Pile Driving Analysis Via Driving Test

University of Southern Queensland
Faculty of Engineering and Surveying

Pile Driving Analysis Via Dynamic Loading Test

A dissertation submitted by
Mr. Yu Wah, YU

In fulfillment of the requirements of

Courses ENG4111 and 4112 Research Project

Towards the degree of

Bachelor of Engineering (Civil Engineering)

Submitted: October, 2009

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND ABSTRACT
RESEARCH PROJ ECT REV05 PAGE i
ABSTRACT

During the pile driving, there are many problems to be concerned such as pile damage,
hammer performance to the pile, drivability of pile in various soil strata and determine
pile bearing capacity. Unfortunately, being the pile driven underground and therefore out
of sight identifying those problems and therefore implementing remedial actions is
considerably more difficult than in structure placed above ground level.

This research gives an overview of most common testing method used to determine the
cause of pile damage and the pile bearing capacity during pile driving. By WAVE
equation, it can be predicted the desired pile bearing capacity with applicable hammer
configuration. However, this process is before pile driving and therefore the problems are
still out of sight. Thereafter, Case method is developed to monitor and identify the pile
defects and pile bearing capacity during pile driving and therefore those problems will
not be out of mind.

Applying case histories to build up a statistically results, the paper also describes the
relationship between pile damage and pile bearing capacity.

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND DISCLAIMER
RESEARCH PROJ ECT REV05 PAGE ii

Faculty of Engineering and Surveying

ENG4111 & ENG4112 Research Project
DISCLAIMER
Limitations of Use

The Council of the University of Southern Queensland, its Faculty of Engineering and
Surveying, and the staff of the University of Southern Queensland, do not accept any
responsibility for the truth, accuracy or completeness of material contained within or
associated with this dissertation.

Persons using all or any part of this material do so at their own risk, and not at the risk of
the Council of the University of Southern Queensland, its Faculty of Engineering and
Surveying or the University of Southern Queensland.

This dissertation reports an educational exercise and has no purpose or validity beyond
this exercise. The sole purpose of the course pair entitled Research Project is to
contribute to the overall education within the students chosen degree program. This
document, the associated hardware, software, drawings, and other material set out in the
associated appendices should not be used for any other purpose: if they are so used, it is
entirely at the risk of the user.

Yu Yu Wah
Student number: 0050016432
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND CANDIDATESCERTIFICATION
RESEARCH PROJ ECT REV05 PAGE iii
CANDIDATES CERTIFICATION

I certify that the ideas, designs and experimental work, results, analysis and conclusions
set out in this dissertation are entirely my own efforts, except where otherwise indicated
and acknowledged.

I further certify that the work is original and has not been previously submitted for
assessment in any other course or institution, except where specifically stated.

Yu Yu Wah

Student Number: 0050016432

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND TABLE OFCONTENTS
RESEARCH PROJ ECT REV05 PAGE iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS PAGE
ABSTRACT i
DISCLAIMER ii
CANDIDATES CERTIFICATION iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iv
LIST OF FIGURE viii
LIST OF TABLE x
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION 11
1.1 - Introduction 11
1.2 - Objectives 110
1.3 - Organization of report 111
CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW 21
2.2 - Dynamic analysis methods 23
2.3 - Methods of dynamic analysis 25
2.4 - Driving resistance criteria 26
2.5 - Quality Control on Driven Piles 28
2.6 - Methods for determining pile drivability 214
RESEARCH PROJ ECT REV05 PAGE v

2.6.1 - Wave Equation Analysis 214
2.6.2 - Dynamic testing analysis 215
2.6.3 - Static load tests 215
2.7 - Drivability versus pile type 216
CHAPTER 3 - DYNAMIC FORMULAS 31
3.2 - Accuracy of dynamic formulas 32
3.3 - Problems with dynamic formulas 33
3.4 - Dynamic formulas 35
3.5 - Alternatives to use of Dynamic formulas 36
CHAPTER 4 - DYNAMIC ANALYSIS BY WAVE EQUATION 41
4.2 - Wave propagation 42
4.3 - Wave equation methodology 44
4.4 - Wave equation applications 48
4.5 - Analysis decisions for wave equation problems 412
4.5.1 - Selecting the proper approach 412
4.5.2 - Hammer data input, external combustion hammers 415
4.5.3 - Hammer data input, diesel hammers 416
4.5.4 - Cushion Input 418
4.5.5 - Soil parameter Selection 419
4.5.6 - Comparison with dynamic measurements 423
RESEARCH PROJ ECT REV05 PAGE vi

CHAPTER 5 - DYNAMIC PILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS 51
5.2 - Background 51
5.3 - Applications for dynamic testing methods 53
5.3.1 - Static pile capacity 54
5.3.2 - Hammer and driving system performance 54
5.3.3 - Driving stresses and pile integrity 55
5.4 - Dynamic testing equipment 56
5.5 - Basic wave mechanics 512
5.6 - Dynamic testing methodology 524
5.6.1 - Case method capacity 524
5.6.2 - Energy transfer 529
5.6.3 - Driving stresses and integrity 531
5.6.4 - The CAPWAP method (Case Pile Wave Analysis Program) 533
5.7 - Usage of dynamic testing methods 540
5.8 - Advantages 542
5.9 - Disadvantages 544
CHAPTER 6 - TEST RESULTS 61
6.2 - Interpretation 67
6.2.1 - Energy transfer 67
6.2.2 - Driving stress 67
6.2.3 - Pile integrity 68
RESEARCH PROJ ECT REV05 PAGE vii

6.2.4 - Pile capacity 68
CHAPTER 7 - DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 71
7.1 - Discussion 71
7.1.1 - Pile integrity 71
7.1.2 - Stress on pile 73
7.1.3 - Hammer performance 74
7.1.4 - Pile capacity 78
7.2 - Conclusion 79
7.3 - Recommendation 711
REFERENCE 1
APPENDIX A PROJECT SPECIFICATION 1
APPENDIX B RAW DATA 1
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND LIST OF FIGURE
RESEARCH PROJ ECT REV05 PAGE viii

LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 1-1 - Pisa of Tower in Italy 1-2
Figure 1-2 - Building collapse due to poor foundation, China (Jun-2009) 1-2
Figure 4-1 Definition of parameters governing stress wave propagation in piles 4-4
Figure 4-2 Typical Wave Equation Model 4-6
Figure 5-1 Pile preparation for dynamic testing 5-7
Figure 5-2 Gages bolted on pile 5-8
Figure 5-3 Strain transducer and accelerometer bolted on the concrete pile 5-9
Figure 5-4 Pile driving analyzer (courtesy of Pile Dynamics, Inc) 5-9
Figure 5-5 Free end wave mechanics 5-14
Figure 5-6 Force and Velocity measurements versus Time for Free End Condition 5-15
Figure 5-7 Fixed end wave mechanics 5-17
Figure 5-8 Force and Velocity measurements versus time for Fixed End Condition 5-18
Figure 5-9 Soil resistance effects on force and velocity records 5-21
Figure 5-10 Typical force and velocity records for various soil resistance condition 5-23
Figure 5-11 Standard, RSP and Maximum, RMX, Case Method Capacity Estimates 5-28
Figure 5-12 Energy transfer computation 5-31
Figure 5-13 Schematic of CAPWAP analysis method 5-34
Figure 5-14 Factors most influencing CAPWAP force wave matching 5-35
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND LIST OF FIGURE
RESEARCH PROJ ECT REV05 PAGE ix

Figure 5-15 CAPWAp iteration matching process 5-37
Figure 5-16 CAPWAP final result table 5-38
Figure 5-17 CAPWAP stress distribution profile 5-39
Figure 6-1 Graphical presentation of energy transfer 6-3
Figure 6-2 Graphical presentation of static capacity 6-4
Figure 6-3 Graphical presentation of compressive stress 6-5
Figure 6-4 Graphical presentation of pile integrity 6-6
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND LIST OF TABLE
RESEARCH PROJ ECT REV05 PAGE x

LIST OF TABLE
Table 5-1 Summary of Case damping factors for RSP equation 5-27
Table 5-2 Pile damage guidelines (Rausche and Goble, 1979) 5-32
Table 6-1 Summary of dynamic loading test result 6-2
Table 7-1 - Limits on driving stress (BSI, 2001) 7-4
Table 7-2 - Typical energy transfer ratio of pile hammers 7-7
Table 7-3 - Acceptance criteria of driven pile via pile displacement 7-8
Table 7-4 Relationship between pile capacity, Energy transfer, Driving stress and Integrity 7-11

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND INTRODUCTION
RESEARCH PROJ ECT REV05 PAGE 1-1

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
1.1 - Introduction
The role of foundation in superstructure is undeniably important especially in
high-rise building. From ancient periods, human had been already paid attention
to the foundation structure. It can be evidenced in the bible.
I will show you what he is like who comes to me and hears my words and puts
theme into practice. He is like a man building a house, who dug down deep and
laid the foundation on rock. When a flood came, the torrent struck that house but
could not shake it, because it was well built. But the one who hears my words
and does not put them into practice is like a man who built a house on the
ground without a foundation. The moment the torrent struck that house, it
collapsed and its destruction was complete.
[Luke 6:47-49 NIV (Circa AD 60)]
The above statement is well proving that the significance of foundation. Figure
1-1 and Figure 1-2 are showing the results of superstructure building on the poor
foundation.

Figure 1-1 - Pisa of Tower in Italy
Resource: http://www.flickr.com/photos/heute/337699799/

Figure 1-2 - Building collapse due to poor foundation, China (Jun-2009)
Resource: http://141hongkong.com/forum/redirect.php?tid=373616&goto=lastpost


Deep foundations have been frequently used to support structures, such as
buildings, bridges, towers, and dams, in areas where the soil conditions are
unfavorable for shallow foundations. Two basic types of deep foundation are
well known as drilled shafts and driven piles. Drilled shafts are usually installed
by using hammer to drive the steel or concrete piles into the ground. This report
is concentrated on the improvement of design and quality control of driven piles.

Traditionally, the design of pile foundations is based on static analysis methods,
such as -method, -method, -method, Nordlunds method, Meyerhofs method,
SPT (Standard Penetration Test) method, and CPT (Cone Penetration Test)
method. However, the pile capacity estimated from static analysis based on the
soil parameters obtained from the laboratory test and in-situ test may not be
accurate. It can vary widely due to original nature of soil deposit, and different
soil testing and evaluation methods. Consequently, some type of load-carrying
capacity method of driven piles is needed in the field.

Static load test can serve as the ultimate verification of driven pile capacity,
though this method has still the unsettled question which concerns the definition
of failure load. However, the static load test is expensive and time-consuming to
carry out and thus can only be performed on a few selected driven piles. The
information obtained from static load test results cannot be easily estimated to
other piles at the site, leaving those other piles to be unverified. Besides, the
information obtained from the static load tests cannot help engineer to decide

when to stop pile driving. Estimation of pile capacity based on observation
during pile driving is therefore an essential element in a pile driving practice.

With the creation of digital computers, synchronizing analysis of pile driving
problem during pile driving became possible. In 1960, Smith proposed the first
applicable wave equation method for pile-driving analysis. The wave equation
method was adopted by the engineers in the piling industry because it gave a
more accurate result. With the development and acceptance of PDA (Pile
Driving Analyzer), the Case method (Rausche et al. 1985), applying the
measured force and velocity in approximate simple algebraic equations, has
become one of the widely used methods to evaluate the pile capacities during
pile driving. However, the static soil resistances determined by the Case method
are very sensitive to assumed Case damping factor, and shaft and toe resistance
cannot be separated by the Case method.

In an effort to solve some of the weakness of the Case method, an alternative
procedure - the CAse Pile Wave Analysis Program (CAPWAP), was developed
by Rausche et al. (1972, 1985). The CAPWAP approach is based on the one-
dimensional wave propagation model suggested by Smith (1960). In the
CAPWAP analysis, the data (either force or velocity) is used as input to match
closely with the other by adjusting Smith model parameters. Once the acceptable
match is achieved, then the pile capacities and the Smith model parameters can
be determined. In addition, some other researchers such as Paikowsky et al.

(1994), Hirsch et al. (1976), Liang and Zhou (1996), and Liang (2003) have
proposed various methods to interpret the measured force and velocity for
evaluating the pile capacity. However, the capacity estimation and drivability
predictions from dynamic pile tests are sometimes far from satisfactory. Thus,
the dynamic testing technique still needs to be further improved.

Nowadays, dynamic pile tests are widely adopted to verify when the design pile
capacity is reached during pile driving and to monitor the installation process to
avoid pile damage due to hammer impact. However, there is a lack of acceptance
criteria for the number of pile tests and measured capacity. Hannigan et al. (1998)
suggested that a minimum of two dynamic pile tests to be conducted for a small
project. For large projects or small projects with expected installation difficulties,
or significant time dependent capacity issues, a greater number of dynamic pile
tests are recommended. If the test piles do not reach a required design capacity,
the design load for the piles must be reduced or additional number of piles or
longer pile length must be installed. The recommendations of the number of
dynamic pile tests are totally based on engineering experience.

Paikowsky et al. (2004) provided recommendations for the number of piles to be
dynamically tested as well as the acceptance criterion for a set of driven piles.
The testing in manufacturing was employed to determine the number of dynamic
tests to be performed on production piles. However, the adoption of normal
distribution for dynamic test methods, which deviated from the actual cases that

the probabilistic characteristics of dynamic test methods can be properly
represented by the lognormal distribution, makes the recommendations very
conservative. The acceptance criterion for a set of dynamic test results is
subjectively chosen such that the average capacity of the tested piles is no less
than 85% of the ultimate capacity. In addition, the application of arithmetic
mean of measured capacity is far away from the actual cases of geometric mean
of measured capacity when the lognormal distribution is used to represent the
probabilistic characteristics of dynamic test methods. Therefore, there is a need
to develop more reasonable, reliability-based quality control criteria for driven
piles.

Since 1994, American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO) has been in process to change from Allowable Stress
Design (ASD) method to Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) method
for foundation design. Whereas ASD considers all uncertainties in the applied
load and ultimate geotechnical or structural capacity in a single value of factor of
safety (FS), LRFD separates the variability of these design components by
applying load and resistance factors to the load and material capacity.
Comparing to ASD, LRFD has the following advantages:

z Accounts for variability in both resistance and load;

z Achieves relatively uniform levels of safety based on the strength of soil

and rock for different limit states and foundation types;

z Provides more consistent levels of safety in the superstructure and
substructure as both are designed using the same loads for predicted or
target probabilities of failure.

The adoption of LRFD approach makes possible the application of reliability
analysis to quantify uncertainties joined to various methods for estimating loads
and resistances. In AASHTO LRFD specifications (2003), the resistance factors
for various design methods are recommended with calibrations mostly based on
the reliability analysis using available statistical data. The design of foundation
piles is usually performed with static analytical calculations using both of the
soil parameters from local geotechnical site investigations and laboratory test
results. The uncertainties related to the prediction method, the errors of
calculation model, and the spatial variability of soil parameters, are considered
in a single resistance factor recommended for a specific design method
regardless of individual site-specific situation. For each construction site, soil
profiles, soil types, pile driving equipment, and hammer performance, will be
unique. Thus, it is advantageous if a site-specific calibration for the resistance
factors can be performed to improve design.

