other stem resting on face of same coupling hub. Offset of the shaft
or parallel misalignment is determined by the OD readings, whereas
angularity is determined by Face readings. Normally both the
shafts are rotated together to eliminate errors due to face and rim
irregularities. However, if one of the shafts cannot be turned, then
these deviations ought to be determined & incorporated in the final
readings.
The method has and continues to serve well in the vast majority of
industrial alignment problems. Indeed, it is the specific method
outlined in virtually every maintenance manual for industrial
rotating equipment.
For high speed, high-HP turbo machinery, where requirements for
precise alignment are more stringent, the shortcomings of this
method become increasingly important. Consider the following
points:
The indicator readings taken during this method does not include
only misalignment of two shafts, it also picks-up inaccuracies in
geometry of the coupling hub upon which dial rest. These errors
can be eliminated, by incorporating the allowance for geometry or
by rotating both the shafts together.
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This method incorporate the errors caused by axial movement of
shafts during alignment check. This is of little concern where shafts
are fixed axially by the ball bearings. It becomes a problem,
however on machine equipped with hydrodynamic thrust bearings.
Graphing the results of Face-OD measurements is more complex
than reverse indicator method.
In this method the angularity readings are measured on the hub
face, which are relatively small on high-speed machines. For
example, a reading of 0.05mm on the face of 100mm dia. Coupling
hub represents an angularity of 0.5mm per meter or an error of o.5
m at the opposite end of a machine 1 meter long. This is most
instances may not be a catastrophic but it is an error.
This method requires removal of spacer for measurements. This
may results in additional effort & additional wear & tears for
coupling fasteners.
This method can be used effectively for equipment having anti-
friction bearing & where no axial movement of coupling or shaft is
expected during reading measurement.
ii) Three- Indicator face OD method: This is an improvement over
the two-indicator method, here adverse effect of machine axial shift
is eliminated while taking the readings. The axial error introduced
in indicator T while travelling to the bottom get introduced in
indicator B that goes to top. While subtracting the two face
readings for finding the face gap difference, this error is, there for
automatically cancelled.
This set up would thus be useful for equipment having sleeve
bearings that are prone to axial shift while turning.
b) Reverse Indicator method: In contrast to face method, indicator
readings can be taken by the reverse indicator method on the OD of
the coupling hub (or shaft only). Two brackets are used
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simultaneously, which is normally preferred (Fig.-8). Advantages
of this method over Face-OD method are:
i) By proper design of the alignment brackets, the need for
removal of coupling spacer is eliminated in most cases. This
feature provides three distinct advantages:
- Wear and tear on the coupling is reduced.
- Since both shafts turn as a unit with the spacer installed,
errors caused by coupling hub run-out are entirely eliminated.
This also reduces chances for lubricant contamination in case
of gear couplings.
- By spanning the coupling, angular misalignment is greatly
magnified and more precisely diagnosed.
ii) With this method, we need to mount only one indicator per
bracket, thus reducing sag as compared to Face-OD method,
which use two indicators.
This method can be used for all high horse power & high RPM
machines. This method offers more accuracy for long coupling span
machine over other methods.
c) Face Face Distance method: This set-up shown in fig.-8, is
usable on long spans, such as cooling tower drives without
elaborate long span brackets and consideration of bracket sag.
It is obvious that this method cannot be used where no coupling
spacer is present.
12.3 Laser alignment method: As name implies this method uses
LASER technology to measure the shaft alignment & software
program to calculate corrective movements. As shown in fig.-9,
system uses semiconductor laser emitting a bean with infrared
range (wavelength 820mm), along with a beam finder incorporating
an infrared detector. The laser beam is refracted through a prism
and is caught by a receiver/detector. These lightweight, non-bulky
devices are mounted on the equipment shafts, and only cord-
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connected microcomputer module is external to the beam emission
and receiver /detector devices.
The prism redirects the beam and allows measurement of parallel offset in
one plane and angularity in another, thus simultaneously controlling both.
In one 360Deg. Rotation of the shafts all four directional alignment
corrections are determined.
