Avr Libc User Manual 1.8.0

avr-libc
1.8.0
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CONTENTS
Contents
1 AVR Libc 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General information about this library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Supported Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 1 2
avr-libc License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 11
Toolchain Overview 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 FSF and GNU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 GCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 GNU Binutils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 avr-libc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Building Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 AVRDUDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 GDB / Insight / DDD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 AVaRICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.10 SimulAVR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.11 Utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.12 Toolchain Distributions (Distros) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2.13 Open Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 3 Memory Areas and Using malloc() 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 4 16
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Internal vs. external RAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Tunables for malloc() Implementation details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Memory Sections 4.1 4.2 4.3 The .text Section
The .data Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 The .bss Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
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4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5
The .eeprom Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 The .noinit Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
The .initN Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 The .niN Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Using Sections in Assembler Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Using Sections in C Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 26
Data in Program Space 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 A Note On const . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Storing and Retrieving Data in the Program Space . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Storing and Retrieving Strings in the Program Space . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Caveats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 31
avr-libc and assembler programs 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Invoking the compiler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Example program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Pseudo-ops and operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 37
Inline Assembler Cookbook 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 GCC asm Statement
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Assembler Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Input and Output Operands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Clobbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Assembler Macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 C Stub Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 C Names Used in Assembler Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 50
How to Build a Library 8.1 8.2
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 How the Linker Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
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8.3 8.4 8.5 9
How to Design a Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Creating a Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Using a Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 53
Benchmarks 9.1 9.2
A few of libc functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Math functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 55
10 Porting From IAR to AVR GCC
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 10.2 Registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
10.3 Interrupt Service Routines (ISRs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 10.4 Intrinsic Routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 10.5 Flash Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 10.6 Non-Returning main() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 10.7 Locking Registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 11 Frequently Asked Questions 60
11.1 FAQ Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 11.2 My program doesnt recognize a variable updated within an interrupt routine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 11.3 I get "undened reference to..." for functions like "sin()" . . . . . . . . . . 62 11.4 How to permanently bind a variable to a register? . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 11.5 How to modify MCUCR or WDTCR early? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 11.6 What is all this _BV() stuff about? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 11.7 Can I use C++ on the AVR? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 11.8 Shouldnt I initialize all my variables? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 11.9 Why do some 16-bit timer registers sometimes get trashed? . . . . . . . 66 11.10How do I use a #dened constant in an asm statement? . . . . . . . . . 67 11.11Why does the PC randomly jump around when single-stepping through my program in avr-gdb? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 11.12How do I trace an assembler le in avr-gdb? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 11.13How do I pass an IO port as a parameter to a function? . . . . . . . . . 69
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11.14What registers are used by the C compiler?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
11.15How do I put an array of strings completely in ROM? . . . . . . . . . . . 73 11.16How to use external RAM? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 11.17Which -O ag to use? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 11.18How do I relocate code to a xed address? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 11.19My UART is generating nonsense! My ATmega128 keeps crashing! Port F is completely broken! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 11.20Why do all my "foo...bar" strings eat up the SRAM? . . . . . . . . . . . 77
11.21Why does the compiler compile an 8-bit operation that uses bitwise operators into a 16-bit operation in assembly? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 11.22How to detect RAM memory and variable overlap problems? . . . . . . 79
11.23Is it really impossible to program the ATtinyXX in C? . . . . . . . . . . . 80 11.24What is this "clock skew detected" message? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 11.25Why are (many) interrupt ags cleared by writing a logical 1? . . . . . . 81 11.26Why have "programmed" fuses the bit value 0? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 11.27Which AVR-specic assembler operators are available? . . . . . . . . . 82 11.28Why are interrupts re-enabled in the middle of writing the stack pointer? . 82 11.29Why are there ve different linker scripts? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
11.30How to add a raw binary image to linker output? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 11.31How do I perform a software reset of the AVR? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 11.32I am using oating point math. Why is the compiled code so big? Why does my code not work? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 11.33What pitfalls exist when writing reentrant code? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
11.34Why are some addresses of the EEPROM corrupted (usually address zero)? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 11.35Why is my baud rate wrong? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 11.36On a device with more than 128 KiB of ash, how to make function pointers work? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 11.37Why is assigning ports in a "chain" a bad idea? 12 Building and Installing the GNU Tool Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 90
12.1 Building and Installing under Linux, FreeBSD, and Others . . . . . . . . 90 12.2 Required Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
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12.3 Optional Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 12.4 GNU Binutils for the AVR target . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 12.5 GCC for the AVR target . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 12.6 AVR LibC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 12.7 AVRDUDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 12.8 GDB for the AVR target . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 12.9 SimulAVR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 12.10AVaRICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
12.11Building and Installing under Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 12.12Tools Required for Building the Toolchain for Windows . . . . . . . . . . 97 12.13Building the Toolchain for Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 13 Using the GNU tools 105
13.1 Options for the C compiler avr-gcc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 13.1.1 Machine-specic options for the AVR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 13.1.2 Selected general compiler options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 13.2 Options for the assembler avr-as . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 13.2.1 Machine-specic assembler options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 13.2.2 Examples for assembler options passed through the C compiler 121 13.3 Controlling the linker avr-ld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 13.3.1 Selected linker options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 13.3.2 Passing linker options from the C compiler . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 14 Compiler optimization 124
14.1 Problems with reordering code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 15 Using the avrdude program 16 Release Numbering and Methodology 126 128
16.1 Release Version Numbering Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 16.2 Releasing AVR Libc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 16.2.1 Creating an SVN branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 16.2.2 Making a release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
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17 Acknowledgments 18 Todo List 19 Deprecated List 20 Module Index
131 132 132 133
20.1 Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 21 Data Structure Index 135
21.1 Data Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 22 File Index 135
22.1 File List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 23 Module Documentation 140
23.1 <alloca.h>: Allocate space in the stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 23.1.1 Function Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 23.2 <assert.h>: Diagnostics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 23.2.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
23.2.2 Dene Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 23.3 <ctype.h>: Character Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 23.3.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
23.3.2 Function Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 23.4 <errno.h>: System Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 23.4.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
23.4.2 Dene Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 23.5 <inttypes.h>: Integer Type conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 23.5.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
23.5.2 Dene Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 23.5.3 Typedef Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 23.6 <math.h>: Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 23.6.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
23.6.2 Dene Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
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23.6.3 Function Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 23.7 <setjmp.h>: Non-local goto 23.7.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
23.7.2 Function Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 23.8 <stdint.h>: Standard Integer Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 23.8.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
23.8.2 Dene Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 23.8.3 Typedef Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 23.9 <stdio.h>: Standard IO facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 23.9.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
23.9.2 Dene Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 23.9.3 Function Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 23.10 <stdlib.h>: General utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 23.10.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
23.10.2 Dene Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 23.10.3 Typedef Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 23.10.4 Function Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 23.10.5 Variable Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
23.11 <string.h>: Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 23.11.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
23.11.2 Dene Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 23.11.3 Function Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 23.12 <avr/boot.h>: Bootloader Support Utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 23.12.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
23.12.2 Dene Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 23.13 <avr/cpufunc.h>: Special AVR CPU functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 23.13.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
23.13.2 Dene Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 23.14 <avr/eeprom.h>: EEPROM handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 23.14.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
23.14.2 Dene Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
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23.14.3 Function Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 23.15 <avr/fuse.h>: Fuse Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 23.16 <avr/interrupt.h>: Interrupts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 23.16.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
23.16.2 Dene Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 23.17 <avr/io.h>: AVR device-specic IO denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 23.18 <avr/lock.h>: Lockbit Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 23.19 <avr/pgmspace.h>: Program Space Utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 23.19.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
23.19.2 Dene Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 23.19.3 Typedef Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 23.19.4 Function Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 23.20 <avr/power.h>: Power Reduction Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 23.21Additional notes from <avr/sfr_defs.h> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 23.22 <avr/sfr_defs.h>: Special function registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 23.22.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
23.22.2 Dene Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 23.23 <avr/signature.h>: Signature Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 23.24 <avr/sleep.h>: Power Management and Sleep Modes . . . . . . . . . . 293 23.24.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
23.24.2 Function Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 23.25 <avr/version.h>: avr-libc version macros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 23.25.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
23.25.2 Dene Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 23.26 <avr/wdt.h>: Watchdog timer handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 23.26.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
23.26.2 Dene Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 23.27 <util/atomic.h> Atomically and Non-Atomically Executed Code Blocks . 302 23.27.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
23.27.2 Dene Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 23.28 <util/crc16.h>: CRC Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
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23.28.1 Detailed Description
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
23.28.2 Function Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 23.29 <util/delay.h>: Convenience functions for busy-wait delay loops . . . . . 310 23.29.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
23.29.2 Function Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 23.30 <util/delay_basic.h>: Basic busy-wait delay loops . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 23.30.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
23.30.2 Function Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 23.31 <util/parity.h>: Parity bit generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 23.31.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
23.31.2 Dene Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 23.32 <util/setbaud.h>: Helper macros for baud rate calculations . . . . . . . 315 23.32.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
23.32.2 Dene Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 23.33 <util/twi.h>: TWI bit mask denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 23.33.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
23.33.2 Dene Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 23.34 <compat/deprecated.h>: Deprecated items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 23.34.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
23.34.2 Dene Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 23.34.3 Function Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 23.35 <compat/ina90.h>: Compatibility with IAR EWB 3.x . . . . . . . . . . . 326 23.36Demo projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 23.36.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
23.37Combining C and assembly source les
23.37.1 Hardware setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 23.37.2 A code walkthrough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 23.37.3 The source code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 23.38A simple project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 23.38.1 The Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 23.38.2 The Source Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
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23.38.3 Compiling and Linking
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
23.38.4 Examining the Object File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 23.38.5 Linker Map Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
23.38.6 Generating Intel Hex Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 23.38.7 Letting Make Build the Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 23.38.8 Reference to the source code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
23.39A more sophisticated project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 23.39.1 Hardware setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 23.39.2 Functional overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 23.39.3 A code walkthrough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 23.39.4 The source code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 23.40Using the standard IO facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 23.40.1 Hardware setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 23.40.2 Functional overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 23.40.3 A code walkthrough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 23.40.4 The source code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 23.41Example using the two-wire interface (TWI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 23.41.1 Introduction into TWI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 23.41.2 The TWI example project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 23.41.3 The Source Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 24 Data Structure Documentation 371
24.1 div_t Struct Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 24.1.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
24.1.2 Field Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 24.2 ldiv_t Struct Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 24.2.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
24.2.2 Field Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 25 File Documentation 372
25.1 assert.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 25.1.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
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25.2 atoi.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 25.2.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
25.3 atol.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 25.3.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
25.4 atomic.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 25.4.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
25.5 boot.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 25.5.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
25.5.2 Dene Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 25.6 cpufunc.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 25.6.1 Detailed Description 25.7 crc16.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
25.7.1 Detailed Description 25.8 ctype.h File Reference
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
25.9 delay.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 25.9.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
25.10delay_basic.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 25.10.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
25.11errno.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 25.11.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
25.12fdevopen.c File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 25.12.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
25.13ffs.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 25.13.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
25.14ffsl.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 25.14.1 Detailed Description 25.15ffsll.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
25.16fuse.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 25.16.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
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25.17interrupt.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 25.17.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
25.18inttypes.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 25.18.1 Detailed Description 25.19io.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
25.20lock.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 25.20.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
25.21math.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 25.21.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
25.22memccpy.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 25.22.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
25.23memchr.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 25.23.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
25.24memchr_P.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 25.24.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
25.25memcmp.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 25.25.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
25.26memcmp_P.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 25.26.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
25.27memcmp_PF.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 25.27.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
25.28memcpy.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 25.28.1 Detailed Description 25.29memcpy_P.S File Reference 25.29.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
25.30memmem.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 25.30.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
25.31memmove.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 25.31.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
25.32memrchr.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
25.33memrchr_P.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 25.33.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
25.34memset.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 25.34.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
25.35parity.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 25.35.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
25.36pgmspace.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 25.36.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
25.36.2 Dene Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 25.37power.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 25.37.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
25.38setbaud.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 25.38.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
25.39setjmp.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 25.39.1 Detailed Description 25.40signature.h File Reference 25.40.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
25.41sleep.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 25.41.1 Detailed Description 25.42stdint.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
25.43stdio.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 25.43.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
25.44stdlib.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 25.44.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
25.45strcasecmp.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 25.45.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
25.46strcasecmp_P.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 25.46.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
25.47strcasestr.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
25.48strcat.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 25.48.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
25.49strcat_P.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 25.49.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
25.50strchr.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 25.50.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
25.51strchr_P.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 25.51.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
25.52strchrnul.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 25.52.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
25.53strchrnul_P.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 25.53.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
25.54strcmp.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 25.54.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
25.55strcmp_P.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 25.55.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
25.56strcpy.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 25.56.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
25.57strcpy_P.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 25.57.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
25.58strcspn.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 25.58.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
25.59strcspn_P.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 25.59.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
25.60strdup.c File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 25.60.1 Detailed Description 25.61string.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
25.62strlcat.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 25.62.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
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25.63strlcat_P.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 25.63.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
25.64strlcpy.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 25.64.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
25.65strlcpy_P.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 25.65.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
25.66strlen.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 25.66.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
25.67strlen_P.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 25.67.1 Detailed Description 25.68strlwr.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
25.68.1 Detailed Description 25.69strncasecmp.S File Reference 25.69.1 Detailed Description
25.70strncasecmp_P.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 25.70.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
25.71strncat.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 25.71.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
25.72strncat_P.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 25.72.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
25.73strncmp.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 25.73.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
25.74strncmp_P.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 25.74.1 Detailed Description 25.75strncpy.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
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25.76strncpy_P.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 25.76.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
25.77strnlen.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 25.77.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
25.78strnlen_P.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
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25.78.1 Detailed Description 25.79strpbrk.S File Reference
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
25.80strpbrk_P.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 25.80.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
25.81strrchr.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 25.81.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
25.82strrchr_P.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 25.82.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
25.83strrev.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 25.83.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
25.84strsep.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 25.84.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
25.85strsep_P.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 25.85.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
25.86strspn.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 25.86.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
25.87strspn_P.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 25.87.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
25.88strstr.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 25.88.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
25.89strstr_P.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 25.89.1 Detailed Description 25.90strtok.c File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
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25.91strtok_P.c File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 25.91.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
25.92strtok_r.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 25.92.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
25.93strtok_rP.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 25.93.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
1 AVR Libc
25.94strupr.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 25.94.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
25.95twi.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 25.95.1 Detailed Description 25.96wdt.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
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1.1
AVR Libc
Introduction
The latest version of this document is always available from http://savannah.-
nongnu.org/projects/avr-libc/
The AVR Libc package provides a subset of the standard C library for Atmel AVR 8-bit RISC microcontrollers. In addition, the library provides the basic startup code needed by most applications. There is a wealth of information in this document which goes beyond simply describing the interfaces and routines provided by the library. We hope that this document provides enough information to get a new AVR developer up to speed quickly using the freely available development tools: binutils, gcc avr-libc and many others. If you nd yourself stuck on a problem which this document doesnt quite address, you may wish to post a message to the avr-gcc mailing list. Most of the developers of the AVR binutils and gcc ports in addition to the devleopers of avr-libc subscribe to the list, so you will usually be able to get your problem resolved. You can subscribe to the list at http://lists.nongnu.org/mailman/listinfo/avr-gcc-list . Before posting to the list, you might want to try reading the Frequently Asked Questions chapter of this document. Note If you think youve found a bug, or have a suggestion for an improvement, either in this documentation or in the library itself, please use the bug tracker at https://savannah.nongnu.org/bugs/?group=avr-libc to ensure the issue wont be forgotten.
1.2
General information about this library
In general, it has been the goal to stick as best as possible to established standards while implementing this library. Commonly, this refers to the C library as described by
1.3
Supported Devices
the ANSI X3.159-1989 and ISO/IEC 9899:1990 ("ANSI-C") standard, as well as parts of their successor ISO/IEC 9899:1999 ("C99"). Some additions have been inspired by other standards like IEEE Std 1003.1-1988 ("POSIX.1"), while other extensions are purely AVR-specic (like the entire program-space string interface). Unless otherwise noted, functions of this library are not guaranteed to be reentrant. In particular, any functions that store local state are known to be non-reentrant, as well as functions that manipulate IO registers like the EEPROM access routines. If these functions are used within both standard and interrupt contexts undened behaviour will result. See the FAQ for a more detailed discussion.
1.3
Supported Devices
The following is a list of AVR devices currently supported by the library. Note that actual support for some newer devices depends on the ability of the compiler/assembler to support these devices at library compile-time. megaAVR Devices:
atmega103 atmega128 atmega1280 atmega1281 atmega1284p atmega16 atmega161 atmega162 atmega163 atmega164a atmega164p atmega165 atmega165a atmega165p atmega168
1.3
Supported Devices
atmega168a atmega168p atmega16a atmega2560 atmega2561 atmega32 atmega323 atmega324a atmega324p atmega324pa atmega325 atmega325a atmega325p atmega3250 atmega3250a atmega3250p atmega328 atmega328p atmega48 atmega48a atmega48p atmega64 atmega640 atmega644 atmega644a atmega644p atmega644pa atmega645
1.3
Supported Devices
atmega645a atmega645p atmega6450 atmega6450a atmega6450p atmega8 atmega88 atmega88a atmega88p atmega88pa atmega8515 atmega8535 tinyAVR Devices:
attiny4 attiny5 attiny10 attiny11 [1] attiny12 [1] attiny13 attiny13a attiny15 [1] attiny20 attiny22 attiny24 attiny24a attiny25
1.3
Supported Devices
attiny26 attiny261 attiny261a attiny28 [1] attiny2313 attiny2313a attiny40 attiny4313 attiny43u attiny44 attiny44a attiny45 attiny461 attiny461a attiny48 attiny84 attiny84a attiny85 attiny861 attiny861a attiny87 attiny88 Automotive AVR Devices:
atmega16m1 atmega32c1 atmega32m1
1.3
Supported Devices
atmega64c1 atmega64m1 attiny167 CAN AVR Devices:
at90can32 at90can64 at90can128 LCD AVR Devices:
atmega169 atmega169a atmega169p atmega169pa atmega329 atmega329a atmega329p atmega329pa atmega3290 atmega3290a atmega3290p atmega649 atmega649a atmega6490 atmega6490a atmega6490p atmega649p
1.3
Supported Devices
Lighting AVR Devices:
at90pwm1 at90pwm2 at90pwm2b at90pwm216 at90pwm3 at90pwm3b at90pwm316 at90pwm81 Smart Battery AVR Devices:
atmega8hva atmega16hva atmega16hva2 atmega16hvb atmega16hvbrevb atmega32hvb atmega32hvbrevb atmega64hve atmega406 USB AVR Devices:
at90usb82 at90usb162 at90usb646 at90usb647
1.3
Supported Devices
at90usb1286 at90usb1287 atmega8u2 atmega16u2 atmega16u4 atmega32u2 atmega32u4 atmega32u6 XMEGA Devices:
atxmega16a4 atxmega16d4 atxmega32a4 atxmega32d4 atxmega64a1 atxmega64a1u atxmega64a3 atxmega64d3 atxmega128a1 atxmega128a1u atxmega128a3 atxmega128d3 atxmega192a3 atxmega192d3 atxmega256a3 atxmega256a3b atxmega256d3
1.3
Supported Devices
Miscellaneous Devices:
at94K [2] at76c711 [3] at43usb320 at43usb355 at86rf401 at90scr100 ata6289 m3000 [4] Classic AVR Devices:
at90s1200 [1] at90s2313 at90s2323 at90s2333 at90s2343 at90s4414 at90s4433 at90s4434 at90s8515 at90c8534 at90s8535
Note [1] Assembly only. There is no direct support for these devices to be programmed in C since they do not have a RAM based stack. Still, it could be possible to program them in C, see the FAQ for an option.
1.4
avr-libc License
10
Note [2] The at94K devices are a combination of FPGA and AVR microcontroller. [TRoth-2002/11/12: Not sure of the level of support for these. More information would be welcomed.]
Note [3] The at76c711 is a USB to fast serial interface bridge chip using an AVR core.
Note [4] The m3000 is a motor controller AVR ASIC from Intelligent Motion Systems (IMS) / Schneider Electric.
1.4
avr-libc License
avr-libc can be freely used and redistributed, provided the following license conditions are met.
Portions of avr-libc are Copyright (c) 1999-2010 Werner Boellmann, Dean Camera, Pieter Conradie, Brian Dean, Keith Gudger, Wouter van Gulik, Bjoern Haase, Steinar Haugen, Peter Jansen, Reinhard Jessich, Magnus Johansson, Harald Kipp, Carlos Lamas, Cliff Lawson, Artur Lipowski, Marek Michalkiewicz, Todd C. Miller, Rich Neswold, Colin OFlynn, Bob Paddock, Andrey Pashchenko, Reiner Patommel, Florin-Viorel Petrov, Alexander Popov, Michael Rickman, Theodore A. Roth, Juergen Schilling, Philip Soeberg, Anatoly Sokolov, Nils Kristian Strom,
2 Toolchain Overview
11
Michael Stumpf, Stefan Swanepoel, Helmut Wallner, Eric B. Weddington, Joerg Wunsch, Dmitry Xmelkov, Atmel Corporation, egnite Software GmbH, The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the copyright holders nor the names of contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
2
2.1
Toolchain Overview
Introduction
Welcome to the open source software development toolset for the Atmel AVR! There is not a single tool that provides everything needed to develop software for the AVR. It takes many tools working together. Collectively, the group of tools are called a toolset, or commonly a toolchain, as the tools are chained together to produce the nal executable application for the AVR microcontroller. The following sections provide an overview of all of these tools. You may be used to cross-compilers that provide everything with a GUI front-end, and not know what goes on "underneath the hood". You may be coming from a desktop or server computer
2.2
FSF and GNU
12
background and not used to embedded systems. Or you may be just learning about the most common software development toolchain available on Unix and Linux systems. Hopefully the following overview will be helpful in putting everything in perspective.
2.2
FSF and GNU
According to its website, "the Free Software Foundation (FSF), established in 1985, is dedicated to promoting computer users rights to use, study, copy, modify, and redistribute computer programs. The FSF promotes the development and use of free software, particularly the GNU operating system, used widely in its GNU/Linux variant." The FSF remains the primary sponsor of the GNU project. The GNU Project was launched in 1984 to develop a complete Unix-like operating system which is free software: the GNU system. GNU is a recursive acronym for GNUs Not Unix; it is pronounced guh-noo, approximately like canoe. One of the main projects of the GNU system is the GNU Compiler Collection, or GCC, and its sister project, GNU Binutils. These two open source projects provide a foundation for a software development toolchain. Note that these projects were designed to originally run on Unix-like systems.
2.3
GCC
GCC stands for GNU Compiler Collection. GCC is highly exible compiler system. It has different compiler front-ends for different languages. It has many back-ends that generate assembly code for many different processors and host operating systems. All share a common "middle-end", containing the generic parts of the compiler, including a lot of optimizations. In GCC, a host system is the system (processor/OS) that the compiler runs on. A target system is the system that the compiler compiles code for. And, a build system is the system that the compiler is built (from source code) on. If a compiler has the same system for host and for target , it is known as a native compiler. If a compiler has different systems for host and target , it is known as a cross-compiler. (And if all three, build , host , and target systems are different, it is known as a Canadian cross compiler, but we wont discuss that here.) When GCC is built to execute on a host system such as FreeBSD, Linux, or Windows, and it is built to generate code for the AVR microcontroller target , then it is a cross compiler, and this version of GCC is commonly known as "AVR GCC". In documentation, or discussion, AVR GCC is used when referring to GCC targeting specically the AVR, or something that is AVR specic about GCC. The term "GCC" is usually used to refer to something generic about GCC, or about GCC as a whole. GCC is different from most other compilers. GCC focuses on translating a high-level language to the target assembly only. AVR GCC has three available compilers for the AVR: C language, C++, and Ada. The compiler itself does not assemble or link the nal
2.4
GNU Binutils
13
code. GCC is also known as a "driver" program, in that it knows about, and drives other programs seamlessly to create the nal output. The assembler, and the linker are part of another open source project called GNU Binutils. GCC knows how to drive the GNU assembler (gas) to assemble the output of the compiler. GCC knows how to drive the GNU linker (ld) to link all of the object modules into a nal executable. The two projects, GCC and Binutils, are very much interrelated and many of the same volunteers work on both open source projects. When GCC is built for the AVR target, the actual program names are prexed with "avr". So the actual executable name for AVR GCC is: avr-gcc. The name "avr-gcc" is used in documentation and discussion when referring to the program itself and not just the whole AVR GCC system. See the GCC Web Site and GCC User Manual for more information about GCC.
2.4
GNU Binutils
The name GNU Binutils stands for "Binary Utilities". It contains the GNU assembler (gas), and the GNU linker (ld), but also contains many other utilities that work with binary les that are created as part of the software development toolchain. Again, when these tools are built for the AVR target, the actual program names are prexed with "avr-". For example, the assembler program name, for a native assembler is "as" (even though in documentation the GNU assembler is commonly referred to as "gas"). But when built for an AVR target, it becomes "avr-as". Below is a list of the programs that are included in Binutils: avr-as The Assembler. avr-ld The Linker. avr-ar Create, modify, and extract from libraries (archives). avr-ranlib Generate index to library (archive) contents. avr-objcopy Copy and translate object les to different formats.
2.5
avr-libc
14
avr-objdump Display information from object les including disassembly. avr-size List section sizes and total size. avr-nm List symbols from object les. avr-strings List printable strings from les. avr-strip Discard symbols from les. avr-readelf Display the contents of ELF format les. avr-addr2line Convert addresses to le and line. avr-c++lt Filter to demangle encoded C++ symbols.
2.5
avr-libc
GCC and Binutils provides a lot of the tools to develop software, but there is one critical component that they do not provide: a Standard C Library. There are different open source projects that provide a Standard C Library depending upon your system time, whether for a native compiler (GNU Libc), for some other embedded system (newlib), or for some versions of Linux (uCLibc). The open source AVR toolchain has its own Standard C Library project: avr-libc. AVR-Libc provides many of the same functions found in a regular Standard C Library and many additional library functions that is specic to an AVR. Some of the Standard C Library functions that are commonly used on a PC environment have limitations or additional issues that a user needs to be aware of when used on an embedded system. AVR-Libc also contains the most documentation about the whole AVR toolchain.
2.6
Building Software
15
2.6
Building Software
Even though GCC, Binutils, and avr-libc are the core projects that are used to build software for the AVR, there is another piece of software that ties it all together: Make. GNU Make is a program that makes things, and mainly software. Make interprets and executes a Makele that is written for a project. A Makele contains dependency rules, showing which output les are dependent upon which input les, and instructions on how to build output les from input les. Some distributions of the toolchains, and other AVR tools such as MFile, contain a Makele template written for the AVR toolchain and AVR applications that you can copy and modify for your application. See the GNU Make User Manual for more information.
2.7
AVRDUDE
After creating your software, youll want to program your device. You can do this by using the program AVRDUDE which can interface with various hardware devices to program your processor. AVRDUDE is a very exible package. All the information about AVR processors and various hardware programmers is stored in a text database. This database can be modied by any user to add new hardware or to add an AVR processor if it is not already listed.
2.8
GDB / Insight / DDD
The GNU Debugger (GDB) is a command-line debugger that can be used with the rest of the AVR toolchain. Insight is GDB plus a GUI written in Tcl/Tk. Both GDB and Insight are congured for the AVR and the main executables are prexed with the target name: avr-gdb, and avr-insight. There is also a "text mode" GUI for GDB: avr-gdbtui. DDD (Data Display Debugger) is another popular GUI front end to GDB, available on Unix and Linux systems.
2.9
AVaRICE
AVaRICE is a back-end program to AVR GDB and interfaces to the Atmel JTAG In-Circuit Emulator (ICE), to provide emulation capabilities.
2.10
SimulAVR
16
2.10
SimulAVR
SimulAVR is an AVR simulator used as a back-end with AVR GDB. Unfortunately, this project is currently unmaintained and could use some help.
2.11
Utilities
There are also other optional utilities available that may be useful to add to your toolset.
SRecord is a collection of powerful tools for manipulating EPROM load les. It reads
and writes numerous EPROM le formats, and can perform many different manipulations.
MFile is a simple Makele generator is meant as an aid to quickly customize a Makele

to use for your AVR application.
2.12
Toolchain Distributions (Distros)
All of the various open source projects that comprise the entire toolchain are normally distributed as source code. It is left up to the user to build the tool application from its source code. This can be a very daunting task to any potential user of these tools. Luckily there are people who help out in this area. Volunteers take the time to build the application from source code on particular host platforms and sometimes packaging the tools for convenient installation by the end user. These packages contain the binary executables of the tools, pre-made and ready to use. These packages are known as "distributions" of the AVR toolchain, or by a more shortened name, "distros". AVR toolchain distros are available on FreeBSD, Windows, Mac OS X, and certain avors of Linux.
2.13
Open Source
All of these tools, from the original source code in the multitude of projects, to the various distros, are put together by many, many volunteers. All of these projects could always use more help from other people who are willing to volunteer some of their time. There are many different ways to help, for people with varying skill levels, abilities, and available time. You can help to answer questions in mailing lists such as the avr-gcc-list, or on forums at the AVR Freaks website. This helps many people new to the open source AVR tools. If you think you found a bug in any of the tools, it is always a big help to submit a good bug report to the proper project. A good bug report always helps other volunteers to analyze the problem and to get it xed for future versions of the software.
3 Memory Areas and Using malloc()
17
You can also help to x bugs in various software projects, or to add desirable new features. Volunteers are always welcome! :-)
3
3.1
Memory Areas and Using malloc()

Introduction
Many of the devices that are possible targets of avr-libc have a minimal amount of RAM. The smallest parts supported by the C environment come with 128 bytes of RAM. This needs to be shared between initialized and uninitialized variables (sections .data and .bss), the dynamic memory allocator, and the stack that is used for calling subroutines and storing local (automatic) variables. Also, unlike larger architectures, there is no hardware-supported memory management which could help in separating the mentioned RAM regions from being overwritten by each other. The standard RAM layout is to place .data variables rst, from the beginning of the internal RAM, followed by .bss. The stack is started from the top of internal RAM, growing downwards. The so-called "heap" available for the dynamic memory allocator will be placed beyond the end of .bss. Thus, theres no risk that dynamic memory will ever collide with the RAM variables (unless there were bugs in the implementation of the allocator). There is still a risk that the heap and stack could collide if there are large requirements for either dynamic memory or stack space. The former can even happen if the allocations arent all that large but dynamic memory allocations get fragmented over time such that new requests dont quite t into the "holes" of previously freed regions. Large stack space requirements can arise in a C function containing large and/or numerous local variables or when recursively calling function.
3.2
Internal vs. external RAM
18
Note The pictures shown in this document represent typical situations where the RAM locations refer to an ATmega128. The memory addresses used are not displayed in a linear scale.
0x0100
onboard RAM
external RAM
.data .bss variables variables
heap
stack
SP
RAMEND
*(__brkval) (<= *SP *(__malloc_margin)) *(__malloc_heap_start) == __heap_start __bss_end __data_end == __bss_start __data_start
Figure 1: RAM map of a device with internal RAM
On a simple device like a microcontroller it is a challenge to implement a dynamic memory allocator that is simple enough so the code size requirements will remain low, yet powerful enough to avoid unnecessary memory fragmentation and to get it all done with reasonably few CPU cycles. Microcontrollers are often low on space and also run at much lower speeds than the typical PC these days. The memory allocator implemented in avr-libc tries to cope with all of these constraints, and offers some tuning options that can be used if there are more resources available than in the default conguration.
3.2
Internal vs. external RAM
Obviously, the constraints are much harder to satisfy in the default conguration where only internal RAM is available. Extreme care must be taken to avoid a stack-heap collision, both by making sure functions arent nesting too deeply, and dont require too much stack space for local variables, as well as by being cautious with allocating too much dynamic memory. If external RAM is available, it is strongly recommended to move the heap into the external RAM, regardless of whether or not the variables from the .data and .bss sections are also going to be located there. The stack should always be kept in internal RAM. Some devices even require this, and in general, internal RAM can be accessed faster since no extra wait states are required. When using dynamic memory allocation and stack and heap are separated in distinct memory areas, this is the safest way to avoid a stack-heap collision.
0xFFFF
0x10FF 0x1100
3.3
Tunables for malloc()
19
3.3
There are a number of variables that can be tuned to adapt the behavior of malloc() to the expected requirements and constraints of the application. Any changes to these tunables should be made before the very rst call to malloc(). Note that some library functions might also use dynamic memory (notably those from the <stdio.h>: Standard IO facilities), so make sure the changes will be done early enough in the startup sequence. The variables __malloc_heap_start and __malloc_heap_end can be used to restrict the malloc() function to a certain memory region. These variables are statically initialized to point to __heap_start and __heap_end, respectively, where __heap_start is lled in by the linker to point just beyond .bss, and __heap_end is set to 0 which makes malloc() assume the heap is below the stack. If the heap is going to be moved to external RAM, __malloc_heap_end must be adjusted accordingly. This can either be done at run-time, by writing directly to this variable, or it can be done automatically at link-time, by adjusting the value of the symbol __heap_end. The following example shows a linker command to relocate the entire .data and .bss segments, and the heap to location 0x1100 in external RAM. The heap will extend up to address 0xffff.
avr-gcc ... -Wl,--section-start,.data=0x801100,--defsym=__heap_end=0x80ffff ...
Note See explanation for offset 0x800000. See the chapter about using gcc for the -Wl options. The ld (linker) user manual states that using -Tdata=<x> is equivalent to using --section-start,.data=<x>. However, you have to use --section-start as above because the GCC frontend also sets the -Tdata option for all MCU types where the SRAM doesnt start at 0x800060. Thus, the linker is being faced with two -Tdata options. Sarting with binutils 2.16, the linker changed the preference, and picks the "wrong" option in this situation.
3.3
20
0x0100
onboard RAM
external RAM
stack
.data .bss variables variables
heap
SP RAMEND
0xFFFF *(__malloc_heap_end) == __heap_end *(__brkval) *(__malloc_heap_start) == __heap_start __bss_end __data_end == __bss_start __data_start
Figure 2: Internal RAM: stack only, external RAM: variables and heap
If dynamic memory should be placed in external RAM, while keeping the variables in internal RAM, something like the following could be used. Note that for demonstration purposes, the assignment of the various regions has not been made adjacent in this example, so there are "holes" below and above the heap in external RAM that remain completely unaccessible by regular variables or dynamic memory allocations (shown in light bisque color in the picture below).
avr-gcc ... -Wl,--defsym=__heap_start=0x802000,--defsym=__heap_end=0x803fff ...
0x10FF 0x1100
external RAM
0x0100
onboard RAM
.bss .data variables variables
stack
heap
SP RAMEND __bss_end __data_end == __bss_start __data_start
*(__malloc_heap_end) == __heap_end *(__brkval) *(__malloc_heap_start) == __heap_start
Figure 3: Internal RAM: variables and stack, external RAM: heap
If __malloc_heap_end is 0, the allocator attempts to detect the bottom of stack in order to prevent a stack-heap collision when extending the actual size of the heap to gain more space for dynamic memory. It will not try to go beyond the current stack limit, decreased by __malloc_margin bytes. Thus, all possible stack frames of interrupt
0xFFFF
0x3FFF
0x10FF 0x1100
0x2000
3.4
Implementation details
21
routines that could interrupt the current function, plus all further nested function calls must not require more stack space, or they will risk colliding with the data segment. The default value of __malloc_margin is set to 32.
3.4
Implementation details
Dynamic memory allocation requests will be returned with a two-byte header prepended that records the size of the allocation. This is later used by free(). The returned address points just beyond that header. Thus, if the application accidentally writes before the returned memory region, the internal consistency of the memory allocator is compromised. The implementation maintains a simple freelist that accounts for memory blocks that have been returned in previous calls to free(). Note that all of this memory is considered to be successfully added to the heap already, so no further checks against stack-heap collisions are done when recycling memory from the freelist. The freelist itself is not maintained as a separate data structure, but rather by modifying the contents of the freed memory to contain pointers chaining the pieces together. That way, no additional memory is reqired to maintain this list except for a variable that keeps track of the lowest memory segment available for reallocation. Since both, a chain pointer and the size of the chunk need to be recorded in each chunk, the minimum chunk size on the freelist is four bytes. When allocating memory, rst the freelist is walked to see if it could satisfy the request. If theres a chunk available on the freelist that will t the request exactly, it will be taken, disconnected from the freelist, and returned to the caller. If no exact match could be found, the closest match that would just satisfy the request will be used. The chunk will normally be split up into one to be returned to the caller, and another (smaller) one that will remain on the freelist. In case this chunk was only up to two bytes larger than the request, the request will simply be altered internally to also account for these additional bytes since no separate freelist entry could be split off in that case. If nothing could be found on the freelist, heap extension is attempted. This is where __malloc_margin will be considered if the heap is operating below the stack, or where __malloc_heap_end will be veried otherwise. If the remaining memory is insufcient to satisfy the request, NULL will eventually be returned to the caller. When calling free(), a new freelist entry will be prepared. An attempt is then made to aggregate the new entry with possible adjacent entries, yielding a single larger entry available for further allocations. That way, the potential for heap fragmentation is hopefully reduced. When deallocating the topmost chunk of memory, the size of the heap is reduced. A call to realloc() rst determines whether the operation is about to grow or shrink the current allocation. When shrinking, the case is easy: the existing chunk is split, and the
4 Memory Sections
22
tail of the region that is no longer to be used is passed to the standard free() function for insertion into the freelist. Checks are rst made whether the tail chunk is large enough to hold a chunk of its own at all, otherwise realloc() will simply do nothing, and return the original region. When growing the region, it is rst checked whether the existing allocation can be extended in-place. If so, this is done, and the original pointer is returned without copying any data contents. As a side-effect, this check will also record the size of the largest chunk on the freelist. If the region cannot be extended in-place, but the old chunk is at the top of heap, and the above freelist walk did not reveal a large enough chunk on the freelist to satisfy the new request, an attempt is made to quickly extend this topmost chunk (and thus the heap), so no need arises to copy over the existing data. If theres no more space available in the heap (same check is done as in malloc()), the entire request will fail. Otherwise, malloc() will be called with the new request size, the existing data will be copied over, and free() will be called on the old region.
Memory Sections
Remarks Need to list all the sections which are available to the avr. Weak Bindings FIXME: need to discuss the .weak directive. The following describes the various sections available.
4.1
The .text Section
The .text section contains the actual machine instructions which make up your program. This section is further subdivided by the .initN and .niN sections dicussed below. Note The avr-size program (part of binutils), coming from a Unix background, doesnt account for the .data initialization space added to the .text section, so in order to know how much ash the nal program will consume, one needs to add the values for both, .text and .data (but not .bss), while the amount of pre-allocated SRAM is the sum of .data and .bss.
4.2
The .data Section
23
4.2
The .data Section
This section contains static data which was dened in your code. Things like the following would end up in .data:
char err_str[] = "Your program has died a horrible death!"; struct point pt = { 1, 1 };
It is possible to tell the linker the SRAM address of the beginning of the .data section. This is accomplished by adding -Wl,-Tdata,addr to the avr-gcc command used to the link your program. Not that addr must be offset by adding 0x800000 the to real SRAM address so that the linker knows that the address is in the SRAM memory space. Thus, if you want the .data section to start at 0x1100, pass 0x801100 at the address to the linker. [offset explained] Note When using malloc() in the application (which could even happen inside library calls), additional adjustments are required.
4.3
The .bss Section
Uninitialized global or static variables end up in the .bss section.
4.4
The .eeprom Section
This is where eeprom variables are stored.
4.5
The .noinit Section
This sections is a part of the .bss section. What makes the .noinit section special is that variables which are dened as such:
int foo __attribute__ ((section (".noinit")));
will not be initialized to zero during startup as would normal .bss data. Only uninitialized variables can be placed in the .noinit section. Thus, the following code will cause avr-gcc to issue an error:
int bar __attribute__ ((section (".noinit"))) = 0xaa;
4.6
The .initN Sections
24
It is possible to tell the linker explicitly where to place the .noinit section by adding -Wl,--section-start=.noinit=0x802000 to the avr-gcc command line at the linking stage. For example, suppose you wish to place the .noinit section at SRAM address 0x2000:
$ avr-gcc ... -Wl,--section-start=.noinit=0x802000 ...
Note Because of the Harvard architecture of the AVR devices, you must manually add 0x800000 to the address you pass to the linker as the start of the section. Otherwise, the linker thinks you want to put the .noinit section into the .text section instead of .data/.bss and will complain. Alternatively, you can write your own linker script to automate this. [FIXME: need an example or ref to dox for writing linker scripts.]
4.6
The .initN Sections
These sections are used to dene the startup code from reset up through the start of main(). These all are subparts of the .text section. The purpose of these sections is to allow for more specic placement of code within your program. Note Sometimes, it is convenient to think of the .initN and .niN sections as functions, but in reality they are just symbolic names which tell the linker where to stick a chunk of code which is not a function. Notice that the examples for asm and C can not be called as functions and should not be jumped into. The .initN sections are executed in order from 0 to 9. .init0: Weakly bound to __init(). If user denes __init(), it will be jumped into immediately after a reset. .init1: Unused. User denable. .init2: In C programs, weakly bound to initialize the stack, and to clear __zero_reg__ (r1).
4.7
The .niN Sections
25
.init3: Unused. User denable. .init4:
For devices with > 64 KB of ROM, .init4 denes the code which takes care of copying the contents of .data from the ash to SRAM. For all other devices, this code as well as the code to zero out the .bss section is loaded from libgcc.a. .init5: Unused. User denable. .init6: Unused for C programs, but used for constructors in C++ programs. .init7: Unused. User denable. .init8: Unused. User denable. .init9: Jumps into main().
4.7
The .niN Sections
These sections are used to dene the exit code executed after return from main() or a call to exit(). These all are subparts of the .text section. The .niN sections are executed in descending order from 9 to 0. .nit9: Unused. User denable. This is effectively where _exit() starts. .ni8: Unused. User denable. .ni7: Unused. User denable.
4.8
Using Sections in Assembler Code
26
.ni6: Unused for C programs, but used for destructors in C++ programs. .ni5: Unused. User denable. .ni4: Unused. User denable. .ni3: Unused. User denable. .ni2: Unused. User denable. .ni1: Unused. User denable. .ni0: Goes into an innite loop after program termination and completion of any _exit() code (execution of code in the .ni9 -> .ni1 sections).
4.8
Using Sections in Assembler Code
Example:
#include <avr/io.h> .section .init1,"ax",@progbits ldi r0, 0xff out _SFR_IO_ADDR(PORTB), r0 out _SFR_IO_ADDR(DDRB), r0
Note The ,"ax",@progbits tells the assembler that the section is allocatable ("a"), executable ("x") and contains data ("@progbits"). For more detailed information on the .section directive, see the gas user manual.
4.9
Using Sections in C Code
Example:
5 Data in Program Space
27
#include <avr/io.h> void my_init_portb (void) __attribute__ ((naked)) \ __attribute__ ((section (".init3"))); void my_init_portb (void) { PORTB = 0xff; DDRB = 0xff; }
Note Section .init3 is used in this example, as this ensures the inernal __zero_reg__ has already been set up. The code generated by the compiler might blindly rely on __zero_reg__ being really 0.
5
5.1
Data in Program Space

Introduction
So you have some constant data and youre running out of room to store it? Many AVRs have limited amount of RAM in which to store data, but may have more Flash space available. The AVR is a Harvard architecture processor, where Flash is used for the program, RAM is used for data, and they each have separate address spaces. It is a challenge to get constant data to be stored in the Program Space, and to retrieve that data to use it in the AVR application. The problem is exacerbated by the fact that the C Language was not designed for Harvard architectures, it was designed for Von Neumann architectures where code and data exist in the same address space. This means that any compiler for a Harvard architecture processor, like the AVR, has to use other means to operate with separate address spaces. Some compilers use non-standard C language keywords, or they extend the standard syntax in ways that are non-standard. The AVR toolset takes a different approach. GCC has a special keyword, __attribute__ that is used to attach different attributes to things such as function declarations, variables, and types. This keyword is followed by an attribute specication in double parentheses. In AVR GCC, there is a special attribute called progmem. This attribute is use on data declarations, and tells the compiler to place the data in the Program Memory (Flash). AVR-Libc provides a simple macro PROGMEM that is dened as the attribute syntax of GCC with the progmem attribute. This macro was created as a convenience to the end user, as we will see below. The PROGMEM macro is dened in the <avr/pgmspace.h> system header le.
5.2
A Note On const
28
It is difcult to modify GCC to create new extensions to the C language syntax, so instead, avr-libc has created macros to retrieve the data from the Program Space. These macros are also found in the <avr/pgmspace.h> system header le.
5.2
A Note On const
Many users bring up the idea of using Cs keyword const as a means of declaring data to be in Program Space. Doing this would be an abuse of the intended meaning of the const keyword.
const is used to tell the compiler that the data is to be "read-only". It is used to help
make it easier for the compiler to make certain transformations, or to help the compiler check for incorrect usage of those variables. For example, the const keyword is commonly used in many functions as a modier on the parameter type. This tells the compiler that the function will only use the parameter as read-only and will not modify the contents of the parameter variable.
const was intended for uses such as this, not as a means to identify where the data
should be stored. If it were used as a means to dene data storage, then it loses its correct meaning (changes its semantics) in other situations such as in the function parameter example.
5.3
Storing and Retrieving Data in the Program Space
Lets say you have some global data:

unsigned char mydata[11][10] = { {0x00,0x01,0x02,0x03,0x04,0x05,0x06,0x07,0x08,0x09}, {0x0A,0x0B,0x0C,0x0D,0x0E,0x0F,0x10,0x11,0x12,0x13}, {0x14,0x15,0x16,0x17,0x18,0x19,0x1A,0x1B,0x1C,0x1D}, {0x1E,0x1F,0x20,0x21,0x22,0x23,0x24,0x25,0x26,0x27}, {0x28,0x29,0x2A,0x2B,0x2C,0x2D,0x2E,0x2F,0x30,0x31}, {0x32,0x33,0x34,0x35,0x36,0x37,0x38,0x39,0x3A,0x3B}, {0x3C,0x3D,0x3E,0x3F,0x40,0x41,0x42,0x43,0x44,0x45}, {0x46,0x47,0x48,0x49,0x4A,0x4B,0x4C,0x4D,0x4E,0x4F}, {0x50,0x51,0x52,0x53,0x54,0x55,0x56,0x57,0x58,0x59}, {0x5A,0x5B,0x5C,0x5D,0x5E,0x5F,0x60,0x61,0x62,0x63}, {0x64,0x65,0x66,0x67,0x68,0x69,0x6A,0x6B,0x6C,0x6D} };
and later in your code you access this data in a function and store a single byte into a variable like so:
byte = mydata[i][j];
5.3
Storing and Retrieving Data in the Program Space
29
Now you want to store your data in Program Memory. Use the PROGMEM macro found in <avr/pgmspace.h> and put it after the declaration of the variable, but before the initializer, like so:
#include <avr/pgmspace.h> . . . unsigned char mydata[11][10] PROGMEM = { {0x00,0x01,0x02,0x03,0x04,0x05,0x06,0x07,0x08,0x09}, {0x0A,0x0B,0x0C,0x0D,0x0E,0x0F,0x10,0x11,0x12,0x13}, {0x14,0x15,0x16,0x17,0x18,0x19,0x1A,0x1B,0x1C,0x1D}, {0x1E,0x1F,0x20,0x21,0x22,0x23,0x24,0x25,0x26,0x27}, {0x28,0x29,0x2A,0x2B,0x2C,0x2D,0x2E,0x2F,0x30,0x31}, {0x32,0x33,0x34,0x35,0x36,0x37,0x38,0x39,0x3A,0x3B}, {0x3C,0x3D,0x3E,0x3F,0x40,0x41,0x42,0x43,0x44,0x45}, {0x46,0x47,0x48,0x49,0x4A,0x4B,0x4C,0x4D,0x4E,0x4F}, {0x50,0x51,0x52,0x53,0x54,0x55,0x56,0x57,0x58,0x59}, {0x5A,0x5B,0x5C,0x5D,0x5E,0x5F,0x60,0x61,0x62,0x63}, {0x64,0x65,0x66,0x67,0x68,0x69,0x6A,0x6B,0x6C,0x6D} };
Thats it! Now your data is in the Program Space. You can compile, link, and check the map le to verify that mydata is placed in the correct section. Now that your data resides in the Program Space, your code to access (read) the data will no longer work. The code that gets generated will retrieve the data that is located at the address of the mydata array, plus offsets indexed by the i and j variables. However, the nal address that is calculated where to the retrieve the data points to the Data Space! Not the Program Space where the data is actually located. It is likely that you will be retrieving some garbage. The problem is that AVR GCC does not intrinsically know that the data resides in the Program Space. The solution is fairly simple. The "rule of thumb" for accessing data stored in the Program Space is to access the data as you normally would (as if the variable is stored in Data Space), like so:
byte = mydata[i][j];
then take the address of the data:

byte = &(mydata[i][j]);
then use the appropriate pgm_read_ macro, and the address of your data becomes the parameter to that macro:
byte = pgm_read_byte(&(mydata[i][j]));
5.4
Storing and Retrieving Strings in the Program Space
30
The pgm_read_ macros take an address that points to the Program Space, and retrieves the data that is stored at that address. This is why you take the address of the offset into the array. This address becomes the parameter to the macro so it can generate the correct code to retrieve the data from the Program Space. There are different pgm_read_ macros to read different sizes of data at the address given.
5.4
Now that you can successfully store and retrieve simple data from Program Space you want to store and retrive strings from Program Space. And specically you want to store and array of strings to Program Space. So you start off with your array, like so:
char *string_table[] = { "String 1", "String 2", "String 3", "String 4", "String 5" };
and then you add your PROGMEM macro to the end of the declaration:
char *string_table[] PROGMEM = { "String 1", "String 2", "String 3", "String 4", "String 5" };
Right? WRONG! Unfortunately, with GCC attributes, they affect only the declaration that they are attached to. So in this case, we successfully put the string_table variable, the array itself, in the Program Space. This DOES NOT put the actual strings themselves into Program Space. At this point, the strings are still in the Data Space, which is probably not what you want. In order to put the strings in Program Space, you have to have explicit declarations for each string, and put each string in Program Space:
char char char char char string_1[] string_2[] string_3[] string_4[] string_5[] PROGMEM PROGMEM PROGMEM PROGMEM PROGMEM = = = = = "String "String "String "String "String 1"; 2"; 3"; 4"; 5";
5.4
31
Then use the new symbols in your table, like so:

PGM_P string_table[] PROGMEM = { string_1, string_2, string_3, string_4, string_5 };
Now this has the effect of putting string_table in Program Space, where string_table is an array of pointers to characters (strings), where each pointer is a pointer to the Program Space, where each string is also stored. The PGM_P type above is also a macro that dened as a pointer to a character in the Program Space. Retrieving the strings are a different matter. You probably dont want to pull the string out of Program Space, byte by byte, using the pgm_read_byte() macro. There are other functions declared in the <avr/pgmspace.h> header le that work with strings that are stored in the Program Space. For example if you want to copy the string from Program Space to a buffer in RAM (like an automatic variable inside a function, that is allocated on the stack), you can do this:
void foo(void) { char buffer[10]; for (unsigned char i = 0; i < 5; i++) { strcpy_P(buffer, (PGM_P)pgm_read_word(&(string_table[i]))); // Display buffer on LCD. } return; }
Here, the string_table array is stored in Program Space, so we access it normally, as if were stored in Data Space, then take the address of the location we want to access, and use the address as a parameter to pgm_read_word. We use the pgm_read_word macro to read the string pointer out of the string_table array. Remember that a pointer is 16-bits, or word size. The pgm_read_word macro will return a 16-bit unsigned integer. We then have to typecast it as a true pointer to program memory, PGM_P. This pointer is an address in Program Space pointing to the string that we want to copy. This pointer is then used as a parameter to the function strcpy_P. The function strcpy_P is just like the regular strcpy function, except that it copies a string from Program Space (the second parameter) to a buffer in the Data Space (the rst parameter).
5.5
Caveats
32
There are many string functions available that work with strings located in Program Space. All of these special string functions have a sufx of _P in the function name, and are declared in the <avr/pgmspace.h> header le.
5.5
Caveats
The macros and functions used to retrieve data from the Program Space have to generate some extra code in order to actually load the data from the Program Space. This incurs some extra overhead in terms of code space (extra opcodes) and execution time. Usually, both the space and time overhead is minimal compared to the space savings of putting data in Program Space. But you should be aware of this so you can minimize the number of calls within a single function that gets the same piece of data from Program Space. It is always instructive to look at the resulting disassembly from the compiler.
6
6.1
avr-libc and assembler programs

Introduction
There might be several reasons to write code for AVR microcontrollers using plain assembler source code. Among them are: Code for devices that do not have RAM and are thus not supported by the C compiler. Code for very time-critical applications. Special tweaks that cannot be done in C. Usually, all but the rst could probably be done easily using the inline assembler facility of the compiler. Although avr-libc is primarily targeted to support programming AVR microcontrollers using the C (and C++) language, theres limited support for direct assembler usage as well. The benets of it are: Use of the C preprocessor and thus the ability to use the same symbolic constants that are available to C programs, as well as a exible macro concept that can use any valid C identier as a macro (whereas the assemblers macro concept is basically targeted to use a macro in place of an assembler instruction). Use of the runtime framework like automatically assigning interrupt vectors. For devices that have RAM, initializing the RAM variables can also be utilized.
6.2
Invoking the compiler
33
6.2
Invoking the compiler
For the purpose described in this document, the assembler and linker are usually not invoked manually, but rather using the C compiler frontend (avr-gcc) that in turn will call the assembler and linker as required. This approach has the following advantages: There is basically only one program to be called directly, avr-gcc, regardless of the actual source language used. The invokation of the C preprocessor will be automatic, and will include the appropriate options to locate required include les in the lesystem. The invokation of the linker will be automatic, and will include the appropriate options to locate additional libraries as well as the application start-up code (crtXXX .o) and linker script. Note that the invokation of the C preprocessor will be automatic when the lename provided for the assembler le ends in .S (the capital letter "s"). This would even apply to operating systems that use case-insensitive lesystems since the actual decision is made based on the case of the lename sufx given on the command-line, not based on the actual lename from the le system. Alternatively, the language can explicitly be specied using the -x assembler-with-cpp option.
6.3
Example program
The following annotated example features a simple 100 kHz square wave generator using an AT90S1200 clocked with a 10.7 MHz crystal. Pin PD6 will be used for the square wave output.
#include <avr/io.h> work tmp inttmp intsav SQUARE = = = = = 16 17 19 0 PD6 ; Note [3] ; Note [4]: ; 100 kHz => 200000 edges/s ; # clocks in ISR until TCNT0 is set ; Note [1] ; Note [2]
tmconst= 10700000 / 200000 fuzz= 8 .section .text
6.3
Example program
34
.global main main: rcall 1: rjmp 1b ioinit
; Note [5]
; Note [6] ; Note [7]
.global TIMER0_OVF_vect TIMER0_OVF_vect: ldi inttmp, 256 - tmconst + fuzz out _SFR_IO_ADDR(TCNT0), inttmp in sbic rjmp sbi rjmp cbi intsav, _SFR_IO_ADDR(SREG) _SFR_IO_ADDR(PORTD), SQUARE 1f _SFR_IO_ADDR(PORTD), SQUARE 2f _SFR_IO_ADDR(PORTD), SQUARE
; Note [8] ; Note [9]
1: 2:
out reti ioinit: sbi ldi out ldi out ldi out sei ret
_SFR_IO_ADDR(SREG), intsav
_SFR_IO_ADDR(DDRD), SQUARE work, _BV(TOIE0) _SFR_IO_ADDR(TIMSK), work work, _BV(CS00) ; tmr0: _SFR_IO_ADDR(TCCR0), work work, 256 - tmconst _SFR_IO_ADDR(TCNT0), work CK/1
.global __vector_default __vector_default: reti .end
; Note [10]
Note [1]
As in C programs, this includes the central processor-specic le containing the IO port denitions for the device. Note that not all include les can be included into assembler sources.
6.3
Example program
35
Note [2]
Assignment of registers to symbolic names used locally. Another option would be to use a C preprocessor macro instead:
#define work 16
Note [3]
Our bit number for the square wave output. Note that the right-hand side consists of a CPP macro which will be substituted by its value (6 in this case) before actually being passed to the assembler. Note [4]
The assembler uses integer operations in the host-dened integer size (32 bits or longer) when evaluating expressions. This is in contrast to the C compiler that uses the C type int by default in order to calculate constant integer expressions. In order to get a 100 kHz output, we need to toggle the PD6 line 200000 times per second. Since we use timer 0 without any prescaling options in order to get the desired frequency and accuracy, we already run into serious timing considerations: while accepting and processing the timer overow interrupt, the timer already continues to count. When pre-loading the TCCNT0 register, we therefore have to account for the number of clock cycles required for interrupt acknowledge and for the instructions to reload TCCNT0 (4 clock cycles for interrupt acknowledge, 2 cycles for the jump from the interrupt vector, 2 cycles for the 2 instructions that reload TCCNT0). This is what the constant fuzz is for. Note [5]
External functions need to be declared to be .global. main is the application entry point that will be jumped to from the ininitalization routine in crts1200.o. Note [6]
The main loop is just a single jump back to itself. Square wave generation itself is completely handled by the timer 0 overow interrupt service. A sleep instruction (using idle mode) could be used as well, but probably would not conserve much energy anyway since the interrupt service is executed quite frequently.
6.3
Example program
36
Note [7]
Interrupt functions can get the usual names that are also available to C programs. The linker will then put them into the appropriate interrupt vector slots. Note that they must be declared .global in order to be acceptable for this purpose. This will only work if <avr/io.h> has been included. Note that the assembler or linker have no chance to check the correct spelling of an interrupt function, so it should be double-checked. (When analyzing the resulting object le using avr-objdump or avr-nm, a name like __vector_N should appear, with N being a small integer number.) Note [8]
As explained in the section about special function registers, the actual IO port address should be obtained using the macro _SFR_IO_ADDR. (The AT90S1200 does not have RAM thus the memory-mapped approach to access the IO registers is not available. It would be slower than using in / out instructions anyway.) Since the operation to reload TCCNT0 is time-critical, it is even performed before saving SREG. Obviously, this requires that the instructions involved would not change any of the ag bits in SREG. Note [9]
Interrupt routines must not clobber the global CPU state. Thus, it is usually necessary to save at least the state of the ag bits in SREG. (Note that this serves as an example here only since actually, all the following instructions would not modify SREG either, but thats not commonly the case.) Also, it must be made sure that registers used inside the interrupt routine do not conict with those used outside. In the case of a RAM-less device like the AT90S1200, this can only be done by agreeing on a set of registers to be used exclusively inside the interrupt routine; there would not be any other chance to "save" a register anywhere. If the interrupt routine is to be linked together with C modules, care must be taken to follow the register usage guidelines imposed by the C compiler. Also, any register modied inside the interrupt sevice needs to be saved, usually on the stack. Note [10]
As explained in Interrupts, a global "catch-all" interrupt handler that gets all unassigned interrupt vectors can be installed using the name __vector_default. This must be
6.4
Pseudo-ops and operators
37
.global, and obviously, should end in a reti instruction. (By default, a jump to location 0 would be implied instead.)
6.4
Pseudo-ops and operators
The available pseudo-ops in the assembler are described in the GNU assembler (gas) manual. The manual can be found online as part of the current binutils release under http://sources.redhat.com/binutils/. As gas comes from a Unix origin, its pseudo-op and overall assembler syntax is slightly different than the one being used by other assemblers. Numeric constants follow the C notation (prex 0x for hexadecimal constants), expressions use a C-like syntax. Some common pseudo-ops include: .byte allocates single byte constants .ascii allocates a non-terminated string of characters .asciz allocates a \0-terminated string of characters (C string) .data switches to the .data section (initialized RAM variables) .text switches to the .text section (code and ROM constants) .set declares a symbol as a constant expression (identical to .equ) .global (or .globl) declares a public symbol that is visible to the linker (e. g. function entry point, global variable) .extern declares a symbol to be externally dened; this is effectively a comment only, as gas treats all undened symbols it encounters as globally undened anyway Note that .org is available in gas as well, but is a fairly pointless pseudo-op in an assembler environment that uses relocatable object les, as it is the linker that determines the nal position of some object in ROM or RAM. Along with the architecture-independent standard operators, there are some AVRspecic operators available which are unfortunately not yet described in the ofcial documentation. The most notable operators are: lo8 Takes the least signicant 8 bits of a 16-bit integer
7 Inline Assembler Cookbook
38
hi8 Takes the most signicant 8 bits of a 16-bit integer pm Takes a program-memory (ROM) address, and converts it into a RAM address. This implies a division by 2 as the AVR handles ROM addresses as 16-bit words (e.g. in an IJMP or ICALL instruction), and can also handle relocatable symbols on the right-hand side. Example:
ldi r24, lo8(pm(somefunc)) ldi r25, hi8(pm(somefunc)) call something
This passes the address of function somefunc as the rst parameter to function something.
Inline Assembler Cookbook
AVR-GCC Inline Assembler Cookbook About this Document The GNU C compiler for Atmel AVR RISC processors offers, to embed assembly language code into C programs. This cool feature may be used for manually optimizing time critical parts of the software or to use specic processor instruction, which are not available in the C language. Because of a lack of documentation, especially for the AVR version of the compiler, it may take some time to gure out the implementation details by studying the compiler and assembler source code. There are also a few sample programs available in the net. Hopefully this document will help to increase their number. Its assumed, that you are familiar with writing AVR assembler programs, because this is not an AVR assembler programming tutorial. Its not a C language tutorial either. Note that this document does not cover le written completely in assembler language, refer to avr-libc and assembler programs for this. Copyright (C) 2001-2002 by egnite Software GmbH Permission is granted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided that the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies. Permission is granted to copy and distribute modied versions of this manual provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one. This document describes version 3.3 of the compiler. There may be some parts, which hadnt been completely understood by the author himself and not all samples had been
7.1
GCC asm Statement
39
tested so far. Because the author is German and not familiar with the English language, there are denitely some typos and syntax errors in the text. As a programmer the author knows, that a wrong documentation sometimes might be worse than none. Anyway, he decided to offer his little knowledge to the public, in the hope to get enough response to improve this document. Feel free to contact the author via e-mail. For the latest release check http://www.ethernut.de/. Herne, 17th of May 2002 Harald Kipp harald.kipp-at-egnite.de Note As of 26th of July 2002, this document has been merged into the documentation for avr-libc. The latest version is now available at http://savannah.nongnu.org/projects/avr-libc/.
7.1
GCC asm Statement
Lets start with a simple example of reading a value from port D:

asm("in %0, %1" : "=r" (value) : "I" (_SFR_IO_ADDR(PORTD)) );
Each asm statement is devided by colons into (up to) four parts: 1. The assembler instructions, dened as a single string constant:
"in %0, %1"
2. A list of output operands, separated by commas. Our example uses just one:
"=r" (value)
3. A comma separated list of input operands. Again our example uses one operand only:
"I" (_SFR_IO_ADDR(PORTD))
4. Clobbered registers, left empty in our example. You can write assembler instructions in much the same way as you would write assembler programs. However, registers and constants are used in a different way if they refer to expressions of your C program. The connection between registers and C operands is specied in the second and third part of the asm instruction, the list of input and output operands, respectively. The general form is
asm(code : output operand list : input operand list [: clobber list]);
7.1
GCC asm Statement
40
In the code section, operands are referenced by a percent sign followed by a single digit. %0 refers to the rst %1 to the second operand and so forth. From the above example:
%0 refers to "=r" (value) and %1 refers to "I" (_SFR_IO_ADDR(PORTD)).

This may still look a little odd now, but the syntax of an operand list will be explained soon. Let us rst examine the part of a compiler listing which may have been generated from our example:
lds r24,value /* #APP */ in r24, 12 /* #NOAPP */ sts value,r24
The comments have been added by the compiler to inform the assembler that the included code was not generated by the compilation of C statements, but by inline assembler statements. The compiler selected register r24 for storage of the value read from PORTD. The compiler could have selected any other register, though. It may not explicitely load or store the value and it may even decide not to include your assembler code at all. All these decisions are part of the compilers optimization strategy. For example, if you never use the variable value in the remaining part of the C program, the compiler will most likely remove your code unless you switched off optimization. To avoid this, you can add the volatile attribute to the asm statement:
asm volatile("in %0, %1" : "=r" (value) : "I" (_SFR_IO_ADDR(PORTD)));
Alternatively, operands can be given names. The name is prepended in brackets to the constraints in the operand list, and references to the named operand use the bracketed name instead of a number after the % sign. Thus, the above example could also be written as
asm("in %[retval], %[port]" : [retval] "=r" (value) : [port] "I" (_SFR_IO_ADDR(PORTD)) );
The last part of the asm instruction, the clobber list, is mainly used to tell the compiler about modications done by the assembler code. This part may be omitted, all other parts are required, but may be left empty. If your assembler routine wont use any input or output operand, two colons must still follow the assembler code string. A good example is a simple statement to disable interrupts:
asm volatile("cli"::);
7.2
Assembler Code
41
7.2
Assembler Code
You can use the same assembler instruction mnemonics as youd use with any other AVR assembler. And you can write as many assembler statements into one code string as you like and your ash memory is able to hold. Note The available assembler directives vary from one assembler to another. To make it more readable, you should put each statement on a seperate line:
asm volatile("nop\n\t" "nop\n\t" "nop\n\t" "nop\n\t" ::);
The linefeed and tab characters will make the assembler listing generated by the compiler more readable. It may look a bit odd for the rst time, but thats the way the compiler creates its own assembler code. You may also make use of some special registers. Symbol
__SREG__ __SP_H__ __SP_L__ __tmp_reg__ __zero_reg__
Register Status register at address 0x3F Stack pointer high byte at address 0x3E Stack pointer low byte at address 0x3D Register r0, used for temporary storage Register r1, always zero
Register r0 may be freely used by your assembler code and need not be restored at the end of your code. Its a good idea to use __tmp_reg__ and __zero_reg__ instead of r0 or r1, just in case a new compiler version changes the register usage denitions.
7.3
Input and Output Operands
Each input and output operand is described by a constraint string followed by a C expression in parantheses. AVR-GCC 3.3 knows the following constraint characters: Note The most up-to-date and detailed information on contraints for the avr can be found in the gcc manual. The x register is r27:r26, the y register is r29:r28, and the z register is
r31:r30
7.3
42
Constraint a b d e q r t w x y z G I J K L l M N O P Q
Used for Simple upper registers Base pointer registers pairs Upper register Pointer register pairs Stack pointer register Any register Temporary register Special upper register pairs Pointer register pair X Pointer register pair Y Pointer register pair Z Floating point constant 6-bit positive integer constant 6-bit negative integer constant Integer constant Integer constant Lower registers 8-bit integer constant Integer constant Integer constant Integer constant (GCC >= 4.2.x) A memory address based on Y or Z pointer with displacement. (GCC >= 4.3.x) Integer constant.
Range r16 to r23 y, z r16 to r31 x, y, z SPH:SPL r0 to r31 r0 r24, r26, r28, r30 x (r27:r26) y (r29:r28) z (r31:r30) 0.0 0 to 63 -63 to 0 2 0 r0 to r15 0 to 255 -1 8, 16, 24 1
-6 to 5
The selection of the proper contraint depends on the range of the constants or registers, which must be acceptable to the AVR instruction they are used with. The C compiler doesnt check any line of your assembler code. But it is able to check the constraint against your C expression. However, if you specify the wrong constraints, then the compiler may silently pass wrong code to the assembler. And, of course, the assembler will fail with some cryptic output or internal errors. For example, if you specify the constraint "r" and you are using this register with an "ori" instruction in your assembler code, then the compiler may select any register. This will fail, if the compiler chooses r2 to r15. (It will never choose r0 or r1, because these are uses for special purposes.) Thats why the correct constraint in that case is "d". On the other hand, if you use the constraint "M", the compiler will make sure that you dont pass anything else but an 8bit value. Later on we will see how to pass multibyte expression results to the assembler code.
7.3
43
The following table shows all AVR assembler mnemonics which require operands, and the related contraints. Because of the improper constraint denitions in version 3.3, they arent strict enough. There is, for example, no constraint, which restricts integer constants to the range 0 to 7 for bit set and bit clear operations. Mnemonic adc adiw andi bclr brbc bset cbi com cpc cpse elpm in ld ldi lpm lsr movw neg ori pop rol sbc sbi sbiw sbrc ser std sub swap Constraints r,r w,I d,M I I,label I I,I r r,r r,r t,z r,I r,e d,M t,z r r,r r d,M r r r,r I,I w,I r,I d b,r r,r r Mnemonic add and asr bld brbs bst cbr cp cpi dec eor inc ldd lds lsl mov mul or out push ror sbci sbic sbr sbrs st sts subi Constraints r,r r,r r r,I I,label r,I d,I r,r d,M r r,r r r,b r,label r r,r r,r r,r I,r r r d,M I,I d,M r,I e,r label,r d,M
Constraint characters may be prepended by a single constraint modier. Contraints without a modier specify read-only operands. Modiers are: Modier = + & Species Write-only operand, usually used for all output operands. Read-write operand Register should be used for output only
Output operands must be write-only and the C expression result must be an lvalue, which means that the operands must be valid on the left side of assignments. Note, that the compiler will not check if the operands are of reasonable type for the kind of
7.3
44
operation used in the assembler instructions. Input operands are, you guessed it, read-only. But what if you need the same operand for input and output? As stated above, read-write operands are not supported in inline assembler code. But there is another solution. For input operators it is possible to use a single digit in the constraint string. Using digit n tells the compiler to use the same register as for the n-th operand, starting with zero. Here is an example:
asm volatile("swap %0" : "=r" (value) : "0" (value));
This statement will swap the nibbles of an 8-bit variable named value. Constraint "0" tells the compiler, to use the same input register as for the rst operand. Note however, that this doesnt automatically imply the reverse case. The compiler may choose the same registers for input and output, even if not told to do so. This is not a problem in most cases, but may be fatal if the output operator is modied by the assembler code before the input operator is used. In the situation where your code depends on different registers used for input and output operands, you must add the & constraint modier to your output operand. The following example demonstrates this problem:
asm volatile("in %0,%1" "\n\t" "out %1, %2" "\n\t" : "=&r" (input) : "I" (_SFR_IO_ADDR(port)), "r" (output) );
In this example an input value is read from a port and then an output value is written to the same port. If the compiler would have choosen the same register for input and output, then the output value would have been destroyed on the rst assembler instruction. Fortunately, this example uses the & constraint modier to instruct the compiler not to select any register for the output value, which is used for any of the input operands. Back to swapping. Here is the code to swap high and low byte of a 16-bit value:
asm volatile("mov __tmp_reg__, %A0" "\n\t" "mov %A0, %B0" "\n\t" "mov %B0, __tmp_reg__" "\n\t" : "=r" (value) : "0" (value) );
First you will notice the usage of register __tmp_reg__, which we listed among other special registers in the Assembler Code section. You can use this register without saving its contents. Completely new are those letters A and B in %A0 and %B0. In fact they refer to two different 8-bit registers, both containing a part of value. Another example to swap bytes of a 32-bit value:
asm volatile("mov __tmp_reg__, %A0" "\n\t" "mov %A0, %D0" "\n\t"
7.3
45
"mov %D0, __tmp_reg__" "mov __tmp_reg__, %B0" "mov %B0, %C0" "mov %C0, __tmp_reg__" : "=r" (value) : "0" (value) );
"\n\t" "\n\t" "\n\t" "\n\t"
Instead of listing the same operand as both, input and output operand, it can also be declared as a read-write operand. This must be applied to an output operand, and the respective input operand list remains empty:
asm volatile("mov __tmp_reg__, %A0" "mov %A0, %D0" "mov %D0, __tmp_reg__" "mov __tmp_reg__, %B0" "mov %B0, %C0" "mov %C0, __tmp_reg__" : "+r" (value)); "\n\t" "\n\t" "\n\t" "\n\t" "\n\t" "\n\t"
If operands do not t into a single register, the compiler will automatically assign enough registers to hold the entire operand. In the assembler code you use %A0 to refer to the lowest byte of the rst operand, %A1 to the lowest byte of the second operand and so on. The next byte of the rst operand will be %B0, the next byte %C0 and so on. This also implies, that it is often neccessary to cast the type of an input operand to the desired size. A nal problem may arise while using pointer register pairs. If you dene an input operand
"e" (ptr)
and the compiler selects register Z (r30:r31), then
%A0 refers to r30 and %B0 refers to r31.

