Geo Ch -3 (motion of earth) The axis of the earth which is an imaginary line, makes an angle of 66 with its orbital

plane. The plane formed by the orbit is known as the orbital plane. The circle that divides the day from night on the globe is called the circle of illumination. The earth takes about 24 hours to complete one rotation around its axis. The period of rotation is known as the earthday. You will see that on 21st June, the Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the sun. The rays of the sun fall directly on the Tropic of Cancer. As a result, these areas receive more heat. The areas near the poles receive less heat as the rays of the sun are slanting. The North Pole is inclined towards the sun and the places beyond the Arctic Circle experience continuous daylight for about six months. Since a large portion of the Northern Hemisphere is getting light from the sun, it is summer in the regions north of the equator. The longest day and the shortest night at these places occur on 21st June. At this time in the Southern Hemisphere all these conditions are reversed. It is winter season there. The nights are longer than the days. This position of the earth is called the Summer Solstice. On 22nd December, the Tropic of Capricorn receives direct rays of the sun as the South Pole tilts towards it. As the suns rays fall vertically at the Tropic of Capricorn (23_ S), a larger portion of the Southern Hemisphere gets light. Therefore, it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere with longer days and shorter nights. The reverse happens in the Northern Hemisphere. This position of the earth is called the Winter Solstice. Do you know that Christmas is celebrated in Australia in the summer season? On 21st March and September 23rd, direct rays of the sun fall on the equator. At this position, neither of the poles is tilted towards the sun; so, the whole earth experiences equal days and equal nights. This is calledan equinox. On 23rd September, it is autumn season in the Northern Hemisphere and spring season in the Southern Hemisphere. The opposite is the case on 21st March, Ch -4 (maps) PHYSICAL MAPS Maps showing natural features of the earth such as mountains, plateaus, plains, rivers, oceans etc. arencalled physical or relief maps. POLITICAL MAPS Maps showing cities, towns and villages, and differentncountries and states of the world with their boundaries are called political maps. THEMATIC MAPS

Some maps focus on specific information; such as road maps, rainfall maps, maps showing distribution of forests, industries etc. are known as thematic maps. Suitable titles are given on the basis of information provided in these maps. There are three Components of Maps distance, direction and symbol. Scale is the ratio between the actual distance on the ground and the distance shown on the map. When large areas like continents or countries are to be shown on a paper, then we use a small scale. For example 5 cm. on the map shows 500 km. of the ground. It is called a small scale map. When a small area like your village or town is to be shown on paper, then we use a large scale that is 5 cm. on the map shows 500 metres only on the ground. It is called a large scale map. directions, North, South, East and West They are called cardinal points. Other four intermediate directions are north-east (NE), southeast( SE), south-west (SW) and northwest (NW). Maps have a universal language that can be understood by all. There is an international agreement regarding the use of these symbolsThese are called conventionalsymbols. Various colours are used for the same purpose. For example, generally blue is used for showing water bodies, brown for mountain, yellow for plateau and green is used for plains. rough drawing is drawn without scale, and is called a sketch map. A plan is a drawing of a small area on a large scale. Ch-5(major domains of earth) The solid portion of the earth onwhich we live is called the Lithosphere. The gaseous layers that surround the earth, is the Atmosphere, where oxygen, nitrogen, carbondioxide and other gases are found. Water covers a very big area of the earths surface and this area is called the Hydrosphere. The Hydrosphere comprises water in all its forms, that is,ice, water and water vapour. The Biosphere is the narrow zone where we find land, water and air together, which contains all forms of life. In the Greek language, Lithos means Stone; Atmos means Vapour; Hudor means Water; and Bios means Life. There are two main divisions of the earths surface. The large landmasses are known as the continents and the huge water bodies are called the ocean basins. The highest mountain peak Mt. Everest is 8,848 metres above the sea level. The greatest depth of 11,022 metres is recorded at Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean. Edmund Hillary(New Zealand) and Tenzing Norgay Sherpa (India) were the first men to climb the highest mountain peak Mt. Everest on the planet earth on 29th May, 1953. Junko Tabei (Japan) was the first woman to reach the summit on 16 th May, 1975. The first Indian woman to climb the highest peak on 23rd May, 1984 was Bachendri Pal. There are seven major continents. These are separated by large water bodies. These continents are Asia, Europe, Africa, North America, South America, Australia and Antarctica. Look at the map of the world and notice that the greater part of the land mass lies in the Northern Hemisphere. Asia is the largest continent. It covers about onethird of the total land area of the earth. The continent lies in the Eastern Hemisphere. The Tropic of Cancer passes through this