The receiver is bi-axial analog photoelectric semiconductor position
detector, yielding mathematical results to within one micron. Data for
computation are entered automatically through a cable direct from the
receiver/detector. The only information still to be entered manually is
relative position, 4 times at 0, 90, 180 and 270 Deg.
With the data automatically obtained from receiver/detectors, the
microcomputer instantaneously yields the horizontal & vertical movement
as well as shimming.
Some of the distinct advantages of the method over other s are:
Higher accuracy than any other method.
Least time consuming as no manual calculation required.
Eliminates all possible human errors of other method.
Online monitoring of corrections being made.
Disadvantages:
Higher capital cost than other methods.
Specialised skills or training required.
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STATIONARY
MACHINE
MACHINE TO
BE ADJUSTED
STATIONERY
MACHINE
MACHINE TO BE
ADJUSTED
SET-UP FOR TWO INDICATORS ( FACE-OD METHOD)
THREE INDICATORS (FACE-RIM METHOD)
FIG.-8/1
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STATIONARY
MACHINE
MACHINE TO
BE ADJUSTED
REVERSE INDICATOR METHOD
TWO INDICATOR FACE-FACE DISTANCE METHOD
FIG.-8/2
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Alignment tool Kit
Fig.-9
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13. BRACKET SAG OR INDICATOR SAG:
Indicator mounting brackets must be fabricated and securely fastened to
the coupling hub or shaft in such a manner that indicator bracket sag ill
be eliminated. However before we proceed to take alignment readings and
if the sag cannot be eliminated, it must be determined & accounted for.
Generally, sag should be checked when using clamp-on jigs for spans
greater than 6 inches, as well as when stiffness is in doubt.
Various ways are there to determine the bracket sag, the widely accepted
& accurate method is described here.
Indicator bar sag can be determined by holding a bar-stock of appropriate
size in n lathe between centers and then turning it to the proper diameter
to accept the alignment bracket. Without removing the bar-stock from the
lathe, alignment bracket is attached. With the bracket on top of the bar
stock, the indicator is set to zero. Rotate the assembly by 180 Deg. so that
the indicator now reads directly on the bottom of the bar stock (Fig.-10).
Sag = TIR/2
Correction of Sag: To correct the sweep readings for sag, add twice the
amount of true sag to the bottom reading (B) and correct the side readings
(R & L) by adding the sag amount.
In case of reverse indicator method the indicator that is zeroed at bottom
shall be corrected for sag by subtracting the double the sag value from
Top reading.
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-0.06
LATHE CENTRE
TRUE CENTER LINE
0.03 mm Amount of SAG
0
0.03 mm
TRUE
AMOUNT OF
SAG
MANDREL
MANDREL
MANDREL
INDICATOR BAR
INDICATOR BAR
FIG.10 CHECKING INDICATOR BAR FOR SAG
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14. DATARECORDING, INTERPRETATION AND
CALCULATION:
The importance of systematic data recording cannot be over emphasized.
The systematic data recording will eliminate many human errors & will be
easy to understand. The figs.-11,12,13,14 Attached are sample for various
set-ups.
14.1 Data Recording: The steps involved in Data recording will be
clearer by following example. (Fig.15)
Take the appropriate data recording sheet for Face-OD method. Enter the
machine diagram, date & machine no. & name of the person doing the
job. Define the fix & machine to be moved. Enter the basic dimensions
like distance of moveable machine first & second feet distance from
coupling hub etc. Mount the bracket & dial indicators. Before taking
reading meet all pre requisites. Take all rim & face readings, record the
rim readings out side the circle & face readings inside the circle. Perform
the check of correctness of readings by repeating the reading & checking
the T + B = S + S. Add double the known sag to bottom readings & sag to
side readings. This completes the data recording.
14.2 Data interpretation: Next step in alignment procedure is the data
interpretation. Data interpretation or visualization of machine position is
very important for calculating & carrying out correct machine movement.
Refer fig.-15 for reading set.
Calculate the half of vertical rim reading: -0.11/2 = -0.05 mm
This will give the centerline offset at the plane of measurement. The (-)
sign indicates that machine to be adjusted is higher than the stationery
machine. Similarly we see that the bottom face distance is 0.07mm wider
than the top face distance.