But both versions will fail during the assembly stage of the compiler, if you explicitely need Z, like in
ld r24,Z
If you write
ld r24, %a0
with a lower case a following the percent sign, then the compiler will create the proper assembler line.
7.4
Clobbers
46
7.4
Clobbers
As stated previously, the last part of the asm statement, the list of clobbers, may be omitted, including the colon seperator. However, if you are using registers, which had not been passed as operands, you need to inform the compiler about this. The following example will do an atomic increment. It increments an 8-bit value pointed to by a pointer variable in one go, without being interrupted by an interrupt routine or another thread in a multithreaded environment. Note, that we must use a pointer, because the incremented value needs to be stored before interrupts are enabled.
asm volatile( "cli" "ld r24, %a0" "inc r24" "st %a0, r24" "sei" : : "e" (ptr) : "r24" );
"\n\t" "\n\t" "\n\t" "\n\t" "\n\t"
The compiler might produce the following code:

cli ld r24, Z inc r24 st Z, r24 sei
One easy solution to avoid clobbering register r24 is, to make use of the special temporary register __tmp_reg__ dened by the compiler.
asm volatile( "cli" "ld __tmp_reg__, %a0" "inc __tmp_reg__" "st %a0, __tmp_reg__" "sei" : : "e" (ptr) );
"\n\t" "\n\t" "\n\t" "\n\t" "\n\t"
The compiler is prepared to reload this register next time it uses it. Another problem with the above code is, that it should not be called in code sections, where interrupts are disabled and should be kept disabled, because it will enable interrupts at the end. We may store the current status, but then we need another register. Again we can solve this without clobbering a xed, but let the compiler select it. This could be done with the help of a local C variable.
7.4
Clobbers
47
{ uint8_t s; asm volatile( "in %0, __SREG__" "cli" "ld __tmp_reg__, %a1" "inc __tmp_reg__" "st %a1, __tmp_reg__" "out __SREG__, %0" : "=&r" (s) : "e" (ptr) ); }
"\n\t" "\n\t" "\n\t" "\n\t" "\n\t" "\n\t"
Now every thing seems correct, but it isnt really. The assembler code modies the variable, that ptr points to. The compiler will not recognize this and may keep its value in any of the other registers. Not only does the compiler work with the wrong value, but the assembler code does too. The C program may have modied the value too, but the compiler didnt update the memory location for optimization reasons. The worst thing you can do in this case is:
{ uint8_t s; asm volatile( "in %0, __SREG__" "cli" "ld __tmp_reg__, %a1" "inc __tmp_reg__" "st %a1, __tmp_reg__" "out __SREG__, %0" : "=&r" (s) : "e" (ptr) : "memory" ); }
"\n\t" "\n\t" "\n\t" "\n\t" "\n\t" "\n\t"
The special clobber "memory" informs the compiler that the assembler code may modify any memory location. It forces the compiler to update all variables for which the contents are currently held in a register before executing the assembler code. And of course, everything has to be reloaded again after this code. In most situations, a much better solution would be to declare the pointer destination itself volatile:
volatile uint8_t *ptr;
This way, the compiler expects the value pointed to by ptr to be changed and will load it whenever used and store it whenever modied. Situations in which you need clobbers are very rare. In most cases there will be better ways. Clobbered registers will force the compiler to store their values before and reload them after your assembler code. Avoiding clobbers gives the compiler more freedom while optimizing your code.
7.5
Assembler Macros
48
7.5
Assembler Macros
In order to reuse your assembler language parts, it is useful to dene them as macros and put them into include les. AVR Libc comes with a bunch of them, which could be found in the directory avr/include. Using such include les may produce compiler warnings, if they are used in modules, which are compiled in strict ANSI mode. To avoid that, you can write __asm__ instead of asm and __volatile__ instead of volatile. These are equivalent aliases. Another problem with reused macros arises if you are using labels. In such cases you may make use of the special pattern %=, which is replaced by a unique number on each asm statement. The following code had been taken from avr/include/iomacros.h:
#define loop_until_bit_is_clear(port,bit) \ __asm__ __volatile__ ( \ "L_%=: " "sbic %0, %1" "\n\t" \ "rjmp L_%=" \ : /* no outputs */ : "I" (_SFR_IO_ADDR(port)), "I" (bit) )
When used for the rst time, L_%= may be translated to L_1404, the next usage might create L_1405 or whatever. In any case, the labels became unique too. Another option is to use Unix-assembler style numeric labels. They are explained in How do I trace an assembler le in avr-gdb?. The above example would then look like:
#define loop_until_bit_is_clear(port,bit) __asm__ __volatile__ ( "1: " "sbic %0, %1" "\n\t" "rjmp 1b" : /* no outputs */ : "I" (_SFR_IO_ADDR(port)), "I" (bit) )
7.6
C Stub Functions
Macro denitions will include the same assembler code whenever they are referenced. This may not be acceptable for larger routines. In this case you may dene a C stub function, containing nothing other than your assembler code.
void delay(uint8_t ms) { uint16_t cnt; asm volatile ( "\n"
7.7
C Names Used in Assembler Code
49
"L_dl1%=:" "\n\t" "mov %A0, %A2" "\n\t" "mov %B0, %B2" "\n" "L_dl2%=:" "\n\t" "sbiw %A0, 1" "\n\t" "brne L_dl2%=" "\n\t" "dec %1" "\n\t" "brne L_dl1%=" "\n\t" : "=&w" (cnt) : "r" (ms), "r" (delay_count) ); }
The purpose of this function is to delay the program execution by a specied number of milliseconds using a counting loop. The global 16 bit variable delay_count must contain the CPU clock frequency in Hertz divided by 4000 and must have been set before calling this routine for the rst time. As described in the clobber section, the routine uses a local variable to hold a temporary value. Another use for a local variable is a return value. The following function returns a 16 bit value read from two successive port addresses.
uint16_t inw(uint8_t port) { uint16_t result; asm volatile ( "in %A0,%1" "\n\t" "in %B0,(%1) + 1" : "=r" (result) : "I" (_SFR_IO_ADDR(port)) ); return result; }
Note inw() is supplied by avr-libc.
7.7
C Names Used in Assembler Code
By default AVR-GCC uses the same symbolic names of functions or variables in C and assembler code. You can specify a different name for the assembler code by using a special form of the asm statement:
unsigned long value asm("clock") = 3686400;
This statement instructs the compiler to use the symbol name clock rather than value. This makes sense only for external or static variables, because local variables do not
7.8
Links
50
have symbolic names in the assembler code. However, local variables may be held in registers. With AVR-GCC you can specify the use of a specic register:
void Count(void) { register unsigned char counter asm("r3"); ... some code... asm volatile("clr r3"); ... more code... }
The assembler instruction, "clr r3", will clear the variable counter. AVR-GCC will not completely reserve the specied register. If the optimizer recognizes that the variable will not be referenced any longer, the register may be re-used. But the compiler is not able to check wether this register usage conicts with any predened register. If you reserve too many registers in this way, the compiler may even run out of registers during code generation. In order to change the name of a function, you need a prototype declaration, because the compiler will not accept the asm keyword in the function denition:
extern long Calc(void) asm ("CALCULATE");
Calling the function Calc() will create assembler instructions to call the function CALCULATE.
7.8
Links
For a more thorough discussion of inline assembly usage, see the gcc user manual. The latest version of the gcc manual is always available here: http://gcc.gnu.-
org/onlinedocs/
8
8.1
How to Build a Library

Introduction
So you keep reusing the same functions that you created over and over? Tired of cut and paste going from one project to the next? Would you like to reduce your maintenance overhead? Then youre ready to create your own library! Code reuse is a very laudable goal. With some upfront investment, you can save time and energy on future projects by having ready-to-go libraries. This chapter describes some background information, design considerations, and practical knowledge that you will need to create and use your own libraries.
8.2
How the Linker Works
51
8.2
How the Linker Works
The compiler compiles a single high-level language le (C language, for example) into a single object module le. The linker (ld) can only work with object modules to link them together. Object modules are the smallest unit that the linker works with. Typically, on the linker command line, you will specify a set of object modules (that has been previously compiled) and then a list of libraries, including the Standard C Library. The linker takes the set of object modules that you specify on the command line and links them together. Afterwards there will probably be a set of "undened references". A reference is essentially a function call. An undened reference is a function call, with no dened function to match the call. The linker will then go through the libraries, in order, to match the undened references with function denitions that are found in the libraries. If it nds the function that matches the call, the linker will then link in the object module in which the function is located. This part is important: the linker links in THE ENTIRE OBJECT MODULE in which the function is located. Remember, the linker knows nothing about the functions internal to an object module, other than symbol names (such as function names). The smallest unit the linker works with is object modules. When there are no more undened references, the linker has linked everything and is done and outputs the nal application.
8.3
How to Design a Library
How the linker behaves is very important in designing a library. Ideally, you want to design a library where only the functions that are called are the only functions to be linked into the nal application. This helps keep the code size to a minimum. In order to do this, with the way the linker works, is to only write one function per code module. This will compile to one function per object module. This is usually a very different way of doing things than writing an application! There are always exceptions to the rule. There are generally two cases where you would want to have more than one function per object module. The rst is when you have very complementary functions that it doesnt make much sense to split them up. For example, malloc() and free(). If someone is going to use malloc(), they will very likely be using free() (or at least should be using free()). In this case, it makes more sense to aggregate those two functions in the same object module. The second case is when you want to have an Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) in your library that you want to link in. The problem in this case is that the linker looks for unresolved references and tries to resolve them with code in libraries. A reference is the same as a function call. But with ISRs, there is no function call to initiate the ISR. The ISR is placed in the Interrupt Vector Table (IVT), hence no call, no reference, and no linking in of the ISR. In order to do this, you have to trick the linker in a way. Aggregate the ISR, with another function in the same object module, but have the other function
8.4
Creating a Library
52
be something that is required for the user to call in order to use the ISR, like perhaps an initialization function for the subsystem, or perhaps a function that enables the ISR in the rst place.
8.4
Creating a Library
The librarian program is called ar (for "archiver") and is found in the GNU Binutils project. This program will have been built for the AVR target and will therefore be named avr-ar. The job of the librarian program is simple: aggregate a list of object modules into a single library (archive) and create an index for the linker to use. The name that you create for the library lename must follow a specic pattern: libname.a. The name part is the unique part of the lename that you create. It makes it easier if the name part relates to what the library is about. This name part must be prexed by "lib", and it must have a le extension of .a, for "archive". The reason for the special form of the lename is for how the library gets used by the toolchain, as we will see later on. Note The lename is case-sensitive. Use a lowercase "lib" prex, and a lowercase ".a" as the le extension. The command line is fairly simple:
avr-ar rcs <library name> <list of object modules>
The r command switch tells the program to insert the object modules into the archive with replacement. The c command line switch tells the program to create the archive. And the s command line switch tells the program to write an object-le index into the archive, or update an existing one. This last switch is very important as it helps the linker to nd what it needs to do its job. Note The command line switches are case sensitive! There are uppercase switches that have completely different actions. MFile and the WinAVR distribution contain a Makele Template that includes the necessary command lines to build a library. You will have to manually modify the template to switch it over to build a library instead of an application. See the GNU Binutils manual for more information on the ar program.
8.5
Using a Library
53
8.5
Using a Library
To use a library, use the -l switch on your linker command line. The string immediately following the -l is the unique part of the library lename that the linker will link in. For example, if you use:
-lm
this will expand to the library lename:

libm.a
which happens to be the math library included in avr-libc. If you use this on your linker command line:
-lprintf_flt
then the linker will look for a library called:

libprintf_flt.a
This is why naming your library is so important when you create it! The linker will search libraries in the order that they appear on the command line. Whichever function is found rst that matches the undened reference, it will be linked in. There are also command line switches that tell GCC which directory to look in (-L) for the libraries that are specied to be linke in with -l. See the GNU Binutils manual for more information on the GNU linker (ld) program.
Benchmarks
The results below can only give a rough estimate of the resources necessary for using certain library functions. There is a number of factors which can both increase or reduce the effort required: Expenses for preparation of operands and their stack are not considered. In the table, the size includes all additional functions (for example, function to multiply two integers) but they are only linked from the library.
9.1
A few of libc functions.
54
Expenses of time of performance of some functions essentially depend on parameters of a call, for example, qsort() is recursive, and sprintf() receives parameters in a stack. Different versions of the compiler can give a signicant difference in code size and execution time. For example, the dtostre() function, compiled with avr-gcc 3.4.6, requires 930 bytes. After transition to avr-gcc 4.2.3, the size become 1088 bytes.
9.1
Avr-gcc version is 4.2.3 The size of function is given in view of all picked up functions. By default Avr-libc is compiled with -mcall-prologues option. In brackets the size without taking into account modules of a prologue and an epilogue is resulted. Both of the size can coincide, if function does not cause a prologue/epilogue.
9.1
55
Function atoi ("12345")
atol ("12345")
dtostre (1.2345, s, 6, 0) dtostrf (1.2345, 15, 6, s) itoa (12345, s, 10) ltoa (12345L, s, 10) malloc (1)
realloc ((void )0, 1) qsort (s, sizeof(s), 1, cmp) sprintf_min (s, "%d", 12345) sprintf (s, "%d", 12345) sprintf_t (s, "%e", 1.2345) sscanf_min ("12345", "%d", &i) sscanf ("12345", "%d", &i) sscanf ("point,color", "%[a-z]", s) sscanf_t ("1.2345", "%e", &x) strtod ("1.2345", &p) strtol ("12345", &p, 0)
Units Flash bytes Stack bytes MCU clocks Flash bytes Stack bytes MCU clocks Flash bytes Stack bytes MCU clocks Flash bytes Stack bytes MCU clocks Flash bytes Stack bytes MCU clocks Flash bytes Stack bytes MCU clocks Flash bytes Stack bytes MCU clocks Flash bytes Stack bytes MCU clocks Flash bytes Stack bytes MCU clocks Flash bytes Stack bytes MCU clocks Flash bytes Stack bytes MCU clocks Flash bytes Stack bytes MCU clocks Flash bytes Stack bytes MCU clocks Flash bytes Stack bytes MCU clocks Flash bytes Stack bytes MCU clocks Flash bytes Stack bytes MCU clocks Flash bytes Stack bytes MCU clocks Flash bytes Stack bytes MCU clocks
Avr2 82 (82) 2 155 122 (122) 2 221 1184 (1072) 17 1313 1676 (1564) 36 1608 150 (150) 4 1172 220 (220) 9 3174 554 (554) 4 196 1152 (1040) 20 303 1242 (1130) 38 20914 1216 (1104) 59 1846 1674 (1562) 58 1610 3334 (3222) 66 2513 1540 (1428) 55 1339 1950 (1838) 53 1334 1950 (1838) 87 2878 3298 (3186) 63 2187 1570 (1458) 22 1237 942 (830) 29 1074
Avr25 78 (78)
118 (118)
1088 (978)
1548 (1438)
134 (134)
200 (200)
506 (506)
1042 (932)
990 (880)
1090 (980)
1542 (1432)
3084 (2974)
1354 (1244)
1704 (1594)
1704 (1594)
2934 (2824)
1472 (1362)
874 (764)
Avr4 74 (74) 2 149 118 (118) 2 219 1088 (978) 17 1152 1548 (1438) 36 1443 134 (134) 4 1152 200 (200) 9 3136 506 (506) 4 178 1042 (932) 20 280 1008 (898) 38 16678 1086 (976) 59 1711 1498 (1388) 58 1528 3040 (2930) 66 2297 1354 (1244) 55 1240 1704 (1594) 53 1235 1704 (1594) 87 2718 2918 (2808) 63 1833 1456 (1346) 22 971 808 (698) 21 722
9.2
Math functions.
56
9.2
Math functions.
The table contains the number of MCU clocks to calculate a function with a given argument(s). The main reason of a big difference between Avr2 and Avr4 is a hardware multiplication. Function __addsf3 (1.234, 5.678) __mulsf3 (1.234, 5.678) __divsf3 (1.234, 5.678) acos (0.54321) asin (0.54321) atan (0.54321) atan2 (1.234, 5.678) cbrt (1.2345) ceil (1.2345) cos (1.2345) cosh (1.2345) exp (1.2345) fdim (5.678, 1.234) oor (1.2345) fmax (1.234, 5.678) fmin (1.234, 5.678) fmod (5.678, 1.234) frexp (1.2345, 0) hypot (1.234, 5.678) ldexp (1.2345, 6) log (1.2345) log10 (1.2345) modf (1.2345, 0) pow (1.234, 5.678) round (1.2345) sin (1.2345) sinh (1.2345) sqrt (1.2345) tan (1.2345) tanh (1.2345) trunc (1.2345) Avr2 113 375 466 4411 4517 4710 5270 2684 177 3387 4922 4708 111 180 39 35 131 42 1341 42 4142 4498 433 9293 150 3353 4946 494 4381 5126 178 Avr4 108 138 465 2455 2556 2271 2857 2555 177 1671 2979 2765 111 180 37 35 131 41 866 42 2134 2260 429 5047 150 1653 3003 492 2426 3173 178
10
Porting From IAR to AVR GCC
10.1
Introduction
57
10.1
Introduction
C language was designed to be a portable language. There two main types of porting activities: porting an application to a different platform (OS and/or processor), and porting to a different compiler. Porting to a different compiler can be exacerbated when the application is an embedded system. For example, the C language Standard, strangely, does not specify a standard for declaring and dening Interrupt Service Routines (ISRs). Different compilers have different ways of dening registers, some of which use non-standard language constructs. This chapter describes some methods and pointers on porting an AVR application built with the IAR compiler to the GNU toolchain (AVR GCC). Note that this may not be an exhaustive list.
10.2
Registers
IO header les contain identiers for all the register names and bit names for a particular processor. IAR has individual header les for each processor and they must be included when registers are being used in the code. For example:
#include <iom169.h>
Note IAR does not always use the same register names or bit names that are used in the AVR datasheet. AVR GCC also has individual IO header les for each processor. However, the actual processor type is specied as a command line ag to the compiler. (Using the -mmcu=processor ag.) This is usually done in the Makele. This allows you to specify only a single header le for any processor type:
#include <avr/io.h>
Note The forward slash in the <avr/io.h> le name that is used to separate subdirectories can be used on Windows distributions of the toolchain and is the recommended method of including this le. The compiler knows the processor type and through the single header le above, it can pull in and include the correct individual IO header le. This has the advantage that you only have to specify one generic header le, and you can easily port your application to another processor type without having to change every le to include the new IO header le.
10.3
Interrupt Service Routines (ISRs)
58
The AVR toolchain tries to adhere to the exact names of the registers and names of the bits found in the AVR datasheet. There may be some descrepencies between the register names found in the IAR IO header les and the AVR GCC IO header les.
10.3
Interrupt Service Routines (ISRs)
As mentioned above, the C language Standard, strangely, does not specify a standard way of declaring and dening an ISR. Hence, every compiler seems to have their own special way of doing so. IAR declares an ISR like so:
#pragma vector=TIMER0_OVF_vect __interrupt void MotorPWMBottom() { // code }
In AVR GCC, you declare an ISR like so:

ISR(PCINT1_vect) { //code }
AVR GCC uses the ISR macro to dene an ISR. This macro requries the header le:
#include <avr/interrupt.h>
The names of the various interrupt vectors are found in the individual processor IO header les that you must include with <avr/io.h>. Note The names of the interrupt vectors in AVR GCC has been changed to match the names of the vectors in IAR. This signicantly helps in porting applications from IAR to AVR GCC.
10.4
Intrinsic Routines
IAR has a number of intrinsic routine such as
__enable_interrupts() __disable_interrupts() __watchdog_reset()

These intrinsic functions compile to specic AVR opcodes (SEI, CLI, WDR).
10.5
Flash Variables
59
There are equivalent macros that are used in AVR GCC, however they are not located in a single include le. AVR GCC has sei() for __enable_interrupts(), and cli() for __disable_interrupts(). Both of these macros are located in <avr/interrupts.h>. AVR GCC has the macro wdt_reset() in place of __watchdog_reset(). However, there is a whole Watchdog Timer API available in AVR GCC that can be found in <avr/wdt.h>.
10.5
Flash Variables
The C language was not designed for Harvard architecture processors with separate memory spaces. This means that there are various non-standard ways to dene a variable whose data resides in the Program Memory (Flash). IAR uses a non-standard keyword to declare a variable in Program Memory:
__flash int mydata[] = ....
AVR GCC uses Variable Attributes to achieve the same effect:

int mydata[] __attribute__((progmem))
Note See the GCC User Manual for more information about Variable Attributes. avr-libc provides a convenience macro for the Variable Attribute:
#include <avr/pgmspace.h> . . . int mydata[] PROGMEM = ....
Note The PROGMEM macro expands to the Variable Attribute of progmem. This macro requires that you include <avr/pgmspace.h>. This is the canonical method for dening a variable in Program Space. To read back ash data, use the pgm_read_() macros dened in <avr/pgmspace.h>. All Program Memory handling macros are dened there. There is also a way to create a method to dene variables in Program Memory that is common between the two compilers (IAR and AVR GCC). Create a header le that has these denitions:
10.6
Non-Returning main()
60
#if defined(__ICCAVR__) // IAR C Compiler #define FLASH_DECLARE(x) __flash x #endif #if defined(__GNUC__) // GNU Compiler #define FLASH_DECLARE(x) x __attribute__((__progmem__)) #endif
This code snippet checks for the IAR compiler or for the GCC compiler and denes a macro FLASH_DECLARE(x) that will declare a variable in Program Memory using the appropriate method based on the compiler that is being used. Then you would used it like so:
FLASH_DECLARE(int mydata[] = ...);
10.6
Non-Returning main()
To declare main() to be a non-returning function in IAR, it is done like this:

__C_task void main(void) { // code }
To do the equivalent in AVR GCC, do this:

void main(void) __attribute__((noreturn)); void main(void) { //... }
Note See the GCC User Manual for more information on Function Attributes. In AVR GCC, a prototype for main() is required so you can declare the function attribute to specify that the main() function is of type "noreturn". Then, dene main() as normal. Note that the return type for main() is now void.
10.7
Locking Registers
The IAR compiler allows a user to lock general registers from r15 and down by using compiler options and this keyword syntax:
__regvar __no_init volatile unsigned int filteredTimeSinceCommutation @14;
11 Frequently Asked Questions
61
This line locks r14 for use only when explicitly referenced in your code thorugh the var name "lteredTimeSinceCommutation". This means that the compiler cannot dispose of it at its own will. To do this in AVR GCC, do this:
register unsigned char counter asm("r3");
Typically, it should be possible to use r2 through r15 that way. Note Do not reserve r0 or r1 as these are used internally by the compiler for a temporary register and for a zero value. Locking registers is not recommended in AVR GCC as it removes this register from the control of the compiler, which may make code generation worse. Use at your own risk.
11
11.1
Frequently Asked Questions

FAQ Index
1. My program doesnt recognize a variable updated within an interrupt routine 2. I get "undened reference to..." for functions like "sin()" 3. How to permanently bind a variable to a register? 4. How to modify MCUCR or WDTCR early? 5. What is all this _BV() stuff about? 6. Can I use C++ on the AVR? 7. Shouldnt I initialize all my variables? 8. Why do some 16-bit timer registers sometimes get trashed? 9. How do I use a #dened constant in an asm statement? 10. Why does the PC randomly jump around when single-stepping through my program in avr-gdb? 11. How do I trace an assembler le in avr-gdb? 12. How do I pass an IO port as a parameter to a function? 13. What registers are used by the C compiler?
11.1
FAQ Index
62
14. How do I put an array of strings completely in ROM? 15. How to use external RAM? 16. Which -O ag to use? 17. How do I relocate code to a xed address? 18. My UART is generating nonsense! My ATmega128 keeps crashing! Port F is completely broken! 19. Why do all my "foo...bar" strings eat up the SRAM? 20. Why does the compiler compile an 8-bit operation that uses bitwise operators into a 16-bit operation in assembly? 21. How to detect RAM memory and variable overlap problems? 22. Is it really impossible to program the ATtinyXX in C? 23. What is this "clock skew detected" message? 24. Why are (many) interrupt ags cleared by writing a logical 1? 25. Why have "programmed" fuses the bit value 0? 26. Which AVR-specic assembler operators are available? 27. Why are interrupts re-enabled in the middle of writing the stack pointer? 28. Why are there ve different linker scripts? 29. How to add a raw binary image to linker output? 30. How do I perform a software reset of the AVR? 31. I am using oating point math. Why is the compiled code so big? Why does my code not work? 32. What pitfalls exist when writing reentrant code? 33. Why are some addresses of the EEPROM corrupted (usually address zero)? 34. Why is my baud rate wrong? 35. On a device with more than 128 KiB of ash, how to make function pointers work? 36. Why is assigning ports in a "chain" a bad idea?
11.2 My program doesnt recognize a variable updated within an interrupt routine
63
11.2
My program doesnt recognize a variable updated within an interrupt routine
When using the optimizer, in a loop like the following one:

uint8_t flag; ... ISR(SOME_vect) { flag = 1; } ... while (flag == 0) { ... }
the compiler will typically access flag only once, and optimize further accesses completely away, since its code path analysis shows that nothing inside the loop could change the value of flag anyway. To tell the compiler that this variable could be changed outside the scope of its code path analysis (e. g. from within an interrupt routine), the variable needs to be declared like:
volatile uint8_t flag;
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11.3
I get undened reference to... for functions like sin()
In order to access the mathematical functions that are declared in <math.h>, the linker needs to be told to also link the mathematical library, libm.a. Typically, system libraries like libm.a are given to the nal C compiler command line that performs the linking step by adding a ag -lm at the end. (That is, the initial lib and the lename sufx from the library are written immediately after a -l ag. So for a libfoo.a library, -lfoo needs to be provided.) This will make the linker search the library in a path known to the system. An alternative would be to specify the full path to the libm.a le at the same place on the command line, i. e. after all the object les (.o). However, since this requires knowledge of where the build system will exactly nd those library les, this is deprecated for system libraries.
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11.4
How to permanently bind a variable to a register?
This can be done with
11.5
How to modify MCUCR or WDTCR early?
64
register unsigned char counter asm("r3");
Typically, it should be safe to use r2 through r7 that way. Registers r8 through r15 can be used for argument passing by the compiler in case many or long arguments are being passed to callees. If this is not the case throughout the entire application, these registers could be used for register variables as well. Extreme care should be taken that the entire application is compiled with a consistent set of register-allocated variables, including possibly used library functions. See C Names Used in Assembler Code for more details.
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11.5
How to modify MCUCR or WDTCR early?
The method of early initialization (MCUCR, WDTCR or anything else) is different (and more exible) in the current version. Basically, write a small assembler le which looks like this:
;; begin xram.S #include <avr/io.h> .section .init1,"ax",@progbits ldi r16,_BV(SRE) | _BV(SRW) out _SFR_IO_ADDR(MCUCR),r16 ;; end xram.S
Assemble it, link the resulting xram.o with other les in your program, and this piece of code will be inserted in initialization code, which is run right after reset. See the linker script for comments about the new .initN sections (which one to use, etc.). The advantage of this method is that you can insert any initialization code you want (just remember that this is very early startup -- no stack and no __zero_reg__ yet), and no program memory space is wasted if this feature is not used. There should be no need to modify linker scripts anymore, except for some very special cases. It is best to leave __stack at its default value (end of internal SRAM -- faster, and required on some devices like ATmega161 because of errata), and add -Wl,-Tdata,0x801100 to start the data section above the stack. For more information on using sections, see Memory Sections. There is also an example for Using Sections in C Code. Note that in C code, any such function would preferably be placed into section .init3 as the code in .init2 ensures the internal register __zero_reg__ is already cleared.
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11.6
What is all this _BV() stuff about?
65
11.6
What is all this BV() stuff about?
When performing low-level output work, which is a very central point in microcontroller programming, it is quite common that a particular bit needs to be set or cleared in some IO register. While the device documentation provides mnemonic names for the various bits in the IO registers, and the AVR device-specic IO denitions reect these names in denitions for numerical constants, a way is needed to convert a bit number (usually within a byte register) into a byte value that can be assigned directly to the register. However, sometimes the direct bit numbers are needed as well (e. g. in an SBI() instruction), so the denitions cannot usefully be made as byte values in the rst place. So in order to access a particular bit number as a byte value, use the _BV() macro. Of course, the implementation of this macro is just the usual bit shift (which is done by the compiler anyway, thus doesnt impose any run-time penalty), so the following applies:
_BV(3) => 1 << 3 => 0x08
However, using the macro often makes the program better readable. "BV" stands for "bit value", in case someone might ask you. :-) Example: clock timer 2 with full IO clock (CS2x = 0b001), toggle OC2 output on compare match (COM2x = 0b01), and clear timer on compare match (CTC2 = 1). Make OC2 (PD7) an output.
TCCR2 = _BV(COM20)|_BV(CTC2)|_BV(CS20); DDRD = _BV(PD7);
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11.7
Can I use C++ on the AVR?
Basically yes, C++ is supported (assuming your compiler has been congured and compiled to support it, of course). Source les ending in .cc, .cpp or .C will automatically cause the compiler frontend to invoke the C++ compiler. Alternatively, the C++ compiler could be explicitly called by the name avr-c++. However, theres currently no support for libstdc++, the standard support library needed for a complete C++ implementation. This imposes a number of restrictions on the C++ programs that can be compiled. Among them are: Obviously, none of the C++ related standard functions, classes, and template classes are available. The operators new and delete are not implemented, attempting to use them will cause the linker to complain about undened external references. (This could perhaps be xed.)
11.8
Shouldnt I initialize all my variables?
66
Some of the supplied include les are not C++ safe, i. e. they need to be wrapped into
extern "C" { . . . }
(This could certainly be xed, too.) Exceptions are not supported. Since exceptions are enabled by default in the C++ frontend, they explicitly need to be turned off using -fno-exceptions in the compiler options. Failing this, the linker will complain about an undened external reference to __gxx_personality_sj0. Constructors and destructors are supported though, including global ones. When programming C++ in space- and runtime-sensitive environments like microcontrollers, extra care should be taken to avoid unwanted side effects of the C++ calling conventions like implied copy constructors that could be called upon function invocation etc. These things could easily add up into a considerable amount of time and program memory wasted. Thus, casual inspection of the generated assembler code (using the -S compiler option) seems to be warranted.
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11.8
Shouldnt I initialize all my variables?
Global and static variables are guaranteed to be initialized to 0 by the C standard. avr-gcc does this by placing the appropriate code into section .init4 (see The .initN Sections). With respect to the standard, this sentence is somewhat simplied (because the standard allows for machines where the actual bit pattern used differs from all bits being 0), but for the AVR target, in general, all integer-type variables are set to 0, all pointers to a NULL pointer, and all oating-point variables to 0.0. As long as these variables are not initialized (i. e. they dont have an equal sign and an initialization expression to the right within the denition of the variable), they go into the .bss section of the le. This section simply records the size of the variable, but otherwise doesnt consume space, neither within the object le nor within ash memory. (Of course, being a variable, it will consume space in the targets SRAM.) In contrast, global and static variables that have an initializer go into the .data section of the le. This will cause them to consume space in the object le (in order to record the initializing value), and in the ash ROM of the target device. The latter is needed since the ash ROM is the only way that the compiler can tell the target device the value this variable is going to be initialized to. Now if some programmer "wants to make doubly sure" their variables really get a 0 at program startup, and adds an initializer just containing 0 on the right-hand side, they waste space. While this waste of space applies to virtually any platform C is implemented on, its usually not noticeable on larger machines like PCs, while the waste of ash ROM storage can be very painful on a small microcontroller like the AVR.
11.9
Why do some 16-bit timer registers sometimes get trashed?
67
So in general, variables should only be explicitly initialized if the initial value is non-zero. Note Recent versions of GCC are now smart enough to detect this situation, and revert variables that are explicitly initialized to 0 to the .bss section. Still, other compilers might not do that optimization, and as the C standard guarantees the initialization, it is safe to rely on it.
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11.9
Why do some 16-bit timer registers sometimes get trashed?
Some of the timer-related 16-bit IO registers use a temporary register (called TEMP in the Atmel datasheet) to guarantee an atomic access to the register despite the fact that two separate 8-bit IO transfers are required to actually move the data. Typically, this includes access to the current timer/counter value register (TCNTn), the input capture register (ICRn), and write access to the output compare registers (OCRnM ). Refer to the actual datasheet for each devices set of registers that involves the TEMP register. When accessing one of the registers that use TEMP from the main application, and possibly any other one from within an interrupt routine, care must be taken that no access from within an interrupt context could clobber the TEMP register data of an inprogress transaction that has just started elsewhere. To protect interrupt routines against other interrupt routines, its usually best to use the ISR() macro when declaring the interrupt function, and to ensure that interrupts are still disabled when accessing those 16-bit timer registers. Within the main program, access to those registers could be encapsulated in calls to the cli() and sei() macros. If the status of the global interrupt ag before accessing one of those registers is uncertain, something like the following example code can be used.
uint16_t read_timer1(void) { uint8_t sreg; uint16_t val; sreg = SREG; cli(); val = TCNT1; SREG = sreg; return val; }
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11.10
How do I use a #dened constant in an asm statement?
68
11.10
How do I use a #dened constant in an asm statement?
So you tried this:

asm volatile("sbi 0x18,0x07;");
Which works. When you do the same thing but replace the address of the port by its macro name, like this:
asm volatile("sbi PORTB,0x07;");
you get a compilation error: "Error:
constant value required".
PORTB is a precompiler denition included in the processor specic le included in avr/io.h. As you may know, the precompiler will not touch strings and PORTB, instead of 0x18, gets passed to the assembler. One way to avoid this problem is:
asm volatile("sbi %0, 0x07" : "I" (_SFR_IO_ADDR(PORTB)):);
Note For C programs, rather use the standard C bit operators instead, so the above would be expressed as PORTB |= (1 << 7). The optimizer will take care to transform this into a single SBI instruction, assuming the operands allow for this.
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11.11
Why does the PC randomly jump around when single-stepping through my program in avr-gdb?
When compiling a program with both optimization (-O) and debug information (-g) which is fortunately possible in avr-gcc, the code watched in the debugger is optimized code. While it is not guaranteed, very often this code runs with the exact same optimizations as it would run without the -g switch. This can have unwanted side effects. Since the compiler is free to reorder code execution as long as the semantics do not change, code is often rearranged in order to make it possible to use a single branch instruction for conditional operations. Branch instructions can only cover a short range for the target PC (-63 through +64 words from the current PC). If a branch instruction cannot be used directly, the compiler needs to work around it by combining a skip instruction together with a relative jump (rjmp) instruction, which will need one additional word of ROM. Another side effect of optimization is that variable usage is restricted to the area of code where it is actually used. So if a variable was placed in a register at the beginning of
11.12
How do I trace an assembler le in avr-gdb?
69
some function, this same register can be re-used later on if the compiler notices that the rst variable is no longer used inside that function, even though the variable is still in lexical scope. When trying to examine the variable in avr-gdb, the displayed result will then look garbled. So in order to avoid these side effects, optimization can be turned off while debugging. However, some of these optimizations might also have the side effect of uncovering bugs that would otherwise not be obvious, so it must be noted that turning off optimization can easily change the bug pattern. In most cases, you are better off leaving optimizations enabled while debugging.
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11.12
How do I trace an assembler le in avr-gdb?
When using the -g compiler option, avr-gcc only generates line number and other debug information for C (and C++) les that pass the compiler. Functions that dont have line number information will be completely skipped by a single step command in gdb. This includes functions linked from a standard library, but by default also functions dened in an assembler source le, since the -g compiler switch does not apply to the assembler. So in order to debug an assembler input le (possibly one that has to be passed through the C preprocessor), its the assembler that needs to be told to include line-number information into the output le. (Other debug information like data types and variable allocation cannot be generated, since unlike a compiler, the assembler basically doesnt know about this.) This is done using the (GNU) assembler option --gstabs. Example:
$ avr-as -mmcu=atmega128 --gstabs -o foo.o foo.s
When the assembler is not called directly but through the C compiler frontend (either implicitly by passing a source le ending in .S, or explicitly using -x assembler-with-cpp), the compiler frontend needs to be told to pass the --gstabs option down to the assembler. This is done using -Wa,--gstabs. Please take care to only pass this option when compiling an assembler input le. Otherwise, the assembler code that results from the C compilation stage will also get line number information, which confuses the debugger. Note You can also use -Wa,-gstabs since the compiler will add the extra - for you. Example:
11.13
How do I pass an IO port as a parameter to a function?
70
$ EXTRA_OPTS="-Wall -mmcu=atmega128 -x assembler-with-cpp" $ avr-gcc -Wa,--gstabs ${EXTRA_OPTS} -c -o foo.o foo.S
Also note that the debugger might get confused when entering a piece of code that has a non-local label before, since it then takes this label as the name of a new function that appears to have been entered. Thus, the best practice to avoid this confusion is to only use non-local labels when declaring a new function, and restrict anything else to local labels. Local labels consist just of a number only. References to these labels consist of the number, followed by the letter b for a backward reference, or f for a forward reference. These local labels may be re-used within the source le, references will pick the closest label with the same number and given direction. Example:
myfunc: push push push push push ... eor ldi ldi rjmp 1: ld ... breq ... inc 2: cmp brlo 1: pop pop pop pop pop ret r16 r17 r18 YL YH r16, r16 ; start loop YL, lo8(sometable) YH, hi8(sometable) 2f ; jump to loop test at end r17, Y+ ; loop continues here 1f r16 r16, r18 1b YH YL r18 r17 r16 ; return from myfunc prematurely
; jump back to top of loop
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11.13
Consider this example code:

#include <inttypes.h> #include <avr/io.h> void set_bits_func_wrong (volatile uint8_t port, uint8_t mask) {
11.13
71
port |= mask; } void set_bits_func_correct (volatile uint8_t *port, uint8_t mask) { *port |= mask; } #define set_bits_macro(port,mask) ((port) |= (mask)) int main (void) { set_bits_func_wrong (PORTB, 0xaa); set_bits_func_correct (&PORTB, 0x55); set_bits_macro (PORTB, 0xf0); return (0); }
The rst function will generate object code which is not even close to what is intended. The major problem arises when the function is called. When the compiler sees this call, it will actually pass the value of the PORTB register (using an IN instruction), instead of passing the address of PORTB (e.g. memory mapped io addr of 0x38, io port 0x18 for the mega128). This is seen clearly when looking at the disassembly of the call:
set_bits_func_wrong 10a: 6a ea 10c: 88 b3 10e: 0e 94 65 00 (PORTB, ldi in call 0xaa); r22, 0xAA r24, 0x18 0xca
; 170 ; 24
So, the function, once called, only sees the value of the port register and knows nothing about which port it came from. At this point, whatever object code is generated for the function by the compiler is irrelevant. The interested reader can examine the full disassembly to see that the functions body is completely fubar. The second function shows how to pass (by reference) the memory mapped address of the io port to the function so that you can read and write to it in the function. Heres the object code generated for the function call:
set_bits_func_correct (&PORTB, 0x55); 112: 65 e5 ldi r22, 0x55 114: 88 e3 ldi r24, 0x38 116: 90 e0 ldi r25, 0x00 118: 0e 94 7c 00 call 0xf8
; 85 ; 56 ; 0
You can clearly see that 0x0038 is correctly passed for the address of the io port. Looking at the disassembled object code for the body of the function, we can see that the function is indeed performing the operation we intended:
void
11.14
What registers are used by the C compiler?
72
set_bits_func_correct (volatile uint8_t *port, uint8_t mask) { f8: fc 01 movw r30, r24 *port |= mask; fa: 80 81 ld r24, Z fc: 86 2b or r24, r22 fe: 80 83 st Z, r24 } 100: 08 95 ret
Notice that we are accessing the io port via the LD and ST instructions. The port parameter must be volatile to avoid a compiler warning. Note Because of the nature of the IN and OUT assembly instructions, they can not be used inside the function when passing the port in this way. Readers interested in the details should consult the Instruction Set datasheet. Finally we come to the macro version of the operation. In this contrived example, the macro is the most efcient method with respect to both execution speed and code size:
set_bits_macro (PORTB, 0xf0); 11c: 88 b3 in r24, 0x18 11e: 80 6f ori r24, 0xF0 120: 88 bb out 0x18, r24
; 24 ; 240 ; 24
Of course, in a real application, you might be doing a lot more in your function which uses a passed by reference io port address and thus the use of a function over a macro could save you some code space, but still at a cost of execution speed. Care should be taken when such an indirect port access is going to one of the 16-bit IO registers where the order of write access is critical (like some timer registers). All versions of avr-gcc up to 3.3 will generate instructions that use the wrong access order in this situation (since with normal memory operands where the order doesnt matter, this sometimes yields shorter code). See http://mail.nongnu.org/archive/html/avr-libc-dev/2003-01/msg00044.html for a possible workaround. avr-gcc versions after 3.3 have been xed in a way where this optimization will be disabled if the respective pointer variable is declared to be volatile, so the correct behaviour for 16-bit IO ports can be forced that way.
Back to FAQ Index.
11.14
Data types:
11.14
73
char is 8 bits, int is 16 bits, long is 32 bits, long long is 64 bits, float and double are 32 bits (this is the only supported oating point format), pointers
are 16 bits (function pointers are word addresses, to allow addressing up to 128K program memory space). There is a -mint8 option (see Options for the C compiler avr-gcc) to make int 8 bits, but that is not supported by avr-libc and violates C standards (int must be at least 16 bits). It may be removed in a future release. Call-used registers (r18-r27, r30-r31): May be allocated by gcc for local data. You may use them freely in assembler subroutines. Calling C subroutines can clobber any of them - the caller is responsible for saving and restoring. Call-saved registers (r2-r17, r28-r29): May be allocated by gcc for local data. Calling C subroutines leaves them unchanged. Assembler subroutines are responsible for saving and restoring these registers, if changed. r29:r28 (Y pointer) is used as a frame pointer (points to local data on stack) if necessary. The requirement for the callee to save/preserve the contents of these registers even applies in situations where the compiler assigns them for argument passing. Fixed registers (r0, r1): Never allocated by gcc for local data, but often used for xed purposes: r0 - temporary register, can be clobbered by any C code (except interrupt handlers which save it), may be used to remember something for a while within one piece of assembler code r1 - assumed to be always zero in any C code, may be used to remember something for a while within one piece of assembler code, but must then be cleared after use (clr r1). This includes any use of the [f]mul[s[u]] instructions, which return their result in r1:r0. Interrupt handlers save and clear r1 on entry, and restore r1 on exit (in case it was non-zero). Function call conventions: Arguments - allocated left to right, r25 to r8. All arguments are aligned to start in even-numbered registers (odd-sized arguments, including char, have one free register above them). This allows making better use of the movw instruction on the enhanced core. If too many, those that dont t are passed on the stack. Return values: 8-bit in r24 (not r25!), 16-bit in r25:r24, up to 32 bits in r22-r25, up to 64 bits in r18-r25. 8-bit return values are zero/sign-extended to 16 bits by the called
11.15
How do I put an array of strings completely in ROM?
74
function (unsigned char is more efcient than signed char - just clr r25). Arguments to functions with variable argument lists (printf etc.) are all passed on stack, and char is extended to int. Warning There was no such alignment before 2000-07-01, including the old patches for gcc2.95.2. Check your old assembler subroutines, and adjust them accordingly.
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11.15
There are times when you may need an array of strings which will never be modied. In this case, you dont want to waste ram storing the constant strings. The most obvious (and incorrect) thing to do is this:
#include <avr/pgmspace.h> PGM_P array[2] PROGMEM = { "Foo", "Bar" }; int main (void) { char buf[32]; strcpy_P (buf, array[1]); return 0; }
The result is not what you want though. What you end up with is the array stored in ROM, while the individual strings end up in RAM (in the .data section). To work around this, you need to do something like this:
#include <avr/pgmspace.h> const char foo[] PROGMEM = "Foo"; const char bar[] PROGMEM = "Bar"; PGM_P array[2] PROGMEM = { foo, bar }; int main (void) { char buf[32]; PGM_P p; int i;
11.15
75
memcpy_P(&p, &array[i], sizeof(PGM_P)); strcpy_P(buf, p); return 0; }
Looking at the disassembly of the resulting object le we see that array is in ash as such:
00000026 <array>: 26: 2e 00 28: 2a 00 0000002a <bar>: 2a: 42 61 72 00 0000002e <foo>: 2e: 46 6f 6f 00
.word .word
0x002e 0x002a
; ???? ; ????
Bar.
Foo.
foo is at addr 0x002e. bar is at addr 0x002a. array is at addr 0x0026.

Then in main we see this:
memcpy_P(&p, &array[i], sizeof(PGM_P)); 70: 66 0f add r22, r22 72: 77 1f adc r23, r23 74: 6a 5d subi r22, 0xDA 76: 7f 4f sbci r23, 0xFF 78: 42 e0 ldi r20, 0x02 7a: 50 e0 ldi r21, 0x00 7c: ce 01 movw r24, r28 7e: 81 96 adiw r24, 0x21 80: 08 d0 rcall .+16
; ; ; ;
218 255 2 0
; 33 ; 0x92
This code reads the pointer to the desired string from the ROM table array into a register pair. The value of i (in r22:r23) is doubled to accommodate for the word offset required to access array[], then the address of array (0x26) is added, by subtracting the negated address (0xffda). The address of variable p is computed by adding its offset within the stack frame (33) to the Y pointer register, and memcpy_P is called.
strcpy_P(buf, p); 82: 69 a1 84: 7a a1 86: ce 01 88: 01 96 8a: 0c d0
ldd ldd movw adiw rcall
r22, r23, r24, r24, .+24
Y+33 Y+34 r28 0x01
; 0x21 ; 0x22 ; 1 ; 0xa4
11.16
How to use external RAM?
76
This will nally copy the ROM string into the local buffer buf. Variable p (located at Y+33) is read, and passed together with the address of buf (Y+1) to strcpy_P. This will copy the string from ROM to buf. Note that when using a compile-time constant index, omitting the rst step (reading the pointer from ROM via memcpy_P) usually remains unnoticed, since the compiler would then optimize the code for accessing array at compile-time.
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11.16
How to use external RAM?
Well, there is no universal answer to this question; it depends on what the external RAM is going to be used for. Basically, the bit SRE (SRAM enable) in the MCUCR register needs to be set in order to enable the external memory interface. Depending on the device to be used, and the application details, further registers affecting the external memory operation like XMCRA and XMCRB, and/or further bits in MCUCR might be congured. Refer to the datasheet for details. If the external RAM is going to be used to store the variables from the C program (i. e., the .data and/or .bss segment) in that memory area, it is essential to set up the external memory interface early during the device initialization so the initialization of these variable will take place. Refer to How to modify MCUCR or WDTCR early? for a description how to do this using few lines of assembler code, or to the chapter about memory sections for an example written in C. The explanation of malloc() contains a discussion about the use of internal RAM vs. external RAM in particular with respect to the various possible locations of the heap (area reserved for malloc()). It also explains the linker command-line options that are required to move the memory regions away from their respective standard locations in internal RAM. Finally, if the application simply wants to use the additional RAM for private data storage kept outside the domain of the C compiler (e. g. through a char variable initialized directly to a particular address), it would be sufcient to defer the initialization of the external RAM interface to the beginning of main(), so no tweaking of the .init3 section is necessary. The same applies if only the heap is going to be located there, since the application start-up code does not affect the heap. It is not recommended to locate the stack in external RAM. In general, accessing external RAM is slower than internal RAM, and errata of some AVR devices even prevent this conguration from working properly at all.
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11.17
Which -O ag to use?
77
11.17
Which -O ag to use?
Theres a common misconception that larger numbers behind the -O option might automatically cause "better" optimization. First, theres no universal denition for "better", with optimization often being a speed vs. code size trade off. See the detailed discussion for which option affects which part of the code generation. A test case was run on an ATmega128 to judge the effect of compiling the library itself using different optimization levels. The following table lists the results. The test case consisted of around 2 KB of strings to sort. Test #1 used qsort() using the standard library strcmp(), test #2 used a function that sorted the strings by their size (thus had two calls to strlen() per invocation). When comparing the resulting code size, it should be noted that a oating point version of fvprintf() was linked into the binary (in order to print out the time elapsed) which is entirely not affected by the different optimization levels, and added about 2.5 KB to the code. Optimization ags -O3 -O2 -Os -Os -mcall-prologues Size of .text 6898 6666 6618 6474 Time for test #1 903 s 972 s 955 s 972 s Time for test #2 19.7 ms 20.1 ms 20.1 ms 20.1 ms
(The difference between 955 s and 972 s was just a single timer-tick, so take this with a grain of salt.) So generally, it seems -Os -mcall-prologues is the most universal "best" optimization level. Only applications that need to get the last few percent of speed benet from using -O3.
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11.18
How do I relocate code to a xed address?
First, the code should be put into a new named section. This is done with a section attribute:
__attribute__ ((section (".bootloader")))
In this example, .bootloader is the name of the new section. This attribute needs to be placed after the prototype of any function to force the function into the new section.
void boot(void) __attribute__ ((section (".bootloader")));
To relocate the section to a xed address the linker ag --section-start is used. This option can be passed to the linker using the -Wl compiler option:
11.19 My UART is generating nonsense! My ATmega128 keeps crashing! Port F is completely broken! 78
-Wl,--section-start=.bootloader=0x1E000
The name after section-start is the name of the section to be relocated. The number after the section name is the beginning address of the named section.
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11.19
My UART is generating nonsense! My ATmega128 keeps crashing! Port F is completely broken!
Well, certain odd problems arise out of the situation that the AVR devices as shipped by Atmel often come with a default fuse bit conguration that doesnt match the users expectations. Here is a list of things to care for: All devices that have an internal RC oscillator ship with the fuse enabled that causes the device to run off this oscillator, instead of an external crystal. This often remains unnoticed until the rst attempt is made to use something critical in timing, like UART communication. The ATmega128 ships with the fuse enabled that turns this device into ATmega103 compatibility mode. This means that some ports are not fully usable, and in particular that the internal SRAM is located at lower addresses. Since by default, the stack is located at the top of internal SRAM, a program compiled for an ATmega128 running on such a device will immediately crash upon the rst function call (or rather, upon the rst function return). Devices with a JTAG interface have the JTAGEN fuse programmed by default. This will make the respective port pins that are used for the JTAG interface unavailable for regular IO.
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11.20
Why do all my foo...bar strings eat up the SRAM?
By default, all strings are handled as all other initialized variables: they occupy RAM (even though the compiler might warn you when it detects write attempts to these RAM locations), and occupy the same amount of ash ROM so they can be initialized to the actual string by startup code. The compiler can optimize multiple identical strings into a single one, but obviously only for one compilation unit (i. e., a single C source le). That way, any string literal will be a valid argument to any C function that expects a const char argument. Of course, this is going to waste a lot of SRAM. In Program Space String Utilities, a method is described how such constant data can be moved out to ash ROM. However,
11.20
Why do all my "foo...bar" strings eat up the SRAM?
79
a constant string located in ash ROM is no longer a valid argument to pass to a function that expects a const char -type string, since the AVR processor needs the special instruction LPM to access these strings. Thus, separate functions are needed that take this into account. Many of the standard C library functions have equivalents available where one of the string arguments can be located in ash ROM. Private functions in the applications need to handle this, too. For example, the following can be used to implement simple debugging messages that will be sent through a UART:
#include <inttypes.h> #include <avr/io.h> #include <avr/pgmspace.h> int uart_putchar(char c) { if (c == \n) uart_putchar(\r); loop_until_bit_is_set(USR, UDRE); UDR = c; return 0; /* so it could be used for fdevopen(), too */ } void debug_P(const char *addr) { char c; while ((c = pgm_read_byte(addr++))) uart_putchar(c); } int main(void) { ioinit(); /* initialize UART, ... */ debug_P(PSTR("foo was here\n")); return 0; }
11.21 Why does the compiler compile an 8-bit operation that uses bitwise operators into a 16-bit operation in assembly? Note
80
By convention, the sufx _P to the function name is used as an indication that this function is going to accept a "program-space string". Note also the use of the PSTR() macro.
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11.21
Why does the compiler compile an 8-bit operation that uses bitwise operators into a 16-bit operation in assembly?
Bitwise operations in Standard C will automatically promote their operands to an int, which is (by default) 16 bits in avr-gcc. To work around this use typecasts on the operands, including literals, to declare that the values are to be 8 bit operands. This may be especially important when clearing a bit:
var &= ~mask; /* wrong way! */
The bitwise "not" operator () will also promote the value in mask to an int. To keep it an 8-bit value, typecast before the "not" operator:
var &= (unsigned char)~mask;
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11.22
How to detect RAM memory and variable overlap problems?
You can simply run avr-nm on your output (ELF) le. Run it with the -n option, and it will sort the symbols numerically (by default, they are sorted alphabetically). Look for the symbol _end, thats the rst address in RAM that is not allocated by a variable. (avr-gcc internally adds 0x800000 to all data/bss variable addresses, so please ignore this offset.) Then, the run-time initialization code initializes the stack pointer (by default) to point to the last available address in (internal) SRAM. Thus, the region between _end and the end of SRAM is what is available for stack. (If your application uses malloc(), which e. g. also can happen inside printf(), the heap for dynamic memory is also located there. See Memory Areas and Using malloc().) The amount of stack required for your application cannot be determined that easily. For example, if you recursively call a function and forget to break that recursion, the amount of stack required is innite. :-) You can look at the generated assembler code (avr-gcc ... -S), theres a comment in each generated assembler le that tells you the frame size for each generated function. Thats the amount of stack required
11.23
Is it really impossible to program the ATtinyXX in C?
81
for this function, you have to add up that for all functions where you know that the calls could be nested.
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11.23
Is it really impossible to program the ATtinyXX in C?
While some small AVRs are not directly supported by the C compiler since they do not have a RAM-based stack (and some do not even have RAM at all), it is possible anyway to use the general-purpose registers as a RAM replacement since they are mapped into the data memory region. Bruce D. Lightner wrote an excellent description of how to do this, and offers this together with a toolkit on his web page:
http://lightner.net/avr/ATtinyAvrGcc.html
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11.24
What is this clock skew detected message?
Its a known problem of the MS-DOS FAT le system. Since the FAT le system has only a granularity of 2 seconds for maintaining a les timestamp, and it seems that some MS-DOS derivative (Win9x) perhaps rounds up the current time to the next second when calculating the timestamp of an updated le in case the current time cannot be represented in FATs terms, this causes a situation where make sees a "le coming from the future". Since all make decisions are based on le timestamps, and their dependencies, make warns about this situation. Solution: dont use inferior le systems / operating systems. Neither Unix le systems nor HPFS (aka NTFS) do experience that problem. Workaround: after saving the le, wait a second before starting make. Or simply ignore the warning. If you are paranoid, execute a make clean all to make sure everything gets rebuilt. In networked environments where the les are accessed from a le server, this message can also happen if the le servers clock differs too much from the network clients clock. In this case, the solution is to use a proper time keeping protocol on both systems, like NTP. As a workaround, synchronize the clients clock frequently with the servers clock.
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11.25
Why are (many) interrupt ags cleared by writing a logical 1?
82
11.25
Why are (many) interrupt ags cleared by writing a logical 1?
Usually, each interrupt has its own interrupt ag bit in some control register, indicating the specied interrupt condition has been met by representing a logical 1 in the respective bit position. When working with interrupt handlers, this interrupt ag bit usually gets cleared automatically in the course of processing the interrupt, sometimes by just calling the handler at all, sometimes (e. g. for the U[S]ART) by reading a particular hardware register that will normally happen anyway when processing the interrupt. From the hardwares point of view, an interrupt is asserted as long as the respective bit is set, while global interrupts are enabled. Thus, it is essential to have the bit cleared before interrupts get re-enabled again (which usually happens when returning from an interrupt handler). Only few subsystems require an explicit action to clear the interrupt request when using interrupt handlers. (The notable exception is the TWI interface, where clearing the interrupt indicates to proceed with the TWI bus hardware handshake, so its never done automatically.) However, if no normal interrupt handlers are to be used, or in order to make extra sure any pending interrupt gets cleared before re-activating global interrupts (e. g. an external edge-triggered one), it can be necessary to explicitly clear the respective hardware interrupt bit by software. This is usually done by writing a logical 1 into this bit position. This seems to be illogical at rst, the bit position already carries a logical 1 when reading it, so why does writing a logical 1 to it clear the interrupt bit? The solution is simple: writing a logical 1 to it requires only a single OUT instruction, and it is clear that only this single interrupt request bit will be cleared. There is no need to perform a read-modify-write cycle (like, an SBI instruction), since all bits in these control registers are interrupt bits, and writing a logical 0 to the remaining bits (as it is done by the simple OUT instruction) will not alter them, so there is no risk of any race condition that might accidentally clear another interrupt request bit. So instead of writing
TIFR |= _BV(TOV0); /* wrong! */
simply use
TIFR = _BV(TOV0);
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11.26
Why have programmed fuses the bit value 0?
Basically, fuses are just a bit in a special EEPROM area. For technical reasons, erased E[E]PROM cells have all bits set to the value 1, so unprogrammed fuses also have a logical 1. Conversely, programmed fuse cells read out as bit value 0.
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11.27
Which AVR-specic assembler operators are available?
83
11.27
Which AVR-specic assembler operators are available?
See Pseudo-ops and operators.

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11.28
Why are interrupts re-enabled in the middle of writing the stack pointer?
When setting up space for local variables on the stack, the compiler generates code like this:
/* prologue: frame size=20 */ push r28 push r29 in r28,__SP_L__ in r29,__SP_H__ sbiw r28,20 in __tmp_reg__,__SREG__ cli out __SP_H__,r29 out __SREG__,__tmp_reg__ out __SP_L__,r28 /* prologue end (size=10) */
It reads the current stack pointer value, decrements it by the required amount of bytes, then disables interrupts, writes back the high part of the stack pointer, writes back the saved SREG (which will eventually re-enable interrupts if they have been enabled before), and nally writes the low part of the stack pointer. At the rst glance, theres a race between restoring SREG, and writing SPL. However, after enabling interrupts (either explicitly by setting the I ag, or by restoring it as part of the entire SREG), the AVR hardware executes (at least) the next instruction still with interrupts disabled, so the write to SPL is guaranteed to be executed with interrupts disabled still. Thus, the emitted sequence ensures interrupts will be disabled only for the minimum time required to guarantee the integrity of this operation.
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11.29
Why are there ve different linker scripts?
From a comment in the source code: Which one of the ve linker script les is actually used depends on command line options given to ld. A .x script le is the default script A .xr script is for linking without relocation (-r ag) A .xu script is like .xr but do create constructors (-Ur ag) A .xn script is for linking with -n ag (mix text and data on same page). A .xbn script is for linking with -N ag (mix text and data on same page).
11.30
How to add a raw binary image to linker output?
84
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11.30
How to add a raw binary image to linker output?
The GNU linker avr-ld cannot handle binary data directly. However, theres a companion tool called avr-objcopy. This is already known from the output side: its used to extract the contents of the linked ELF le into an Intel Hex load le.
avr-objcopy can create a relocatable object le from arbitrary binary input, like
avr-objcopy -I binary -O elf32-avr foo.bin foo.o
This will create a le named foo.o, with the contents of foo.bin. The contents will default to section .data, and two symbols will be created named _binary_foo_bin_start and _binary_foo_bin_end. These symbols can be referred to inside a C source to access these data. If the goal is to have those data go to ash ROM (similar to having used the PROGMEM attribute in C source code), the sections have to be renamed while copying, and its also useful to set the section ags:
avr-objcopy --rename-section .data=.progmem.data,contents,alloc,load,readonly, data -I binary -O elf32-avr foo.bin foo.o
Note that all this could be conveniently wired into a Makele, so whenever foo.bin changes, it will trigger the recreation of foo.o, and a subsequent relink of the nal ELF le. Below are two Makele fragments that provide rules to convert a .txt le to an object le, and to convert a .bin le to an object le:
$(OBJDIR)/%.o : %.txt @echo Converting $< @cp $(<) $(*).tmp @echo -n 0 | tr 0 \000 >> $(*).tmp @$(OBJCOPY) -I binary -O elf32-avr \ --rename-section .data=.progmem.data,contents,alloc,load,readonly,data \ --redefine-sym _binary_$*_tmp_start=$* \ --redefine-sym _binary_$*_tmp_end=$*_end \ --redefine-sym _binary_$*_tmp_size=$*_size_sym \ $(*).tmp $(@) @echo "extern const char" $(*)"[] PROGMEM;" > $(*).h @echo "extern const char" $(*)_end"[] PROGMEM;" >> $(*).h @echo "extern const char" $(*)_size_sym"[];" >> $(*).h @echo "#define $(*)_size ((int)$(*)_size_sym)" >> $(*).h @rm $(*).tmp $(OBJDIR)/%.o : %.bin @echo Converting $<
11.31
How do I perform a software reset of the AVR?
85
@$(OBJCOPY) -I binary -O elf32-avr \ --rename-section .data=.progmem.data,contents,alloc,load,readonly,data \ --redefine-sym _binary_$*_bin_start=$* \ --redefine-sym _binary_$*_bin_end=$*_end \ --redefine-sym _binary_$*_bin_size=$*_size_sym \ $(<) $(@) @echo "extern const char" $(*)"[] PROGMEM;" > $(*).h @echo "extern const char" $(*)_end"[] PROGMEM;" >> $(*).h @echo "extern const char" $(*)_size_sym"[];" >> $(*).h @echo "#define $(*)_size ((int)$(*)_size_sym)" >> $(*).h
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11.31
How do I perform a software reset of the AVR?
The canonical way to perform a software reset of non-XMega AVRs is to use the watchdog timer. Enable the watchdog timer to the shortest timeout setting, then go into an innite, do-nothing loop. The watchdog will then reset the processor. XMega parts have a specic bit RST_SWRST_bm in the RST.CTRL register, that generates a hardware reset. RST_SWRST_bm is protected by the XMega Conguration Change Protection system. The reason why using the watchdog timer or RST_SWRST_bm is preferable over jumping to the reset vector, is that when the watchdog or RST_SWRST_bm resets the AVR, the registers will be reset to their known, default settings. Whereas jumping to the reset vector will leave the registers in their previous state, which is generally not a good idea. CAUTION! Older AVRs will have the watchdog timer disabled on a reset. For these older AVRs, doing a soft reset by enabling the watchdog is easy, as the watchdog will then be disabled after the reset. On newer AVRs, once the watchdog is enabled, then it stays enabled, even after a reset! For these newer AVRs a function needs to be added to the .init3 section (i.e. during the startup code, before main()) to disable the watchdog early enough so it does not continually reset the AVR. Here is some example code that creates a macro that can be called to perform a soft reset:
#include <avr/wdt.h> ... #define soft_reset() do { wdt_enable(WDTO_15MS); for(;;) { } } while(0) \ \ \ \ \ \ \
11.32 I am using oating point math. Why is the compiled code so big? Why does my code not work? 86 For newer AVRs (such as the ATmega1281) also add this function to your code to then disable the watchdog after a reset (e.g., after a soft reset):
#include <avr/wdt.h> ... // Function Pototype void wdt_init(void) __attribute__((naked)) __attribute__((section(".init3"))); ... // Function Implementation void wdt_init(void) { MCUSR = 0; wdt_disable(); return; }
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11.32
I am using oating point math. Why is the compiled code so big? Why does my code not work?
You are not linking in the math library from AVR-LibC. GCC has a library that is used for oating point operations, but it is not optimized for the AVR, and so it generates big code, or it could be incorrect. This can happen even when you are not using any oating point math functions from the Standard C library, but you are just doing oating point math operations. When you link in the math library from AVR-LibC, those routines get replaced by handoptimized AVR assembly and it produces much smaller code. See I get "undened reference to..." for functions like "sin()" for more details on how to link in the math library.
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11.33
What pitfalls exist when writing reentrant code?
Reentrant code means the ability for a piece of code to be called simultaneously from two or more threads. Attention to re-enterability is needed when using a multi-tasking operating system, or when using interrupts since an interrupt is really a temporary thread. The code generated natively by gcc is reentrant. But, only some of the libraries in avrlibc are explicitly reentrant, and some are known not to be reentrant. In general, any
11.33
87
library call that reads and writes global variables (including I/O registers) is not reentrant. This is because more than one thread could read or write the same storage at the same time, unaware that other threads are doing the same, and create inconsistent and/or erroneous results. A library call that is known not to be reentrant will work if it is used only within one thread and no other thread makes use of a library call that shares common storage with it. Below is a table of library calls with known issues.
11.33
88
Library call rand(), random()
Reentrant Issue Uses global variables to keep state information. Uses the global variable errno to return success/failure.
strtod(), strtol(), strtoul()
malloc(), realloc(), calloc(), free()
Uses the stack pointer and global variables to allocate and free memory.
fdevopen(), fclose()
Uses calloc() and free().
eeprom_(), boot_()
Accesses I/O registers.
pgm__far()
Accesses I/O register RAMPZ.
printf(), printf_P(), vprintf(), vprintf_P(), puts(), puts_P()
Alters ags and character count in global FILE stdout.
Workaround/Alternative Use special reentrant versions: rand_r(), random_r(). Ignore errno, or protect calls with cli()/sei() or ATOMIC_BLOCK() if the application can tolerate it. Or use sccanf() or sccanf_P() if possible. Protect calls with cli()/sei() or ATOMIC_BLOCK() if the application can tolerate it. If using an OS, use the OS provided memory allocator since the OS is likely modifying the stack pointer anyway. Protect calls with cli()/sei() or ATOMIC_BLOCK() if the application can tolerate it. Or use fdev_setup_stream() or FDEV_SETUP_STREAM(). Note: fclose() will only call free() if the stream has been opened with fdevopen(). Protect calls with cli()/sei(), ATOMIC_BLOCK(), or use OS locking. Starting with GCC 4.3, RAMPZ is automatically saved for ISRs, so nothing further is needed if only using interrupts. Some OSes may automatically preserve RAMPZ during context switching. Check the OS documentation before assuming it does. Otherwise, protect calls with cli()/sei(), ATOMIC_BLOCK(), or use explicit OS locking. Use only in one thread. Or if returned character count is unimportant, do not use the _P versions. Note: Formatting to a string output, e.g.
11.34 Why are some addresses of the EEPROM corrupted (usually address zero)? Note
89
Its not clear one would ever want to do character input simultaneously from more than one thread anyway, but these entries are included for completeness. An effort will be made to keep this table up to date if any new issues are discovered or introduced.
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11.34
Why are some addresses of the EEPROM corrupted (usually address zero)?
The two most common reason for EEPROM corruption is either writing to the EEPROM beyond the datasheet endurance specication, or resetting the AVR while an EEPROM write is in progress. EEPROM writes can take up to tens of milliseconds to complete. So that the CPU is not tied up for that long of time, an internal state-machine handles EEPROM write requests. The EEPROM state-machine expects to have all of the EEPROM registers setup, then an EEPROM write request to start the process. Once the EEPROM state-machine has started, changing EEPROM related registers during an EEPROM write is guaranteed to corrupt the EEPROM write process. The datasheet always shows the proper way to tell when a write is in progress, so that the registers are not changed by the users program. The EEPROM state-machine will always complete the write in progress unless power is removed from the device. As with all EEPROM technology, if power fails during an EEPROM write the state of the byte being written is undened. In older generation AVRs the EEPROM Address Register (EEAR) is initialized to zero on reset, be it from Brown Out Detect, Watchdog or the Reset Pin. If an EEPROM write has just started at the time of the reset, the write will be completed, but now at address zero instead of the requested address. If the reset occurs later in the write process both the requested address and address zero may be corrupted. To distinguish which AVRs may exhibit the corrupt of address zero while a write is in process during a reset, look at the "initial value" section for the EEPROM Address Register. If EEAR shows the initial value as 0x00 or 0x0000, then address zero and possibly the one being written will be corrupted. Newer parts show the initial value as "undened", these will not corrupt address zero during a reset (unless it was address zero that was being written). EEPROMs have limited write endurance. The datasheet species the number of EEPROM writes that are guaranteed to function across the full temperature specication of the AVR, for a given byte. A read should always be performed before a write, to see if the value in the EEPROM actually needs to be written, so not to cause unnecessary EEPROM wear.
11.35
Why is my baud rate wrong?
90
The failure mechanism for an overwritten byte is generally one of "stuck" bits, i. e. a bit will stay at a one or zero state regardless of the byte written. Also a write followed by a read may return the correct data, but the data will change with the passage of time, due the EEPROMs inability to hold a charge from the excessive write wear.
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11.35
Why is my baud rate wrong?
Some AVR datasheets give the following formula for calculating baud rates:
(F_CPU/(UART_BAUD_RATE*16L)-1)
Unfortunately that formula does not work with all combinations of clock speeds and baud rates due to integer truncation during the division operator. When doing integer division it is usually better to round to the nearest integer, rather than to the lowest. To do this add 0.5 (i. e. half the value of the denominator) to the numerator before the division, resulting in the formula:
((F_CPU + UART_BAUD_RATE * 8L) / (UART_BAUD_RATE * 16L) - 1)
This is also the way it is implemented in <util/setbaud.h>: Helper macros for baud rate calculations.
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11.36
On a device with more than 128 KiB of ash, how to make function pointers work?
Function pointers beyond the "magical" 128 KiB barrier(s) on larger devices are supposed to be resolved through so-called trampolines by the linker, so the actual pointers used in the code can remain 16 bits wide. In order for this to work, the option -mrelax must be given on the compiler commandline that is used to link the nal ELF le. (Older compilers did not implement this option for the AVR, use -Wl,--relax instead.)
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11.37
Why is assigning ports in a chain a bad idea?