continent. Asia is separated from Europe by the Ural mountains on the west . The combined landmass of Europe and Asia is called the Eurasia (Europe + Asia). Europe is much smaller than Asia. The continent lies to the west of Asia. The Arctic Circle passes through it. It is bound by water bodies on three sides. Look at the map of the world and locate it. Africa is the second largest continent after Asia. The Equator or 00 latitude runs almost through the middle of the continent. A large part of Africa lies in the Northern Hemisphere. You will find that it is the only continent through which the Tropic of Cancer, the Equator and the Tropic of Capricorn pass. South America lies mostly in the Southern Hemisphere. Which two oceans surround it on the east and the west?The Andes, worlds longest mountain range, runs through its length from north to south South America has the worlds largest river, theAmazon. Australia is the smallest continent that lies entirely in the Southern Hemisphere.It is surrounded on all sides by the oceans and seas. It is called an island continent. Antarctica, completely in the Southern Hemisphere, is a huge continent. The South Pole lies almost at the centre of this continent. As it is located in the South Polar Region, it is permanently covered with thick ice sheets. There are no permanent human settlements. Many countries have research stations in Antarctica.India also has research stations there. These are named as Maitri and Dakshin Gangotri. HYDROSPHERE The earth is called the blue planet. More than 71 percent of the earth is covered with water and 29 percent is with land. The three chief movements of ocean waters are the waves, the tides and the ocean currents. The four major oceans are thePacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean andthe Arctic Ocean, in order of their size The Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean. It is spread over one-third of the earth. Mariana Trench, the deepest part of the earth, lies in the Pacific Ocean. The Pacific Ocean is almost circular in shape. Class 7 ch -2 There are three major types of rocks: igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks. When the molten magma cools, it becomes solid.Rocks thus formed are called igneous rocks. They are also called primary rocks. There are two types of igneous rocks: intrusive rocks and extrusive rocks. Igneous: Latin word Ignis meaning fire. Sedimentary: Latin word sedimentum meaning settle down. Metamorphic: Greek word metamorpho semeaning change of form. Rocks roll down, crack, and hit each other and are broken down into small fragments. These smaller particles are called sediments. These sediments are transported and deposited by wind, water, etc. These loose sediments are compressed and hardened to form layers of rocks. These types of rocks are called sedimentary rocks Igneous and sedimentary rocks can change into metamorphic rocks under great heat and pressure This process of transformation of the rock from one to another is known as the rock cycle.

Ch-3 The lithosphere is broken into a number of plates knownas the Lithospheric plates. The forces which act in the interior of the earth are called as Endogenic forces and the forces that work on the surface of the earth are called as Exogenic forces Earth movements Endogenic forces Exogenic forces Sudden forces Diastrophic forces Erosional and Depositional Earthquake Building mountains Volcano Landslides River Wind Sea-waves Glaciers An earthquake is measured with a machine called a seismograph. The magnitude of the earthquake is measured on the Richter scale. An earthquake of 2.0 or less can be felt only a little. An earthquake over 5.0 can cause damage from things falling. A 6.0 or higher magnitude is considered very strong and 7.0 is classified as a major earthquake. The landscape is being continuously worn away by two processes weathering and erosion. Weathering is the breaking up of the rocks on the earths surface. Erosion is the wearing away of the landscape by different agents like water, wind and ice. Ch-4 air
Carbon dioxide released in the atmosphere creates a green house effect by trapping the heat radiated from the earth. It is therefore called a greenhouse gas and without it the earth would have been too cold to live in. However, when its level in the atmosphere increases due to factory smoke or car fumes, the heat retained increases the temperature of the earth. This is called global warming. This rise in temperature causes the snow in coldest parts of the world to melt. As a result the sea level rises, causing floods in the coastal areas. There may be drastic changes in the climate of a place leading to extinction of some plants and animals in the long run. STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE Our atmosphere is divided into five layers starting from the earths surface. These are Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere and Exosphere (Fig. 4.2). Troposphere: This layer is the most important layer of the atmosphere. Its average height is 13 km. The air we breathe exists here. Almost all the weather phenomena like rainfall, fog and hail storm occur in this layer. Stratosphere: Above the troposphere lies the stratosphere. It extends up to a height of 50 km. This layer is almost free from clouds and associated weather phenomenon, making conditions most ideal for flying aeroplanes. One important feature of stratosphere is that it contains a layer of ozone gas. We have just learnt how it protects us from the harmful effect of the sun rays. Mesosphere: This is the third layer of the atmosphere. It lies above the stratosphere. It extends up to the height of 80 km. Meteorites burn up in this layer on entering from the space. Thermosphere: In thermosphere temperature rises very rapidly wit increasing height. Ionosphere is a part of this layer. It extends between 80-400 km. This layer helps in radio