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Fig.-11 Data Recording sheet Two Indicator Face-OD method.
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Fig-12 Data Recording Sheet for Three Indicator Face-OD method
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Fig.15 Reading set for Two Indicator Face-OD method
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Fig.-16 Reading set for Three Indicator Face-OD method
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Fig.-17 Reading set for Reverse Indicator method
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(For side readings make one side reading zero for better understanding by
adding the amount equal to one side reading and reverse sign to both the
side readings)
In similar way we can calculate horizontal offset & horizontal face gap.
Horizontal Offset is: -
-0.22mm
- 0.07 mm (Change sign)
-0.29mm /2
Horizontal gap difference is: +0.04 mm
+0.10 mm (Change sign)
+ 0.14mm wide at north
14.3 Calculation of corrective moves: After interpretation of data the
next step is calculation of corrective moves. Most of the time when job
alignment is left to technicians this movements are done by their own
judgement, which is essentially a trial & error method. This method
sometimes may take a days together to arrive at correct alignment.
Various scientific methods are there to accurately calculate these
movements.
The programmable mini calculators in which data entered in a
prescribed manner give the desired results. However they are costly in
comparison to other methods & unsuitable for adverse and hazardous
field conditions.
Manual calculation methods involving mathematical formulae. This
has advantage of low investment (Paper, Pencil, Calculator). They
have the disadvantage, in some view points, of being tedious to be
done at site, difficult for the technician to comprehend, and requiring
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more thinking than the programmed electronic solutions, particularly
to choose plus or minus signs correctly.
The graphical methods, which have the advantage of aiding
visualization and avoiding confusion, by showing the relationship of
adjacent shaft centerlines to scale. Investment is low, speed is high
once proficiency is attained.
a) Graphical Method:
i) Face-OD method (Two indicators Method):
This follows the examples of graphical method for face & rim method
(Two indicator method). This refers the Readings of fig.-15,for
calculation.
Take vertical alignment first
Draw a horizontal line AB (representing the stationary machine center
line) and a vertical line at B. Mark off the parallel offset C above (+) or
below (-) B to scale depending on whether the machine to be adjusted is
higher or lower than the stationary machine (in this case +0.055mm).
Draw a vertical line parallel to and away from CB by the amount of face
gap difference (0.07mm). With C as center, and radius as the face
measurement dia., draw an arc to cut this line at D above or below C on
depending on whether the face gap is wider at the top or bottom (4
Diameter & 0.07mm wider at bottom in this case). Join CD, draw a line
CE perpendicular to it which represents the centerline elevation of the
machine to be adjusted. From C mark IB & OB supports on this line using
the same scale as for coupling measurement dia.CD. The vertical
distances of these points from the horizontal line represent the amount of
shims to be removed from underside of the IB & OB supports to bring the
machine to be adjusted in alignment with the other machine.
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A similar graph can be drawn for horizontal alignment as follows. Mark
off the parallel offset C towards north by 0.145mm. Draw a line parallel to
and at a distance of 0.14mm from CB (by which amount the north face
distance is wider). With C as center and 4 radius, mark off D at this line
towards north as shown. Draw CE perpendicular to CD and mark off IB &
OB points. The vertical distances of these points from AB indicate the
amount by which the IB and OB supports of the machine to be adjusted
would have to be shifted north to make it co linear with the stationery
machine in the horizontal plane.
39
B
D
E
IB
OB
9
C
4
0.055
0.22
0.76
UP
0.07
NOT TO SCALE
Fig. 18
CALCULATION FOR VERTICAL MOVEMENT
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ii) Face-OD method (Three indicator method): Primarily the
procedure for plotting the readings for three indicator method is same as
two indicator method. Here for face readings two dial indicators are used
to over come the axial float error of the machine. As shown in attached
reading set, first readings as recorded in two-indicator method will be
achieved by subtracting each face reading from opposite side dial reading
& dividing by two. Further procedure remains same. A detailed example
is illustrated in attached fig.- 20, this refers to the reading set recorded in
fig.-16.