With the use of both static load test and dynamic pile test, the pile length
estimated using static analysis methods during the design stage would be proven

either adequate or inadequate based on field pile tests during pile driving.
Therefore, the uncertainties of static analysis design method could be reduced by
dynamic test results. Vrouwenvelder (1992) presented an approach for including
either the static or dynamic test results to update the factor of safety in the ASD
method of driven piles. Zhang et al. (2002) demonstrated that the results from
static pile load tests could be included into pile design using Bayesian theory by
updating the resistance factor in LRFD. The practice in Ohio Department of
Transportation shows that more and more dynamic pile test methods have been
utilized to compare with static load test, due to saving in cost and time.
Recognizing that dynamic pile testing is much preferred pile capacity
verification method. A methodology needs to be developed to update the
resistance factors for static analysis method by utilizing dynamic pile test results.

The fact is that axial capacity of a driven pile may change over time after initial
pile installation has been reported by a number of geotechnical engineers for
many years. The increase of pile capacity with time is usually referred to the soil
set-up. Oppositely, the decrease of pile capacity with time is often named as soil
relaxation. Due to pile driving, soils around the pile are disturbed and remolded,
and excess pore pressures are generated. With passing of time, the excess pore
pressure will dissipate and consequently pile capacity is built up. Decrease in
excess pore pressure is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from
the pile (Pestana et al. 2002). The time to dissipate excess pore pressure is
proportional to the square of horizontal pile dimension (Holloway and Beddard

1995; Soderberg 1961), and inversely proportional to the soils horizontal
coefficient of consolidation (Soderberg 1961). Accordingly, larger-diameter
piles take longer time to set-up than small-diameter piles (Long et al. 1999;
Wang and Reese 1989). As excess pore pressures dissipate, the effective stress
of the affected soil increases, and set-up predominately occurs as a result of
increased shear strength and increased lateral stress against the pile. In
experience, piles driven into clay tend to greater set-up than piles driven into
sand and silt. Piles may be relaxation when driven into dense and saturated sand
and silt. Based on observations in the field, numerous geotechnical engineers
developed various empirical formulas to predict the set-up behavior (e.g., Skov
and Denver 1988; Svinkin et al. 1994; Huang 1988; Zhu 1988). In particular, the
semilogarithmic empirical relationship, proposed by Skov and Denver, has been
widely used to predict post-installation pile capacity increase with time.

With an accumulation of more experience and knowledge on set-up
phenomenon, some researchers have suggested that the set-up be formally
incorporated into the prediction method to determine total pile capacity. For
example, Bullock et al. (2005) proposed a conservative method for incorporating
side shear set-up into the total pile capacity. The predicted set-up capacity was
assumed to have the same degree of uncertainties as the measured reference
capacity and a single safety factor was used to account for all uncertainties of
loads and resistances. Due to different uncertainties associated with measured
capacity and predicted set-up capacity, Komurka et al. (2005) proposed a

method to apply separate safety factors to End of Driving (EOD) and set-up
components of driven pile capacity. Furthermore, the set-up capacity was
characterized as a function of pile penetration based on dynamic monitoring
during both initial driving and restrike testing. The separate safety factors
recommended for EOD and set-up capacity, however, are based purely on
judgment with no attendant database and statistical analysis. Therefore, the
development of a reliability analysis methodology on set-up capacity will be
desirable to separate the resistance factors in LRFD of driven piles.

1.2 - Objectives
The objectives of this study are listed as follows:
z To present a methodology for pile design by combining the information
from the static calculation and dynamic pile testing.

z To develop a one-dimensional wave equation based to interpret the High
Strain Testing (HST) data for estimation of the shaft and toe resistance of
driven piles.

z To develop a methodology for pile driving by monitoring the driving
hammer energy transfer into the pile during driving. The results from
dynamic loading test will present the different between steel piles and
concrete pile.


z To find the cause of damaging pile during driving. Pile integrity are
determined based on the obtaining the change of pile impedance.

z To develop the relationship between allowable pile stress, pile integrity
and driving energy from the dynamic loading test result.

1.3 - Organization of report
The organization of this report is as follows:
z Chapter 2 presents the literature review of analysis methods of driven piles.

z Chapter 3 presents the dynamic formula.

z Chapter 4 presents the dynamic analysis by wave equation.

z Chapter 5 presents the dynamic pile testing and analysis.

z Chapter 6 presents the test results which are obtained from West Libya
project and Macau project.

z Chapter 7 is the discussion and conclusion of the test results from Chapter
6.

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND LITERATURE REVIEW

CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 - Introduction
Dynamic analysis methods can be defined as analytical techniques for evaluating
the soil resistance when the pile is being driven. A pile foundation designed to
meet compression, uplift, and lateral load performance requirements using the
static design methods is adopted if it cannot be installed as designed and without
damaged. The suitability of a selected pile section to be driven within allowable
driving stress limits to require ultimate capacity and the minimum pile
penetration depth should be evaluated by the foundation design.

The soil resistance acting on the pile during driving is including the static and
dynamic resistance. The primary interest is the static resistance component
because this is the only resistance available to support the future designed
loads. During driving, the static resistance is in most cases on a part of the
ultimate pile capacity. The dynamic soil resistance, or damping force, is the
temporary viscous resistance on the pile during driving. Therefore, the dynamic
resistance provides resistance to the pile penetration during driving but does not
provide long term support under static loading conditions.

Traditional dynamic analysis has been dynamic formulas such as the
Engineering News formula. Depending on the formula used, an estimate of the

allowable or ultimate pile capacity related to the pile driving resistance at the
time of driving is obtained. Unfortunately, dynamic formulas have fundamental
weaknesses in that they do not totally represent the dynamic force of the
hammer-pile impact, the influence of axial pile stiffness and / or the soil
behaviour. Dynamic formulas have also proven unreliable in determining pile
capacity in many conditions. Their continued use is not recommended on
significant projects.

Wave equation analysis, Goble and Rausche (1986), is the most readily available
dynamic analysis tool to the foundation designer during the design stage. A
detailed discussion of the wave equation method is presented in following
Chapter 4. Dynamic testing and analysis, Goble and Hussein (1994), Hannigan
(1990) is an additional dynamic analysis tool that can be used if a design stage
test program is planned. Additional details on dynamic testing and analysis
methods are presented in following Chapter 5.

These dynamic analysis methods not only provide an estimate of the ultimate
pile capacity relative to pile driving resistance, also include an evaluation of
actual pile driving stresses. The application of dynamic analysis method is to
match the hammer size and pile section to the static and dynamic soil resistance.
Moreover, it can find the ultimate pile capacity or to reach the specified pile
penetration depth.


2.2 - Dynamic analysis methods
Piles are forced into the ground by dynamic means such as impact or vibration.
A successful pile foundation which meets the design objectives depends on
relating the static analysis results presented on the plans to the dynamic methods
of field installation and control. During the design and construction stage, the
following site specific questions often arise:

z Can the design pile section be driven to the required penetration depth and
capacity with readily available pile hammers (design stage) or a proposed
hammer (construction stage)?

z What soil resistance must be overcome? With the expected or proposed
hammer, what will be the maximum driving resistance required to
overcome this soil resistance and what will be the allowable stress limit by
the design pile section during driving?

z If a specific hammer cannot drive the design pile section to the required
depth and / or capacity within allowable driving stress, what hammer
characteristics could be specified (design stage) or obtained (construction
stage) to drive the pile?

To answer these and further questions that may arise with a specific pile
foundation, analysis of the hammer-cushion-pile-soil system through dynamic

analysis methods is invaluable. However, based on the past experience, is not
sufficient to answer the above questions.

The traditional method for field verification of the pile capacity is dynamic
formulas which are discussed in detail in Chapter 3. Unfortunately, dynamic
formulas have fundamental weaknesses and cannot provide reliable answer of
the above questions. Dynamic formulas do not provide allowable pile driving
stresses and have proven unreliable in determining pile capacity in many
conditions. Therefore, the dynamic analysis methods should be used in both the
design and construction stages of a project. In a design stage, wave equation
analysis may indicate whether the pile section cannot be driving stresses or
within a reasonable driving resistance. A design amending shall then be
considered. The wave equation can be used to evaluate what changes can be
made i.e. pile size, pile type, pile material properties, hammer size, or what
installation techniques can be specified to achieve the desired foundation. If a
test pile program is preformed during the design stage, the information from
dynamic testing and analysis of test piles in conjunction with wave equation
analyses can be used to evaluate design change.

If a project is designed without dynamic analysis methods, and then problems
are detected when these methods are executed during the construction stage,
problem solutions may not be quite as easy. In this case, equipment and

materials may already be on-site, thereby the solutions is limited. For example,
few cost effective options exist once a thin walled pipe pile lacking the required
drivability arrives on site. In this example, it may be necessary to reduce the
ultimate capacity per pile and increase the number of piles. Moreover, it also
uses a pile installation aid such as predrilling, or order new piling having the
necessary drivability. Of course, it assumes that the hammer and crane are still
suitably sized. While a construction stage problem is more complicated,
dynamic analysis methods still offer the most reasonable way of determining the
most cost effective solution.

2.3 - Methods of dynamic analysis
There are two methods of dynamic analysis. These include:
z Wave equation analysis
z Dynamic testing and analysis
The wave equation is a computer simulation of the pile driving process that
models wave propagation through the hammer-pile-soil system. This computer
analysis can be readily used in either the design or construction stage to evaluate
pile drivability, size of driving equipment, calculate driving stresses, and assess
ultimate pile capacity versus pile penetration resistance. These analyses are an
important improvement over the use of dynamic formulas. Two limitations of
wave equation analysis involve assumptions that must be made on drive system

performance and on the soil model, (i.e., the soil resistance distribution, and the
soil quake and damping parameters).

Dynamic testing and analysis consists of measuring strain and acceleration near
the pile head during driving, or restriking using a Pile Driving Analyzer or
similar data processing device conforming to ASTM D4945:2000. The strain
and acceleration signals are used to calculate quantities such as energy transfer,
pile driving stresses, and estimates of ultimate pile capacity. Further analysis of
dynamic testing data using signal matching methods can also figure the soil
model. The information from dynamic testing on drive system performance and
the soil model can be used to improve the accuracy of wave equation results.
Dynamic testing and analysis provides a better evaluation method and
construction control as compared to dynamic formulas.

2.4 - Driving resistance criteria
The foundation designer shall specify the dynamic analysis method to be used
for determining of the driving resistance. The driving resistance usually includes
of a specified penetration resistance at a given hammer stroke and a minimum
pile penetration depth.


In the past, dynamic formulas were the primary means of establishing the
driving resistance criteria. As discussed, dynamic formulas do not provide
information on pile driving stresses and have proven unreliable in determining
pile capacity in many conditions. Therefore, it is not recommended to be
adopted continually on significant projects.

The wave equation analysis offers a rational means of establishing a relationship
between the static pile capacity of a driven pile with the number of blows per
250 millimeter required by a particular hammer to drive a selected pile to an
ultimate capacity in a given soil situation. The driving criteria established from
wave equation analysis should be substantiated by static load tests whenever
possible.

Dynamic testing and analysis of indicator or test piles allows an assessment of
the static pile capacity during driving. This is also an appropriate means of
establishing driving criteria. Again, the driving criteria established by dynamic
testing and analysis should be proven by static load tests whenever possible.

Driving criteria shall also consider time dependent changes in pile capacity.
Hence, lower driving resistances than required may be acceptable in soils where
soil setup is expected. When there are higher driving resistances, soil relaxation

is not anticipated. Once again the driving criteria should be substantiated by
static load tests whenever possible. In cases where time dependent soil strength
changes are expected, load tests should be delayed an appropriate waiting period
until the expected soil strength changes have occurred.

2.5 - Quality Control on Driven Piles
The most common static analysis methods used for evaluating the static axial
capacity of driven piles are as follows: -method (Tomlinson, 1986), -method
(Esrig & Kirby, 1979), -method (Vijayvergiya and Focht, 1972), Nordlunds
method (Nordlund, 1963), Nottingham and Schmertmanns CPT method
(Nottingham and Schmertmann, 1975), and Meyerhofs SPT method (Meyerhof,
1976). Nordlunds method, -method, Nottingham and Schmertmanns CPT
method, and Meyerhofs SPT method are generally used when calculating the
design capacity of driven piles in cohesionless soils, while -method, - method,
-method, and Nottingham and Schmertmanns CPT method are used to predict
the pile capacity when piles are driven into cohesive soils. However, the pile
capacity estimated from static analysis based on the soil parameters obtained
from the laboratory test and in-situ test may not be accurate. Thus, static load
test, dynamic pile test, or both which are believed to have higher accuracy in
estimation of pile capacity have been performed to verify the design capacity
calculated from static analysis method.


The static load tests have been performed to verify that the behavior of the
driven piles agreed with the assumption of the design for decades. There are
various definitions of pile capacity evaluated from load-movement records of a
static load test. Four of them are of particular interests; namely, the Davisson
Offset Limit (Davisson 1972), the DeBeer Yield Limit (DeBeer 1968), the
Hansen Ultimate Load (Hansen 1963), and Decourt extrapolation (Decourt
1999). NCHRP Report 507 (Paikowsky et al. 2004) presented that Davissons
Pile failure criterion could be used to determine the pile capacity for driven piles,
irrespective of the pile diameter and the static load test procedure. The static
load tests have been accepted by most geotechnical engineers as the most
accurate evaluation method of pile capacity. However, the cost and time needed
for a static load test hindered its extensive application in field testing. Dynamic
pile testing, an alternative approach of verification of pile design capacity in the
field, has become more and more attractive in geotechnical engineering due to
its savings in cost and time.

The past one hundred years or longer, many attempts have been made to predict
the driving characteristics and the bearing capacity of piles through the use of
dynamic energy formulas. Dynamic energy formulas are based on simple energy
balance relationship which input energy is equal to the sum of consumed energy
and lost energy. In USA, most of the state highway departments still widely use
the Engineering News Record (ENR) formula (Wellington, 1892) and its

modified version for estimating pile capacities. However, there are some reasons
that make these formulas less satisfactory:
1 - Rigid pile assumption;
2 - No consideration of soil-pile interaction;
3 - No incorporation of damping factor.
Although many efforts have been made to improve the dynamic energy formulas
(Gates 1957, Liang and Husein 1993, Paikowsky et al. 1994, Liang and Zhou
1996), the accuracy of estimation from dynamic energy methods is still far from
satisfactory.