-
Suppose a number of IO port registers should get the value 0xff assigned. Conveniently, it is implemented like this:
12 Building and Installing the GNU Tool Chain
91
DDRB = DDRD = 0xff;
According to the rules of the C language, this causes 0xff to be assigned to DDRD, then DDRD is read back, and the value is assigned to DDRB. The compiler stands no chance to optimize the readback away, as an IO port register is declared "volatile". Thus, chaining that kind of IO port assignments would better be avoided, using explicit assignments instead:
DDRB = 0xff; DDRD = 0xff;
Even worse ist this, e. g. on an ATmega1281:

DDRA = DDRB = DDRC = DDRD = DDRE = DDRF = DDRG = 0xff;
The same happens as outlined above. However, when reading back register DDRG, this register only implements 6 out of the 8 bits, so the two topmost (unimplemented) bits read back as 0! Consequently, all remaining DDRx registers get assigned the value 0x3f, which does not match the intention of the developer in any way.
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12
Building and Installing the GNU Tool Chain
This chapter shows how to build and install, from source code, a complete development environment for the AVR processors using the GNU toolset. There are two main sections, one for Linux, FreeBSD, and other Unix-like operating systems, and another section for Windows.
12.1
Building and Installing under Linux, FreeBSD, and Others
The default behaviour for most of these tools is to install every thing under the /usr/local directory. In order to keep the AVR tools separate from the base system, it is usually better to install everything into /usr/local/avr. If the /usr/local/avr directory does not exist, you should create it before trying to install anything. You will need root access to install there. If you dont have root access to the system, you can alternatively install in your home directory, for example, in $HOME/local/avr. Where you install is a completely arbitrary decision, but should be consistent for all the tools. You specify the installation directory by using the --prefix=dir option with the configure script. It is important to install all the AVR tools in the same directory or some of the tools will not work correctly. To ensure consistency and simplify the discussion, we will use $PREFIX to refer to whatever directory you wish to install in. You can set this as an environment variable if you wish as such (using a Bourne-like shell):
12.2
Required Tools
92
$ PREFIX=$HOME/local/avr $ export PREFIX
Note Be sure that you have your PATH environment variable set to search the directory you install everything in before you start installing anything. For example, if you use --prefix=$PREFIX, you must have $PREFIX/bin in your exported PATH. As such:
$ PATH=$PATH:$PREFIX/bin $ export PATH
Warning If you have CC set to anything other than avr-gcc in your environment, this will cause the congure script to fail. It is best to not have CC set at all.
Note It is usually the best to use the latest released version of each of the tools.
12.2
Required Tools
GNU Binutils
http://sources.redhat.com/binutils/
Installation GCC
http://gcc.gnu.org/
Installation AVR LibC
http://savannah.gnu.org/projects/avr-libc/
Installation
12.3
Optional Tools
You can develop programs for AVR devices without the following tools. They may or may not be of use for you.
12.4
GNU Binutils for the AVR target
93
AVRDUDE
http://savannah.nongnu.org/projects/avrdude/
Installation Usage Notes GDB
http://sources.redhat.com/gdb/
Installation SimulAVR
http://savannah.gnu.org/projects/simulavr/
Installation AVaRICE
http://avarice.sourceforge.net/
Installation
12.4
GNU Binutils for the AVR target
The binutils package provides all the low-level utilities needed in building and manipulating object les. Once installed, your environment will have an AVR assembler (avr-as), linker (avr-ld), and librarian (avr-ar and avr-ranlib). In addition, you get tools which extract data from object les (avr-objcopy), dissassemble object le information (avr-objdump), and strip information from object les (avr-strip). Before we can build the C compiler, these tools need to be in place. Download and unpack the source les:
$ bunzip2 -c binutils-<version>.tar.bz2 | tar xf $ cd binutils-<version>
Note Replace <version> with the version of the package you downloaded. If you obtained a gzip compressed le (.gz), use gunzip instead of bunzip2. It is usually a good idea to congure and build binutils in a subdirectory so as not to pollute the source with the compiled les. This is recommended by the binutils developers.
$ mkdir obj-avr $ cd obj-avr
12.5
GCC for the AVR target
94
The next step is to congure and build the tools. This is done by supplying arguments to the configure script that enable the AVR-specic options.
$ ../configure --prefix=$PREFIX --target=avr --disable-nls
If you dont specify the --prefix option, the tools will get installed in the /usr/local hierarchy (i.e. the binaries will get installed in /usr/local/bin, the info pages get installed in /usr/local/info, etc.) Since these tools are changing frequently, It is preferrable to put them in a location that is easily removed. When configure is run, it generates a lot of messages while it determines what is available on your operating system. When it nishes, it will have created several Makefiles that are custom tailored to your platform. At this point, you can build the project.
$ make
Note BSD users should note that the projects Makefile uses GNU make syntax. This means FreeBSD users may need to build the tools by using gmake. If the tools compiled cleanly, youre ready to install them. If you specied a destination that isnt owned by your account, youll need root access to install them. To install:
$ make install
You should now have the programs from binutils installed into $PREFIX/bin. Dont forget to set your PATH environment variable before going to build avr-gcc. Note The ofcial version of binutils might lack support for recent AVR devices. A patch that adds more AVR types can be found at http://www.freebsd.-
org/cgi/cvsweb.cgi/ports/devel/avr-binutils/files/patch-newdevices
12.5
GCC for the AVR target
Warning You must install avr-binutils and make sure your path is set properly before installing avr-gcc. The steps to build avr-gcc are essentially same as for binutils:
12.6
AVR LibC
95
$ $ $ $ $
bunzip2 -c gcc-<version>.tar.bz2 | tar xf cd gcc-<version> mkdir obj-avr cd obj-avr ../configure --prefix=$PREFIX --target=avr --enable-languages=c,c++ \ --disable-nls --disable-libssp --with-dwarf2 $ make $ make install
To save your self some download time, you can alternatively download only the gcc-core-<version>.tar.bz2 and gcc-c++-<version>.tar.bz2 parts of the gcc. Also, if you dont need C++ support, you only need the core part and should only enable the C language support. Note Early versions of these tools did not support C++. The stdc++ libs are not included with C++ for AVR due to the size limitations of the devices. The ofcial version of GCC might lack support for recent AVR devices. A patch that adds more AVR types can be found at http://www.freebsd.-
org/cgi/cvsweb.cgi/ports/devel/avr-gcc/files/patch-newdevices
12.6
AVR LibC
Warning You must install avr-binutils, avr-gcc and make sure your path is set properly before installing avr-libc.
Note If you have obtained the latest avr-libc from cvs, you will have to run the bootstrap script before using either of the build methods described below. To build and install avr-libc:
$ $ $ $ $ gunzip -c avr-libc-<version>.tar.gz | tar xf cd avr-libc-<version> ./configure --prefix=$PREFIX --build=./config.guess --host=avr make make install
12.7
AVRDUDE
12.8
GDB for the AVR target
96
Note It has been ported to windows (via MinGW or cygwin), Linux and Solaris. Other Unix systems should be trivial to port to.
avrdude is part of the FreeBSD ports system. To install it, simply do the following:
# cd /usr/ports/devel/avrdude # make install
Note Installation into the default location usually requires root permissions. However, running the program only requires access permissions to the appropriate ppi(4) device. Building and installing on other systems should use the configure system, as such:
$ $ $ $ $ $ $ gunzip -c avrdude-<version>.tar.gz | tar xf cd avrdude-<version> mkdir obj-avr cd obj-avr ../configure --prefix=$PREFIX make make install
12.8
GDB for the AVR target
GDB also uses the configure system, so to build and install:

$ $ $ $ $ $ $ bunzip2 -c gdb-<version>.tar.bz2 | tar xf cd gdb-<version> mkdir obj-avr cd obj-avr ../configure --prefix=$PREFIX --target=avr make make install
Note If you are planning on using avr-gdb, you will probably want to install either simulavr or avarice since avr-gdb needs one of these to run as a a remote target backend.
12.9
SimulAVR
SimulAVR also uses the configure system, so to build and install:
12.10
AVaRICE
97
$ $ $ $ $ $ $
gunzip -c simulavr-<version>.tar.gz | tar xf cd simulavr-<version> mkdir obj-avr cd obj-avr ../configure --prefix=$PREFIX make make install
Note You might want to have already installed avr-binutils, avr-gcc and avr-libc if you want to have the test programs built in the simulavr source.
12.10
Note
AVaRICE
These install notes are not applicable to avarice-1.5 or older. You probably dont want to use anything that old anyways since there have been many improvements and bug xes since the 1.5 release. AVaRICE also uses the configure system, so to build and install:
$ $ $ $ $ $ $ gunzip -c avarice-<version>.tar.gz | tar xf cd avarice-<version> mkdir obj-avr cd obj-avr ../configure --prefix=$PREFIX make make install
Note AVaRICE uses the BFD library for accessing various binary le formats. You may need to tell the congure script where to nd the lib and headers for the link to work. This is usually done by invoking the congure script like this (Replace <hdr_path> with the path to the bfd.h le on your system. Replace <lib_path> with the path to libbfd.a on your system.):
$ CPPFLAGS=-I<hdr_path> LDFLAGS=-L<lib_path> ../configure --prefix=$PREFIX
12.11
Building and Installing under Windows
Building and installing the toolchain under Windows requires more effort because all of the tools required for building, and the programs themselves, are mainly designed for running under a POSIX environment such as Unix and Linux. Windows does not natively provide such an environment.
12.12
Tools Required for Building the Toolchain for Windows
98
There are two projects available that provide such an environment, Cygwin and MinGW. There are advantages and disadvantages to both. Cygwin provides a very complete POSIX environment that allows one to build many Linux based tools from source with very little or no source modications. However, POSIX functionality is provided in the form of a DLL that is linked to the application. This DLL has to be redistributed with your application and there are issues if the Cygwin DLL already exists on the installation system and different versions of the DLL. On the other hand, MinGW can compile code as native Win32 applications. However, this means that programs designed for Unix and Linux (i.e. that use POSIX functionality) will not compile as MinGW does not provide that POSIX layer for you. Therefore most programs that compile on both types of host systems, usually must provide some sort of abstraction layer to allow an application to be built cross-platform. MinGW does provide somewhat of a POSIX environment, called MSYS, that allows you to build Unix and Linux applications as they woud normally do, with a configure step and a make step. Cygwin also provides such an environment. This means that building the AVR toolchain is very similar to how it is built in Linux, described above. The main differences are in what the PATH environment variable gets set to, pathname differences, and the tools that are required to build the projects under Windows. Well take a look at the tools next.
12.12
These are the tools that are currently used to build an AVR tool chain. This list may change, either the version of the tools, or the tools themselves, as improvements are made. MinGW Download the MinGW Automated Installer, 20100909 (or later) <http-
://sourceforge.net/projects/mingw/files/Automated%20MinGW%20Installer/mingw-get-inst/mingw-get-inst-20100909/mingw-get-inst-2010 exe/download>
Run mingw-get-inst-20100909.exe In the installation wizard, keep the default values and press the "Next" button for all installer pages except for the pages explicitly listed below. In the installer page "Repository Catalogues", select the "Download latest repository catalogues" radio button, and press the "Next" button In the installer page "License Agreement", select the "I accept the agreement" radio button, and press the "Next" button In the installer page "Select Components", be sure to select these items:
12.12
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C compiler (default checked) C++ compiler Ada compiler MinGW Developer Toolkit (which includes "MSYS Basic System"). Install. Install Cygwin Install everything, all users, UNIX line endings. This will take a long time. A fat internet pipe is highly recommended. It is also recommended that you download all to a directory rst, and then install from that directory to your machine. Note GMP, MPFR, and MPC are required to build GCC. GMP is a prequisite for building MPFR. Build GMP rst. MPFR is a prerequisite for building MPC. Build MPFR second. Build GMP for MinGW Latest Version <http://gmplib.org/> Build script:
./configure make make check make install 2>&1 2>&1 2>&1 2>&1 | | | | tee tee tee tee gmp-configure.log gmp-make.log gmp-make-check.log gmp-make-install.log
GMP headers will be installed under /usr/local/include and library installed under /usr/local/lib. Build MPFR for MinGW Latest Version <http://www.mpfr.org/> Build script:
./configure --with-gmp=/usr/local --disable-shared 2>&1 | tee mpfr-configure.log make 2>&1 | tee mpfr-make.log make check 2>&1 | tee mpfr-make-check.log make install 2>&1 | tee mpfr-make-install.log
MPFR headers will be installed under /usr/local/include and library installed under /usr/local/lib.
12.12
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Build MPC for MinGW Latest Version <http://www.multiprecision.org/> Build script:
./configure --with-gmp=/usr/local --with-mpfr=/usr/local --disable-shared 2>&1 | te make 2>&1 | tee mpfr-make.log make check 2>&1 | tee mpfr-make-check.log make install 2>&1 | tee mpfr-make-install.log
MPFR headers will be installed under /usr/local/include and library installed under /usr/local/lib.
Note Doxygen is required to build AVR-LibC documentation. Install Doxygen Version 1.7.2 <http://www.stack.nl/dimitri/doxygen/> Download and install. NetPBM is required to build graphics in the AVR-LibC documentation. Install NetPBM Version 10.27.0 From the GNUWin32 project: <http://gnuwin32.sourceforge.-
net/packages.html>
Download and install. g2dev is required to build graphics in the AVR-LibC documentation. Install g2dev Version 3.2 patchlevel 5c From WinFig 4.62:
<http://www.schmidt-web-berlin.-
de/winfig/>
Download the zip le version of WinFig Unzip the download le and install g2dev.exe in a location of your choice, somewhere in the PATH. You may have to unzip and install related DLL les for g2dev. In the version above, you have to install QtCore4.dll and QtGui4.dll. MikTeX is required to build various documentation. Install MiKTeX Version 2.9 <http://miktex.org/>
12.13
Building the Toolchain for Windows
101
Download and install. Ghostscript is required to build various documentation. Install Ghostscript Version 9.00 <http://www.ghostscript.com> Download and install. In the \bin subdirectory of the installaion, copy gswin32c.exe to gs.exe. Set the TEMP and TMP environment variables to c:\temp or to the short lename version. This helps to avoid NTVDM errors during building.
12.13
All directories in the PATH enviornment variable should be specied using their short lename (8.3) version. This will also help to avoid NTVDM errors during building. These short lenames can be specic to each machine. Build the tools below in MinGW/MSYS. Binutils Open source code pacakge and patch as necessary. Congure and build in a directory outside of the source code tree. Set PATH, in order: * <MikTex executables> <ghostscript executables> * /usr/local/bin * /usr/bin * /bin * /mingw/bin * c:/cygwin/bin * <install directory>/bin Congure
CFLAGS=-D__USE_MINGW_ACCESS \ ../$archivedir/configure \ --prefix=$installdir \ --target=avr \ --disable-nls \ --enable-doc \ --datadir=$installdir/doc/binutils \ --with-gmp=/usr/local \ --with-mpfr=/usr/local \ 2>&1 | tee binutils-configure.log
12.13
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Make
make all html install install-html 2>&1 | tee binutils-make.log
Manually change documentation location. GCC Open source code pacakge and patch as necessary. Congure and build in a directory outside of the source code tree. Set PATH, in order: * <MikTex executables> <ghostscript executables> * /usr/local/bin * /usr/bin * /bin * /mingw/bin * c:/cygwin/bin * <install directory>/bin Congure
LDFLAGS=-L /usr/local/lib -R /usr/local/lib \ CFLAGS=-D__USE_MINGW_ACCESS \ ../gcc-$version/configure \ --with-gmp=/usr/local \ --with-mpfr=/usr/local \ --with-mpc=/usr/local \ --prefix=$installdir \ --target=$target \ --enable-languages=c,c++ \ --with-dwarf2 \ --enable-doc \ --with-docdir=$installdir/doc/$project \ --disable-shared \ --disable-libada \ --disable-libssp \ 2>&1 | tee $project-configure.log
Make
make all html install 2>&1 | tee $package-make.log
avr-libc Open source code package. Congure and build at the top of the source code tree. Set PATH, in order:
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* /usr/local/bin * /mingw/bin * /bin * <MikTex executables> * <install directory>/bin * <Doxygen executables> * <NetPBM executables> * <g2dev executable> * <Ghostscript executables> * c:/cygwin/bin Congure
./configure \ --host=avr \ --prefix=$installdir \ --enable-doc \ --disable-versioned-doc \ --enable-html-doc \ --enable-pdf-doc \ --enable-man-doc \ --mandir=$installdir/man \ --datadir=$installdir \ 2>&1 | tee $package-configure.log
Make
make all install 2>&1 | tee $package-make.log
Manually change location of man page documentation. Move the examples to the top level of the install tree. Convert line endings in examples to Windows line endings. Convert line endings in header les to Windows line endings. AVRDUDE Open source code package. Congure and build at the top of the source code tree. Set PATH, in order: * <MikTex executables> * /usr/local/bin * /usr/bin * /bin * /mingw/bin * c:/cygwin/bin * <install directory>/bin
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Set location of LibUSB headers and libraries

export CPPFLAGS="-I../../libusb-win32-device-bin-$libusb_version/include" export CFLAGS="-I../../libusb-win32-device-bin-$libusb_version/include" export LDFLAGS="-L../../libusb-win32-device-bin-$libusb_version/lib/gcc"
Congure
./configure \ --prefix=$installdir \ --datadir=$installdir \ --sysconfdir=$installdir/bin \ --enable-doc \ --disable-versioned-doc \ 2>&1 | tee $package-configure.log
Make
make -k all install 2>&1 | tee $package-make.log
Convert line endings in avrdude cong le to Windows line endings. Delete backup copy of avrdude cong le in install directory if exists. Insight/GDB Open source code pacakge and patch as necessary. Congure and build in a directory outside of the source code tree. Set PATH, in order: * <MikTex executables> * /usr/local/bin * /usr/bin * /bin * /mingw/bin * c:/cygwin/bin * <install directory>/bin Congure
CFLAGS=-D__USE_MINGW_ACCESS \ LDFLAGS=-static \ ../$archivedir/configure \ --prefix=$installdir \ --target=avr \ --with-gmp=/usr/local \ --with-mpfr=/usr/local \ --enable-doc \ 2>&1 | tee insight-configure.log
Make
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SRecord Open source code package. Congure and build at the top of the source code tree. Set PATH, in order: * <MikTex executables> * /usr/local/bin * /usr/bin * /bin * /mingw/bin * c:/cygwin/bin * <install directory>/bin Congure
./configure \ --prefix=$installdir \ --infodir=$installdir/info \ --mandir=$installdir/man \ 2>&1 | tee $package-configure.log
Make
Build the tools below in Cygwin. AVaRICE Open source code package. Congure and build in a directory outside of the source code tree. Set PATH, in order: * <MikTex executables> * /usr/local/bin * /usr/bin * /bin * <install directory>/bin Set location of LibUSB headers and libraries
export CPPFLAGS=-I$startdir/libusb-win32-device-bin-$libusb_version/include export CFLAGS=-I$startdir/libusb-win32-device-bin-$libusb_version/include export LDFLAGS="-static -L$startdir/libusb-win32-device-bin-$libusb_version/lib/gcc
13 Using the GNU tools
106
Congure
../$archivedir/configure \ --prefix=$installdir \ --datadir=$installdir/doc \ --mandir=$installdir/man \ --infodir=$installdir/info \ 2>&1 | tee avarice-configure.log
Make
make all install 2>&1 | tee avarice-make.log
SimulAVR Open source code package. Congure and build in a directory outside of the source code tree. Set PATH, in order: * <MikTex executables> * /usr/local/bin * /usr/bin * /bin * <install directory>/bin Congure
export LDFLAGS="-static" ../$archivedir/configure \ --prefix=$installdir \ --datadir=$installdir \ --disable-tests \ --disable-versioned-doc \ 2>&1 | tee simulavr-configure.log
Make
make -k all install 2>&1 | tee simulavr-make.log make pdf install-pdf 2>&1 | tee simulavr-pdf-make.log
13
Using the GNU tools
This is a short summary of the AVR-specic aspects of using the GNU tools. Normally, the generic documentation of these tools is fairly large and maintained in texinfo les. Command-line options are explained in detail in the manual page.
13.1
Options for the C compiler avr-gcc
107
13.1
13.1.1

Machine-specic options for the AVR
The following machine-specic options are recognized by the C compiler frontend. In addition to the preprocessor macros indicated in the tables below, the preprocessor will dene the macros __AVR and __AVR__ (to the value 1) when compiling for an AVR target. The macro AVR will be dened as well when using the standard levels gnu89 (default) and gnu99 but not with c89 and c99. -mmcu=architecture Compile code for architecture. Currently known architectures are Architecture avr1 PBSMacros PBS__AVR_ARCH__=1 __AVR_ASM_ONLY__ __AVR_2_BYTE_PC__ [2] PBS__AVR_ARCH__=2 __AVR_2_BYTE_PC__ [2] PBS__AVR_ARCH__=25 __AVR_HAVE_MOVW__ [1] __AVR_HAVE_LPMX__ [1] __AVR_2_BYTE_PC__ [2] PBS__AVR_ARCH__=3 __AVR_MEGA__ [5] __AVR_HAVE_JMP_CALL__ [4] __AVR_2_BYTE_PC__ [2] PBS__AVR_ARCH__=31 __AVR_MEGA__ [5] __AVR_HAVE_JMP_CALL__ [4] __AVR_HAVE_RAMPZ__ [4] __AVR_HAVE_ELPM__ [4] __AVR_2_BYTE_PC__ [2] PBS__AVR_ARCH__=35 __AVR_MEGA__ [5] __AVR_HAVE_JMP_CALL__ [4] __AVR_HAVE_MOVW__ [1] __AVR_HAVE_LPMX__ [1] __AVR_2_BYTE_PC__ [2] PBS__AVR_ARCH__=4 __AVR_ENHANCED__ [5] __AVR_HAVE_MOVW__ [1] __AVR_HAVE_LPMX__ [1] __AVR_HAVE_MUL__ [1] __AVR_2_BYTE_PC__ [2] PBSDescription PBSSimple CPU core, only assembler support PBS"Classic" CPU core, up to 8 KB of ROM PBS"Classic" CPU core with MOVW and LPM Rx, Z[+] instruction, up to 8 KB of ROM PBS"Classic" CPU core, 16 KB to 64 KB of ROM
avr2 avr25 [1]
avr3
avr31
PBS"Classic" CPU core, 128 KB of ROM
avr35 [3]
PBS"Classic" CPU core with MOVW and LPM Rx, Z[+] instruction, 16 KB to 64 KB of ROM
avr4
PBS"Enhanced" CPU core, up to 8 KB of ROM
13.1
108
avr5
avr51
avr6 [2]
PBS__AVR_ARCH__=5 __AVR_MEGA__ [5] __AVR_ENHANCED__ [5] __AVR_HAVE_JMP_CALL__ [4] __AVR_HAVE_MOVW__ [1] __AVR_HAVE_LPMX__ [1] __AVR_HAVE_MUL__ [1] __AVR_2_BYTE_PC__ [2] PBS__AVR_ARCH__=51 __AVR_MEGA__ [5] __AVR_ENHANCED__ [5] __AVR_HAVE_JMP_CALL__ [4] __AVR_HAVE_MOVW__ [1] __AVR_HAVE_LPMX__ [1] __AVR_HAVE_MUL__ [1] __AVR_HAVE_RAMPZ__ [4] __AVR_HAVE_ELPM__ [4] __AVR_HAVE_ELPMX__ [4] __AVR_2_BYTE_PC__ [2] PBS__AVR_ARCH__=6 __AVR_MEGA__ [5] __AVR_ENHANCED__ [5] __AVR_HAVE_JMP_CALL__ [4] __AVR_HAVE_MOVW__ [1] __AVR_HAVE_LPMX__ [1] __AVR_HAVE_MUL__ [1] __AVR_HAVE_RAMPZ__ [4] __AVR_HAVE_ELPM__ [4] __AVR_HAVE_ELPMX__ [4] __AVR_3_BYTE_PC__ [2]
PBS"Enhanced" CPU core, 16 KB to 64 KB of ROM
PBS"Enhanced" CPU core, 128 KB of ROM
PBS"Enhanced" CPU core, 256 KB of ROM
[1] New in GCC 4.2 [2] Unofcial patch for GCC 4.1 [3] New in GCC 4.2.3 [4] New in GCC 4.3 [5] Obsolete. By default, code is generated for the avr2 architecture. Note that when only using -mmcu=architecture but no -mmcu=MCU type, including the le <avr/io.h> cannot work since it cannot decide which devices denitions to select. -mmcu=MCU type
13.1
109
The following MCU types are currently understood by avr-gcc. The table matches them against the corresponding avr-gcc architecture name, and shows the preprocessor symbol declared by the -mmcu option. Architecture avr1 avr1 avr1 avr1 avr1 PBSMCU name PBSat90s1200 PBSattiny11 PBSattiny12 PBSattiny15 PBSattiny28 PBSMacro PBS__AVR_AT90S1200__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny11__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny12__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny15__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny28__ PBS__AVR_AT90S2313__ PBS__AVR_AT90S2323__ PBS__AVR_AT90S2333__ PBS__AVR_AT90S2343__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny22__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny26__ PBS__AVR_AT90S4414__ PBS__AVR_AT90S4433__ PBS__AVR_AT90S4434__ PBS__AVR_AT90S8515__ PBS__AVR_AT90C8534__ PBS__AVR_AT90S8535__ PBS__AVR_AT86RF401__ PBS__AVR_ATA6289__
avr2 avr2 avr2 avr2 avr2 avr2 avr2 avr2 avr2 avr2 avr2 avr2
PBSat90s2313 PBSat90s2323 PBSat90s2333 PBSat90s2343 PBSattiny22 PBSattiny26 PBSat90s4414 PBSat90s4433 PBSat90s4434 PBSat90s8515 PBSat90c8534 PBSat90s8535
avr2/avr25 [1] avr2/avr25 [1]
PBSat86rf401 PBSata6289
13.1
110
avr2/avr25 [1] avr2/avr25 [1] avr2/avr25 [1] avr2/avr25 [1] avr2/avr25 [1] avr2/avr25 [1] avr2/avr25 [1] avr2/avr25 [1] avr2/avr25 [1] avr2/avr25 [1] avr2/avr25 [1] avr2/avr25 [1] avr2/avr25 [1] avr2/avr25 [1] avr2/avr25 [1] avr2/avr25 [1] avr2/avr25 [1] avr2/avr25 [1] avr2/avr25 [1] avr2/avr25 [1] avr2/avr25 [1] avr2/avr25 [1] avr2/avr25 [1]
PBSattiny13 PBSattiny13a PBSattiny2313 PBSattiny2313a PBSattiny24 PBSattiny24a PBSattiny25 PBSattiny261 PBSattiny261a PBSattiny4313 PBSattiny43u PBSattiny44 PBSattiny44a PBSattiny45 PBSattiny461 PBSattiny461a PBSattiny48 PBSattiny84 PBSattiny84a PBSattiny85 PBSattiny861 PBSattiny861a PBSattiny87
PBS__AVR_ATtiny13__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny13A__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny2313__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny2313A__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny24__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny24A__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny25__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny261__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny261A__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny4313__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny43U__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny44__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny44A__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny45__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny461__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny461A__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny48__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny84__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny84A__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny85__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny861__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny861A__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny87__
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avr2/avr25 [1]
PBSattiny88
PBS__AVR_ATtiny88__ PBS__AVR_ATmega603__ PBS__AVR_AT43USB355__ PBS__AVR_ATmega103__ PBS__AVR_AT43USB320__ PBS__AVR_AT90USB82__ PBS__AVR_AT90USB162__ PBS__AVR_ATmega8U2__ PBS__AVR_ATmega16U2__ PBS__AVR_ATmega32U2__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny167__ PBS__AVR_AT76C711__ PBS__AVR_ATmega48__ PBS__AVR_ATmega48A__ PBS__AVR_ATmega48P__ PBS__AVR_ATmega8__ PBS__AVR_ATmega8515__ PBS__AVR_ATmega8535__ PBS__AVR_ATmega88__ PBS__AVR_ATmega88A__
avr3 avr3
PBSatmega603 PBSat43usb355
avr3/avr31 [3] avr3/avr31 [3]
PBSatmega103 PBSat43usb320
avr3/avr35 [2] avr3/avr35 [2] avr3/avr35 [2] avr3/avr35 [2] avr3/avr35 [2] avr3/avr35 [2]
PBSat90usb82 PBSat90usb162 PBSatmega8u2 PBSatmega16u2 PBSatmega32u2 PBSattiny167
avr3 avr4 avr4 avr4 avr4 avr4 avr4 avr4 avr4
PBSat76c711 PBSatmega48 PBSatmega48a PBSatmega48p PBSatmega8 PBSatmega8515 PBSatmega8535 PBSatmega88 PBSatmega88a
13.1
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avr4 avr4 avr4 avr4 avr4 avr4 avr4 avr4 avr4
PBSatmega88p PBSatmega88pa PBSatmega8hva PBSat90pwm1 PBSat90pwm2 PBSat90pwm2b PBSat90pwm3 PBSat90pwm3b PBSat90pwm81
PBS__AVR_ATmega88P__ PBS__AVR_ATmega88PA__ PBS__AVR_ATmega8HVA__ PBS__AVR_AT90PWM1__ PBS__AVR_AT90PWM2__ PBS__AVR_AT90PWM2B__ PBS__AVR_AT90PWM3__ PBS__AVR_AT90PWM3B__ PBS__AVR_AT90PWM81__ PBS__AVR_AT90CAN32__ PBS__AVR_AT90CAN64__ PBS__AVR_AT90PWM216__ PBS__AVR_AT90PWM316__ PBS__AVR_AT90SCR100__ PBS__AVR_AT90USB646__ PBS__AVR_AT90USB647__ PBS__AVR_AT94K__ PBS__AVR_ATmega16__ PBS__AVR_ATmega161__ PBS__AVR_ATmega162__ PBS__AVR_ATmega163__ PBS__AVR_ATmega164A__ PBS__AVR_ATmega164P__
avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5
PBSat90can32 PBSat90can64 PBSat90pwm216 PBSat90pwm316 PBSat90scr100 PBSat90usb646 PBSat90usb647 PBSat94k PBSatmega16 PBSatmega161 PBSatmega162 PBSatmega163 PBSatmega164a PBSatmega164p
13.1
113
avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5
PBSatmega165 PBSatmega165a PBSatmega165p PBSatmega168 PBSatmega168a PBSatmega168p PBSatmega169 PBSatmega169a PBSatmega169p PBSatmega169pa PBSatmega16a PBSatmega16hva PBSatmega16hva2 PBSatmega16hvb PBSatmega16hvbrevb PBSatmega16m1 PBSatmega16u4 PBSatmega32 PBSatmega323 PBSatmega324a PBSatmega324p PBSatmega324pa
PBS__AVR_ATmega165__ PBS__AVR_ATmega165A__ PBS__AVR_ATmega165P__ PBS__AVR_ATmega168__ PBS__AVR_ATmega168A__ PBS__AVR_ATmega168P__ PBS__AVR_ATmega169__ PBS__AVR_ATmega169A__ PBS__AVR_ATmega169P__ PBS__AVR_ATmega169PA__ PBS__AVR_ATmega16A__ PBS__AVR_ATmega16HVA__ PBS__AVR_ATmega16HVA2__ PBS__AVR_ATmega16HVB__ PBS__AVR_ATmega16HVBREVB__ PBS__AVR_ATmega16M1__ PBS__AVR_ATmega16U4__ PBS__AVR_ATmega32__ PBS__AVR_ATmega323__ PBS__AVR_ATmega324A__ PBS__AVR_ATmega324P__ PBS__AVR_ATmega324PA__
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114
avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5
PBSatmega325 PBSatmega325a PBSatmega325p PBSatmega3250 PBSatmega3250a PBSatmega3250p PBSatmega328 PBSatmega328p PBSatmega329 PBSatmega329a PBSatmega329p PBSatmega329pa PBSatmega3290 PBSatmega3290a PBSatmega3290p PBSatmega32c1 PBSatmega32hvb PBSatmega32hvbrevb PBSatmega32m1 PBSatmega32u4 PBSatmega32u6 PBSatmega406 PBSatmega64
PBS__AVR_ATmega325__ PBS__AVR_ATmega325A__ PBS__AVR_ATmega325P__ PBS__AVR_ATmega3250__ PBS__AVR_ATmega3250A__ PBS__AVR_ATmega3250P__ PBS__AVR_ATmega328__ PBS__AVR_ATmega328P__ PBS__AVR_ATmega329__ PBS__AVR_ATmega329A__ PBS__AVR_ATmega329P__ PBS__AVR_ATmega329PA__ PBS__AVR_ATmega3290__ PBS__AVR_ATmega3290A__ PBS__AVR_ATmega3290P__ PBS__AVR_ATmega32C1__ PBS__AVR_ATmega32HVB__ PBS__AVR_ATmega32HVBREVB__ PBS__AVR_ATmega32M1__ PBS__AVR_ATmega32U4__ PBS__AVR_ATmega32U6__ PBS__AVR_ATmega406__ PBS__AVR_ATmega64__
13.1
115
avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5 avr5/avr51 [3]
PBSatmega640 PBSatmega644 PBSatmega644a PBSatmega644p PBSatmega644pa PBSatmega645 PBSatmega645a PBSatmega645p PBSatmega6450 PBSatmega6450a PBSatmega6450p PBSatmega649 PBSatmega649a PBSatmega6490 PBSatmega6490a PBSatmega6490p PBSatmega649p PBSatmega64c1 PBSatmega64hve PBSatmega64m1 PBSm3000 PBSat90can128
PBS__AVR_ATmega640__ PBS__AVR_ATmega644__ PBS__AVR_ATmega644A__ PBS__AVR_ATmega644P__ PBS__AVR_ATmega644PA__ PBS__AVR_ATmega645__ PBS__AVR_ATmega645A__ PBS__AVR_ATmega645P__ PBS__AVR_ATmega6450__ PBS__AVR_ATmega6450A__ PBS__AVR_ATmega6450P__ PBS__AVR_ATmega649__ PBS__AVR_ATmega649A__ PBS__AVR_ATmega6490__ PBS__AVR_ATmega6490A__ PBS__AVR_ATmega6490P__ PBS__AVR_ATmega649P__ PBS__AVR_ATmega64C1__ PBS__AVR_ATmega64HVE__ PBS__AVR_ATmega64M1__ PBS__AVR_M3000__ PBS__AVR_AT90CAN128__
13.1
116
avr5/avr51 [3] avr5/avr51 [3] avr5/avr51 [3] avr5/avr51 [3] avr5/avr51 [3] avr5/avr51 [3]
PBSat90usb1286 PBSat90usb1287 PBSatmega128 PBSatmega1280 PBSatmega1281 PBSatmega1284p
PBS__AVR_AT90USB1286__ PBS__AVR_AT90USB1287__ PBS__AVR_ATmega128__ PBS__AVR_ATmega1280__ PBS__AVR_ATmega1281__ PBS__AVR_ATmega1284P__ PBS__AVR_ATmega2560__ PBS__AVR_ATmega2561__ PBS__AVR_ATxmega16A4__ PBS__AVR_ATxmega16D4__ PBS__AVR_ATxmega32A4__ PBS__AVR_ATxmega32D4__ PBS__AVR_ATxmega64A3__ PBS__AVR_ATxmega64D3__ PBS__AVR_ATxmega64A1__ PBS__AVR_ATxmega64A1U__ PBS__AVR_ATxmega128A3__ PBS__AVR_ATxmega128D3__ PBS__AVR_ATxmega192A3__ PBS__AVR_ATxmega192D3__
avr6 avr6
PBSatmega2560 PBSatmega2561
avrxmega2 avrxmega2 avrxmega2 avrxmega2
PBSatxmega16a4 PBSatxmega16d4 PBSatxmega32a4 PBSatxmega32d4
avrxmega4 avrxmega4
PBSatxmega64a3 PBSatxmega64d3
avrxmega5 avrxmega5
PBSatxmega64a1 PBSatxmega64a1u
avrxmega6 avrxmega6 avrxmega6 avrxmega6
PBSatxmega128a3 PBSatxmega128d3 PBSatxmega192a3 PBSatxmega192d3
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avrxmega6 avrxmega6 avrxmega6
PBSatxmega256a3 PBSatxmega256a3b PBSatxmega256d3
PBS__AVR_ATxmega256A3__ PBS__AVR_ATxmega256A3B__ PBS__AVR_ATxmega256D3__ PBS__AVR_ATxmega128A1__ PBS__AVR_ATxmega128A1U__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny4__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny5__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny9__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny10__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny20__ PBS__AVR_ATtiny40__
avrxmega7 avrxmega7
PBSatxmega128a1 PBSatxmega128a1u
avrtiny10 avrtiny10 avrtiny10 avrtiny10 avrtiny10 avrtiny10
PBSattiny4 PBSattiny5 PBSattiny9 PBSattiny10 PBSattiny20 PBSattiny40
[1] avr25 architecture is new in GCC 4.2 [2] avr35 architecture is new in GCC 4.2.3 [3] avr31 and avr51 architectures is new in GCC 4.3 -morder1 -morder2 Change the order of register assignment. The default is r24, r25, r18, r19, r20, r21, r22, r23, r30, r31, r26, r27, r28, r29, r17, r16, r15, r14, r13, r12, r11, r10, r9, r8, r7, r6, r5, r4, r3, r2, r0, r1 Order 1 uses r18, r19, r20, r21, r22, r23, r24, r25, r30, r31, r26, r27, r28, r29, r17, r16, r15, r14, r13, r12, r11, r10, r9, r8, r7, r6, r5, r4, r3, r2, r0, r1 Order 2 uses r25, r24, r23, r22, r21, r20, r19, r18, r30, r31, r26, r27, r28, r29, r17, r16, r15, r14, r13, r12, r11, r10, r9, r8, r7, r6, r5, r4, r3, r2, r1, r0 -mint8
13.1
118
Assume int to be an 8-bit integer. Note that this is not really supported by avr-libc, so it should normally not be used. The default is to use 16-bit integers. -mno-interrupts Generates code that changes the stack pointer without disabling interrupts. Normally, the state of the status register SREG is saved in a temporary register, interrupts are disabled while changing the stack pointer, and SREG is restored. Specifying this option will dene the preprocessor macro __NO_INTERRUPTS__ to the value 1. -mcall-prologues Use subroutines for function prologue/epilogue. For complex functions that use many registers (that needs to be saved/restored on function entry/exit), this saves some space at the cost of a slightly increased execution time. -mtiny-stack Change only the low 8 bits of the stack pointer. -mno-tablejump Deprecated, use -fno-jump-tables instead. -mshort-calls Use rjmp/rcall (limited range) on >8K devices. On avr2 and avr4 architectures (less than 8 KB or ash memory), this is always the case. On avr3 and avr5 architectures, calls and jumps to targets outside the current function will by default use jmp/call instructions that can cover the entire address range, but that require more ash ROM and execution time. -mrtl Dump the internal compilation result called "RTL" into comments in the generated assembler code. Used for debugging avr-gcc. -msize Dump the address, size, and relative cost of each statement into comments in the generated assembler code. Used for debugging avr-gcc. -mdeb Generate lots of debugging information to stderr.
13.1
119
13.1.2
Selected general compiler options
The following general gcc options might be of some interest to AVR users. -On Optimization level n. Increasing n is meant to optimize more, an optimization level of 0 means no optimization at all, which is the default if no -O option is present. The special option -Os is meant to turn on all -O2 optimizations that are not expected to increase code size. Note that at -O3, gcc attempts to inline all "simple" functions. For the AVR target, this will normally constitute a large pessimization due to the code increasement. The only other optimization turned on with -O3 is -frename-registers, which could rather be enabled manually instead. A simple -O option is equivalent to -O1. Note also that turning off all optimizations will prevent some warnings from being issued since the generation of those warnings depends on code analysis steps that are only performed when optimizing (unreachable code, unused variables). See also the appropriate FAQ entry for issues regarding debugging optimized code. -Wa,assembler-options -Wl,linker-options Pass the listed options to the assembler, or linker, respectively. -g Generate debugging information that can be used by avr-gdb. -ffreestanding Assume a "freestanding" environment as per the C standard. This turns off automatic builtin functions (though they can still be reached by prepending __builtin_ to the actual function name). It also makes the compiler not complain when main() is declared with a void return type which makes some sense in a microcontroller environment where the application cannot meaningfully provide a return value to its environment (in most cases, main() wont even return anyway). However, this also turns off all optimizations normally done by the compiler which assume that functions known by a certain name behave as described by the standard. E. g., applying the function strlen() to a literal string will normally cause the compiler to immediately replace that call by the actual length of the string, while with -ffreestanding, it will always call strlen() at run-time.
13.2
Options for the assembler avr-as
120
-funsigned-char Make any unqualed char type an unsigned char. Without this option, they default to a signed char. -funsigned-bitfields Make any unqualied biteld type unsigned. By default, they are signed. -fshort-enums Allocate to an enum type only as many bytes as it needs for the declared range of possible values. Specically, the enum type will be equivalent to the smallest integer type which has enough room. -fpack-struct Pack all structure members together without holes. -fno-jump-tables Do not generate tablejump instructions. By default, jump tables can be used to optimize switch statements. When turned off, sequences of compare statements are used instead. Jump tables are usually faster to execute on average, but in particular for switch statements, where most of the jumps would go to the default label, they might waste a bit of ash memory. NOTE: The tablejump instructions use the LPM assembler instruction for access to jump tables. Always use -fno-jump-tables switch, if compiling a bootloader for devices with more than 64 KB of code memory.
13.2
13.2.1

Machine-specic assembler options
-mmcu=architecture -mmcu=MCU name avr-as understands the same -mmcu= options as avr-gcc. By default, avr2 is assumed, but this can be altered by using the appropriate .arch pseudo-instruction inside the assembler source le.
13.2
121
-mall-opcodes Turns off opcode checking for the actual MCU type, and allows any possible AVR opcode to be assembled. -mno-skip-bug Dont emit a warning when trying to skip a 2-word instruction with a CPSE/SBIC/SBIS/SBRC/SBRS instruction. Early AVR devices suffered from a hardware bug where these instructions could not be properly skipped. -mno-wrap For RJMP/RCALL instructions, dont allow the target address to wrap around for devices that have more than 8 KB of memory. --gstabs Generate .stabs debugging symbols for assembler source lines. This enables avr-gdb to trace through assembler source les. This option must not be used when assembling sources that have been generated by the C compiler; these les already contain the appropriate line number information from the C source les. -a[cdhlmns=le] Turn on the assembler listing. The sub-options are: c omit false conditionals d omit debugging directives h include high-level source l include assembly m include macro expansions n omit forms processing s include symbols =le set the name of the listing le The various sub-options can be combined into a single -a option list; =le must be the last one in that case.
13.3
Controlling the linker avr-ld
122
13.2.2
Examples for assembler options passed through the C compiler
Remember that assembler options can be passed from the C compiler frontend using -Wa (see above), so in order to include the C source code into the assembler listing in le foo.lst, when compiling foo.c, the following compiler command-line can be used:
$ avr-gcc -c -O foo.c -o foo.o -Wa,-ahls=foo.lst
In order to pass an assembler le through the C preprocessor rst, and have the assembler generate line number debugging information for it, the following command can be used:
$ avr-gcc -c -x assembler-with-cpp -o foo.o foo.S -Wa,--gstabs
Note that on Unix systems that have case-distinguishing le systems, specifying a le name with the sufx .S (upper-case letter S) will make the compiler automatically assume -x assembler-with-cpp, while using .s would pass the le directly to the assembler (no preprocessing done).
13.3
13.3.1

Selected linker options
While there are no machine-specic options for avr-ld, a number of the standard options might be of interest to AVR users. -lname Locate the archive library named libname.a, and use it to resolve currently unresolved symbols from it. The library is searched along a path that consists of builtin pathname entries that have been specied at compile time (e. g. /usr/local/avr/lib on Unix systems), possibly extended by pathname entries as specied by -L options (that must precede the -l options on the command-line). -Lpath Additional location to look for archive libraries requested by -l options. --defsym symbol=expr Dene a global symbol symbol using expr as the value.
13.3
123
-M Print a linker map to stdout. -Map maple Print a linker map to maple. --cref Output a cross reference table to the map le (in case -Map is also present), or to stdout. --section-start sectionname=org Start section sectionname at absolute address org . -Tbss org -Tdata org -Ttext org Start the bss, data, or text section at org , respectively. -T scriptle Use scriptle as the linker script, replacing the default linker script. Default linker scripts are stored in a system-specic location (e. g. under /usr/local/avr/lib/ldscripts on Unix systems), and consist of the AVR architecture name (avr2 through avr5) with the sufx .x appended. They describe how the various memory sections will be linked together.
13.3.2
Passing linker options from the C compiler
By default, all unknown non-option arguments on the avr-gcc command-line (i. e., all lename arguments that dont have a sufx that is handled by avr-gcc) are passed straight to the linker. Thus, all les ending in .o (object les) and .a (object libraries) are provided to the linker. System libraries are usually not passed by their explicit lename but rather using the -l option which uses an abbreviated form of the archive lename (see above). avrlibc ships two system libraries, libc.a, and libm.a. While the standard library
13.3
124
libc.a will always be searched for unresolved references when the linker is started using the C compiler frontend (i. e., theres always at least one implied -lc option), the mathematics library libm.a needs to be explicitly requested using -lm. See also the
entry in the FAQ explaining this. Conventionally, Makeles use the make macro LDLIBS to keep track of -l (and possibly -L) options that should only be appended to the C compiler command-line when linking the nal binary. In contrast, the macro LDFLAGS is used to store other command-line options to the C compiler that should be passed as options during the linking stage. The difference is that options are placed early on the command-line, while libraries are put at the end since they are to be used to resolve global symbols that are still unresolved at this point. Specic linker ags can be passed from the C compiler command-line using the -Wl compiler option, see above. This option requires that there be no spaces in the appended linker option, while some of the linker options above (like -Map or --defsym) would require a space. In these situations, the space can be replaced by an equal sign as well. For example, the following command-line can be used to compile foo.c into an executable, and also produce a link map that contains a cross-reference list in the le foo.map:
$ avr-gcc -O -o foo.out -Wl,-Map=foo.map -Wl,--cref foo.c
Alternatively, a comma as a placeholder will be replaced by a space before passing the option to the linker. So for a device with external SRAM, the following command-line would cause the linker to place the data segment at address 0x2000 in the SRAM:
$ avr-gcc -mmcu=atmega128 -o foo.out -Wl,-Tdata,0x802000
See the explanation of the data section for why 0x800000 needs to be added to the actual value. Note that the stack will still remain in internal RAM, through the symbol __stack that is provided by the run-time startup code. This is probably a good idea anyway (since internal RAM access is faster), and even required for some early devices that had hardware bugs preventing them from using a stack in external RAM. Note also that the heap for malloc() will still be placed after all the variables in the data section, so in this situation, no stack/heap collision can occur. In order to relocate the stack from its default location at the top of interns RAM, the value of the symbol __stack can be changed on the linker command-line. As the linker is typically called from the compiler frontend, this can be achieved using a compiler option like
-Wl,--defsym=__stack=0x8003ff
The above will make the code use stack space from RAM address 0x3ff downwards. The amount of stack space available then depends on the bottom address of internal
14 Compiler optimization
125
RAM for a particular device. It is the responsibility of the application to ensure the stack does not grow out of bounds, as well as to arrange for the stack to not collide with variable allocations made by the compiler (sections .data and .bss).
14
14.1
Author
Compiler optimization
Problems with reordering code
Jan Waclawek Programs contain sequences of statements, and a naive compiler would execute them exactly in the order as they are written. But an optimizing compiler is free to reorder the statements - or even parts of them - if the resulting "net effect" is the same. The "measure" of the "net effect" is what the standard calls "side effects", and is accomplished exclusively through accesses (reads and writes) to variables qualied as volatile. So, as long as all volatile reads and writes are to the same addresses and in the same order (and writes write the same values), the program is correct, regardless of other operations in it. (One important point to note here is, that time duration between consecutive volatile accesses is not considered at all.) Unfortunately, there are also operations which are not covered by volatile accesses. An example of this in avr-gcc/avr-libc are the cli() and sei() macros dened in <avr/interrupt.h>, which convert directly to the respective assembler mnemonics through the __asm__() statement. These dont constitute a variable access at all, not even volatile, so the compiler is free to move them around. Although there is a "volatile" qualier which can be attached to the __asm__() statement, its effect on (re)ordering is not clear from the documentation (and is more likely only to prevent complete removal by the optimiser), as it (among other) states: Note that even a volatile asm instruction can be moved relative to other code, including across jump instructions. [...] Similarly, you cant expect a sequence of volatile asm instructions to remain perfectly consecutive. See also
http://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/gcc-4.3.4/gcc/Extended-Asm.html
There is another mechanism which can be used to achieve something similar: memory barriers. This is accomplished through adding a special "memory" clobber to the inline asm statement, and ensures that all variables are ushed from registers to memory before the statement, and then re-read after the statement. The purpose of memory barriers is slightly different than to enforce code ordering: it is supposed to ensure that there are no variables "cached" in registers, so that it is safe to change the content of
14.1
Problems with reordering code
126
registers e.g. when switching context in a multitasking OS (on "big" processors with out-of-order execution they also imply usage of special instructions which force the processor into "in-order" state (this is not the case of AVRs)). However, memory barrier works well in ensuring that all volatile accesses before and after the barrier occur in the given order with respect to the barrier. However, it does not ensure the compiler moving non-volatile-related statements across the barrier. Peter Dannegger provided a nice example of this effect:
#define cli() __asm volatile( "cli" ::: "memory" ) #define sei() __asm volatile( "sei" ::: "memory" ) unsigned int ivar; void test2( unsigned int val ) { val = 65535U / val; cli(); ivar = val; sei(); }
compiles with optimisations switched on (-Os) to

00000112 112: bc 114: f8 116: 8f 118: 9f 11a: 0e 11e: 70 122: 60 126: 78 128: 08 <test2>: 01 94 ef ef 94 96 00 93 01 02 93 00 02 94 95
movw r22, r24 cli ldi r24, 0xFF ; 255 ldi r25, 0xFF ; 255 call 0x12c ; 0x12c <__udivmodhi4> sts 0x0201, r23 sts 0x0200, r22 sei ret
where the potentially slow division is moved across cli(), resulting in interrupts to be disabled longer than intended. Note, that the volatile access occurs in order with respect to cli() or sei(); so the "net effect" required by the standard is achieved as intended, it is "only" the timing which is off. However, for most of embedded applications, timing is an important, sometimes critical factor. See also
https://www.mikrocontroller.net/topic/65923
Unfortunately, at the moment, in avr-gcc (nor in the C standard), there is no mechanism to enforce complete match of written and executed code ordering - except maybe of
15 Using the avrdude program
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switching the optimization completely off (-O0), or writing all the critical code in assembly. To sum it up: memory barriers ensure proper ordering of volatile accesses memory barriers dont ensure statements with no volatile accesses to be reordered across the barrier
15
Note
Using the avrdude program
This section was contributed by Brian Dean [ [email protected] ]. The avrdude program was previously called avrprog. The name was changed to avoid confusion with the avrprog program that Atmel ships with AvrStudio.
avrdude is a program that is used to update or read the ash and EEPROM memories
of Atmel AVR microcontrollers on FreeBSD Unix. It supports the Atmel serial programming protocol using the PCs parallel port and can upload either a raw binary le or an Intel Hex format le. It can also be used in an interactive mode to individually update EEPROM cells, fuse bits, and/or lock bits (if their access is supported by the Atmel serial programming protocol.) The main ash instruction memory of the AVR can also be programmed in interactive mode, however this is not very useful because one can only turn bits off. The only way to turn ash bits on is to erase the entire memory (using avrdudes -e option).
avrdude is part of the FreeBSD ports system. To install it, simply do the following:
# cd /usr/ports/devel/avrdude # make install
Once installed, avrdude can program processors using the contents of the .hex le specied on the command line. In this example, the le main.hex is burned into the ash memory:
# avrdude -p 2313 -e -m flash -i main.hex avrdude: AVR device initialized and ready to accept instructions avrdude: Device signature = 0x1e9101 avrdude: avrdude: avrdude: avrdude: erasing chip done. reading input file "main.hex" input file main.hex auto detected as Intel Hex
15 Using the avrdude program
128
avrdude: writing flash: 1749 0x00 avrdude: 1750 bytes of flash written avrdude: verifying flash memory against main.hex: avrdude: reading on-chip flash data: 1749 0x00 avrdude: verifying ... avrdude: 1750 bytes of flash verified avrdude done. Thank you.
The -p 2313 option lets avrdude know that we are operating on an AT90S2313 chip. This option species the device id and is matched up with the device of the same id in avrdudes conguration le ( /usr/local/etc/avrdude.conf ). To list valid parts, specify the -v option. The -e option instructs avrdude to perform a chip-erase before programming; this is almost always necessary before programming the ash. The -m flash option indicates that we want to upload data into the ash memory, while -i main.hex species the name of the input le. The EEPROM is uploaded in the same way, the only difference is that you would use -m eeprom instead of -m flash. To use interactive mode, use the -t option:
# avrdude -p 2313 -t avrdude: AVR device initialized and ready to accept instructions avrdude: Device signature = 0x1e9101 avrdude> The ? command displays a list of valid commands: avrdude> ? >>> ? Valid commands: dump read write erase sig part send help ? quit : : : : : : : : : : dump memory : dump <memtype> <addr> <N-Bytes> alias for dump write memory : write <memtype> <addr> <b1> <b2> ... <bN> perform a chip erase display device signature bytes display the current part information send a raw command : send <b1> <b2> <b3> <b4> help help quit
Use the part command to display valid memory types for use with the dump and write commands. avrdude>
16 Release Numbering and Methodology
129
16
16.1
Release Numbering and Methodology

Release Version Numbering Scheme
Release numbers consist of three parts, a major number, a minor number, and a revision number, each separated by a dot. The major number is currently 1 (and has always been). It will only be bumped in case a new version offers a major change in the API that is not backwards compatible. In the past (up to 1.6.x), even minor numbers have been used to indicate "stable" releases, and odd minor numbers have been reserved for development branches/versions. As the latter has never really been used, and maintaining a stable branch that eventually became effectively the same as the development version has proven to be just a cumbersome and tedious job, this scheme has given up in early 2010, so starting with 1.7.0, every minor number will be used. Minor numbers will be bumped upon judgement of the development team, whenever it seems appropriate, but at least in cases where some API was changed. Starting with version 1.4.0, a le <avr/version.h> indicates the library version of an installed library tree.
16.2
Releasing AVR Libc
The information in this section is only relevant to AVR Libc developers and can be ignored by end users. Note In what follows, I assume you know how to use SVN and how to checkout multiple source trees in a single directory without having them clobber each other. If you dont know how to do this, you probably shouldnt be making releases or cutting branches.
16.2.1
Creating an SVN branch
The following steps should be taken to cut a branch in SVN (assuming $username is set to your savannah username): 1. Check out a fresh source tree from SVN trunk. 2. Update the NEWS le with pending release number and commit to SVN trunk: Change Changes since avr-libc-<last_release>: to Changes in avr-libc-<this_relelase>.
16.2
Releasing AVR Libc
130
3. Set the branch-point tag (setting <major> and <minor> accordingly):
svn copy svn+ssh://[email protected]/avr-libc/trunk svn+ssh://[email protected]/avr-libc/tags/avr-libc-<major >_<minor >-branchpoint

4. Create the branch:
svn copy svn+ssh://[email protected]/avr-libc/trunk svn+ssh://[email protected]/avr-libc/branches/avr-libc-<major >_<minor >-branch

5. Update the package version in congure.ac and commit congure.ac to SVN trunk: Change minor number to next odd value. 6. Update the NEWS le and commit to SVN trunk: Add Changes since avr-libc-<this_release>: 7. Check out a new tree for the branch:
svn co svn+ssh://[email protected]/avr-libc/branches/avr-lib _<minor >-branch

8. Update the package version in congure.ac and commit congure.ac to SVN branch: Change the patch number to 90 to denote that this now a branch leading up to a release. Be sure to leave the <date> part of the version. 9. Bring the build system up to date by running bootstrap and congure. 10. Perform a make distcheck and make sure it succeeds. This will create the snapshot source tarball. This should be considered the rst release candidate. 11. Upload the snapshot tarball to savannah. 12. Update the bug tracker interface on Savannah: Bugs > Edit eld values > Release / Fixed Release 13. Announce the branch and the branch tag to the avr-libc-dev list so other developers can checkout the branch.
16.2.2
Making a release
A stable release will only be done on a branch, not from the SVN trunk. The following steps should be taken when making a release: 1. Make sure the source tree you are working from is on the correct branch:
svn switch svn+ssh://[email protected]/avr-libc/branches/avr-libc-<major >_<minor >-branch

16.2
Releasing AVR Libc
131
2. Update the package version in congure.ac and commit it to SVN. 3. Update the gnu tool chain version requirements in the README and commit to SVN. 4. Update the ChangeLog le to note the release and commit to SVN on the branch: Add Released avr-libc-<this_release>. 5. Update the NEWS le with pending release number and commit to SVN: Change Changes since avr-libc-<last_release>: to Changes in avr-libc-<this_relelase>:. 6. Bring the build system up to date by running bootstrap and congure. 7. Perform a make distcheck and make sure it succeeds. This will create the source tarball. 8. Tag the release:
svn copy . svn+ssh://[email protected]/avr-libc/tags/avr-libc-<major >_<minor >_<patch>-release

or
svn copy svn+ssh://[email protected]/avr-libc/branches/avr-libc-<major >_<minor >-branch svn+ssh://[email protected]/avr-libc/tags/avr-libc-<major >_<minor >_<patch>-release

9. Upload the tarball to savannah. 10. Update the NEWS le, and commit to SVN: Add Changes since avr-libc-<major>_<minor>_<patch>: 11. Update the bug tracker interface on Savannah: Bugs > Edit eld values > Release / Fixed Release 12. Generate the latest documentation and upload to savannah. 13. Announce the release. The following hypothetical diagram should help clarify version and branch relationships.
17 Acknowledgments
132
HEAD
cvs tag avrlibc1_0branchpoint
1.0 Branch
cvs tag b avrlibc1_0branch
1.2 Branch
set version to 1.1.0.<date> set version to 0.90.90.<date> set version to 1.0

cvs tag avrlibc1_0release
set version to 1.0.0.<date> set version to 1.0.1

cvs tag avrlibc1_0_1release cvs tag avrlibc1_2branchpoint
set version to 1.3.0.<date>
cvs tag b avrlibc1_2branch
set version to 1.1.90.<date> set version to 1.2

cvs tag avrlibc1_2release
cvs tag avrlibc2.0branchpoint
set version to 2.1.0.<date>
Figure 4: Release tree
17
Acknowledgments
This document tries to tie together the labors of a large group of people. Without these individuals efforts, we wouldnt have a terric, free set of tools to develop AVR projects. We all owe thanks to: The GCC Team, which produced a very capable set of development tools for an amazing number of platforms and processors. Denis Chertykov [ [email protected] ] for making the AVR-specic changes to the GNU tools. Denis Chertykov and Marek Michalkiewicz [ [email protected] ] for developing the standard libraries and startup code for AVR-GCC.
18 Todo List
133
Uros Platise for developing the AVR programmer tool, uisp. Joerg Wunsch [ [email protected] ] for adding all the AVR development tools to the FreeBSD [ http://www.freebsd.org ] ports tree and for providing the basics for the demo project. Brian Dean [ [email protected] ] for developing avrdude (an alternative to uisp) and for contributing documentation which describes how to use it. Avrdude was previously called avrprog. Eric Weddington [ [email protected] ] for maintaining the WinAVR package and thus making the continued improvements to the open source AVR toolchain available to many users. Rich Neswold for writing the original avr-tools document (which he graciously allowed to be merged into this document) and his improvements to the demo project. Theodore A. Roth for having been a long-time maintainer of many of the tools (AVR-Libc, the AVR port of GDB, AVaRICE, uisp, avrdude). All the people who currently maintain the tools, and/or have submitted suggestions, patches and bug reports. (See the AUTHORS les of the various tools.) And lastly, all the users who use the software. If nobody used the software, we would probably not be very motivated to continue to develop it. Keep those bug reports coming. ;-)
18
Todo List
From email with Marek: On smaller devices (all except ATmega64/128), __SPM_REG is in the I/O space, accessible with the shorter "in" and "out" instructions - since the boot loader has a limited size, this could be an important optimization.
Group avr_boot
19
Deprecated List
Global cbi (port, bit)
Global enable_external_int (mask)
20 Module Index
134
Global inb (port)
Global inp (port)
Global INTERRUPT (signame)
Global ISR_ALIAS (vector, target_vector) For new code, the use of ISR(..., ISR_ALIASOF(...)) is recommended. Global outb (port, val)
Global outp (val, port)
Global sbi (port, bit)
Global SIGNAL (vector) Do not use SIGNAL() in new code. Use ISR() instead. Global timer_enable_int (unsigned char ints)
20
20.1
Module Index
Modules
Here is a list of all modules:
<alloca.h>: Allocate space in the stack <assert.h>: Diagnostics <ctype.h>: Character Operations <errno.h>: System Errors <inttypes.h>: Integer Type conversions <math.h>: Mathematics <setjmp.h>: Non-local goto <stdint.h>: Standard Integer Types
140 142 143 146 147 159 171 174
20.1
Modules
135
<stdio.h>: Standard IO facilities <stdlib.h>: General utilities <string.h>: Strings <avr/boot.h>: Bootloader Support Utilities <avr/cpufunc.h>: Special AVR CPU functions <avr/eeprom.h>: EEPROM handling <avr/fuse.h>: Fuse Support <avr/interrupt.h>: Interrupts <avr/io.h>: AVR device-specic IO denitions <avr/lock.h>: Lockbit Support <avr/pgmspace.h>: Program Space Utilities <avr/power.h>: Power Reduction Management <avr/sfr_defs.h>: Special function registers
Additional notes from <avr/sfr_defs.h>
186 204 215 228 235 236 240 244 265 266 269 284 289 287 292 293 296 298 302 306 310 313 314 315 318
<avr/signature.h>: Signature Support <avr/sleep.h>: Power Management and Sleep Modes <avr/version.h>: avr-libc version macros <avr/wdt.h>: Watchdog timer handling <util/atomic.h> Atomically and Non-Atomically Executed Code Blocks <util/crc16.h>: CRC Computations <util/delay.h>: Convenience functions for busy-wait delay loops <util/delay_basic.h>: Basic busy-wait delay loops <util/parity.h>: Parity bit generation <util/setbaud.h>: Helper macros for baud rate calculations <util/twi.h>: TWI bit mask denitions
21 Data Structure Index
136
<compat/deprecated.h>: Deprecated items <compat/ina90.h>: Compatibility with IAR EWB 3.x

Demo projects Combining C and assembly source les A simple project A more sophisticated project Using the standard IO facilities Example using the two-wire interface (TWI)
323 326 327 329 333 349 357 365
21
21.1
Data Structure Index

Data Structures
Here are the data structures with brief descriptions: div_t ldiv_t 371 371
22
22.1
File Index
File List
Here is a list of all documented les with brief descriptions: alloca.h assert.h atoi.S atol.S atomic.h boot.h ?? 372 372 372 372 372
22.1
File List
137
cpufunc.h crc16.h ctype.h denes.h delay.h delay_basic.h deprecated.h dtoa_conv.h eedef.h eeprom.h errno.h fdevopen.c ffs.S ffsl.S ffsll.S fuse.h hd44780.h ina90.h interrupt.h inttypes.h io.h iocompat.h lcd.h lock.h math.h
378 379 379 ?? 380 380 ?? ?? ?? ?? 380 380 381 381 381 381 ?? ?? 381 382 384 ?? ?? 384 385
22.1
File List
138
memccpy.S memchr.S memchr_P.S memcmp.S memcmp_P.S memcmp_PF.S memcpy.S memcpy_P.S memmem.S memmove.S memrchr.S memrchr_P.S memset.S parity.h pgmspace.h portpins.h power.h project.h setbaud.h setjmp.h sfr_defs.h signal.h signature.h sleep.h stdint.h
387 387 387 387 387 387 388 388 388 388 388 388 388 388 388 ?? 399 ?? 400 400 ?? ?? 400 400 401
22.1
File List
139
stdio.h stdio_private.h stdlib.h stdlib_private.h strcasecmp.S strcasecmp_P.S strcasestr.S strcat.S strcat_P.S strchr.S strchr_P.S strchrnul.S strchrnul_P.S strcmp.S strcmp_P.S strcpy.S strcpy_P.S strcspn.S strcspn_P.S strdup.c string.h strlcat.S strlcat_P.S strlcpy.S strlcpy_P.S
404 ?? 406 ?? 407 408 408 408 408 408 408 408 408 408 408 408 409 409 409 409 409 410 410 410 411
22.1
File List
140
strlen.S strlen_P.S strlwr.S strncasecmp.S strncasecmp_P.S strncat.S strncat_P.S strncmp.S strncmp_P.S strncpy.S strncpy_P.S strnlen.S strnlen_P.S strpbrk.S strpbrk_P.S strrchr.S strrchr_P.S strrev.S strsep.S strsep_P.S strspn.S strspn_P.S strstr.S strstr_P.S strtok.c
411 411 411 411 411 411 411 411 411 412 412 412 412 412 412 412 412 412 412 412 413 413 413 413 413
23 Module Documentation
141
strtok_P.c strtok_r.S strtok_rP.S strupr.S util/twi.h compat/twi.h uart.h version.h wdt.h xtoa_fast.h
413 413 414 414 414 ?? ?? ?? 415 ??
23
Module Documentation
23.1 <alloca.h>: Allocate space in the stack

Functions void alloca (size_t __size)
23.1.1 23.1.1.1
Function Documentation void alloca ( size t size )
Allocate __size bytes of space in the stack frame of the caller. This temporary space is automatically freed when the function that called alloca() returns to its caller. Avr-libc denes the alloca() as a macro, which is translated into the inlined __builtin_alloca() function. The fact that the code is inlined, means that it is impossible to take the address of this function, or to change its behaviour by linking with a different library. Returns alloca() returns a pointer to the beginning of the allocated space. If the allocation causes stack overow, program behaviour is undened.
23.1 <alloca.h>: Allocate space in the stack
142
Warning Avoid use alloca() inside the list of arguments of a function call.
23.2 <assert.h>: Diagnostics
143
23.2 <assert.h>: Diagnostics

Denes #dene assert(expression)
23.2.1
Detailed Description
#include <assert.h>
This header le denes a debugging aid. As there is no standard error output stream available for many applications using this library, the generation of a printable error message is not enabled by default. These messages will only be generated if the application denes the macro
__ASSERT_USE_STDERR
before including the <assert.h> header le. By default, only abort() will be called to halt the application.
23.2.2 23.2.2.1
Dene Documentation #dene assert( expression )
Parameters expression Expression to test for.
The assert() macro tests the given expression and if it is false, the calling process is terminated. A diagnostic message is written to stderr and the function abort() is called, effectively terminating the program. If expression is true, the assert() macro does nothing. The assert() macro may be removed at compile time by dening NDEBUG as a macro (e.g., by using the compiler option -DNDEBUG).
23.3 <ctype.h>: Character Operations
144

Character classication routines These functions perform character classication. They return true or false status depending whether the character passed to the function falls into the functions classication (i.e. isdigit() returns true if its argument is any value 0 though 9, inclusive). If the input is not an unsigned char value, all of this function return false. int isalnum (int __c) int isalpha (int __c) int isascii (int __c) int isblank (int __c) int iscntrl (int __c) int isdigit (int __c) int isgraph (int __c) int islower (int __c) int isprint (int __c) int ispunct (int __c) int isspace (int __c) int isupper (int __c) int isxdigit (int __c)
Character convertion routines This realization permits all possible values of integer argument. The toascii() function clears all highest bits. The tolower() and toupper() functions return an input argument as is, if it is not an unsigned char value. int toascii (int __c) int tolower (int __c) int toupper (int __c)
23.3.1
These functions perform various operations on characters.