transmission. In fact, radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth by this layer. Exosphere: The upper most layer of the atmosphere is known as exosphere. This layer has very thin air.Light gases like helium and hydrogen float into the space from here The degree of hotness and coldness of the air is known as temperature. An important factor that influences the distribution of temperature is insolation. Insolation is the incomeing solar energy intercepted by the earth.

The standard unit of measuring temperature is degree Celsius. It was invented by Anders Celsius. On the Celsius scale the water freezes at 0C and boils at 100C. On the basis of mechanism, there are three types of rainfall: the convectional rainfall, the orographic rainfall and the cyclonic rainfall

ch-6 vegetation Forests: Which grow where temperature and rainfall are plentiful to support a tree cover. Depending upon these factors, dense and open forests are grown. (b) Grasslands: Which grow in the region of moderate rain. (c) Shrubs: Thorny shrurbs and scrubs grow in the dry Region Tropical Evergreen Forests These forests are also called tropical rainforests. These thick forests occur in the regions near the equator and close to the tropics. These regions are hot and receive heavy rainfall throughout the year. Tropical Deciduous Forests Tropical deciduous are the monsoon forests found in the large part of India,northern Australia and in central America .These regions experience seasonal changes. Trees shed their leaves in the dry season to conserve water. The hardwood trees found in these forests are sal, teak, neem and shisham Temperate Evergreen Forests The temperate evergreen forests are located in the midlatitudinal coastal region They are commonly found along the eastern margin of the continents, e.g., In south east USA, South China and in South East Brazil. They comprise both hard and soft wood trees like oak, pine, eucalyptus, etc. Coniferous Forests In the higher latitudes (50 70) of Northern hemisphere the spectacular Coniferous forests are found These are also called as Taiga. These forests are also seen in the higher altitudes Taiga means pure or untouched in the Russian language GRASSLANDS Tropical grasslands: These occur on either side of the equator and extend till the tropics This vegetation grows in the areas of moderate to low amount of rainfall. The grass can grow very tall, about 3 to 4 metres in height. Savannah grasslands of Africa are of this type. Elephants, zebras, giraffes, deer, leopards are common in tropical grasslands March 22 is celebrated as World Water Day
Tsunami is a Japanese word that means Harbour waves as the harbours get destroyed whenever there is tsunami

During the full moon and new moon days, the sun, the moon and the earth are in the same line and the tides are highest. These tides are called spring tides. But when the moon is in its first and last quarter, the ocean waters get drawn in diagonally opposite directions by the gravitational pull of sun and earth resulting in low tides. These tides are called neap tides Ocean currents are streams of water flowing constantly on the ocean surface in definite directions. The ocean currents may be warm or cold 7

Transhumance: It is a seasonal movement of people. People who rear animals move in search of new pastures according to changes in seasons.

Places where water accumulates in the rainy season the houses are constructed on a raised platform or stilts
The Golden Quadrilateral connects Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata.

They are mainly of two types inland waterways and sea routes. Navigable rivers and lakes are used as inland waterways. Some of the important inland waterways are the Ganga-Brahmaputra river system, the Great Lakes in North America and the river Nile in Africa. Sea routes and oceanic routes are mostly used for transporting merchandise and goods from one country to another. These routes are connected with the ports. Some of the important ports of the world are Singapore and Mumbai in Asia, New York, Los Angeles in North America, Rio de Janerio in South America, Durban and Cape Town in Africa, Sydney in Australia, London and Rotterdam in Europe