As a better alternative to energy formulas for pile driving, the wave equation
method was proposed by Smith (1960) for the first practical use in estimating the
pile capacity. The one-dimensional wave equation was derived to describe the
motion of pile particles by applying Newtons Second Law to a differential
element of an elastic rod. In Smith model, the pile is separated into lumped
masses and connected by pile spring. The soil resistance to driving is provided
by a series of springs that are assumed to behave in a perfectly elastic-plastic
manner, and the spring stiffness is defined by the ratio of the maximum static
resistance of the soil R
s
and the maximum elastic deformation or quake.
Damping coefficients are introduced to account for the viscous behavior of the
soil. The total soil resistance R
t
is given by

R
t
= R
s
(1 +}v) (2-1)
where R
s
= the static soil resistance
J = the Smith damping coefficient
V = pile velocity

In 1975 and 1976, the other two of the soil models were proposed. They are
Case model and TTI model, by Goble at Case Western Reserve University and
Hirsch at Texas Transportation Institute. These two models can be viewed as
modified version of Smith model. In Case model, the soil damping force is
uncoupled from the spring force and is dependent on the pile particle velocity.
Case damping factor J
c
was introduced to account for the soil damping effect
when multiplied with pile impendence Z
p
and toe velocity V. The total resistance
R
t
is given by
R
t
= R
s
+ }
c
Z
p
v (2-2)
where Z
p
= Pile impendence
J
c
= the damping coefficient
V = pile toe velocity
R
s

It is worth noting that J
c
is not related to soil properties, but a pure empirical
value calibrated with the results of static load tests.

In TTI model, the nonlinearity of soil damping force with velocity is taken into
account. The total resistance R
t
during driving is given by
R
t
= R
s
+(}v
N
) (2-3)
where N =
an exponent less than unity to reflect the nonlinearity of the damping
force with velocity
J = the damping coefficient
V = pile velocity
R
s

An exponent less than unity to reflect the nonlinearity of the damping force with
velocity; 0.2 can be taken for N when lack of information.

With the development and acceptance of pile driving analyzer (PDA), Case
method has become one of the widely used methods to evaluate the pile load
capacity. However, its inaccuracy has also been reported (Lai and Kuo 1994;
Paikowsky et al. 1994). The static soil resistances determined by the Case
method are very sensitive to the assumed Case damping factor and the shaft and
the toe resistance cannot be separated by the Case method. In an effort to
overcome these shortcomings, Rausche (1972, 1985) developed an alternative
procedure known as the CAse Pile Wave Analysis Program (CAPWAP). The
CAPWAP is also based on the one-dimensional wave propagation model
suggested by Smith (1960). In CAPWAP analysis, the High Strain Test (HST)

data on the pile head (either force or velocity) is used as input to generate output
that would match closely with the other HST data by adjusting Smith model
parameters. The acceptable match is achieved and then the pile capacities and
the Smith model parameters can be determined. However, the numerical
procedure in CAPWAP (lumped mass and springs) is computationally time-
consuming, and the capacity estimation and drivability predictions from
dynamic pile tests are sometimes far from satisfactory. Thus the dynamic testing
technique still needs to be further improved.

Nowadays, dynamic pile tests are widely used to verify with the design pile
capacity during pile driving and to monitor the installation process for avoiding
pile damage due to hammer impact. Hannigan et al. (1998) presented that the
number of piles that should be dynamically tested on a project depends on the
project size, variability of the subsurface conditions, the availability of static
load test information and the reasons for performing the dynamic tests. A
minimum of two dynamic pile tests is recommended to be conducted for a small
project. For large projects or small projects with expected installation difficulties
or significant time dependent capacity issues, a larger number of dynamic pile
tests are recommended to be executed. On larger projects, CAPWAP analyses
are typically performed on 20 to 40% of the dynamic test data obtained from
both initial driving and restrike dynamic tests. If the test piles do not achieve a
prescribed design capacity, the design load for the piles must be reduced or

additional piles or pile lengths must be installed. The recommendations of the
number of dynamic pile tests are totally based on engineering experience.

2.6 - Methods for determining pile drivability
There are three available methods for predicting and/or checking pile drivability.
All of the methods have advantages and disadvantages and are therefore
presented in order of increasing cost and reliability.

2.6.1 - Wave Equation Analysis
This method accounts for the pile impedance and predicts driving
stresses as well as the relationship of the pile driving resistance versus
ultimate pile capacity. Wave equation analysis preformed in the design
stage requires assumptions on the hammer type and performance level,
the drive system components, as well as the soil response during driving.
These shortcomings are reflected in variations between predicted and
actual field. Even these shortcomings, the wave equation is a powerful
design tool that can use to check drivability in the design stage, to design
an appropriate pile section, or to specify driving equipment
characteristics.


2.6.2 - Dynamic testing analysis
Dynamic testing can be carried out during pile installation to calculate
during stresses and to estimate static pile capacity at the time of driving.
Time dependent changes in pile capacity can be evaluated if
measurements are made during restrike tests. Additional signal matching
analysis can also provide soil parameters for further wave equation
analysis. A shortcoming of this method as a design tool is that it must be
performed during pile driving. Therefore, in order to use dynamic testing
information to confirm drivability or to refine a design, a test program is
required during the design stage.

2.6.3 - Static load tests
Static load tests are useful for checking drivability and confirming pile
capacity before the production pile driving. Test piles are normally
driven to estimated lengths and load tested. The confirmation of pile
drivability through static load testing is the most accurate method of
confirming drivability and pile capacity since a pile is actually driven
and load tested. However, this advantage also illustrates its shortcoming
for determining drivability includes:
z Cost and time delay that limit their suitability to certain projects.


z Assessment of driving stresses and pile damage are not provided
by the test.

z Can be misleading on projects where soil conditions are highly
variable.

As design and construction control tools, method 1 and 2 offer additional
information and complement static load tests. Method 1 and 2 can save
the material costs or reduction of construction delays. These methods can
also be used to reduce the number of static load tests and also allow
evaluation of increases in the maximum allowable design stresses. A
determination of the increase (soil setup) or decrease (relaxation) in pile
capacity with time can also be made if pile is restriked after initial
driving.

2.7 - Drivability versus pile type
Drivability shall be checked during the design stage of all driven piles. It is
important for closed end steel pipe piles where the impedance of the steel casing
may limit pile drivability. Although the designer may use to specify a thin-wall
pipe in order to save material cost, a thin wall pile may lack the drivability to
develop the required ultimate capacity or to achieve the necessary pile

penetration depth. Wave equation analyses shall be performed in the design
stage to select the pile section and wall thickness.

Steel H-piles and open pipe piles, prestressed concrete piles, and timber piles are
also subject to drivability limitations. This is true as allowable design stresses
increase and special design events require increased pile penetration depths. The
drivability of long prestressed concrete piles can be limited by the piles tensile
strength.

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND DYNAMIC FORMULAS

CHAPTER 3 - DYNAMIC FORMULAS
3.1 - Introduction
Since engineers began using piles to support structures, they have attempted to
find rational methods for determining the piles load carrying capacity. Methods
for predicting capacities were proposed, using pile penetration observations
obtained during driving. The realistic measurement that could be obtained during
driving was the pile set per blow. Therefore energy concepts applying the kinetic
energy of the hammer to resistance on the pile as it penetrates the soil were
developed. The equation can be expressed as:
Wh = Rs
b
(3-1)
where W = Ram weight
h = Ram stroke
R = Soil resistance
s
b
= Set per blow

This type of expression is known as dynamic formulas. Because of the simplicity,
dynamic formulas have been widely used for many years. More comprehensive
dynamic formulas include consideration of pile weight, energy losses and other
factors in drive system components. Whether simple or more comprehensive
dynamic formulas are used, pile capacities determined from dynamic formulas
have shown poor correlations and wide scatter when statistically compared with

static load test result. Therefore, except well supported empirical correlations
under a given set of physical and geological conditions are available, dynamic
formulas should not be used.

3.2 - Accuracy of dynamic formulas
Wellingtion proposed the popular Engineering News formula in 1983. It was
developed for evaluating the capacity of timber piles driven primary with drop
hammers in sands. Concrete and steel piles were unknown at that time as were
many of the pile hammer types and sizes used today. Therefore, it should be
little surprise that the formula performs poorly in predicted capacities of pile
foundations.

The inadequacies of dynamic formulas have been known for a long time. In
1941, an ASC committee on pile foundations assembled the results of numerous
pile load tests along with the predicted capacities from several dynamic formulas,
including the Engineering News, Hiley, and Pacific Coast formulas. The mean
failure load of the load test data base was 91 tons. After reviewing the data base,
Peck (1942) proposed that a new and simple dynamic formula could be used that
stated the capacity of every pile was 91 tons. Peck concluded that the use of this
new formula would result in a prediction statistically closer to the actual pile
capacity than obtained by using any of the dynamic formulas contained in the
1941 study.

More recently, Chellis (1961) noted that the actual factor of safety obtained by
using the Engineering News formula varied from as low as 2/3 to as high as 16.
Sowers (1979) reported that the safety factor from the Engineering News
formula varied from as low as 2/3 to as high as 20. Fragasny et al. (1988) in the
Washington State DOT study entitled Comparison of Methods for Estimating
Pile Capacity found that Hiley, Gates, Janbu, and Pacific Coast Uniform
Building code formulas all provide relatively more dependable results than the
Engineering News formula.

3.3 - Problems with dynamic formulas
Dynamic formulas are fundamentally incorrect. The problems complied with
pile driving formulas can be traced to the modeling of each component within
the pile driving process. They are the driving system, the soil, and the pile.
Dynamic formulas offer a poor representation of the driving system and the
energy losses of drive system components. Dynamic formulas also assume a
rigid pile, thus resistance is constant and instantaneous to the impact force. A
more detailed discussion of these problems is presented below.

First, the derivation of most formulas is not based on a realistic treatment of the
driving system. Most formulas only consider the kinetic energy of the driving

system. The variability of equipment performance is typically not considered.
Driving systems include many elements in addition to the ram, such as the anvil
for a diesel hammer, the helmet, the hammer cushion, and for a concrete pile, the
pile cushion. These components affect the distribution of the hammer energy
with time, both at end after impact, which influences the magnitude of force.
The force determines the ability of the driving system to the pile into the soil.

Second, the soil resistance is assumed untreated that it is a constant force. This
assumption neglects the most obvious characteristics of real soil behavior. The
dynamic soil resistance is the resistance of the soil to pile penetration produced
by hammer blow. This resistance is not equal to the static soil resistance.
However, most dynamic formulas consider the resistance during driving equal to
the static resistance or pile capacity. The penetration of the pile into the soil
during driving is resisted not only by static friction and cohesion. It is also by the
soil viscosity which is comparable to the viscous resistance of liquids process
creates dynamic resistance force along the pile shaft and at the pile toe. The soil
resistance during driving is not equal to the static soil resistance or pile capacity
under static loads.

Third, the pile is assumed to be rigid and its length is not considered. This
assumption completely neglects the piles flexibility which affects its ability to
penetrate the soil. The energy delivered by the hammer sets up time-dependent

stresses and displacements in the helmet, in the pile, and in the surrounding soil.
In addition, the pile behaves, not as a concentrated mass, but a long elastic rod in
which stresses travel longitudinally as waves. Compressive waves which travel
to the pile toe are responsible for advancing the pile into ground.

3.4 - Dynamic formulas
As noted in previous section, the Engineering News formulas is generally
recognized to be one of the least accurate and least consistent of dynamic
formulas. Due to the overall poor correlations documented between pile
capacities determined from this method and static load test results, the use of the
Engineering News formula is not recommended.

For small projects where a dynamic formula is used, statistics indicate that the
Gates formula is preferable, since it correlates better with static load test results.
The gates formula presented below has been revised to reflect the ultimate pile
capacity in kilonewtons and includes the 80 percent efficiency factor on the
rated energy, E
r
, recommended by Gates.
R
u
= |7E
r
log(1uN
b
)] -SSu (3-2)
where R
u
= The ultimate pile capacity [kN]
E
r
=
The manufacturers rated hammer energy (Joules) at the field
observed ram stroke

Log(10N
b
) =
Logarithm to the base 10 of the quantity 10 multiplied by N
b
, the
number of hammer blows per 25mm at final penetration

It is desirable to calculate the number of hammer blows per 0.25 meter of pile
penetration, N
qm
, required obtaining the ultimate pile capacity. The gates
formula can be written in the following form:
N
qm
= 1u(1u
x
) (3-3)
where
x = _
(R
u
+ SSu)
7E
r
_ - 1

Most dynamic formulas are in terms of ultimate pile capacity, rather than
allowable or design load. For ultimate pile capacity formulas, the design load
shall be multiplied by a factor of safety to obtain the ultimate pile capacity that is
input into the formula to determine the set, or amount of pile penetration per
below required. A factor of safety of 3.5 is recommended when using the gates
formula. For example, if a design load of 700kN is required in the bearing layer,
then an ultimate pile capacity of 2450kN should be used in the Gates formula to
determine the necessary driving resistance.

3.5 - Alternatives to use of Dynamic formulas
Most shortcomings of dynamic formulas can be overcome by a more realistic
analysis of the pile driving process. The one-dimensional wave equation analysis

discussed in Chapter 4 is a more realistic method. However wave equation
analyses are primarily preformed on main frame computers. Therefore, wave
equation analysis is often viewed as a tool for special projects and is not widely
used. With the widespread use of computers in present, wave equation analysis
can now be easily performed in a relatively short amount of time.

Dynamic methods of wave equation analysis, such as dynamic testing and
analysis, are instead of traditional dynamic formulas. Dynamic methods shall be
used in conjunction with static pile load tests and the use of dynamic formulas
shall be discontinued.

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND DYNAMIC ANALYSIS BY WAVE EQUATION

CHAPTER 4 - DYNAMIC ANALYSIS BY WAVE
EQUATION
4.1 - Introduction
As discussed in previous chapters, dynamic formulas with observed driving
resistances do not produce acceptable accurate predictions of actual pile
capacities. Furthermore, they do not provide information on stresses in the pile
during driving. The wave equation analysis of pile driving can estimate many
shortcomings associated with dynamic formulas by simulating the hammer
impacts and pile penetration process. The term of wave equation refers to a
partial differential equation. However it means a complete approach to the
mathematical representation of a system consisting of hammer, cushions, helmet,
pile and soil. It is also an associated with computer program for the convenient
calculation of the motions and forces in this system after ram impact.

The approach was developed by E. A. L. Smith (1960), and after the rationality
of the approach had been recognized, several researchers developed a number of
computer programs. For example, the Texas Development of Highways
supported research at the Texas Transportation Institute (TTI) in an attempt to
reduce concrete pile damage using a realistic analysis method. FHWA sponsored
the development of both the TTI program (Hirsch et al. 1976) and the WEAP
program (Goble and Rausche, 1976). FHWA supported the WEAP development

to obtain analysis results backed by measurements taken on construction piles
during installation for a variety of hammer models. The WEAP program was
updated several times under FHWA sponsorship, the last time (Goble and
Rausche, 1986) when the WEAP86 program was released. Later, improved data
files, refined mathematical representations and modernized user conveniences
were added to this program on a proprietary basis, and the program is now
known as GRLWEAP (Goble Rausche Likins and Associated, Inc., 1996).
GRLWEAP is accepted for use on public projects by a variety of agencies (e.g.
AASHTO, 1992, US Army Corps of Engineers, 1993), State Developments of
Transportation, and the FHWA for routine analyses. However, this shall not be
explained as a promotion or endorsement.