#include <ctype.h>
145
23.3.2 23.3.2.1
Function Documentation int isalnum ( int c ) It is equivalent to (isalpha(c) ||
Checks for an alphanumeric character.
isdigit(c)).
23.3.2.2 int isalpha ( int c ) It is equivalent to (isupper(c) ||
Checks for an alphabetic character.
islower(c)).
23.3.2.3 int isascii ( int c )
Checks whether c is a 7-bit unsigned char value that ts into the ASCII character set. 23.3.2.4 int isblank ( int c )
Checks for a blank character, that is, a space or a tab. 23.3.2.5 int iscntrl ( int c )
Checks for a control character. 23.3.2.6 int isdigit ( int c )
Checks for a digit (0 through 9). 23.3.2.7 int isgraph ( int c )
Checks for any printable character except space. 23.3.2.8 int islower ( int c )
Checks for a lower-case character. 23.3.2.9 int isprint ( int c )
Checks for any printable character including space. 23.3.2.10 int ispunct ( int c )
Checks for any printable character which is not a space or an alphanumeric character. 23.3.2.11 int isspace ( int c )
Checks for white-space characters. For the avr-libc library, these are: space, form-feed (\f), newline (\n), carriage return (\r), horizontal tab (\t), and vertical tab (\v).
146
23.3.2.12
int isupper ( int c )
Checks for an uppercase letter. 23.3.2.13 int isxdigit ( int c )
Checks for a hexadecimal digits, i.e. one of 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 a b c d e f A B C D E F. 23.3.2.14 int toascii ( int c )
Converts c to a 7-bit unsigned char value that ts into the ASCII character set, by clearing the high-order bits. Warning Many people will be unhappy if you use this function. This function will convert accented letters into random characters.
23.3.2.15
int tolower ( int c )
Converts the letter c to lower case, if possible. 23.3.2.16 int toupper ( int c )
Converts the letter c to upper case, if possible.
23.4 <errno.h>: System Errors
147
23.4 <errno.h>: System Errors

Denes #dene EDOM 33 #dene ERANGE 34
23.4.1
#include <errno.h>
Some functions in the library set the global variable errno when an error occurs. The le, <errno.h>, provides symbolic names for various error codes. Warning The errno global variable is not safe to use in a threaded or multi-task system. A race condition can occur if a task is interrupted between the call which sets error and when the task examines errno. If another task changes errno during this time, the result will be incorrect for the interrupted task.
23.4.2 23.4.2.1
Dene Documentation #dene EDOM 33
Domain error. 23.4.2.2 #dene ERANGE 34
Range error.
23.5 <inttypes.h>: Integer Type conversions
148

Far pointers for memory access >64K typedef int32_t int_farptr_t typedef uint32_t uint_farptr_t
macros for printf and scanf format speciers For C++, these are only included if __STDC_LIMIT_MACROS is dened before including <inttypes.h>. #dene PRId8 "d" #dene PRIdLEAST8 "d" #dene PRIdFAST8 "d" #dene PRIi8 "i" #dene PRIiLEAST8 "i" #dene PRIiFAST8 "i" #dene PRId16 "d" #dene PRIdLEAST16 "d" #dene PRIdFAST16 "d" #dene PRIi16 "i" #dene PRIiLEAST16 "i" #dene PRIiFAST16 "i" #dene PRId32 "ld" #dene PRIdLEAST32 "ld" #dene PRIdFAST32 "ld" #dene PRIi32 "li" #dene PRIiLEAST32 "li" #dene PRIiFAST32 "li" #dene PRIdPTR PRId16 #dene PRIiPTR PRIi16 #dene PRIo8 "o" #dene PRIoLEAST8 "o" #dene PRIoFAST8 "o" #dene PRIu8 "u" #dene PRIuLEAST8 "u" #dene PRIuFAST8 "u" #dene PRIx8 "x" #dene PRIxLEAST8 "x" #dene PRIxFAST8 "x" #dene PRIX8 "X" #dene PRIXLEAST8 "X"
149
#dene PRIXFAST8 "X" #dene PRIo16 "o" #dene PRIoLEAST16 "o" #dene PRIoFAST16 "o" #dene PRIu16 "u" #dene PRIuLEAST16 "u" #dene PRIuFAST16 "u" #dene PRIx16 "x" #dene PRIxLEAST16 "x" #dene PRIxFAST16 "x" #dene PRIX16 "X" #dene PRIXLEAST16 "X" #dene PRIXFAST16 "X" #dene PRIo32 "lo" #dene PRIoLEAST32 "lo" #dene PRIoFAST32 "lo" #dene PRIu32 "lu" #dene PRIuLEAST32 "lu" #dene PRIuFAST32 "lu" #dene PRIx32 "lx" #dene PRIxLEAST32 "lx" #dene PRIxFAST32 "lx" #dene PRIX32 "lX" #dene PRIXLEAST32 "lX" #dene PRIXFAST32 "lX" #dene PRIoPTR PRIo16 #dene PRIuPTR PRIu16 #dene PRIxPTR PRIx16 #dene PRIXPTR PRIX16 #dene SCNd16 "d" #dene SCNdLEAST16 "d" #dene SCNdFAST16 "d" #dene SCNi16 "i" #dene SCNiLEAST16 "i" #dene SCNiFAST16 "i" #dene SCNd32 "ld" #dene SCNdLEAST32 "ld" #dene SCNdFAST32 "ld" #dene SCNi32 "li" #dene SCNiLEAST32 "li" #dene SCNiFAST32 "li" #dene SCNdPTR SCNd16 #dene SCNiPTR SCNi16
150
#dene SCNo16 "o" #dene SCNoLEAST16 "o" #dene SCNoFAST16 "o" #dene SCNu16 "u" #dene SCNuLEAST16 "u" #dene SCNuFAST16 "u" #dene SCNx16 "x" #dene SCNxLEAST16 "x" #dene SCNxFAST16 "x" #dene SCNo32 "lo" #dene SCNoLEAST32 "lo" #dene SCNoFAST32 "lo" #dene SCNu32 "lu" #dene SCNuLEAST32 "lu" #dene SCNuFAST32 "lu" #dene SCNx32 "lx" #dene SCNxLEAST32 "lx" #dene SCNxFAST32 "lx" #dene SCNoPTR SCNo16 #dene SCNuPTR SCNu16 #dene SCNxPTR SCNx16
23.5.1
#include <inttypes.h>
This header le includes the exact-width integer denitions from <stdint.h>, and extends them with additional facilities provided by the implementation. Currently, the extensions include two additional integer types that could hold a "far" pointer (i.e. a code pointer that can address more than 64 KB), as well as standard names for all printf and scanf formatting options that are supported by the <stdio.h>: Standard IO facilities. As the library does not support the full range of conversion speciers from ISO 9899:1999, only those conversions that are actually implemented will be listed here. The idea behind these conversion macros is that, for each of the types dened by <stdint.h>, a macro will be supplied that portably allows formatting an object of that type in printf() or scanf() operations. Example:
#include <inttypes.h> uint8_t smallval; int32_t longval; ... printf("The hexadecimal value of smallval is %" PRIx8 ", the decimal value of longval is %" PRId32 ".\n", smallval, longval);
151
23.5.2 23.5.2.1
Dene Documentation #dene PRId16 d
decimal printf format for int16_t 23.5.2.2 #dene PRId32 ld
decimal printf format for int32_t 23.5.2.3 #dene PRId8 d
decimal printf format for int8_t 23.5.2.4 #dene PRIdFAST16 d
decimal printf format for int_fast16_t 23.5.2.5 #dene PRIdFAST32 ld
decimal printf format for int_fast32_t 23.5.2.6 #dene PRIdFAST8 d
decimal printf format for int_fast8_t 23.5.2.7 #dene PRIdLEAST16 d
decimal printf format for int_least16_t 23.5.2.8 #dene PRIdLEAST32 ld
decimal printf format for int_least32_t 23.5.2.9 #dene PRIdLEAST8 d
decimal printf format for int_least8_t 23.5.2.10 #dene PRIdPTR PRId16
decimal printf format for intptr_t 23.5.2.11 #dene PRIi16 i
integer printf format for int16_t 23.5.2.12 #dene PRIi32 li
integer printf format for int32_t
152
23.5.2.13
#dene PRIi8 i
integer printf format for int8_t 23.5.2.14 #dene PRIiFAST16 i
integer printf format for int_fast16_t 23.5.2.15 #dene PRIiFAST32 li
integer printf format for int_fast32_t 23.5.2.16 #dene PRIiFAST8 i
integer printf format for int_fast8_t 23.5.2.17 #dene PRIiLEAST16 i
integer printf format for int_least16_t 23.5.2.18 #dene PRIiLEAST32 li
integer printf format for int_least32_t 23.5.2.19 #dene PRIiLEAST8 i
integer printf format for int_least8_t 23.5.2.20 #dene PRIiPTR PRIi16
integer printf format for intptr_t 23.5.2.21 #dene PRIo16 o
octal printf format for uint16_t 23.5.2.22 #dene PRIo32 lo
octal printf format for uint32_t 23.5.2.23 #dene PRIo8 o
octal printf format for uint8_t 23.5.2.24 #dene PRIoFAST16 o
octal printf format for uint_fast16_t
153
23.5.2.25
#dene PRIoFAST32 lo
octal printf format for uint_fast32_t 23.5.2.26 #dene PRIoFAST8 o
octal printf format for uint_fast8_t 23.5.2.27 #dene PRIoLEAST16 o
octal printf format for uint_least16_t 23.5.2.28 #dene PRIoLEAST32 lo
octal printf format for uint_least32_t 23.5.2.29 #dene PRIoLEAST8 o
octal printf format for uint_least8_t 23.5.2.30 #dene PRIoPTR PRIo16
octal printf format for uintptr_t 23.5.2.31 #dene PRIu16 u
decimal printf format for uint16_t 23.5.2.32 #dene PRIu32 lu
decimal printf format for uint32_t 23.5.2.33 #dene PRIu8 u
decimal printf format for uint8_t 23.5.2.34 #dene PRIuFAST16 u
decimal printf format for uint_fast16_t 23.5.2.35 #dene PRIuFAST32 lu
decimal printf format for uint_fast32_t 23.5.2.36 #dene PRIuFAST8 u
decimal printf format for uint_fast8_t
154
23.5.2.37
#dene PRIuLEAST16 u
decimal printf format for uint_least16_t 23.5.2.38 #dene PRIuLEAST32 lu
decimal printf format for uint_least32_t 23.5.2.39 #dene PRIuLEAST8 u
decimal printf format for uint_least8_t 23.5.2.40 #dene PRIuPTR PRIu16
decimal printf format for uintptr_t 23.5.2.41 #dene PRIx16 x
hexadecimal printf format for uint16_t 23.5.2.42 #dene PRIX16 X
uppercase hexadecimal printf format for uint16_t 23.5.2.43 #dene PRIx32 lx
hexadecimal printf format for uint32_t 23.5.2.44 #dene PRIX32 lX
uppercase hexadecimal printf format for uint32_t 23.5.2.45 #dene PRIx8 x
hexadecimal printf format for uint8_t 23.5.2.46 #dene PRIX8 X
uppercase hexadecimal printf format for uint8_t 23.5.2.47 #dene PRIxFAST16 x
hexadecimal printf format for uint_fast16_t 23.5.2.48 #dene PRIXFAST16 X
uppercase hexadecimal printf format for uint_fast16_t
155
23.5.2.49
#dene PRIxFAST32 lx
hexadecimal printf format for uint_fast32_t 23.5.2.50 #dene PRIXFAST32 lX
uppercase hexadecimal printf format for uint_fast32_t 23.5.2.51 #dene PRIxFAST8 x
hexadecimal printf format for uint_fast8_t 23.5.2.52 #dene PRIXFAST8 X
uppercase hexadecimal printf format for uint_fast8_t 23.5.2.53 #dene PRIxLEAST16 x
hexadecimal printf format for uint_least16_t 23.5.2.54 #dene PRIXLEAST16 X
uppercase hexadecimal printf format for uint_least16_t 23.5.2.55 #dene PRIxLEAST32 lx
hexadecimal printf format for uint_least32_t 23.5.2.56 #dene PRIXLEAST32 lX
uppercase hexadecimal printf format for uint_least32_t 23.5.2.57 #dene PRIxLEAST8 x
hexadecimal printf format for uint_least8_t 23.5.2.58 #dene PRIXLEAST8 X
uppercase hexadecimal printf format for uint_least8_t 23.5.2.59 #dene PRIxPTR PRIx16
hexadecimal printf format for uintptr_t 23.5.2.60 #dene PRIXPTR PRIX16
uppercase hexadecimal printf format for uintptr_t
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23.5.2.61
#dene SCNd16 d
decimal scanf format for int16_t 23.5.2.62 #dene SCNd32 ld
decimal scanf format for int32_t 23.5.2.63 #dene SCNdFAST16 d
decimal scanf format for int_fast16_t 23.5.2.64 #dene SCNdFAST32 ld
decimal scanf format for int_fast32_t 23.5.2.65 #dene SCNdLEAST16 d
decimal scanf format for int_least16_t 23.5.2.66 #dene SCNdLEAST32 ld
decimal scanf format for int_least32_t 23.5.2.67 #dene SCNdPTR SCNd16
decimal scanf format for intptr_t 23.5.2.68 #dene SCNi16 i
generic-integer scanf format for int16_t 23.5.2.69 #dene SCNi32 li
generic-integer scanf format for int32_t 23.5.2.70 #dene SCNiFAST16 i
generic-integer scanf format for int_fast16_t 23.5.2.71 #dene SCNiFAST32 li
generic-integer scanf format for int_fast32_t 23.5.2.72 #dene SCNiLEAST16 i
generic-integer scanf format for int_least16_t
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23.5.2.73
#dene SCNiLEAST32 li
generic-integer scanf format for int_least32_t 23.5.2.74 #dene SCNiPTR SCNi16
generic-integer scanf format for intptr_t 23.5.2.75 #dene SCNo16 o
octal scanf format for uint16_t 23.5.2.76 #dene SCNo32 lo
octal scanf format for uint32_t 23.5.2.77 #dene SCNoFAST16 o
octal scanf format for uint_fast16_t 23.5.2.78 #dene SCNoFAST32 lo
octal scanf format for uint_fast32_t 23.5.2.79 #dene SCNoLEAST16 o
octal scanf format for uint_least16_t 23.5.2.80 #dene SCNoLEAST32 lo
octal scanf format for uint_least32_t 23.5.2.81 #dene SCNoPTR SCNo16
octal scanf format for uintptr_t 23.5.2.82 #dene SCNu16 u
decimal scanf format for uint16_t 23.5.2.83 #dene SCNu32 lu
decimal scanf format for uint32_t 23.5.2.84 #dene SCNuFAST16 u
decimal scanf format for uint_fast16_t
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23.5.2.85
#dene SCNuFAST32 lu
decimal scanf format for uint_fast32_t 23.5.2.86 #dene SCNuLEAST16 u
decimal scanf format for uint_least16_t 23.5.2.87 #dene SCNuLEAST32 lu
decimal scanf format for uint_least32_t 23.5.2.88 #dene SCNuPTR SCNu16
decimal scanf format for uintptr_t 23.5.2.89 #dene SCNx16 x
hexadecimal scanf format for uint16_t 23.5.2.90 #dene SCNx32 lx
hexadecimal scanf format for uint32_t 23.5.2.91 #dene SCNxFAST16 x
hexadecimal scanf format for uint_fast16_t 23.5.2.92 #dene SCNxFAST32 lx
hexadecimal scanf format for uint_fast32_t 23.5.2.93 #dene SCNxLEAST16 x
hexadecimal scanf format for uint_least16_t 23.5.2.94 #dene SCNxLEAST32 lx
hexadecimal scanf format for uint_least32_t 23.5.2.95 #dene SCNxPTR SCNx16
hexadecimal scanf format for uintptr_t
23.5.3
Typedef Documentation
159
23.5.3.1
typedef int32_t int_farptr_t
signed integer type that can hold a pointer > 64 KB 23.5.3.2 typedef uint32_t uint_farptr_t
unsigned integer type that can hold a pointer > 64 KB
23.6 <math.h>: Mathematics
160

Denes #dene M_E 2.7182818284590452354 #dene M_LOG2E 1.4426950408889634074 / log_2 e / #dene M_LOG10E 0.43429448190325182765 / log_10 e / #dene M_LN2 0.69314718055994530942 / log_e 2 / #dene M_LN10 2.30258509299404568402 / log_e 10 / #dene M_PI 3.14159265358979323846 / pi / #dene M_PI_2 1.57079632679489661923 / pi/2 / #dene M_PI_4 0.78539816339744830962 / pi/4 / #dene M_1_PI 0.31830988618379067154 / 1/pi / #dene M_2_PI 0.63661977236758134308 / 2/pi / #dene M_2_SQRTPI 1.12837916709551257390 / 2/sqrt(pi) / #dene M_SQRT2 1.41421356237309504880 / sqrt(2) / #dene M_SQRT1_2 0.70710678118654752440 / 1/sqrt(2) / #dene NAN __builtin_nan("") #dene INFINITY __builtin_inf() #dene cosf cos #dene sinf sin #dene tanf tan #dene fabsf fabs #dene fmodf fmod #dene sqrtf sqrt #dene cbrtf cbrt #dene hypotf hypot #dene squaref square #dene oorf oor #dene ceilf ceil #dene frexpf frexp #dene ldexpf ldexp #dene expf exp #dene coshf cosh #dene sinhf sinh #dene tanhf tanh #dene acosf acos #dene asinf asin #dene atanf atan #dene atan2f atan2 #dene logf log #dene log10f log10 #dene powf pow
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#dene isnanf isnan #dene isinff isinf #dene isnitef isnite #dene copysignf copysign #dene signbitf signbit #dene fdimf fdim #dene fmaf fma #dene fmaxf fmax #dene fminf fmin #dene truncf trunc #dene roundf round #dene lroundf lround #dene lrintf lrint
Functions double cos (double __x) double sin (double __x) double tan (double __x) double fabs (double __x) double fmod (double __x, double __y) double modf (double __x, double __iptr) oat modff (oat __x, oat __iptr) double sqrt (double __x) double cbrt (double __x) double hypot (double __x, double __y) double square (double __x) double oor (double __x) double ceil (double __x) double frexp (double __x, int __pexp) double ldexp (double __x, int __exp) double exp (double __x) double cosh (double __x) double sinh (double __x) double tanh (double __x) double acos (double __x) double asin (double __x) double atan (double __x) double atan2 (double __y, double __x) double log (double __x) double log10 (double __x) double pow (double __x, double __y)
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int isnan (double __x) int isinf (double __x) static int isnite (double __x) static double copysign (double __x, double __y) int signbit (double __x) double fdim (double __x, double __y) double fma (double __x, double __y, double __z) double fmax (double __x, double __y) double fmin (double __x, double __y) double trunc (double __x) double round (double __x) long lround (double __x) long lrint (double __x)
23.6.1
#include <math.h>
This header le declares basic mathematics constants and functions. Notes: In order to access the functions declared herein, it is usually also required to additionally link against the library libm.a. See also the related FAQ entry. Math functions do not raise exceptions and do not change the errno variable. Therefore the majority of them are declared with const attribute, for better optimization by GCC.
23.6.2 23.6.2.1
Dene Documentation #dene acosf acos
The alias for acos(). 23.6.2.2 #dene asinf asin
The alias for asin(). 23.6.2.3 #dene atan2f atan2
The alias for atan2(). 23.6.2.4 #dene atanf atan
The alias for atan().
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23.6.2.5
#dene cbrtf cbrt
The alias for cbrt(). 23.6.2.6 #dene ceilf ceil
The alias for ceil(). 23.6.2.7 #dene copysignf copysign
The alias for copysign(). 23.6.2.8 #dene cosf cos
The alias for cos(). 23.6.2.9 #dene coshf cosh
The alias for cosh(). 23.6.2.10 #dene expf exp
The alias for exp(). 23.6.2.11 #dene fabsf fabs
The alias for fabs(). 23.6.2.12 #dene fdimf fdim
The alias for fdim(). 23.6.2.13 #dene oorf oor
The alias for oor(). 23.6.2.14 #dene fmaf fma
The alias for fma(). 23.6.2.15 #dene fmaxf fmax
The alias for fmax(). 23.6.2.16 #dene fminf fmin
The alias for fmin().
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23.6.2.17
#dene fmodf fmod
The alias for fmod(). 23.6.2.18 #dene frexpf frexp
The alias for frexp(). 23.6.2.19 #dene hypotf hypot
The alias for hypot(). 23.6.2.20 #dene INFINITY builtin inf()
INFINITY constant. 23.6.2.21 #dene isnitef isnite
The alias for isnite(). 23.6.2.22 #dene isinff isinf
The alias for isinf(). 23.6.2.23 #dene isnanf isnan
The alias for isnan(). 23.6.2.24 #dene ldexpf ldexp
The alias for ldexp(). 23.6.2.25 #dene log10f log10
The alias for log10(). 23.6.2.26 #dene logf log
The alias for log(). 23.6.2.27 #dene lrintf lrint
The alias for lrint(). 23.6.2.28 #dene lroundf lround
The alias for lround().
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23.6.2.29
#dene M_1_PI 0.31830988618379067154 / 1/pi /
The constant 1/pi . 23.6.2.30 #dene M_2_PI 0.63661977236758134308 / 2/pi /
The constant 2/pi . 23.6.2.31 #dene M_2_SQRTPI 1.12837916709551257390 / 2/sqrt(pi) /
The constant 2/sqrt (pi). 23.6.2.32 #dene M_E 2.7182818284590452354
The constant e. 23.6.2.33 #dene M_LN10 2.30258509299404568402 / log e 10 /
The natural logarithm of the 10. 23.6.2.34 #dene M_LN2 0.69314718055994530942 / log e 2 /
The natural logarithm of the 2. 23.6.2.35 #dene M_LOG10E 0.43429448190325182765 / log 10 e /
The logarithm of the e to base 10. 23.6.2.36 #dene M_LOG2E 1.4426950408889634074 / log 2 e /
The logarithm of the e to base 2. 23.6.2.37 #dene M_PI 3.14159265358979323846 / pi /
The constant pi . 23.6.2.38 #dene M_PI_2 1.57079632679489661923 / pi/2 /
The constant pi/2 . 23.6.2.39 #dene M_PI_4 0.78539816339744830962 / pi/4 /
The constant pi/4. 23.6.2.40 #dene M_SQRT1_2 0.70710678118654752440 / 1/sqrt(2) /
The constant 1/sqrt (2).
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23.6.2.41
#dene M_SQRT2 1.41421356237309504880 / sqrt(2) /
The square root of 2. 23.6.2.42 #dene NAN builtin nan()
NAN constant. 23.6.2.43 #dene powf pow
The alias for pow(). 23.6.2.44 #dene roundf round
The alias for round(). 23.6.2.45 #dene signbitf signbit
The alias for signbit(). 23.6.2.46 #dene sinf sin
The alias for sin(). 23.6.2.47 #dene sinhf sinh
The alias for sinh(). 23.6.2.48 #dene sqrtf sqrt
The alias for sqrt(). 23.6.2.49 #dene squaref square
The alias for square(). 23.6.2.50 #dene tanf tan
The alias for tan(). 23.6.2.51 #dene tanhf tanh
The alias for tanh(). 23.6.2.52 #dene truncf trunc
The alias for trunc().
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23.6.3 23.6.3.1
Function Documentation double acos ( double x )
The acos() function computes the principal value of the arc cosine of __x . The returned value is in the range [0, pi] radians. A domain error occurs for arguments not in the range [-1, +1]. 23.6.3.2 double asin ( double x )
The asin() function computes the principal value of the arc sine of __x . The returned value is in the range [-pi/2, pi/2] radians. A domain error occurs for arguments not in the range [-1, +1]. 23.6.3.3 double atan ( double x )
The atan() function computes the principal value of the arc tangent of __x . The returned value is in the range [-pi/2, pi/2] radians. 23.6.3.4 double atan2 ( double y, double x )
The atan2() function computes the principal value of the arc tangent of __y / __x , using the signs of both arguments to determine the quadrant of the return value. The returned value is in the range [-pi, +pi] radians. 23.6.3.5 double cbrt ( double x )
The cbrt() function returns the cube root of __x . 23.6.3.6 double ceil ( double x )
The ceil() function returns the smallest integral value greater than or equal to __x , expressed as a oating-point number. 23.6.3.7 static double copysign ( double x, double y ) [static]
The copysign() function returns __x but with the sign of __y . They work even if __x or __y are NaN or zero. 23.6.3.8 double cos ( double x )
The cos() function returns the cosine of __x , measured in radians. 23.6.3.9 double cosh ( double x )
The cosh() function returns the hyperbolic cosine of __x .
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23.6.3.10
double exp ( double x )
The exp() function returns the exponential value of __x . 23.6.3.11 double fabs ( double x )
The fabs() function computes the absolute value of a oating-point number __x . 23.6.3.12 double fdim ( double x, double y )
The fdim() function returns max(__x - __y, 0). If __x or __y or both are NaN, NaN is returned. 23.6.3.13 double oor ( double x )
The oor() function returns the largest integral value less than or equal to __x , expressed as a oating-point number. 23.6.3.14 double fma ( double x, double y, double z )
The fma() function performs oating-point multiply-add. This is the operation (__x __y) + __z , but the intermediate result is not rounded to the destination type. This can sometimes improve the precision of a calculation. 23.6.3.15 double fmax ( double x, double y )
The fmax() function returns the greater of the two values __x and __y . If an argument is NaN, the other argument is returned. If both arguments are NaN, NaN is returned. 23.6.3.16 double fmin ( double x, double y )
The fmin() function returns the lesser of the two values __x and __y . If an argument is NaN, the other argument is returned. If both arguments are NaN, NaN is returned. 23.6.3.17 double fmod ( double x, double y )
The function fmod() returns the oating-point remainder of __x / __y . 23.6.3.18 double frexp ( double x, int pexp )
The frexp() function breaks a oating-point number into a normalized fraction and an integral power of 2. It stores the integer in the int object pointed to by __pexp. If __x is a normal oat point number, the frexp() function returns the value v, such that v has a magnitude in the interval [1/2, 1) or zero, and __x equals v times 2 raised to the power __pexp. If __x is zero, both parts of the result are zero. If __x is not a nite number, the frexp() returns __x as is and stores 0 by __pexp.
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Note This implementation permits a zero pointer as a directive to skip a storing the exponent.
23.6.3.19
double hypot ( double x, double y )
The hypot() function returns sqrt(__x__x + __y__y). This is the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle with sides of length __x and __y , or the distance of the point (__x , __y ) from the origin. Using this function instead of the direct formula is wise, since the error is much smaller. No underow with small __x and __y . No overow if result is in range. 23.6.3.20 static int isnite ( double x ) [static]
The isnite() function returns a nonzero value if __x is nite: not plus or minus innity, and not NaN. 23.6.3.21 int isinf ( double x )
The function isinf() returns 1 if the argument __x is positive innity, -1 if __x is negative innity, and 0 otherwise. Note The GCC 4.3 can replace this function with inline code that returns the 1 value for both innities (gcc bug #35509).
23.6.3.22
int isnan ( double x )
The function isnan() returns 1 if the argument __x represents a "not-a-number" (NaN) object, otherwise 0. 23.6.3.23 double ldexp ( double x, int exp )
The ldexp() function multiplies a oating-point number by an integral power of 2. It returns the value of __x times 2 raised to the power __exp. 23.6.3.24 double log ( double x )
The log() function returns the natural logarithm of argument __x . 23.6.3.25 double log10 ( double x )
The log10() function returns the logarithm of argument __x to base 10.
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23.6.3.26
long lrint ( double x )
The lrint() function rounds __x to the nearest integer, rounding the halfway cases to the even integer direction. (That is both 1.5 and 2.5 values are rounded to 2). This function is similar to rint() function, but it differs in type of return value and in that an overow is possible. Returns The rounded long integer value. If __x is not a nite number or an overow was, this realization returns the LONG_MIN value (0x80000000). 23.6.3.27 long lround ( double x )
The lround() function rounds __x to the nearest integer, but rounds halfway cases away from zero (instead of to the nearest even integer). This function is similar to round() function, but it differs in type of return value and in that an overow is possible. Returns The rounded long integer value. If __x is not a nite number or an overow was, this realization returns the LONG_MIN value (0x80000000). 23.6.3.28 double modf ( double x, double iptr )
The modf() function breaks the argument __x into integral and fractional parts, each of which has the same sign as the argument. It stores the integral part as a double in the object pointed to by __iptr . The modf() function returns the signed fractional part of __x . Note This implementation skips writing by zero pointer. However, the GCC 4.3 can replace this function with inline code that does not permit to use NULL address for the avoiding of storing. 23.6.3.29 oat modff ( oat x, oat iptr )
The alias for modf(). 23.6.3.30 double pow ( double x, double y )
The function pow() returns the value of __x to the exponent __y . 23.6.3.31 double round ( double x )
The round() function rounds __x to the nearest integer, but rounds halfway cases away from zero (instead of to the nearest even integer). Overow is impossible.
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Returns The rounded value. If __x is an integral or innite, __x itself is returned. If __x is NaN, then NaN is returned.
23.6.3.32
int signbit ( double x )
The signbit() function returns a nonzero value if the value of __x has its sign bit set. This is not the same as __x < 0.0, because IEEE 754 oating point allows zero to be signed. The comparison -0.0 < 0.0 is false, but signbit (-0.0) will return a nonzero value. 23.6.3.33 double sin ( double x )
The sin() function returns the sine of __x , measured in radians. 23.6.3.34 double sinh ( double x )
The sinh() function returns the hyperbolic sine of __x . 23.6.3.35 double sqrt ( double x )
The sqrt() function returns the non-negative square root of __x . 23.6.3.36 double square ( double x )
The function square() returns __x __x . Note This function does not belong to the C standard denition.
23.6.3.37
double tan ( double x )
The tan() function returns the tangent of __x , measured in radians. 23.6.3.38 double tanh ( double x )
The tanh() function returns the hyperbolic tangent of __x . 23.6.3.39 double trunc ( double x )
The trunc() function rounds __x to the nearest integer not larger in absolute value.
23.7 <setjmp.h>: Non-local goto
172

Functions int setjmp (jmp_buf __jmpb) void longjmp (jmp_buf __jmpb, int __ret) __ATTR_NORETURN__
23.7.1
While the C language has the dreaded goto statement, it can only be used to jump to a label in the same (local) function. In order to jump directly to another (non-local) function, the C library provides the setjmp() and longjmp() functions. setjmp() and longjmp() are useful for dealing with errors and interrupts encountered in a low-level subroutine of a program. Note setjmp() and longjmp() make programs hard to understand and maintain. If possible, an alternative should be used. longjmp() can destroy changes made to global register variables (see How to permanently bind a variable to a register?). For a very detailed discussion of setjmp()/longjmp(), see Chapter 7 of Advanced Programming in the UNIX Environment , by W. Richard Stevens. Example:
#include <setjmp.h> jmp_buf env; int main (void) { if (setjmp (env)) { ... handle error ... } while (1) { ... main processing loop which calls foo() some where ... } } ... void foo (void) { ... blah, blah, blah ...
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if (err) { longjmp (env, 1); } }
23.7.2 23.7.2.1
Function Documentation void longjmp ( jmp buf jmpb, int ret )
Non-local jump to a saved stack context.

#include <setjmp.h>
longjmp() restores the environment saved by the last call of setjmp() with the corresponding __jmpb argument. After longjmp() is completed, program execution continues as if the corresponding call of setjmp() had just returned the value __ret . Note longjmp() cannot cause 0 to be returned. If longjmp() is invoked with a second argument of 0, 1 will be returned instead.
Parameters __jmpb Information saved by a previous call to setjmp(). __ret Value to return to the caller of setjmp().
Returns This function never returns.
23.7.2.2
int setjmp ( jmp buf jmpb )
Save stack context for non-local goto.

#include <setjmp.h>
setjmp() saves the stack context/environment in __jmpb for later use by longjmp(). The stack context will be invalidated if the function which called setjmp() returns. Parameters __jmpb Variable of type jmp_buf which holds the stack information such that the environment can be restored.
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Returns setjmp() returns 0 if returning directly, and non-zero when returning from longjmp() using the saved context.
23.8 <stdint.h>: Standard Integer Types
175

Exact-width integer types Integer types having exactly the specied width typedef signed char int8_t typedef unsigned char uint8_t typedef signed int int16_t typedef unsigned int uint16_t typedef signed long int int32_t typedef unsigned long int uint32_t typedef signed long long int int64_t typedef unsigned long long int uint64_t
Integer types capable of holding object pointers These allow you to declare variables of the same size as a pointer. typedef int16_t intptr_t typedef uint16_t uintptr_t
Minimum-width integer types Integer types having at least the specied width typedef int8_t int_least8_t typedef uint8_t uint_least8_t typedef int16_t int_least16_t typedef uint16_t uint_least16_t typedef int32_t int_least32_t typedef uint32_t uint_least32_t typedef int64_t int_least64_t typedef uint64_t uint_least64_t
Fastest minimum-width integer types Integer types being usually fastest having at least the specied width typedef int8_t int_fast8_t typedef uint8_t uint_fast8_t
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typedef int16_t int_fast16_t typedef uint16_t uint_fast16_t typedef int32_t int_fast32_t typedef uint32_t uint_fast32_t typedef int64_t int_fast64_t typedef uint64_t uint_fast64_t
Greatest-width integer types Types designating integer data capable of representing any value of any integer type in the corresponding signed or unsigned category typedef int64_t intmax_t typedef uint64_t uintmax_t
Limits of specied-width integer types C++ implementations should dene these macros only when __STDC_LIMIT_MACROS is dened before <stdint.h> is included #dene INT8_MAX 0x7f #dene INT8_MIN (-INT8_MAX - 1) #dene UINT8_MAX (__CONCAT(INT8_MAX, U) 2U + 1U) #dene INT16_MAX 0x7fff #dene INT16_MIN (-INT16_MAX - 1) #dene UINT16_MAX (__CONCAT(INT16_MAX, U) 2U + 1U) #dene INT32_MAX 0x7fffffffL #dene INT32_MIN (-INT32_MAX - 1L) #dene UINT32_MAX (__CONCAT(INT32_MAX, U) 2UL + 1UL) #dene INT64_MAX 0x7fffffffffffffffLL #dene INT64_MIN (-INT64_MAX - 1LL) #dene UINT64_MAX (__CONCAT(INT64_MAX, U) 2ULL + 1ULL)
Limits of minimum-width integer types #dene INT_LEAST8_MAX INT8_MAX #dene INT_LEAST8_MIN INT8_MIN #dene UINT_LEAST8_MAX UINT8_MAX #dene INT_LEAST16_MAX INT16_MAX #dene INT_LEAST16_MIN INT16_MIN #dene UINT_LEAST16_MAX UINT16_MAX #dene INT_LEAST32_MAX INT32_MAX
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#dene INT_LEAST32_MIN INT32_MIN #dene UINT_LEAST32_MAX UINT32_MAX #dene INT_LEAST64_MAX INT64_MAX #dene INT_LEAST64_MIN INT64_MIN #dene UINT_LEAST64_MAX UINT64_MAX
Limits of fastest minimum-width integer types #dene INT_FAST8_MAX INT8_MAX #dene INT_FAST8_MIN INT8_MIN #dene UINT_FAST8_MAX UINT8_MAX #dene INT_FAST16_MAX INT16_MAX #dene INT_FAST16_MIN INT16_MIN #dene UINT_FAST16_MAX UINT16_MAX #dene INT_FAST32_MAX INT32_MAX #dene INT_FAST32_MIN INT32_MIN #dene UINT_FAST32_MAX UINT32_MAX #dene INT_FAST64_MAX INT64_MAX #dene INT_FAST64_MIN INT64_MIN #dene UINT_FAST64_MAX UINT64_MAX
Limits of integer types capable of holding object pointers #dene INTPTR_MAX INT16_MAX #dene INTPTR_MIN INT16_MIN #dene UINTPTR_MAX UINT16_MAX
Limits of greatest-width integer types #dene INTMAX_MAX INT64_MAX #dene INTMAX_MIN INT64_MIN #dene UINTMAX_MAX UINT64_MAX
Limits of other integer types C++ implementations should dene these macros only when __STDC_LIMIT_MACROS is dened before <stdint.h> is included #dene PTRDIFF_MAX INT16_MAX #dene PTRDIFF_MIN INT16_MIN #dene SIG_ATOMIC_MAX INT8_MAX #dene SIG_ATOMIC_MIN INT8_MIN #dene SIZE_MAX (__CONCAT(INT16_MAX, U))
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Macros for integer constants C++ implementations should dene these macros only when __STDC_CONSTANT_MACROS is dened before <stdint.h> is included. These denitions are valid for integer constants without sufx and for macros dened as integer constant without sufx #dene INT8_C(value) ((int8_t) value) #dene UINT8_C(value) ((uint8_t) __CONCAT(value, U)) #dene INT16_C(value) value #dene UINT16_C(value) __CONCAT(value, U) #dene INT32_C(value) __CONCAT(value, L) #dene UINT32_C(value) __CONCAT(value, UL) #dene INT64_C(value) __CONCAT(value, LL) #dene UINT64_C(value) __CONCAT(value, ULL) #dene INTMAX_C(value) __CONCAT(value, LL) #dene UINTMAX_C(value) __CONCAT(value, ULL)
23.8.1
#include <stdint.h>
Use [u]intN_t if you need exactly N bits. Since these typedefs are mandated by the C99 standard, they are preferred over rolling your own typedefs.
23.8.2 23.8.2.1
Dene Documentation #dene INT16_C( value ) value
dene a constant of type int16_t 23.8.2.2 #dene INT16_MAX 0x7fff
largest positive value an int16_t can hold. 23.8.2.3 #dene INT16_MIN (-INT16_MAX - 1)
smallest negative value an int16_t can hold. 23.8.2.4 #dene INT32_C( value ) CONCAT(value, L)
dene a constant of type int32_t
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23.8.2.5
#dene INT32_MAX 0x7fffffffL
largest positive value an int32_t can hold. 23.8.2.6 #dene INT32_MIN (-INT32_MAX - 1L)
smallest negative value an int32_t can hold. 23.8.2.7 #dene INT64_C( value ) CONCAT(value, LL)
dene a constant of type int64_t 23.8.2.8 #dene INT64_MAX 0x7fffffffffffffffLL
largest positive value an int64_t can hold. 23.8.2.9 #dene INT64_MIN (-INT64_MAX - 1LL)
smallest negative value an int64_t can hold. 23.8.2.10 #dene INT8_C( value ) ((int8_t) value)
dene a constant of type int8_t 23.8.2.11 #dene INT8_MAX 0x7f
largest positive value an int8_t can hold. 23.8.2.12 #dene INT8_MIN (-INT8_MAX - 1)
smallest negative value an int8_t can hold. 23.8.2.13 #dene INT_FAST16_MAX INT16_MAX
largest positive value an int_fast16_t can hold. 23.8.2.14 #dene INT_FAST16_MIN INT16_MIN
smallest negative value an int_fast16_t can hold. 23.8.2.15 #dene INT_FAST32_MAX INT32_MAX
smallest negative value an int_fast32_t can hold.
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23.8.2.17
#dene INT_FAST64_MAX INT64_MAX
smallest negative value an int_fast64_t can hold. 23.8.2.19 #dene INT_FAST8_MAX INT8_MAX
smallest negative value an int_fast8_t can hold. 23.8.2.21 #dene INT_LEAST16_MAX INT16_MAX
largest positive value an int_least16_t can hold. 23.8.2.22 #dene INT_LEAST16_MIN INT16_MIN
smallest negative value an int_least16_t can hold. 23.8.2.23 #dene INT_LEAST32_MAX INT32_MAX
smallest negative value an int_least8_t can hold.
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23.8.2.29
#dene INTMAX_C( value ) CONCAT(value, LL)
dene a constant of type intmax_t 23.8.2.30 #dene INTMAX_MAX INT64_MAX
largest positive value an intmax_t can hold. 23.8.2.31 #dene INTMAX_MIN INT64_MIN
smallest negative value an intmax_t can hold. 23.8.2.32 #dene INTPTR_MAX INT16_MAX
largest positive value an intptr_t can hold. 23.8.2.33 #dene INTPTR_MIN INT16_MIN
smallest negative value an intptr_t can hold. 23.8.2.34 #dene PTRDIFF_MAX INT16_MAX
largest positive value a ptrdiff_t can hold. 23.8.2.35 #dene PTRDIFF_MIN INT16_MIN
smallest negative value a ptrdiff_t can hold. 23.8.2.36 #dene SIG_ATOMIC_MAX INT8_MAX
largest positive value a sig_atomic_t can hold. 23.8.2.37 #dene SIG_ATOMIC_MIN INT8_MIN
smallest negative value a sig_atomic_t can hold. 23.8.2.38 #dene SIZE_MAX ( CONCAT(INT16_MAX, U))
largest value a size_t can hold. 23.8.2.39 #dene UINT16_C( value ) CONCAT(value, U)
dene a constant of type uint16_t 23.8.2.40 #dene UINT16_MAX ( CONCAT(INT16_MAX, U) 2U + 1U)
largest value an uint16_t can hold.
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23.8.2.41
#dene UINT32_C( value ) CONCAT(value, UL)
dene a constant of type uint32_t 23.8.2.42 #dene UINT32_MAX ( CONCAT(INT32_MAX, U) 2UL + 1UL)
largest value an uint32_t can hold. 23.8.2.43 #dene UINT64_C( value ) CONCAT(value, ULL)
dene a constant of type uint64_t 23.8.2.44 #dene UINT64_MAX ( CONCAT(INT64_MAX, U) 2ULL + 1ULL)
largest value an uint64_t can hold. 23.8.2.45 #dene UINT8_C( value ) ((uint8_t) CONCAT(value, U))
dene a constant of type uint8_t 23.8.2.46 #dene UINT8_MAX ( CONCAT(INT8_MAX, U) 2U + 1U)
largest value an uint8_t can hold. 23.8.2.47 #dene UINT_FAST16_MAX UINT16_MAX
largest value an uint_fast16_t can hold. 23.8.2.48 #dene UINT_FAST32_MAX UINT32_MAX
largest value an uint_fast8_t can hold. 23.8.2.51 #dene UINT_LEAST16_MAX UINT16_MAX
largest value an uint_least16_t can hold. 23.8.2.52 #dene UINT_LEAST32_MAX UINT32_MAX
largest value an uint_least32_t can hold.
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23.8.2.53
#dene UINT_LEAST64_MAX UINT64_MAX
largest value an uint_least64_t can hold. 23.8.2.54 #dene UINT_LEAST8_MAX UINT8_MAX
largest value an uint_least8_t can hold. 23.8.2.55 #dene UINTMAX_C( value ) CONCAT(value, ULL)
dene a constant of type uintmax_t 23.8.2.56 #dene UINTMAX_MAX UINT64_MAX
largest value an uintmax_t can hold. 23.8.2.57 #dene UINTPTR_MAX UINT16_MAX
largest value an uintptr_t can hold.
23.8.3 23.8.3.1
Typedef Documentation typedef signed int int16_t
16-bit signed type. 23.8.3.2 typedef signed long int int32_t
32-bit signed type. 23.8.3.3 typedef signed long long int int64_t
64-bit signed type. Note This type is not available when the compiler option -mint8 is in effect.
23.8.3.4
typedef signed char int8_t
8-bit signed type. 23.8.3.5 typedef int16_t int_fast16_t
fastest signed int with at least 16 bits.
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23.8.3.6
typedef int32_t int_fast32_t
fastest signed int with at least 32 bits. 23.8.3.7 typedef int64_t int_fast64_t
fastest signed int with at least 64 bits. Note This type is not available when the compiler option -mint8 is in effect.
23.8.3.8
typedef int8_t int_fast8_t
fastest signed int with at least 8 bits. 23.8.3.9 typedef int16_t int_least16_t
signed int with at least 16 bits. 23.8.3.10 typedef int32_t int_least32_t
signed int with at least 32 bits. 23.8.3.11 typedef int64_t int_least64_t
signed int with at least 64 bits. Note This type is not available when the compiler option -mint8 is in effect.
23.8.3.12
typedef int8_t int_least8_t
signed int with at least 8 bits. 23.8.3.13 typedef int64_t intmax_t
largest signed int available. 23.8.3.14 typedef int16_t intptr_t
Signed pointer compatible type. 23.8.3.15 typedef unsigned int uint16_t
16-bit unsigned type.
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23.8.3.16
typedef unsigned long int uint32_t
32-bit unsigned type. 23.8.3.17 typedef unsigned long long int uint64_t
64-bit unsigned type. Note This type is not available when the compiler option -mint8 is in effect.
23.8.3.18
typedef unsigned char uint8_t
8-bit unsigned type. 23.8.3.19 typedef uint16_t uint_fast16_t
fastest unsigned int with at least 16 bits. 23.8.3.20 typedef uint32_t uint_fast32_t
fastest unsigned int with at least 32 bits. 23.8.3.21 typedef uint64_t uint_fast64_t
fastest unsigned int with at least 64 bits. Note This type is not available when the compiler option -mint8 is in effect.
23.8.3.22
typedef uint8_t uint_fast8_t
fastest unsigned int with at least 8 bits. 23.8.3.23 typedef uint16_t uint_least16_t
unsigned int with at least 16 bits. 23.8.3.24 typedef uint32_t uint_least32_t
unsigned int with at least 32 bits. 23.8.3.25 typedef uint64_t uint_least64_t
unsigned int with at least 64 bits.
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Note This type is not available when the compiler option -mint8 is in effect.
23.8.3.26
typedef uint8_t uint_least8_t
unsigned int with at least 8 bits. 23.8.3.27 typedef uint64_t uintmax_t
largest unsigned int available. 23.8.3.28 typedef uint16_t uintptr_t
Unsigned pointer compatible type.
23.9 <stdio.h>: Standard IO facilities
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Denes #dene FILE struct __le #dene stdin (__iob[0]) #dene stdout (__iob[1]) #dene stderr (__iob[2]) #dene EOF (-1) #dene fdev_set_udata(stream, u) do { (stream)->udata = u; } while(0) #dene fdev_get_udata(stream) ((stream)->udata) #dene fdev_setup_stream(stream, put, get, rwag) #dene _FDEV_SETUP_READ __SRD #dene _FDEV_SETUP_WRITE __SWR #dene _FDEV_SETUP_RW (__SRD|__SWR) #dene _FDEV_ERR (-1) #dene _FDEV_EOF (-2) #dene FDEV_SETUP_STREAM(put, get, rwag) #dene fdev_close() #dene putc(__c, __stream) fputc(__c, __stream) #dene putchar(__c) fputc(__c, stdout) #dene getc(__stream) fgetc(__stream) #dene getchar() fgetc(stdin)
Functions int fclose (FILE __stream) int vfprintf (FILE __stream, const char __fmt, va_list __ap) int vfprintf_P (FILE __stream, const char __fmt, va_list __ap) int fputc (int __c, FILE __stream) int printf (const char __fmt,...) int printf_P (const char __fmt,...) int vprintf (const char __fmt, va_list __ap) int sprintf (char __s, const char __fmt,...) int sprintf_P (char __s, const char __fmt,...) int snprintf (char __s, size_t __n, const char __fmt,...) int snprintf_P (char __s, size_t __n, const char __fmt,...) int vsprintf (char __s, const char __fmt, va_list ap) int vsprintf_P (char __s, const char __fmt, va_list ap) int vsnprintf (char __s, size_t __n, const char __fmt, va_list ap) int vsnprintf_P (char __s, size_t __n, const char __fmt, va_list ap) int fprintf (FILE __stream, const char __fmt,...) int fprintf_P (FILE __stream, const char __fmt,...)
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int fputs (const char __str, FILE __stream) int fputs_P (const char __str, FILE __stream) int puts (const char __str) int puts_P (const char __str) size_t fwrite (const void __ptr, size_t __size, size_t __nmemb, FILE __stream) int fgetc (FILE __stream) int ungetc (int __c, FILE __stream) char fgets (char __str, int __size, FILE __stream) char gets (char __str) size_t fread (void __ptr, size_t __size, size_t __nmemb, FILE __stream) void clearerr (FILE __stream) int feof (FILE __stream) int ferror (FILE __stream) int vfscanf (FILE __stream, const char __fmt, va_list __ap) int vfscanf_P (FILE __stream, const char __fmt, va_list __ap) int fscanf (FILE __stream, const char __fmt,...) int fscanf_P (FILE __stream, const char __fmt,...) int scanf (const char __fmt,...) int scanf_P (const char __fmt,...) int vscanf (const char __fmt, va_list __ap) int sscanf (const char __buf, const char __fmt,...) int sscanf_P (const char __buf, const char __fmt,...) int fush (FILE stream) FILE fdevopen (int(put)(char, FILE ), int(get)(FILE ))
23.9.1
#include <stdio.h>
Introduction to the Standard IO facilities This le declares the standard IO facilities that are implemented in avr-libc. Due to the nature of the underlying hardware, only a limited subset of standard IO is implemented. There is no actual le implementation available, so only device IO can be performed. Since theres no operating system, the application needs to provide enough details about their devices in order to make them usable by the standard IO facilities. Due to space constraints, some functionality has not been implemented at all (like some of the printf conversions that have been left out). Nevertheless, potential users of this implementation should be warned: the printf and scanf families of functions, although usually associated with presumably simple things like the famous "Hello, world!" program, are actually fairly complex which causes their inclusion to eat up a fair amount of code space. Also, they are not fast due to the nature of interpreting the format string at run-time. Whenever possible, resorting to the (sometimes non-standard) predetermined conversion facilities that are offered by avr-libc will usually cost much less in terms of speed and code size.
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Tunable options for code size vs. feature set In order to allow programmers a code size vs. functionality tradeoff, the function vfprintf() which is the heart of the printf family can be selected in different avours using linker options. See the documentation of vfprintf() for a detailed description. The same applies to vfscanf() and the scanf family of functions. Outline of the chosen API The standard streams stdin, stdout, and stderr are provided, but contrary to the C standard, since avr-libc has no knowledge about applicable devices, these streams are not already pre-initialized at application startup. Also, since there is no notion of "le" whatsoever to avr-libc, there is no function fopen() that could be used to associate a stream to some device. (See note 1.) Instead, the function fdevopen() is provided to associate a stream to a device, where the device needs to provide a function to send a character, to receive a character, or both. There is no differentiation between "text" and "binary" streams inside avr-libc. Character \n is sent literally down to the devices put() function. If the device requires a carriage return (\r) character to be sent before the linefeed, its put() routine must implement this (see note 2). As an alternative method to fdevopen(), the macro fdev_setup_stream() might be used to setup a user-supplied FILE structure. It should be noted that the automatic conversion of a newline character into a carriage return - newline sequence breaks binary transfers. If binary transfers are desired, no automatic conversion should be performed, but instead any string that aims to issue a CR-LF sequence must use "\r\n" explicitly. For convenience, the rst call to fdevopen() that opens a stream for reading will cause the resulting stream to be aliased to stdin. Likewise, the rst call to fdevopen() that opens a stream for writing will cause the resulting stream to be aliased to both, stdout, and stderr. Thus, if the open was done with both, read and write intent, all three standard streams will be identical. Note that these aliases are indistinguishable from each other, thus calling fclose() on such a stream will also effectively close all of its aliases (note 3). It is possible to tie additional user data to a stream, using fdev_set_udata(). The backend put and get functions can then extract this user data using fdev_get_udata(), and act appropriately. For example, a single put function could be used to talk to two different UARTs that way, or the put and get functions could keep internal state between calls there. Format strings in ash ROM All the printf and scanf family functions come in two avours: the standard name, where the format string is expected to be in SRAM, as well as a version with the sufx "_P" where the format string is expected to reside in the ash ROM. The macro PSTR (explained in <avr/pgmspace.h>: Program Space Utilities) becomes very handy for
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declaring these format strings. Running stdio without malloc() By default, fdevopen() requires malloc(). As this is often not desired in the limited environment of a microcontroller, an alternative option is provided to run completely without malloc(). The macro fdev_setup_stream() is provided to prepare a user-supplied FILE buffer for operation with stdio. Example
#include <stdio.h> static int uart_putchar(char c, FILE *stream); static FILE mystdout = FDEV_SETUP_STREAM(uart_putchar, NULL, _FDEV_SETUP_WRITE); static int uart_putchar(char c, FILE *stream) { if (c == \n) uart_putchar(\r, stream); loop_until_bit_is_set(UCSRA, UDRE); UDR = c; return 0; } int main(void) { init_uart(); stdout = &mystdout; printf("Hello, world!\n"); return 0; }
This example uses the initializer form FDEV_SETUP_STREAM() rather than the function-like fdev_setup_stream(), so all data initialization happens during C start-up. If streams initialized that way are no longer needed, they can be destroyed by rst calling the macro fdev_close(), and then destroying the object itself. No call to fclose() should be issued for these streams. While calling fclose() itself is harmless, it will cause an undened reference to free() and thus cause the linker to link the malloc module into the application.
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Notes Note 1: It might have been possible to implement a device abstraction that is compatible with fopen() but since this would have required to parse a string, and to take all the information needed either out of this string, or out of an additional table that would need to be provided by the application, this approach was not taken.
Note 2: This basically follows the Unix approach: if a device such as a terminal needs special handling, it is in the domain of the terminal device driver to provide this functionality. Thus, a simple function suitable as put() for fdevopen() that talks to a UART interface might look like this:
int uart_putchar(char c, FILE *stream) { if (c == \n) uart_putchar(\r); loop_until_bit_is_set(UCSRA, UDRE); UDR = c; return 0; }
Note 3: This implementation has been chosen because the cost of maintaining an alias is considerably smaller than the cost of maintaining full copies of each stream. Yet, providing an implementation that offers the complete set of standard streams was deemed to be useful. Not only that writing printf() instead of fprintf(mystream, ...) saves typing work, but since avr-gcc needs to resort to pass all arguments of variadic functions on the stack (as opposed to passing them in registers for functions that take a xed number of parameters), the ability to pass one parameter less by implying stdin or stdout will also save some execution time.
23.9.2 23.9.2.1
Dene Documentation #dene _FDEV_EOF (-2)
Return code for an end-of-le condition during device read. To be used in the get function of fdevopen().
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23.9.2.2
#dene _FDEV_ERR (-1)
Return code for an error condition during device read. To be used in the get function of fdevopen(). 23.9.2.3 #dene _FDEV_SETUP_READ SRD
fdev_setup_stream() with read intent 23.9.2.4 #dene _FDEV_SETUP_RW ( SRD| SWR)
fdev_setup_stream() with read/write intent 23.9.2.5 #dene _FDEV_SETUP_WRITE SWR
fdev_setup_stream() with write intent 23.9.2.6 #dene EOF (-1)
EOF declares the value that is returned by various standard IO functions in case of an
error. Since the AVR platform (currently) doesnt contain an abstraction for actual les, its origin as "end of le" is somewhat meaningless here. 23.9.2.7 #dene fdev_close( )
This macro frees up any library resources that might be associated with stream. It should be called if stream is no longer needed, right before the application is going to destroy the stream object itself. (Currently, this macro evaluates to nothing, but this might change in future versions of the library.) 23.9.2.8 #dene fdev_get_udata( stream ) ((stream)->udata)
This macro retrieves a pointer to user dened data from a FILE stream object. 23.9.2.9 #dene fdev_set_udata( stream, u ) do { (stream)->udata = u; } while(0)
This macro inserts a pointer to user dened data into a FILE stream object. The user data can be useful for tracking state in the put and get functions supplied to the fdevopen() function. 23.9.2.10 #dene fdev_setup_stream( stream, put, get, rwag )
Setup a user-supplied buffer as an stdio stream. This macro takes a user-supplied buffer stream, and sets it up as a stream that is valid for stdio operations, similar to one that has been obtained dynamically from fdevopen().
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The buffer to setup must be of type FILE. The arguments put and get are identical to those that need to be passed to fdevopen(). The rwflag argument can take one of the values _FDEV_SETUP_READ, _FDEV_SETUP_WRITE, or _FDEV_SETUP_RW, for read, write, or read/write intent, respectively. Note No assignments to the standard streams will be performed by fdev_setup_stream(). If standard streams are to be used, these need to be assigned by the user. See also under Running stdio without malloc().
23.9.2.11
#dene FDEV_SETUP_STREAM( put, get, rwag )
Initializer for a user-supplied stdio stream. This macro acts similar to fdev_setup_stream(), but it is to be used as the initializer of a variable of type FILE. The remaining arguments are to be used as explained in fdev_setup_stream(). 23.9.2.12 #dene FILE struct le
FILE is the opaque structure that is passed around between the various standard IO
functions. 23.9.2.13 #dene getc( stream ) fgetc( stream)
The macro getc used to be a "fast" macro implementation with a functionality identical to fgetc(). For space constraints, in avr-libc, it is just an alias for fgetc. 23.9.2.14 #dene getchar( void ) fgetc(stdin)
The macro getchar reads a character from stdin. Return values and error handling is identical to fgetc(). 23.9.2.15 #dene putc( c, stream ) fputc( c, stream)
The macro putc used to be a "fast" macro implementation with a functionality identical to fputc(). For space constraints, in avr-libc, it is just an alias for fputc. 23.9.2.16 #dene putchar( c ) fputc( c, stdout)
The macro putchar sends character c to stdout.
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23.9.2.17
#dene stderr ( iob[2])
Stream destined for error output. Unless specically assigned, identical to stdout. If stderr should point to another stream, the result of another fdevopen() must be explicitly assigned to it without closing the previous stderr (since this would also close stdout). 23.9.2.18 #dene stdin ( iob[0])
Stream that will be used as an input stream by the simplied functions that dont take a stream argument. The rst stream opened with read intent using fdevopen() will be assigned to
stdin.
23.9.2.19 #dene stdout ( iob[1])
Stream that will be used as an output stream by the simplied functions that dont take a stream argument. The rst stream opened with write intent using fdevopen() will be assigned to both,
stdin, and stderr.