B
N
0.14
NOT TO SCALE
Fig. 19
CALCULATION FOR HORIZONTAL MOVEMENT
A
9
39
0.145
0.16
1.2
D
4
IB
OB
C
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HORIZONTAL MOVEMENT
VERTICAL MOVEMENT
Fig.20
GRAPHICAL SOLUTION FOR THREE INDICATOR FACE-OD
41
B
D
IB
12
C
6
0.07
0.26
0.90
N
0.09
B
UP
0.07
A
12
41
0.03
0.11
0.59
D
6
IB
OB
C
OB
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iii) Reverse Indicator Method:
For better understanding, a data set in attached fig.-17 is referred here.
Followings are the detailed steps for constructing the plot to calculate the
movements:
i) Mark up and directions. Take and record data. Check T +B equals
S+S.
ii) Correct the readings for sag & divide net vertical reading by 2.
iii) Enter the resulting figures in to the first and second lines under
Interpretation without (+) or (-) signs.
iv) Look at the drawing and decide whether higher or lower at plane S
and mark the interpretation accordingly.
v) Ditto at plane A, except that the sag is now subtracted from the top
reading to get the new value.
vi) Manipulate the side readings to get zero on one side as shown on
the data-sheet. Divide the difference by 2. Do this for planes A & S.
vii) Enter the resulting figures in to the third and fourth lines under
Interpretation without (+) or (-) signs.
viii) Look at the drawing and decide whether north, south, east or west
at planes S and mark the interpretation accordingly. Ditto for
plane A in the fourth line.
ix) Proceed for graphical solution as shown on attached fig.22, mark
up and direction. Draw the horizontal and vertical axes as for the
earlier setups. Mark the vertical centerline differences at planes S
& A parallel to and above or below the horizontal, as the case
may be. With a suitable scale for coupling length and spanning the
total centerline difference, draw a line through S and extend it to
show plane A, IB & OB supports. The vertical distances from these
to the horizontal denote the vertical movements desired.
x) Proceed similarly for horizontal movement.
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VERTICAL MOVEMENT
HORIZONTAL MOVEMENT
GRAPHICAL SOLUTION FOR REVERSE INDICATOR METHOD
Fig.-21
E
UP
A
S
0.08
36
IB
OB
15
0.10
0.365
7
W
A
S
IB
OB
0.15
0.32
36
15
7
0.09
0.035
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b) Calculation of corrective movement by formula:
Primarily the correction calculation method for Face-OD method with
either two or three indicator dial method remains same. In the later one
basically readings are reduce to readings in format of two indicator
method.
The calculation of corrective move by formula method is generally not
promoted for reverse indicator method, because there are plenty of scope
for error while graphical method are quite easy to visualize.
Here example of Face-OD method with two indicator method is discussed
for better understanding. (Fig.-15 & attached fig.-20)
Following formulas are derived to calculate the movement using
trigonometry.
For shimming or vertical move:
Correction at IB = (Face gap Difference)* (B/D) Net offset
Correction at OB = (Face gap Difference)* (B+C/ D) Net offset
For given example:
Vertical Movement:
At IB = -(0.07)*(9/4)- (0.11/2) = -0.157 0.055 = - 0.22 say lower by 0.22
MACHINE
TO BE MOVED
FIXED MACHINE
B
C
D
Fig.-22
OB IB
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At OB=-(0.07)*(39/4)- (0.11/2)= -0.683 0.055 = -0.74 say lower by 0.74
Horizontal Movement:
At IB = (0.14)*(9/4) N (0.29/2) S = 0.316N 0.14 = - 0.17N, say move
IB by 0.17 by north
At OB= (0.14)*(39/4) N (0.29/2) S= 1.37N 0.145 S = 1.24N, say
move OB by 1.24 north.
In this method also interpretation of data or visualization of machine
positions is important to assign (+) or (-) sings in the calculation.
15. MOVING MACHINERY IN THE FIELD:
The important step of the alignment procedure after collecting the
alignment data, interpreting it & deciding the necessary movement, is to
make actual movement in the field.