This chapter will explain what a wave equation analysis is, how it works, and
what problems it can solve. Highlighting program applications will be
demonstrated. Also, basic program usage and application of program results will
be resented.

4.2 - Wave propagation
Input preparation for wave equation analyses is often very simple, requiring only
very basic driving system and pile parameters in addition to a few standard soil
properties. Thus, a wave equation program can be run without much specialized
knowledge. However, interpretation of calculated results is assisted, and errors

in result application may be avoided, by knowledge of the mechanics of stress
wave propagation.

In the first moment, it is only compressed at the ram-pile interface when a pile is
struck by hammer. This compressed zone, or force pulse, as shown in Figure 4-1,
expands into the pile toward the pile toe at a constant wave speed, C, which
depends on the piles elastic modulus and mass density (or specific weight).
When the force pulse reaches the embedded portion of the pile, its amplitude is
reduced by the action of static and dynamic soil resistance forces. Depending on
the magnitude of the soil resistances along the pile shaft and at the pile toe, the
force pulse will generate either a tensile or a compressive force pulse which
travels back to the pile head. Both incident and reflected force pulses will cause
a pile toe motion and produce a permanent pile set if their combined energy and
force are sufficient to overcome the static and dynamic resistance effects of the
soil.


(a) (b) (c)
Figure 4-1 Definition of parameters governing stress wave propagation in piles
Resource: K. Rainer Massarsch, (2008), Ground Vibrations Induced by Impact Pile Driving,
Case Histories in Geotechnical Engineering, Arlington, VA

4.3 - Wave equation methodology
In a wave equation analysis, the hammer, helmet, and pile are modeled by a
series of segments each consisting of a concentrated mass and a weightless
spring. The hammer and pile segments are approximately one meter in length.
Shorter segments often improve the accuracy of the numerical solution at the

expense of longer times to generate the result. Spring stiffnesses are calculated
from the cross sectional area and modulus of elasticity of the corresponding to
pile section. Hammer and pile cushions are represented by additional springs
which the stiffnesses are calculated from area, modulus of elasticity, and
thickness of the cushion materials. In addition, coefficients of restitution (COR)
are usually specified to model energy losses in cushion materials, and in all
segments which can separate from their neighboring segments by a certain
distance. The COR is equal to an elastic collision which preserves all energy and
is equal to zero for a plastic condition which loses all deformation energy.
Partially elastic collisions are modeled with an intermediate COR value.

The soil resistance along the embedded portion of the pile and at the pile toe is
represented by both static and dynamic components. Therefore, both a static and
a dynamic soil resistance force acts on every embedded pile segment. The static
soil resistance forces are modeled by elasto-plastic springs and the dynamic soil
resistance by linear viscous dashpots. The displacement at which the soil
changes from elastic to plastic behavior is referred to as the soil quake. In the
smith damping model, the dynamic soil resistance is proportional to a damping
factor times the pile velocity times the assigned static soil resistance. A
schematic of the wave equation hammer-pile-soil model is presented in Figure 4-
2.

Figure 4-2 Typical Wave Equation Model
Resource: Dr. Lee L. Lowery., P.E. Pile Driving Analysis By the Wave Equation, Department of
Civil Engineering Texas A & M University College Station, Texas

As the analysis commences, a calculated or assumed ultimate capacity, R
ut
, from
user specified values is distributed according to user input among the elasto-
plastic springs along the shaft and toe. Similarly, user specified damping factors

are assigned to shaft and toe to represent the dynamic soil resistance. The
analysis then proceeds by calculating a ram velocity using the input hammer
efficiency and stroke. The ram movement causes displacements of helmet and
pile head springs, and therefore compressions and related forces acting at the top
and bottom of the segments. Furthermore, the movement of a pile segment
causes soil resistance forces. A summation of all forces acting on a segment,
divided by its mass, produces the acceleration of the segment. The product of
acceleration and time summed over time is the segment velocity. The velocity
multiplied by the time step generates a change of segment displacement which
results in new spring forces. These forces divided by the pile cross sectional area
at the corresponding section equal the stress at that point.

Similar calculations are made for each segment until the accelerations, velocities
and displacements of all segments have been calculated during the time step.
The analysis then repeats for the next time step using the updated motion of the
segments from the previous time step. From this process, the accelerations,
velocities, displacements, forces and stresses of each segment are computed over
time. Additional time steps are analyzed until the pile toe begins to rebound.

The permanent set in millimeter unit of the pile toe is calculated by subtracting a
weighted average of the shaft and toe quakes from the maximum pile toe
displacement. The inverse of the permanent set is the driving resistance (blow

count) in blows per meter that corresponds to the input ultimate capacity. By
performing wave equation analyses over a wide range of ultimate capacities, a
curve or bearing graph can be plotted which relates ultimate capacity to
driving resistance.

A wave equation bearing graph is basically different from a similar graph
generated from a dynamic formula. The wave equation bearing graph is
associated with a single driving system, hammer stroke, pile type, soil profile,
and a particular pile length. If any one of the above items is changed, the bearing
graph will also change. Furthermore, wave equation bearing graphs also include
the maxima of calculated compression and tension stresses.

4.4 - Wave equation applications
A bearing graph provides the wave equation analyst with two types of
information:
z It establishes a relationship between ultimate capacity and driving
resistance. From the users input data on the shaft and toe bearing
resistances, the analysis estimates the permanent set (mm/blow) under one
hammer blow. Specifying up to ten ultimate capacity values provides a
relationship between ultimate capacity and driving resistance (or blow
count) in blows per meter.

z The analysis also relates driving stresses in the pile to pile driving
resistance.

The user usually develops a bearing graph or an inspectors chart for different
pile lengths and uses these graphs in the field, with the observed driving
resistance, to determine when the pile has been driven sufficiently for the
required bearing capacity.

In the design stage, the foundation engineer should select typical pile types and
driving equipment known to be locally available. Then by applying the wave
equation analysis with various equipment and pile size combinations, it becomes
possible to rationally:
z Design the pile section for drivability to the required depth and/or capacity.

For example, considerations of soft layers may make it necessary to drive
a pile through hard layers which driving resistance exceeds the resistance
expected at final penetration. A thin walled pipe pile may have been
initially chosen during design. However when this section is checked for
drivability, the wave equation analysis may indicate that even the largest
hammers will not be able to drive the pipe pile to the required depth
because it is too flexible (its impedance is too low). Therefore, a wall

thickness greater than necessary to carry the design load has to be chosen
for drivability considerations.

z Assist in the selection of pile materials properties to be specified based on
available driving stresses in reaching penetration and/or capacity
requirements.

In the above example, it is supposed that it will be possible to drive the
thinner walled pile to the desired depth but with excessive driving stresses.
More buffers or reducing hammer energy will lower the stresses but will
result in a refusal driving resistance. Choosing a high strength of steel
grade can solve this problem. For concrete piles, higher concrete strength
and/or higher prestress levels may provide acceptable solutions.

z Support the decision for a new penetration depth, design load, and/or
different number of piles.

In the above example, after it has been determined that the pile section or
its material strength had to be increased to satisfy pile penetration
requirements, it may have become available to increase the design load of
each pile and to reduce the total number of piles. Obviously, these
considerations will require reviewing geotechnical and/or structural
considerations.

Once the project has reached the construction stage, additional wave equation
analyses shall be performed on the actual driving equipment by:
z Construction engineers for hammer approval and cushion design.

The pile type, material, and pile penetration requirements have been
selected by the foundation designer, the hammer size and hammer type
may have a decisive influence on driving stresses. For example, a hammer
with adjustable stroke or fuel pump setting may have the ability to drive a
concrete pile through a hard layer while allowing for reduced stroke
heights and tension stress control when penetrating soft soil layers.

Cushions are often chosen to reduce driving stresses. However, softer
cushions absorb and distribute larger amounts of energy and thus
increasing the driving resistance. Since it is both safer (reducing fatigue
effects) and more economical to limit the number of blows applied to a
pile. Softer cushions cannot always be chosen to maintain acceptable
driving stresses. Also, experience has shown that changes of hammer
cushion material are relatively ineffective for limiting driving stresses.

z Contractors to select an economical combination of driving equipment to
minimize installation cost.


While the construction engineer is interested in the safest installation
method, constructors will like to optimize driving time for cost
considerations. Fast hitting, light weight and simple hammers which have
a high blow rate are obviously preferred. The wave equation analysis can
be used to roughly estimate the expected number of hammer blows and the
time of driving. This information is especially useful for a evaluation of
the economy of driving systems.

Additional considerations may include the cost of pile cushions which are
usually discarded after a pile has been installed. Thus, thick plywood pile
cushions may be expensive.

4.5 - Analysis decisions for wave equation problems
4.5.1 - Selecting the proper approach
Even though the wave equation analysis is an invaluable tool for the pile
design process, it shall not be confused with a static geotechnical
analysis. The wave equation does not determine the capacity of a pile
based on soil boring data. The wave equation calculates a driving
resistance for an assumed ultimate capacity, or conversely. It assigns an
estimated ultimate capacity to a pile based on a field observed driving
resistance. It is one thing to perform a wave equation bearing graph for a
certain capacity and a totally different matter to actually realize the

capacity at a certain depth. The greatest disappointments happen when
pile lengths required during construction vary significantly from those
computed during design. To avoid such disappointments, it is imperative
that a static analysis precede the wave equation analysis. The static
analysis will yield an approximate pile penetration for a desired capacity
or a capacity for a certain depth. The static analysis can also generate a
plot of estimated pile capacity as a function of depth. It is important that
the static analysis evaluates the soil resistance in the driving situation
(e.g. remolded soil strengths, before excavation, before scour, before fill
placement, etc.).

After the static analysis has been completed, a wave equation analysis
can be performed either to a bearing graph or to driving resistances and
stresses versus depth (drivability). Sometimes both analyses are
performed. The bearing graph analysis is only valid within the
approximate of analyzed soil profile depending on the variability of the
soil properties. The drivability analysis calculates driving resistances and
stresses for a number of penetration depths and therefore provides a more
complete result. There is, however, a very basic difference between these
two approaches. The bearing graph approach allows the engineer to
assess pile capacity given a driving resistance at a certain depth. The
drivability analysis points out certain problems that may occur during
driving. If the pile actually drives differently from the wave equation

predictions, then a reanalysis with different soil resistance parameters is
needed to match the observed behavior.

Even though an accurate static analysis and a wave equation analysis
have been performed with realistic soil parameters, the experienced
foundation engineer will not be surprised if the driving resistance during
pile installation is to differ basically from the prediction. Most likely the
observed driving resistance will be lower than calculated. For example, a
500kN pile is driven into a clay. With a factor of safety of 2.5, the
required ultimate capacity will be 1250kN. The static soil analysis
indicates that the penetration of pile is 25m long to achieve for the
ultimate capacity. There will ignore toe resistance and will base on
remolded soil strength parameters. The soil may show only 50% of its
long term strength during driving. It is therefore only necessary to drive
the pile to a capacity of 625kN which shall be achieved at the 25 m depth.
The expected end of installation driving resistance will correspond to
625kN. In a restrike test, say 7 days after installation, the 1250kN
capacity will be expected and therefore a much higher driving resistance
will be encountered than observed at the end of driving.

The above discussion points out one major reason for differences
between analysis and reality. However, as with all mathematical

simulations of complex situations, agreement of wave equation results
with actual pile performance depends on the realism of the method itself
and on the accuracy of the model parameters. The accuracy of the wave
equation analysis will be poor when either soil model or soil parameters
do not represent the state of maintenance of hammer or cushions. The
pile behavior is satisfactorily represented by the wave equation approach
in the majority of cases. A review of potential wave equation error
sources follows.

4.5.2 - Hammer data input, external combustion hammers
The most important input quantity is the hammer efficiency. It is defined
that the potential ram energy is available in the form of kinetic ram
energy immediately during the time of impact. Many sources of energy
loss are usually lumped into this one number. If the hammer efficiency is
too high, then an optimistically low driving resistance will be predicted.
This can lead to over predictions of ultimate pile capacity. If the
efficiency is very low, the stresses may be under predicted, leading to
possible pile failures during installation.

Hammer efficiency shall be reduced for battered pile driving. The
efficiency reduction depends on the hammer type and batter angle. For
hammers with internal ram energy measurements, no reductions are

required. Hydraulic hammers often allow for a continuously adjustable
ram kinetic energy which is measured and displayed on the control panel.
In this case the hammer efficiency does not have to cover friction losses
of the descending ram, but only losses that occur during the impact (e.g.
due to improper ram-pile alignment) and it may therefore be relatively
high. For such hammers, the wave equation analysis can select the proper
energy level for control of driving stresses and economical driving
resistances by trying various energy values in term of stroke which are
lower than the rated value.

Similarly, air/stream hammers can be fitted with equipment that allows
for variable strokes. The wave equation analysis can help to find that
driving resistance which the stroke can be safely increased to maximum.
It is, however, important to understand that the reduced stroke is often
exceeded and the maximum stroke not fully reached. Corresponding
increases and decreases of efficiency for the low and high stroke may
therefore be necessary.

4.5.3 - Hammer data input, diesel hammers
The strokes of diesel hammer increases when the soil resistance and
driving resistance increase. GRLWEAP simulates this behavior by trying
a down stroke and repeats the analysis with the new value for the down

stroke. The accuracy of the resulting stroke is therefore dependent on the
realism of the complete hammer-pile-soil model and shall be checked in
the field by comparison with the actual stroke. The consequences of an
inaccurate stroke can be varied. For example, an optimistic assumption
of combustion pressure can lead to high stroke predictions and therefore
to non-conservative predictions of ultimate pile capacity while stress
estimates wwill be conservatively high (which may lead to a hammer
rejection).

Stroke and energy transferred into the pile appear to be closely related
and large differences (say more than 10%) between stroke predictions
and observations shall be explained. Unfortunately, higher strokes do not
always mean higher transferred energy values. When a hammer pre-
ignites, probably because of poor maintenance, the gases combusting
before impact slow the speed of descending ram and cushion its impact.
As a result, only a small part of the ram energy is transferred to the pile.
A large part of the ram energy remains in the hammer producing a high
stroke. In this case, the combustion pressure will be calculated by
matching the computed with the observed stroke under the assumption of
a normally performing hammer and then the calculated transferred
energy will be much higher than the measured one and calculated blow
counts will be non-conservatively low. It is therefore recommended that
hammer problems are corrected as soon as possible on the construction

site. If this is not possible then several diesel stroke or pressure options
shall be tried when matching analysis with field observation and the
most conservative results shall be selected.