23.9.3 23.9.3.1 Function Documentation void clearerr ( FILE stream )
Clear the error and end-of-le ags of stream. 23.9.3.2 int fclose ( FILE stream )
This function closes stream, and disallows and further IO to and from it. When using fdevopen() to setup the stream, a call to fclose() is needed in order to free the internal resources allocated. If the stream has been set up using fdev_setup_stream() or FDEV_SETUP_STREAM(), use fdev_close() instead. It currently always returns 0 (for success). 23.9.3.3 FILE fdevopen ( int()(char, FILE ) put, int()(FILE ) get ) This function is a replacement for fopen(). It opens a stream for a device where the actual device implementation needs to be provided by the application. If successful, a pointer to the structure for the opened stream is returned. Reasons for a possible failure currently include that neither the put nor the get argument have been provided, thus attempting to open a stream with no IO
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intent at all, or that insufcient dynamic memory is available to establish a new stream. If the put function pointer is provided, the stream is opened with write intent. The function passed as put shall take two arguments, the rst a character to write to the device, and the second a pointer to FILE, and shall return 0 if the output was successful, and a nonzero value if the character could not be sent to the device. If the get function pointer is provided, the stream is opened with read intent. The function passed as get shall take a pointer to FILE as its single argument, and return one character from the device, passed as an int type. If an error occurs when trying to read from the device, it shall return _FDEV_ERR. If an end-of-le condition was reached while reading from the device, _FDEV_EOF shall be returned. If both functions are provided, the stream is opened with read and write intent. The rst stream opened with read intent is assigned to stdin, and the rst one opened with write intent is assigned to both, stdout and stderr. fdevopen() uses calloc() (und thus malloc()) in order to allocate the storage for the new stream. Note If the macro __STDIO_FDEVOPEN_COMPAT_12 is declared before including <stdio.h>, a function prototype for fdevopen() will be chosen that is backwards compatible with avr-libc version 1.2 and before. This is solely intented for providing a simple migration path without the need to immediately change all source code. Do not use for new code.
23.9.3.4
int feof ( FILE stream )
Test the end-of-le ag of stream. This ag can only be cleared by a call to clearerr().
23.9.3.5
int ferror ( FILE stream )
Test the error ag of stream. This ag can only be cleared by a call to clearerr(). 23.9.3.6 int fush ( FILE stream )
Flush stream. This is a null operation provided for source-code compatibility only, as the standard IO implementation currently does not perform any buffering. 23.9.3.7 int fgetc ( FILE stream )
The function fgetc reads a character from stream. It returns the character, or EOF in case end-of-le was encountered or an error occurred. The routines feof() or ferror() must be used to distinguish between both situations.
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23.9.3.8
char fgets ( char str, int size, FILE stream )
Read at most size - 1 bytes from stream, until a newline character was encountered, and store the characters in the buffer pointed to by str. Unless an error was encountered while reading, the string will then be terminated with a NUL character. If an error was encountered, the function returns NULL and sets the error ag of stream, which can be tested using ferror(). Otherwise, a pointer to the string will be returned. 23.9.3.9 int fprintf ( FILE stream, const char fmt, ... )
The function fprintf performs formatted output to stream. See vfprintf() for details. 23.9.3.10 int fprintf_P ( FILE stream, const char fmt, ... )
Variant of fprintf() that uses a fmt string that resides in program memory. 23.9.3.11 int fputc ( int c, FILE stream )
The function fputc sends the character c (though given as type int) to stream. It returns the character, or EOF in case an error occurred. 23.9.3.12 int fputs ( const char str, FILE stream )
Write the string pointed to by str to stream stream. Returns 0 on success and EOF on error. 23.9.3.13 int fputs_P ( const char str, FILE stream )
Variant of fputs() where str resides in program memory. 23.9.3.14 size t fread ( void ptr, size t size, size t nmemb, FILE stream )
Read nmemb objects, size bytes each, from stream, to the buffer pointed to by ptr. Returns the number of objects successfully read, i. e. nmemb unless an input error occured or end-of-le was encountered. feof() and ferror() must be used to distinguish between these two conditions. 23.9.3.15 int fscanf ( FILE stream, const char fmt, ... )
The function fscanf performs formatted input, reading the input data from stream. See vfscanf() for details.
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23.9.3.16
int fscanf_P ( FILE stream, const char fmt, ... )
Variant of fscanf() using a fmt string in program memory. 23.9.3.17 size t fwrite ( const void ptr, size t size, size t nmemb, FILE stream )
Write nmemb objects, size bytes each, to stream. The rst byte of the rst object is referenced by ptr. Returns the number of objects successfully written, i. e. nmemb unless an output error occured. 23.9.3.18 char gets ( char str )
Similar to fgets() except that it will operate on stream stdin, and the trailing newline (if any) will not be stored in the string. It is the callers responsibility to provide enough storage to hold the characters read. 23.9.3.19 int printf ( const char fmt, ... ) See
The function printf performs formatted output to stream stdout. vfprintf() for details. 23.9.3.20 int printf_P ( const char fmt, ... )
Variant of printf() that uses a fmt string that resides in program memory. 23.9.3.21 int puts ( const char str )
Write the string pointed to by str, and a trailing newline character, to stdout. 23.9.3.22 int puts_P ( const char str )
Variant of puts() where str resides in program memory. 23.9.3.23 int scanf ( const char fmt, ... )
The function scanf performs formatted input from stream stdin. See vfscanf() for details. 23.9.3.24 int scanf_P ( const char fmt, ... )
Variant of scanf() where fmt resides in program memory. 23.9.3.25 int snprintf ( char s, size t n, const char fmt, ... )
Like sprintf(), but instead of assuming s to be of innite size, no more than n characters (including the trailing NUL character) will be converted to s.
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Returns the number of characters that would have been written to s if there were enough space. 23.9.3.26 int snprintf_P ( char s, size t n, const char fmt, ... )
Variant of snprintf() that uses a fmt string that resides in program memory. 23.9.3.27 int sprintf ( char s, const char fmt, ... )
Variant of printf() that sends the formatted characters to string s. 23.9.3.28 int sprintf_P ( char s, const char fmt, ... )
Variant of sprintf() that uses a fmt string that resides in program memory. 23.9.3.29 int sscanf ( const char buf, const char fmt, ... )
The function sscanf performs formatted input, reading the input data from the buffer pointed to by buf. See vfscanf() for details. 23.9.3.30 int sscanf_P ( const char buf, const char fmt, ... )
Variant of sscanf() using a fmt string in program memory. 23.9.3.31 int ungetc ( int c, FILE stream )
The ungetc() function pushes the character c (converted to an unsigned char) back onto the input stream pointed to by stream. The pushed-back character will be returned by a subsequent read on the stream. Currently, only a single character can be pushed back onto the stream. The ungetc() function returns the character pushed back after the conversion, or EOF if the operation fails. If the value of the argument c character equals EOF, the operation will fail and the stream will remain unchanged. 23.9.3.32 int vfprintf ( FILE stream, const char fmt, va list ap )
vfprintf is the central facility of the printf family of functions. It outputs values to stream under control of a format string passed in fmt. The actual values to print are passed as a variable argument list ap. vfprintf returns the number of characters written to stream, or EOF in case of an error. Currently, this will only happen if stream has not been opened with write intent.
The format string is composed of zero or more directives: ordinary characters (not %), which are copied unchanged to the output stream; and conversion specications, each of which results in fetching zero or more subsequent arguments. Each conversion
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specication is introduced by the % character. The arguments must properly correspond (after type promotion) with the conversion specier. After the %, the following appear in sequence: Zero or more of the following ags: # The value should be converted to an "alternate form". For c, d, i, s, and u conversions, this option has no effect. For o conversions, the precision of the number is increased to force the rst character of the output string to a zero (except if a zero value is printed with an explicit precision of zero). For x and X conversions, a non-zero result has the string 0x (or 0X for X conversions) prepended to it. 0 (zero) Zero padding. For all conversions, the converted value is padded on the left with zeros rather than blanks. If a precision is given with a numeric conversion (d, i, o, u, i, x, and X), the 0 ag is ignored. - A negative eld width ag; the converted value is to be left adjusted on the eld boundary. The converted value is padded on the right with blanks, rather than on the left with blanks or zeros. A - overrides a 0 if both are given. (space) A blank should be left before a positive number produced by a signed conversion (d, or i). + A sign must always be placed before a number produced by a signed conversion. A + overrides a space if both are used. An optional decimal digit string specifying a minimum eld width. If the converted value has fewer characters than the eld width, it will be padded with spaces on the left (or right, if the left-adjustment ag has been given) to ll out the eld width. An optional precision, in the form of a period . followed by an optional digit string. If the digit string is omitted, the precision is taken as zero. This gives the minimum number of digits to appear for d, i, o, u, x, and X conversions, or the maximum number of characters to be printed from a string for s conversions. An optional l or h length modier, that species that the argument for the d, i, o, u, x, or X conversion is a "long int" rather than int. The h is ignored, as "short int" is equivalent to int. A character that species the type of conversion to be applied. The conversion speciers and their meanings are: diouxX The int (or appropriate variant) argument is converted to signed decimal (d and i), unsigned octal (o), unsigned decimal (u), or unsigned hexadecimal (x and X) notation. The letters "abcdef" are used for x conversions; the letters "ABCDEF" are used for X conversions. The precision, if any, gives the minimum number of digits that must appear; if the converted value requires fewer digits, it is padded on the left with zeros.
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p The void argument is taken as an unsigned integer, and converted similarly as a %#x command would do. c The int argument is converted to an "unsigned char", and the resulting character is written. s The "char " argument is expected to be a pointer to an array of character type (pointer to a string). Characters from the array are written up to (but not including) a terminating NUL character; if a precision is specied, no more than the number specied are written. If a precision is given, no null character need be present; if the precision is not specied, or is greater than the size of the array, the array must contain a terminating NUL character. % A % is written. No argument is converted. The complete conversion specication is "%%". eE The double argument is rounded and converted in the format "[-]d.dddedd" where there is one digit before the decimal-point character and the number of digits after it is equal to the precision; if the precision is missing, it is taken as 6; if the precision is zero, no decimal-point character appears. An E conversion uses the letter E (rather than e) to introduce the exponent. The exponent always contains two digits; if the value is zero, the exponent is 00. fF The double argument is rounded and converted to decimal notation in the format "[-]ddd.ddd", where the number of digits after the decimal-point character is equal to the precision specication. If the precision is missing, it is taken as 6; if the precision is explicitly zero, no decimal-point character appears. If a decimal point appears, at least one digit appears before it. gG The double argument is converted in style f or e (or F or E for G conversions). The precision species the number of signicant digits. If the precision is missing, 6 digits are given; if the precision is zero, it is treated as 1. Style e is used if the exponent from its conversion is less than -4 or greater than or equal to the precision. Trailing zeros are removed from the fractional part of the result; a decimal point appears only if it is followed by at least one digit. S Similar to the s format, except the pointer is expected to point to a programmemory (ROM) string instead of a RAM string. In no case does a non-existent or small eld width cause truncation of a numeric eld; if the result of a conversion is wider than the eld width, the eld is expanded to contain the conversion result. Since the full implementation of all the mentioned features becomes fairly large, three different avours of vfprintf() can be selected using linker options. The default vfprintf() implements all the mentioned functionality except oating point conversions. A minimized version of vfprintf() is available that only implements the very basic integer and
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string conversion facilities, but only the # additional option can be specied using conversion ags (these ags are parsed correctly from the format specication, but then simply ignored). This version can be requested using the following compiler options:
-Wl,-u,vfprintf -lprintf_min
If the full functionality including the oating point conversions is required, the following options should be used:
-Wl,-u,vfprintf -lprintf_flt -lm
Limitations: The specied width and precision can be at most 255. Notes: For oating-point conversions, if you link default or minimized version of vfprintf(), the symbol ? will be output and double argument will be skiped. So you output below will not be crashed. For default version the width eld and the "pad to left" ( symbol minus ) option will work in this case. The hh length modier is ignored (char argument is promouted to int). More exactly, this realization does not check the number of h symbols. But the ll length modier will to abort the output, as this realization does not operate long long arguments. The variable width or precision eld (an asterisk symbol) is not realized and will to abort the output. int vfprintf_P ( FILE stream, const char fmt, va list ap )
23.9.3.33
Variant of vfprintf() that uses a fmt string that resides in program memory. 23.9.3.34 int vfscanf ( FILE stream, const char fmt, va list ap )
Formatted input. This function is the heart of the scanf family of functions. Characters are read from stream and processed in a way described by fmt . Conversion results will be assigned to the parameters passed via ap. The format string fmt is scanned for conversion specications. Anything that doesnt comprise a conversion specication is taken as text that is matched literally against the input. White space in the format string will match any white space in the data (including none), all other characters match only itself. Processing is aborted as soon as the data and format string no longer match, or there is an error or end-of-le condition on stream. Most conversions skip leading white space before starting the actual conversion. Conversions are introduced with the character %. Possible options can follow the %:
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a indicating that the conversion should be performed but the conversion result is to be discarded; no parameters will be processed from ap, the character h indicating that the argument is a pointer to short int (rather than int), the 2 characters hh indicating that the argument is a pointer to char (rather than int). the character l indicating that the argument is a pointer to long int (rather than int, for integer type conversions), or a pointer to double (for oating point conversions), In addition, a maximal eld width may be specied as a nonzero positive decimal integer, which will restrict the conversion to at most this many characters from the input stream. This eld width is limited to at most 255 characters which is also the default value (except for the c conversion that defaults to 1). The following conversion ags are supported: % Matches a literal % character. This is not a conversion. d Matches an optionally signed decimal integer; the next pointer must be a pointer to int. i Matches an optionally signed integer; the next pointer must be a pointer to int. The integer is read in base 16 if it begins with 0x or 0X, in base 8 if it begins with 0, and in base 10 otherwise. Only characters that correspond to the base are used. o Matches an octal integer; the next pointer must be a pointer to unsigned int. u Matches an optionally signed decimal integer; the next pointer must be a pointer to unsigned int. x Matches an optionally signed hexadecimal integer; the next pointer must be a pointer to unsigned int. f Matches an optionally signed oating-point number; the next pointer must be a pointer to float. e, g, F, E, G Equivalent to f. s Matches a sequence of non-white-space characters; the next pointer must be a pointer to char, and the array must be large enough to accept all the sequence and the terminating NUL character. The input string stops at white space or at the maximum eld width, whichever occurs rst.
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c Matches a sequence of width count characters (default 1); the next pointer must be a pointer to char, and there must be enough room for all the characters (no terminating NUL is added). The usual skip of leading white space is suppressed. To skip white space rst, use an explicit space in the format. [ Matches a nonempty sequence of characters from the specied set of accepted characters; the next pointer must be a pointer to char, and there must be enough room for all the characters in the string, plus a terminating NUL character. The usual skip of leading white space is suppressed. The string is to be made up of characters in (or not in) a particular set; the set is dened by the characters between the open bracket [ character and a close bracket ] character. The set excludes those characters if the rst character after the open bracket is a circumex . To include a close bracket in the set, make it the rst character after the open bracket or the circumex; any other position will end the set. The hyphen character - is also special; when placed between two other characters, it adds all intervening characters to the set. To include a hyphen, make it the last character before the nal close bracket. For instance, [ ]0-9-] means the set of everything except close bracket, zero through nine, and hyphen. The string ends with the appearance of a character not in the (or, with a circumex, in) set or when the eld width runs out. Note that usage of this conversion enlarges the stack expense. p Matches a pointer value (as printed by p in printf()); the next pointer must be a pointer to void. n Nothing is expected; instead, the number of characters consumed thus far from the input is stored through the next pointer, which must be a pointer to int. This is not a conversion, although it can be suppressed with the ag. These functions return the number of input items assigned, which can be fewer than provided for, or even zero, in the event of a matching failure. Zero indicates that, while there was input available, no conversions were assigned; typically this is due to an invalid input character, such as an alphabetic character for a d conversion. The value EOF is returned if an input failure occurs before any conversion such as an end-ofle occurs. If an error or end-of-le occurs after conversion has begun, the number of conversions which were successfully completed is returned. By default, all the conversions described above are available except the oating-point conversions and the width is limited to 255 characters. The oat-point conversion will be available in the extended version provided by the library libscanf_flt.a. Also in this case the width is not limited (exactly, it is limited to 65535 characters). To link a program against the extended version, use the following compiler ags in the link stage:
-Wl,-u,vfscanf -lscanf_flt -lm
A third version is available for environments that are tight on space. In addition to the restrictions of the standard one, this version implements no %[ specication. This
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version is provided in the library libscanf_min.a, and can be requested using the following options in the link stage:
-Wl,-u,vfscanf -lscanf_min -lm
23.9.3.35
int vfscanf_P ( FILE stream, const char fmt, va list ap )
Variant of vfscanf() using a fmt string in program memory. 23.9.3.36 int vprintf ( const char fmt, va list ap )
The function vprintf performs formatted output to stream stdout, taking a variable argument list as in vfprintf(). See vfprintf() for details. 23.9.3.37 int vscanf ( const char fmt, va list ap )
The function vscanf performs formatted input from stream stdin, taking a variable argument list as in vfscanf(). See vfscanf() for details. 23.9.3.38 int vsnprintf ( char s, size t n, const char fmt, va list ap )
Like vsprintf(), but instead of assuming s to be of innite size, no more than n characters (including the trailing NUL character) will be converted to s. Returns the number of characters that would have been written to s if there were enough space. 23.9.3.39 int vsnprintf_P ( char s, size t n, const char fmt, va list ap )
Variant of vsnprintf() that uses a fmt string that resides in program memory. 23.9.3.40 int vsprintf ( char s, const char fmt, va list ap )
Like sprintf() but takes a variable argument list for the arguments. 23.9.3.41 int vsprintf_P ( char s, const char fmt, va list ap )
Variant of vsprintf() that uses a fmt string that resides in program memory.
23.10 <stdlib.h>: General utilities
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Data Structures struct div_t struct ldiv_t
Denes #dene RAND_MAX 0x7FFF
Typedefs typedef int( __compar_fn_t )(const void , const void )
Functions void abort (void) __ATTR_NORETURN__ int abs (int __i) long labs (long __i) void bsearch (const void __key, const void __base, size_t __nmemb, size_t __size, int(__compar)(const void , const void )) div_t div (int __num, int __denom) __asm__("__divmodhi4") ldiv_t ldiv (long __num, long __denom) __asm__("__divmodsi4") void qsort (void __base, size_t __nmemb, size_t __size, __compar_fn_t __compar) long strtol (const char __nptr, char __endptr, int __base) unsigned long strtoul (const char __nptr, char __endptr, int __base) long atol (const char __s) __ATTR_PURE__ int atoi (const char __s) __ATTR_PURE__ void exit (int __status) __ATTR_NORETURN__ void malloc (size_t __size) __ATTR_MALLOC__ void free (void __ptr) void calloc (size_t __nele, size_t __size) __ATTR_MALLOC__ void realloc (void __ptr, size_t __size) __ATTR_MALLOC__ double strtod (const char __nptr, char __endptr) double atof (const char __nptr) int rand (void) void srand (unsigned int __seed) int rand_r (unsigned long __ctx)
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Variables size_t __malloc_margin char __malloc_heap_start char __malloc_heap_end
Non-standard (i.e. non-ISO C) functions. char ltoa (long int __val, char __s, int __radix) char utoa (unsigned int __val, char __s, int __radix) char ultoa (unsigned long int __val, char __s, int __radix) long random (void) void srandom (unsigned long __seed) long random_r (unsigned long __ctx) char itoa (int __val, char __s, int __radix) #dene RANDOM_MAX 0x7FFFFFFF
Conversion functions for double arguments. Note that these functions are not located in the default library, libc.a, but in the mathematical library, libm.a. So when linking the application, the -lm option needs to be specied. char dtostre (double __val, char __s, unsigned char __prec, unsigned char __ags) char dtostrf (double __val, signed char __width, unsigned char __prec, char __s) #dene DTOSTR_ALWAYS_SIGN 0x01 / put + or for positives / #dene DTOSTR_PLUS_SIGN 0x02 / put + rather than / #dene DTOSTR_UPPERCASE 0x04 / put E rather e /
23.10.1
#include <stdlib.h>
This le declares some basic C macros and functions as dened by the ISO standard, plus some AVR-specic extensions.
23.10.2 23.10.2.1
Dene Documentation #dene DTOSTR_ALWAYS_SIGN 0x01 / put + or for positives /
Bit value that can be passed in flags to dtostre().
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23.10.2.2
#dene DTOSTR_PLUS_SIGN 0x02 / put + rather than /
Bit value that can be passed in flags to dtostre(). 23.10.2.3 #dene DTOSTR_UPPERCASE 0x04 / put E rather e /
Bit value that can be passed in flags to dtostre(). 23.10.2.4 #dene RAND_MAX 0x7FFF
Highest number that can be generated by rand(). 23.10.2.5 #dene RANDOM_MAX 0x7FFFFFFF
Highest number that can be generated by random().
23.10.3 23.10.3.1
Typedef Documentation typedef int( __compar_fn_t)(const void , const void )
Comparision function type for qsort(), just for convenience.
23.10.4 23.10.4.1
Function Documentation void abort ( void )
The abort() function causes abnormal program termination to occur. This realization disables interrupts and jumps to _exit() function with argument equal to 1. In the limited AVR environment, execution is effectively halted by entering an innite loop. 23.10.4.2 int abs ( int i )
The abs() function computes the absolute value of the integer i. Note The abs() and labs() functions are builtins of gcc. double atof ( const char nptr )
23.10.4.3
The atof() function converts the initial portion of the string pointed to by nptr to double representation. It is equivalent to calling
strtod(nptr, (char **)0);
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23.10.4.4
int atoi ( const char s )
Convert a string to an integer. The atoi() function converts the initial portion of the string pointed to by s to integer representation. In contrast to
(int)strtol(s, (char **)NULL, 10);
this function does not detect overow (errno is not changed and the result value is not predictable), uses smaller memory (ash and stack) and works more quickly. 23.10.4.5 long atol ( const char s )
Convert a string to a long integer. The atol() function converts the initial portion of the string pointed to by s to long integer representation. In contrast to
strtol(s, (char **)NULL, 10);
this function does not detect overow (errno is not changed and the result value is not predictable), uses smaller memory (ash and stack) and works more quickly. 23.10.4.6 void bsearch ( const void key, const void base, size t nmemb, size t size, int()(const void , const void ) compar )
The bsearch() function searches an array of nmemb objects, the initial member of which is pointed to by base, for a member that matches the object pointed to by key. The size of each member of the array is specied by size. The contents of the array should be in ascending sorted order according to the comparison function referenced by compar. The compar routine is expected to have two arguments which point to the key object and to an array member, in that order, and should return an integer less than, equal to, or greater than zero if the key object is found, respectively, to be less than, to match, or be greater than the array member. The bsearch() function returns a pointer to a matching member of the array, or a null pointer if no match is found. If two members compare as equal, which member is matched is unspecied. 23.10.4.7 void calloc ( size t nele, size t size )
Allocate nele elements of size each. Identical to calling malloc() using nele size as argument, except the allocated memory will be cleared to zero. 23.10.4.8 div_t div ( int num, int denom ) The div() function computes the value num/denom and returns the quotient and remainder in a structure named div_t that contains two int members named quot and
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rem.
23.10.4.9 char dtostre ( double val, char s, unsigned char prec, unsigned char ags )
The dtostre() function converts the double value passed in val into an ASCII representation that will be stored under s. The caller is responsible for providing sufcient storage in s. Conversion is done in the format "[-]d.dddedd" where there is one digit before the decimal-point character and the number of digits after it is equal to the precision prec; if the precision is zero, no decimal-point character appears. If flags has the DTOSTRE_UPPERCASE bit set, the letter E (rather than e ) will be used to introduce the exponent. The exponent always contains two digits; if the value is zero, the exponent is "00". If flags has the DTOSTRE_ALWAYS_SIGN bit set, a space character will be placed into the leading position for positive numbers. If flags has the DTOSTRE_PLUS_SIGN bit set, a plus sign will be used instead of a space character in this case. The dtostre() function returns the pointer to the converted string s. 23.10.4.10 char dtostrf ( double val, signed char width, unsigned char prec, char s )
The dtostrf() function converts the double value passed in val into an ASCII representationthat will be stored under s. The caller is responsible for providing sufcient storage in s. Conversion is done in the format "[-]d.ddd". The minimum eld width of the output string (including the . and the possible sign for negative values) is given in width, and prec determines the number of digits after the decimal sign. width is signed value, negative for left adjustment. The dtostrf() function returns the pointer to the converted string s. 23.10.4.11 void exit ( int status )
The exit() function terminates the application. Since there is no environment to return to, status is ignored, and code execution will eventually reach an innite loop, thereby effectively halting all code processing. Before entering the innite loop, interrupts are globally disabled. In a C++ context, global destructors will be called before halting execution.
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23.10.4.12
void free ( void ptr )
The free() function causes the allocated memory referenced by ptr to be made available for future allocations. If ptr is NULL, no action occurs. 23.10.4.13 char itoa ( int val, char s, int radix )
Convert an integer to a string. The function itoa() converts the integer value from val into an ASCII representation that will be stored under s. The caller is responsible for providing sufcient storage in s. Note The minimal size of the buffer s depends on the choice of radix. For example, if the radix is 2 (binary), you need to supply a buffer with a minimal length of 8 sizeof (int) + 1 characters, i.e. one character for each bit plus one for the string terminator. Using a larger radix will require a smaller minimal buffer size.
Warning If the buffer is too small, you risk a buffer overow. Conversion is done using the radix as base, which may be a number between 2 (binary conversion) and up to 36. If radix is greater than 10, the next digit after 9 will be the letter a. If radix is 10 and val is negative, a minus sign will be prepended. The itoa() function returns the pointer passed as s. 23.10.4.14 long labs ( long i )
The labs() function computes the absolute value of the long integer i. Note The abs() and labs() functions are builtins of gcc. 23.10.4.15 ldiv_t ldiv ( long num, long denom ) The ldiv() function computes the value num/denom and returns the quotient and remainder in a structure named ldiv_t that contains two long integer members named quot and rem. 23.10.4.16 char ltoa ( long int val, char s, int radix )
Convert a long integer to a string.
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The function ltoa() converts the long integer value from val into an ASCII representation that will be stored under s. The caller is responsible for providing sufcient storage in s. Note The minimal size of the buffer s depends on the choice of radix. For example, if the radix is 2 (binary), you need to supply a buffer with a minimal length of 8 sizeof (long int) + 1 characters, i.e. one character for each bit plus one for the string terminator. Using a larger radix will require a smaller minimal buffer size.
Warning If the buffer is too small, you risk a buffer overow. Conversion is done using the radix as base, which may be a number between 2 (binary conversion) and up to 36. If radix is greater than 10, the next digit after 9 will be the letter a. If radix is 10 and val is negative, a minus sign will be prepended. The ltoa() function returns the pointer passed as s. 23.10.4.17 void malloc ( size t size )
The malloc() function allocates size bytes of memory. If malloc() fails, a NULL pointer is returned. Note that malloc() does not initialize the returned memory to zero bytes. See the chapter about malloc() usage for implementation details. 23.10.4.18 void qsort ( void base, size t nmemb, size t size, __compar_fn_t compar )
The qsort() function is a modied partition-exchange sort, or quicksort. The qsort() function sorts an array of nmemb objects, the initial member of which is pointed to by base. The size of each object is specied by size. The contents of the array base are sorted in ascending order according to a comparison function pointed to by compar, which requires two arguments pointing to the objects being compared. The comparison function must return an integer less than, equal to, or greater than zero if the rst argument is considered to be respectively less than, equal to, or greater than the second. 23.10.4.19 int rand ( void )
The rand() function computes a sequence of pseudo-random integers in the range of 0 to RAND_MAX (as dened by the header le <stdlib.h>).
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The srand() function sets its argument seed as the seed for a new sequence of pseudorandom numbers to be returned by rand(). These sequences are repeatable by calling srand() with the same seed value. If no seed value is provided, the functions are automatically seeded with a value of 1. In compliance with the C standard, these functions operate on int arguments. Since the underlying algorithm already uses 32-bit calculations, this causes a loss of precision. See random() for an alternate set of functions that retains full 32-bit precision. 23.10.4.20 int rand_r ( unsigned long ctx )
Variant of rand() that stores the context in the user-supplied variable located at ctx instead of a static library variable so the function becomes re-entrant. 23.10.4.21 long random ( void )
The random() function computes a sequence of pseudo-random integers in the range of 0 to RANDOM_MAX (as dened by the header le <stdlib.h>). The srandom() function sets its argument seed as the seed for a new sequence of pseudo-random numbers to be returned by rand(). These sequences are repeatable by calling srandom() with the same seed value. If no seed value is provided, the functions are automatically seeded with a value of 1. 23.10.4.22 long random_r ( unsigned long ctx )
Variant of random() that stores the context in the user-supplied variable located at ctx instead of a static library variable so the function becomes re-entrant. 23.10.4.23 void realloc ( void ptr, size t size )
The realloc() function tries to change the size of the region allocated at ptr to the new size value. It returns a pointer to the new region. The returned pointer might be the same as the old pointer, or a pointer to a completely different region. The contents of the returned region up to either the old or the new size value (whatever is less) will be identical to the contents of the old region, even in case a new region had to be allocated. It is acceptable to pass ptr as NULL, in which case realloc() will behave identical to malloc(). If the new memory cannot be allocated, realloc() returns NULL, and the region at ptr will not be changed. 23.10.4.24 void srand ( unsigned int seed )
Pseudo-random number generator seeding; see rand().
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23.10.4.25
void srandom ( unsigned long seed )
Pseudo-random number generator seeding; see random(). 23.10.4.26 double strtod ( const char nptr, char endptr )
The strtod() function converts the initial portion of the string pointed to by nptr to double representation. The expected form of the string is an optional plus ( + ) or minus sign ( - ) followed by a sequence of digits optionally containing a decimal-point character, optionally followed by an exponent. An exponent consists of an E or e, followed by an optional plus or minus sign, followed by a sequence of digits. Leading white-space characters in the string are skipped. The strtod() function returns the converted value, if any. If endptr is not NULL, a pointer to the character after the last character used in the conversion is stored in the location referenced by endptr . If no conversion is performed, zero is returned and the value of nptr is stored in the location referenced by endptr . If the correct value would cause overow, plus or minus INFINITY is returned (according to the sign of the value), and ERANGE is stored in errno. If the correct value would cause underow, zero is returned and ERANGE is stored in errno. 23.10.4.27 long strtol ( const char nptr, char endptr, int base )
The strtol() function converts the string in nptr to a long value. The conversion is done according to the given base, which must be between 2 and 36 inclusive, or be the special value 0. The string may begin with an arbitrary amount of white space (as determined by isspace()) followed by a single optional + or - sign. If base is zero or 16, the string may then include a "0x" prex, and the number will be read in base 16; otherwise, a zero base is taken as 10 (decimal) unless the next character is 0, in which case it is taken as 8 (octal). The remainder of the string is converted to a long value in the obvious manner, stopping at the rst character which is not a valid digit in the given base. (In bases above 10, the letter A in either upper or lower case represents 10, B represents 11, and so forth, with Z representing 35.) If endptr is not NULL, strtol() stores the address of the rst invalid character in endptr. If there were no digits at all, however, strtol() stores the original value of nptr in endptr. (Thus, if nptr is not \0 but endptr is \0 on return, the entire string was valid.) The strtol() function returns the result of the conversion, unless the value would under-
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ow or overow. If no conversion could be performed, 0 is returned. If an overow or underow occurs, errno is set to ERANGE and the function return value is clamped to LONG_MIN or LONG_MAX, respectively. 23.10.4.28 unsigned long strtoul ( const char nptr, char endptr, int base )
The strtoul() function converts the string in nptr to an unsigned long value. The conversion is done according to the given base, which must be between 2 and 36 inclusive, or be the special value 0. The string may begin with an arbitrary amount of white space (as determined by isspace()) followed by a single optional + or - sign. If base is zero or 16, the string may then include a "0x" prex, and the number will be read in base 16; otherwise, a zero base is taken as 10 (decimal) unless the next character is 0, in which case it is taken as 8 (octal). The remainder of the string is converted to an unsigned long value in the obvious manner, stopping at the rst character which is not a valid digit in the given base. (In bases above 10, the letter A in either upper or lower case represents 10, B represents 11, and so forth, with Z representing 35.) If endptr is not NULL, strtoul() stores the address of the rst invalid character in endptr. If there were no digits at all, however, strtoul() stores the original value of nptr in endptr. (Thus, if nptr is not \0 but endptr is \0 on return, the entire string was valid.) The strtoul() function return either the result of the conversion or, if there was a leading minus sign, the negation of the result of the conversion, unless the original (nonnegated) value would overow; in the latter case, strtoul() returns ULONG_MAX, and errno is set to ERANGE. If no conversion could be performed, 0 is returned. 23.10.4.29 char ultoa ( unsigned long int val, char s, int radix )
Convert an unsigned long integer to a string. The function ultoa() converts the unsigned long integer value from val into an ASCII representation that will be stored under s. The caller is responsible for providing sufcient storage in s. Note The minimal size of the buffer s depends on the choice of radix. For example, if the radix is 2 (binary), you need to supply a buffer with a minimal length of 8 sizeof (unsigned long int) + 1 characters, i.e. one character for each bit plus one for the string terminator. Using a larger radix will require a smaller minimal buffer size.
Warning If the buffer is too small, you risk a buffer overow.
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Conversion is done using the radix as base, which may be a number between 2 (binary conversion) and up to 36. If radix is greater than 10, the next digit after 9 will be the letter a. The ultoa() function returns the pointer passed as s. 23.10.4.30 char utoa ( unsigned int val, char s, int radix )
Convert an unsigned integer to a string. The function utoa() converts the unsigned integer value from val into an ASCII representation that will be stored under s. The caller is responsible for providing sufcient storage in s. Note The minimal size of the buffer s depends on the choice of radix. For example, if the radix is 2 (binary), you need to supply a buffer with a minimal length of 8 sizeof (unsigned int) + 1 characters, i.e. one character for each bit plus one for the string terminator. Using a larger radix will require a smaller minimal buffer size.
Warning If the buffer is too small, you risk a buffer overow. Conversion is done using the radix as base, which may be a number between 2 (binary conversion) and up to 36. If radix is greater than 10, the next digit after 9 will be the letter a. The utoa() function returns the pointer passed as s.
23.10.5 23.10.5.1
Variable Documentation char __malloc_heap_end
malloc() tunable.
23.10.5.2 char __malloc_heap_start
malloc() tunable.
23.10.5.3 size t __malloc_margin
malloc() tunable.
23.11 <string.h>: Strings
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Denes #dene _FFS(x)
Functions int ffs (int __val) int ffsl (long __val) int ffsll (long long __val) void memccpy (void , const void , int, size_t) void memchr (const void , int, size_t) __ATTR_PURE__ int memcmp (const void , const void , size_t) __ATTR_PURE__ void memcpy (void , const void , size_t) void memmem (const void , size_t, const void , size_t) __ATTR_PURE__ void memmove (void , const void , size_t) void memrchr (const void , int, size_t) __ATTR_PURE__ void memset (void , int, size_t) int strcasecmp (const char , const char ) __ATTR_PURE__ char strcasestr (const char , const char ) __ATTR_PURE__ char strcat (char , const char ) char strchr (const char , int) __ATTR_PURE__ char strchrnul (const char , int) __ATTR_PURE__ int strcmp (const char , const char ) __ATTR_PURE__ char strcpy (char , const char ) size_t strcspn (const char __s, const char __reject) __ATTR_PURE__ char strdup (const char s1) size_t strlcat (char , const char , size_t) size_t strlcpy (char , const char , size_t) size_t strlen (const char ) __ATTR_PURE__ char strlwr (char ) int strncasecmp (const char , const char , size_t) __ATTR_PURE__ char strncat (char , const char , size_t) int strncmp (const char , const char , size_t) __ATTR_PURE__ char strncpy (char , const char , size_t) size_t strnlen (const char , size_t) __ATTR_PURE__ char strpbrk (const char __s, const char __accept) __ATTR_PURE__ char strrchr (const char , int) __ATTR_PURE__ char strrev (char ) char strsep (char , const char ) size_t strspn (const char __s, const char __accept) __ATTR_PURE__ char strstr (const char , const char ) __ATTR_PURE__
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char strtok (char , const char ) char strtok_r (char , const char , char ) char strupr (char )
23.11.1
#include <string.h>
The string functions perform string operations on NULL terminated strings. Note If the strings you are working on resident in program space (ash), you will need to use the string functions described in <avr/pgmspace.h>: Program Space Utilities.
23.11.2 23.11.2.1
Dene Documentation #dene _FFS( x )
This macro nds the rst (least signicant) bit set in the input value. This macro is very similar to the function ffs() except that it evaluates its argument at compile-time, so it should only be applied to compile-time constant expressions where it will reduce to a constant itself. Application of this macro to expressions that are not constant at compile-time is not recommended, and might result in a huge amount of code generated. Returns The _FFS() macro returns the position of the rst (least signicant) bit set in the word val, or 0 if no bits are set. The least signicant bit is position 1. Only 16 bits of argument are evaluted.
23.11.3 23.11.3.1
Function Documentation int ffs ( int val )
This function nds the rst (least signicant) bit set in the input value. Returns The ffs() function returns the position of the rst (least signicant) bit set in the word val, or 0 if no bits are set. The least signicant bit is position 1.
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Note For expressions that are constant at compile time, consider using the _FFS macro instead.
23.11.3.2
int ffsl ( long val )
Same as ffs(), for an argument of type long. 23.11.3.3 int ffsll ( long long val )
Same as ffs(), for an argument of type long long. 23.11.3.4 void memccpy ( void dest, const void src, int val, size t len )
Copy memory area. The memccpy() function copies no more than len bytes from memory area src to memory area dest, stopping when the character val is found. Returns The memccpy() function returns a pointer to the next character in dest after val, or NULL if val was not found in the rst len characters of src.
23.11.3.5
void memchr ( const void src, int val, size t len )
Scan memory for a character. The memchr() function scans the rst len bytes of the memory area pointed to by src for the character val. The rst byte to match val (interpreted as an unsigned character) stops the operation. Returns The memchr() function returns a pointer to the matching byte or NULL if the character does not occur in the given memory area.
23.11.3.6
int memcmp ( const void s1, const void s2, size t len )
Compare memory areas. The memcmp() function compares the rst len bytes of the memory areas s1 and s2. The comparision is performed using unsigned char operations.
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Returns The memcmp() function returns an integer less than, equal to, or greater than zero if the rst len bytes of s1 is found, respectively, to be less than, to match, or be greater than the rst len bytes of s2.
Note Be sure to store the result in a 16 bit variable since you may get incorrect results if you use an unsigned char or char due to truncation.
Warning This function is not -mint8 compatible, although if you only care about testing for equality, this function should be safe to use. 23.11.3.7 void memcpy ( void dest, const void src, size t len )
Copy a memory area. The memcpy() function copies len bytes from memory area src to memory area dest. The memory areas may not overlap. Use memmove() if the memory areas do overlap. Returns The memcpy() function returns a pointer to dest. 23.11.3.8 void memmem ( const void s1, size t len1, const void s2, size t len2 )
The memmem() function nds the start of the rst occurrence of the substring s2 of length len2 in the memory area s1 of length len1. Returns The memmem() function returns a pointer to the beginning of the substring, or NULL if the substring is not found. If len2 is zero, the function returns s1. 23.11.3.9 void memmove ( void dest, const void src, size t len )
Copy memory area. The memmove() function copies len bytes from memory area src to memory area dest. The memory areas may overlap. Returns The memmove() function returns a pointer to dest.
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23.11.3.10
void memrchr ( const void src, int val, size t len )
The memrchr() function is like the memchr() function, except that it searches backwards from the end of the len bytes pointed to by src instead of forwards from the front. (Glibc, GNU extension.) Returns The memrchr() function returns a pointer to the matching byte or NULL if the character does not occur in the given memory area. void memset ( void dest, int val, size t len )
23.11.3.11
Fill memory with a constant byte. The memset() function lls the rst len bytes of the memory area pointed to by dest with the constant byte val. Returns The memset() function returns a pointer to the memory area dest. int strcasecmp ( const char s1, const char s2 )
23.11.3.12
Compare two strings ignoring case. The strcasecmp() function compares the two strings s1 and s2, ignoring the case of the characters. Returns The strcasecmp() function returns an integer less than, equal to, or greater than zero if s1 is found, respectively, to be less than, to match, or be greater than s2. A consequence of the ordering used by strcasecmp() is that if s1 is an initial substring of s2, then s1 is considered to be "less than" s2. char strcasestr ( const char s1, const char s2 )
23.11.3.13
The strcasestr() function nds the rst occurrence of the substring s2 in the string s1. This is like strstr(), except that it ignores case of alphabetic symbols in searching for the substring. (Glibc, GNU extension.) Returns The strcasestr() function returns a pointer to the beginning of the substring, or NULL if the substring is not found. If s2 points to a string of zero length, the function returns s1.
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23.11.3.14
char strcat ( char dest, const char src )
Concatenate two strings. The strcat() function appends the src string to the dest string overwriting the \0 character at the end of dest, and then adds a terminating \0 character. The strings may not overlap, and the dest string must have enough space for the result. Returns The strcat() function returns a pointer to the resulting string dest. 23.11.3.15 char strchr ( const char src, int val )
Locate character in string. The strchr() function returns a pointer to the rst occurrence of the character val in the string src. Here "character" means "byte" - these functions do not work with wide or multi-byte characters. Returns The strchr() function returns a pointer to the matched character or NULL if the character is not found. 23.11.3.16 char strchrnul ( const char s, int c )
The strchrnul() function is like strchr() except that if c is not found in s, then it returns a pointer to the null byte at the end of s, rather than NULL. (Glibc, GNU extension.) Returns The strchrnul() function returns a pointer to the matched character, or a pointer to the null byte at the end of s (i.e., s+strlen(s)) if the character is not found. 23.11.3.17 int strcmp ( const char s1, const char s2 )
Compare two strings. The strcmp() function compares the two strings s1 and s2. Returns The strcmp() function returns an integer less than, equal to, or greater than zero if s1 is found, respectively, to be less than, to match, or be greater than s2. A consequence of the ordering used by strcmp() is that if s1 is an initial substring of s2, then s1 is considered to be "less than" s2.
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23.11.3.18
char strcpy ( char dest, const char src )
Copy a string. The strcpy() function copies the string pointed to by src (including the terminating \0 character) to the array pointed to by dest. The strings may not overlap, and the destination string dest must be large enough to receive the copy. Returns The strcpy() function returns a pointer to the destination string dest.
Note If the destination string of a strcpy() is not large enough (that is, if the programmer was stupid/lazy, and failed to check the size before copying) then anything might happen. Overowing xed length strings is a favourite cracker technique.
23.11.3.19
size t strcspn ( const char s, const char reject )
The strcspn() function calculates the length of the initial segment of s which consists entirely of characters not in reject. Returns The strcspn() function returns the number of characters in the initial segment of s which are not in the string reject. The terminating zero is not considered as a part of string.
23.11.3.20
char strdup ( const char s1 )
Duplicate a string. The strdup() function allocates memory and copies into it the string addressed by s1, including the terminating null character. Warning The strdup() function calls malloc() to allocate the memory for the duplicated string! The user is responsible for freeing the memory by calling free().
Returns The strdup() function returns a pointer to the resulting string dest. If malloc() cannot allocate enough storage for the string, strdup() will return NULL.
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Warning Be sure to check the return value of the strdup() function to make sure that the function has succeeded in allocating the memory!
23.11.3.21
size t strlcat ( char dst, const char src, size t siz )
Concatenate two strings. Appends src to string dst of size siz (unlike strncat(), siz is the full size of dst, not space left). At most siz-1 characters will be copied. Always NULL terminates (unless siz <= strlen(dst)). Returns The strlcat() function returns strlen(src) + MIN(siz, strlen(initial dst)). If retval >= siz, truncation occurred. Appends src to string dst of size siz (unlike strncat(), siz is the full size of dst, not space left). At most siz-1 characters will be copied. Always NULL terminates (unless siz <= strlen(dst)). Returns The strlcat() function returns strlen(src) + MIN(siz, strlen(initial dst)). If retval >= siz, truncation occurred.
23.11.3.22
size t strlcpy ( char dst, const char src, size t siz )
Copy a string. Copy src to string dst of size siz. At most siz-1 characters will be copied. Always NULL terminates (unless siz == 0). Returns The strlcpy() function returns strlen(src). If retval >= siz, truncation occurred. Copy src to string dst of size siz. At most siz-1 characters will be copied. Always NULL terminates (unless siz == 0). Returns The strlcpy() function returns strlen(src). If retval >= siz, truncation occurred.
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23.11.3.23
size t strlen ( const char src )
Calculate the length of a string. The strlen() function calculates the length of the string src, not including the terminating \0 character. Returns The strlen() function returns the number of characters in src.
23.11.3.24
char strlwr ( char s )
Convert a string to lower case. The strlwr() function will convert a string to lower case. Only the upper case alphabetic characters [A .. Z] are converted. Non-alphabetic characters will not be changed. Returns The strlwr() function returns a pointer to the converted string.
23.11.3.25
int strncasecmp ( const char s1, const char s2, size t len )
Compare two strings ignoring case. The strncasecmp() function is similar to strcasecmp(), except it only compares the rst len characters of s1. Returns The strncasecmp() function returns an integer less than, equal to, or greater than zero if s1 (or the rst len bytes thereof) is found, respectively, to be less than, to match, or be greater than s2. A consequence of the ordering used by strncasecmp() is that if s1 is an initial substring of s2, then s1 is considered to be "less than" s2.
23.11.3.26
char strncat ( char dest, const char src, size t len )
Concatenate two strings. The strncat() function is similar to strcat(), except that only the rst n characters of src are appended to dest. Returns The strncat() function returns a pointer to the resulting string dest.
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23.11.3.27
int strncmp ( const char s1, const char s2, size t len )
Compare two strings. The strncmp() function is similar to strcmp(), except it only compares the rst (at most) n characters of s1 and s2. Returns The strncmp() function returns an integer less than, equal to, or greater than zero if s1 (or the rst n bytes thereof) is found, respectively, to be less than, to match, or be greater than s2.
23.11.3.28
char strncpy ( char dest, const char src, size t len )
Copy a string. The strncpy() function is similar to strcpy(), except that not more than n bytes of src are copied. Thus, if there is no null byte among the rst n bytes of src, the result will not be null-terminated. In the case where the length of src is less than that of n, the remainder of dest will be padded with nulls. Returns The strncpy() function returns a pointer to the destination string dest.
23.11.3.29
size t strnlen ( const char src, size t len )
Determine the length of a xed-size string. The strnlen function returns the number of characters in the string pointed to by src, not including the terminating \0 character, but at most len. In doing this, strnlen looks only at the rst len characters at src and never beyond src+len. Returns The strnlen function returns strlen(src), if that is less than len, or len if there is no \0 character among the rst len characters pointed to by src.
23.11.3.30
char strpbrk ( const char s, const char accept )
The strpbrk() function locates the rst occurrence in the string s of any of the characters in the string accept.
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Returns The strpbrk() function returns a pointer to the character in s that matches one of the characters in accept, or NULL if no such character is found. The terminating zero is not considered as a part of string: if one or both args are empty, the result will NULL.
23.11.3.31
char strrchr ( const char src, int val )
Locate character in string. The strrchr() function returns a pointer to the last occurrence of the character val in the string src. Here "character" means "byte" - these functions do not work with wide or multi-byte characters. Returns The strrchr() function returns a pointer to the matched character or NULL if the character is not found.
23.11.3.32
char strrev ( char s )
Reverse a string. The strrev() function reverses the order of the string. Returns The strrev() function returns a pointer to the beginning of the reversed string.
23.11.3.33
char strsep ( char sp, const char delim )
Parse a string into tokens. The strsep() function locates, in the string referenced by sp, the rst occurrence of any character in the string delim (or the terminating \0 character) and replaces it with a \0. The location of the next character after the delimiter character (or NULL, if the end of the string was reached) is stored in sp. An empty eld, i.e. one caused by two adjacent delimiter characters, can be detected by comparing the location referenced by the pointer returned in sp to \0. Returns The strsep() function returns a pointer to the original value of sp. If sp is initially
NULL, strsep() returns NULL.
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23.11.3.34
size t strspn ( const char s, const char accept )
The strspn() function calculates the length of the initial segment of s which consists entirely of characters in accept. Returns The strspn() function returns the number of characters in the initial segment of s which consist only of characters from accept. The terminating zero is not considered as a part of string. char strstr ( const char s1, const char s2 )
23.11.3.35
Locate a substring. The strstr() function nds the rst occurrence of the substring s2 in the string s1. The terminating \0 characters are not compared. Returns The strstr() function returns a pointer to the beginning of the substring, or NULL if the substring is not found. If s2 points to a string of zero length, the function returns s1. char strtok ( char s, const char delim )
23.11.3.36
Parses the string s into tokens. strtok parses the string s into tokens. The rst call to strtok should have s as its rst argument. Subsequent calls should have the rst argument set to NULL. If a token ends with a delimiter, this delimiting character is overwritten with a \0 and a pointer to the next character is saved for the next call to strtok. The delimiter string delim may be different for each call. Returns The strtok() function returns a pointer to the next token or NULL when no more tokens are found.
Note strtok() is NOT reentrant. For a reentrant version of this function see strtok_r(). char strtok_r ( char string, const char delim, char last )
23.11.3.37
Parses string into tokens.
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strtok_r parses string into tokens. The rst call to strtok_r should have string as its rst argument. Subsequent calls should have the rst argument set to NULL. If a token ends with a delimiter, this delimiting character is overwritten with a \0 and a pointer to the next character is saved for the next call to strtok_r. The delimiter string delim may be different for each call. last is a user allocated char pointer. It must be the same while parsing the same string. strtok_r is a reentrant version of strtok(). Returns The strtok_r() function returns a pointer to the next token or NULL when no more tokens are found.
23.11.3.38
char strupr ( char s )
Convert a string to upper case. The strupr() function will convert a string to upper case. Only the lower case alphabetic characters [a .. z] are converted. Non-alphabetic characters will not be changed. Returns The strupr() function returns a pointer to the converted string. The pointer is the same as that passed in since the operation is perform in place.
23.12 <avr/boot.h>: Bootloader Support Utilities
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Denes #dene BOOTLOADER_SECTION __attribute__ ((section (".bootloader"))) #dene boot_spm_interrupt_enable() (__SPM_REG |= (uint8_t)_BV(SPMIE)) #dene boot_spm_interrupt_disable() (__SPM_REG &= (uint8_t)_BV(SPMIE)) #dene boot_is_spm_interrupt() (__SPM_REG & (uint8_t)_BV(SPMIE)) #dene boot_rww_busy() (__SPM_REG & (uint8_t)_BV(__COMMON_ASB)) #dene boot_spm_busy() (__SPM_REG & (uint8_t)_BV(__SPM_ENABLE)) #dene boot_spm_busy_wait() do{}while(boot_spm_busy()) #dene GET_LOW_FUSE_BITS (0x0000) #dene GET_LOCK_BITS (0x0001) #dene GET_EXTENDED_FUSE_BITS (0x0002) #dene GET_HIGH_FUSE_BITS (0x0003) #dene boot_lock_fuse_bits_get(address) #dene boot_signature_byte_get(addr) #dene boot_page_ll(address, data) __boot_page_ll_normal(address, data) #dene boot_page_erase(address) __boot_page_erase_normal(address) #dene boot_page_write(address) __boot_page_write_normal(address) #dene boot_rww_enable() __boot_rww_enable() #dene boot_lock_bits_set(lock_bits) __boot_lock_bits_set(lock_bits) #dene boot_page_ll_safe(address, data) #dene boot_page_erase_safe(address) #dene boot_page_write_safe(address) #dene boot_rww_enable_safe() #dene boot_lock_bits_set_safe(lock_bits)
23.12.1
#include <avr/io.h> #include <avr/boot.h>
The macros in this module provide a C language interface to the bootloader support functionality of certain AVR processors. These macros are designed to work with all sizes of ash memory. Global interrupts are not automatically disabled for these macros. It is left up to the programmer to do this. See the code example below. Also see the processor datasheet for caveats on having global interrupts enabled during writing of the Flash.
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Note Not all AVR processors provide bootloader support. See your processor datasheet to see if it provides bootloader support. Todo From email with Marek: On smaller devices (all except ATmega64/128), __SPM_REG is in the I/O space, accessible with the shorter "in" and "out" instructions since the boot loader has a limited size, this could be an important optimization. API Usage Example The following code shows typical usage of the boot API.
#include <inttypes.h> #include <avr/interrupt.h> #include <avr/pgmspace.h> void boot_program_page (uint32_t page, uint8_t *buf) { uint16_t i; uint8_t sreg; // Disable interrupts. sreg = SREG; cli(); eeprom_busy_wait (); boot_page_erase (page); boot_spm_busy_wait ();
// Wait until the memory is erased.
for (i=0; i<SPM_PAGESIZE; i+=2) { // Set up little-endian word. uint16_t w = *buf++; w += (*buf++) << 8; boot_page_fill (page + i, w); } boot_page_write (page); boot_spm_busy_wait(); // Store buffer in flash page. // Wait until the memory is written.
// Reenable RWW-section again. We need this if we want to jump back // to the application after bootloading. boot_rww_enable (); // Re-enable interrupts (if they were ever enabled). SREG = sreg; }
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23.12.2 23.12.2.1
Dene Documentation #dene boot_is_spm_interrupt( ) ( SPM REG & (uint8_t)_BV(SPMIE))
Check if the SPM interrupt is enabled. 23.12.2.2 #dene boot_lock_bits_set( lock bits ) boot lock bits set(lock bits)
Set the bootloader lock bits. Parameters lock_bits A mask of which Boot Loader Lock Bits to set.
Note In this context, a set bit will be written to a zero value. Note also that only BLBxx bits can be programmed by this command. For example, to disallow the SPM instruction from writing to the Boot Loader memory section of ash, you would use this macro as such:
boot_lock_bits_set (_BV (BLB11));
Note Like any lock bits, the Boot Loader Lock Bits, once set, cannot be cleared again except by a chip erase which will in turn also erase the boot loader itself.
23.12.2.3 Value:
#dene boot_lock_bits_set_safe( lock bits )
do { \ boot_spm_busy_wait(); eeprom_busy_wait(); boot_lock_bits_set (lock_bits); } while (0)
\ \ \
Same as boot_lock_bits_set() except waits for eeprom and spm operations to complete before setting the lock bits. 23.12.2.4 Value:
(__extension__({ \
#dene boot_lock_fuse_bits_get( address )
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uint8_t __result; __asm__ __volatile__ ( "sts %1, %2\n\t" "lpm %0, Z\n\t" : "=r" (__result) : "i" (_SFR_MEM_ADDR(__SPM_REG)), "r" ((uint8_t)(__BOOT_LOCK_BITS_SET)), "z" ((uint16_t)(address)) ); __result; }))
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
Read the lock or fuse bits at address. Parameter address can be any of GET_LOW_FUSE_BITS, GET_LOCK_BITS, GET_EXTENDED_FUSE_BITS, or GET_HIGH_FUSE_BITS. Note The lock and fuse bits returned are the physical values, i.e. a bit returned as 0 means the corresponding fuse or lock bit is programmed.
23.12.2.5
#dene boot_page_erase( address ) boot page erase normal(address)
Erase the ash page that contains address. Note address is a byte address in ash, not a word address.
23.12.2.6 Value:
#dene boot_page_erase_safe( address )
do { \ boot_spm_busy_wait(); eeprom_busy_wait(); boot_page_erase (address); } while (0)
\ \ \
Same as boot_page_erase() except it waits for eeprom and spm operations to complete before erasing the page. 23.12.2.7 #dene boot_page_ll( address, data ) boot page ll normal(address, data)
Fill the bootloader temporary page buffer for ash address with data word.
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Note The address is a byte address. The data is a word. The AVR writes data to the buffer a word at a time, but addresses the buffer per byte! So, increment your address by 2 between calls, and send 2 data bytes in a word format! The LSB of the data is written to the lower address; the MSB of the data is written to the higher address.
23.12.2.8 Value:
#dene boot_page_ll_safe( address, data )
do { \ boot_spm_busy_wait(); eeprom_busy_wait(); boot_page_fill(address, data); } while (0)
\ \ \
Same as boot_page_ll() except it waits for eeprom and spm operations to complete before lling the page. 23.12.2.9 #dene boot_page_write( address ) boot page write normal(address)
Write the bootloader temporary page buffer to ash page that contains address. Note address is a byte address in ash, not a word address.
23.12.2.10 Value:
#dene boot_page_write_safe( address )
do { \ boot_spm_busy_wait(); eeprom_busy_wait(); boot_page_write (address); } while (0)
\ \ \
Same as boot_page_write() except it waits for eeprom and spm operations to complete before writing the page. 23.12.2.11 #dene boot_rww_busy( ) ( SPM REG & (uint8_t)_BV( COMMON ASB))
Check if the RWW section is busy. 23.12.2.12 #dene boot_rww_enable( ) boot rww enable()
Enable the Read-While-Write memory section.
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23.12.2.13 Value:
#dene boot_rww_enable_safe( )
do { \ boot_spm_busy_wait(); eeprom_busy_wait(); boot_rww_enable(); } while (0)
\ \ \
Same as boot_rww_enable() except waits for eeprom and spm operations to complete before enabling the RWW mameory. 23.12.2.14 Value:
(__extension__({ \ uint8_t __result; __asm__ __volatile__ ( "sts %1, %2\n\t" "lpm %0, Z" "\n\t" : "=r" (__result) : "i" (_SFR_MEM_ADDR(__SPM_REG)), "r" ((uint8_t)(__BOOT_SIGROW_READ)), "z" ((uint16_t)(addr)) ); __result; }))
#dene boot_signature_byte_get( addr )
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
Read the Signature Row byte at address. For some MCU types, this function can also retrieve the factory-stored oscillator calibration bytes. Parameter address can be 0-0x1f as documented by the datasheet. Note The values are MCU type dependent. 23.12.2.15 #dene boot_spm_busy( ) ( SPM REG & (uint8_t)_BV( SPM ENABLE))
Check if the SPM instruction is busy. 23.12.2.16 #dene boot_spm_busy_wait( ) do{}while(boot_spm_busy())
Wait while the SPM instruction is busy. 23.12.2.17 #dene boot_spm_interrupt_disable( (uint8_t)_BV(SPMIE)) ) ( SPM REG &=
Disable the SPM interrupt.
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23.12.2.18
#dene boot_spm_interrupt_enable( ) ( SPM REG |= (uint8_t)_BV(SPMIE))
Enable the SPM interrupt. 23.12.2.19 #dene BOOTLOADER_SECTION attribute ((section (.bootloader)))
Used to declare a function or variable to be placed into a new section called .bootloader. This section and its contents can then be relocated to any address (such as the bootloader NRWW area) at link-time. 23.12.2.20 #dene GET_EXTENDED_FUSE_BITS (0x0002)
address to read the extended fuse bits, using boot_lock_fuse_bits_get 23.12.2.21 #dene GET_HIGH_FUSE_BITS (0x0003)
address to read the high fuse bits, using boot_lock_fuse_bits_get 23.12.2.22 #dene GET_LOCK_BITS (0x0001)
address to read the lock bits, using boot_lock_fuse_bits_get 23.12.2.23 #dene GET_LOW_FUSE_BITS (0x0000)
address to read the low fuse bits, using boot_lock_fuse_bits_get
23.13 <avr/cpufunc.h>: Special AVR CPU functions
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23.13 <avr/cpufunc.h>: Special AVR CPU functions

Denes #dene _NOP() #dene _MemoryBarrier()
23.13.1
#include <avr/cpufunc.h>
This header le contains macros that access special functions of the AVR CPU which do not t into any of the other header les.
23.13.2 23.13.2.1
Dene Documentation #dene _MemoryBarrier( )
Implement a read/write memory barrier . A memory barrier instructs the compiler to not cache any memory data in registers beyond the barrier. This can sometimes be more effective than blocking certain optimizations by declaring some object with a volatile qualier. See Problems with reordering code for things to be taken into account with respect to compiler optimizations. 23.13.2.2 #dene _NOP( )
Execute a no operation (NOP) CPU instruction. This should not be used to implement delays, better use the functions from <util/delay_basic.h> or <util/delay.h> for this. For debugging purposes, a NOP can be useful to have an instruction that is guaranteed to be not optimized away by the compiler, so it can always become a breakpoint in the debugger.
23.14 <avr/eeprom.h>: EEPROM handling
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Denes #dene EEMEM __attribute__((section(".eeprom"))) #dene eeprom_is_ready() #dene eeprom_busy_wait() do {} while (!eeprom_is_ready())
Functions uint8_t eeprom_read_byte (const uint8_t __p) __ATTR_PURE__ uint16_t eeprom_read_word (const uint16_t __p) __ATTR_PURE__ uint32_t eeprom_read_dword (const uint32_t __p) __ATTR_PURE__ oat eeprom_read_oat (const oat __p) __ATTR_PURE__ void eeprom_read_block (void __dst, const void __src, size_t __n) void eeprom_write_byte (uint8_t __p, uint8_t __value) void eeprom_write_word (uint16_t __p, uint16_t __value) void eeprom_write_dword (uint32_t __p, uint32_t __value) void eeprom_write_oat (oat __p, oat __value) void eeprom_write_block (const void __src, void __dst, size_t __n) void eeprom_update_byte (uint8_t __p, uint8_t __value) void eeprom_update_word (uint16_t __p, uint16_t __value) void eeprom_update_dword (uint32_t __p, uint32_t __value) void eeprom_update_oat (oat __p, oat __value) void eeprom_update_block (const void __src, void __dst, size_t __n)
IAR C compatibility denes #dene _EEPUT(addr, val) eeprom_write_byte ((uint8_t )(addr), (uint8_t)(val)) #dene __EEPUT(addr, val) eeprom_write_byte ((uint8_t )(addr), (uint8_t)(val)) #dene _EEGET(var, addr) (var) = eeprom_read_byte ((const uint8_t )(addr)) #dene __EEGET(var, addr) (var) = eeprom_read_byte ((const uint8_t )(addr))
23.14.1
#include <avr/eeprom.h>
This header le declares the interface to some simple library routines suitable for handling the data EEPROM contained in the AVR microcontrollers. The implementation uses a simple polled mode interface. Applications that require interrupt-controlled EEPROM access to ensure that no time will be wasted in spinloops will have to deploy their own implementation.
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Notes:
In addition to the write functions there is a set of update ones. This functions read each byte rst and skip the burning if the old value is the same with new. The scaning direction is from high address to low, to obtain quick return in common cases. All of the read/write functions rst make sure the EEPROM is ready to be accessed. Since this may cause long delays if a write operation is still pending, time-critical applications should rst poll the EEPROM e. g. using eeprom_is_ready() before attempting any actual I/O. But this functions are not wait until SELFPRGEN in SPMCSR becomes zero. Do this manually, if your softwate contains the Flash burning. As these functions modify IO registers, they are known to be non-reentrant. If any of these functions are used from both, standard and interrupt context, the applications must ensure proper protection (e.g. by disabling interrupts before accessing them). All write functions force erase_and_write programming mode. For Xmega the EEPROM start address is 0, like other architectures. The reading functions add the 0x2000 value to use EEPROM mapping into data space.
23.14.2 23.14.2.1
Dene Documentation #dene __EEGET( var, addr ) (var) = eeprom_read_byte ((const uint8_t
)(addr))
Read a byte from EEPROM. Compatibility dene for IAR C. 23.14.2.2 #dene __EEPUT( addr, val ) eeprom_write_byte ((uint8_t )(addr), (uint8_t)(val))
Write a byte to EEPROM. Compatibility dene for IAR C. 23.14.2.3 #dene _EEGET( var, addr ) (var) = eeprom_read_byte ((const uint8_t
)(addr))
Read a byte from EEPROM. Compatibility dene for IAR C. 23.14.2.4 #dene _EEPUT( addr, val ) eeprom_write_byte ((uint8_t )(addr), (uint8_t)(val))
Write a byte to EEPROM. Compatibility dene for IAR C.
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23.14.2.5
#dene EEMEM attribute ((section(.eeprom)))
Attribute expression causing a variable to be allocated within the .eeprom section. 23.14.2.6 #dene eeprom_busy_wait( ) do {} while (!eeprom_is_ready())
Loops until the eeprom is no longer busy. Returns Nothing.
23.14.2.7 Returns
#dene eeprom_is_ready( )
1 if EEPROM is ready for a new read/write operation, 0 if not.
23.14.3 23.14.3.1
Function Documentation void eeprom_read_block ( void dst, const void src, size t n )
Read a block of __n bytes from EEPROM address __src to SRAM __dst . 23.14.3.2 uint8_t eeprom_read_byte ( const uint8_t p ) Read one byte from EEPROM address __p. 23.14.3.3 uint32_t eeprom_read_dword ( const uint32_t p ) Read one 32-bit double word (little endian) from EEPROM address __p. 23.14.3.4 oat eeprom_read_oat ( const oat p )
Read one oat value (little endian) from EEPROM address __p. 23.14.3.5 uint16_t eeprom_read_word ( const uint16_t p ) Read one 16-bit word (little endian) from EEPROM address __p. 23.14.3.6 void eeprom_update_block ( const void src, void dst, size t n )
Update a block of __n bytes to EEPROM address __dst from __src . Note The argument order is mismatch with common functions like strcpy().
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23.14.3.7
void eeprom_update_byte ( uint8_t p, uint8_t value )
Update a byte __value to EEPROM address __p. 23.14.3.8 void eeprom_update_dword ( uint32_t p, uint32_t value )
Update a 32-bit double word __value to EEPROM address __p. 23.14.3.9 void eeprom_update_oat ( oat p, oat value )
Update a oat __value to EEPROM address __p. 23.14.3.10 void eeprom_update_word ( uint16_t p, uint16_t value )
Update a word __value to EEPROM address __p. 23.14.3.11 void eeprom_write_block ( const void src, void dst, size t n )
Write a block of __n bytes to EEPROM address __dst from __src . Note The argument order is mismatch with common functions like strcpy().
23.14.3.12
void eeprom_write_byte ( uint8_t p, uint8_t value )
Write a byte __value to EEPROM address __p. 23.14.3.13 void eeprom_write_dword ( uint32_t p, uint32_t value )
Write a 32-bit double word __value to EEPROM address __p. 23.14.3.14 void eeprom_write_oat ( oat p, oat value )
Write a oat __value to EEPROM address __p. 23.14.3.15 void eeprom_write_word ( uint16_t p, uint16_t value )
Write a word __value to EEPROM address __p.
23.15 <avr/fuse.h>: Fuse Support
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Introduction
The Fuse API allows a user to specify the fuse settings for the specic AVR device they are compiling for. These fuse settings will be placed in a special section in the ELF output le, after linking. Programming tools can take advantage of the fuse information embedded in the ELF le, by extracting this information and determining if the fuses need to be programmed before programming the Flash and EEPROM memories. This also allows a single ELF le to contain all the information needed to program an AVR. To use the Fuse API, include the <avr/io.h> header le, which in turn automatically includes the individual I/O header le and the <avr/fuse.h> le. These other two les provides everything necessary to set the AVR fuses. Fuse API
Each I/O header le must dene the FUSE_MEMORY_SIZE macro which is dened to the number of fuse bytes that exist in the AVR device. A new type, __fuse_t, is dened as a structure. The number of elds in this structure are determined by the number of fuse bytes in the FUSE_MEMORY_SIZE macro. If FUSE_MEMORY_SIZE == 1, there is only a single eld: byte, of type unsigned char. If FUSE_MEMORY_SIZE == 2, there are two elds: low, and high, of type unsigned char. If FUSE_MEMORY_SIZE == 3, there are three elds: low, high, and extended, of type unsigned char. If FUSE_MEMORY_SIZE > 3, there is a single eld: byte, which is an array of unsigned char with the size of the array being FUSE_MEMORY_SIZE. A convenience macro, FUSEMEM, is dened as a GCC attribute for a custom-named section of ".fuse". A convenience macro, FUSES, is dened that declares a variable, __fuse, of type __fuse_t with the attribute dened by FUSEMEM. This variable allows the end user to easily set the fuse data. Note If a device-specic I/O header le has previously dened FUSEMEM, then FUSEMEM is not redened. If a device-specic I/O header le has previously dened FUSES, then FUSES is not redened.
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Each AVR device I/O header le has a set of dened macros which specify the actual fuse bits available on that device. The AVR fuses have inverted values, logical 1 for an unprogrammed (disabled) bit and logical 0 for a programmed (enabled) bit. The dened macros for each individual fuse bit represent this in their denition by a bit-wise inversion of a mask. For example, the FUSE_EESAVE fuse in the ATmega128 is dened as:
#define FUSE_EESAVE ~_BV(3)
Note The _BV macro creates a bit mask from a bit number. It is then inverted to represent logical values for a fuse memory byte. To combine the fuse bits macros together to represent a whole fuse byte, use the bitwise AND operator, like so:
(FUSE_BOOTSZ0 & FUSE_BOOTSZ1 & FUSE_EESAVE & FUSE_SPIEN & FUSE_JTAGEN)
Each device I/O header le also denes macros that provide default values for each fuse byte that is available. LFUSE_DEFAULT is dened for a Low Fuse byte. HFUSE_DEFAULT is dened for a High Fuse byte. EFUSE_DEFAULT is dened for an Extended Fuse byte. If FUSE_MEMORY_SIZE > 3, then the I/O header le denes macros that provide default values for each fuse byte like so: FUSE0_DEFAULT FUSE1_DEFAULT FUSE2_DEFAULT FUSE3_DEFAULT FUSE4_DEFAULT .... API Usage Example
Putting all of this together is easy. Using C99s designated initializers:

#include <avr/io.h> FUSES = { .low = LFUSE_DEFAULT, .high = (FUSE_BOOTSZ0 & FUSE_BOOTSZ1 & FUSE_EESAVE & FUSE_SPIEN & FUSE_JTAGEN), .extended = EFUSE_DEFAULT, }; int main(void) { return 0; }
Or, using the variable directly instead of the FUSES macro,
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#include <avr/io.h> __fuse_t __fuse __attribute__((section (".fuse"))) = { .low = LFUSE_DEFAULT, .high = (FUSE_BOOTSZ0 & FUSE_BOOTSZ1 & FUSE_EESAVE & FUSE_SPIEN & FUSE_JTAGEN), .extended = EFUSE_DEFAULT, }; int main(void) { return 0; }
If you are compiling in C++, you cannot use the designated intializers so you must do:
#include <avr/io.h> FUSES = { LFUSE_DEFAULT, // .low (FUSE_BOOTSZ0 & FUSE_BOOTSZ1 & FUSE_EESAVE & FUSE_SPIEN & FUSE_JTAGEN), // .high EFUSE_DEFAULT, // .extended }; int main(void) { return 0; }
However there are a number of caveats that you need to be aware of to use this API properly. Be sure to include <avr/io.h> to get all of the denitions for the API. The FUSES macro denes a global variable to store the fuse data. This variable is assigned to its own linker section. Assign the desired fuse values immediately in the variable initialization. The .fuse section in the ELF le will get its values from the initial variable assignment ONLY. This means that you can NOT assign values to this variable in functions and the new values will not be put into the ELF .fuse section. The global variable is declared in the FUSES macro has two leading underscores, which means that it is reserved for the "implementation", meaning the library, so it will not conict with a user-named variable. You must initialize ALL elds in the __fuse_t structure. This is because the fuse bits in all bytes default to a logical 1, meaning unprogrammed. Normal uninitialized data defaults to all locgial zeros. So it is vital that all fuse bytes are initialized, even with default data. If they are not, then the fuse bits may not programmed to the desired settings. Be sure to have the -mmcu=device ag in your compile command line and your linker command line to have the correct device selected and to have the correct I/O header
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le included when you include <avr/io.h>. You can print out the contents of the .fuse section in the ELF le by using this command line:
avr-objdump -s -j .fuse <ELF file>
The section contents shows the address on the left, then the data going from lower address to a higher address, left to right.
23.16 <avr/interrupt.h>: Interrupts
245

Global manipulation of the interrupt ag The global interrupt ag is maintained in the I bit of the status register (SREG). Handling interrupts frequently requires attention regarding atomic access to objects that could be altered by code running within an interrupt context, see <util/atomic.h>. Frequently, interrupts are being disabled for periods of time in order to perform certain operations without being disturbed; see Problems with reordering code for things to be taken into account with respect to compiler optimizations. #dene sei() #dene cli()
Macros for writing interrupt handler functions #dene ISR(vector, attributes) #dene SIGNAL(vector) #dene EMPTY_INTERRUPT(vector) #dene ISR_ALIAS(vector, target_vector) #dene reti() #dene BADISR_vect
ISR attributes #dene ISR_BLOCK #dene ISR_NOBLOCK #dene ISR_NAKED #dene ISR_ALIASOF(target_vector)
23.16.1 Note
This discussion of interrupts was originally taken from Rich Neswolds document. See Acknowledgments. Introduction to avr-libcs interrupt handling Its nearly impossible to nd compilers that agree on how to handle interrupt code. Since the C language tries to stay away from machine dependent details, each compiler writer is forced to design their method of support.
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In the AVR-GCC environment, the vector table is predened to point to interrupt routines with predetermined names. By using the appropriate name, your routine will be called when the corresponding interrupt occurs. The device library provides a set of default interrupt routines, which will get used if you dont dene your own. Patching into the vector table is only one part of the problem. The compiler uses, by convention, a set of registers when its normally executing compiler-generated code. Its important that these registers, as well as the status register, get saved and restored. The extra code needed to do this is enabled by tagging the interrupt function with __attribute__((signal)). These details seem to make interrupt routines a little messy, but all these details are handled by the Interrupt API. An interrupt routine is dened with ISR(). This macro register and mark the routine as an interrupt handler for the specied peripheral. The following is an example denition of a handler for the ADC interrupt.
#include <avr/interrupt.h> ISR(ADC_vect) { // user code here }
Refer to the chapter explaining assembler programming for an explanation about interrupt routines written solely in assembler language. Catch-all interrupt vector If an unexpected interrupt occurs (interrupt is enabled and no handler is installed, which usually indicates a bug), then the default action is to reset the device by jumping to the reset vector. You can override this by supplying a function named BADISR_vect which should be dened with ISR() as such. (The name BADISR_vect is actually an alias for __vector_default. The latter must be used inside assembly code in case <avr/interrupt.h> is not included.)
#include <avr/interrupt.h> ISR(BADISR_vect) { // user code here }
Nested interrupts The AVR hardware clears the global interrupt ag in SREG before entering an interrupt vector. Thus, normally interrupts will remain disabled inside the handler until the handler exits, where the RETI instruction (that is emitted by the compiler as part of the normal function epilogue for an interrupt handler) will eventually re-enable further interrupts. For that reason, interrupt handlers normally do not nest. For most interrupt handlers,
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this is the desired behaviour, for some it is even required in order to prevent innitely recursive interrupts (like UART interrupts, or level-triggered external interrupts). In rare circumstances though it might be desired to re-enable the global interrupt ag as early as possible in the interrupt handler, in order to not defer any other interrupt more than absolutely needed. This could be done using an sei() instruction right at the beginning of the interrupt handler, but this still leaves few instructions inside the compiler-generated function prologue to run with global interrupts disabled. The compiler can be instructed to insert an SEI instruction right at the beginning of an interrupt handler by declaring the handler the following way:
ISR(XXX_vect, ISR_NOBLOCK) { ... }
where XXX_vect is the name of a valid interrupt vector for the MCU type in question, as explained below. Two vectors sharing the same code In some circumstances, the actions to be taken upon two different interrupts might be completely identical so a single implementation for the ISR would sufce. For example, pin-change interrupts arriving from two different ports could logically signal an event that is independent from the actual port (and thus interrupt vector) where it happened. Sharing interrupt vector code can be accomplished using the ISR_ALIASOF() attribute to the ISR macro:
ISR(PCINT0_vect) { ... // Code to handle the event. } ISR(PCINT1_vect, ISR_ALIASOF(PCINT0_vect));
Note There is no body to the aliased ISR. Note that the ISR_ALIASOF() feature requires GCC 4.2 or above (or a patched version of GCC 4.1.x). See the documentation of the ISR_ALIAS() macro for an implementation which is less elegant but could be applied to all compiler versions. Empty interrupt service routines In rare circumstances, in interrupt vector does not need any code to be implemented at all. The vector must be declared anyway, so when the interrupt triggers it wont execute the BADISR_vect code (which by default restarts the application).
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This could for example be the case for interrupts that are solely enabled for the purpose of getting the controller out of sleep_mode(). A handler for such an interrupt vector can be declared using the EMPTY_INTERRUPT() macro:
EMPTY_INTERRUPT(ADC_vect);
Note There is no body to this macro. Manually dened ISRs In some circumstances, the compiler-generated prologue and epilogue of the ISR might not be optimal for the job, and a manually dened ISR could be considered particularly to speedup the interrupt handling. One solution to this could be to implement the entire ISR as manual assembly code in a separate (assembly) le. See Combining C and assembly source les for an example of how to implement it that way. Another solution is to still implement the ISR in C language but take over the compilers job of generating the prologue and epilogue. This can be done using the ISR_NAKED attribute to the ISR() macro. Note that the compiler does not generate anything as prologue or epilogue, so the nal reti() must be provided by the actual implementation. SREG must be manually saved if the ISR code modies it, and the compiler-implied assumption of __zero_reg__ always being 0 could be wrong (e. g. when interrupting right after of a MUL instruction).
ISR(TIMER1_OVF_vect, ISR_NAKED) { PORTB |= _BV(0); // results in SBI which does not affect SREG reti(); }
Choosing the vector: Interrupt vector names The interrupt is chosen by supplying one of the symbols in following table. There are currently two different styles present for naming the vectors. One form uses names starting with SIG_, followed by a relatively verbose but arbitrarily chosen name describing the interrupt vector. This has been the only available style in avr-libc up to version 1.2.x. Starting with avr-libc version 1.4.0, a second style of interrupt vector names has been added, where a short phrase for the vector description is followed by _vect. The short phrase matches the vector name as described in the datasheet of the respective device (and in Atmels XML les), with spaces replaced by an underscore and other
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non-alphanumeric characters dropped. Using the sufx _vect is intented to improve portability to other C compilers available for the AVR that use a similar naming convention. The historical naming style might become deprecated in a future release, so it is not recommended for new projects. Note The ISR() macro cannot really spell-check the argument passed to them. Thus, by misspelling one of the names below in a call to ISR(), a function will be created that, while possibly being usable as an interrupt function, is not actually wired into the interrupt vector table. The compiler will generate a warning if it detects a suspiciously looking name of a ISR() function (i.e. one that after macro replacement does not start with "__vector_").
Vector name ADC_vect
Old vector name SIG_ADC
Description ADC Conversion Complete
Applicable for device AT90S2333, AT90S4433, AT90S4434, AT90S8535, AT90PWM216, AT90PWM2B, AT90PWM316, AT90PWM3B, AT90PWM3, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM1, AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega103, ATmega128, ATmega1284P, ATmega16, ATmega163, ATmega165, ATmega165P, ATmega168P, ATmega169, ATmega169P, ATmega32, ATmega323, ATmega325, ATmega3250, ATmega3250P, ATmega328P, ATmega329, ATmega3290, ATmega3290P, ATmega48P, ATmega64, ATmega645, ATmega6450, ATmega649, ATmega6490, ATmega8, ATmega8535, ATmega88P, ATmega168, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, ATtiny13, ATtiny15, ATtiny26, ATtiny43U, ATtiny48, ATtiny24, ATtiny44, ATtiny84, ATtiny45, ATtiny25, ATtiny85, ATtiny261, ATtiny461, ATtiny861, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 AT90PWM3, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM1
ANALOG_COMP_0_vect ANALOG_COMP_1_vect ANALOG_COMP_2_vect
SIG_COMPARATOR0 SIG_COMPARATOR1 SIG_COMPARATOR2
Analog Comparator 0 Analog Comparator 1 Analog Comparator 2
AT90PWM3, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM1
AT90PWM3, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM1
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ANALOG_COMP_vect
SIG_COMPARATOR
Analog Comparator
ANA_COMP_vect
SIG_COMPARATOR
Analog Comparator
CANIT_vect EEPROM_READY_vect
EE_RDY_vect
SIG_CAN_INTERRUPT1 SIG_EEPROM_READY, SIG_EE_READY SIG_EEPROM_READY
CAN Transfer Complete or Error
AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega103, ATmega128, ATmega1284P, ATmega165, ATmega165P, ATmega168P, ATmega169, ATmega169P, ATmega325, ATmega3250, ATmega3250P, ATmega328P, ATmega329, ATmega3290, ATmega3290P, ATmega48P, ATmega64, ATmega645, ATmega6450, ATmega649, ATmega6490, ATmega88P, ATmega168, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, AT90USB162, AT90USB82, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 AT90S1200, AT90S2313, AT90S2333, AT90S4414, AT90S4433, AT90S4434, AT90S8515, AT90S8535, ATmega16, ATmega161, ATmega162, ATmega163, ATmega32, ATmega323, ATmega8, ATmega8515, ATmega8535, ATtiny11, ATtiny12, ATtiny13, ATtiny15, ATtiny2313, ATtiny26, ATtiny28, ATtiny43U, ATtiny48, ATtiny24, ATtiny44, ATtiny84, ATtiny45, ATtiny25, ATtiny85, ATtiny261, ATtiny461, ATtiny861 AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64 ATtiny2313
EEPROM Ready
EE_READY_vect
SIG_EEPROM_READY
EEPROM Ready
AT90S2333, AT90S4433, AT90S4434, AT90S8535, ATmega16, ATmega161, ATmega162, ATmega163, ATmega32, ATmega323, ATmega8, ATmega8515, ATmega8535, ATtiny12, ATtiny13, ATtiny15, ATtiny26, ATtiny43U, ATtiny48, ATtiny24, ATtiny44, ATtiny84, ATtiny45, ATtiny25, ATtiny85, ATtiny261, ATtiny461, ATtiny861 AT90PWM3, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM1, AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega103, ATmega128, ATmega1284P, ATmega165, ATmega165P, ATmega168P, ATmega169, ATmega169P, ATmega325, ATmega3250, ATmega3250P, ATmega328P, ATmega329, ATmega3290, ATmega3290P, ATmega32HVB, ATmega406, ATmega48P, ATmega64, ATmega645, ATmega6450, ATmega649, ATmega6490, ATmega88P, ATmega168, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, ATmega16HVA, AT90USB162, AT90USB82, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646
251
EXT_INT0_vect INT0_vect
SIG_INTERRUPT0 SIG_INTERRUPT0
External Interrupt Request 0 External Interrupt 0
ATtiny24, ATtiny44, ATtiny84 AT90S1200, AT90S2313, AT90S2323, AT90S2333, AT90S2343, AT90S4414, AT90S4433, AT90S4434, AT90S8515, AT90S8535, AT90PWM216, AT90PWM2B, AT90PWM316, AT90PWM3B, AT90PWM3, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM1, AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega103, ATmega128, ATmega1284P, ATmega16, ATmega161, ATmega162, ATmega163, ATmega165, ATmega165P, ATmega168P, ATmega169, ATmega169P, ATmega32, ATmega323, ATmega325, ATmega3250, ATmega3250P, ATmega328P, ATmega329, ATmega3290, ATmega3290P, ATmega32HVB, ATmega406, ATmega48P, ATmega64, ATmega645, ATmega6450, ATmega649, ATmega6490, ATmega8, ATmega8515, ATmega8535, ATmega88P, ATmega168, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, ATmega16HVA, ATtiny11, ATtiny12, ATtiny13, ATtiny15, ATtiny22, ATtiny2313, ATtiny26, ATtiny28, ATtiny43U, ATtiny48, ATtiny45, ATtiny25, ATtiny85, ATtiny261, ATtiny461, ATtiny861, AT90USB162, AT90USB82, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 AT90S2313, AT90S2333, AT90S4414, AT90S4433, AT90S4434, AT90S8515, AT90S8535, AT90PWM216, AT90PWM2B, AT90PWM316, AT90PWM3B, AT90PWM3, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM1, AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega103, ATmega128, ATmega1284P, ATmega16, ATmega161, ATmega162, ATmega163, ATmega168P, ATmega32, ATmega323, ATmega328P, ATmega32HVB, ATmega406, ATmega48P, ATmega64, ATmega8, ATmega8515, ATmega8535, ATmega88P, ATmega168, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, ATmega16HVA, ATtiny2313, ATtiny28, ATtiny48, ATtiny261, ATtiny461, ATtiny861, AT90USB162, AT90USB82, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646
INT1_vect
SIG_INTERRUPT1
External Interrupt Request 1
252
INT2_vect
SIG_INTERRUPT2
INT3_vect
SIG_INTERRUPT3
INT4_vect
SIG_INTERRUPT4
INT5_vect
SIG_INTERRUPT5
INT6_vect
SIG_INTERRUPT6
INT7_vect
SIG_INTERRUPT7
IO_PINS_vect
LCD_vect
SIG_PIN, SIG_PIN_CHANGE SIG_LCD
External Interrupt Request 0 LCD Start of Frame Low-level on Port B CAN Overrun Input Timer
AT90PWM3, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM1, AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega103, ATmega128, ATmega1284P, ATmega16, ATmega161, ATmega162, ATmega32, ATmega323, ATmega32HVB, ATmega406, ATmega64, ATmega8515, ATmega8535, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, ATmega16HVA, AT90USB162, AT90USB82, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 AT90PWM3, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM1, AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega103, ATmega128, ATmega32HVB, ATmega406, ATmega64, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, AT90USB162, AT90USB82, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega103, ATmega128, ATmega64, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, AT90USB162, AT90USB82, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega103, ATmega128, ATmega64, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, AT90USB162, AT90USB82, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega103, ATmega128, ATmega64, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, AT90USB162, AT90USB82, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega103, ATmega128, ATmega64, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, AT90USB162, AT90USB82, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 ATtiny11, ATtiny12, ATtiny15, ATtiny26
LOWLEVEL_IO_PINS_vect OVRIT_vect
SIG_PIN SIG_CAN_OVERFLOW1
ATmega169, ATmega169P, ATmega329, ATmega3290, ATmega3290P, ATmega649, ATmega6490 ATtiny28 AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64
253
PCINT0_vect
SIG_PIN_CHANGE0
Pin Change Interrupt Request 0
PCINT1_vect
SIG_PIN_CHANGE1
PCINT2_vect
SIG_PIN_CHANGE2
PCINT3_vect
SIG_PIN_CHANGE3
PCINT_vect
PSC0_CAPT_vect PSC0_EC_vect PSC1_CAPT_vect PSC1_EC_vect PSC2_CAPT_vect PSC2_EC_vect
SIG_PIN_CHANGE, SIG_PCINT SIG_PSC0_CAPTURE SIG_PSC0_END_CYCLE SIG_PSC1_CAPTURE SIG_PSC1_END_CYCLE SIG_PSC2_CAPTURE SIG_PSC2_END_CYCLE
ATmega162, ATmega165, ATmega165P, ATmega168P, ATmega169, ATmega169P, ATmega325, ATmega3250, ATmega3250P, ATmega328P, ATmega329, ATmega3290, ATmega3290P, ATmega32HVB, ATmega406, ATmega48P, ATmega645, ATmega6450, ATmega649, ATmega6490, ATmega88P, ATmega168, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, ATtiny13, ATtiny43U, ATtiny48, ATtiny24, ATtiny44, ATtiny84, ATtiny45, ATtiny25, ATtiny85, AT90USB162, AT90USB82, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 ATmega162, ATmega165, ATmega165P, ATmega168P, ATmega169, ATmega169P, ATmega325, ATmega3250, ATmega3250P, ATmega328P, ATmega329, ATmega3290, ATmega3290P, ATmega32HVB, ATmega406, ATmega48P, ATmega645, ATmega6450, ATmega649, ATmega6490, ATmega88P, ATmega168, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, ATtiny43U, ATtiny48, ATtiny24, ATtiny44, ATtiny84, AT90USB162, AT90USB82 ATmega3250, ATmega3250P, ATmega328P, ATmega3290, ATmega3290P, ATmega48P, ATmega6450, ATmega6490, ATmega88P, ATmega168, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, ATtiny48 ATmega3250, ATmega3250P, ATmega3290, ATmega3290P, ATmega6450, ATmega6490, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, ATtiny48 ATtiny2313, ATtiny261, ATtiny461, ATtiny861 AT90PWM3, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM1 AT90PWM3, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM1 AT90PWM3, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM1 AT90PWM3, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM1 AT90PWM3, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM1 AT90PWM3, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM1
PSC0 Capture Event PSC0 End Cycle PSC1 Capture Event PSC1 End Cycle PSC2 Capture Event PSC2 End Cycle
254
SPI_STC_vect
SIG_SPI
Serial Transfer Complete
SPM_RDY_vect SPM_READY_vect
SIG_SPM_READY SIG_SPM_READY
Store Program Memory Ready Store Program Memory Read
TIM0_COMPA_vect TIM0_COMPB_vect TIM0_OVF_vect TIM1_CAPT_vect TIM1_COMPA_vect TIM1_COMPB_vect
SIG_OUTPUT_COMPARE0A SIG_OUTPUT_COMPARE0B SIG_OVERFLOW0 SIG_INPUT_CAPTURE1 SIG_OUTPUT_COMPARE1A SIG_OUTPUT_COMPARE1B
Timer/Counter Compare Match A Timer/Counter Compare Match B Timer/Counter0 Overow Timer/Counter1 Capture Event Timer/Counter1 Compare Match A Timer/Counter1 Compare Match B
AT90S2333, AT90S4414, AT90S4433, AT90S4434, AT90S8515, AT90S8535, AT90PWM216, AT90PWM2B, AT90PWM316, AT90PWM3B, AT90PWM3, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM1, AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega103, ATmega128, ATmega1284P, ATmega16, ATmega161, ATmega162, ATmega163, ATmega165, ATmega165P, ATmega168P, ATmega169, ATmega169P, ATmega32, ATmega323, ATmega325, ATmega3250, ATmega3250P, ATmega328P, ATmega329, ATmega3290, ATmega3290P, ATmega32HVB, ATmega48P, ATmega64, ATmega645, ATmega6450, ATmega649, ATmega6490, ATmega8, ATmega8515, ATmega8535, ATmega88P, ATmega168, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, ATmega16HVA, ATtiny48, AT90USB162, AT90USB82, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 ATmega16, ATmega162, ATmega32, ATmega323, ATmega8, ATmega8515, ATmega8535 AT90PWM3, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM1, AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega128, ATmega1284P, ATmega165, ATmega165P, ATmega168P, ATmega169, ATmega169P, ATmega325, ATmega3250, ATmega3250P, ATmega328P, ATmega329, ATmega3290, ATmega3290P, ATmega406, ATmega48P, ATmega64, ATmega645, ATmega6450, ATmega649, ATmega6490, ATmega88P, ATmega168, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, AT90USB162, AT90USB82, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 ATtiny13, ATtiny43U, ATtiny24, ATtiny44, ATtiny84, ATtiny45, ATtiny25, ATtiny85 ATtiny13, ATtiny43U, ATtiny24, ATtiny44, ATtiny84, ATtiny45, ATtiny25, ATtiny85 ATtiny13, ATtiny43U, ATtiny24, ATtiny44, ATtiny84, ATtiny45, ATtiny25, ATtiny85 ATtiny24, ATtiny44, ATtiny84 ATtiny24, ATtiny44, ATtiny84, ATtiny45, ATtiny25, ATtiny85 ATtiny24, ATtiny44, ATtiny84, ATtiny45, ATtiny25, ATtiny85
255
TIM1_OVF_vect TIMER0_CAPT_vect TIMER0_COMPA_vect
SIG_OVERFLOW1 SIG_INPUT_CAPTURE0 SIG_OUTPUT_COMPARE0A
Timer/Counter1 Overow ADC Conversion Complete TimerCounter0 Compare Match A
ATtiny24, ATtiny44, ATtiny84, ATtiny45, ATtiny25, ATtiny85 ATtiny261, ATtiny461, ATtiny861 ATmega168, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, ATmega16HVA, ATtiny2313, ATtiny48, ATtiny261, ATtiny461, ATtiny861, AT90USB162, AT90USB82, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 AT90PWM3, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM1, ATmega1284P, ATmega168P, ATmega328P, ATmega32HVB, ATmega48P, ATmega88P, ATmega168, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, ATmega16HVA, ATtiny2313, ATtiny48, ATtiny261, ATtiny461, ATtiny861, AT90USB162, AT90USB82, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 AT90PWM3, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM1
TIMER0_COMPB_vect
SIG_OUTPUT_COMPARE0B, SIG_OUTPUT_COMPARE0_B
Timer Counter 0 Compare Match B
TIMER0_COMP_A_vect
TIMER0_COMP_vect
SIG_OUTPUT_COMPARE0A, SIG_OUTPUT_COMPARE0_A SIG_OUTPUT_COMPARE0
Timer/Counter0 Compare Match A
Timer/Counter0 Compare Match
TIMER0_OVF0_vect
SIG_OVERFLOW0
Timer/Counter0 Overow
AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega103, ATmega128, ATmega16, ATmega161, ATmega162, ATmega165, ATmega165P, ATmega169, ATmega169P, ATmega32, ATmega323, ATmega325, ATmega3250, ATmega3250P, ATmega329, ATmega3290, ATmega3290P, ATmega64, ATmega645, ATmega6450, ATmega649, ATmega6490, ATmega8515, ATmega8535 AT90S2313, AT90S2323, AT90S2343, ATtiny22, ATtiny26
256
TIMER0_OVF_vect
SIG_OVERFLOW0
TIMER1_CAPT1_vect TIMER1_CAPT_vect
SIG_INPUT_CAPTURE1 SIG_INPUT_CAPTURE1
Timer/Counter1 Capture Event Timer/Counter Capture Event
AT90S1200, AT90S2333, AT90S4414, AT90S4433, AT90S4434, AT90S8515, AT90S8535, AT90PWM216, AT90PWM2B, AT90PWM316, AT90PWM3B, AT90PWM3, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM1, AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega103, ATmega128, ATmega1284P, ATmega16, ATmega161, ATmega162, ATmega163, ATmega165, ATmega165P, ATmega168P, ATmega169, ATmega169P, ATmega32, ATmega323, ATmega325, ATmega3250, ATmega3250P, ATmega328P, ATmega329, ATmega3290, ATmega3290P, ATmega32HVB, ATmega48P, ATmega64, ATmega645, ATmega6450, ATmega649, ATmega6490, ATmega8, ATmega8515, ATmega8535, ATmega88P, ATmega168, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, ATmega16HVA, ATtiny11, ATtiny12, ATtiny15, ATtiny2313, ATtiny28, ATtiny48, ATtiny261, ATtiny461, ATtiny861, AT90USB162, AT90USB82, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 AT90S2313 AT90S2333, AT90S4414, AT90S4433, AT90S4434, AT90S8515, AT90S8535, AT90PWM216, AT90PWM2B, AT90PWM316, AT90PWM3B, AT90PWM3, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM1, AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega103, ATmega128, ATmega1284P, ATmega16, ATmega161, ATmega162, ATmega163, ATmega165, ATmega165P, ATmega168P, ATmega169, ATmega169P, ATmega32, ATmega323, ATmega325, ATmega3250, ATmega3250P, ATmega328P, ATmega329, ATmega3290, ATmega3290P, ATmega48P, ATmega64, ATmega645, ATmega6450, ATmega649, ATmega6490, ATmega8, ATmega8515, ATmega8535, ATmega88P, ATmega168, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, ATtiny2313, ATtiny48, AT90USB162, AT90USB82, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 ATtiny26
TIMER1_CMPA_vect TIMER1_CMPB_vect
SIG_OUTPUT_COMPARE1A SIG_OUTPUT_COMPARE1B
Timer/Counter1 Compare Match 1A Timer/Counter1 Compare Match 1B
ATtiny26
257
TIMER1_COMP1_vect TIMER1_COMPA_vect
SIG_OUTPUT_COMPARE1A SIG_OUTPUT_COMPARE1A
Timer/Counter1 Compare Match Timer/Counter1 Compare Match A
AT90S2313
TIMER1_COMPB_vect
SIG_OUTPUT_COMPARE1B
Timer/Counter1 Compare MatchB
TIMER1_COMPC_vect
SIG_OUTPUT_COMPARE1C
Timer/Counter1 Compare Match C
AT90S4414, AT90S4434, AT90S8515, AT90S8535, AT90PWM216, AT90PWM2B, AT90PWM316, AT90PWM3B, AT90PWM3, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM1, AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega103, ATmega128, ATmega1284P, ATmega16, ATmega161, ATmega162, ATmega163, ATmega165, ATmega165P, ATmega168P, ATmega169, ATmega169P, ATmega32, ATmega323, ATmega325, ATmega3250, ATmega3250P, ATmega328P, ATmega329, ATmega3290, ATmega3290P, ATmega32HVB, ATmega48P, ATmega64, ATmega645, ATmega6450, ATmega649, ATmega6490, ATmega8, ATmega8515, ATmega8535, ATmega88P, ATmega168, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, ATmega16HVA, ATtiny2313, ATtiny48, ATtiny261, ATtiny461, ATtiny861, AT90USB162, AT90USB82, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 AT90S4414, AT90S4434, AT90S8515, AT90S8535, AT90PWM216, AT90PWM2B, AT90PWM316, AT90PWM3B, AT90PWM3, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM1, AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega103, ATmega128, ATmega1284P, ATmega16, ATmega161, ATmega162, ATmega163, ATmega165, ATmega165P, ATmega168P, ATmega169, ATmega169P, ATmega32, ATmega323, ATmega325, ATmega3250, ATmega3250P, ATmega328P, ATmega329, ATmega3290, ATmega3290P, ATmega32HVB, ATmega48P, ATmega64, ATmega645, ATmega6450, ATmega649, ATmega6490, ATmega8, ATmega8515, ATmega8535, ATmega88P, ATmega168, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, ATmega16HVA, ATtiny2313, ATtiny48, ATtiny261, ATtiny461, ATtiny861, AT90USB162, AT90USB82, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega128, ATmega64, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, AT90USB162, AT90USB82, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646
258
TIMER1_COMPD_vect TIMER1_COMP_vect TIMER1_OVF1_vect TIMER1_OVF_vect
SIG_OUTPUT_COMPARE0D SIG_OUTPUT_COMPARE1A SIG_OVERFLOW1 SIG_OVERFLOW1
Timer/Counter1 Compare Match D Timer/Counter1 Compare Match Timer/Counter1 Overow Timer/Counter1 Overow
ATtiny261, ATtiny461, ATtiny861
AT90S2333, AT90S4433, ATtiny15
AT90S2313, ATtiny26 AT90S2333, AT90S4414, AT90S4433, AT90S4434, AT90S8515, AT90S8535, AT90PWM216, AT90PWM2B, AT90PWM316, AT90PWM3B, AT90PWM3, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM1, AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega103, ATmega128, ATmega1284P, ATmega16, ATmega161, ATmega162, ATmega163, ATmega165, ATmega165P, ATmega168P, ATmega169, ATmega169P, ATmega32, ATmega323, ATmega325, ATmega3250, ATmega3250P, ATmega328P, ATmega329, ATmega3290, ATmega3290P, ATmega32HVB, ATmega48P, ATmega64, ATmega645, ATmega6450, ATmega649, ATmega6490, ATmega8, ATmega8515, ATmega8535, ATmega88P, ATmega168, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, ATmega16HVA, ATtiny15, ATtiny2313, ATtiny48, ATtiny261, ATtiny461, ATtiny861, AT90USB162, AT90USB82, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 ATmega168, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 ATmega168, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 AT90S4434, AT90S8535, AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega103, ATmega128, ATmega16, ATmega161, ATmega162, ATmega163, ATmega165, ATmega165P, ATmega169, ATmega169P, ATmega32, ATmega323, ATmega325, ATmega3250, ATmega3250P, ATmega329, ATmega3290, ATmega3290P, ATmega64, ATmega645, ATmega6450, ATmega649, ATmega6490, ATmega8, ATmega8535
TIMER2_COMPA_vect
SIG_OUTPUT_COMPARE2A
TIMER2_COMPB_vect
TIMER2_COMP_vect
SIG_OUTPUT_COMPARE2
Timer/Counter2 Compare Match
259
TIMER2_OVF_vect
SIG_OVERFLOW2
TIMER3_CAPT_vect
SIG_INPUT_CAPTURE3
Timer/Counter3 Capture Event
TIMER3_COMPA_vect
SIG_OUTPUT_COMPARE3A
TIMER3_COMPB_vect
Timer/Counter3 Compare Match B
TIMER3_COMPC_vect
SIG_OUTPUT_COMPARE3C
Timer/Counter3 Compare Match C
TIMER3_OVF_vect
SIG_OVERFLOW3
TIMER4_CAPT_vect TIMER4_COMPA_vect TIMER4_COMPB_vect TIMER4_COMPC_vect
SIG_INPUT_CAPTURE4 SIG_OUTPUT_COMPARE4A SIG_OUTPUT_COMPARE4B SIG_OUTPUT_COMPARE4C
Timer/Counter4 Capture Event Timer/Counter4 Compare Match A Timer/Counter4 Compare Match B Timer/Counter4 Compare Match C
AT90S4434, AT90S8535, AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega103, ATmega128, ATmega1284P, ATmega16, ATmega161, ATmega162, ATmega163, ATmega165, ATmega165P, ATmega168P, ATmega169, ATmega169P, ATmega32, ATmega323, ATmega325, ATmega3250, ATmega3250P, ATmega328P, ATmega329, ATmega3290, ATmega3290P, ATmega48P, ATmega64, ATmega645, ATmega6450, ATmega649, ATmega6490, ATmega8, ATmega8535, ATmega88P, ATmega168, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega128, ATmega1284P, ATmega162, ATmega64, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega128, ATmega1284P, ATmega162, ATmega64, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega128, ATmega1284P, ATmega162, ATmega64, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega128, ATmega64, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega128, ATmega1284P, ATmega162, ATmega64, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561 ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561 ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561 ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561
260
TIMER4_OVF_vect TIMER5_CAPT_vect TIMER5_COMPA_vect TIMER5_COMPB_vect TIMER5_COMPC_vect TIMER5_OVF_vect TWI_vect
SIG_OVERFLOW4 SIG_INPUT_CAPTURE5 SIG_OUTPUT_COMPARE5A SIG_OUTPUT_COMPARE5B SIG_OUTPUT_COMPARE5C SIG_OVERFLOW5 SIG_2WIRE_SERIAL
Timer/Counter4 Overow Timer/Counter5 Capture Event Timer/Counter5 Compare Match A Timer/Counter5 Compare Match B Timer/Counter5 Compare Match C Timer/Counter5 Overow 2-wire Serial Interface
ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561 ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561 ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561 ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561 ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561 ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561 AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega128, ATmega1284P, ATmega16, ATmega163, ATmega168P, ATmega32, ATmega323, ATmega328P, ATmega32HVB, ATmega406, ATmega48P, ATmega64, ATmega8, ATmega8535, ATmega88P, ATmega168, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, ATtiny48, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 AT86RF401
TXDONE_vect
SIG_TXDONE
TXEMPTY_vect UART0_RX_vect UART0_TX_vect UART0_UDRE_vect UART1_RX_vect UART1_TX_vect UART1_UDRE_vect UART_RX_vect
SIG_TXBE
SIG_UART0_RECV SIG_UART0_TRANS SIG_UART0_DATA SIG_UART1_RECV SIG_UART1_TRANS SIG_UART1_DATA SIG_UART_RECV
Transmission Done, Bit Timer Flag 2 Interrupt Transmit Buffer Empty, Bit Itmer Flag 0 Interrupt UART0, Rx Complete UART0, Tx Complete UART0 Data Register Empty UART1, Rx Complete UART1, Tx Complete UART1 Data Register Empty UART, Rx Complete
AT86RF401
ATmega161 ATmega161 ATmega161 ATmega161 ATmega161 ATmega161 AT90S2313, AT90S2333, T90S4433, AT90S4434, T90S8535, ATmega103, Tmega8515 AT90S2313, AT90S2333, T90S4433, AT90S4434, T90S8535, ATmega103, Tmega8515 AT90S2313, AT90S2333, T90S4433, AT90S4434, T90S8535, ATmega103, Tmega8515 AT90S4414, AAT90S8515, AATmega163, AAT90S4414, AAT90S8515, AATmega163, AAT90S4414, AAT90S8515, AATmega163, A-
UART_TX_vect
SIG_UART_TRANS
UART, Tx Complete
UART_UDRE_vect
SIG_UART_DATA
UART Data Register Empty
261
USART0_RXC_vect USART0_RX_vect
SIG_USART0_RECV SIG_UART0_RECV
USART0, Complete USART0, Complete
Rx Rx -
ATmega162 AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega128, ATmega1284P, ATmega165, ATmega165P, ATmega169, ATmega169P, ATmega325, ATmega329, ATmega64, ATmega645, ATmega649, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644 ATmega162 AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega128, ATmega1284P, ATmega165, ATmega165P, ATmega169, ATmega169P, ATmega325, ATmega3250, ATmega3250P, ATmega329, ATmega3290, ATmega3290P, ATmega64, ATmega645, ATmega6450, ATmega649, ATmega6490, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644 AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega128, ATmega1284P, ATmega162, ATmega165, ATmega165P, ATmega169, ATmega169P, ATmega325, ATmega329, ATmega64, ATmega645, ATmega649, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644 ATmega162 AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega128, ATmega1284P, ATmega64, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, AT90USB162, AT90USB82, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 ATmega162 AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega128, ATmega1284P, ATmega64, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, AT90USB162, AT90USB82, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646
USART0_TXC_vect USART0_TX_vect
SIG_USART0_TRANS SIG_UART0_TRANS
Tx Tx
USART0_UDRE_vect
SIG_UART0_DATA
USART0 Data Register Empty
USART1_RXC_vect USART1_RX_vect
SIG_USART1_RECV SIG_UART1_RECV
Rx Rx -
USART1_TXC_vect USART1_TX_vect
SIG_USART1_TRANS SIG_UART1_TRANS
Tx Tx
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USART1_UDRE_vect
SIG_UART1_DATA
USART1, Data Register Empty
USART2_RX_vect USART2_TX_vect USART2_UDRE_vect USART3_RX_vect USART3_TX_vect USART3_UDRE_vect USART_RXC_vect
USART_RX_vect
SIG_USART2_RECV SIG_USART2_TRANS SIG_USART2_DATA SIG_USART3_RECV SIG_USART3_TRANS SIG_USART3_DATA SIG_USART_RECV, SIG_UART_RECV SIG_USART_RECV, SIG_UART_RECV
USART2, Rx Complete USART2, Tx Complete USART2 Data register Empty USART3, Rx Complete USART3, Tx Complete USART3 Data register Empty USART, Rx Complete
AT90CAN128, AT90CAN32, AT90CAN64, ATmega128, ATmega1284P, ATmega162, ATmega64, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, AT90USB162, AT90USB82, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646 ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561 ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561 ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561 ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561 ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561 ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561 ATmega16, ATmega32, ATmega323, ATmega8
USART, Complete
Rx
USART_TXC_vect
USART_TX_vect
USART_UDRE_vect
SIG_USART_TRANS, SIG_UART_TRANS SIG_USART_TRANS, SIG_UART_TRANS SIG_USART_DATA, SIG_UART_DATA
USART, Complete
Tx
AT90PWM3, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM1, ATmega168P, ATmega3250, ATmega3250P, ATmega328P, ATmega3290, ATmega3290P, ATmega48P, ATmega6450, ATmega6490, ATmega8535, ATmega88P, ATmega168, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATtiny2313 ATmega16, ATmega32, ATmega323, ATmega8
USART, Complete
Tx
USART Data Register Empty
USI_OVERFLOW_vect
SIG_USI_OVERFLOW
USI Overow
USI_OVF_vect
SIG_USI_OVERFLOW
USI Overow
AT90PWM3, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM1, ATmega168P, ATmega328P, ATmega48P, ATmega8535, ATmega88P, ATmega168, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATtiny2313 AT90PWM3, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM1, ATmega16, ATmega168P, ATmega32, ATmega323, ATmega3250, ATmega3250P, ATmega328P, ATmega3290, ATmega3290P, ATmega48P, ATmega6450, ATmega6490, ATmega8, ATmega8535, ATmega88P, ATmega168, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATtiny2313 ATmega165, ATmega165P, ATmega169, ATmega169P, ATmega325, ATmega3250, ATmega3250P, ATmega329, ATmega3290, ATmega3290P, ATmega645, ATmega6450, ATmega649, ATmega6490, ATtiny2313 ATtiny26, ATtiny43U, ATtiny24, ATtiny44, ATtiny84, ATtiny45, ATtiny25, ATtiny85, ATtiny261, ATtiny461, ATtiny861
263
USI_START_vect
SIG_USI_START
USI Start Condition
USI_STRT_vect USI_STR_vect WATCHDOG_vect WDT_OVERFLOW_vect
WDT_vect
SIG_USI_START SIG_USI_START SIG_WATCHDOG_TIMEOUT SIG_WATCHDOG_TIMEOUT, SIG_WDT_OVERFLOW SIG_WDT, SIG_WATCHDOG_TIMEOUT
USI Start USI START Watchdog Timeout Watchdog Timer Overow
ATmega165, ATmega165P, ATmega169, ATmega169P, ATmega325, ATmega3250, ATmega3250P, ATmega329, ATmega3290, ATmega3290P, ATmega645, ATmega6450, ATmega649, ATmega6490, ATtiny2313, ATtiny43U, ATtiny45, ATtiny25, ATtiny85, ATtiny261, ATtiny461, ATtiny861 ATtiny26 ATtiny24, ATtiny44, ATtiny84 ATtiny24, ATtiny44, ATtiny84
ATtiny2313
Watchdog Timeout Interrupt
AT90PWM3, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM1, ATmega1284P, ATmega168P, ATmega328P, ATmega32HVB, ATmega406, ATmega48P, ATmega88P, ATmega168, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega324P, ATmega164P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, ATmega16HVA, ATtiny13, ATtiny43U, ATtiny48, ATtiny45, ATtiny25, ATtiny85, ATtiny261, ATtiny461, ATtiny861, AT90USB162, AT90USB82, AT90USB1287, AT90USB1286, AT90USB647, AT90USB646
23.16.2 23.16.2.1
Dene Documentation #dene BADISR_vect
#include <avr/interrupt.h>
This is a vector which is aliased to __vector_default, the vector executed when an ISR res with no accompanying ISR handler. This may be used along with the ISR() macro to create a catch-all for undened but used ISRs for debugging purposes. 23.16.2.2 #dene cli( )
Disables all interrupts by clearing the global interrupt mask. This function actually compiles into a single line of assembly, so there is no function call overhead. However, the macro also implies a memory barrier which can cause additional loss of optimization. In order to implement atomic access to multi-byte objects, consider using the macros from <util/atomic.h>, rather than implementing them manually with cli() and sei().
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23.16.2.3
#dene EMPTY_INTERRUPT( vector )
Denes an empty interrupt handler function. This will not generate any prolog or epilog code and will only return from the ISR. Do not dene a function body as this will dene it for you. Example:
EMPTY_INTERRUPT(ADC_vect);
23.16.2.4
#dene ISR( vector, attributes )
Introduces an interrupt handler function (interrupt service routine) that runs with global interrupts initially disabled by default with no attributes specied. The attributes are optional and alter the behaviour and resultant generated code of the interrupt routine. Multiple attributes may be used for a single function, with a space seperating each attribute. Valid attributes are ISR_BLOCK, ISR_NOBLOCK, ISR_NAKED and ISR_ALIASOF(vect).
vector must be one of the interrupt vector names that are valid for the particular MCU
type. 23.16.2.5 #dene ISR_ALIAS( vector, target vector )
Aliases a given vector to another one in the same manner as the ISR_ALIASOF attribute for the ISR() macro. Unlike the ISR_ALIASOF attribute macro however, this is compatible for all versions of GCC rather than just GCC version 4.2 onwards. Note This macro creates a trampoline function for the aliased macro. This will result in a two cycle penalty for the aliased vector compared to the ISR the vector is aliased to, due to the JMP/RJMP opcode used. Deprecated For new code, the use of ISR(..., ISR_ALIASOF(...)) is recommended. Example:
ISR(INT0_vect) { PORTB = 42; } ISR_ALIAS(INT1_vect, INT0_vect);
23.16.2.6
#dene ISR_ALIASOF( target vector )
The ISR is linked to another ISR, specied by the vect parameter. This is compatible with GCC 4.2 and greater only. Use this attribute in the attributes parameter of the ISR macro.
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23.16.2.7
#dene ISR_BLOCK
Identical to an ISR with no attributes specied. Global interrupts are initially disabled by the AVR hardware when entering the ISR, without the compiler modifying this state. Use this attribute in the attributes parameter of the ISR macro. 23.16.2.8 #dene ISR_NAKED
ISR is created with no prologue or epilogue code. The user code is responsible for preservation of the machine state including the SREG register, as well as placing a reti() at the end of the interrupt routine. Use this attribute in the attributes parameter of the ISR macro. 23.16.2.9 #dene ISR_NOBLOCK
ISR runs with global interrupts initially enabled. The interrupt enable ag is activated by the compiler as early as possible within the ISR to ensure minimal processing delay for nested interrupts. This may be used to create nested ISRs, however care should be taken to avoid stack overows, or to avoid innitely entering the ISR for those cases where the AVR hardware does not clear the respective interrupt ag before entering the ISR. Use this attribute in the attributes parameter of the ISR macro. 23.16.2.10 #dene reti( )
Returns from an interrupt routine, enabling global interrupts. This should be the last command executed before leaving an ISR dened with the ISR_NAKED attribute. This macro actually compiles into a single line of assembly, so there is no function call overhead. 23.16.2.11 #dene sei( )
Enables interrupts by setting the global interrupt mask. This function actually compiles into a single line of assembly, so there is no function call overhead. However, the macro also implies a memory barrier which can cause additional loss of optimization. In order to implement atomic access to multi-byte objects, consider using the macros from <util/atomic.h>, rather than implementing them manually with cli() and sei(). 23.16.2.12 #dene SIGNAL( vector )
Introduces an interrupt handler function that runs with global interrupts initially disabled. This is the same as the ISR macro without optional attributes. Deprecated Do not use SIGNAL() in new code. Use ISR() instead.
23.17 <avr/io.h>: AVR device-specic IO denitions
266
23.17 <avr/io.h>: AVR device-specic IO denitions