It is needless to mention here that like other steps of alignment, machinery
movement in the field also if executed systematically will consume the
least time.
From the calculations or graphical presentation it can be seen that two
ways machinery movement would be required i.e. Horizontal & Vertical
movement.
Following are some guidelines to accomplish the job of required
machinery movement.
Roughly adjust the axial position of the machinery within the tolerance
of +/- of 1.2mm.
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Loosen the holding down bolts one by one & insert or remove the
necessary shims to make vertical adjustment, to facilitate shim
insertion use vertical jack screws. Before inserting shims, clean all feet
& mounting area thoroughly.
After making vertical adjustment carryout necessary horizontal
movement with side jackscrews. To ensure the required movement at
individual feet, make sure that holding bolts at other feet is tight
enough. To monitor the movement on-line (if space permits) position
the bracket in side reading position & check movement on dial gauge
while moving the machine sidewise.
Ensure that all holding down bolts are tight enough before checking
the final readings.
Finally, check the readings for both horizontal & vertical readings, if
fine adjustments are required follow the same steps.
16. HOT ALIGNMENT:
Thermal growth of machines may or may not be significant for alignment
purposes. In addition, movement due to pipe effects, hydraulic forces and
torque reactions may enter the picture. Relative growth of the two or more
elements is of concern.
Normally in absence of any specific data about expected movement of
machine centerlines it is a good practice to start with zero-zero alignment
at ambient conditions.
Machine performance at operating condition i.e. if vibration data indicates
the misalignment than only any of the following methods can be used to
estimate thermal growth.
i) Guess work based on experience: Although not reliable, if a certain
thermal growth corrections have been found satisfactory for a given
machine, often the same correction will work for a similar service.
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ii) Manufacturers Recommendations: If recommendations are specific
to the machine considering all other factors like climate, piping etc.
than it works well most of the time.
iii) Calculations based on Assumed metal temperatures, Machine
Dimensions and Coefficient of thermal expansion: results are
variable. This method ignores the effect of piping forces, torque
reactions etc.
iv) Make mechanical measurements of machine housing growth during
operation, referenced to base plate or foundation, or between
machine elements.
v) Shut Down and measure before machine cooling: This method is
questionable, since during the time necessary for de-coupling,
indicator set-up etc., and most thermal growth would have
vanished. This method also does not take in to account other
parameters like hydraulic forces, piping load etc.
17 Dos:
Always use calibrated dial gauges & calibrated instruments.
Adjust the plunger of the dial gauges so that they are pressed
half ways i.e. the small dial (hour dial) of the dial gauges should
read 4 to 5.
Ensure that dial gauge plunger is square to the coupling surface.
As far as possible, mount the bracket on fixed machine & dial
riding on moving machine. No hard & fast rule but this will ease
out interpretation.
Ensure that uniform conventions i.e. top, bottom, north & south
is followed throughout the procedure.
Measure all the readings facing the same direction.
Follow uniform practice for dial readings i.e. divisions or mm.
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Before rotating the machine, ensure that bearings are lubricated.
Always use pre-cut SS shims.
Ensure the correctness of readings by taking at least two set of
readings.
As far as possible, rotate both the shafts together.
Check the surfaces where measurements are to be made are free
from burrs or marks.
18. Donts:
While measuring the readings if you have passed the 90 Deg.
mark never rotate back, complete the whole revolution.
Do not hammer the machine feet directly for side movement.
Use side jackscrews for movement.
Do not use poorly fabricated or rough alignment brackets. Use
properly machined & sturdy brackets.
Never use magnetic dial stand for alignment.
Dont use trial error method for corrective movements.
Dont grind shank of the holding down bolts if restricting the
movement, enlarge the holes.
Avoid using too many shims.
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19. REFERENCES:
1. Shaft Alignment Hand book- John Piotrowski.
2. Practical Machinery Management for process plants Vol.-3 by
Heinz P. Bloch and Fred K Geitner.
3. Manual on Rotating Machinery Alignment IOC.
4. Steam turbine Inspection Program Shaft Alignment
by General Electric.