4.5.4 - Cushion Input
Cushions are subjected to destructive stresses during their service and
therefore its properties are changed continuously. Pile cushions
experience a particularly pronounced increase in their stiffness because
they are generally made of soft wood with its grain perpendicular to the
load. Typically, the effectiveness of wood cushions in transferring
energy increases until they start to burn. After that, they quickly
deteriorate, this happens after approximately 1500 blows. To be
conservative, the harder cushion (increased elastic modulus, reduced
thickness) shall be used for driving stress evaluations and the less
effective cushion (lower stiffness, lower coefficient of restitution) shall
be analyzed for pile capacity calculations. If accurate values are not
known, parameter changes of 25% from nominal may be tried. Wood
chips as a hammer cushion are totally unpredictable and therefore shall
not be allowed. This is particularly true when the wave equation is used
for construction control.


In recent years, uncushioned hammers have been used with increasing
frequency. For the wave equation analysis without cushion spring, the
stiffness of the spring between hammer and helmet is derived from either
ram or impact block (diesels). This stiffness is very high, much higher
than the stiffnesses of most other components within the system, may
lead to inaccurate stress predictions. Analyses with different numbers of
pile segments will show the sensitivity of the numerical solution.

4.5.5 - Soil parameter Selection
The greatest errors in ultimate capacity predictions are usually observed
when the soil resistance has been improperly considered. A very
common error is the confusion of design loads with the wave equations
ultimate capacity. Note that the wave equation capacity must be divided
by a factor of safety to produce the allowable design load.

Since the soil is disturbed at the end of driving, it often has a lower
capacity at that time. For this reason, a restrike test shall be conducted to
assess the ultimate pile capacity after time dependent soil strength
changes have occurred. However, restrike testing is not always easy. The
hammer is often not warmed up and only slowly starts to deliver the
expected energy as the same time the bearing capacity of the soil
deteriorates. Depending on the sensitivity of the soil, the driving

resistance may be taken from the first 75 mm of pile penetration even
though this may be conservative for some sensitive soils. For
construction control, it is more reasonable to develop a site specific setup
factor in a preconstruction test program. As long as the hammer is
powerful enough to move the pile during restrike and mobilize the soil
resistance, restrike tests with dynamic measurements are an excellent
tool to calculate setup factors. For the production pile installation, the
required end of driving capacity is the required ultimate capacity divided
by the setup factor. Using the wave equation analysis and the reduced
end of driving capacity, the required end of driving blow count is then
calculated.

Although the proper consideration of static resistance at the time of
driving or restriking is of major importance for accurate results, dynamic
soil resistance sometimes play an important role. Damping factors have
been observed to vary with waiting times after driving. Thus, damping
factors may have to be chosen for analyzing modeling in restrike
situations. Studies on this subject are still continuing, damping factors
are not a constant for a given soil type. For soft soils, they may be much
higher than recommended and on hard rock they may be much lower.
Choosing a low damping factor may produce non-conservative capacity
predictions.

Shaft quakes are usually satisfactory as recommended at 2.5 mm.
However, larger toe quakes than the typically recommended pile
diameter divided by 120 may have to be chosen, particularly when the
soil is rather sensitive to dynamic effects. Only dynamic measurements
can appear a more accurate magnitude of soil quakes. However,
conservative assumptions sometimes have to be made to protect against
unforeseen problems. Fortunately, toe quakes have a relatively
insignificant effect on the wave equation of piles having most of their
resistance acting along the shaft. However, for end bearing piles
particularly displacement piles, large toe quakes often develop during
driving in saturated soils causing the toe resistance to build up only very
slowly during the hammer blow. Thus, at the first instant of stress wave
arrival at the pile toe, little resistance exists and tension stresses can
develop. In the case of concrete piles, the tension stresses can produce
pile damage. At the same time, large toe quakes dissipate an unusually
large amount of energy and therefore cause high blow counts. Thus,
more cushioning or lower hammer strokes may not be a possible
alternative for stress reductions. In extreme cases, hammers with heavier
rams and lower strokes had to be chosen to reduce the negative effects of
large toe quakes.


Stress predictions particularly tension stresses are also sensitive to the
input of the resistance distribution and to the percentage of toe resistance.
If the soil resistance distribution is based on a static analysis, then
chances are the shaft resistance is set too high because of the loss of shaft
resistance during driving. It is therefore recommended the drivability
analyses be performed with shaft resistances reduced by estimated setup
factors which will adjust the statically calculated capacity to the
conditions occurring during driving.

Residual stress wave equation analyses are superior to normal analyses
in basic concept and probably in results. Unfortunately, not enough
correlation work has been performed to empirically determine dynamic
soil constants (quakes and dampings) that shall be used with residual
stress analyses. Another reason for its slow acceptance is the slower
analysis performance. However, for long slender piles with significant
shaft resistance components, residual stress analyses shall be performed
to assess potentially damaging stress conditions and the possibility of
ultimate capacities which can be much higher than indicated by the
standard wave equation analysis. Note that residual stress analyses may
not be meaningful to represent early restrike situations where energies
increase from blow to blow while, in sensitive soils, capacities
successively decrease. The residual stress analysis assumes that hammer
energy and pile capacity are constant under several hammer blows.

4.5.6 - Comparison with dynamic measurements
The first impression is that wave equation predicted stresses and bearing
capacity agree quite well with results from field dynamic measurements.
However, there are additional observations and measurements shall be
compared, such as stroke, bounce chamber pressure, and transferred
energy. Transferred energy values are often slightly lower than
calculated and adjustment of hammer efficiency may improve energy but
produce problems with driving stress and bearing capacity. Therefore,
instead of adjusting hammer efficiency, the coefficients of restitution
may have to be lowered. Sometimes, matching of measured values can
be very complicating and difficult. Matching stresses and transferred
energies within 10% of the observed or measured quantities may be
accurate enough. The wave equation maximum stresses in the final
summary table can be along to the length of the pile and may not occur at
that same location as the field measured maxima occur. When comparing
with GRLWEAP and field measurement results, it is important to check
the driving stresses in the extreme tables for the pile segment that
corresponds to the measurement location.

In summary, the following procedure is suggested for matching wave
equation predictions with field measurements:

z All adjustments are done until the quantities to be matched agree
within 10%. It is to be realized that CAPWAP and GRLWEAP
work with different models and input quantities and therefore
cannot agree perfectly.

z Perform wave equation modeling as accurately as possible for the
system which measurements are taken. Use observed stroke,
CAPWAP bearing capacity and associated soil parameters and
cushion properties as per standard recommended values.

z For matching of transferred energy, vary hammer efficiency by
increasing it to maximum 95% and decreasing it to no less than
50% of the standard recommended hammer efficiency for that
hammer type. If efficiency changes are insufficient to produce
agreement between wave equation calculation and field
measurement results to within 10%, adjust cushion coefficients.
The cushion coefficients shall not be increased to values above
98% nor decreased to values less than 50% of the standard
recommended coefficient for that cushion material.

z For matching the measured force, adjust cushion stiffness (pile
cushion if present otherwise hammer cushion). This process may
require readjusting hammer efficiency and coefficient for energy

match as per above steps. Additional correlations through above
steps shall be made until transferred energy and force are within
10%.

z Compare blow counts. Change the shaft and toe damping and the
toe quake simultaneously and proportionately to achieve agreement
between measured and computed blow counts.

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND DYNAMIC PILE TESTING AND ANALYSIS

CHAPTER 5 - DYNAMIC PILE TESTING AND
ANALYSIS
5.1 - Introduction
Dynamic test method uses measurements of strain and acceleration taken near
the pile head as a pile is driven or restrike with a pile driving hammer. These
dynamic measurements can be used to evaluate the performance of the pile
driving system, calculate pile installation stresses, determine pile integrity, and
estimate static pile capacity.

Dynamic test results can be further evaluated using signal matching techniques
to determine the soil resistance distribution on the pile, as well as representative
dynamic soil properties for use in wave equation analyses. This chapter provides
a brief discussion of the equipment and methods of analysis associated with
dynamic measurements.

5.2 - Background
The development of the dynamic pile testing techniques is known as the Case
Method which is started with a Master thesis project at Case Institute of
Technology. This work has been done by Eiber (1958) at the suggestion and

under the direction of Professor H. R. Nara. In this first project, a laboratory
study has been performed that a rod was driven into dry sand. The Ohio
Department of Transportation (ODOT) and the Federal Highway Administration
subsequently funded a project with HPR funds at Case Institute of Technology
beginning in 1964. This project is directed by Professors R. H. Scanlan and G. G.
Goble. At the end of the first two year phase, Professor Scanlan moved to
Princeton University, the research work at Case Institute of Technology under
the direction of Professor Goble continued to be funded by ODOT and FHWA,
as well as several other public and private organizations until 1976.

Four principal directions were researched during the 12 year period that the
funded research project was activated. There was a continuous effort to develop
improved transducers for the measurement of force and acceleration during pile
driving. Field equipment for recording and data processing was also continually
improved. Model piles driven and statically tested by ODOT, and later other
DOTs, were also tested dynamically to obtain capacity correlations. Finally,
analysis method improvements were developed, including both field solutions
(Case Method) and a strict numerical modeling technique (CAPWAP).

ODOT began to apply the results of this research to their construction projects in
about 1968. Commercial use of the methods began in 1972 when the Pile
Driving Analyzer (PDA) and CAPWAP became practical for use in routine field

testing by a trained engineer. There have been continual improvements in the
hardware since 1972, making the equipment more reliable and easier to use.
Further performance of dynamic testing methods resulted from FHWA
Demonstration Project 66, the method benefits were demonstrated on real
projects throughout the US. Subsequently, other dynamic testing and analysis
systems have been developed such as the FPDS equipment and its associated
signal matching technique. However, based on the current state of practice in the
United States, this technique will focus on the Pile Driving Analyzer and
CAPWAP because of specific advantages relating to the comparatively
extensive correlation database with static tests.

5.3 - Applications for dynamic testing methods
Cheney and Chassie (1993) note that dynamic testing costs much less and
requires less time than static pile load testing. They also note that important
information can be obtained regarding to the behavior of the pile driving
hammer and pile-soil systems when it is not available from static pile load test.
Consequently, dynamic testing has many applications. Some of these
applications are discussed below.


5.3.1 - Static pile capacity
z Evaluation of static pile capacity at the time of testing. The soil
setup or relaxation potential can be assessed by restriking several
piles and comparing restrike capacities with the end of initial
driving capacities.

z Assessments of static pile capacity versus pile penetration depth
can be obtained by testing from the start to the end of driving. This
can be helpful in profiling the depth to the bearing strata and the
required pile lengths.

z CAPWAP analysis can provide refined estimation of static
capacity, assessment of soil resistance distribution, and soil quake
and damping parameters for wave equation input.

5.3.2 - Hammer and driving system performance
z Calculation of energy transferred to the pile for comparison with
the manufacturers rated energy and wave equation predictions
which indicate hammer and drive system performance. Energy
transfer can also be used to determine effects of changes in

hammer cushion or pile cushion materials on pile driving
resistance.

z Determination of drive system performance under different
operation, such as pressures, strokes or batters, or changes in
hammer maintenance by comparative testing of hammers or of a
single hammer over an extended period of use.

z Identification of hammer performance problems, such as pre-
ignition problems with diesel hammers or pre-admission in air /
stream hammers.

z Determination of whether soil behavior or hammer performance is
responsible for changes in observed driving resistances.

5.3.3 - Driving stresses and pile integrity
z Calculation of compression and tension driving stresses. In case
with driving stress problems, this information can be helpful when
evaluating adjustments to pile installation procedures. Calculated
stresses can also be compared to specified driving stress limits.


z Determination of the extent and location of pile structural damage.
Thus, costly extraction may not be necessary to confirm or
quantify damage suspected from driving records.

z CAPWAP analysis for stress distribution along the pile.

5.4 - Dynamic testing equipment
A typical dynamic testing system consists of a minimum of two strain
transducers and two accelerometers bolted on the opposite sides of pile to
monitor strain and acceleration. It is in order to account for non-uniform hammer
impacts and pile bending. The reusable strain transducers and accelerometers
and generally attached two to three diameters below the pile head. Almost any
driven pile type (concrete, steel pile, H, Monotube, timber, etc.) can be tested
with pile preparation for each pile types slightly varying.

Figure 5-1 and Figure 5-2 illustrate that the typical pile preparation procedure
required for dynamic testing. In figure 5-1, a prestressed concrete pile is being
prepared for gage attachment by drilling and then installing concrete anchors. In
figure 5-2, the concrete pile to be tested during driving has been positioned in
the leads for driving. Piles to be tested during restrike can be instrumented at any
convenient location and the climbing of the leads in usually not necessary. Pile
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A close up view of strain transducer and an accelerometer bolted to a steel pipe
pile is shown in Figure 5-3. The individual cables from each gage are combined
into a single main cable which in turn relays the signals from each hammer blow
to the data acquisition system on the ground. The data acquisition system, such
as the Pile Driving Analyzer shown in Figure 5-4, conditions and converts the
strain and acceleration signals to force and velocity records versus time. The
force is computed from the measured strain, , times the product of the pile
elastic modulus, E, and cross sectional area, A, then,
F(t) = EA(t) (5-1)
where = Measured strain
A = Cross sectional area
E = Pile elastic modulus

The velocity is obtained by integrating the measured acceleration, record, a, then,
v(t) = _a(t)ut (5-2)
where a = Acceleration

Older dynamic testing systems required multiple components for processing,
recording, and display of dynamic test signals. In newer dynamic testing systems,
these components have been combined into one PC computer based system.

During driving, the Pile Driving Analyzer performs integrations and all other
required computations to analyze the dynamic records for transferred energy,
driving stresses, structural integrity and pile capacity. Numerical results for each
blow for up to nine dynamic quantities are electronically stored in a file which
can be later used to produce graphical and numeric summary outputs. In this
system, force and velocity records are also viewed on a graphic LCD computer
screen during pile driving to evaluate data quality, soil resistance distribution
and pile integrity. Complete force and velocity versus time records from each
gage are also digitally stored for later reprocessing and data analysis by
CAPWAP.

Data quality is automatically evaluated by the Pile Driving Analyzer and if any
problem is detected, then a warning is given to the test engineer. Other
precautionary advice is also displayed to assist the engineer in collecting data.
The capabilities discussed in the remainder of this chapter are those included in
these newer systems.

Additional information on the equipment requirements for dynamic testing are
detailed in ASTM D-4945, Standard Test Method for High Strain Dynamic
Testing of Piles and in AASHTO T-298-33, Standard Method of Test for High
Strain Dynamic Testing of Piles.


5.5 - Basic wave mechanics
This section is summarizing wave mechanics principles applicable to pile
driving. Through this overview, an understanding of how dynamic testing
functions and how test results be qualitatively interpreted can be obtained.

When a uniform elastic rod of cross sectional area, A, elastic modulus, E, and
wave speed, C, is struck by a mass, then a force, F, is generated at the impact
surface of the rod. This force compresses the adjacent part of the rod. Since the
adjacent material is compressed, it also knows the acceleration or a particle
velocity, V. As long as there are no resistance effects on the uniform rod, the
force in the rod will be equal to the particle velocity times the rod impedance, Z.