#include <avr/io.h>
This header le includes the apropriate IO denitions for the device that has been specied by the -mmcu= compiler command-line switch. This is done by diverting to the appropriate le <avr/ioXXXX .h> which should never be included directly. Some register names common to all AVR devices are dened directly within <avr/common.h>, which is included in <avr/io.h>, but most of the details come from the respective include le. Note that this le always includes the following les:
#include #include #include #include <avr/sfr_defs.h> <avr/portpins.h> <avr/common.h> <avr/version.h>
See <avr/sfr_defs.h>: Special function registers for more details about that header le. Included are denitions of the IO register set and their respective bit values as specied in the Atmel documentation. Note that inconsistencies in naming conventions, so even identical functions sometimes get different names on different devices. Also included are the specic names useable for interrupt function denitions as documented here. Finally, the following macros are dened: RAMEND The last on-chip RAM address. XRAMEND The last possible RAM location that is addressable. This is equal to RAMEND for devices that do not allow for external RAM. For devices that allow external RAM, this will be larger than RAMEND. E2END The last EEPROM address. FLASHEND The last byte address in the Flash program space. SPM_PAGESIZE For devices with bootloader support, the ash pagesize (in bytes) to be used for the SPM instruction. E2PAGESIZE The size of the EEPROM page.
23.18 <avr/lock.h>: Lockbit Support
267

Introduction
The Lockbit API allows a user to specify the lockbit settings for the specic AVR device they are compiling for. These lockbit settings will be placed in a special section in the ELF output le, after linking. Programming tools can take advantage of the lockbit information embedded in the ELF le, by extracting this information and determining if the lockbits need to be programmed after programming the Flash and EEPROM memories. This also allows a single ELF le to contain all the information needed to program an AVR. To use the Lockbit API, include the <avr/io.h> header le, which in turn automatically includes the individual I/O header le and the <avr/lock.h> le. These other two les provides everything necessary to set the AVR lockbits. Lockbit API
Each I/O header le may dene up to 3 macros that controls what kinds of lockbits are available to the user. If __LOCK_BITS_EXIST is dened, then two lock bits are available to the user and 3 mode settings are dened for these two bits. If __BOOT_LOCK_BITS_0_EXIST is dened, then the two BLB0 lock bits are available to the user and 4 mode settings are dened for these two bits. If __BOOT_LOCK_BITS_1_EXIST is dened, then the two BLB1 lock bits are available to the user and 4 mode settings are dened for these two bits. If __BOOT_LOCK_APPLICATION_TABLE_BITS_EXIST is dened then two lock bits are available to set the locking mode for the Application Table Section (which is used in the XMEGA family). If __BOOT_LOCK_APPLICATION_BITS_EXIST is dened then two lock bits are available to set the locking mode for the Application Section (which is used in the XMEGA family). If __BOOT_LOCK_BOOT_BITS_EXIST is dened then two lock bits are available to set the locking mode for the Boot Loader Section (which is used in the XMEGA family). The AVR lockbit modes have inverted values, logical 1 for an unprogrammed (disabled) bit and logical 0 for a programmed (enabled) bit. The dened macros for each individual lock bit represent this in their denition by a bit-wise inversion of a mask. For example, the LB_MODE_3 macro is dened as:
#define LB_MODE_3 (0xFC)
268
To combine the lockbit mode macros together to represent a whole byte, use the bitwise AND operator, like so:
(LB_MODE_3 & BLB0_MODE_2)
<avr/lock.h> also denes a macro that provides a default lockbit value: LOCKBITS_DEFAULT which is dened to be 0xFF. See the AVR device specic datasheet for more details about these lock bits and the available mode settings. A convenience macro, LOCKMEM, is dened as a GCC attribute for a custom-named section of ".lock". A convenience macro, LOCKBITS, is dened that declares a variable, __lock, of type unsigned char with the attribute dened by LOCKMEM. This variable allows the end user to easily set the lockbit data. Note If a device-specic I/O header le has previously dened LOCKMEM, then LOCKMEM is not redened. If a device-specic I/O header le has previously dened LOCKBITS, then LOCKBITS is not redened. LOCKBITS is currently known to be dened in the I/O header les for the XMEGA devices. API Usage Example
Putting all of this together is easy:

#include <avr/io.h> LOCKBITS = (LB_MODE_1 & BLB0_MODE_3 & BLB1_MODE_4); int main(void) { return 0; }
Or:
#include <avr/io.h> unsigned char __lock __attribute__((section (".lock"))) = (LB_MODE_1 & BLB0_MODE_3 & BLB1_MODE_4); int main(void) { return 0; }
269
However there are a number of caveats that you need to be aware of to use this API properly. Be sure to include <avr/io.h> to get all of the denitions for the API. The LOCKBITS macro denes a global variable to store the lockbit data. This variable is assigned to its own linker section. Assign the desired lockbit values immediately in the variable initialization. The .lock section in the ELF le will get its values from the initial variable assignment ONLY. This means that you can NOT assign values to this variable in functions and the new values will not be put into the ELF .lock section. The global variable is declared in the LOCKBITS macro has two leading underscores, which means that it is reserved for the "implementation", meaning the library, so it will not conict with a user-named variable. You must initialize the lockbit variable to some meaningful value, even if it is the default value. This is because the lockbits default to a logical 1, meaning unprogrammed. Normal uninitialized data defaults to all locgial zeros. So it is vital that all lockbits are initialized, even with default data. If they are not, then the lockbits may not programmed to the desired settings and can possibly put your device into an unrecoverable state. Be sure to have the -mmcu=device ag in your compile command line and your linker command line to have the correct device selected and to have the correct I/O header le included when you include <avr/io.h>. You can print out the contents of the .lock section in the ELF le by using this command line:
avr-objdump -s -j .lock <ELF file>
23.19 <avr/pgmspace.h>: Program Space Utilities
270

Denes #dene PROGMEM __ATTR_PROGMEM__ #dene PGM_P const char #dene PGM_VOID_P const void #dene PSTR(s) ((const PROGMEM char )(s)) #dene pgm_read_byte_near(address_short) __LPM((uint16_t)(address_short)) #dene pgm_read_word_near(address_short) __LPM_word((uint16_t)(address_short)) #dene pgm_read_dword_near(address_short) __LPM_dword((uint16_t)(address_short)) #dene pgm_read_oat_near(address_short) __LPM_oat((uint16_t)(address_short)) #dene pgm_read_byte_far(address_long) __ELPM((uint32_t)(address_long)) #dene pgm_read_word_far(address_long) __ELPM_word((uint32_t)(address_long)) #dene pgm_read_dword_far(address_long) __ELPM_dword((uint32_t)(address_long)) #dene pgm_read_oat_far(address_long) __ELPM_oat((uint32_t)(address_long)) #dene pgm_read_byte(address_short) pgm_read_byte_near(address_short) #dene pgm_read_word(address_short) pgm_read_word_near(address_short) #dene pgm_read_dword(address_short) pgm_read_dword_near(address_short) #dene pgm_read_oat(address_short) pgm_read_oat_near(address_short)
Typedefs typedef void PROGMEM prog_void typedef char PROGMEM prog_char typedef unsigned char PROGMEM prog_uchar typedef int8_t PROGMEM prog_int8_t typedef uint8_t PROGMEM prog_uint8_t typedef int16_t PROGMEM prog_int16_t typedef uint16_t PROGMEM prog_uint16_t typedef int32_t PROGMEM prog_int32_t typedef uint32_t PROGMEM prog_uint32_t typedef int64_t PROGMEM prog_int64_t typedef uint64_t PROGMEM prog_uint64_t
271
Functions char strtok_P (char s, PGM_P delim) int memcmp_PF (const void , uint_farptr_t, size_t) __ATTR_PURE__ void memcpy_PF (void dest, uint_farptr_t src, size_t len) int strcasecmp_PF (const char s1, uint_farptr_t s2) __ATTR_PURE__ char strcat_PF (char dest, uint_farptr_t src) int strcmp_PF (const char s1, uint_farptr_t s2) __ATTR_PURE__ char strcpy_PF (char dest, uint_farptr_t src) size_t strlcat_PF (char dst, uint_farptr_t src, size_t siz) size_t strlcpy_PF (char dst, uint_farptr_t src, size_t siz) size_t strlen_PF (uint_farptr_t src) int strncasecmp_PF (const char s1, uint_farptr_t s2, size_t n) __ATTR_PURE__ char strncat_PF (char dest, uint_farptr_t src, size_t len) int strncmp_PF (const char s1, uint_farptr_t s2, size_t n) __ATTR_PURE__ char strncpy_PF (char dest, uint_farptr_t src, size_t len) size_t strnlen_PF (uint_farptr_t src, size_t len) char strstr_PF (const char s1, uint_farptr_t s2)
23.19.1
#include <avr/io.h> #include <avr/pgmspace.h>
The functions in this module provide interfaces for a program to access data stored in program space (ash memory) of the device. In order to use these functions, the target device must support either the LPM or ELPM instructions. Note These functions are an attempt to provide some compatibility with header les that come with IAR C, to make porting applications between different compilers easier. This is not 100% compatibility though (GCC does not have full support for multiple address spaces yet). If you are working with strings which are completely based in ram, use the standard string functions described in <string.h>: Strings. If possible, put your constant tables in the lower 64 KB and use pgm_read_byte_near() or pgm_read_word_near() instead of pgm_read_byte_far() or pgm_read_word_far() since it is more efcient that way, and you can still use the upper 64K for executable code. All functions that are sufxed with a _P require their arguments to be in the lower 64 KB of the ash ROM, as they do not use ELPM instructions. This is normally not a big concern as the linker setup arranges any program space constants declared using the macros from this header le so they are placed right
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after the interrupt vectors, and in front of any executable code. However, it can become a problem if there are too many of these constants, or for bootloaders on devices with more than 64 KB of ROM. All these functions will not work in that situation. For Xmega devices, make sure the NVM controller command register (NVM.CMD or NVM_CMD) is set to 0x00 (NOP) before using any of these functions.
23.19.2 23.19.2.1
Dene Documentation #dene PGM_P const char
Used to declare a variable that is a pointer to a string in program space. 23.19.2.2 #dene pgm_read_byte( address short ) pgm_read_byte_near(address short)
Read a byte from the program space with a 16-bit (near) address. Note The address is a byte address. The address is in the program space.
23.19.2.3
#dene pgm_read_byte_far( address long ) ELPM((uint32_t)(address long))
Read a byte from the program space with a 32-bit (far) address. Note The address is a byte address. The address is in the program space.
23.19.2.4
#dene pgm_read_byte_near( address short ) LPM((uint16_t)(address short))
Read a byte from the program space with a 16-bit (near) address. Note The address is a byte address. The address is in the program space.
23.19.2.5
#dene pgm_read_dword( address short ) pgm_read_dword_near(address short)
Read a double word from the program space with a 16-bit (near) address. Note The address is a byte address. The address is in the program space.
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23.19.2.6
#dene pgm_read_dword_far( address long ) ELPM dword((uint32_t)(address long))
Read a double word from the program space with a 32-bit (far) address. Note The address is a byte address. The address is in the program space.
23.19.2.7
#dene pgm_read_dword_near( address short ) LPM dword((uint16_t)(address short))
Read a double word from the program space with a 16-bit (near) address. Note The address is a byte address. The address is in the program space.
23.19.2.8
#dene pgm_read_oat( address short ) pgm_read_oat_near(address short)
Read a oat from the program space with a 16-bit (near) address. Note The address is a byte address. The address is in the program space.
23.19.2.9
#dene pgm_read_oat_far( address long ) ELPM oat((uint32_t)(address long))
Read a oat from the program space with a 32-bit (far) address. Note The address is a byte address. The address is in the program space.
23.19.2.10
#dene pgm_read_oat_near( address short ) LPM oat((uint16_t)(address short))
Read a oat from the program space with a 16-bit (near) address. Note The address is a byte address. The address is in the program space.
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23.19.2.11
#dene pgm_read_word( address short ) pgm_read_word_near(address short)
Read a word from the program space with a 16-bit (near) address. Note The address is a byte address. The address is in the program space.
23.19.2.12
#dene pgm_read_word_far( address long ) ELPM word((uint32_t)(address long))
Read a word from the program space with a 32-bit (far) address. Note The address is a byte address. The address is in the program space.
23.19.2.13
#dene pgm_read_word_near( address short ) LPM word((uint16_t)(address short))
Read a word from the program space with a 16-bit (near) address. Note The address is a byte address. The address is in the program space.
23.19.2.14
#dene PGM_VOID_P const void
Used to declare a generic pointer to an object in program space. 23.19.2.15 #dene PROGMEM ATTR PROGMEM
Attribute to use in order to declare an object being located in ash ROM. 23.19.2.16 #dene PSTR( s ) ((const PROGMEM char )(s))
Used to declare a static pointer to a string in program space.
23.19.3
Typedef Documentation
23.19.3.1 prog_char
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Note DEPRECATED This typedef is now deprecated because the usage of the __progmem__ attribute on a type is not supported in GCC. However, the use of the __progmem__ attribute on a variable declaration is supported, and this is now the recommended usage. The typedef is only visible if the macro __PROG_TYPES_COMPAT__ has been dened before including <avr/pgmspace.h> (either by a #dene directive, or by a -D compiler option.) Type of a "char" object located in ash ROM. 23.19.3.2 prog_int16_t Note DEPRECATED This typedef is now deprecated because the usage of the __progmem__ attribute on a type is not supported in GCC. However, the use of the __progmem__ attribute on a variable declaration is supported, and this is now the recommended usage. The typedef is only visible if the macro __PROG_TYPES_COMPAT__ has been dened before including <avr/pgmspace.h> (either by a #dene directive, or by a -D compiler option.) Type of an "int16_t" object located in ash ROM. 23.19.3.3 prog_int32_t Note DEPRECATED This typedef is now deprecated because the usage of the __progmem__ attribute on a type is not supported in GCC. However, the use of the __progmem__ attribute on a variable declaration is supported, and this is now the recommended usage. The typedef is only visible if the macro __PROG_TYPES_COMPAT__ has been dened before including <avr/pgmspace.h> (either by a #dene directive, or by a -D compiler option.) Type of an "int32_t" object located in ash ROM. 23.19.3.4 prog_int64_t
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Note DEPRECATED This typedef is now deprecated because the usage of the __progmem__ attribute on a type is not supported in GCC. However, the use of the __progmem__ attribute on a variable declaration is supported, and this is now the recommended usage. The typedef is only visible if the macro __PROG_TYPES_COMPAT__ has been dened before including <avr/pgmspace.h> (either by a #dene directive, or by a -D compiler option.) Type of an "int64_t" object located in ash ROM. Note This type is not available when the compiler option -mint8 is in effect.
23.19.3.5 prog_int8_t Note DEPRECATED This typedef is now deprecated because the usage of the __progmem__ attribute on a type is not supported in GCC. However, the use of the __progmem__ attribute on a variable declaration is supported, and this is now the recommended usage. The typedef is only visible if the macro __PROG_TYPES_COMPAT__ has been dened before including <avr/pgmspace.h> (either by a #dene directive, or by a -D compiler option.) Type of an "int8_t" object located in ash ROM. 23.19.3.6 prog_uchar Note DEPRECATED This typedef is now deprecated because the usage of the __progmem__ attribute on a type is not supported in GCC. However, the use of the __progmem__ attribute on a variable declaration is supported, and this is now the recommended usage. The typedef is only visible if the macro __PROG_TYPES_COMPAT__ has been dened before including <avr/pgmspace.h> (either by a #dene directive, or by a -D compiler option.) Type of an "unsigned char" object located in ash ROM.
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23.19.3.7 prog_uint16_t Note DEPRECATED This typedef is now deprecated because the usage of the __progmem__ attribute on a type is not supported in GCC. However, the use of the __progmem__ attribute on a variable declaration is supported, and this is now the recommended usage. The typedef is only visible if the macro __PROG_TYPES_COMPAT__ has been dened before including <avr/pgmspace.h> (either by a #dene directive, or by a -D compiler option.) Type of an "uint16_t" object located in ash ROM. 23.19.3.8 prog_uint32_t Note DEPRECATED This typedef is now deprecated because the usage of the __progmem__ attribute on a type is not supported in GCC. However, the use of the __progmem__ attribute on a variable declaration is supported, and this is now the recommended usage. The typedef is only visible if the macro __PROG_TYPES_COMPAT__ has been dened before including <avr/pgmspace.h> (either by a #dene directive, or by a -D compiler option.) Type of an "uint32_t" object located in ash ROM. 23.19.3.9 prog_uint64_t Note DEPRECATED This typedef is now deprecated because the usage of the __progmem__ attribute on a type is not supported in GCC. However, the use of the __progmem__ attribute on a variable declaration is supported, and this is now the recommended usage. The typedef is only visible if the macro __PROG_TYPES_COMPAT__ has been dened before including <avr/pgmspace.h> (either by a #dene directive, or by a -D compiler option.) Type of an "uint64_t" object located in ash ROM. Note This type is not available when the compiler option -mint8 is in effect.
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23.19.3.10 prog_uint8_t Note DEPRECATED This typedef is now deprecated because the usage of the __progmem__ attribute on a type is not supported in GCC. However, the use of the __progmem__ attribute on a variable declaration is supported, and this is now the recommended usage. The typedef is only visible if the macro __PROG_TYPES_COMPAT__ has been dened before including <avr/pgmspace.h> (either by a #dene directive, or by a -D compiler option.) Type of an "uint8_t" object located in ash ROM. 23.19.3.11 prog_void Note DEPRECATED This typedef is now deprecated because the usage of the __progmem__ attribute on a type is not supported in GCC. However, the use of the __progmem__ attribute on a variable declaration is supported, and this is now the recommended usage. The typedef is only visible if the macro __PROG_TYPES_COMPAT__ has been dened before including <avr/pgmspace.h> (either by a #dene directive, or by a -D compiler option.) Type of a "void" object located in ash ROM. Does not make much sense by itself, but can be used to declare a "void " object in ash ROM.
23.19.4 23.19.4.1
Function Documentation int memcmp_PF ( const void s1, uint_farptr_t s2, size t len )
Compare memory areas. The memcmp_PF() function compares the rst len bytes of the memory areas s1 and ash s2. The comparision is performed using unsigned char operations. It is an equivalent of memcmp_P() function, except that it is capable working on all FLASH including the exteded area above 64kB. Returns The memcmp_PF() function returns an integer less than, equal to, or greater than zero if the rst len bytes of s1 is found, respectively, to be less than, to match, or be greater than the rst len bytes of s2.
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23.19.4.2
void memcpy_PF ( void dest, uint_farptr_t src, size t n )
Copy a memory block from ash to SRAM. The memcpy_PF() function is similar to memcpy(), except the data is copied from the program space and is addressed using a far pointer Parameters dst A pointer to the destination buffer src A far pointer to the origin of data in ash memory n The number of bytes to be copied
Returns The memcpy_PF() function returns a pointer to dst . The contents of RAMPZ SFR are undened when the function returns
23.19.4.3
int strcasecmp_PF ( const char s1, uint_farptr_t s2 )
Compare two strings ignoring case. The strcasecmp_PF() function compares the two strings s1 and s2 , ignoring the case of the characters Parameters s1 A pointer to the rst string in SRAM s2 A far pointer to the second string in Flash
Returns The strcasecmp_PF() function returns an integer less than, equal to, or greater than zero if s1 is found, respectively, to be less than, to match, or be greater than s2 . The contents of RAMPZ SFR are undened when the function returns
23.19.4.4
char strcat_PF ( char dst, uint_farptr_t src )
Concatenates two strings. The strcat_PF() function is similar to strcat() except that the src string must be located in program space (ash) and is addressed using a far pointer Parameters dst A pointer to the destination string in SRAM src A far pointer to the string to be appended in Flash
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Returns The strcat_PF() function returns a pointer to the resulting string dst . The contents of RAMPZ SFR are undened when the function returns
23.19.4.5
int strcmp_PF ( const char s1, uint_farptr_t s2 )
Compares two strings. The strcmp_PF() function is similar to strcmp() except that s2 is a far pointer to a string in program space Parameters s1 A pointer to the rst string in SRAM s2 A far pointer to the second string in Flash
Returns The strcmp_PF() function returns an integer less than, equal to, or greater than zero if s1 is found, respectively, to be less than, to match, or be greater than s2 . The contents of RAMPZ SFR are undened when the function returns
23.19.4.6
char strcpy_PF ( char dst, uint_farptr_t src )
Duplicate a string. The strcpy_PF() function is similar to strcpy() except that src is a far pointer to a string in program space Parameters dst A pointer to the destination string in SRAM src A far pointer to the source string in Flash
Returns The strcpy_PF() function returns a pointer to the destination string dst . The contents of RAMPZ SFR are undened when the funcion returns 23.19.4.7 size t strlcat_PF ( char dst, uint_farptr_t src, size t n )
Concatenate two strings. The strlcat_PF() function is similar to strlcat(), except that the src string must be located in program space (ash) and is addressed using a far pointer Appends src to string dst of size n (unlike strncat(), n is the full size of dst , not space
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left). At most n-1 characters will be copied. Always NULL terminates (unless n <= strlen(dst )) Parameters dst A pointer to the destination string in SRAM src A far pointer to the source string in Flash n The total number of bytes allocated to the destination string
Returns The strlcat_PF() function returns strlen(src ) + MIN(n, strlen(initial dst )). If retval >= n, truncation occurred. The contents of RAMPZ SFR are undened when the funcion returns
23.19.4.8
size t strlcpy_PF ( char dst, uint_farptr_t src, size t siz )
Copy a string from progmem to RAM. Copy src to string dst of size siz. At most siz-1 characters will be copied. Always NULL terminates (unless siz == 0). Returns The strlcpy_PF() function returns strlen(src). If retval >= siz, truncation occurred. The contents of RAMPZ SFR are undened when the function returns
23.19.4.9
size t strlen_PF ( uint_farptr_t s )
Obtain the length of a string. The strlen_PF() function is similar to strlen(), except that s is a far pointer to a string in program space Parameters s A far pointer to the string in ash
Returns The strlen_PF() function returns the number of characters in s. The contents of RAMPZ SFR are undened when the function returns
23.19.4.10
int strncasecmp_PF ( const char s1, uint_farptr_t s2, size t n )
Compare two strings ignoring case.
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The strncasecmp_PF() function is similar to strcasecmp_PF(), except it only compares the rst n characters of s1 and the string in ash is addressed using a far pointer Parameters s1 A pointer to a string in SRAM s2 A far pointer to a string in Flash n The maximum number of bytes to compare
Returns The strncasecmp_PF() function returns an integer less than, equal to, or greater than zero if s1 (or the rst n bytes thereof) is found, respectively, to be less than, to match, or be greater than s2 . The contents of RAMPZ SFR are undened when the function returns
23.19.4.11
char strncat_PF ( char dst, uint_farptr_t src, size t n )
Concatenate two strings. The strncat_PF() function is similar to strncat(), except that the src string must be located in program space (ash) and is addressed using a far pointer Parameters dst A pointer to the destination string in SRAM src A far pointer to the source string in Flash n The maximum number of bytes to append
Returns The strncat_PF() function returns a pointer to the resulting string dst . The contents of RAMPZ SFR are undened when the function returns
23.19.4.12
int strncmp_PF ( const char s1, uint_farptr_t s2, size t n )
Compare two strings with limited length. The strncmp_PF() function is similar to strcmp_PF() except it only compares the rst (at most) n characters of s1 and s2 Parameters s1 A pointer to the rst string in SRAM s2 A far pointer to the second string in Flash n The maximum number of bytes to compare
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Returns The strncmp_PF() function returns an integer less than, equal to, or greater than zero if s1 (or the rst n bytes thereof) is found, respectively, to be less than, to match, or be greater than s2 . The contents of RAMPZ SFR are undened when the function returns
23.19.4.13
char strncpy_PF ( char dst, uint_farptr_t src, size t n )
Duplicate a string until a limited length. The strncpy_PF() function is similar to strcpy_PF() except that not more than n bytes of src are copied. Thus, if there is no null byte among the rst n bytes of src , the result will not be null-terminated In the case where the length of src is less than that of n, the remainder of dst will be padded with nulls Parameters dst A pointer to the destination string in SRAM src A far pointer to the source string in Flash n The maximum number of bytes to copy
Returns The strncpy_PF() function returns a pointer to the destination string dst . The contents of RAMPZ SFR are undened when the function returns
23.19.4.14
size t strnlen_PF ( uint_farptr_t s, size t len )
Determine the length of a xed-size string. The strnlen_PF() function is similar to strnlen(), except that s is a far pointer to a string in program space Parameters s A far pointer to the string in Flash len The maximum number of length to return
Returns The strnlen_PF function returns strlen_P(s), if that is less than len, or len if there is no \0 character among the rst len characters pointed to by s. The contents of RAMPZ SFR are undened when the function returns
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23.19.4.15
char strstr_PF ( const char s1, uint_farptr_t s2 )
Locate a substring. The strstr_PF() function nds the rst occurrence of the substring s2 in the string s1. The terminating \0 characters are not compared. The strstr_PF() function is similar to strstr() except that s2 is a far pointer to a string in program space. Returns The strstr_PF() function returns a pointer to the beginning of the substring, or NULL if the substring is not found. If s2 points to a string of zero length, the function returns s1. The contents of RAMPZ SFR are undened when the function returns
23.19.4.16
char strtok_P ( char s, PGM_P delim )
Parses the string into tokens. strtok_P() parses the string s into tokens. The rst call to strtok_P() should have s as its rst argument. Subsequent calls should have the rst argument set to NULL. If a token ends with a delimiter, this delimiting character is overwritten with a \0 and a pointer to the next character is saved for the next call to strtok_P(). The delimiter string delim may be different for each call. The strtok_P() function is similar to strtok() except that delim is pointer to a string in program space. Returns The strtok_P() function returns a pointer to the next token or NULL when no more tokens are found.
Note strtok_P() is NOT reentrant. For a reentrant version of this function see strtok_rP().
23.20 <avr/power.h>: Power Reduction Management
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#include <avr/power.h>
Many AVRs contain a Power Reduction Register (PRR) or Registers (PRRx) that allow you to reduce power consumption by disabling or enabling various on-board peripherals as needed. There are many macros in this header le that provide an easy interface to enable or disable on-board peripherals to reduce power. See the table below. Note Not all AVR devices have a Power Reduction Register (for example the ATmega128). On those devices without a Power Reduction Register, these macros are not available. Not all AVR devices contain the same peripherals (for example, the LCD interface), or they will be named differently (for example, USART and USART0). Please consult your devices datasheet, or the header le, to nd out which macros are applicable to your device.
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Power Macro power_adc_enable()
Description Enable the Analog to Digital Converter module.
Applicable for device ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega128RFA1, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, AT90USB646, AT90USB647, AT90USB1286, AT90USB1287, AT90PWM1, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM2B, AT90PWM3, AT90PWM3B, AT90PWM216, AT90PWM316, AT90PWM81, ATmega165, ATmega165P, ATmega325, ATmega325A, ATmega3250, ATmega3250A, ATmega645, ATmega6450, ATmega169, ATmega169P, ATmega329, ATmega329A, ATmega3290, ATmega3290A, ATmega649, ATmega6490, ATmega164P, ATmega324P, ATmega644, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATmega168, ATtiny24, ATtiny44, ATtiny84, ATtiny84A, ATtiny25, ATtiny45, ATtiny85, ATtiny261, ATtiny461, ATtiny861 ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega128RFA1, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, AT90USB646, AT90USB647, AT90USB1286, AT90USB1287, AT90PWM1, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM2B, AT90PWM3, AT90PWM3B, AT90PWM216, AT90PWM316, AT90PWM81, ATmega165, ATmega165P, ATmega325, ATmega325A, ATmega3250, ATmega3250A, ATmega645, ATmega6450, ATmega169, ATmega169P, ATmega329, ATmega329A, ATmega3290, ATmega3290A, ATmega649, ATmega6490, ATmega164P, ATmega324P, ATmega644, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATmega168, ATtiny24, ATtiny44, ATtiny84, ATtiny84A, ATtiny25, ATtiny45, ATtiny85, ATtiny261, ATtiny461, ATtiny861 ATmega169, ATmega169P, ATmega329, ATmega329A, ATmega3290, ATmega3290A, ATmega649, ATmega6490 ATmega169, ATmega169P, ATmega329, ATmega329A, ATmega3290, ATmega3290A, ATmega649, ATmega6490 AT90PWM81 AT90PWM81 AT90PWM1, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM2B, AT90PWM3,
power_adc_disable()
Disable the Analog to Digital Converter module.
power_lcd_enable()
Enable the LCD module.
power_lcd_disable().
Disable the LCD module.
power_pscr_enable() power_pscr_disable() power_psc0_enable()
Enable the Reduced Power Stage Controller module. Disable the Reduced Power Stage Controller module. Enable the Power Stage Controller 0 module.
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Some of the newer AVRs contain a System Clock Prescale Register (CLKPR) that allows you to decrease the system clock frequency and the power consumption when the need for processing power is low. Below are two macros and an enumerated type that can be used to interface to the Clock Prescale Register. Note Not all AVR devices have a Clock Prescale Register. On those devices without a Clock Prescale Register, these macros are not available.
typedef enum { clock_div_1 = 0, clock_div_2 = 1, clock_div_4 = 2, clock_div_8 = 3, clock_div_16 = 4, clock_div_32 = 5, clock_div_64 = 6, clock_div_128 = 7, clock_div_256 = 8, clock_div_1_rc = 15, // ATmega128RFA1 only } clock_div_t;
Clock prescaler setting enumerations.

clock_prescale_set(x)
Set the clock prescaler register select bits, selecting a system clock division setting. This function is inlined, even if compiler optimizations are disabled. The type of x is clock_div_t.
clock_prescale_get()
Gets and returns the clock prescaler register setting. The return type is clock_div_t.
23.21
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23.21
Additional notes from <avr/sfr defs.h>
The <avr/sfr_defs.h> le is included by all of the <avr/ioXXXX.h> les, which use macros dened here to make the special function register denitions look like C variables or simple constants, depending on the _SFR_ASM_COMPAT dene. Some examples from <avr/iocanxx.h> to show how to dene such macros:
#define #define #define #define #define PORTA EEAR UDR0 TCNT3 CANIDT _SFR_IO8(0x02) _SFR_IO16(0x21) _SFR_MEM8(0xC6) _SFR_MEM16(0x94) _SFR_MEM32(0xF0)
If _SFR_ASM_COMPAT is not dened, C programs can use names like PORTA directly in C expressions (also on the left side of assignment operators) and GCC will do the right thing (use short I/O instructions if possible). The __SFR_OFFSET denition is not used in any way in this case. Dene _SFR_ASM_COMPAT as 1 to make these names work as simple constants (addresses of the I/O registers). This is necessary when included in preprocessed assembler (.S) source les, so it is done automatically if __ASSEMBLER__ is dened. By default, all addresses are dened as if they were memory addresses (used in lds/sts instructions). To use these addresses in in/out instructions, you must subtract 0x20 from them. For more backwards compatibility, insert the following at the start of your old assembler source le:
#define __SFR_OFFSET 0
This automatically subtracts 0x20 from I/O space addresses, but its a hack, so it is recommended to change your source: wrap such addresses in macros dened here, as shown below. After this is done, the __SFR_OFFSET denition is no longer necessary and can be removed. Real example - this code could be used in a boot loader that is portable between devices with SPMCR at different addresses.
<avr/iom163.h>: #define SPMCR _SFR_IO8(0x37) <avr/iom128.h>: #define SPMCR _SFR_MEM8(0x68) #if _SFR_IO_REG_P(SPMCR) out _SFR_IO_ADDR(SPMCR), r24 #else sts _SFR_MEM_ADDR(SPMCR), r24 #endif
You can use the in/out/cbi/sbi/sbic/sbis instructions, without the _SFR_IO_REG_P test, if you know that the register is in the I/O space (as with SREG, for
23.21
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example). If it isnt, the assembler will complain (I/O address out of range 0...0x3f), so this should be fairly safe. If you do not dene __SFR_OFFSET (so it will be 0x20 by default), all special register addresses are dened as memory addresses (so SREG is 0x5f), and (if code size and speed are not important, and you dont like the ugly #if above) you can always use lds/sts to access them. But, this will not work if __SFR_OFFSET != 0x20, so use a different macro (dened only if __SFR_OFFSET == 0x20) for safety:
sts _SFR_ADDR(SPMCR), r24
In C programs, all 3 combinations of _SFR_ASM_COMPAT and __SFR_OFFSET are supported - the _SFR_ADDR(SPMCR) macro can be used to get the address of the SPMCR register (0x57 or 0x68 depending on device).
23.22 <avr/sfr_defs.h>: Special function registers
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23.22 <avr/sfr defs.h>: Special function registers

Modules Additional notes from <avr/sfr_defs.h>
Bit manipulation #dene _BV(bit) (1 << (bit))
IO register bit manipulation #dene bit_is_set(sfr, bit) (_SFR_BYTE(sfr) & _BV(bit)) #dene bit_is_clear(sfr, bit) (!(_SFR_BYTE(sfr) & _BV(bit))) #dene loop_until_bit_is_set(sfr, bit) do { } while (bit_is_clear(sfr, bit)) #dene loop_until_bit_is_clear(sfr, bit) do { } while (bit_is_set(sfr, bit))
23.22.1
When working with microcontrollers, many tasks usually consist of controlling internal peripherals, or external peripherals that are connected to the device. The entire IO address space is made available as memory-mapped IO , i.e. it can be accessed using all the MCU instructions that are applicable to normal data memory. For most AVR devices, the IO register space is mapped into the data memory address space with an offset of 0x20 since the bottom of this space is reserved for direct access to the MCU registers. (Actual SRAM is available only behind the IO register area, starting at some specic address depending on the device.) For example the user can access memory-mapped IO registers as if they were globally dened variables like this:
PORTA = 0x33; unsigned char foo = PINA;
The compiler will choose the correct instruction sequence to generate based on the address of the register being accessed. The advantage of using the memory-mapped registers in C programs is that it makes the programs more portable to other C compilers for the AVR platform. Note that special care must be taken when accessing some of the 16-bit timer IO registers where access from both the main program and within an interrupt context can happen. See Why do some 16-bit timer registers sometimes get trashed?.
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Porting programs that use the deprecated sbi/cbi macros
Access to the AVR single bit set and clear instructions are provided via the standard C bit manipulation commands. The sbi and cbi macros are no longer directly supported. sbi (sfr,bit) can be replaced by sfr |= _BV(bit) . i.e.: sbi(PORTB, PB1); is now PORTB |= _BV(PB1); This actually is more exible than having sbi directly, as the optimizer will use a hardware sbi if appropriate, or a read/or/write operation if not appropriate. You do not need to keep track of which registers sbi/cbi will operate on. Likewise, cbi (sfr,bit) is now sfr &= (_BV(bit));
23.22.2 23.22.2.1
Dene Documentation #dene _BV( bit ) (1 << (bit))
#include <avr/io.h>
Converts a bit number into a byte value. Note The bit shift is performed by the compiler which then inserts the result into the code. Thus, there is no run-time overhead when using _BV().
23.22.2.2
#dene bit_is_clear( sfr, bit ) (!( SFR BYTE(sfr) & _BV(bit)))
#include <avr/io.h>
Test whether bit bit in IO register sfr is clear. This will return non-zero if the bit is clear, and a 0 if the bit is set. 23.22.2.3 #dene bit_is_set( sfr, bit ) ( SFR BYTE(sfr) & _BV(bit))
#include <avr/io.h>
Test whether bit bit in IO register sfr is set. This will return a 0 if the bit is clear, and non-zero if the bit is set. 23.22.2.4 #dene loop_until_bit_is_clear( sfr, bit ) do { } while (bit_is_set(sfr, bit))
#include <avr/io.h>
Wait until bit bit in IO register sfr is clear.
292
23.22.2.5
#dene loop_until_bit_is_set( sfr, bit ) do { } while (bit_is_clear(sfr, bit))
#include <avr/io.h>
Wait until bit bit in IO register sfr is set.
23.23 <avr/signature.h>: Signature Support
293
23.23 <avr/signature.h>: Signature Support

Introduction
The <avr/signature.h> header le allows the user to automatically and easily include the devices signature data in a special section of the nal linked ELF le. This value can then be used by programming software to compare the on-device signature with the signature recorded in the ELF le to look for a match before programming the device. API Usage Example
Usage is very simple; just include the header le:

#include <avr/signature.h>
This will declare a constant unsigned char array and it is initialized with the three signature bytes, MSB rst, that are dened in the device I/O header le. This array is then placed in the .signature section in the resulting linked ELF le. The three signature bytes that are used to initialize the array are these dened macros in the device I/O header le, from MSB to LSB: SIGNATURE_2, SIGNATURE_1, SIGNATURE_0. This header le should only be included once in an application.
23.24 <avr/sleep.h>: Power Management and Sleep Modes
294

Functions void sleep_enable (void) void sleep_disable (void) void sleep_cpu (void)
23.24.1
#include <avr/sleep.h>
Use of the SLEEP instruction can allow an application to reduce its power comsumption considerably. AVR devices can be put into different sleep modes. Refer to the datasheet for the details relating to the device you are using. There are several macros provided in this header le to actually put the device into sleep mode. The simplest way is to optionally set the desired sleep mode using set_sleep_mode() (it usually defaults to idle mode where the CPU is put on sleep but all peripheral clocks are still running), and then call sleep_mode(). This macro automatically sets the sleep enable bit, goes to sleep, and clears the sleep enable bit. Example:
#include <avr/sleep.h> ... set_sleep_mode(<mode>); sleep_mode();
Note that unless your purpose is to completely lock the CPU (until a hardware reset), interrupts need to be enabled before going to sleep. As the sleep_mode() macro might cause race conditions in some situations, the individual steps of manipulating the sleep enable (SE) bit, and actually issuing the SLEEP instruction, are provided in the macros sleep_enable(), sleep_disable(), and sleep_cpu(). This also allows for test-and-sleep scenarios that take care of not missing the interrupt that will awake the device from sleep. Example:
#include <avr/interrupt.h> #include <avr/sleep.h> ... set_sleep_mode(<mode>); cli(); if (some_condition) { sleep_enable();
295
sei(); sleep_cpu(); sleep_disable(); } sei();
This sequence ensures an atomic test of some_condition with interrupts being disabled. If the condition is met, sleep mode will be prepared, and the SLEEP instruction will be scheduled immediately after an SEI instruction. As the intruction right after the SEI is guaranteed to be executed before an interrupt could trigger, it is sure the device will really be put to sleep. Some devices have the ability to disable the Brown Out Detector (BOD) before going to sleep. This will also reduce power while sleeping. If the specic AVR device has this ability then an additional macro is dened: sleep_bod_disable(). This macro generates inlined assembly code that will correctly implement the timed sequence for disabling the BOD before sleeping. However, there is a limited number of cycles after the BOD has been disabled that the device can be put into sleep mode, otherwise the BOD will not truly be disabled. Recommended practice is to disable the BOD (sleep_bod_disable()), set the interrupts (sei()), and then put the device to sleep (sleep_cpu()), like so:
#include <avr/interrupt.h> #include <avr/sleep.h> ... set_sleep_mode(<mode>); cli(); if (some_condition) { sleep_enable(); sleep_bod_disable(); sei(); sleep_cpu(); sleep_disable(); } sei();
23.24.2 23.24.2.1
Function Documentation void sleep_cpu ( void )
Put the device into sleep mode. The SE bit must be set beforehand, and it is recommended to clear it afterwards. 23.24.2.2 void sleep_disable ( void )
Clear the SE (sleep enable) bit.
296
23.24.2.3
void sleep_enable ( void )
Put the device in sleep mode. How the device is brought out of sleep mode depends on the specic mode selected with the set_sleep_mode() function. See the data sheet for your device for more details. Set the SE (sleep enable) bit.
23.25 <avr/version.h>: avr-libc version macros
297

Denes #dene __AVR_LIBC_VERSION_STRING__ "1.8.0" #dene __AVR_LIBC_VERSION__ 10800UL #dene __AVR_LIBC_DATE_STRING__ "20111228" #dene __AVR_LIBC_DATE_ 20111228UL #dene __AVR_LIBC_MAJOR__ 1 #dene __AVR_LIBC_MINOR__ 8 #dene __AVR_LIBC_REVISION__ 0
23.25.1
#include <avr/version.h>
This header le denes macros that contain version numbers and strings describing the current version of avr-libc. The version number itself basically consists of three pieces that are separated by a dot: the major number, the minor number, and the revision number. For development versions (which use an odd minor number), the string representation additionally gets the date code (YYYYMMDD) appended. This le will also be included by <avr/io.h>. That way, portable tests can be implemented using <avr/io.h> that can be used in code that wants to remain backwardscompatible to library versions prior to the date when the library version API had been added, as referenced but undened C preprocessor macros automatically evaluate to 0.
23.25.2 23.25.2.1
Dene Documentation #dene __AVR_LIBC_DATE_ 20111228UL
Numerical representation of the release date. 23.25.2.2 #dene __AVR_LIBC_DATE_STRING__ 20111228
String literal representation of the release date. 23.25.2.3 #dene __AVR_LIBC_MAJOR__ 1
Library major version number.
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23.25.2.4
#dene __AVR_LIBC_MINOR__ 8
Library minor version number. 23.25.2.5 #dene __AVR_LIBC_REVISION__ 0
Library revision number. 23.25.2.6 #dene __AVR_LIBC_VERSION__ 10800UL
Numerical representation of the current library version. In the numerical representation, the major number is multiplied by 10000, the minor number by 100, and all three parts are then added. It is intented to provide a monotonically increasing numerical value that can easily be used in numerical checks. 23.25.2.7 #dene __AVR_LIBC_VERSION_STRING__ 1.8.0
String literal representation of the current library version.
23.26 <avr/wdt.h>: Watchdog timer handling
299

Denes #dene wdt_reset() __asm__ __volatile__ ("wdr") #dene wdt_enable(value) #dene wdt_disable() #dene WDTO_15MS 0 #dene WDTO_30MS 1 #dene WDTO_60MS 2 #dene WDTO_120MS 3 #dene WDTO_250MS 4 #dene WDTO_500MS 5 #dene WDTO_1S 6 #dene WDTO_2S 7 #dene WDTO_4S 8 #dene WDTO_8S 9
23.26.1
#include <avr/wdt.h>
This header le declares the interface to some inline macros handling the watchdog timer present in many AVR devices. In order to prevent the watchdog timer conguration from being accidentally altered by a crashing application, a special timed sequence is required in order to change it. The macros within this header le handle the required sequence automatically before changing any value. Interrupts will be disabled during the manipulation. Note Depending on the fuse conguration of the particular device, further restrictions might apply, in particular it might be disallowed to turn off the watchdog timer. Note that for newer devices (ATmega88 and newer, effectively any AVR that has the option to also generate interrupts), the watchdog timer remains active even after a system reset (except a power-on condition), using the fastest prescaler value (approximately 15 ms). It is therefore required to turn off the watchdog early during program startup, the datasheet recommends a sequence like the following:
#include <stdint.h> #include <avr/wdt.h> uint8_t mcusr_mirror __attribute__ ((section (".noinit")));
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void get_mcusr(void) \ __attribute__((naked)) \ __attribute__((section(".init3"))); void get_mcusr(void) { mcusr_mirror = MCUSR; MCUSR = 0; wdt_disable(); }
Saving the value of MCUSR in mcusr_mirror is only needed if the application later wants to examine the reset source, but in particular, clearing the watchdog reset ag before disabling the watchdog is required, according to the datasheet.
23.26.2 23.26.2.1 Value:
Dene Documentation #dene wdt_disable( )
__asm__ __volatile__ ( \ "in __tmp_reg__, __SREG__" "\n\t" \ "cli" "\n\t" \ "out %0, %1" "\n\t" \ "out %0, __zero_reg__" "\n\t" \ "out __SREG__,__tmp_reg__" "\n\t" \ : /* no outputs */ \ : "I" (_SFR_IO_ADDR(_WD_CONTROL_REG)), \ "r" ((uint8_t)(_BV(_WD_CHANGE_BIT) | _BV(WDE))) \ : "r0" \ )
Disable the watchdog timer, if possible. This attempts to turn off the Enable bit in the watchdog control register. See the datasheet for details. 23.26.2.2 Value:
__asm__ __volatile__ ( \ "in __tmp_reg__,__SREG__" "\n\t" \ "cli" "\n\t" \ "wdr" "\n\t" \ "out %0,%1" "\n\t" \ "out __SREG__,__tmp_reg__" "\n\t" \ "out %0,%2" \ : /* no outputs */ \ : "I" (_SFR_IO_ADDR(_WD_CONTROL_REG)), \ "r" (_BV(_WD_CHANGE_BIT) | _BV(WDE)), \ "r" ((uint8_t) ((value & 0x08 ? _WD_PS3_MASK : 0x00) | \ _BV(WDE) | (value & 0x07)) ) \ : "r0" \ )
#dene wdt_enable( value )
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Enable the watchdog timer, conguring it for expiry after timeout (which is a combination of the WDP0 through WDP2 bits to write into the WDTCR register; For those devices that have a WDTCSR register, it uses the combination of the WDP0 through WDP3 bits). See also the symbolic constants WDTO_15MS et al. 23.26.2.3 #dene wdt_reset( ) asm volatile (wdr)
Reset the watchdog timer. When the watchdog timer is enabled, a call to this instruction is required before the timer expires, otherwise a watchdog-initiated device reset will occur. 23.26.2.4 #dene WDTO_120MS 3
See WDT0_15MS 23.26.2.5 #dene WDTO_15MS 0
Symbolic constants for the watchdog timeout. Since the watchdog timer is based on a free-running RC oscillator, the times are approximate only and apply to a supply voltage of 5 V. At lower supply voltages, the times will increase. For older devices, the times will be as large as three times when operating at Vcc = 3 V, while the newer devices (e. g. ATmega128, ATmega8) only experience a negligible change. Possible timeout values are: 15 ms, 30 ms, 60 ms, 120 ms, 250 ms, 500 ms, 1 s, 2 s. (Some devices also allow for 4 s and 8 s.) Symbolic constants are formed by the prex WDTO_, followed by the time. Example that would select a watchdog timer expiry of approximately 500 ms:
wdt_enable(WDTO_500MS);
23.26.2.6
#dene WDTO_1S 6
See WDT0_15MS 23.26.2.8 #dene WDTO_2S 7
See WDT0_15MS
302
23.26.2.10
#dene WDTO_4S 8
See WDT0_15MS Note: This is only available on the ATtiny2313, ATtiny24, ATtiny44, ATtiny84, ATtiny84A, ATtiny25, ATtiny45, ATtiny85, ATtiny261, ATtiny461, ATtiny861, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATmega168, ATmega48P, ATmega88P, ATmega168P, ATmega328P, ATmega164P, ATmega324P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega8HVA, ATmega16HVA, ATmega32HVB, ATmega406, ATmega1284P, AT90PWM1, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM2B, AT90PWM3, AT90PWM3B, AT90PWM216, AT90PWM316, AT90PWM81, AT90USB82, AT90USB162, AT90USB646, AT90USB647, AT90USB1286, AT90USB1287, ATtiny48, ATtiny88. 23.26.2.11 #dene WDTO_500MS 5
WDT0_15MS
23.26.2.13 #dene WDTO_8S 9
See WDT0_15MS Note: This is only available on the ATtiny2313, ATtiny24, ATtiny44, ATtiny84, ATtiny84A, ATtiny25, ATtiny45, ATtiny85, ATtiny261, ATtiny461, ATtiny861, ATmega48, ATmega88, ATmega168, ATmega48P, ATmega88P, ATmega168P, ATmega328P, ATmega164P, ATmega324P, ATmega644P, ATmega644, ATmega640, ATmega1280, ATmega1281, ATmega2560, ATmega2561, ATmega8HVA, ATmega16HVA, ATmega32HVB, ATmega406, ATmega1284P, AT90PWM1, AT90PWM2, AT90PWM2B, AT90PWM3, AT90PWM3B, AT90PWM216, AT90PWM316, AT90PWM81, AT90USB82, AT90USB162, AT90USB646, AT90USB647, AT90USB1286, AT90USB1287, ATtiny48, ATtiny88.
23.27 <util/atomic.h> Atomically and Non-Atomically Executed Code Blocks 303
23.27 <util/atomic.h> Atomically and Non-Atomically Executed Code Blocks

Denes #dene ATOMIC_BLOCK(type) #dene NONATOMIC_BLOCK(type) #dene ATOMIC_RESTORESTATE #dene ATOMIC_FORCEON #dene NONATOMIC_RESTORESTATE #dene NONATOMIC_FORCEOFF
23.27.1
#include <util/atomic.h>
Note The macros in this header le require the ISO/IEC 9899:1999 ("ISO C99") feature of for loop variables that are declared inside the for loop itself. For that reason, this header le can only be used if the standard level of the compiler (option --std=) is set to either c99 or gnu99. The macros in this header le deal with code blocks that are guaranteed to be excuted Atomically or Non-Atmomically. The term "Atomic" in this context refers to the unability of the respective code to be interrupted. These macros operate via automatic manipulation of the Global Interrupt Status (I) bit of the SREG register. Exit paths from both block types are all managed automatically without the need for special considerations, i. e. the interrupt status will be restored to the same value it has been when entering the respective block. A typical example that requires atomic access is a 16 (or more) bit variable that is shared between the main execution path and an ISR. While declaring such a variable as volatile ensures that the compiler will not optimize accesses to it away, it does not guarantee atomic access to it. Assuming the following example:
#include <inttypes.h> #include <avr/interrupt.h> #include <avr/io.h> volatile uint16_t ctr; ISR(TIMER1_OVF_vect) { ctr--; }
... int main(void) { ... ctr = 0x200; start_timer(); while (ctr != 0) // wait ; ... }
There is a chance where the main context will exit its wait loop when the variable ctr just reached the value 0xFF. This happens because the compiler cannot natively access a 16-bit variable atomically in an 8-bit CPU. So the variable is for example at 0x100, the compiler then tests the low byte for 0, which succeeds. It then proceeds to test the high byte, but that moment the ISR triggers, and the main context is interrupted. The ISR will decrement the variable from 0x100 to 0xFF, and the main context proceeds. It now tests the high byte of the variable which is (now) also 0, so it concludes the variable has reached 0, and terminates the loop. Using the macros from this header le, the above code can be rewritten like:
#include #include #include #include <inttypes.h> <avr/interrupt.h> <avr/io.h> <util/atomic.h>
volatile uint16_t ctr; ISR(TIMER1_OVF_vect) { ctr--; } ... int main(void) { ... ctr = 0x200; start_timer(); sei(); uint16_t ctr_copy; do { ATOMIC_BLOCK(ATOMIC_FORCEON) { ctr_copy = ctr; } } while (ctr_copy != 0); ... }
This will install the appropriate interrupt protection before accessing variable ctr, so it is guaranteed to be consistently tested. If the global interrupt state were uncertain before entering the ATOMIC_BLOCK, it should be executed with the parameter ATOMIC_RESTORESTATE rather than ATOMIC_FORCEON. See Problems with reordering code for things to be taken into account with respect to compiler optimizations.
23.27.2 23.27.2.1
Dene Documentation #dene ATOMIC_BLOCK( type )
Creates a block of code that is guaranteed to be executed atomically. Upon entering the block the Global Interrupt Status ag in SREG is disabled, and re-enabled upon exiting the block from any exit path. Two possible macro parameters are permitted, ATOMIC_RESTORESTATE and ATOMIC_FORCEON. 23.27.2.2 #dene ATOMIC_FORCEON
This is a possible parameter for ATOMIC_BLOCK. When used, it will cause the ATOMIC_BLOCK to force the state of the SREG register on exit, enabling the Global Interrupt Status ag bit. This saves on ash space as the previous value of the SREG register does not need to be saved at the start of the block. Care should be taken that ATOMIC_FORCEON is only used when it is known that interrupts are enabled before the blocks execution or when the side effects of enabling global interrupts at the blocks completion are known and understood. 23.27.2.3 #dene ATOMIC_RESTORESTATE
This is a possible parameter for ATOMIC_BLOCK. When used, it will cause the ATOMIC_BLOCK to restore the previous state of the SREG register, saved before the Global Interrupt Status ag bit was disabled. The net effect of this is to make the ATOMIC_BLOCKs contents guaranteed atomic, without changing the state of the Global Interrupt Status ag when execution of the block completes. 23.27.2.4 #dene NONATOMIC_BLOCK( type )
Creates a block of code that is executed non-atomically. Upon entering the block the Global Interrupt Status ag in SREG is enabled, and disabled upon exiting the block from any exit path. This is useful when nested inside ATOMIC_BLOCK sections, allowing for non-atomic execution of small blocks of code while maintaining the atomic access of the other sections of the parent ATOMIC_BLOCK. Two possible macro parameters are permitted, NONATOMIC_RESTORESTATE and NONATOMIC_FORCEOFF.
23.27.2.5
#dene NONATOMIC_FORCEOFF
This is a possible parameter for NONATOMIC_BLOCK. When used, it will cause the NONATOMIC_BLOCK to force the state of the SREG register on exit, disabling the Global Interrupt Status ag bit. This saves on ash space as the previous value of the SREG register does not need to be saved at the start of the block. Care should be taken that NONATOMIC_FORCEOFF is only used when it is known that interrupts are disabled before the blocks execution or when the side effects of disabling global interrupts at the blocks completion are known and understood. 23.27.2.6 #dene NONATOMIC_RESTORESTATE
This is a possible parameter for NONATOMIC_BLOCK. When used, it will cause the NONATOMIC_BLOCK to restore the previous state of the SREG register, saved before the Global Interrupt Status ag bit was enabled. The net effect of this is to make the NONATOMIC_BLOCKs contents guaranteed non-atomic, without changing the state of the Global Interrupt Status ag when execution of the block completes.
23.28 <util/crc16.h>: CRC Computations
307

Functions static __inline__ uint16_t _crc16_update (uint16_t __crc, uint8_t __data) static __inline__ uint16_t _crc_xmodem_update (uint16_t __crc, uint8_t __data) static __inline__ uint16_t _crc_ccitt_update (uint16_t __crc, uint8_t __data) static __inline__ uint8_t _crc_ibutton_update (uint8_t __crc, uint8_t __data)
23.28.1
#include <util/crc16.h>
This header le provides a optimized inline functions for calculating cyclic redundancy checks (CRC) using common polynomials. References:
See the Dallas Semiconductor app note 27 for 8051 assembler example and general CRC optimization suggestions. The table on the last page of the app note is the key to understanding these implementations.
Jack Crenshaws "Implementing CRCs" article in the January 1992 isue of Embedded Systems Programming . This may be difcult to nd, but it explains CRCs in very clear and concise terms. Well worth the effort to obtain a copy. A typical application would look like:
// Dallas iButton test vector. uint8_t serno[] = { 0x02, 0x1c, 0xb8, 0x01, 0, 0, 0, 0xa2 }; int checkcrc(void) { uint8_t crc = 0, i; for (i = 0; i < sizeof serno / sizeof serno[0]; i++) crc = _crc_ibutton_update(crc, serno[i]); return crc; // must be 0 }
308
23.28.2 23.28.2.1
Function Documentation static inline uint16_t _crc16_update ( uint16_t crc, uint8_t data )
[static]
Optimized CRC-16 calculation. Polynomial: x 16 + x 15 + x 2 + 1 (0xa001) Initial value: 0xffff This CRC is normally used in disk-drive controllers. The following is the equivalent functionality written in C.
uint16_t crc16_update(uint16_t crc, uint8_t a) { int i; crc ^= a; for (i = 0; { if (crc crc else crc } return crc; }
i < 8; ++i) & 1) = (crc >> 1) ^ 0xA001; = (crc >> 1);
23.28.2.2
static inline uint16_t _crc_ccitt_update ( uint16_t crc, uint8_t data )
[static]
Optimized CRC-CCITT calculation. Polynomial: x 16 + x 12 + x 5 + 1 (0x8408) Initial value: 0xffff This is the CRC used by PPP and IrDA. See RFC1171 (PPP protocol) and IrDA IrLAP 1.1 Note Although the CCITT polynomial is the same as that used by the Xmodem protocol, they are quite different. The difference is in how the bits are shifted through the alorgithm. Xmodem shifts the MSB of the CRC and the input rst, while CCITT shifts the LSB of the CRC and the input rst. The following is the equivalent functionality written in C.
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uint16_t crc_ccitt_update (uint16_t crc, uint8_t data) { data ^= lo8 (crc); data ^= data << 4; return ((((uint16_t)data << 8) | hi8 (crc)) ^ (uint8_t)(data >> 4) ^ ((uint16_t)data << 3)); }
23.28.2.3
static inline uint8_t _crc_ibutton_update ( uint8_t crc, uint8_t data )
[static]
Optimized Dallas (now Maxim) iButton 8-bit CRC calculation. Polynomial: x 8 + x 5 + x 4 + 1 (0x8C) Initial value: 0x0 See http://www.maxim-ic.com/appnotes.cfm/appnote_number/27 The following is the equivalent functionality written in C.
uint8_t _crc_ibutton_update(uint8_t crc, uint8_t data) { uint8_t i; crc = crc ^ for (i = 0; { if (crc crc else crc } return crc; } data; i < 8; i++) & 0x01) = (crc >> 1) ^ 0x8C; >>= 1;
23.28.2.4
static inline uint16_t _crc_xmodem_update ( uint16_t crc, uint8_t data ) [static]
Optimized CRC-XMODEM calculation. Polynomial: x 16 + x 12 + x 5 + 1 (0x1021) Initial value: 0x0 This is the CRC used by the Xmodem-CRC protocol. The following is the equivalent functionality written in C.
uint16_t
310
crc_xmodem_update (uint16_t crc, uint8_t data) { int i; crc = crc ^ ((uint16_t)data << 8); for (i=0; i<8; i++) { if (crc & 0x8000) crc = (crc << 1) ^ 0x1021; else crc <<= 1; } return crc; }
23.29 <util/delay.h>: Convenience functions for busy-wait delay loops
311