Z =
EA
C

(5-3)
where C = Wave speed
A = Cross sectional area
E = Pile elastic modulus

Figure 5-5(a) illustrates a uniform rod of length, L, with no resistance effects,
that is struck at one end by a mass. Force and velocity (particle velocity) waves
will be created in the rod, as shown in Figure 5-5(b). These waves will then
travel down the rod at the material wave speed, C. At time L/C, the waves will

arrive at the end of the rod, as shown in Figure 5-5(c) and Figure 5-5(d). Since
there are no resistance effects acting on the rod, a free end condition exists, and a
tensile wave reflection occurs, which doubles the pile velocity at the free end
and the net force becomes zero. The wave then travels up the rod with force of
the same magnitude as the initial input, except in tension, and the velocity of the
same magnitude and same sign.


Figure 5-5 Free end wave mechanics
Resource: CAPWAP manual


Consider now that the rod is a pile with no resistance effects, and that force and
velocity measurements are made near the pile head. Force and velocity
measurements versus time for this free end condition are presented in Figure
5-6. The toe response in the records occurs at time 2L/C. This is the time
required for the waves to travel to the pile toe and back to the measurement
location, divided by the wave speed. Since there are no resistance effects acting
on the pile shaft, the force and velocity records are equal until the reflection
from the free end condition arrives at the velocity wave doubles in magnitude.
Note the repetitive pattern in the records at 2L/C intervals generated as the
waves continue to travel down and up the pile. This illustration is typical of an
easy driving situation where the pile runs under the hammer blow.

Figure 5-6 Force and Velocity measurements versus Time for Free End Condition


Figure 5-7(a) illustrates a uniform rod of length, L, that is struck by a mass.
Again there are no resistance effects along the rod length, but the pile end is
fixed, i.e., it is prevented by some mechanism from moving in such a manner
that the particle velocity must be zero at that point. The mass impact will impart
force and velocity waves in the rod as shown in figure 5-7(b). These waves will
again travel down the rod at the material wave speed, C. At time L/C, the waves
will arrive at the end of the rod as shown in Figure 5-7(c) and Figure 5-7(d).
There the fixed end condition will cause a compression wave reflection and
therefore the force at the fixed end doubles in magnitude and the pile velocity
becomes zero. A compression wave then travels up the rod.


Figure 5-7 Fixed end wave mechanics
Resources: CAPWAP manual


Consider now that the rod is a pile with a fixed end condition and that force and
velocity measurements are again made near the pile head. The force and velocity
measurements versus time for this condition are presented in Figure 5-8. Since
there are no resistance effects acting on the pile shaft, the force and velocity
records are equal until the reflection from the fixed end condition arrives at the
measurement location. At time 2L/C, the force wave increases in magnitude and
the velocity wave goes to zero. This illustration is typical of a hard driving
situation where the pile is driven to rock.

Figure 5-8 Force and Velocity measurements versus time for Fixed End Condition


As discussed above, the force and velocity records versus time are equal or
proportional at impact and remain proportional thereafter until affected by soil
resistance or cross sectional changes. Reflections from either effect will arrive at
the measurement location at time 2X/C where X is the distance to the soil
resistance or cross section change. Both soil resistance effects and cross
sectional increases will cause an increase in the force record and a proportional
decrease in the velocity record. Conversely, cross sectional reductions, such as
those caused by pile damage, will cause a decrease in the force record and an
increase in the velocity record.

The concept of soil resistance effects on force and velocity records can be
further understood by reviewing the theoretical soil resistance example presented
in Figure 5-9. In this case, the soil resistance on a pile consists only of a small
resistance located at a depth, A, below the measurement location, and a larger
soil resistance at depth B. No other resistance effects act on the pile, so a free
end condition is present at the pile toe. The force and velocity records versus
time for this example will be proportional until time 2A/C, when the reflection
from the small soil resistance effect arrives at the measurement location. This
soil resistance reflection will then cause a small increase in the force record and
a small decrease in the velocity record.


No additional soil resistance effects act on the pile between times 2A/C and
2B/C. Therefore, the force and velocity records will remain parallel over this
time interval with no additional separation. At time 2B/C, the reflection from the
large soil resistance reflection will then cause a large increase in the force record
and a large decrease in the velocity record. No additional soil resistance effects
act on the pile between time 2B/C and 2L/C. Therefore, the force and velocity
records will again remain parallel over this time interval with no additional
separation between the records.


Figure 5-9 Soil resistance effects on force and velocity records

At time 2L/C, the reflection from the pile toe will arrive at the measurement
location. Since no resistance is present at the pile toe, a free end condition exists

and a tensile wave will be reflected. Hence, an increase in the velocity record
and a decrease in the force record will occur.

These base interpretation concepts of force and velocity records versus time can
be used to qualitatively evaluate the soil resistance effects on a pile. In Figure 5-
10(a), minimal separation occurs between the force and velocity records between
time 0, or the time of impact, and time 2L/C. In addition, a large increase in the
velocity record and corresponding decrease in the force record occurs at time
2L/C. Hence, this record indicates minimal shaft and toe resistance on the pile.

In Figure 5-10(b), minimal separation again occurs between the force and
velocity records between time 0 and time 2L/C. however in this example, a large
increase in the force record and corresponding decrease in the velocity record
occurs at time 2L/C. Therefore, this force and velocity record indicates minimal
shaft and a large toe resistance on the pile.

In Figure 5-10(c), a large separation between the force and velocity record
between time 0 and time 2L/C. This force and velocity record indicates a large
shaft resistance on the pile.

Figure 5-10 Typical force and velocity records for various soil resistance condition


5.6 - Dynamic testing methodology
As introduced in Section 5-1, two methods have developed for analyzing
dynamic measurement data, the Case Method and CAPWAP. In the field, the
pile Driving Analyzer uses the Case Method equations for estimates of static pile
capacity, calculation of driving stresses and pile integrity, as well as computation
of transferred hammer energy. The CAPWAP analysis method is a more
rigorous numerical analysis procedure that uses dynamic records of force and
velocity along with wave equation type pile and soil modeling to calculate static
pile capacity, the relative soil resistance distribution, and dynamic soil properties
of quake and damping. Static pile capacity evaluation from these two methods
will be described in greater detail in subsequent sections. For additional details
of the dynamic analysis procedures, references are provided at the end of this
chapter.

5.6.1 - Case method capacity
Research conducted at Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland,
Ohio, resulted in a method which uses electronic measurements taken
during pile driving to predict static pile capacity. Assuming the pile is
linearly elastic and has constant cross section, the total static and
dynamic resistance on a pile during driving, RTL, can be expressed
using the following equation, which was derived from a closed form
solution to the one dimensional wave propagation theory:

RTL =
1
2
|F(t
1
) +F(t
2
)] +
1
2
|v(t
1
) -v(t
2
)]
EA
C
(5-4)
where F = Force measured at gage location
V = Velocity measured at gage location
t
1
= Time of initial impact
t
2
= Time of reflection of initial impact from pile toe (t
1
+ 2L/C)
E = Pile modulus of elasticity
C = Wave speed of pile material
A = Pile area at gage location
L = Pile length below gage location

To obtain the static pile capacity, the dynamic resistance (damping) must
be subtracted from the above equation. Goble et al. (1975) found that the
dynamic resistance component could be approximated as a linear
function of a damping factor times the pile toe velocity, and that the pile
toe velocity could be estimated from dynamic measurements at the pile
head. This led to the standard Case Method capacity equation, RSP,
expressed below:

RSP = RTL - } _v(t
1
)
EA
C
+F(t
1
) -RTL_ (5-5)
where J = Dimensionless damping factor based on soil type near the pile toe

Typical damping factors versus soil type at the pile toe were determined
by finding the range in the Case damping factor, J, for a soil type that
provided a correlation of the RSP static capacity within 20% of the static
load test failure load, determined using the Davisson (1972) offset limit
method. The original range in Case damping factor versus soil type from
this correlation study, Goble et al. (1975), as well as typical ranges in
Case damping factor for the RSP equation based on subsequent
experience, Pile Dynamics, Inc. (1996), are presented in Table 5-1.
While use of these values with the RSP equation may provide good
initial capacity estimates, site specific damping correlations should be
developed based upon static load test results or CAPWAP analysis. It
should also be noted that Case damping is a non-dimensional damping
factor and is not the same as the Smith damping discussed in Chapter 4
for wave equation analysis.


Soil type at pile toe Original Case damping
correlation Range
Goble et al. (1975)
Updated Case damping
ranges
Pile Dynamics (1996)
Clean Sand 0.05 0.20 0.10 0.15
Silty sand, sand silt 0.15 0.30 0.15 0.25
Silt 0.20 0.45 0.25 0.40
Silty clay, clayey silt 0.40 0.70 0.40 0.70
Clay 0.60 1.10 > 0.70
Table 5-1 Summary of Case damping factors for RSP equation

The RSP or standard Case Method equation is best used to evaluate the
capacity of low displacement piles, and piles with large shaft resistances.
For piles with large toe resistances and for displacement piles driven in
soils with large toe quakes, the toe resistance is often delayed in time.
This condition can be identified from the force and velocity records. In
these instances, the standard Case Method equation may indicate a
relatively low pile capacity and the maximum Case Method equation,
RMX, should be used. The maximum Case Method equation searches for
the t, time in the force and velocity records which results in the
maximum capacity. An example of this technique is presented in Figure
5-11. When using the maximum Case Method equation, experience has
shown that the Case damping factor should be at least 0.4, and on the

order of 0.2 higher than that used for the standard Case Method capacity
equation, RSP.

Figure 5-11 Standard, RSP and Maximum, RMX, Case Method Capacity Estimates


The RMX and RSP Case Method equations are the two most commonly
used solutions for field evaluation of pile capacity. Additional automatic
Case Method solutions are available that do not require selection of a
Case damping factor. These automatic methods, referred to as RAU and
RA2, search for the time when the pile toe velocity is zero and hence
damping is minimal. The RAU method may be applicable for pile with
minimal shaft resistance and the RA2 method may be applicable to piles
with toe resistance plus moderate shaft resistance. It is recommended that
these automatic methods be used as supplemental indicators of the pile
capacity where appropriate with the more traditional standard or
maximum Case Method equations primarily used to evaluate pile
capacity.

5.6.2 - Energy transfer
The energy transferred to the pile head can be computed from the strain
and acceleration measurements. As described in section, the acceleration
signal is integrated to obtain velocity and the strain measurement is
converted to force. Transferred energy is equal to the work done which
can be computed from the integral of the force and velocity records over
time as given below:


E
p
(t) = _F(t)v(t)ut
t
0
(5-6)
where E
p
= The energy at the gage location expressed as a function of time
F = The force at the gage location expressed as a function of time
V = The velocity at the gage location expressed as a function of time

This procedure is illustrated in Figure 5-12. The maximum energy
transferred to the pile head corresponds to the maximum value of E
p
(t)
and can be used to evaluate the performance of the hammer and driving
system.


Figure 5-12 Energy transfer computation

5.6.3 - Driving stresses and integrity
The Pile Driving Analyzer calculates the compression stress at the gage
location using the measured strain and pile modulus of elasticity.
However, the maximum compression stress in the pile may be greater
than the compression stress calculated at the gage location, such as in the
case of a pile driven through soft soils to rock. In these cases CAPWAP

or wave equation analysis may be used to evaluate the maximum
compression stress in the pile. Computed tension stresses are based upon
the superposition of the upward and downward travelling force waves
calculated by the Pile Driving Analyzer.

The basic concepts of wave mechanics were presented in Section 5.5.
Convergence between the force and velocity records prior to the toe
response at time 2L/C indicates an impedance (EA/C) reduction in the
pile. For uniform cross section piles an impedance reduction is therefore
pile damage. The degree of convergence between the force and velocity
records is termed BTA, which can be used to evaluation pile damage
following the guidelines presented in Rausche and Goble, (1979). These
guidelines are provided in table. Pile with BTA values below 80%
correspond to damaged or broken piles.

BTA Severity of damage
1.0 Undamaged
0.8 1.0 Slightly damaged
0.6 0.8 Damaged
< 0.6 Broken
Table 5-2 Pile damage guidelines (Rausche and Goble, 1979)


5.6.4 - The CAPWAP method (Case Pile Wave Analysis Program)
CAPWAP is a computer program for a more severe evaluation of static
pile capacity, the relative soil resistance distribution, and soil quake and
damping characteristics. A CAPWAP analysis is performed on an
individual hammer blow that is usually selected from the end of driving
or beginning of restrike. A CAPWAP analysis refines the Case Method
dynamic test results at a particular penetration depth or time. CAPWAP
uses wave equation type pile and soil models; the Pile Driving Analyzer
measured force and velocity records are used as the head boundary
condition, replacing the hammer model.

In the CAPWAP method depicted in Figure 5-13, the pile is modeled by
a series of continuous pile segments and the soil resistance modeled by
elasto-plastic springs (static resistance) and dashpots (dynamic
resistance). The force and acceleration data from the Pile Driving
Analyzer are used to quantify pile force and pile motion, which are two
of the three unknowns. The remaining unknown is the boundary
conditions, which are defined by the soil model. First, reasonable
estimates of the soil resistance distribution and quake and damping
parameters are made. Then, the measured acceleration is used to set the
pile model in motion. The program then computes the equilibrium pile

head force. Initially, the computed and measured pile head forces will
not agree with each other. Adjustments are made to the soil model
assumptions and the calculation process repeated.

Figure 5-13 Schematic of CAPWAP analysis method
Resource: Pile Dynamics, Inc

MEASURE
F
m
,a
m
COMPUTE
F
c
=F
c
(a
m
,R
s
,R
t
)
COMPARE
F
m
F
c
CORRECT
R
s
,R
t
ITERATE
(REPEATSTEP2)

In the CAPWAP matching process, the ability to match the measured
and computed waves at various times is controlled by different factors.
Figure 5-14 illustrates the factors that most influence match quality in a
particular zone. The assumed shaft resistance distribution has the
dominant influence on match quality beginning with the rise of the
record at time t, before impact and continuing for a time duration of
2L/C thereafter. This is identified as Zone 1.

Figure 5-14 Factors most influencing CAPWAP force wave matching

In Zone 2, the toe resistance and toe model are (toe damping, toe quake
and toe gap) most influence the wave match. Zone 2 begins where Zone

1 ends and continues for the time duration equal to the rise time t, the
overall capacity controls the match quality. A good wave match in Zone
3 is essential for accurate capacity assessments. Zone 4 begins at the end
of Zone 2 and continues for the duration of about 20ms. The unloading
behavior of the soil most influences match quality in this zone.

With each analysis, the program evaluates the match quality by summing
the absolute values of the relative differences between the measured and
computed waves. The program computes a match quality number for
each analysis that is the sum of the individual match quality numbers for
each of these four zones. An illustration of the CAPWAP iteration
process is presented in Figure 5-15.