Functions void _delay_ms (double __ms) void _delay_us (double __us)
23.29.1
#define F_CPU 1000000UL // 1 MHz //#define F_CPU 14.7456E6 #include <util/delay.h>
Note As an alternative method, it is possible to pass the F_CPU macro down to the compiler from the Makele. Obviously, in that case, no #define statement should be used. The functions in this header le are wrappers around the basic busy-wait functions from <util/delay_basic.h>. They are meant as convenience functions where actual time values can be specied rather than a number of cycles to wait for. The idea behind is that compile-time constant expressions will be eliminated by compiler optimization so oating-point expressions can be used to calculate the number of delay cycles needed based on the CPU frequency passed by the macro F_CPU. Note In order for these functions to work as intended, compiler optimizations must be enabled, and the delay time must be an expression that is a known constant at compile-time. If these requirements are not met, the resulting delay will be much longer (and basically unpredictable), and applications that otherwise do not use oating-point calculations will experience severe code bloat by the oating-point library routines linked into the application. The functions available allow the specication of microsecond, and millisecond delays directly, using the application-supplied macro F_CPU as the CPU clock frequency (in Hertz).
23.29.2 23.29.2.1
Function Documentation void _delay_ms ( double ms )
Perform a delay of __ms milliseconds, using _delay_loop_2().
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The macro F_CPU is supposed to be dened to a constant dening the CPU clock frequency (in Hertz). The maximal possible delay is 262.14 ms / F_CPU in MHz. When the user request delay which exceed the maximum possible one, _delay_ms() provides a decreased resolution functionality. In this mode _delay_ms() will work with a resolution of 1/10 ms, providing delays up to 6.5535 seconds (independent from CPU frequency). The user will not be informed about decreased resolution. If the avr-gcc toolchain has __builtin_avr_delay_cycles(unsigned long) support, maximal possible delay is 4294967.295 ms/ F_CPU in MHz. For values greater than the maximal possible delay, overows results in no delay i.e., 0ms. Conversion of __us into clock cycles may not always result in integer. By default, the clock cycles rounded up to next integer. This ensures that the user gets atleast __us microseconds of delay. Alternatively, user can dene __DELAY_ROUND_DOWN__ and __DELAY_ROUND_CLOSEST__ to round down and round to closest integer. Note: The new implementation of _delay_ms(double __ms) with __builtin_avr_delay_cycles(unsigned long) support is not backward compatible. User can dene __DELAY_BACKWARD_COMPATIBLE__ to get a backward compatible delay. Also, the backward compatible algorithm will be chosen if the code is compiled in a freestanding environment (GCC option -ffreestanding), as the math functions required for rounding are not available to the compiler then. 23.29.2.2 void _delay_us ( double us )
Perform a delay of __us microseconds, using _delay_loop_1(). The macro F_CPU is supposed to be dened to a constant dening the CPU clock frequency (in Hertz). The maximal possible delay is 768 us / F_CPU in MHz. If the user requests a delay greater than the maximal possible one, _delay_us() will automatically call _delay_ms() instead. The user will not be informed about this case. If the avr-gcc toolchain has __builtin_avr_delay_cycles(unsigned long) support, maximal possible delay is 4294967.295 us/ F_CPU in MHz. For values greater than the maximal possible delay, overow results in no delay i.e., 0us. Conversion of __us into clock cycles may not always result in integer. By default, the clock cycles rounded up to next integer. This ensures that the user gets atleast __us microseconds of delay. Alternatively, user can dene __DELAY_ROUND_DOWN__ and __DELAY_ROUND_CLOSEST__ to round down and round to closest integer. Note: The new implementation of _delay_us(double __us) with __builtin_avr_delay_cycles(unsigned long) support is not backward compatible. User can dene __DELAY_-
313
BACKWARD_COMPATIBLE__ to get a backward compatible delay. Also, the backward compatible algorithm will be chosen if the code is compiled in a freestanding environment (GCC option -ffreestanding), as the math functions required for rounding are not available to the compiler then.
23.30 <util/delay_basic.h>: Basic busy-wait delay loops
314
23.30 <util/delay basic.h>: Basic busy-wait delay loops

Functions void _delay_loop_1 (uint8_t __count) void _delay_loop_2 (uint16_t __count)
23.30.1
#include <util/delay_basic.h>
The functions in this header le implement simple delay loops that perform a busywaiting. They are typically used to facilitate short delays in the program execution. They are implemented as count-down loops with a well-known CPU cycle count per loop iteration. As such, no other processing can occur simultaneously. It should be kept in mind that the functions described here do not disable interrupts. In general, for long delays, the use of hardware timers is much preferrable, as they free the CPU, and allow for concurrent processing of other events while the timer is running. However, in particular for very short delays, the overhead of setting up a hardware timer is too much compared to the overall delay time. Two inline functions are provided for the actual delay algorithms.
23.30.2 23.30.2.1
Function Documentation void _delay_loop_1 ( uint8_t count )
Delay loop using an 8-bit counter __count, so up to 256 iterations are possible. (The value 256 would have to be passed as 0.) The loop executes three CPU cycles per iteration, not including the overhead the compiler needs to setup the counter register. Thus, at a CPU speed of 1 MHz, delays of up to 768 microseconds can be achieved. 23.30.2.2 void _delay_loop_2 ( uint16_t count )
Delay loop using a 16-bit counter __count, so up to 65536 iterations are possible. (The value 65536 would have to be passed as 0.) The loop executes four CPU cycles per iteration, not including the overhead the compiler requires to setup the counter register pair. Thus, at a CPU speed of 1 MHz, delays of up to about 262.1 milliseconds can be achieved.
23.31 <util/parity.h>: Parity bit generation
315
23.31 <util/parity.h>: Parity bit generation

Denes #dene parity_even_bit(val)
23.31.1
#include <util/parity.h>
This header le contains optimized assembler code to calculate the parity bit for a byte.
23.31.2 23.31.2.1 Value:
Dene Documentation #dene parity_even_bit( val )
(__extension__({ unsigned char __t; __asm__ ( "mov __tmp_reg__,%0" "\n\t" "swap %0" "\n\t" "eor %0,__tmp_reg__" "\n\t" "mov __tmp_reg__,%0" "\n\t" "lsr %0" "\n\t" "lsr %0" "\n\t" "eor %0,__tmp_reg__" : "=r" (__t) : "0" ((unsigned char)(val)) : "r0" ); (((__t + 1) >> 1) & 1); }))
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
Returns 1 if val has an odd number of bits set.
23.32 <util/setbaud.h>: Helper macros for baud rate calculations
316

Denes #dene BAUD_TOL 2 #dene UBRR_VALUE #dene UBRRL_VALUE #dene UBRRH_VALUE #dene USE_2X 0
23.32.1
#define F_CPU 11059200 #define BAUD 38400 #include <util/setbaud.h>
This header le requires that on entry values are already dened for F_CPU and BAUD. In addition, the macro BAUD_TOL will dene the baud rate tolerance (in percent) that is acceptable during the calculations. The value of BAUD_TOL will default to 2 %. This header le denes macros suitable to setup the UART baud rate prescaler registers of an AVR. All calculations are done using the C preprocessor. Including this header le causes no other side effects so it is possible to include this le more than once (supposedly, with different values for the BAUD parameter), possibly even within the same function. Assuming that the requested BAUD is valid for the given F_CPU then the macro UBRR_VALUE is set to the required prescaler value. Two additional macros are provided for the low and high bytes of the prescaler, respectively: UBRRL_VALUE is set to the lower byte of the UBRR_VALUE and UBRRH_VALUE is set to the upper byte. An additional macro USE_2X will be dened. Its value is set to 1 if the desired BAUD rate within the given tolerance could only be achieved by setting the U2X bit in the UART conguration. It will be dened to 0 if U2X is not needed. Example usage:
#include <avr/io.h> #define F_CPU 4000000 static void uart_9600(void) { #define BAUD 9600 #include <util/setbaud.h> UBRRH = UBRRH_VALUE; UBRRL = UBRRL_VALUE; #if USE_2X UCSRA |= (1 << U2X);
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#else UCSRA &= ~(1 << U2X); #endif } static void uart_38400(void) { #undef BAUD // avoid compiler warning #define BAUD 38400 #include <util/setbaud.h> UBRRH = UBRRH_VALUE; UBRRL = UBRRL_VALUE; #if USE_2X UCSRA |= (1 << U2X); #else UCSRA &= ~(1 << U2X); #endif }
In this example, two functions are dened to setup the UART to run at 9600 Bd, and 38400 Bd, respectively. Using a CPU clock of 4 MHz, 9600 Bd can be achieved with an acceptable tolerance without setting U2X (prescaler 25), while 38400 Bd require U2X to be set (prescaler 12).
23.32.2 23.32.2.1
Dene Documentation #dene BAUD_TOL 2
Input and output macro for <util/setbaud.h> Dene the acceptable baud rate tolerance in percent. If not set on entry, it will be set to its default value of 2. 23.32.2.2 #dene UBRR_VALUE
Output macro from <util/setbaud.h> Contains the calculated baud rate prescaler value for the UBRR register. 23.32.2.3 #dene UBRRH_VALUE
Output macro from <util/setbaud.h> Contains the upper byte of the calculated prescaler value (UBRR_VALUE). 23.32.2.4 #dene UBRRL_VALUE
Output macro from <util/setbaud.h> Contains the lower byte of the calculated prescaler value (UBRR_VALUE).
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23.32.2.5
#dene USE_2X 0
Output bacro from <util/setbaud.h> Contains the value 1 if the desired baud rate tolerance could only be achieved by setting the U2X bit in the UART conguration. Contains 0 otherwise.
23.33 <util/twi.h>: TWI bit mask denitions
319

TWSR values Mnemonics: TW_MT_xxx - master transmitter TW_MR_xxx - master receiver TW_ST_xxx - slave transmitter TW_SR_xxx - slave receiver #dene TW_START 0x08 #dene TW_REP_START 0x10 #dene TW_MT_SLA_ACK 0x18 #dene TW_MT_SLA_NACK 0x20 #dene TW_MT_DATA_ACK 0x28 #dene TW_MT_DATA_NACK 0x30 #dene TW_MT_ARB_LOST 0x38 #dene TW_MR_ARB_LOST 0x38 #dene TW_MR_SLA_ACK 0x40 #dene TW_MR_SLA_NACK 0x48 #dene TW_MR_DATA_ACK 0x50 #dene TW_MR_DATA_NACK 0x58 #dene TW_ST_SLA_ACK 0xA8 #dene TW_ST_ARB_LOST_SLA_ACK 0xB0 #dene TW_ST_DATA_ACK 0xB8 #dene TW_ST_DATA_NACK 0xC0 #dene TW_ST_LAST_DATA 0xC8 #dene TW_SR_SLA_ACK 0x60 #dene TW_SR_ARB_LOST_SLA_ACK 0x68 #dene TW_SR_GCALL_ACK 0x70 #dene TW_SR_ARB_LOST_GCALL_ACK 0x78 #dene TW_SR_DATA_ACK 0x80 #dene TW_SR_DATA_NACK 0x88 #dene TW_SR_GCALL_DATA_ACK 0x90 #dene TW_SR_GCALL_DATA_NACK 0x98 #dene TW_SR_STOP 0xA0 #dene TW_NO_INFO 0xF8 #dene TW_BUS_ERROR 0x00 #dene TW_STATUS_MASK #dene TW_STATUS (TWSR & TW_STATUS_MASK)
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R/W bit in SLA+R/W address eld. #dene TW_READ 1 #dene TW_WRITE 0
23.33.1
#include <util/twi.h>
This header le contains bit mask denitions for use with the AVR TWI interface.
23.33.2 23.33.2.1
Dene Documentation #dene TW_BUS_ERROR 0x00
illegal start or stop condition 23.33.2.2 #dene TW_MR_ARB_LOST 0x38
arbitration lost in SLA+R or NACK 23.33.2.3 #dene TW_MR_DATA_ACK 0x50
data received, ACK returned 23.33.2.4 #dene TW_MR_DATA_NACK 0x58
data received, NACK returned 23.33.2.5 #dene TW_MR_SLA_ACK 0x40
SLA+R transmitted, ACK received 23.33.2.6 #dene TW_MR_SLA_NACK 0x48
SLA+R transmitted, NACK received 23.33.2.7 #dene TW_MT_ARB_LOST 0x38
arbitration lost in SLA+W or data 23.33.2.8 #dene TW_MT_DATA_ACK 0x28
data transmitted, ACK received
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23.33.2.9
#dene TW_MT_DATA_NACK 0x30
data transmitted, NACK received 23.33.2.10 #dene TW_MT_SLA_ACK 0x18
SLA+W transmitted, ACK received 23.33.2.11 #dene TW_MT_SLA_NACK 0x20
SLA+W transmitted, NACK received 23.33.2.12 #dene TW_NO_INFO 0xF8
no state information available 23.33.2.13 #dene TW_READ 1
SLA+R address 23.33.2.14 #dene TW_REP_START 0x10
repeated start condition transmitted 23.33.2.15 #dene TW_SR_ARB_LOST_GCALL_ACK 0x78
arbitration lost in SLA+RW, general call received, ACK returned 23.33.2.16 #dene TW_SR_ARB_LOST_SLA_ACK 0x68
arbitration lost in SLA+RW, SLA+W received, ACK returned 23.33.2.17 #dene TW_SR_DATA_ACK 0x80
data received, ACK returned 23.33.2.18 #dene TW_SR_DATA_NACK 0x88
data received, NACK returned 23.33.2.19 #dene TW_SR_GCALL_ACK 0x70
general call received, ACK returned 23.33.2.20 #dene TW_SR_GCALL_DATA_ACK 0x90
general call data received, ACK returned
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23.33.2.21
#dene TW_SR_GCALL_DATA_NACK 0x98
general call data received, NACK returned 23.33.2.22 #dene TW_SR_SLA_ACK 0x60
SLA+W received, ACK returned 23.33.2.23 #dene TW_SR_STOP 0xA0
stop or repeated start condition received while selected 23.33.2.24 #dene TW_ST_ARB_LOST_SLA_ACK 0xB0
arbitration lost in SLA+RW, SLA+R received, ACK returned 23.33.2.25 #dene TW_ST_DATA_ACK 0xB8
data transmitted, ACK received 23.33.2.26 #dene TW_ST_DATA_NACK 0xC0
data transmitted, NACK received 23.33.2.27 #dene TW_ST_LAST_DATA 0xC8
last data byte transmitted, ACK received 23.33.2.28 #dene TW_ST_SLA_ACK 0xA8
SLA+R received, ACK returned 23.33.2.29 #dene TW_START 0x08
start condition transmitted 23.33.2.30 #dene TW_STATUS (TWSR & TW_STATUS_MASK)
TWSR, masked by TW_STATUS_MASK 23.33.2.31 Value:

(_BV(TWS7)|_BV(TWS6)|_BV(TWS5)|_BV(TWS4)|\ _BV(TWS3))
#dene TW_STATUS_MASK
The lower 3 bits of TWSR are reserved on the ATmega163. The 2 LSB carry the prescaler bits on the newer ATmegas.
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23.33.2.32
#dene TW_WRITE 0
SLA+W address
23.34 <compat/deprecated.h>: Deprecated items
324

Allowing specic system-wide interrupts In addition to globally enabling interrupts, each devices particular interrupt needs to be enabled separately if interrupts for this device are desired. While some devices maintain their interrupt enable bit inside the devices register set, external and timer interrupts have system-wide conguration registers. Example:
// Enable timer 1 overflow interrupts. timer_enable_int(_BV(TOIE1)); // Do some work... // Disable all timer interrupts. timer_enable_int(0);
Note Be careful when you use these functions. If you already have a different interrupt enabled, you could inadvertantly disable it by enabling another intterupt. static __inline__ void timer_enable_int (unsigned char ints) #dene enable_external_int(mask) (__EICR = mask) #dene INTERRUPT(signame) #dene __INTR_ATTRS used
Obsolete IO macros Back in a time when AVR-GCC and avr-libc could not handle IO port access in the direct assignment form as they are handled now, all IO port access had to be done through specic macros that eventually resulted in inline assembly instructions performing the desired action. These macros became obsolete, as reading and writing IO ports can be done by simply using the IO port name in an expression, and all bit manipulation (including those on IO ports) can be done using generic C bit manipulation operators. The macros in this group simulate the historical behaviour. While they are supposed to be applied to IO ports, the emulation actually uses standard C methods, so they could be applied to arbitrary memory locations as well. #dene inp(port) (port) #dene outp(val, port) (port) = (val) #dene inb(port) (port)
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#dene outb(port, val) (port) = (val) #dene sbi(port, bit) (port) |= (1 << (bit)) #dene cbi(port, bit) (port) &= (1 << (bit))
23.34.1
This header le contains several items that used to be available in previous versions of this library, but have eventually been deprecated over time.
#include <compat/deprecated.h>
These items are supplied within that header le for backward compatibility reasons only, so old source code that has been written for previous library versions could easily be maintained until its end-of-life. Use of any of these items in new code is strongly discouraged.
23.34.2 23.34.2.1
Dene Documentation #dene cbi( port, bit ) (port) &= (1 << (bit))
Deprecated Clear bit in IO port port. 23.34.2.2 #dene enable_external_int( mask ) ( EICR = mask)
Deprecated This macro gives access to the GIMSK register (or EIMSK register if using an AVR Mega device or GICR register for others). Although this macro is essentially the same as assigning to the register, it does adapt slightly to the type of device being used. This macro is unavailable if none of the registers listed above are dened. 23.34.2.3 #dene inb( port ) (port)
Deprecated Read a value from an IO port port. 23.34.2.4 #dene inp( port ) (port)
Deprecated Read a value from an IO port port.
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23.34.2.5 Value:
#dene INTERRUPT( signame )
void signame (void) __attribute__ ((interrupt,__INTR_ATTRS)); void signame (void)
Deprecated Introduces an interrupt handler function that runs with global interrupts initially enabled. This allows interrupt handlers to be interrupted. As this macro has been used by too many unsuspecting people in the past, it has been deprecated, and will be removed in a future version of the library. Users who want to legitimately re-enable interrupts in their interrupt handlers as quickly as possible are encouraged to explicitly declare their handlers as described above. 23.34.2.6 #dene outb( port, val ) (port) = (val)
Deprecated Write val to IO port port. 23.34.2.7 #dene outp( val, port ) (port) = (val)
Deprecated Write val to IO port port. 23.34.2.8 #dene sbi( port, bit ) (port) |= (1 << (bit))
Deprecated Set bit in IO port port.
23.34.3 23.34.3.1
Function Documentation static inline void timer_enable_int ( unsigned char ints ) [static]
Deprecated This function modies the timsk register. The value you pass via ints is device specic.
23.35 <compat/ina90.h>: Compatibility with IAR EWB 3.x
327
23.35 <compat/ina90.h>: Compatibility with IAR EWB 3.x

#include <compat/ina90.h>
This is an attempt to provide some compatibility with header les that come with IAR C, to make porting applications between different compilers easier. No 100% compatibility though. Note For actual documentation, please see the IAR manual.
23.36
Demo projects
328
23.36
Modules
Demo projects
Combining C and assembly source les A simple project A more sophisticated project Using the standard IO facilities Example using the two-wire interface (TWI)
23.36.1
Various small demo projects are provided to illustrate several aspects of using the opensource utilities for the AVR controller series. It should be kept in mind that these demos serve mainly educational purposes, and are normally not directly suitable for use in any production environment. Usually, they have been kept as simple as sufcient to demonstrate one particular feature. The simple project is somewhat like the "Hello world!" application for a microcontroller, about the most simple project that can be done. It is explained in good detail, to allow the reader to understand the basic concepts behind using the tools on an AVR microcontroller. The more sophisticated demo project builds on top of that simple project, and adds some controls to it. It touches a number of avr-libcs basic concepts on its way. A comprehensive example on using the standard IO facilities intends to explain that complex topic, using a practical microcontroller peripheral setup with one RS-232 connection, and an HD44780-compatible industry-standard LCD display. The Example using the two-wire interface (TWI) project explains the use of the two-wire hardware interface (also known as "I2C") that is present on many AVR controllers. Finally, the Combining C and assembly source les demo shows how C and assembly language source les can collaborate within one project. While the overall project is managed by a C program part for easy maintenance, time-critical parts are written directly in manually optimized assembly language for shortest execution times possible. Naturally, this kind of project is very closely tied to the hardware design, thus it is custom-tailored to a particular controller type and peripheral setup. As an alternative to the assembly-language solution, this project also offers a C-only implementation (deploying the exact same peripheral setup) based on a more sophisticated (and thus more expensive) but pin-compatible controller. While the simple demo is meant to run on about any AVR setup possible where a LED could be connected to the OCR1[A] output, the large and stdio demos are mainly targeted to the Atmel STK500 starter kit, and the TWI example requires a controller where some 24Cxx two-wire EEPPROM can be connected to. For the STK500 demos, the default CPU (either an AT90S8515 or an ATmega8515) should be removed from its
23.36
Demo projects
329
socket, and the ATmega16 that ships with the kit should be inserted into socket SCKT3100A3. The ATmega16 offers an on-board ADC that is used in the large demo, and all AVRs with an ADC feature a different pinout than the industry-standard compatible devices. In order to fully utilize the large demo, a female 10-pin header with cable, connecting to a 10 kOhm potentiometer will be useful. For the stdio demo, an industry-standard HD44780-compatible LCD display of at least 16x1 characters will be needed. Among other things, the LCD4Linux project page describes many things around these displays, including common pinouts.
23.37
Combining C and assembly source les
330
23.37
For time- or space-critical applications, it can often be desirable to combine C code (for easy maintenance) and assembly code (for maximal speed or minimal code size) together. This demo provides an example of how to do that. The objective of the demo is to decode radio-controlled model PWM signals, and control an output PWM based on the current input signals value. The incoming PWM pulses follow a standard encoding scheme where a pulse width of 920 microseconds denotes one end of the scale (represented as 0 % pulse width on output), and 2120 microseconds mark the other end (100 % output PWM). Normally, multiple channels would be encoded that way in subsequent pulses, followed by a larger gap, so the entire frame will repeat each 14 through 20 ms, but this is ignored for the purpose of the demo, so only a single input PWM channel is assumed. The basic challenge is to use the cheapest controller available for the task, an ATtiny13 that has only a single timer channel. As this timer channel is required to run the outgoing PWM signal generation, the incoming PWM decoding had to be adjusted to the constraints set by the outgoing PWM. As PWM generation toggles the counting direction of timer 0 between up and down after each 256 timer cycles, the current time cannot be deduced by reading TCNT0 only, but the current counting direction of the timer needs to be considered as well. This requires servicing interrupts whenever the timer hits TOP (255) and BOTTOM (0) to learn about each change of the counting direction. For PWM generation, it is usually desired to run it at the highest possible speed so ltering the PWM frequency from the modulated output signal is made easy. Thus, the PWM timer runs at full CPU speed. This causes the overow and compare match interrupts to be triggered each 256 CPU clocks, so they must run with the minimal number of processor cycles possible in order to not impose a too high CPU load by these interrupt service routines. This is the main reason to implement the entire interrupt handling in ne-tuned assembly code rather than in C. In order to verify parts of the algorithm, and the underlying hardware, the demo has been set up in a way so the pin-compatible but more expensive ATtiny45 (or its siblings ATtiny25 and ATtiny85) could be used as well. In that case, no separate assembly code is required, as two timer channels are avaible.
23.37.1
Hardware setup
The incoming PWM pulse train is fed into PB4. It will generate a pin change interrupt there on eache edge of the incoming signal. The outgoing PWM is generated through OC0B of timer channel 0 (PB1). For demonstration purposes, a LED should be connected to that pin (like, one of the LEDs of an STK500). The controllers run on their internal calibrated RC oscillators, 1.2 MHz on the ATtiny13, and 1.0 MHz on the ATtiny45.
23.37
331
23.37.2 23.37.2.1
A code walkthrough asmdemo.c
After the usual include les, two variables are dened. The rst one, pwm_incoming is used to communicate the most recent pulse width detected by the incoming PWM decoder up to the main loop. The second variable actually only constitutes of a single bit, intbits.pwm_received. This bit will be set whenever the incoming PWM decoder has updated pwm_incoming. Both variables are marked volatile to ensure their readers will always pick up an updated value, as both variables will be set by interrupt service routines. The function ioinit() initializes the microcontroller peripheral devices. In particular, it starts timer 0 to generate the outgoing PWM signal on OC0B. Setting OCR0A to 255 (which is the TOP value of timer 0) is used to generate a timer 0 overow A interrupt on the ATtiny13. This interrupt is used to inform the incoming PWM decoder that the counting direction of channel 0 is just changing from up to down. Likewise, an overow interrupt will be generated whenever the countdown reached BOTTOM (value 0), where the counter will again alter its counting direction to upwards. This information is needed in order to know whether the current counter value of TCNT0 is to be evaluated from bottom or top. Further, ioinit() activates the pin-change interrupt PCINT0 on any edge of PB4. Finally, PB1 (OC0B) will be activated as an output pin, and global interrupts are being enabled. In the ATtiny45 setup, the C code contains an ISR for PCINT0. At each pin-change interrupt, it will rst be analyzed whether the interrupt was caused by a rising or a falling edge. In case of the rising edge, timer 1 will be started with a prescaler of 16 after clearing the current timer value. Then, at the falling edge, the current timer value will be recorded (and timer 1 stopped), the pin-change interrupt will be suspended, and the upper layer will be notied that the incoming PWM measurement data is available. Function main() rst initializes the hardware by calling ioinit(), and then waits until some incoming PWM value is available. If it is, the output PWM will be adjusted by computing the relative value of the incoming PWM. Finally, the pin-change interrupt is re-enabled, and the CPU is put to sleep. 23.37.2.2 project.h
In order for the interrupt service routines to be as fast as possible, some of the CPU registers are set aside completely for use by these routines, so the compiler would not use them for C code. This is arranged for in project.h. The le is divided into one section that will be used by the assembly source code, and another one to be used by C code. The assembly part is distinguished by the preprocessing macro __ASSEMBLER__ (which will be automatically set by the compiler
23.37
332
front-end when preprocessing an assembly-language le), and it contains just macros that give symbolic names to a number of CPU registers. The preprocessor will then replace the symbolic names by their right-hand side denitions before calling the assembler. In C code, the compiler needs to see variable declarations for these objects. This is done by using declarations that bind a variable permanently to a CPU register (see How to permanently bind a variable to a register?). Even in case the C code never has a need to access these variables, declaring the register binding that way causes the compiler to not use these registers in C code at all. The flags variable needs to be in the range of r16 through r31 as it is the target of a load immediate (or SER) instruction that is not applicable to the entire register le. 23.37.2.3 isrs.S
This le is a preprocessed assembly source le. The C preprocessor will be run by the compiler front-end rst, resolving all #include, #define etc. directives. The resulting program text will then be passed on to the assembler. As the C preprocessor strips all C-style comments, preprocessed assembly source les can have both, C-style (/ ... /, // ...) as well as assembly-style (; ...) comments. At the top, the IO register denition le avr/io.h and the project declaration le project.h are included. The remainder of the le is conditionally assembled only if the target MCU type is an ATtiny13, so it will be completely ignored for the ATtiny45 option. Next are the two interrupt service routines for timer 0 compare A match (timer 0 hits TOP , as OCR0A is set to 255) and timer 0 overow (timer 0 hits BOTTOM ). As discussed above, these are kept as short as possible. They only save SREG (as the ags will be modied by the INC instruction), increment the counter_hi variable which forms the high part of the current time counter (the low part is formed by querying TCNT0 directly), and clear or set the variable flags, respectively, in order to note the current counting direction. The RETI instruction terminates these interrupt service routines. Total cycle count is 8 CPU cycles, so together with the 4 CPU cycles needed for interrupt setup, and the 2 cycles for the RJMP from the interrupt vector to the handler, these routines will require 14 out of each 256 CPU cycles, or about 5 % of the overall CPU time. The pin-change interrupt PCINT0 will be handled in the nal part of this le. The basic algorithm is to quickly evaluate the current system time by fetching the current timer value of TCNT0, and combining it with the overow part in counter_hi. If the counter is currently counting down rather than up, the value fetched from TCNT0 must be negated. Finally, if this pin-change interrupt was triggered by a rising edge, the time computed will be recorded as the start time only. Then, at the falling edge, this start time will be subracted from the current time to compute the actual pulse width seen (left in pwm_incoming), and the upper layers are informed of the new value by setting bit 0 in the intbits ags. At the same time, this pin-change interrupt will be disabled so
23.37
333
no new measurement can be performed until the upper layer had a chance to process the current value.
23.37.3
The source code
The source code is installed under
$prefix/share/doc/avr-libc/examples/asmdemo/,
where $prefix is a conguration option. For Unix systems, it is usually set to either /usr or /usr/local.
23.38
A simple project
334
23.38
A simple project
At this point, you should have the GNU tools congured, built, and installed on your system. In this chapter, we present a simple example of using the GNU tools in an AVR project. After reading this chapter, you should have a better feel as to how the tools are used and how a Makefile can be congured.
23.38.1
The Project
This project will use the pulse-width modulator (PWM) to ramp an LED on and off every two seconds. An AT90S2313 processor will be used as the controller. The circuit for this demonstration is shown in the schematic diagram. If you have a development kit, you should be able to use it, rather than build the circuit, for this project. Note Meanwhile, the AT90S2313 became obsolete. Either use its successor, the (pincompatible) ATtiny2313 for the project, or perhaps the ATmega8 or one of its successors (ATmega48/88/168) which have become quite popular since the original demo project had been established. For all these more modern devices, it is no longer necessary to use an external crystal for clocking as they ship with the internal 1 MHz oscillator enabled, so C1, C2, and Q1 can be omitted. Normally, for this experiment, the external circuitry on /RESET (R1, C3) can be omitted as well, leaving only the AVR, the LED, the bypass capacitor C4, and perhaps R2. For the ATmega8/48/88/168, use PB1 (pin 15 at the DIP-28 package) to connect the LED to. Additionally, this demo has been ported to many different other AVRs. The location of the respective OC pin varies between different AVRs, and it is mandated by the AVR hardware.
VCC IC1 R1 1 .01uf C3 Q1 20K C2 18pf 18pf .1uf 4mhz 4 5 RESET XTAL2 XTAL1 (SCK)PB7 (MISO)PB6 (MOSI)PB5 PB4 (OCI)PB3 PB2 (AIN1)PB1 (AIN0)PB0 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 9 8 7 6 3 2
C1
R2*
LED5MM D1
See note [8] GND
20 VCC 10 GND
C4
GND GND
(ICP)PD6 (T1)PD5 (T0)PD4 (INT1)PD3 (INT0)PD2 (TXD)PD1 (RXD)PD0 AT90S2313P
Figure 5: Schematic of circuit for demo project
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The source code is given in demo.c. For the sake of this example, create a le called demo.c containing this source code. Some of the more important parts of the code are: Note [1]: As the AVR microcontroller series has been developed during the past years, new features have been added over time. Even though the basic concepts of the timer/counter1 are still the same as they used to be back in early 2001 when this simple demo was written initially, the names of registers and bits have been changed slightly to reect the new features. Also, the port and pin mapping of the output compare match 1A (or 1 for older devices) pin which is used to control the LED varies between different AVRs. The le iocompat.h tries to abstract between all this differences using some preprocessor #ifdef statements, so the actual program itself can operate on a common set of symbolic names. The macros dened by that le are: OCR the name of the OCR register used to control the PWM (usually either OCR1 or OCR1A) DDROC the name of the DDR (data direction register) for the OC output OC1 the pin number of the OC1[A] output within its port TIMER1_TOP the TOP value of the timer used for the PWM (1023 for 10-bit PWMs, 255 for devices that can only handle an 8-bit PWM) TIMER1_PWM_INIT the initialization bits to be set into control register 1A in order to setup 10-bit (or 8-bit) phase and frequency correct PWM mode TIMER1_CLOCKSOURCE the clock bits to set in the respective control register to start the PWM timer; usually the timer runs at full CPU clock for 10-bit PWMs, while it runs on a prescaled clock for 8-bit PWMs Note [2]: ISR() is a macro that marks the function as an interrupt routine. In this case, the function will get called when timer 1 overows. Setting up interrupts is explained in greater detail in <avr/interrupt.h>: Interrupts. Note [3]: The PWM is being used in 10-bit mode, so we need a 16-bit variable to remember the current value. Note [4]: This section determines the new value of the PWM.
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Note [5]: Heres where the newly computed value is loaded into the PWM register. Since we are in an interrupt routine, it is safe to use a 16-bit assignment to the register. Outside of an interrupt, the assignment should only be performed with interrupts disabled if theres a chance that an interrupt routine could also access this register (or another register that uses TEMP), see the appropriate FAQ entry. Note [6]: This routine gets called after a reset. It initializes the PWM and enables interrupts. Note [7]: The main loop of the program does nothing -- all the work is done by the interrupt routine! The sleep_mode() puts the processor on sleep until the next interrupt, to conserve power. Of course, that probably wont be noticable as we are still driving a LED, it is merely mentioned here to demonstrate the basic principle. Note [8]: Early AVR devices saturate their outputs at rather low currents when sourcing current, so the LED can be connected directly, the resulting current through the LED will be about 15 mA. For modern parts (at least for the ATmega 128), however Atmel has drastically increased the IO source capability, so when operating at 5 V Vcc, R2 is needed. Its value should be about 150 Ohms. When operating the circuit at 3 V, it can still be omitted though.
23.38.2
The Source Code
/* * ---------------------------------------------------------------------------* "THE BEER-WARE LICENSE" (Revision 42): * <[email protected]> wrote this file. As long as you retain this notice you * can do whatever you want with this stuff. If we meet some day, and you think Joerg Wunsch * this stuff is worth it, you can buy me a beer in return. * ---------------------------------------------------------------------------* * Simple AVR demonstration. Controls a LED that can be directly * connected from OC1/OC1A to GND. The brightness of the LED is * controlled with the PWM. After each period of the PWM, the PWM * value is either incremented or decremented, thats all. * * $Id: demo.c 1637 2008-03-17 21:49:41Z joerg_wunsch $ */ #include #include #include #include <inttypes.h> <avr/io.h> <avr/interrupt.h> <avr/sleep.h>
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#include "iocompat.h" enum { UP, DOWN }; ISR (TIMER1_OVF_vect) { static uint16_t pwm; static uint8_t direction;
/* Note [1] */
/* Note [2] */ /* Note [3] */
switch (direction) /* Note [4] */ { case UP: if (++pwm == TIMER1_TOP) direction = DOWN; break; case DOWN: if (--pwm == 0) direction = UP; break; } OCR = pwm; } void ioinit (void) /* Note [6] */ { /* Timer 1 is 10-bit PWM (8-bit PWM on some ATtinys). */ TCCR1A = TIMER1_PWM_INIT; /* * Start timer 1. * * NB: TCCR1A and TCCR1B could actually be the same register, so * take care to not clobber it. */ TCCR1B |= TIMER1_CLOCKSOURCE; /* * Run any device-dependent timer 1 setup hook if present. */ #if defined(TIMER1_SETUP_HOOK) TIMER1_SETUP_HOOK(); #endif /* Set PWM value to 0. */ OCR = 0; /* Enable OC1 as output. */ DDROC = _BV (OC1); /* Enable timer 1 overflow interrupt. */ TIMSK = _BV (TOIE1); sei (); } int main (void) /* Note [5] */
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{ ioinit (); /* loop forever, the interrupts are doing the rest */ for (;;) sleep_mode(); return (0); } /* Note [7] */
23.38.3
Compiling and Linking
This rst thing that needs to be done is compile the source. When compiling, the compiler needs to know the processor type so the -mmcu option is specied. The -Os option will tell the compiler to optimize the code for efcient space usage (at the possible expense of code execution speed). The -g is used to embed debug info. The debug info is useful for disassemblies and doesnt end up in the .hex les, so I usually specify it. Finally, the -c tells the compiler to compile and stop -- dont link. This demo is small enough that we could compile and link in one step. However, real-world projects will have several modules and will typically need to break up the building of the project into several compiles and one link.
$ avr-gcc -g -Os -mmcu=atmega8 -c demo.c
The compilation will create a demo.o le. Next we link it into a binary called demo.-
elf.
$ avr-gcc -g -mmcu=atmega8 -o demo.elf demo.o
It is important to specify the MCU type when linking. The compiler uses the -mmcu option to choose start-up les and run-time libraries that get linked together. If this option isnt specied, the compiler defaults to the 8515 processor environment, which is most certainly what you didnt want.
23.38.4
Examining the Object File
Now we have a binary le. Can we do anything useful with it (besides put it into the processor?) The GNU Binutils suite is made up of many useful tools for manipulating object les that get generated. One tool is avr-objdump, which takes information from the object le and displays it in many useful ways. Typing the command by itself will cause it to list out its options. For instance, to get a feel of the applications size, the -h option can be used. The output of this option shows how much space is used in each of the sections (the .stab
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and .stabstr sections hold the debugging information and wont make it into the ROM le). An even more useful option is -S. This option disassembles the binary le and intersperses the source code in the output! This method is much better, in my opinion, than using the -S with the compiler because this listing includes routines from the libraries and the vector table contents. Also, all the "x-ups" have been satised. In other words, the listing generated by this option reects the actual code that the processor will run.
$ avr-objdump -h -S demo.elf > demo.lst
Heres the output as saved in the demo.lst le:
demo.elf: Sections: Idx Name 0 .text 1 .bss 2 .stab 3 .stabstr
file format elf32-avr
Size 0000010a CONTENTS, 00000003 ALLOC 00000bac CONTENTS, 00000765 CONTENTS,
VMA LMA File off 00000000 00000000 00000074 ALLOC, LOAD, READONLY, CODE 00800060 00800060 0000017e 00000000 READONLY, 00000000 READONLY, 00000000 00000180 DEBUGGING 00000000 00000d2c DEBUGGING
Algn 2**1 2**0 2**2 2**0
Disassembly of section .text: 00000000 0: 12 2: 7e 4: 7d 6: 7c 8: 7b a: 7a c: 79 e: 78 10: 1a 12: 76 14: 75 16: 74 18: 73 1a: 72 1c: 71 1e: 70 20: 6f 22: 6e 24: 6d 00000026 26: 11 28: 1f 2a: cf 2c: d4 <__vectors>: c0 rjmp c0 rjmp c0 rjmp c0 rjmp c0 rjmp c0 rjmp c0 rjmp c0 rjmp c0 rjmp c0 rjmp c0 rjmp c0 rjmp c0 rjmp c0 rjmp c0 rjmp c0 rjmp c0 rjmp c0 rjmp c0 rjmp
.+36 .+252 .+250 .+248 .+246 .+244 .+242 .+240 .+52 .+236 .+234 .+232 .+230 .+228 .+226 .+224 .+222 .+220 .+218
; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;
0x26 <__ctors_end> 0x100 <__bad_interrupt> 0x100 <__bad_interrupt> 0x100 <__bad_interrupt> 0x100 <__bad_interrupt> 0x100 <__bad_interrupt> 0x100 <__bad_interrupt> 0x100 <__bad_interrupt> 0x46 <__vector_8> 0x100 <__bad_interrupt> 0x100 <__bad_interrupt> 0x100 <__bad_interrupt> 0x100 <__bad_interrupt> 0x100 <__bad_interrupt> 0x100 <__bad_interrupt> 0x100 <__bad_interrupt> 0x100 <__bad_interrupt> 0x100 <__bad_interrupt> 0x100 <__bad_interrupt>
<__ctors_end>: 24 eor r1, r1 be out 0x3f, r1 ; 63 e5 ldi r28, 0x5F ; 95 e0 ldi r29, 0x04 ; 4
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2e: de bf 30: cd bf 00000032 32: 10 34: a0 36: b0 38: 01
out 0x3e, r29 ; 62 out 0x3d, r28 ; 61
<__do_clear_bss>: e0 ldi r17, 0x00 ; 0 e6 ldi r26, 0x60 ; 96 e0 ldi r27, 0x00 ; 0 c0 rjmp .+2 ; 0x3c <.do_clear_bss_start>
0000003a <.do_clear_bss_loop>: 3a: 1d 92 st X+, r1 0000003c 3c: a3 3e: b1 40: e1 42: 4a 44: 5e <.do_clear_bss_start>: 36 cpi r26, 0x63 ; 99 07 cpc r27, r17 f7 brne .-8 ; 0x3a <.do_clear_bss_loop> d0 rcall .+148 ; 0xd8 <main> c0 rjmp .+188 ; 0x102 <exit>
00000046 <__vector_8>: #include "iocompat.h" /* Note [1] */ enum { UP, DOWN }; ISR (TIMER1_OVF_vect) /* Note [2] */ { 46: 1f 92 push r1 48: 0f 92 push r0 4a: 0f b6 in r0, 0x3f ; 63 4c: 0f 92 push r0 4e: 11 24 eor r1, r1 50: 2f 93 push r18 52: 8f 93 push r24 54: 9f 93 push r25 static uint16_t pwm; /* Note [3] */ static uint8_t direction; switch (direction) /* Note [4] */ 56: 80 91 60 00 lds r24, 0x0060 5a: 88 23 and r24, r24 5c: b9 f4 brne .+46 ; 0x8c <__vector_8+0x46> { case UP: if (++pwm == TIMER1_TOP) 5e: 80 91 61 00 lds r24, 0x0061 62: 90 91 62 00 lds r25, 0x0062 66: 01 96 adiw r24, 0x01 ; 1 68: 90 93 62 00 sts 0x0062, r25 6c: 80 93 61 00 sts 0x0061, r24 70: 23 e0 ldi r18, 0x03 ; 3 72: 8f 3f cpi r24, 0xFF ; 255 74: 92 07 cpc r25, r18 76: f9 f0 breq .+62 ; 0xb6 <__vector_8+0x70> if (--pwm == 0) direction = UP; break; }
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OCR = pwm; /* Note [5] */ 78: 9b bd out 0x2b, r25 ; 43 7a: 8a bd out 0x2a, r24 ; 42 } 7c: 9f 91 pop r25 7e: 8f 91 pop r24 80: 2f 91 pop r18 82: 0f 90 pop r0 84: 0f be out 0x3f, r0 ; 63 86: 0f 90 pop r0 88: 1f 90 pop r1 8a: 18 95 reti ISR (TIMER1_OVF_vect) /* Note [2] */ { static uint16_t pwm; /* Note [3] */ static uint8_t direction; switch (direction) /* Note [4] */ 8c: 81 30 cpi r24, 0x01 ; 1 8e: 29 f0 breq .+10 ; 0x9a <__vector_8+0x54> 90: 80 91 61 00 lds r24, 0x0061 94: 90 91 62 00 lds r25, 0x0062 98: ef cf rjmp .-34 ; 0x78 <__vector_8+0x32> if (++pwm == TIMER1_TOP) direction = DOWN; break; case DOWN: if (--pwm == 0) 80 91 61 00 lds r24, 0x0061 90 91 62 00 lds r25, 0x0062 01 97 sbiw r24, 0x01 ; 90 93 62 00 sts 0x0062, r25 80 93 61 00 sts 0x0061, r24 00 97 sbiw r24, 0x00 ; 21 f7 brne .-56 ; direction = UP; 10 92 60 00 sts 0x0060, r1 e1 cf rjmp .-62 ;
9a: 9e: a2: a4: a8: ac: ae: b0: b4:
0 0x78 <__vector_8+0x32>
0x78 <__vector_8+0x32>
switch (direction) /* Note [4] */ { case UP: if (++pwm == TIMER1_TOP) direction = DOWN; b6: 21 e0 ldi r18, 0x01 ; 1 b8: 20 93 60 00 sts 0x0060, r18 bc: dd cf rjmp .-70 ; 0x78 <__vector_8+0x32> 000000be <ioinit>: void ioinit (void) /* Note [6] */ { /* Timer 1 is 10-bit PWM (8-bit PWM on some ATtinys). */ TCCR1A = TIMER1_PWM_INIT;
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be: 83 e8 ldi r24, 0x83 ; 131 c0: 8f bd out 0x2f, r24 ; 47 * Start timer 1. * * NB: TCCR1A and TCCR1B could actually be the same register, so * take care to not clobber it. */ TCCR1B |= TIMER1_CLOCKSOURCE; c2: 8e b5 in r24, 0x2e ; 46 c4: 81 60 ori r24, 0x01 ; 1 c6: 8e bd out 0x2e, r24 ; 46 #if defined(TIMER1_SETUP_HOOK) TIMER1_SETUP_HOOK(); #endif /* Set PWM value to 0. */ OCR = 0; c8: 1b bc out 0x2b, r1 ; 43 ca: 1a bc out 0x2a, r1 ; 42 /* Enable OC1 as output. */ DDROC = _BV (OC1); cc: 82 e0 ldi r24, 0x02 ; 2 ce: 87 bb out 0x17, r24 ; 23 /* Enable timer 1 overflow interrupt. */ TIMSK = _BV (TOIE1); d0: 84 e0 ldi r24, 0x04 ; 4 d2: 89 bf out 0x39, r24 ; 57 sei (); d4: 78 94 sei } d6: 08 95 000000d8 <main>: void ioinit (void) /* Note [6] */ { /* Timer 1 is 10-bit PWM (8-bit PWM on some ATtinys). */ TCCR1A = TIMER1_PWM_INIT; d8: 83 e8 ldi r24, 0x83 ; 131 da: 8f bd out 0x2f, r24 ; 47 * Start timer 1. * * NB: TCCR1A and TCCR1B could actually be the same register, so * take care to not clobber it. */ TCCR1B |= TIMER1_CLOCKSOURCE; dc: 8e b5 in r24, 0x2e ; 46 de: 81 60 ori r24, 0x01 ; 1 e0: 8e bd out 0x2e, r24 ; 46 #if defined(TIMER1_SETUP_HOOK) TIMER1_SETUP_HOOK(); #endif /* Set PWM value to 0. */ ret
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OCR = 0; e2: 1b bc e4: 1a bc
out 0x2b, r1 ; 43 out 0x2a, r1 ; 42
/* Enable OC1 as output. */ DDROC = _BV (OC1); e6: 82 e0 ldi r24, 0x02 ; 2 e8: 87 bb out 0x17, r24 ; 23 /* Enable timer 1 overflow interrupt. */ TIMSK = _BV (TOIE1); ea: 84 e0 ldi r24, 0x04 ; 4 ec: 89 bf out 0x39, r24 ; 57 sei (); ee: 78 94 sei ioinit (); /* loop forever, the interrupts are doing the rest */ for (;;) /* Note [7] */ sleep_mode(); f0: 85 b7 in r24, 0x35 ; 53 f2: 80 68 ori r24, 0x80 ; 128 f4: 85 bf out 0x35, r24 ; 53 f6: 88 95 sleep f8: 85 b7 in r24, 0x35 ; 53 fa: 8f 77 andi r24, 0x7F ; 127 fc: 85 bf out 0x35, r24 ; 53 fe: f8 cf rjmp .-16 ; 0xf0 <main+0x18> 00000100 <__bad_interrupt>: 100: 7f cf rjmp .-258 00000102 <exit>: ASSEMBLY_CLIB_SECTION .global _U(exit) .type _U(exit), "function" _U(exit): cli 102: f8 94 XJMP _U(_exit) 104: 00 c0 00000106 <_exit>: 106: f8 94
; 0x0 <__vectors>
cli rjmp .+0 ; 0x106 <_exit>
cli
00000108 <__stop_program>: 108: ff cf rjmp .-2
; 0x108 <__stop_program>
23.38.5
Linker Map Files
avr-objdump is very useful, but sometimes its necessary to see information about the link that can only be generated by the linker. A map le contains this information. A map le is useful for monitoring the sizes of your code and data. It also shows where
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modules are loaded and which modules were loaded from libraries. It is yet another view of your application. To get a map le, I usually add -Wl,-Map,demo.map to my link command. Relink the application using the following command to generate demo.map (a portion of which is shown below).
$ avr-gcc -g -mmcu=atmega8 -Wl,-Map,demo.map -o demo.elf demo.o
Some points of interest in the demo.map le are:

.rela.plt *(.rela.plt) .text *(.vectors) .vectors crtm8.o 0x00000000 0x00000000 0x00000000 0x00000000 *(.vectors) *(.progmem.gcc*) *(.progmem*) 0x00000026 0x00000026 *(.trampolines) .trampolines 0x00000026 *(.trampolines*) 0x00000026 *(.jumptables) *(.jumptables*) *(.lowtext) *(.lowtext*) 0x00000026 0x10a 0x26 /tmp/avr-libc-1.8.0/avr/lib/avr4/atmega8/ __vectors __vector_default
. = ALIGN (0x2) __trampolines_start = . 0x0 linker stubs __trampolines_end = .
__ctors_start = .
The .text segment (where program instructions are stored) starts at location 0x0.
*(.fini2) *(.fini2) *(.fini1) *(.fini1) *(.fini0) .fini0 0x00000106 a(_exit.o) *(.fini0) 0x0000010a .data *(.data) .data .data crtm8.o .data 0x00800060 0x00800060 0x00800060 0x00800060 0x00800060
0x4 /usr/local/lib/gcc/avr/4.5.1/avr4/libgcc.
_etext = . 0x0 load address 0x0000010a PROVIDE (__data_start, .) 0x0 demo.o 0x0 /tmp/avr-libc-1.8.0/avr/lib/avr4/atmega8/ 0x0 /tmp/avr-libc-1.8.0/avr/lib/avr4/exit.o
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.data
0x00800060 a(_exit.o) .data 0x00800060 a(_clear_bss.o) *(.data*) *(.rodata) *(.rodata*) *(.gnu.linkonce.d*) 0x00800060 0x00800060 0x00800060 .bss 0x00800060 0x00800060
0x0 /usr/local/lib/gcc/avr/4.5.1/avr4/libgcc. 0x0 /usr/local/lib/gcc/avr/4.5.1/avr4/libgcc.
. = ALIGN (0x2) _edata = . PROVIDE (__data_end, .) 0x3 PROVIDE (__bss_start, .) 0x3 demo.o 0x0 /tmp/avr-libc-1.8.0/avr/lib/avr4/atmega8/ 0x0 /tmp/avr-libc-1.8.0/avr/lib/avr4/exit.o 0x0 /usr/local/lib/gcc/avr/4.5.1/avr4/libgcc. 0x0 /usr/local/lib/gcc/avr/4.5.1/avr4/libgcc.
*(.bss) .bss 0x00800060 .bss 0x00800063 crtm8.o .bss 0x00800063 .bss 0x00800063 a(_exit.o) .bss 0x00800063 a(_clear_bss.o) *(.bss*) *(COMMON) 0x00800063 0x0000010a 0x0000010a + SIZEOF (.data)) .noinit *(.noinit*) 0x00800063 0x00800063 0x00800063 .eeprom *(.eeprom*) 0x00810000 0x00810000 0x00800063 0x00800063
PROVIDE (__bss_end, .) __data_load_start = LOADADDR (.data) __data_load_end = (__data_load_start
0x0 PROVIDE (__noinit_start, .) PROVIDE (__noinit_end, .) _end = . PROVIDE (__heap_start, .) 0x0 __eeprom_end = .
The last address in the .text segment is location 0x114 ( denoted by _etext ), so the instructions use up 276 bytes of FLASH. The .data segment (where initialized static variables are stored) starts at location 0x60, which is the rst address after the register bank on an ATmega8 processor. The next available address in the .data segment is also location 0x60, so the application has no initialized data. The .bss segment (where uninitialized data is stored) starts at location 0x60. The next available address in the .bss segment is location 0x63, so the application uses 3 bytes of uninitialized data. The .eeprom segment (where EEPROM variables are stored) starts at location 0x0.
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The next available address in the .eeprom segment is also location 0x0, so there arent any EEPROM variables.
23.38.6
Generating Intel Hex Files
We have a binary of the application, but how do we get it into the processor? Most (if not all) programmers will not accept a GNU executable as an input le, so we need to do a little more processing. The next step is to extract portions of the binary and save the information into .hex les. The GNU utility that does this is called avr-objcopy. The ROM contents can be pulled from our projects binary and put into the le demo.hex using the following command:
$ avr-objcopy -j .text -j .data -O ihex demo.elf demo.hex
The resulting demo.hex le contains:

:1000000012C07EC07DC07CC07BC07AC079C078C081 :100010001AC076C075C074C073C072C071C070C0A1 :100020006FC06EC06DC011241FBECFE5D4E0DEBF2F :10003000CDBF10E0A0E6B0E001C01D92A336B1072D :10004000E1F74AD05EC01F920F920FB60F921124B3 :100050002F938F939F93809160008823B9F48091B0 :10006000610090916200019690936200809361001C :1000700023E08F3F9207F9F09BBD8ABD9F918F913E :100080002F910F900FBE0F901F901895813029F07F :100090008091610090916200EFCF8091610090911A :1000A000620001979093620080936100009721F7AE :1000B00010926000E1CF21E020936000DDCF83E863 :1000C0008FBD8EB581608EBD1BBC1ABC82E087BB24 :1000D00084E089BF7894089583E88FBD8EB58160F0 :1000E0008EBD1BBC1ABC82E087BB84E089BF7894BC :1000F00085B7806885BF889585B78F7785BFF8CF2E :0A0100007FCFF89400C0F894FFCF01 :00000001FF
The -j option indicates that we want the information from the .text and .data segment extracted. If we specify the EEPROM segment, we can generate a .hex le that can be used to program the EEPROM:
$ avr-objcopy -j .eeprom --change-section-lma .eeprom=0 -O ihex demo.elf demo_eeprom.hex
There is no demo_eeprom.hex le written, as that le would be empty. Starting with version 2.17 of the GNU binutils, the avr-objcopy command that used to generate the empty EEPROM les now aborts because of the empty input section .eeprom, so these empty les are not generated. It also signals an error to the Makele which will be caught there, and makes it print a message about the empty le not being generated.
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23.38.7
Letting Make Build the Project
Rather than type these commands over and over, they can all be placed in a make le. To build the demo project using make, save the following in a le called Makefile. Note This Makefile can only be used as input for the GNU version of make.
PRG OBJ #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET = demo = demo.o = at90s2313 = at90s2333 = at90s4414 = at90s4433 = at90s4434 = at90s8515 = at90s8535 = atmega128 = atmega1280 = atmega1281 = atmega1284p = atmega16 = atmega163 = atmega164p = atmega165 = atmega165p = atmega168 = atmega169 = atmega169p = atmega2560 = atmega2561 = atmega32 = atmega324p = atmega325 = atmega3250 = atmega329 = atmega3290 = atmega48 = atmega64 = atmega640 = atmega644 = atmega644p = atmega645 = atmega6450 = atmega649 = atmega6490 = atmega8 = atmega8515 = atmega8535 = atmega88 = attiny2313 = attiny24 = attiny25 = attiny26 = attiny261
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#MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET #MCU_TARGET OPTIMIZE DEFS LIBS
attiny44 attiny45 attiny461 attiny84 attiny85 attiny861 = -O2 = =
= = = = = =
# You should not have to change anything below here. CC = avr-gcc
# Override is only needed by avr-lib build system. override CFLAGS override LDFLAGS OBJCOPY OBJDUMP = -g -Wall $(OPTIMIZE) -mmcu=$(MCU_TARGET) $(DEFS) = -Wl,-Map,$(PRG).map
= avr-objcopy = avr-objdump
all: $(PRG).elf lst text eeprom $(PRG).elf: $(OBJ) $(CC) $(CFLAGS) $(LDFLAGS) -o $@ $^ $(LIBS) # dependency: demo.o: demo.c iocompat.h clean: rm -rf *.o $(PRG).elf *.eps *.png *.pdf *.bak rm -rf *.lst *.map $(EXTRA_CLEAN_FILES) lst: $(PRG).lst
%.lst: %.elf $(OBJDUMP) -h -S $< > $@ # Rules for building the .text rom images text: hex bin srec hex: $(PRG).hex bin: $(PRG).bin srec: $(PRG).srec %.hex: %.elf $(OBJCOPY) -j .text -j .data -O ihex $< $@ %.srec: %.elf $(OBJCOPY) -j .text -j .data -O srec $< $@ %.bin: %.elf $(OBJCOPY) -j .text -j .data -O binary $< $@
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# Rules for building the .eeprom rom images eeprom: ehex ebin esrec ehex: $(PRG)_eeprom.hex ebin: $(PRG)_eeprom.bin esrec: $(PRG)_eeprom.srec %_eeprom.hex: %.elf $(OBJCOPY) -j .eeprom --change-section-lma .eeprom=0 -O ihex $< $@ \ || { echo empty $@ not generated; exit 0; } %_eeprom.srec: %.elf $(OBJCOPY) -j .eeprom --change-section-lma .eeprom=0 -O srec $< $@ \ || { echo empty $@ not generated; exit 0; } %_eeprom.bin: %.elf $(OBJCOPY) -j .eeprom --change-section-lma .eeprom=0 -O binary $< $@ \ || { echo empty $@ not generated; exit 0; } # Every thing below here is used by avr-libcs build system and can be ignored # by the casual user. FIG2DEV EXTRA_CLEAN_FILES dox: eps png pdf eps: $(PRG).eps png: $(PRG).png pdf: $(PRG).pdf %.eps: %.fig $(FIG2DEV) -L eps $< $@ %.pdf: %.fig $(FIG2DEV) -L pdf $< $@ %.png: %.fig $(FIG2DEV) -L png $< $@ = fig2dev = *.hex *.bin *.srec
23.38.8
Reference to the source code
$prefix/share/doc/avr-libc/examples/demo/,
23.39
A more sophisticated project
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This project extends the basic idea of the simple project to control a LED with a PWM output, but adds methods to adjust the LED brightness. It employs a lot of the basic concepts of avr-libc to achieve that goal. Understanding this project assumes the simple project has been understood in full, as well as being acquainted with the basic hardware concepts of an AVR microcontroller.
23.39.1
Hardware setup
The demo is set up in a way so it can be run on the ATmega16 that ships with the STK500 development kit. The only external part needed is a potentiometer attached to the ADC. It is connected to a 10-pin ribbon cable for port A, both ends of the potentiometer to pins 9 (GND) and 10 (VCC), and the wiper to pin 1 (port A0). A bypass capacitor from pin 1 to pin 9 (like 47 nF) is recommendable.
Figure 6: Setup of the STK500
The coloured patch cables are used to provide various interconnections. As there are only four of them in the STK500, there are two options to connect them for this demo.
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The second option for the yellow-green cable is shown in parenthesis in the table. Alternatively, the "squid" cable from the JTAG ICE kit can be used if available. Port D0 Header 1 Color brown Function RxD Connect to RXD of the RS-232 header TXD of the RS-232 header SW0 (pin 1 switches header) SW1 (pin 2 switches header) SW2 (pin 3 switches header) LED0 (pin 1 LEDs header) LED1 (pin 2 LEDs header) LED2 (pin 3 LEDs header)
D1
grey
TxD
D2
black
button "down"
D3
red
button "up"
D4
green
button "ADC"
D5 D6 D7 GND VCC
6 7 8 9 10
blue (green) white
LED clock out 1-second ash unused unused
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Figure 7: Wiring of the STK500
The following picture shows the alternate wiring where LED1 is connected but SW2 is not:
Figure 8: Wiring option #2 of the STK500
As an alternative, this demo can also be run on the popular ATmega8 controller, or its successor ATmega88 as well as the ATmega48 and ATmega168 variants of the latter. These controllers do not have a port named "A", so their ADC inputs are located
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on port C instead, thus the potentiometer needs to be attached to port C. Likewise, the OC1A output is not on port D pin 5 but on port B pin 1 (PB1). Thus, the above cabling scheme needs to be changed so that PB1 connects to the LED0 pin. (PD6 remains unconnected.) When using the STK500, use one of the jumper cables for this connection. All other port D pins should be connected the same way as described for the ATmega16 above. When not using an STK500 starter kit, attach the LEDs through some resistor to Vcc (low-active LEDs), and attach pushbuttons from the respective input pins to GND. The internal pull-up resistors are enabled for the pushbutton pins, so no external resistors are needed. Finally, the demo has been ported to the ATtiny2313 as well. As this AVR does not offer an ADC, everything related to handling the ADC is disabled in the code for that MCU type. Also, port D of this controller type only features 6 pins, so the 1-second ash LED had to be moved from PD6 to PD4. (PD4 is used as the ADC control button on the other MCU types, but that is not needed here.) OC1A is located at PB3 on this device. The MCU_TARGET macro in the Makele needs to be adjusted appropriately for the alternative controller types. The ash ROM and RAM consumption of this demo are way below the resources of even an ATmega48, and still well within the capabilities of an ATtiny2313. The major advantage of experimenting with the ATmega16 (in addition that it ships together with an STK500 anyway) is that it can be debugged online via JTAG. Likewise, the ATmega48/88/168 and ATtiny2313 devices can be debugged through debugWire, using the Atmel JTAG ICE mkII or the low-cost AVR Dragon. Note that in the explanation below, all port/pin names are applicable to the ATmega16 setup.
23.39.2
Functional overview
PD6 will be toggled with each internal clock tick (approx. 10 ms). PD7 will ash once per second. PD0 and PD1 are congured as UART IO, and can be used to connect the demo kit to a PC (9600 Bd, 8N1 frame format). The demo application talks to the serial port, and it can be controlled from the serial port. PD2 through PD4 are congured as inputs, and control the application unless control has been taken over by the serial port. Shorting PD2 to GND will decrease the current PWM value, shorting PD3 to GND will increase it. While PD4 is shorted to GND, one ADC conversion for channel 0 (ADC input is on PA0) will be triggered each internal clock tick, and the resulting value will be used as the PWM value. So the brightness of the LED follows the analog input value on PC0. VAREF on the STK500 should be set to the same value as VCC.
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When running in serial control mode, the function of the watchdog timer can be demonstrated by typing an r. This will make the demo application run in a tight loop without retriggering the watchdog so after some seconds, the watchdog will reset the MCU. This situation can be gured out on startup by reading the MCUCSR register. The current value of the PWM is backed up in an EEPROM cell after about 3 seconds of idle time after the last change. If that EEPROM cell contains a reasonable (i. e. non-erased) value at startup, it is taken as the initial value for the PWM. This virtually preserves the last value across power cycles. By not updating the EEPROM immmediately but only after a timeout, EEPROM wear is reduced considerably compared to immediately writing the value at each change.
23.39.3
A code walkthrough
This section explains the ideas behind individual parts of the code. The source code has been divided into numbered parts, and the following subsections explain each of these parts. 23.39.3.1 Part 1: Macro denitions
A number of preprocessor macros are dened to improve readability and/or portability of the application. The rst macros describe the IO pins our LEDs and pushbuttons are connected to. This provides some kind of mini-HAL (hardware abstraction layer) so should some of the connections be changed, they dont need to be changed inside the code but only on top. Note that the location of the PWM output itself is mandated by the hardware, so it cannot be easily changed. As the ATmega48/88/168 controllers belong to a more recent generation of AVRs, a number of register and bit names have been changed there, so they are mapped back to their ATmega8/16 equivalents to keep the actual program code portable. The name F_CPU is the conventional name to describe the CPU clock frequency of the controller. This demo project just uses the internal calibrated 1 MHz RC oscillator that is enabled by default. Note that when using the <util/delay.h> functions, F_CPU needs to be dened before including that le. The remaining macros have their own comments in the source code. The macro TMR1_SCALE shows how to use the preprocessor and the compilers constant expression computation to calculate the value of timer 1s post-scaler in a way so it only depends on F_CPU and the desired software clock frequency. While the formula looks a bit complicated, using a macro offers the advantage that the application will automatically scale to new target softclock or master CPU frequencies without having to manually re-calculate hardcoded constants.
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23.39.3.2
Part 2: Variable denitions
The intflags structure demonstrates a way to allocate bit variables in memory. Each of the interrupt service routines just sets one bit within that structure, and the applications main loop then monitors the bits in order to act appropriately. Like all variables that are used to communicate values between an interrupt service routine and the main application, it is declared volatile. The variable ee_pwm is not a variable in the classical C sense that could be used as an lvalue or within an expression to obtain its value. Instead, the
__attribute__((section(".eeprom")))
marks it as belonging to the EEPROM section. This section is merely used as a placeholder so the compiler can arrange for each individual variables location in EEPROM. The compiler will also keep track of initial values assigned, and usually the Makele is arranged to extract these initial values into a separate load le (largedemo_eeprom. in this case) that can be used to initialize the EEPROM. The actual EEPROM IO must be performed manually. Similarly, the variable mcucsr is kept in the .noinit section in order to prevent it from being cleared upon application startup. 23.39.3.3 Part 3: Interrupt service routines
The ISR to handle timer 1s overow interrupt arranges for the software clock. While timer 1 runs the PWM, it calls its overow handler rather frequently, so the TMR1_SCALE value is used as a postscaler to reduce the internal software clock frequency further. If the software clock triggers, it sets the tmr_int biteld, and defers all further tasks to the main loop. The ADC ISR just fetches the value from the ADC conversion, disables the ADC interrupt again, and announces the presence of the new value in the adc_int biteld. The interrupt is kept disabled while not needed, because the ADC will also be triggered by executing the SLEEP instruction in idle mode (which is the default sleep mode). Another option would be to turn off the ADC completely here, but that increases the ADCs startup time (not that it would matter much for this application). 23.39.3.4 Part 4: Auxiliary functions
The function handle_mcucsr() uses two __attribute__ declarators to achieve specic goals. First, it will instruct the compiler to place the generated code into the .init3 section of the output. Thus, it will become part of the application initialization sequence. This is done in order to fetch (and clear) the reason of the last hardware reset from MCUCSR as early as possible. There is a short period of time where the next reset could already trigger before the current reason has been evaluated. This also explains why the variable mcucsr that mirrors the registers value needs to be placed
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into the .noinit section, because otherwise the default initialization (which happens after .init3) would blank the value again. As the initialization code is not called using CALL/RET instructions but rather concatenated together, the compiler needs to be instructed to omit the entire function prologue and epilogue. This is performed by the naked attribute. So while syntactically, handle_mcucsr() is a function to the compiler, the compiler will just emit the instructions for it without setting up any stack frame, and not even a RET instruction at the end. Function ioinit() centralizes all hardware setup. The very last part of that function demonstrates the use of the EEPROM variable ee_pwm to obtain an EEPROM address that can in turn be applied as an argument to eeprom_read_word(). The following functions handle UART character and string output. (UART input is handled by an ISR.) There are two string output functions, printstr() and printstr_p(). The latter function fetches the string from program memory. Both functions translate a newline character into a carriage return/newline sequence, so a simple \n can be used in the source code. The function set_pwm() propagates the new PWM value to the PWM, performing range checking. When the value has been changed, the new percentage will be announced on the serial link. The current value is mirrored in the variable pwm so others can use it in calculations. In order to allow for a simple calculation of a percentage value without requiring oating-point mathematics, the maximal value of the PWM is restricted to 1000 rather than 1023, so a simple division by 10 can be used. Due to the nature of the human eye, the difference in LED brightness between 1000 and 1023 is not noticable anyway. 23.39.3.5 Part 5: main()
At the start of main(), a variable mode is declared to keep the current mode of operation. An enumeration is used to improve the readability. By default, the compiler would allocate a variable of type int for an enumeration. The packed attribute declarator instructs the compiler to use the smallest possible integer type (which would be an 8-bit type here). After some initialization actions, the applications main loop follows. In an embedded application, this is normally an innite loop as there is nothing an application could "exit" into anyway. At the beginning of the loop, the watchdog timer will be retriggered. If that timer is not triggered for about 2 seconds, it will issue a hardware reset. Care needs to be taken that no code path blocks longer than this, or it needs to frequently perform watchdog resets of its own. An example of such a code path would be the string IO functions: for an overly large string to print (about 2000 characters at 9600 Bd), they might block for too long. The loop itself then acts on the interrupt indication bitelds as appropriate, and will
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eventually put the CPU on sleep at its end to conserve power. The rst interrupt bit that is handled is the (software) timer, at a frequency of approximately 100 Hz. The CLOCKOUT pin will be toggled here, so e. g. an oscilloscope can be used on that pin to measure the accuracy of our software clock. Then, the LED asher for LED2 ("We are alive"-LED) is built. It will ash that LED for about 50 ms, and pause it for another 950 ms. Various actions depending on the operation mode follow. Finally, the 3-second backup timer is implemented that will write the PWM value back to EEPROM once it is not changing anymore. The ADC interrupt will just adjust the PWM value only. Finally, the UART Rx interrupt will dispatch on the last character received from the UART. All the string literals that are used as informational messages within main() are placed in program memory so no SRAM needs to be allocated for them. This is done by using the PSTR macro, and passing the string to printstr_p().
23.39.4
The source code
$prefix/share/doc/avr-libc/examples/largedemo/largedemo.c,
23.40
Using the standard IO facilities
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This project illustrates how to use the standard IO facilities (stdio) provided by this library. It assumes a basic knowledge of how the stdio subsystem is used in standard C applications, and concentrates on the differences in this librarys implementation that mainly result from the differences of the microcontroller environment, compared to a hosted environment of a standard computer. This demo is meant to supplement the documentation, not to replace it.
23.40.1
Hardware setup
The demo is set up in a way so it can be run on the ATmega16 that ships with the STK500 development kit. The UART port needs to be connected to the RS-232 "spare" port by a jumper cable that connects PD0 to RxD and PD1 to TxD. The RS-232 channel is set up as standard input (stdin) and standard output (stdout), respectively. In order to have a different device available for a standard error channel (stderr), an industry-standard LCD display with an HD44780-compatible LCD controller has been chosen. This display needs to be connected to port A of the STK500 in the following way: Port A0 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 GND VCC Header 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Function LCD D4 LCD D5 LCD D6 LCD D7 LCD R/W LCD E LCD RS unused GND Vcc
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Figure 9: Wiring of the STK500
The LCD controller is used in 4-bit mode, including polling the "busy" ag so the R/W line from the LCD controller needs to be connected. Note that the LCD controller has yet another supply pin that is used to adjust the LCDs contrast (V5). Typically, that pin connects to a potentiometer between Vcc and GND. Often, it might work to just connect that pin to GND, while leaving it unconnected usually yields an unreadable display. Port A has been chosen as 7 pins are needed to connect the LCD, yet all other ports are already partially in use: port B has the pins for in-system programming (ISP), port C has the ports for JTAG (can be used for debugging), and port D is used for the UART connection.
23.40.2
Functional overview
The project consists of the following les: stdiodemo.c This is the main example le. defines.h Contains some global denes, like the LCD wiring hd44780.c Implementation of an HD44780 LCD display driver hd44780.h Interface declarations for the HD44780 driver lcd.c Implementation of LCD character IO on top of the HD44780 driver lcd.h Interface declarations for the LCD driver
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uart.c Implementation of a character IO driver for the internal UART uart.h Interface declarations for the UART driver
23.40.3 23.40.3.1
A code walkthrough stdiodemo.c
As usual, include les go rst. While conventionally, system header les (those in angular brackets < ... >) go before application-specic header les (in double quotes), defines.h comes as the rst header le here. The main reason is that this le denes the value of F_CPU which needs to be known before including <utils/delay.h>. The function ioinit() summarizes all hardware initialization tasks. As this function is declared to be module-internal only (static), the compiler will notice its simplicity, and with a reasonable optimization level in effect, it will inline that function. That needs to be kept in mind when debugging, because the inlining might cause the debugger to "jump around wildly" at a rst glance when single-stepping. The denitions of uart_str and lcd_str set up two stdio streams. The initialization is done using the FDEV_SETUP_STREAM() initializer template macro, so a static object can be constructed that can be used for IO purposes. This initializer macro takes three arguments, two function macros to connect the corresponding output and input functions, respectively, the third one describes the intent of the stream (read, write, or both). Those functions that are not required by the specied intent (like the input function for lcd_str which is specied to only perform output operations) can be given as NULL. The stream uart_str corresponds to input and output operations performed over the RS-232 connection to a terminal (e.g. from/to a PC running a terminal program), while the lcd_str stream provides a method to display character data on the LCD text display. The function delay_1s() suspends program execution for approximately one second. This is done using the _delay_ms() function from <util/delay.h> which in turn needs the F_CPU macro in order to adjust the cycle counts. As the _delay_ms() function has a limited range of allowable argument values (depending on F_CPU), a value of 10 ms has been chosen as the base delay which would be safe for CPU frequencies of up to about 26 MHz. This function is then called 100 times to accomodate for the actual one-second delay. In a practical application, long delays like this one were better be handled by a hardware timer, so the main CPU would be free for other tasks while waiting, or could be put on sleep. At the beginning of main(), after initializing the peripheral devices, the default stdio streams stdin, stdout, and stderr are set up by using the existing static FILE stream objects. While this is not mandatory, the availability of stdin and stdout
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allows to use the shorthand functions (e.g. printf() instead of fprintf()), and stderr can mnemonically be referred to when sending out diagnostic messages. Just for demonstration purposes, stdin and stdout are connected to a stream that will perform UART IO, while stderr is arranged to output its data to the LCD text display. Finally, a main loop follows that accepts simple "commands" entered via the RS-232 connection, and performs a few simple actions based on the commands. First, a prompt is sent out using printf_P() (which takes a program space string). The string is read into an internal buffer as one line of input, using fgets(). While it would be also possible to use gets() (which implicitly reads from stdin), gets() has no control that the users input does not overow the input buffer provided so it should never be used at all. If fgets() fails to read anything, the main loop is left. Of course, normally the main loop of a microcontroller application is supposed to never nish, but again, for demonstrational purposes, this explains the error handling of stdio. fgets() will return NULL in case of an input error or end-of-le condition on input. Both these conditions are in the domain of the function that is used to establish the stream, uart_putchar() in this case. In short, this function returns EOF in case of a serial line "break" condition (extended start condition) has been recognized on the serial line. Common PC terminal programs allow to assert this condition as some kind of out-of-band signalling on an RS-232 connection. When leaving the main loop, a goodbye message is sent to standard error output (i.e. to the LCD), followed by three dots in one-second spacing, followed by a sequence that will clear the LCD. Finally, main() will be terminated, and the library will add an innite loop, so only a CPU reset will be able to restart the application. There are three "commands" recognized, each determined by the rst letter of the line entered (converted to lower case): The q (quit) command has the same effect of leaving the main loop. The l (LCD) command takes its second argument, and sends it to the LCD. The u (UART) command takes its second argument, and sends it back to the UART connection. Command recognition is done using sscanf() where the rst format in the format string just skips over the command itself (as the assignment suppression modier is given). 23.40.3.2 denes.h
This le just contains a few peripheral denitions. The F_CPU macro denes the CPU clock frequency, to be used in delay loops, as well as in the UART baud rate calculation.
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The macro UART_BAUD denes the RS-232 baud rate. Depending on the actual CPU frequency, only a limited range of baud rates can be supported. The remaining macros customize the IO port and pins used for the HD44780 LCD driver. Each denition consists of a letter naming the port this pin is attached to, and a respective bit number. For accessing the data lines, only the rst data line gets its own macro (line D4 on the HD44780, lines D0 through D3 are not used in 4-bit mode), all other data lines are expected to be in ascending order next to D4. 23.40.3.3 hd44780.h
This le describes the public interface of the low-level LCD driver that interfaces to the HD44780 LCD controller. Public functions are available to initialize the controller into 4-bit mode, to wait for the controllers busy bit to be clear, and to read or write one byte from or to the controller. As there are two different forms of controller IO, one to send a command or receive the controller status (RS signal clear), and one to send or receive data to/from the controllers SRAM (RS asserted), macros are provided that build on the mentioned function primitives. Finally, macros are provided for all the controller commands to allow them to be used symbolically. The HD44780 datasheet explains these basic functions of the controller in more detail. 23.40.3.4 hd44780.c
This is the implementation of the low-level HD44780 LCD controller driver. On top, a few preprocessor glueing tricks are used to establish symbolic access to the hardware port pins the LCD controller is attached to, based on the applications denitions made in denes.h. The hd44780_pulse_e() function asserts a short pulse to the controllers E (enable) pin. Since reading back the data asserted by the LCD controller needs to be performed while E is active, this function reads and returns the input data if the parameter readback is true. When called with a compile-time constant parameter that is false, the compiler will completely eliminate the unused readback operation, as well as the return value as part of its optimizations. As the controller is used in 4-bit interface mode, all byte IO to/from the controller needs to be handled as two nibble IOs. The functions hd44780_outnibble() and hd44780_innibble() implement this. They do not belong to the public interface, so they are declared static. Building upon these, the public functions hd44780_outbyte() and hd44780_inbyte() transfer one byte to/from the controller. The function hd44780_wait_ready() waits for the controller to become ready, by continuously polling the controllers status (which is read by performing a byte read with
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the RS signal cleard), and examining the BUSY ag within the status byte. This function needs to be called before performing any controller IO. Finally, hd44780_init() initializes the LCD controller into 4-bit mode, based on the initialization sequence mandated by the datasheet. As the BUSY ag cannot be examined yet at this point, this is the only part of this code where timed delays are used. While the controller can perform a power-on reset when certain constraints on the power supply rise time are met, always calling the software initialization routine at startup ensures the controller will be in a known state. This function also puts the interface into 4-bit mode (which would not be done automatically after a power-on reset). 23.40.3.5 lcd.h
This function declares the public interface of the higher-level (character IO) LCD driver. 23.40.3.6 lcd.c
The implementation of the higher-level LCD driver. This driver builds on top of the HD44780 low-level LCD controller driver, and offers a character IO interface suitable for direct use by the standard IO facilities. Where the low-level HD44780 driver deals with setting up controller SRAM addresses, writing data to the controllers SRAM, and controlling display functions like clearing the display, or moving the cursor, this high-level driver allows to just write a character to the LCD, in the assumption this will somehow show up on the display. Control characters can be handled at this level, and used to perform specic actions on the LCD. Currently, there is only one control character that is being dealt with: a newline character (\n) is taken as an indication to clear the display and set the cursor into its initial position upon reception of the next character, so a "new line" of text can be displayed. Therefore, a received newline character is remembered until more characters have been sent by the application, and will only then cause the display to be cleared before continuing. This provides a convenient abstraction where full lines of text can be sent to the driver, and will remain visible at the LCD until the next line is to be displayed. Further control characters could be implemented, e. g. using a set of escape sequences. That way, it would be possible to implement self-scrolling display lines etc. The public function lcd_init() rst calls the initialization entry point of the lowerlevel HD44780 driver, and then sets up the LCD in a way wed like to (display cleared, non-blinking cursor enabled, SRAM addresses are increasing so characters will be written left to right). The public function lcd_putchar() takes arguments that make it suitable for being passed as a put() function pointer to the stdio stream initialization functions and macros (fdevopen(), FDEV_SETUP_STREAM() etc.). Thus, it takes two arguments, the character to display itself, and a reference to the underlying stream object, and it is expected to return 0 upon success. This function remembers the last unprocessed newline character seen in the function-
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local static variable nl_seen. If a newline character is encountered, it will simply set this variable to a true value, and return to the caller. As soon as the rst non-newline character is to be displayed with nl_seen still true, the LCD controller is told to clear the display, put the cursor home, and restart at SRAM address 0. All other characters are sent to the display. The single static function-internal variable nl_seen works for this purpose. If multiple LCDs should be controlled using the same set of driver functions, that would not work anymore, as a way is needed to distinguish between the various displays. This is where the second parameter can be used, the reference to the stream itself: instead of keeping the state inside a private variable of the function, it can be kept inside a private object that is attached to the stream itself. A reference to that private object can be attached to the stream (e.g. inside the function lcd_init() that then also needs to be passed a reference to the stream) using fdev_set_udata(), and can be accessed inside lcd_putchar() using fdev_get_udata(). 23.40.3.7 uart.h
Public interface denition for the RS-232 UART driver, much like in lcd.h except there is now also a character input function available. As the RS-232 input is line-buffered in this example, the macro RX_BUFSIZE determines the size of that buffer. 23.40.3.8 uart.c
This implements an stdio-compatible RS-232 driver using an AVRs standard UART (or USART in asynchronous operation mode). Both, character output as well as character input operations are implemented. Character output takes care of converting the internal newline \n into its external representation carriage return/line feed (\r\n). Character input is organized as a line-buffered operation that allows to minimally edit the current line until it is "sent" to the application when either a carriage return (\r) or newline (\n) character is received from the terminal. The line editing functions implemented are: \b (back space) or \177 (delete) deletes the previous character u (control-U, ASCII NAK) deletes the entire input buffer w (control-W, ASCII ETB) deletes the previous input word, delimited by white space r (control-R, ASCII DC2) sends a \r, then reprints the buffer (refresh) \t (tabulator) will be replaced by a single space The function uart_init() takes care of all hardware initialization that is required to put the UART into a mode with 8 data bits, no parity, one stop bit (commonly referred
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to as 8N1) at the baud rate congured in denes.h. At low CPU clock frequencies, the
U2X bit in the UART is set, reducing the oversampling from 16x to 8x, which allows for
a 9600 Bd rate to be achieved with tolerable error using the default 1 MHz RC oscillator. The public function uart_putchar() again has suitable arguments for direct use by the stdio stream interface. It performs the \n into \r\n translation by recursively calling itself when it sees a \n character. Just for demonstration purposes, the \a (audible bell, ASCII BEL) character is implemented by sending a string to stderr, so it will be displayed on the LCD. The public function uart_getchar() implements the line editor. If there are characters available in the line buffer (variable rxp is not NULL), the next character will be returned from the buffer without any UART interaction. If there are no characters inside the line buffer, the input loop will be entered. Characters will be read from the UART, and processed accordingly. If the UART signalled a framing error (FE bit set), typically caused by the terminal sending a line break condition (start condition held much longer than one character period), the function will return an endof-le condition using _FDEV_EOF. If there was a data overrun condition on input (DOR bit set), an error condition will be returned as _FDEV_ERR. Line editing characters are handled inside the loop, potentially modifying the buffer status. If characters are attempted to be entered beyond the size of the line buffer, their reception is refused, and a \a character is sent to the terminal. If a \r or \n character is seen, the variable rxp (receive pointer) is set to the beginning of the buffer, the loop is left, and the rst character of the buffer will be returned to the application. (If no other characters have been entered, this will just be the newline character, and the buffer is marked as being exhausted immediately again.)
23.40.4
The source code
$prefix/share/doc/avr-libc/examples/stdiodemo/,
23.41
Example using the two-wire interface (TWI)
366
23.41
Some newer devices of the ATmega series contain builtin support for interfacing the microcontroller to a two-wire bus, called TWI. This is essentially the same called I2C by Philips, but that term is avoided in Atmels documentation due to patenting issues. For further documentation, see:
http://www.nxp.com/documents/user_manual/UM10204.pdf
23.41.1
Introduction into TWI
The two-wire interface consists of two signal lines named SDA (serial data) and SCL (serial clock) (plus a ground line, of course). All devices participating in the bus are connected together, using open-drain driver circuitry, so the wires must be terminated using appropriate pullup resistors. The pullups must be small enough to recharge the line capacity in short enough time compared to the desired maximal clock frequency, yet large enough so all drivers will not be overloaded. There are formulas in the datasheet that help selecting the pullups. Devices can either act as a master to the bus (i. e., they initiate a transfer), or as a slave (they only act when being called by a master). The bus is multi-master capable, and a particular device implementation can act as either master or slave at different times. Devices are addressed using a 7-bit address (coordinated by Philips) transfered as the rst byte after the so-called start condition. The LSB of that byte is R/W, i. e. it determines whether the request to the slave is to read or write data during the next cycles. (There is also an option to have devices using 10-bit addresses but that is not covered by this example.)
23.41.2
The TWI example project
The ATmega TWI hardware supports both, master and slave operation. This example will only demonstrate how to use an AVR microcontroller as TWI master. The implementation is kept simple in order to concentrate on the steps that are required to talk to a TWI slave, so all processing is done in polled-mode, waiting for the TWI interface to indicate that the next processing step is due (by setting the TWINT interrupt bit). If it is desired to have the entire TWI communication happen in "background", all this can be implemented in an interrupt-controlled way, where only the start condition needs to be triggered from outside the interrupt routine. There is a variety of slave devices available that can be connected to a TWI bus. For the purpose of this example, an EEPROM device out of the industry-standard 24Cxx series has been chosen (where xx can be one of 01, 02, 04, 08, or 16) which are available from various vendors. The choice was almost arbitrary, mainly triggered by the fact that an EEPROM device is being talked to in both directions, reading and writing the slave device, so the example will demonstrate the details of both.
23.41
367
Usually, there is probably not much need to add more EEPROM to an ATmega system that way: the smallest possible AVR device that offers hardware TWI support is the ATmega8 which comes with 512 bytes of EEPROM, which is equivalent to an 24C04 device. The ATmega128 already comes with twice as much EEPROM as the 24C16 would offer. One exception might be to use an externally connected EEPROM device that is removable; e. g. SDRAM PC memory comes with an integrated TWI EEPROM that carries the RAM conguration information.
23.41.3
The Source Code
$prefix/share/doc/avr-libc/examples/twitest/twitest.c,
where $prefix is a conguration option. For Unix systems, it is usually set to either /usr or /usr/local. Note [1]
The header le <util/twi.h> contains some macro denitions for symbolic constants used in the TWI status register. These denitions match the names used in the Atmel datasheet except that all names have been prexed with TW_. Note [2]
The clock is used in timer calculations done by the compiler, for the UART baud rate and the TWI clock rate. Note [3]
The address assigned for the 24Cxx EEPROM consists of 1010 in the upper four bits. The following three bits are normally available as slave sub-addresses, allowing to operate more than one device of the same type on a single bus, where the actual subaddress used for each device is congured by hardware strapping. However, since the next data packet following the device selection only allows for 8 bits that are used as an EEPROM address, devices that require more than 8 address bits (24C04 and above) "steal" subaddress bits and use them for the EEPROM cell address bits 9 to 11 as required. This example simply assumes all subaddress bits are 0 for the smaller devices, so the E0, E1, and E2 inputs of the 24Cxx must be grounded.
23.41
368
Note [3a]
EEPROMs of type 24C32 and above cannot be addressed anymore even with the subaddress bit trick. Thus, they require the upper address bits being sent separately on the bus. When activating the WORD_ADDRESS_16BIT dene, the algorithm implements that auxiliary address byte transmission. Note [4]
For slow clocks, enable the 2 x U[S]ART clock multiplier, to improve the baud rate error. This will allow a 9600 Bd communication using the standard 1 MHz calibrated RC oscillator. See also the Baud rate tables in the datasheets. Note [5]
The datasheet explains why a minimum TWBR value of 10 should be maintained when running in master mode. Thus, for system clocks below 3.6 MHz, we cannot run the bus at the intented clock rate of 100 kHz but have to slow down accordingly. Note [6]
This function is used by the standard output facilities that are utilized in this example for debugging and demonstration purposes. Note [7]
In order to shorten the data to be sent over the TWI bus, the 24Cxx EEPROMs support multiple data bytes transfered within a single request, maintaining an internal address counter that is updated after each data byte transfered successfully. When reading data, one request can read the entire device memory if desired (the counter would wrap around and start back from 0 when reaching the end of the device). Note [8]
23.41
369
When reading the EEPROM, a rst device selection must be made with write intent (R/W bit set to 0 indicating a write operation) in order to transfer the EEPROM address to start reading from. This is called master transmitter mode. Each completion of a particular step in TWI communication is indicated by an asserted TWINT bit in TWCR. (An interrupt would be generated if allowed.) After performing any actions that are needed for the next communication step, the interrupt condition must be manually cleared by setting the TWINT bit. Unlike with many other interrupt sources, this would even be required when using a true interrupt routine, since as soon as TWINT is reasserted, the next bus transaction will start. Note [9]
Since the TWI bus is multi-master capable, there is potential for a bus contention when one master starts to access the bus. Normally, the TWI bus interface unit will detect this situation, and will not initiate a start condition while the bus is busy. However, in case two masters were starting at exactly the same time, the way bus arbitration works, there is always a chance that one master could lose arbitration of the bus during any transmit operation. A master that has lost arbitration is required by the protocol to immediately cease talking on the bus; in particular it must not initiate a stop condition in order to not corrupt the ongoing transfer from the active master. In this example, upon detecting a lost arbitration condition, the entire transfer is going to be restarted. This will cause a new start condition to be initiated, which will normally be delayed until the currently active master has released the bus. Note [10]
Next, the device slave is going to be reselected (using a so-called repeated start condition which is meant to guarantee that the bus arbitration will remain at the current master) using the same slave address (SLA), but this time with read intent (R/W bit set to 1) in order to request the device slave to start transfering data from the slave to the master in the next packet. Note [11]
If the EEPROM device is still busy writing one or more cells after a previous write request, it will simply leave its bus interface drivers at high impedance, and does not respond to a selection in any way at all. The master selecting the device will see the high level at SDA after transfering the SLA+R/W packet as a NACK to its selection request. Thus, the select process is simply started over (effectively causing a repeated start condition), until the device will eventually respond. This polling procedure is recommended in the 24Cxx datasheet in order to minimize the busy wait time when writing.
23.41
370
Note that in case a device is broken and never responds to a selection (e. g. since it is no longer present at all), this will cause an innite loop. Thus the maximal number of iterations made until the device is declared to be not responding at all, and an error is returned, will be limited to MAX_ITER. Note [12]
This is called master receiver mode: the bus master still supplies the SCL clock, but the device slave drives the SDA line with the appropriate data. After 8 data bits, the master responds with an ACK bit (SDA driven low) in order to request another data transfer from the slave, or it can leave the SDA line high (NACK), indicating to the slave that it is going to stop the transfer now. Assertion of ACK is handled by setting the TWEA bit in TWCR when starting the current transfer. Note [13]
The control word sent out in order to initiate the transfer of the next data packet is initially set up to assert the TWEA bit. During the last loop iteration, TWEA is de-asserted so the client will get informed that no further transfer is desired. Note [14]
Except in the case of lost arbitration, all bus transactions must properly be terminated by the master initiating a stop condition. Note [15]
Writing to the EEPROM device is simpler than reading, since only a master transmitter mode transfer is needed. Note that the rst packet after the SLA+W selection is always considered to be the EEPROM address for the next operation. (This packet is exactly the same as the one above sent before starting to read the device.) In case a master transmitter mode transfer is going to send more than one data packet, all following packets will be considered data bytes to write at the indicated address. The internal address pointer will be incremented after each write operation. Note [16]
23.41
371
24Cxx devices can become write-protected by strapping their WC pin to logic high. (Leaving it unconnected is explicitly allowed, and constitutes logic low level, i. e. no write protection.) In case of a write protected device, all data transfer attempts will be NACKed by the device. Note that some devices might not implement this.
24 Data Structure Documentation
372
24
24.1
Data Structure Documentation