Figure 5-15 CAPWAP iteration matching process
Resource: Pile Dynamics, Inc

Through this trial and error iteration adjustment process to the soil model
as illustrated in figure 5-13, the soil model is refined until no further
agreement can be obtained between the measured and computed pile
head forces. The resulting soil model is considered the best estimate of
the static pile capacity, the soil resistance distribution, and the soil quake
and damping characteristics. An example of the final CAPWAP result
summary is presented in Figure 5-16. A summary of the stress
distribution throughout the pile is also obtained as illustrated in Figure 5-
17. Lastly, CAPWAP includes a simulated static load-set graph based on
the CAPWAP calculated static resistance parameters and the elastic
compression characteristics of the pile.

Figure 5-16 CAPWAP final result table
Resource: Cotai Galaxy Hotel & Casino, Area B3 CAPWAP analysis report
Gal axy; Pi l e: EPC80-3 Test: 25-Jan-2008

Bl ow: 12 CAPWAP?Ver. 2000-1
Sol Data (Asi a) Li mi ted Si mon Wong (30-Jan-2008)
CAPWAP FINAL RESULTS
Total CAPWAP Capaci ty: 7931.0; al ong Shaft 4976.9; at Toe 2954.0 kN
Soi l Di st. Depth Ru Force Sum Uni t Uni t Smi th Quake
Sgmnt Bel ow Bel ow i n Pi l e of Resi st. Resi st. Dampi ng
No. Gages Grade Ru (Depth) (Area) Factor
m m kN kN kN kN/m kPa s/m mm
7931.0
1 3.0 2.5 48.9 7882.1 48.9 24.19 12.83 0.313 9.550
2 5.1 4.6 48.9 7833.2 97.8 24.19 12.83 0.313 9.550
3 7.1 6.6 48.9 7784.3 146.7 24.19 12.83 0.313 9.550
4 9.1 8.6 48.9 7735.4 195.6 24.19 12.83 0.313 9.550
5 11.1 10.6 48.9 7686.5 244.5 24.19 12.83 0.313 9.550
6 13.1 12.6 48.9 7637.6 293.3 24.19 12.83 0.313 9.550
7 15.2 14.7 45.8 7591.8 339.1 22.65 12.02 0.313 9.550
8 17.2 16.7 45.8 7546.1 384.9 22.65 12.02 0.313 9.550
9 19.2 18.7 88.7 7457.4 473.6 43.87 23.28 0.313 9.550
10 21.2 20.7 174.1 7283.3 647.7 86.12 45.69 0.313 9.550
11 23.2 22.7 261.1 7022.2 908.8 129.20 68.54 0.313 9.550
12 25.3 24.8 367.5 6654.6 1276.4 181.83 96.46 0.313 9.550
13 27.3 26.8 459.5 6195.1 1735.9 227.34 120.60 0.313 9.550
14 29.3 28.8 367.5 5827.6 2103.4 181.83 96.46 0.313 9.550
15 31.3 30.8 275.7 5551.8 2379.1 136.42 72.37 0.313 9.550
16 33.4 32.9 55.3 5496.5 2434.4 27.35 14.51 0.313 8.936
17 35.4 34.9 55.3 5441.3 2489.7 27.35 14.51 0.313 7.819
18 37.4 36.9 55.3 5386.0 2545.0 27.35 14.51 0.313 6.702
19 39.4 38.9 55.3 5330.7 2600.3 27.35 14.51 0.313 5.585
20 41.4 40.9 110.9 5219.8 2711.2 54.86 29.10 0.313 4.468
21 43.5 43.0 554.2 4665.6 3265.4 274.18 145.45 0.313 3.351
22 45.5 45.0 776.2 3889.5 4041.5 383.99 203.71 0.313 2.234
23 47.5 47.0 935.4 2954.0 4976.9 462.79 245.51 0.313 1.675
Avg. Ski n 216.4 105.89 56.79 0.313 6.024
Toe 2954.0 10449.36 1.252 1.000
Soi l Model Parameters/Extensi ons Ski n Toe
Case Dampi ng Factor 0.680 1.614
Rel oadi ng Level (% of Ru) 100 100
Unl oadi ng Level (% of Ru) 20
Soi l Support Dashpot 2.000 1.700
Soi l Support Wei ght (kN) 20.00 20.00

Figure 5-17 CAPWAP stress distribution profile
Resource: Cotai Galaxy Hotel & Casino, Area B3 CAPWAP analysis report

Gal axy; Pi l e: EPC80-3 Test: 25-Jan-2008
Bl ow: 12 CAPWAP?Ver. 2000-1
Sol Data (Asi a) Li mi ted Si mon Wong (30-Jan-2008)
EXTREMA TABLE
Pi l e Di st. max. mi n. max. max. max. max. max.
Sgmnt Bel ow Force Force Comp. Tens. Trnsfd. Vel oc. Di spl .
No. Gages Stress Stress Energy
m kN kN MPa MPa kJ m/s mm
1 1.0 7668.1 -284.3 39.938 -1.481 92.68 3.3 21.837
2 2.0 7637.0 -266.9 39.776 -1.390 92.09 3.3 21.519
5 5.1 7479.5 -253.0 38.956 -1.318 88.98 3.2 20.543
8 8.1 7352.1 -372.8 38.292 -1.942 84.66 3.1 19.543
11 11.1 7242.5 -543.4 37.721 -2.830 81.76 3.1 18.573
14 14.1 7069.7 -692.9 36.821 -3.609 77.93 3.0 17.612
17 17.2 7038.8 -848.0 36.661 -4.417 75.14 2.9 16.594
20 20.2 6913.8 -992.8 36.010 -5.171 70.48 2.8 15.463
23 23.2 6890.8 -1133.4 35.889 -5.903 64.95 2.7 14.188
26 26.3 6436.5 -1198.7 33.523 -6.243 53.40 2.5 12.851
29 29.3 6134.4 -1311.9 31.950 -6.833 44.75 2.4 11.411
32 32.3 5545.4 -1474.0 28.882 -7.677 35.66 2.3 10.099
35 35.4 5529.9 -1584.7 28.801 -8.254 34.83 2.3 8.976
38 38.4 5436.0 -1645.8 28.313 -8.572 34.23 2.2 8.005
41 41.4 5573.1 -1673.0 29.027 -8.713 33.81 2.1 7.096
42 42.4 5591.8 -1671.7 29.124 -8.707 33.23 2.0 6.796
43 43.5 5812.9 -1675.0 30.276 -8.724 33.17 1.9 6.493
44 44.5 5467.6 -1496.9 28.477 -7.797 29.98 1.8 6.247
45 45.5 5870.1 -1492.6 30.573 -7.774 29.92 1.6 6.017
46 46.5 5141.0 -1238.5 26.776 -6.451 24.98 1.5 5.875
47 47.5 5324.9 -1236.8 27.734 -6.442 19.18 1.4 5.750
Absol ute 1.0 39.938 (T = 20.9 ms)
43.5 -8.724 (T = 63.1 ms)

5.7 - Usage of dynamic testing methods
Dynamic testing is specified in many ways, depending on the information
desired or purpose of the testing. For example, a number of test piles driven at
selected locations may be specified. In this application, the test piles are driven
at the start of production driving so that the information obtained can be used to
establish driving criteria and / or pile order lengths for each substructure unit.
Alternatively, testing of production piles on a regular interval may be specified.
Production pile testing is usually performed for quality assurance checks on
hammer performance, driving stress compliance, pile integrity, and ultimate
capacity. Lastly, dynamic testing can be used on projects where it is not
specified to troubleshoot problems that arise during construction.

The number of piles that shall be tested on the project depends on the project
size, variability of the subsurface conditions, the availability of static load test
information, and the reasons for performing the dynamic tests. A higher
percentage of piles shall be tested. For example, there are difficult subsurface
conditions with an increased risk of the pile damage, or where time dependent
soil strength changes are being relied on a significant portion of the ultimate pile
capacity.

On small projects, a minimum of two dynamic tests is recommended. On larger
projects and small projects with anticipated installation difficulties or significant

time dependent capacity, a greater number of piles shall be tested. Dynamically
testing one or two piles per substructure location is not unusual in these
situations. Regardless of the project size, specifications shall allow the engineer
to adjust the number and locations of dynamically tested piles based on design or
construction issues that arise.

Restrike dynamic tests shall be performed whenever pile capacity is being
evaluated by dynamic test methods. Restikes are commonly specified 24 hours
after initial driving. However, in fine grained soils, longer time periods are
generally required for the full time dependent capacity changes to occur.
Therefore, longer restrike times shall be specified in these soil conditions
whenever is possible. On small projects, long restrike durations can present
significant construction sequencing problems. At least one longer term restrike
shall be performed in these cases. The longer term restrike shall be specified 2 to
6 days after the initial 24 hour restrike, depending on the soil type. A warmed up
hammer (from driving or restriking a non-test pile) shall be used whenever
restrike tests are performed.

When dynamic testing is performed by a consultant, the requirements for
CAPWAP analyses shall be specifically addresses in the dynamic testing
specification. On larger projects, CAPWAP analyses are typically performed on
20 to 40% of the dynamic test data obtained from both initial driving and

restrike dynamic tests. This percentage typically increases on smaller projects
with only a few test piles, or on projects with highly variable subsurface
conditions.

It is often contractually convenient to specify that the general contractor retain
the services of the dynamic testing firm. However, this can create potential
problems since the contractor is then responsible for the agencys quality
assurance program. Some agencies have contracted directly with the dynamic
testing firm to avoid this potential conflict and many large public owners have
purchased the equipment and perform the tests with their own staff.

5.8 - Advantages
Dynamic tests provide information on the complete pile installation process.
Test results can be used to estimate pile capacity, to check hammer and drive
system performance, to monitor driving stresses, and to assess pile structural
integrity.

Many piles can be tested during initial driving or during restrike in one day. This
makes dynamic testing an economical and quick testing method. Results are
generally available immediately after each hammer blow.

On large projects, dynamic testing can be used to supplement static pile load
tests or reduce the overall number of static tests to be performed. Since dynamic
tests are more economical than static tests, additional coverage can also be
obtained across a project at reduced costs. On small projects where static load
tests may be difficult to justify economically, dynamic tests offer a viable
construction control method.

Dynamic tests can provide information on pile capacity versus depth, capacity
variations between locations, and capacity variations with time after installation
through restrike tests. This information can helpful in augmenting the foundation
design, when available from design stage test pile programs, or in optimizing
pile lengths when used early in construction test programs.

When used as a construction monitoring and quality control tool, dynamic
testing can assist in early detection of pile installation problems such as poor
hammer performance or high driving stresses. Test results can facilitate the
evaluation and solution of these installation problems.


On projects where dynamic testing is not specified and unexpected or unusual
driving behavior or pile damage problems develop, dynamic testing offers a
quick and economical method of troubleshooting.

Results from dynamic testing and analysis can be used for driving criteria
development including wave equation input parameter selection and refinement
of wave equation results as described in section 4.5.6.

5.9 - Disadvantages
Dynamic testing to determine the ultimate static pile capacity requires that the
driving system mobilize all the soil resistance acting in the pile. Shaft resistance
can be mobilized at a fraction of the movement required to mobilize the toe
resistance. However, when driving resistances approach 100 blows per 0.25
meter, the full soil resistance is difficult to mobilize at and near the pile toe. In
these circumstances, dynamic test capacities tend to produce lower bound
capacity estimates unless a larger hammer or higher stroke can be used to
increase the pile net penetration per blow.

Dynamic testing estimates of static pile capacity indicate the capacity at the time
of testing. Since increases and decreases in the pile capacity with time typically
occur due to soil setup / relaxation, restrike tests after an appropriate waiting

period are usually required for a better indication of long term pile capacity. This
may require an additional move of the pile driving rig for restrike testing.

Larger diameter open ended pipe piles or H-piles which do not bear on rock may
behave differently under dynamic and static loading conditions. This is
particularly true if a soil plug does not form during driving. In these cases,
limited toe bearing resistance develops during the dynamic test. However, under
slower static loading conditions, these open section piles may develop a soil plug
and therefore a higher pile capacity under static loading conditions.
Interpretation of test results by experienced personnel is important in these
situations.

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND TEST RESULTS

CHAPTER 6 - TEST RESULTS
6.1 - Introduction
In this chapter, a number of dynamic loading test results from different types of
piles, hammers, locations shall be analyzed. West Libya Gas Project Jetty
Works and Cotai Galaxy Hotel & Casion (Macau) will be selected as case study.
The test results are presented in tabular form and graphically as follows.

The test results will be analyzed in following aspects:
z Energy transfer (hammer performance)
z Driving stress
z Pile integrity
z Static capacity

Table 6-1 Summary of dynamic loading test result


Figure 6-1 Graphical presentation of energy transfer


Figure 6-2 Graphical presentation of static capacity


Figure 6-3 Graphical presentation of compressive stress


Figure 6-4 Graphical presentation of pile integrity

6.2 - Interpretation
6.2.1 - Energy transfer
From the energy transfer plot (Figure 6-1), the steel piles are stroke by
steam hammer (model IHC) and the prestressed concrete piles are stroke
by diesel hammer (Demag). The average energy transfer of steam
hammer is approximate 90%. It is a little lower than the specification
mentioned maximum energy output. The average energy transfer of
diesel hammer is approximate 30%. It is far from the maximum energy
output which is mentioned in hammer specification.

The energy transfer of steel pile TP1-1, TP1-2 and TP1-3 are recorded
over 100% energy input. This phenomenon is normal and will be
explained in Chapter 7.

6.2.2 - Driving stress
Figure 6-3 is showing the driving stress (compressive stress) of steel
piles and concrete piles with steam hammer and diesel hammer. The
average driving stress of steel pile is in range of 60% to 70% of the
allowable driving stress (323.1N/mm
2
). The average driving stress of
concrete pile is in range of 70% to 80% of the allowable driving stress
(64N/mm
2
).
The driving stress in steel piles and concrete piles are below the
maximum compressive stress, which is 0.9f
y
and 0.8f
cu
. Therefore, no
overstressing is recorded during restrike test.

6.2.3 - Pile integrity
Figure 6-4 is presenting the integrity of steel pile and concrete pile. The
integrity of steel piles is 100% and it is classified as no damaged.
However, the integrity of concrete pile is fallen into range of 80% to
100% and therefore classified as slightly damaged.
6.2.4 - Pile capacity
From the plot figure 6-2, the static capacity of both steel and concrete
pile is fulfilling to the requirement. Over 50% of steel piles are
exceeding the required static capacity 50% and are achieving to 150%.
The average static capacity of concrete piles is just over 10% of the
required static capacity.

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 7 - DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

7.1 - Discussion
7.1.1 - Pile integrity
Apart from determining the static capacity of piles, the pile integrity is
also a critical item to be concerned during driving. The pile is driven into
the ground and becomes out of sight. In order to prevent out of mind,
Rausche & Goble (1979) suggested the use of a damage classification
factor,
z
, which is defined in terms of changes in impedance.

z
=
Z
2
Z
1
(7-1)
where Z
2
=
Pile impedance above a given level where there is a significant change
in impedance
Z
1
= Pile impedance below the same given level

Impedance, Z, is defined as equation 5-3.

The tentative classification scheme proposed by Rausche & Goble (1979)
is reproduced in Table 5-2. This simplified method is related to the
extent of pile cross-section that is left after the damage, and is based on
the tacit assumption that the soil resistance immediately below the point
of damage is negligible.

From the graph figure 6-4, the integrity of all steel tube piles are 100%
and therefore classified undamaged. However, the integrity of
prestressed concrete piles are all within 0.8 1.0. It belongs to slightly
damaged.

With reference to the graph compressive stress, the stresses on pile are
under the limits of driving stress 0.8f
cu
. The pile damaged by excessive
compressive stress is therefore not established.

Retracing to the pile integrity equation, the pile integrity is the ratio of
pile impedance. The pile impedance is in term of section modulus, cross
section area and the velocity of stress wave. From the equation, the pile
impedance is governed by the section modulus and cross section area.
Therefore, it is suspected of the workmanship during casting the concrete
or the collapse of soil in pile shaft location during withdrawing the steel
tube after pouring concrete. The integrity of pile is varied due to
suddenly change of section modulus or cross section area.

In this case, further physical coring test is necessary to provide samples

for visual examination and for compression testing.

7.1.2 - Stress on pile
Damage to piles during driving is visible only near the pile head, but the
shaft and toe may also be damaged. Failure due to excessive compressive
stress most commonly occurs at the pile head. Tensile stresses are caused
by reflection of the compressive waves at a free end and may arise when
the ground resistance is low or when the head conditions result in
hammer rebound.

The driving stresses must not exceed the limiting values that will cause
damage to the pile. The following limits on driving stresses suggested by
BS EN 12699:2001 clause 7.7.2.1 and 7.7.3.1 are described the driving
stress limits on both steel and concrete pile.

Pile type Maximum compressive stress Maximum tensile force

Steel piles 0.9f
y
-
Prefabricated concrete piles
(including prestressed piles)
0.8f
cu
0.9f
y
A
s
Presstressing force
Notes:
(1) fy is the yield stress of steel, As is the area of steel reinforcement and fcu is the specified grade
strength of concrete.
(2) If driving stress is actually monitored during driving, the limits can be increased by 10% and
20% for prefabricated concrete piles and steel piles respectively.
Table 7-1 - Limits on driving stress (BSI, 2001)

From the graph compressive stress, both steel tube piles and prestressed
concrete piles are under the driving stress limits. Therefore, no piles are
damaged due to overstressing during restrike test.

With reference to the energy transfer plot, the energy recorded by
striking concrete piles is relatively lower than the maximum energy
output. However, the result of driving stress approaches to the limited
value. Obviously, controlling the hammer energy transferring into the
pile can also be controlling the driving stress of the pile.

7.1.3 - Hammer performance
From the piles which are driven in West Libya Gas Project, 2 different
kinds of hammer with various driving force were used. Under normal
conditions, the dynamic resistance is created by the ground / soil

resistance to driving which is a combination of end bearing resistance
and skin friction resistance. The change in hammers would normally
have negligible effect on the driving resistance. However in this
particular pile test, the S-150 hammer is not driving the pile efficiently
and several blows are required to drive the pile by 5 mm. Normally, a
pile is considered to be fully mobilized if the movement per blow is at 5
mm. It is therefore considered that the pile is only being partially
mobilized by S-150 on each blow and therefore the value of dynamic
resistance may be a slight underestimation. When the S-200 hammer is
then used, the pile is fully mobilized on each blow hence a more accurate
and higher value of driving resistance is obtained.

From the table shown, some of the energy transfer efficiency are over
100% no matter what hammer to be used. Basically, it is not a reasonable
phenomenon in the driving process because it implies no energy loss
during pile driving. Oppositely, an additional energy is infused into the
pile.

The law of conservation of energy states that the total amount of energy
in an isolated system remains constant. A consequence of this law is that
energy cannot be created nor destroyed. The only thing that can happen
with energy in an isolated system is that it can change form, for instance
kinetic energy can become thermal energy.

Albert Einstein's theory of relativity shows that energy can be converted
to mass (rest mass) and mass converted to energy. Therefore, neither
mass nor pure energy are conserved separately, as it was understood in
pre-relativistic physics. Today, conservation of energy refers to the
conservation of the total mass-energy, which includes energy of the rest
mass. Therefore, in an isolated system, mass and "pure energy" can be
converted to one another, but the total amount of energy (which includes
the energy of the mass of the system) remains constant.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_of_energy]

In this case, it is probably that the remaining energy by means of
vibration from prior blow has not been totally used up. The second blow
is then hitting on the pile head incessantly. Hence the new energy will
combine with the remaining energy and therefore generate a large energy.
This phenomenon is likely to the motion of wave.

The rating of piling hammer is based on the gross energy per blow.
However, different types of hammers have differing efficiencies in terms
of the actual energy transmitted through the pile being driven. The range
of typical efficiencies of different types of hammers is shown in table 7-2.

If the driving speed slows down to let the remaining energy used up,
this phenomenon is not occurred again. Moreover, the energy transfer
ratio of such piles are fulfilling into the below typical energy transfer
table.

Type of hammer Typical energy transfer ratio
Drop hammers 0.45 0.6
Hydraulic hammers 0.7 - 1
Notes
(1) Energy transfer ratio corresponds to the ratio of actual energy transferred to the pile to the
rated capacity of the hammer.
(2) Actual amount of energy transferred to the pile is best determined by dynamic pile
testing.
(3) The above are based on general experience in Hong Kong
Table 7-2 - Typical energy transfer ratio of pile hammers

4 numbers of prestressed concrete pile which are driven by diesel
hammer have extremely low energy transfer ratio. According to the table,
the efficiency of diesel hammer should be at least 70%. Obviously, the
piles are driven under inefficiency. However, referring to the graph
compressive stress, the stresses are near to the yield stress limits 0.8f
cu
. It
is believed that the piles may be failed if the energy of hammer is

increased in term of blow rate and / or impact force of ram.

7.1.4 - Pile capacity
The primary objective of the dynamic loading test is determining the
static capacity of the driven pile. The actual pile bearing capacity
whether is fulfilling to the design requirement is the most concerned.
From the graph shown, all steel tube piles and prestressed concrete piles
are over the required pile capacity.

However, it is not presented the ultimate bearing capacity is obtained.
This is because the pile has not been driven in fail condition. Normally, a
pile is considered to be failed (fully mobilized) if the movement of pile is
over 5 mm per blow. The below table is listed the acceptance criteria of
pile bearing capacity via pile movement.
Movement of pile Description
Displacement of pile more than 5 mm per blow
Unacceptable (excessive pile movement and pile cannot
support such driving force)
Displacement equal to 5 mm per blow
Acceptable (pile bearing capacity is achieving to ultimate
bearing capacity)
Displacement of pile less than 5 mm per blow Acceptable (pile bearing capacity is underestimate)
Table 7-3 - Acceptance criteria of driven pile via pile displacement

It is therefore considered that the pile is only being partially mobilized

and therefore the value of dynamic resistance may be a slight
underestimation. When the driving force increase, the pile is more fully
mobilized on each blow hence a more accurate and higher value of
driving resistance is obtained.

Although increasing the driving force can obtain more accurate and
higher value of driving resistance, it will also increase the risk of over
driving stress of pile and cause to pile damaged.

7.2 - Conclusion
The main conclusions that can be drawn from the tests are as follows:
z The measured bearing capacity of piles is higher than the required capacity
but the ultimate bearing capacity has not been obtained due to the pile not
driven in fail condition.

z Energy transfer is depending on the blow rate and the ram drop height and
size. Higher energy transfer can be gained either blow rate or hammer size
increased.

z The driving stress can also be controlled by energy transfer. Increasing the
energy transfer is implied that the compressive will then be increased
relatively.

z Limitation of driving stress shall be determined before driving, otherwise,
the pile is probably overstressing and damaged.

z Comparison with the integrity of steel and concrete pile, all steel piles are
classified no damages and all concrete piles are classified slightly damaged.
It is presented that driving concrete pile is easier damage than driving steel
pile.

z During pile driving, the pile integrity is the most critical point to be
monitored. The pile integrity is also related with driving stress and energy
transfer. The table shown below is well described to relationship between
pile capacity, integrity, driving stress and energy transfer.

Pile
capacity
Energy
transfer
Driving
stress
Integrity
Pile capacity
Energy transfer
Driving stress
Integrity
Table 7-4 Relationship between pile capacity, Energy transfer, Driving stress and
Integrity

Increasing the hammer energy transfer can achieve to gain higher pile
capacity. However, due to the energy transfer increased, the driving stress
will then be risen up. As the result, the risk of pile damages is also
increased.

Oppositely, in order to prevent damaging to pile, decreasing the driving
stress by means of lowering the energy transfer of hammer can achieve.
Although the risk of pile damage is reduced, lower pile capacity is also
gained.

7.3 - Recommendation
The result of analysis is not very reliable because a few pile driving test data is
collected. A large number of test data is necessary to increase the reliability and
accuracy.
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND REFERENCE
RESEARCH PROJ ECT REV05 PAGE 1
REFERENCE
1. Lee L. Lowery, Jr., James R. Finley, Jr., and T. J. Hirsch, (1968), A Comparison of
Dynamic Pile Driving Formulas with the Wave Equation, Piling Behaviour
Research Study No. 2-5-62-33, Texas Transportation Institute Texas A&M
University College Station, Texas.
2. Beim, J. and Hussein, F., A simplified method for predicting the load-settlement
curve based on force-velocity data, 379 384.
3. Garland Likins, Ingemar Hermansson, Mike Kightley, Jon Cannon and David
Klingberg, Advances in Dynamic Foundation testing Technology, 591 598.
4. Larry M. Tucker and Jean-Louis Briaud, (1988), Analysis of the Pile Load Test
Program at the Lock and Dam 26 Replacement Project, Civil Engineering
Department Texas A & M University College Station, Texas 77843.
5. Don C. Warrington, (1997), Closed Form Solution of the Wave Equation for Piles
Internet Edition, A Thesis Presented for the Master of Science Degree The
University of Tennessee at Chattanooga.
6. Bengt H. Fellenius and K. Rainer Massarsch, Comments on the Current and Future
Use of Pile Dynamic Testing, Stress Wave Lisbon.
7. Charles H. Samson, Jr., Teddy J. Hirsch and Lee L. Lowery, Jr., (1963), Computer
Study of Dynamic Behaviour of Piling, Journal of the Structural Division
Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers.
8. Garland Likins and Frank Rausche, Correlation of CAPWAP with Static Load
Tests, 1 - 13.
9. Camilo Alvarez, Brian Zuckerman and John Lemke, Dynamic Pile Analysis using
CAPWAP and Multiple Sensors, 1 - 5.
10. http://www.cse.polyu.edu.hk/~ctpile/ptest/p-dlt/p-dlt.html.
11. Morgano, C. M., White B. A. and Allin, R. C., Dynamic Testing in Sensitive &
Difficult Soil Conditions, GRL Engineers, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio, USA, 1 - 5.
12. Michael C. M
c
Vay, Victor Alvarez, Limin Zhang, Ariel Perez and Andrew Gibsen,
(2002), Estimating Driven Pile Capacities During Construction, University of
Florida Civil and Coastal Engineering.
13. Aaron S. Bradshaw and Christopher D. P. Baxter, (2003), Design and Construction
of Driven Pile Foundations Lessons Learned on the Central Artery / Tunnel
Project, University of Rhode Island Narragansett.
14. Hussein, M., Bullock, P., & Rausche, F. and McGillivray, R., Large-scale Dynamic
High-strain Load testing of a Bridge Pier Foundations, 1 8.
15. Michael Paul Garner, (2007), Loading Rate Effects on Axial Pile Capacity in
Clays, Brigham Young university in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of Master of Science, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Brigham Young University.
16. Bob Handley, Jon Ball, Andrew Bell and Tony Suckling, (2006), Federation of
Piling Specialists Handbook on Pile Load Testing, FPS, Forum Court, 83 Copers
Cope Road, Beckenham, Kent, BR3 1NR.
17. Rausche, F. & Nagy, M. and Likins, G., Mastering the Art of Pile Testing, 1 15.
18. American Society for Testing and Materials ASTM D4945-00 Standard Test
Method for High Strain Testing of Piles.
19. Mohamad H. Hussein, Wayne A. Woerner II, Michael Sharp and Changsoo Hwang,
Pile Driveability and Bearing Capacity in High-Rebound Soils, 1 4.
20. Dr. Lee L. Lowery, Jr., Pile Driving Analysis By the Wave Equation, Department
of Civil Engineering Texas A & M University.
21. E. A. L. Smith, (1952), Pile Driving Analysis By the Wave Equation, American
Society of Civil Engineer, 1 25.
22. F. Rausche and M. Hussein, Pile Driving in Calcareous Sediments, Goble Rausche
Likins and Associates, Incorporated, Cleveland, Ohio & Orlando, Fla., USA, 1 15.
23. Byron Byrne, Driven Pipe Piles in Dense Sand, Geomechanics Group The
University of Western Australia, 1 11.
24. Profound B. V., Specification for DLTWAVE Wave Equation Program Signal
Matching for PDA and DLT, 1 23.
25. Duhee Park and Youssef M. A. Hashash, (2003), Soil Damping Formulation in
Nonlinear Time Domain Site Response Analysis, Journal of Earthquake
Engineering, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana.
26. http://www.vulcanhammer.net/svinkin/time.php.
27. Budijanto Widjaja, (2006), Wave Equation Analysis and Pile Driving Analyzer For
Driven Piles: 18
th
Floor Office Building Jakarta Case, International Civil
Engineering Conference Towards Sustainable Civil Engineering Practice Surabaya,
1 8.

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND APPENDIX A PROJ ECT SPECIFICATION

APPENDIX A PROJECT SPECIFICATION

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND APPENDIX A PROJ ECT SPECIFICATION

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND SURVEYING
ENG4111/4112 Research Project
PROJECT SPECIFICATION

For: Yu Yu Wah
TOPIC: PILE DRIVING ANALYSIS VIA DYNAMIC LOADING TEST
SUPERVISORS: Jim Shiau
PROJECT AIM: Research on the Dynamic loading test and using such data to determine /
correlation the tolerance of pile design formula.
PROGRAMME: Issue A, 24
th
March, 2007
1. Research the dynamic loading test result in various soli strata which are using PDI apparatus with
couple of strain gauges and accelerometers.
2. Compare the result with bore hole records and evaluate the characteristic of each soil layer.
3. Determinate the pile integrity, compressive / tensile stress on pile, bearing capacity and efficiencies of
hammer performance.
4. Compare the test result with static loading test and evaluate the accuracy.
5. Determine the cause of pile defect / damage.

AGREED:

___________________(Student)_______________________________________(Supervisors)
24/03/2008 ____/____/____
Examiner/Co-examiner:_________________________________________________________

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND APPENDIX B RAW DATA

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What problems can occur during pile driving?

What problems can occur during pile driving?

How can the pile bearing capacity be determined before and during driving?

How can the pile bearing capacity be determined before and during driving?

University of Southern Queensland

Faculty of Engineering and Surveying

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