div t Struct Reference
Data Fields int quot int rem
24.1.1
Result type for function div().
24.1.2 24.1.2.1
Field Documentation int div_t::quot
The Quotient. 24.1.2.2 int div_t::rem
The Remainder. The documentation for this struct was generated from the following le: stdlib.h
24.2
ldiv t Struct Reference
Data Fields long quot long rem
24.2.1
Result type for function ldiv().
24.2.2 24.2.2.1
Field Documentation long ldiv_t::quot
The Quotient.
25 File Documentation
373
24.2.2.2
long ldiv_t::rem
The Remainder. The documentation for this struct was generated from the following le: stdlib.h
25
25.1
File Documentation
assert.h File Reference
Denes #dene assert(expression)
25.1.1
25.2
25.2.1
atoi.S File Reference

25.3
25.3.1
atol.S File Reference

25.4
Denes
atomic.h File Reference
#dene ATOMIC_BLOCK(type) #dene NONATOMIC_BLOCK(type) #dene ATOMIC_RESTORESTATE #dene ATOMIC_FORCEON #dene NONATOMIC_RESTORESTATE #dene NONATOMIC_FORCEOFF
25.4.1
25.5
boot.h File Reference
25.5
374
Denes #dene BOOTLOADER_SECTION __attribute__ ((section (".bootloader"))) #dene __COMMON_ASB RWWSB #dene __COMMON_ASRE RWWSRE #dene BLB12 5 #dene BLB11 4 #dene BLB02 3 #dene BLB01 2 #dene boot_spm_interrupt_enable() (__SPM_REG |= (uint8_t)_BV(SPMIE)) #dene boot_spm_interrupt_disable() (__SPM_REG &= (uint8_t)_BV(SPMIE)) #dene boot_is_spm_interrupt() (__SPM_REG & (uint8_t)_BV(SPMIE)) #dene boot_rww_busy() (__SPM_REG & (uint8_t)_BV(__COMMON_ASB)) #dene boot_spm_busy() (__SPM_REG & (uint8_t)_BV(__SPM_ENABLE)) #dene boot_spm_busy_wait() do{}while(boot_spm_busy()) #dene __BOOT_PAGE_ERASE (_BV(__SPM_ENABLE) | _BV(PGERS)) #dene __BOOT_PAGE_WRITE (_BV(__SPM_ENABLE) | _BV(PGWRT)) #dene __BOOT_PAGE_FILL _BV(__SPM_ENABLE) #dene __BOOT_RWW_ENABLE (_BV(__SPM_ENABLE) | _BV(__COMMON_ASRE)) #dene __boot_page_ll_normal(address, data) #dene __boot_page_ll_alternate(address, data) #dene __boot_page_ll_extended(address, data) #dene __boot_page_erase_normal(address) #dene __boot_page_erase_alternate(address) #dene __boot_page_erase_extended(address) #dene __boot_page_write_normal(address) #dene __boot_page_write_alternate(address) #dene __boot_page_write_extended(address) #dene __boot_rww_enable() #dene __boot_rww_enable_alternate() #dene __boot_lock_bits_set(lock_bits) #dene __boot_lock_bits_set_alternate(lock_bits) #dene GET_LOW_FUSE_BITS (0x0000) #dene GET_LOCK_BITS (0x0001) #dene GET_EXTENDED_FUSE_BITS (0x0002) #dene GET_HIGH_FUSE_BITS (0x0003) #dene boot_lock_fuse_bits_get(address) #dene __BOOT_SIGROW_READ (_BV(__SPM_ENABLE) | _BV(SIGRD)) #dene boot_signature_byte_get(addr) #dene boot_page_ll(address, data) __boot_page_ll_normal(address, data) #dene boot_page_erase(address) __boot_page_erase_normal(address) #dene boot_page_write(address) __boot_page_write_normal(address)
25.5
375
#dene boot_rww_enable() __boot_rww_enable() #dene boot_lock_bits_set(lock_bits) __boot_lock_bits_set(lock_bits) #dene boot_page_ll_safe(address, data) #dene boot_page_erase_safe(address) #dene boot_page_write_safe(address) #dene boot_rww_enable_safe() #dene boot_lock_bits_set_safe(lock_bits)
25.5.1 25.5.2 25.5.2.1 Value:
Detailed Description Dene Documentation #dene boot lock bits set( lock bits )
(__extension__({ uint8_t value = (uint8_t)(~(lock_bits)); __asm__ __volatile__ ( "ldi r30, 1\n\t" "ldi r31, 0\n\t" "mov r0, %2\n\t" "sts %0, %1\n\t" "spm\n\t" : : "i" (_SFR_MEM_ADDR(__SPM_REG)), "r" ((uint8_t)(__BOOT_LOCK_BITS_SET)), "r" (value) : "r0", "r30", "r31" ); }))
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
25.5.2.2 Value:
#dene boot lock bits set alternate( lock bits )
(__extension__({ uint8_t value = (uint8_t)(~(lock_bits)); __asm__ __volatile__ ( "ldi r30, 1\n\t" "ldi r31, 0\n\t" "mov r0, %2\n\t" "sts %0, %1\n\t" "spm\n\t" ".word 0xffff\n\t" "nop\n\t" : : "i" (_SFR_MEM_ADDR(__SPM_REG)), "r" ((uint8_t)(__BOOT_LOCK_BITS_SET)),
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
25.5
376
"r" (value) : "r0", "r30", "r31" ); }))
\ \ \
25.5.2.3 Value:
#dene boot page erase alternate( address )
(__extension__({ __asm__ __volatile__ ( "sts %0, %1\n\t" "spm\n\t" ".word 0xffff\n\t" "nop\n\t" : : "i" (_SFR_MEM_ADDR(__SPM_REG)), "r" ((uint8_t)(__BOOT_PAGE_ERASE)), "z" ((uint16_t)(address)) ); }))
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
25.5.2.4 Value:
#dene boot page erase extended( address )
(__extension__({ __asm__ __volatile__ ( "movw r30, %A3\n\t" "sts %1, %C3\n\t" "sts %0, %2\n\t" "spm\n\t" : : "i" (_SFR_MEM_ADDR(__SPM_REG)), "i" (_SFR_MEM_ADDR(RAMPZ)), "r" ((uint8_t)(__BOOT_PAGE_ERASE)), "r" ((uint32_t)(address)) : "r30", "r31" ); }))
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
25.5.2.5 Value:
#dene boot page erase normal( address )
(__extension__({ __asm__ __volatile__ ( "sts %0, %1\n\t" "spm\n\t" :
\ \ \ \ \ \
25.5
377
: "i" (_SFR_MEM_ADDR(__SPM_REG)), "r" ((uint8_t)(__BOOT_PAGE_ERASE)), "z" ((uint16_t)(address)) ); }))
\ \ \ \
25.5.2.6 Value:
#dene boot page ll alternate( address, data )
(__extension__({ __asm__ __volatile__ ( "movw r0, %3\n\t" "sts %0, %1\n\t" "spm\n\t" ".word 0xffff\n\t" "nop\n\t" "clr r1\n\t" : : "i" (_SFR_MEM_ADDR(__SPM_REG)), "r" ((uint8_t)(__BOOT_PAGE_FILL)), "z" ((uint16_t)(address)), "r" ((uint16_t)(data)) : "r0" ); }))
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
25.5.2.7 Value:
#dene boot page ll extended( address, data )
(__extension__({ __asm__ __volatile__ ( "movw r0, %4\n\t" "movw r30, %A3\n\t" "sts %1, %C3\n\t" "sts %0, %2\n\t" "spm\n\t" "clr r1\n\t" : : "i" (_SFR_MEM_ADDR(__SPM_REG)), "i" (_SFR_MEM_ADDR(RAMPZ)), "r" ((uint8_t)(__BOOT_PAGE_FILL)), "r" ((uint32_t)(address)), "r" ((uint16_t)(data)) : "r0", "r30", "r31" ); }))
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
25.5.2.8 Value:
#dene boot page ll normal( address, data )
25.5
378
(__extension__({ __asm__ __volatile__ ( "movw r0, %3\n\t" "sts %0, %1\n\t" "spm\n\t" "clr r1\n\t" : : "i" (_SFR_MEM_ADDR(__SPM_REG)), "r" ((uint8_t)(__BOOT_PAGE_FILL)), "z" ((uint16_t)(address)), "r" ((uint16_t)(data)) : "r0" ); }))
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
25.5.2.9 Value:
#dene boot page write alternate( address )
(__extension__({ __asm__ __volatile__ ( "sts %0, %1\n\t" "spm\n\t" ".word 0xffff\n\t" "nop\n\t" : : "i" (_SFR_MEM_ADDR(__SPM_REG)), "r" ((uint8_t)(__BOOT_PAGE_WRITE)), "z" ((uint16_t)(address)) ); }))
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
25.5.2.10 Value:
#dene boot page write extended( address )
(__extension__({ __asm__ __volatile__ ( "movw r30, %A3\n\t" "sts %1, %C3\n\t" "sts %0, %2\n\t" "spm\n\t" : : "i" (_SFR_MEM_ADDR(__SPM_REG)), "i" (_SFR_MEM_ADDR(RAMPZ)), "r" ((uint8_t)(__BOOT_PAGE_WRITE)), "r" ((uint32_t)(address)) : "r30", "r31" ); }))
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
25.6
cpufunc.h File Reference
379
25.5.2.11 Value:
#dene boot page write normal( address )
(__extension__({ __asm__ __volatile__ ( "sts %0, %1\n\t" "spm\n\t" : : "i" (_SFR_MEM_ADDR(__SPM_REG)), "r" ((uint8_t)(__BOOT_PAGE_WRITE)), "z" ((uint16_t)(address)) ); }))
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
25.5.2.12 Value:
#dene boot rww enable( )
(__extension__({ __asm__ __volatile__ ( "sts %0, %1\n\t" "spm\n\t" : : "i" (_SFR_MEM_ADDR(__SPM_REG)), "r" ((uint8_t)(__BOOT_RWW_ENABLE)) ); }))
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
25.5.2.13 Value:
#dene boot rww enable alternate( )
(__extension__({ __asm__ __volatile__ ( "sts %0, %1\n\t" "spm\n\t" ".word 0xffff\n\t" "nop\n\t" : : "i" (_SFR_MEM_ADDR(__SPM_REG)), "r" ((uint8_t)(__BOOT_RWW_ENABLE)) ); }))
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
25.6
Denes
cpufunc.h File Reference
#dene _NOP()
25.7
crc16.h File Reference
380
#dene _MemoryBarrier()
25.6.1
25.7
crc16.h File Reference
Functions static __inline__ uint16_t _crc16_update (uint16_t __crc, uint8_t __data) static __inline__ uint16_t _crc_xmodem_update (uint16_t __crc, uint8_t __data) static __inline__ uint16_t _crc_ccitt_update (uint16_t __crc, uint8_t __data) static __inline__ uint8_t _crc_ibutton_update (uint8_t __crc, uint8_t __data)
25.7.1
25.8
ctype.h File Reference
Functions Character classication routines These functions perform character classication. They return true or false status depending whether the character passed to the function falls into the functions classication (i.e. isdigit() returns true if its argument is any value 0 though 9, inclusive). If the input is not an unsigned char value, all of this function return false. int isalnum (int __c) int isalpha (int __c) int isascii (int __c) int isblank (int __c) int iscntrl (int __c) int isdigit (int __c) int isgraph (int __c) int islower (int __c) int isprint (int __c) int ispunct (int __c) int isspace (int __c) int isupper (int __c) int isxdigit (int __c)
Character convertion routines This realization permits all possible values of integer argument. The toascii() function clears all highest bits. The tolower() and toupper() functions return an input argument as is, if it is not an unsigned char value. int toascii (int __c) int tolower (int __c) int toupper (int __c)
25.9
delay.h File Reference
381
25.8.1
25.9
Denes
delay.h File Reference
#dene __HAS_DELAY_CYCLES 1 #dene F_CPU 1000000UL
Functions void _delay_ms (double __ms) void _delay_us (double __us)
25.9.1
25.10
delay basic.h File Reference
Functions void _delay_loop_1 (uint8_t __count) void _delay_loop_2 (uint16_t __count)
25.10.1
25.11
Denes
errno.h File Reference
#dene EDOM 33 #dene ERANGE 34
Variables int errno
25.11.1
25.12
fdevopen.c File Reference
25.13
ffs.S File Reference
382
Functions FILE fdevopen (int(put)(char, FILE ), int(get)(FILE ))
25.12.1
25.13
25.13.1
ffs.S File Reference

25.14
25.14.1
ffsl.S File Reference

25.15
25.15.1
ffsll.S File Reference

25.16
Denes
fuse.h File Reference
#dene FUSEMEM __attribute__((section (".fuse"))) #dene FUSES __fuse_t __fuse FUSEMEM
25.16.1
25.17
Denes
interrupt.h File Reference
Global manipulation of the interrupt ag The global interrupt ag is maintained in the I bit of the status register (SREG). Handling interrupts frequently requires attention regarding atomic access to objects that could be altered by code running within an interrupt context, see <util/atomic.h>. Frequently, interrupts are being disabled for periods of time in order to perform certain operations without being disturbed; see Problems with reordering code for things to be taken into account with respect to compiler optimizations. #dene sei() #dene cli()
25.18
inttypes.h File Reference
383
Macros for writing interrupt handler functions #dene ISR(vector, attributes) #dene SIGNAL(vector) #dene EMPTY_INTERRUPT(vector) #dene ISR_ALIAS(vector, target_vector) #dene reti() #dene BADISR_vect
ISR attributes #dene ISR_BLOCK #dene ISR_NOBLOCK #dene ISR_NAKED #dene ISR_ALIASOF(target_vector)
25.17.1 @{
25.18
Denes
macros for printf and scanf format speciers For C++, these are only included if __STDC_LIMIT_MACROS is dened before including <inttypes.h>. #dene PRId8 "d" #dene PRIdLEAST8 "d" #dene PRIdFAST8 "d" #dene PRIi8 "i" #dene PRIiLEAST8 "i" #dene PRIiFAST8 "i" #dene PRId16 "d" #dene PRIdLEAST16 "d" #dene PRIdFAST16 "d" #dene PRIi16 "i" #dene PRIiLEAST16 "i" #dene PRIiFAST16 "i" #dene PRId32 "ld" #dene PRIdLEAST32 "ld" #dene PRIdFAST32 "ld" #dene PRIi32 "li" #dene PRIiLEAST32 "li" #dene PRIiFAST32 "li" #dene PRIdPTR PRId16
25.18
384
#dene PRIiPTR PRIi16 #dene PRIo8 "o" #dene PRIoLEAST8 "o" #dene PRIoFAST8 "o" #dene PRIu8 "u" #dene PRIuLEAST8 "u" #dene PRIuFAST8 "u" #dene PRIx8 "x" #dene PRIxLEAST8 "x" #dene PRIxFAST8 "x" #dene PRIX8 "X" #dene PRIXLEAST8 "X" #dene PRIXFAST8 "X" #dene PRIo16 "o" #dene PRIoLEAST16 "o" #dene PRIoFAST16 "o" #dene PRIu16 "u" #dene PRIuLEAST16 "u" #dene PRIuFAST16 "u" #dene PRIx16 "x" #dene PRIxLEAST16 "x" #dene PRIxFAST16 "x" #dene PRIX16 "X" #dene PRIXLEAST16 "X" #dene PRIXFAST16 "X" #dene PRIo32 "lo" #dene PRIoLEAST32 "lo" #dene PRIoFAST32 "lo" #dene PRIu32 "lu" #dene PRIuLEAST32 "lu" #dene PRIuFAST32 "lu" #dene PRIx32 "lx" #dene PRIxLEAST32 "lx" #dene PRIxFAST32 "lx" #dene PRIX32 "lX" #dene PRIXLEAST32 "lX" #dene PRIXFAST32 "lX" #dene PRIoPTR PRIo16 #dene PRIuPTR PRIu16 #dene PRIxPTR PRIx16 #dene PRIXPTR PRIX16 #dene SCNd16 "d" #dene SCNdLEAST16 "d" #dene SCNdFAST16 "d" #dene SCNi16 "i" #dene SCNiLEAST16 "i" #dene SCNiFAST16 "i" #dene SCNd32 "ld" #dene SCNdLEAST32 "ld" #dene SCNdFAST32 "ld"
25.19
io.h File Reference
385
#dene SCNi32 "li" #dene SCNiLEAST32 "li" #dene SCNiFAST32 "li" #dene SCNdPTR SCNd16 #dene SCNiPTR SCNi16 #dene SCNo16 "o" #dene SCNoLEAST16 "o" #dene SCNoFAST16 "o" #dene SCNu16 "u" #dene SCNuLEAST16 "u" #dene SCNuFAST16 "u" #dene SCNx16 "x" #dene SCNxLEAST16 "x" #dene SCNxFAST16 "x" #dene SCNo32 "lo" #dene SCNoLEAST32 "lo" #dene SCNoFAST32 "lo" #dene SCNu32 "lu" #dene SCNuLEAST32 "lu" #dene SCNuFAST32 "lu" #dene SCNx32 "lx" #dene SCNxLEAST32 "lx" #dene SCNxFAST32 "lx" #dene SCNoPTR SCNo16 #dene SCNuPTR SCNu16 #dene SCNxPTR SCNx16
Typedefs Far pointers for memory access >64K typedef int32_t int_farptr_t typedef uint32_t uint_farptr_t
25.18.1
25.19
25.19.1
io.h File Reference

25.20
Denes
lock.h File Reference
#dene LOCKMEM __attribute__((section (".lock"))) #dene LOCKBITS unsigned char __lock LOCKMEM #dene LOCKBITS_DEFAULT (0xFF)
25.21
math.h File Reference
386
25.20.1
25.21
Denes
#dene M_E 2.7182818284590452354 #dene M_LOG2E 1.4426950408889634074 / log_2 e / #dene M_LOG10E 0.43429448190325182765 / log_10 e / #dene M_LN2 0.69314718055994530942 / log_e 2 / #dene M_LN10 2.30258509299404568402 / log_e 10 / #dene M_PI 3.14159265358979323846 / pi / #dene M_PI_2 1.57079632679489661923 / pi/2 / #dene M_PI_4 0.78539816339744830962 / pi/4 / #dene M_1_PI 0.31830988618379067154 / 1/pi / #dene M_2_PI 0.63661977236758134308 / 2/pi / #dene M_2_SQRTPI 1.12837916709551257390 / 2/sqrt(pi) / #dene M_SQRT2 1.41421356237309504880 / sqrt(2) / #dene M_SQRT1_2 0.70710678118654752440 / 1/sqrt(2) / #dene NAN __builtin_nan("") #dene INFINITY __builtin_inf() #dene cosf cos #dene sinf sin #dene tanf tan #dene fabsf fabs #dene fmodf fmod #dene sqrtf sqrt #dene cbrtf cbrt #dene hypotf hypot #dene squaref square #dene oorf oor #dene ceilf ceil #dene frexpf frexp #dene ldexpf ldexp #dene expf exp #dene coshf cosh #dene sinhf sinh #dene tanhf tanh #dene acosf acos #dene asinf asin #dene atanf atan #dene atan2f atan2 #dene logf log
25.21
387
#dene log10f log10 #dene powf pow #dene isnanf isnan #dene isinff isinf #dene isnitef isnite #dene copysignf copysign #dene signbitf signbit #dene fdimf fdim #dene fmaf fma #dene fmaxf fmax #dene fminf fmin #dene truncf trunc #dene roundf round #dene lroundf lround #dene lrintf lrint
Functions double cos (double __x) double sin (double __x) double tan (double __x) double fabs (double __x) double fmod (double __x, double __y) double modf (double __x, double __iptr) oat modff (oat __x, oat __iptr) double sqrt (double __x) double cbrt (double __x) double hypot (double __x, double __y) double square (double __x) double oor (double __x) double ceil (double __x) double frexp (double __x, int __pexp) double ldexp (double __x, int __exp) double exp (double __x) double cosh (double __x) double sinh (double __x) double tanh (double __x) double acos (double __x) double asin (double __x) double atan (double __x) double atan2 (double __y, double __x) double log (double __x)
25.22
memccpy.S File Reference
388
double log10 (double __x) double pow (double __x, double __y) int isnan (double __x) int isinf (double __x) static int isnite (double __x) static double copysign (double __x, double __y) int signbit (double __x) double fdim (double __x, double __y) double fma (double __x, double __y, double __z) double fmax (double __x, double __y) double fmin (double __x, double __y) double trunc (double __x) double round (double __x) long lround (double __x) long lrint (double __x)
25.21.1
25.22
25.22.1
memccpy.S File Reference

25.23
25.23.1
memchr.S File Reference

25.24
25.24.1
memchr P.S File Reference

25.25
25.25.1
memcmp.S File Reference

25.26
25.26.1
memcmp P.S File Reference

25.27
25.27.1
memcmp PF.S File Reference

25.28
memcpy.S File Reference
389
25.28
25.28.1
memcpy.S File Reference

25.29
25.29.1
memcpy P.S File Reference

25.30
25.30.1
memmem.S File Reference

25.31
25.31.1
memmove.S File Reference

25.32
25.32.1
memrchr.S File Reference

25.33
25.33.1
memrchr P.S File Reference

25.34
25.34.1
memset.S File Reference

25.35
Denes
parity.h File Reference
#dene parity_even_bit(val)
25.35.1
25.36
Denes
pgmspace.h File Reference
#dene __need_size_t #dene __ATTR_PROGMEM__ __attribute__((__progmem__)) #dene __ATTR_PURE__ __attribute__((__pure__))
25.36
390
#dene PROGMEM __ATTR_PROGMEM__ #dene PGM_P const char #dene PGM_VOID_P const void #dene PSTR(s) ((const PROGMEM char )(s)) #dene __LPM_classic__(addr) #dene __LPM_enhanced__(addr) #dene __LPM_word_classic__(addr) #dene __LPM_word_enhanced__(addr) #dene __LPM_dword_classic__(addr) #dene __LPM_dword_enhanced__(addr) #dene __LPM_oat_classic__(addr) #dene __LPM_oat_enhanced__(addr) #dene __LPM(addr) __LPM_classic__(addr) #dene __LPM_word(addr) __LPM_word_classic__(addr) #dene __LPM_dword(addr) __LPM_dword_classic__(addr) #dene __LPM_oat(addr) __LPM_oat_classic__(addr) #dene pgm_read_byte_near(address_short) __LPM((uint16_t)(address_short)) #dene pgm_read_word_near(address_short) __LPM_word((uint16_t)(address_short)) #dene pgm_read_dword_near(address_short) __LPM_dword((uint16_t)(address_short)) #dene pgm_read_oat_near(address_short) __LPM_oat((uint16_t)(address_short)) #dene __ELPM_classic__(addr) #dene __ELPM_enhanced__(addr) #dene __ELPM_xmega__(addr) #dene __ELPM_word_classic__(addr) #dene __ELPM_word_enhanced__(addr) #dene __ELPM_word_xmega__(addr) #dene __ELPM_dword_classic__(addr) #dene __ELPM_dword_enhanced__(addr) #dene __ELPM_dword_xmega__(addr) #dene __ELPM_oat_classic__(addr) #dene __ELPM_oat_enhanced__(addr) #dene __ELPM_oat_xmega__(addr) #dene __ELPM(addr) __ELPM_classic__(addr) #dene __ELPM_word(addr) __ELPM_word_classic__(addr) #dene __ELPM_dword(addr) __ELPM_dword_classic__(addr) #dene __ELPM_oat(addr) __ELPM_oat_classic__(addr) #dene pgm_read_byte_far(address_long) __ELPM((uint32_t)(address_long)) #dene pgm_read_word_far(address_long) __ELPM_word((uint32_t)(address_long))
25.36
391
#dene pgm_read_dword_far(address_long) __ELPM_dword((uint32_t)(address_long)) #dene pgm_read_oat_far(address_long) __ELPM_oat((uint32_t)(address_long)) #dene pgm_read_byte(address_short) pgm_read_byte_near(address_short) #dene pgm_read_word(address_short) pgm_read_word_near(address_short) #dene pgm_read_dword(address_short) pgm_read_dword_near(address_short) #dene pgm_read_oat(address_short) pgm_read_oat_near(address_short) #dene pgm_get_far_address(var)
Typedefs typedef void PROGMEM prog_void typedef char PROGMEM prog_char typedef unsigned char PROGMEM prog_uchar typedef int8_t PROGMEM prog_int8_t typedef uint8_t PROGMEM prog_uint8_t typedef int16_t PROGMEM prog_int16_t typedef uint16_t PROGMEM prog_uint16_t typedef int32_t PROGMEM prog_int32_t typedef uint32_t PROGMEM prog_uint32_t typedef int64_t PROGMEM prog_int64_t typedef uint64_t PROGMEM prog_uint64_t
Functions const void memchr_P (const void , int __val, size_t __len) int memcmp_P (const void , const void , size_t) __ATTR_PURE__ void memccpy_P (void , const void , int __val, size_t) void memcpy_P (void , const void , size_t) void memmem_P (const void , size_t, const void , size_t) __ATTR_PURE__ const void memrchr_P (const void , int __val, size_t __len) char strcat_P (char , const char ) const char strchr_P (const char , int __val) const char strchrnul_P (const char , int __val) int strcmp_P (const char , const char ) __ATTR_PURE__ char strcpy_P (char , const char ) int strcasecmp_P (const char , const char ) __ATTR_PURE__ char strcasestr_P (const char , const char ) __ATTR_PURE__ size_t strcspn_P (const char __s, const char __reject) __ATTR_PURE__ size_t strlcat_P (char , const char , size_t)
25.36
392
size_t strlcpy_P (char , const char , size_t) size_t __strlen_P (const char ) size_t strnlen_P (const char , size_t) int strncmp_P (const char , const char , size_t) __ATTR_PURE__ int strncasecmp_P (const char , const char , size_t) __ATTR_PURE__ char strncat_P (char , const char , size_t) char strncpy_P (char , const char , size_t) char strpbrk_P (const char __s, const char __accept) __ATTR_PURE__ const char strrchr_P (const char , int __val) char strsep_P (char __sp, const char __delim) size_t strspn_P (const char __s, const char __accept) __ATTR_PURE__ char strstr_P (const char , const char ) __ATTR_PURE__ char strtok_P (char __s, const char __delim) char strtok_rP (char __s, const char __delim, char __last) size_t strlen_PF (uint_farptr_t src) size_t strnlen_PF (uint_farptr_t src, size_t len) void memcpy_PF (void dest, uint_farptr_t src, size_t len) char strcpy_PF (char dest, uint_farptr_t src) char strncpy_PF (char dest, uint_farptr_t src, size_t len) char strcat_PF (char dest, uint_farptr_t src) size_t strlcat_PF (char dst, uint_farptr_t src, size_t siz) char strncat_PF (char dest, uint_farptr_t src, size_t len) int strcmp_PF (const char s1, uint_farptr_t s2) __ATTR_PURE__ int strncmp_PF (const char s1, uint_farptr_t s2, size_t n) __ATTR_PURE__ int strcasecmp_PF (const char s1, uint_farptr_t s2) __ATTR_PURE__ int strncasecmp_PF (const char s1, uint_farptr_t s2, size_t n) __ATTR_PURE__ char strstr_PF (const char s1, uint_farptr_t s2) size_t strlcpy_PF (char dst, uint_farptr_t src, size_t siz) int memcmp_PF (const void , uint_farptr_t, size_t) __ATTR_PURE__ __attribute__ ((__always_inline__)) static inline size_t strlen_P(const char s) static size_t strlen_P (const char s)
25.36.1 25.36.2 25.36.2.1 Value:
Detailed Description Dene Documentation #dene ELPM classic ( addr )
25.36
393
(__extension__({ \ uint32_t __addr32 = (uint32_t)(addr); \ uint8_t __result; \ __asm__ \ ( \ "out %2, %C1" "\n\t" \ "mov r31, %B1" "\n\t" \ "mov r30, %A1" "\n\t" \ "elpm" "\n\t" \ "mov %0, r0" "\n\t" \ : "=r" (__result) \ : "r" (__addr32), \ "I" (_SFR_IO_ADDR(RAMPZ)) \ : "r0", "r30", "r31" \ ); \ __result; \ }))
25.36.2.2 Value:
#dene ELPM dword enhanced ( addr )
(__extension__({ uint32_t __addr32 = (uint32_t)(addr); uint32_t __result; __asm__ ( "out %2, %C1" "\n\t" "movw r30, %1" "\n\t" "elpm %A0, Z+" "\n\t" "elpm %B0, Z+" "\n\t" "elpm %C0, Z+" "\n\t" "elpm %D0, Z" "\n\t" : "=r" (__result) : "r" (__addr32), "I" (_SFR_IO_ADDR(RAMPZ)) : "r30", "r31" ); __result; }))
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
25.36.2.3 Value:
#dene ELPM dword xmega ( addr )
(__extension__({ uint32_t __addr32 = (uint32_t)(addr); uint32_t __result; __asm__ ( "in __tmp_reg__, %2" "\n\t" "out %2, %C1" "\n\t" "movw r30, %1" "\n\t" "elpm %A0, Z+" "\n\t" "elpm %B0, Z+" "\n\t"
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
25.36
394
"elpm %C0, Z+" "\n\t" "elpm %D0, Z" "\n\t" "out %2, __tmp_reg__" : "=r" (__result) : "r" (__addr32), "I" (_SFR_IO_ADDR(RAMPZ)) : "r30", "r31" ); __result; }))
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
25.36.2.4 Value:
#dene ELPM enhanced ( addr )
(__extension__({ \ uint32_t __addr32 = (uint32_t)(addr); \ uint8_t __result; \ __asm__ \ ( \ "out %2, %C1" "\n\t" \ "movw r30, %1" "\n\t" \ "elpm %0, Z+" "\n\t" \ : "=r" (__result) \ : "r" (__addr32), \ "I" (_SFR_IO_ADDR(RAMPZ)) \ : "r30", "r31" \ ); \ __result; \ }))
25.36.2.5 Value:
#dene ELPM oat enhanced ( addr )
(__extension__({ uint32_t __addr32 = (uint32_t)(addr); float __result; __asm__ ( "out %2, %C1" "\n\t" "movw r30, %1" "\n\t" "elpm %A0, Z+" "\n\t" "elpm %B0, Z+" "\n\t" "elpm %C0, Z+" "\n\t" "elpm %D0, Z" "\n\t" : "=r" (__result) : "r" (__addr32), "I" (_SFR_IO_ADDR(RAMPZ)) : "r30", "r31" ); __result; }))
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
25.36
395
25.36.2.6 Value:
#dene ELPM oat xmega ( addr )
(__extension__({ uint32_t __addr32 = (uint32_t)(addr); float __result; __asm__ ( "in __tmp_reg__, %2" "\n\t" "out %2, %C1" "\n\t" "movw r30, %1" "\n\t" "elpm %A0, Z+" "\n\t" "elpm %B0, Z+" "\n\t" "elpm %C0, Z+" "\n\t" "elpm %D0, Z" "\n\t" "out %2, __tmp_reg__" : "=r" (__result) : "r" (__addr32), "I" (_SFR_IO_ADDR(RAMPZ)) : "r30", "r31" ); __result; }))
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
25.36.2.7 Value:
#dene ELPM word classic ( addr )
(__extension__({ \ uint32_t __addr32 = (uint32_t)(addr); \ uint16_t __result; \ __asm__ \ ( \ "out %2, %C1" "\n\t" \ "mov r31, %B1" "\n\t" \ "mov r30, %A1" "\n\t" \ "elpm" "\n\t" \ "mov %A0, r0" "\n\t" \ "in r0, %2" "\n\t" \ "adiw r30, 1" "\n\t" \ "adc r0, __zero_reg__" "\n\t" \ "out %2, r0" "\n\t" \ "elpm" "\n\t" \ "mov %B0, r0" "\n\t" \ : "=r" (__result) \ : "r" (__addr32), \ "I" (_SFR_IO_ADDR(RAMPZ)) \ : "r0", "r30", "r31" \ ); \ __result; \ }))
25.36
396
25.36.2.8 Value:
#dene ELPM word enhanced ( addr )
(__extension__({ \ uint32_t __addr32 = (uint32_t)(addr); \ uint16_t __result; \ __asm__ \ ( \ "out %2, %C1" "\n\t" \ "movw r30, %1" "\n\t" \ "elpm %A0, Z+" "\n\t" \ "elpm %B0, Z" "\n\t" \ : "=r" (__result) \ : "r" (__addr32), \ "I" (_SFR_IO_ADDR(RAMPZ)) \ : "r30", "r31" \ ); \ __result; \ }))
25.36.2.9 Value:
#dene ELPM word xmega ( addr )
(__extension__({ \ uint32_t __addr32 = (uint32_t)(addr); \ uint16_t __result; \ __asm__ \ ( \ "in __tmp_reg__, %2" "\n\t" \ "out %2, %C1" "\n\t" \ "movw r30, %1" "\n\t" \ "elpm %A0, Z+" "\n\t" \ "elpm %B0, Z" "\n\t" \ "out %2, __tmp_reg__" \ : "=r" (__result) \ : "r" (__addr32), \ "I" (_SFR_IO_ADDR(RAMPZ)) \ : "r30", "r31" \ ); \ __result; \ }))
25.36.2.10 Value:
#dene ELPM xmega ( addr )
(__extension__({ \ uint32_t __addr32 = (uint32_t)(addr); \ uint8_t __result; \ __asm__ \ ( \ "in __tmp_reg__, %2" "\n\t" \
25.36
397
"out %2, %C1" "\n\t" "movw r30, %1" "\n\t" "elpm %0, Z+" "\n\t" "out %2, __tmp_reg__" : "=r" (__result) : "r" (__addr32), "I" (_SFR_IO_ADDR(RAMPZ)) : "r30", "r31" ); __result; }))
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
25.36.2.11 Value:
#dene LPM classic ( addr )
(__extension__({ \ uint16_t __addr16 = (uint16_t)(addr); \ uint8_t __result; \ __asm__ \ ( \ "lpm" "\n\t" \ "mov %0, r0" "\n\t" \ : "=r" (__result) \ : "z" (__addr16) \ : "r0" \ ); \ __result; \ }))
25.36.2.12 Value:
#dene LPM dword classic ( addr )
(__extension__({ uint16_t __addr16 = (uint16_t)(addr); uint32_t __result; __asm__ ( "lpm" "\n\t" "mov %A0, r0" "\n\t" "adiw r30, 1" "\n\t" "lpm" "\n\t" "mov %B0, r0" "\n\t" "adiw r30, 1" "\n\t" "lpm" "\n\t" "mov %C0, r0" "\n\t" "adiw r30, 1" "\n\t" "lpm" "\n\t" "mov %D0, r0" "\n\t" : "=r" (__result), "=z" (__addr16) : "1" (__addr16) : "r0" ); __result;
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
25.36
398
}))
25.36.2.13 Value:
#dene LPM dword enhanced ( addr )
(__extension__({ uint16_t __addr16 = (uint16_t)(addr); uint32_t __result; __asm__ ( "lpm %A0, Z+" "\n\t" "lpm %B0, Z+" "\n\t" "lpm %C0, Z+" "\n\t" "lpm %D0, Z" "\n\t" : "=r" (__result), "=z" (__addr16) : "1" (__addr16) ); __result; }))
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
25.36.2.14 Value:
#dene LPM enhanced ( addr )
(__extension__({ \ uint16_t __addr16 = (uint16_t)(addr); \ uint8_t __result; \ __asm__ \ ( \ "lpm %0, Z" "\n\t" \ : "=r" (__result) \ : "z" (__addr16) \ ); \ __result; \ }))
25.36.2.15 Value:
#dene LPM oat classic ( addr )
(__extension__({ uint16_t __addr16 = (uint16_t)(addr); float __result; __asm__ ( "lpm" "\n\t" "mov %A0, r0" "\n\t" "adiw r30, 1" "\n\t" "lpm" "\n\t" "mov %B0, r0" "\n\t" "adiw r30, 1" "\n\t" "lpm" "\n\t"
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
25.36
399
"mov %C0, r0" "\n\t" "adiw r30, 1" "\n\t" "lpm" "\n\t" "mov %D0, r0" "\n\t" : "=r" (__result), "=z" (__addr16) : "1" (__addr16) : "r0" ); __result; }))
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
25.36.2.16 Value:
#dene LPM oat enhanced ( addr )
(__extension__({ uint16_t __addr16 = (uint16_t)(addr); float __result; __asm__ ( "lpm %A0, Z+" "\n\t" "lpm %B0, Z+" "\n\t" "lpm %C0, Z+" "\n\t" "lpm %D0, Z" "\n\t" : "=r" (__result), "=z" (__addr16) : "1" (__addr16) ); __result; }))
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
25.36.2.17 Value:
#dene LPM word classic ( addr )
(__extension__({ uint16_t __addr16 = (uint16_t)(addr); uint16_t __result; __asm__ ( "lpm" "\n\t" "mov %A0, r0" "\n\t" "adiw r30, 1" "\n\t" "lpm" "\n\t" "mov %B0, r0" "\n\t" : "=r" (__result), "=z" (__addr16) : "1" (__addr16) : "r0" ); __result; }))
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
25.36.2.18 Value:
#dene LPM word enhanced ( addr )
25.37
power.h File Reference
400
(__extension__({ uint16_t __addr16 = (uint16_t)(addr); uint16_t __result; __asm__ ( "lpm %A0, Z+" "\n\t" "lpm %B0, Z" "\n\t" : "=r" (__result), "=z" (__addr16) : "1" (__addr16) ); __result; }))
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
25.36.2.19 Value:
({
#dene pgm get far address( var )
\ uint_farptr_t tmp; \ __asm__ __volatile__( \ "ldi "ldi "ldi "clr : "=d" (tmp) : "p" ); tmp; (&(var)) \ \ \ \ %A0, lo8(%1)" %B0, hi8(%1)" %C0, hh8(%1)" %D0" "\n\t" "\n\t" "\n\t" "\n\t" \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
})
25.37
Denes
power.h File Reference
#dene clock_prescale_get() (clock_div_t)(CLKPR & (uint8_t)((1<<CLKPS0)|(1<<CLKPS1)|(1<<CLKPS2)|(1<<CLKPS3)))
Enumerations enum clock_div_t { clock_div_1 = 0, clock_div_2 = 1, clock_div_4 = 2, clock_div_8 = 3, clock_div_16 = 4, clock_div_32 = 5, clock_div_64 = 6, clock_div_128 = 7, clock_div_256 = 8 }
25.38
setbaud.h File Reference
401
Functions static __inline__ void clock_prescale_set (clock_div_t) __attribute__((__always_inline__))
25.37.1
25.38
Denes
setbaud.h File Reference
#dene BAUD_TOL 2 #dene UBRR_VALUE #dene UBRRL_VALUE #dene UBRRH_VALUE #dene USE_2X 0
25.38.1
25.39
Denes
setjmp.h File Reference
#dene __ATTR_NORETURN__ __attribute__((__noreturn__))
Functions int setjmp (jmp_buf __jmpb) void longjmp (jmp_buf __jmpb, int __ret) __ATTR_NORETURN__
25.39.1
25.40
25.40.1
signature.h File Reference

25.41
Denes
sleep.h File Reference
#dene _SLEEP_CONTROL_REG MCUCR #dene _SLEEP_ENABLE_MASK _BV(SE)
25.42
stdint.h File Reference
402
Functions void sleep_enable (void) void sleep_disable (void) void sleep_cpu (void) void sleep_mode (void) void sleep_bod_disable (void)
25.41.1
25.42
Denes
#dene __USING_MINT8 0 #dene __CONCATenate(left, right) left ## right #dene __CONCAT(left, right) __CONCATenate(left, right) Limits of specied-width integer types C++ implementations should dene these macros only when __STDC_LIMIT_MACROS is dened before <stdint.h> is included #dene INT8_MAX 0x7f #dene INT8_MIN (-INT8_MAX - 1) #dene UINT8_MAX (__CONCAT(INT8_MAX, U) 2U + 1U) #dene INT16_MAX 0x7fff #dene INT16_MIN (-INT16_MAX - 1) #dene UINT16_MAX (__CONCAT(INT16_MAX, U) 2U + 1U) #dene INT32_MAX 0x7fffffffL #dene INT32_MIN (-INT32_MAX - 1L) #dene UINT32_MAX (__CONCAT(INT32_MAX, U) 2UL + 1UL) #dene INT64_MAX 0x7fffffffffffffffLL #dene INT64_MIN (-INT64_MAX - 1LL) #dene UINT64_MAX (__CONCAT(INT64_MAX, U) 2ULL + 1ULL)
Limits of minimum-width integer types #dene INT_LEAST8_MAX INT8_MAX #dene INT_LEAST8_MIN INT8_MIN #dene UINT_LEAST8_MAX UINT8_MAX #dene INT_LEAST16_MAX INT16_MAX #dene INT_LEAST16_MIN INT16_MIN #dene UINT_LEAST16_MAX UINT16_MAX #dene INT_LEAST32_MAX INT32_MAX #dene INT_LEAST32_MIN INT32_MIN #dene UINT_LEAST32_MAX UINT32_MAX
25.42
403
#dene INT_LEAST64_MAX INT64_MAX #dene INT_LEAST64_MIN INT64_MIN #dene UINT_LEAST64_MAX UINT64_MAX Limits of fastest minimum-width integer types #dene INT_FAST8_MAX INT8_MAX #dene INT_FAST8_MIN INT8_MIN #dene UINT_FAST8_MAX UINT8_MAX #dene INT_FAST16_MAX INT16_MAX #dene INT_FAST16_MIN INT16_MIN #dene UINT_FAST16_MAX UINT16_MAX #dene INT_FAST32_MAX INT32_MAX #dene INT_FAST32_MIN INT32_MIN #dene UINT_FAST32_MAX UINT32_MAX #dene INT_FAST64_MAX INT64_MAX #dene INT_FAST64_MIN INT64_MIN #dene UINT_FAST64_MAX UINT64_MAX
Limits of integer types capable of holding object pointers #dene INTPTR_MAX INT16_MAX #dene INTPTR_MIN INT16_MIN #dene UINTPTR_MAX UINT16_MAX Limits of greatest-width integer types #dene INTMAX_MAX INT64_MAX #dene INTMAX_MIN INT64_MIN #dene UINTMAX_MAX UINT64_MAX Limits of other integer types C++ implementations should dene these macros only when __STDC_LIMIT_MACROS is dened before <stdint.h> is included #dene PTRDIFF_MAX INT16_MAX #dene PTRDIFF_MIN INT16_MIN #dene SIG_ATOMIC_MAX INT8_MAX #dene SIG_ATOMIC_MIN INT8_MIN #dene SIZE_MAX (__CONCAT(INT16_MAX, U))
Macros for integer constants C++ implementations should dene these macros only when __STDC_CONSTANT_MACROS is dened before <stdint.h> is included. These denitions are valid for integer constants without sufx and for macros dened as integer constant without sufx
25.42
404
#dene INT8_C(value) ((int8_t) value) #dene UINT8_C(value) ((uint8_t) __CONCAT(value, U)) #dene INT16_C(value) value #dene UINT16_C(value) __CONCAT(value, U) #dene INT32_C(value) __CONCAT(value, L) #dene UINT32_C(value) __CONCAT(value, UL) #dene INT64_C(value) __CONCAT(value, LL) #dene UINT64_C(value) __CONCAT(value, ULL) #dene INTMAX_C(value) __CONCAT(value, LL) #dene UINTMAX_C(value) __CONCAT(value, ULL)
Typedefs Exact-width integer types Integer types having exactly the specied width typedef signed char int8_t typedef unsigned char uint8_t typedef signed int int16_t typedef unsigned int uint16_t typedef signed long int int32_t typedef unsigned long int uint32_t typedef signed long long int int64_t typedef unsigned long long int uint64_t
Integer types capable of holding object pointers These allow you to declare variables of the same size as a pointer. typedef int16_t intptr_t typedef uint16_t uintptr_t Minimum-width integer types Integer types having at least the specied width typedef int8_t int_least8_t typedef uint8_t uint_least8_t typedef int16_t int_least16_t typedef uint16_t uint_least16_t typedef int32_t int_least32_t typedef uint32_t uint_least32_t typedef int64_t int_least64_t typedef uint64_t uint_least64_t
Fastest minimum-width integer types Integer types being usually fastest having at least the specied width typedef int8_t int_fast8_t
25.43
stdio.h File Reference
405
typedef uint8_t uint_fast8_t typedef int16_t int_fast16_t typedef uint16_t uint_fast16_t typedef int32_t int_fast32_t typedef uint32_t uint_fast32_t typedef int64_t int_fast64_t typedef uint64_t uint_fast64_t
Greatest-width integer types Types designating integer data capable of representing any value of any integer type in the corresponding signed or unsigned category typedef int64_t intmax_t typedef uint64_t uintmax_t
25.42.1
25.43
Denes
#dene __need_NULL #dene __need_size_t #dene FILE struct __le #dene stdin (__iob[0]) #dene stdout (__iob[1]) #dene stderr (__iob[2]) #dene EOF (-1) #dene fdev_set_udata(stream, u) do { (stream)->udata = u; } while(0) #dene fdev_get_udata(stream) ((stream)->udata) #dene fdev_setup_stream(stream, put, get, rwag) #dene _FDEV_SETUP_READ __SRD #dene _FDEV_SETUP_WRITE __SWR #dene _FDEV_SETUP_RW (__SRD|__SWR) #dene _FDEV_ERR (-1) #dene _FDEV_EOF (-2) #dene FDEV_SETUP_STREAM(put, get, rwag) #dene fdev_close() #dene putc(__c, __stream) fputc(__c, __stream) #dene putchar(__c) fputc(__c, stdout) #dene getc(__stream) fgetc(__stream) #dene getchar() fgetc(stdin) #dene SEEK_SET 0 #dene SEEK_CUR 1 #dene SEEK_END 2
25.43
406
Functions int fclose (FILE __stream) int vfprintf (FILE __stream, const char __fmt, va_list __ap) int vfprintf_P (FILE __stream, const char __fmt, va_list __ap) int fputc (int __c, FILE __stream) int printf (const char __fmt,...) int printf_P (const char __fmt,...) int vprintf (const char __fmt, va_list __ap) int sprintf (char __s, const char __fmt,...) int sprintf_P (char __s, const char __fmt,...) int snprintf (char __s, size_t __n, const char __fmt,...) int snprintf_P (char __s, size_t __n, const char __fmt,...) int vsprintf (char __s, const char __fmt, va_list ap) int vsprintf_P (char __s, const char __fmt, va_list ap) int vsnprintf (char __s, size_t __n, const char __fmt, va_list ap) int vsnprintf_P (char __s, size_t __n, const char __fmt, va_list ap) int fprintf (FILE __stream, const char __fmt,...) int fprintf_P (FILE __stream, const char __fmt,...) int fputs (const char __str, FILE __stream) int fputs_P (const char __str, FILE __stream) int puts (const char __str) int puts_P (const char __str) size_t fwrite (const void __ptr, size_t __size, size_t __nmemb, FILE __stream) int fgetc (FILE __stream) int ungetc (int __c, FILE __stream) char fgets (char __str, int __size, FILE __stream) char gets (char __str) size_t fread (void __ptr, size_t __size, size_t __nmemb, FILE __stream) void clearerr (FILE __stream) int feof (FILE __stream) int ferror (FILE __stream) int vfscanf (FILE __stream, const char __fmt, va_list __ap) int vfscanf_P (FILE __stream, const char __fmt, va_list __ap) int fscanf (FILE __stream, const char __fmt,...) int fscanf_P (FILE __stream, const char __fmt,...) int scanf (const char __fmt,...) int scanf_P (const char __fmt,...) int vscanf (const char __fmt, va_list __ap) int sscanf (const char __buf, const char __fmt,...) int sscanf_P (const char __buf, const char __fmt,...) int fush (FILE stream)
25.44
stdlib.h File Reference
407
25.43.1
25.44
stdlib.h File Reference
Data Structures struct div_t struct ldiv_t
Denes #dene __need_NULL #dene __need_size_t #dene __need_wchar_t #dene __ptr_t void #dene RAND_MAX 0x7FFF
Typedefs typedef int( __compar_fn_t )(const void , const void )
Functions void abort (void) __ATTR_NORETURN__ int abs (int __i) long labs (long __i) void bsearch (const void __key, const void __base, size_t __nmemb, size_t __size, int(__compar)(const void , const void )) div_t div (int __num, int __denom) __asm__("__divmodhi4") ldiv_t ldiv (long __num, long __denom) __asm__("__divmodsi4") void qsort (void __base, size_t __nmemb, size_t __size, __compar_fn_t __compar) long strtol (const char __nptr, char __endptr, int __base) unsigned long strtoul (const char __nptr, char __endptr, int __base) long atol (const char __s) __ATTR_PURE__ int atoi (const char __s) __ATTR_PURE__ void exit (int __status) __ATTR_NORETURN__ void malloc (size_t __size) __ATTR_MALLOC__ void free (void __ptr) void calloc (size_t __nele, size_t __size) __ATTR_MALLOC__ void realloc (void __ptr, size_t __size) __ATTR_MALLOC__ double strtod (const char __nptr, char __endptr)
25.45
strcasecmp.S File Reference
408
double atof (const char __nptr) int rand (void) void srand (unsigned int __seed) int rand_r (unsigned long __ctx)
Variables size_t __malloc_margin char __malloc_heap_start char __malloc_heap_end
Non-standard (i.e. non-ISO C) functions. #dene RANDOM_MAX 0x7FFFFFFF char itoa (int __val, char __s, int __radix) char ltoa (long int __val, char __s, int __radix) char utoa (unsigned int __val, char __s, int __radix) char ultoa (unsigned long int __val, char __s, int __radix) long random (void) void srandom (unsigned long __seed) long random_r (unsigned long __ctx)
Conversion functions for double arguments. Note that these functions are not located in the default library, libc.a, but in the mathematical library, libm.a. So when linking the application, the -lm option needs to be specied. #dene DTOSTR_ALWAYS_SIGN 0x01 / put + or for positives / #dene DTOSTR_PLUS_SIGN 0x02 / put + rather than / #dene DTOSTR_UPPERCASE 0x04 / put E rather e / char dtostre (double __val, char __s, unsigned char __prec, unsigned char __ags) char dtostrf (double __val, signed char __width, unsigned char __prec, char __s)
25.44.1
25.45
25.45.1
strcasecmp.S File Reference

25.46
strcasecmp_P.S File Reference
409
25.46
25.46.1
strcasecmp P.S File Reference

25.47
25.47.1
strcasestr.S File Reference

25.48
25.48.1
strcat.S File Reference

25.49
25.49.1
strcat P.S File Reference

25.50
25.50.1
strchr.S File Reference

25.51
25.51.1
strchr P.S File Reference

25.52
25.52.1
strchrnul.S File Reference

25.53
25.53.1
strchrnul P.S File Reference

25.54
25.54.1
strcmp.S File Reference

25.55
25.55.1
strcmp P.S File Reference

25.56
strcpy.S File Reference
25.57
strcpy_P.S File Reference
410
25.56.1
25.57
25.57.1
strcpy P.S File Reference

25.58
25.58.1
strcspn.S File Reference

25.59
25.59.1
strcspn P.S File Reference

25.60
strdup.c File Reference
Functions char strdup (const char s1)
25.60.1
25.61
Denes
string.h File Reference
#dene __need_NULL #dene __need_size_t #dene __ATTR_PURE__ __attribute__((__pure__)) #dene _FFS(x)
Functions int ffs (int __val) int ffsl (long __val) int ffsll (long long __val) void memccpy (void , const void , int, size_t) void memchr (const void , int, size_t) __ATTR_PURE__ int memcmp (const void , const void , size_t) __ATTR_PURE__ void memcpy (void , const void , size_t) void memmem (const void , size_t, const void , size_t) __ATTR_PURE__ void memmove (void , const void , size_t)
25.62
strlcat.S File Reference
411
void memrchr (const void , int, size_t) __ATTR_PURE__ void memset (void , int, size_t) char strcat (char , const char ) char strchr (const char , int) __ATTR_PURE__ char strchrnul (const char , int) __ATTR_PURE__ int strcmp (const char , const char ) __ATTR_PURE__ char strcpy (char , const char ) int strcasecmp (const char , const char ) __ATTR_PURE__ char strcasestr (const char , const char ) __ATTR_PURE__ size_t strcspn (const char __s, const char __reject) __ATTR_PURE__ char strdup (const char s1) size_t strlcat (char , const char , size_t) size_t strlcpy (char , const char , size_t) size_t strlen (const char ) __ATTR_PURE__ char strlwr (char ) char strncat (char , const char , size_t) int strncmp (const char , const char , size_t) __ATTR_PURE__ char strncpy (char , const char , size_t) int strncasecmp (const char , const char , size_t) __ATTR_PURE__ size_t strnlen (const char , size_t) __ATTR_PURE__ char strpbrk (const char __s, const char __accept) __ATTR_PURE__ char strrchr (const char , int) __ATTR_PURE__ char strrev (char ) char strsep (char , const char ) size_t strspn (const char __s, const char __accept) __ATTR_PURE__ char strstr (const char , const char ) __ATTR_PURE__ char strtok (char , const char ) char strtok_r (char , const char , char ) char strupr (char )
25.61.1
25.62
25.62.1
strlcat.S File Reference

25.63
25.63.1
strlcat P.S File Reference

25.64
strlcpy.S File Reference
25.65
strlcpy_P.S File Reference
412
25.64.1
25.65
25.65.1
strlcpy P.S File Reference

25.66
25.66.1
strlen.S File Reference

25.67
25.67.1
strlen P.S File Reference

25.68
25.68.1
strlwr.S File Reference

25.69
25.69.1
strncasecmp.S File Reference

25.70
25.70.1
strncasecmp P.S File Reference

25.71
25.71.1
strncat.S File Reference

25.72
25.72.1
strncat P.S File Reference

25.73
25.73.1
strncmp.S File Reference

25.74
25.74.1
strncmp P.S File Reference

25.75
strncpy.S File Reference
413
25.75
25.75.1
strncpy.S File Reference

25.76
25.76.1
strncpy P.S File Reference

25.77
25.77.1
strnlen.S File Reference

25.78
25.78.1
strnlen P.S File Reference

25.79
25.79.1
strpbrk.S File Reference

25.80
25.80.1
strpbrk P.S File Reference

25.81
25.81.1
strrchr.S File Reference

25.82
25.82.1
strrchr P.S File Reference

25.83
25.83.1
strrev.S File Reference

25.84
25.84.1
strsep.S File Reference

25.85
strsep P.S File Reference
25.86
strspn.S File Reference
414
25.85.1
25.86
25.86.1
strspn.S File Reference

25.87
25.87.1
strspn P.S File Reference

25.88
25.88.1
strstr.S File Reference

25.89
25.89.1
strstr P.S File Reference

25.90
strtok.c File Reference
Functions char strtok (char s, const char delim)
Variables static char p
25.90.1
25.91
strtok P.c File Reference
Functions char strtok_P (char s, PGM_P delim)
25.91.1
25.92
25.92.1
strtok r.S File Reference

25.93
strtok_rP.S File Reference
415
25.93
25.93.1
strtok rP.S File Reference

25.94
25.94.1
strupr.S File Reference

25.95
Denes
twi.h File Reference
TWSR values Mnemonics: TW_MT_xxx - master transmitter TW_MR_xxx - master receiver TW_ST_xxx - slave transmitter TW_SR_xxx - slave receiver #dene TW_START 0x08 #dene TW_REP_START 0x10 #dene TW_MT_SLA_ACK 0x18 #dene TW_MT_SLA_NACK 0x20 #dene TW_MT_DATA_ACK 0x28 #dene TW_MT_DATA_NACK 0x30 #dene TW_MT_ARB_LOST 0x38 #dene TW_MR_ARB_LOST 0x38 #dene TW_MR_SLA_ACK 0x40 #dene TW_MR_SLA_NACK 0x48 #dene TW_MR_DATA_ACK 0x50 #dene TW_MR_DATA_NACK 0x58 #dene TW_ST_SLA_ACK 0xA8 #dene TW_ST_ARB_LOST_SLA_ACK 0xB0 #dene TW_ST_DATA_ACK 0xB8 #dene TW_ST_DATA_NACK 0xC0 #dene TW_ST_LAST_DATA 0xC8 #dene TW_SR_SLA_ACK 0x60 #dene TW_SR_ARB_LOST_SLA_ACK 0x68 #dene TW_SR_GCALL_ACK 0x70 #dene TW_SR_ARB_LOST_GCALL_ACK 0x78 #dene TW_SR_DATA_ACK 0x80 #dene TW_SR_DATA_NACK 0x88 #dene TW_SR_GCALL_DATA_ACK 0x90 #dene TW_SR_GCALL_DATA_NACK 0x98 #dene TW_SR_STOP 0xA0 #dene TW_NO_INFO 0xF8
25.96
wdt.h File Reference
416
#dene TW_BUS_ERROR 0x00 #dene TW_STATUS_MASK #dene TW_STATUS (TWSR & TW_STATUS_MASK) R/W bit in SLA+R/W address eld. #dene TW_READ 1 #dene TW_WRITE 0
25.95.1
25.96
Denes
wdt.h File Reference
#dene wdt_reset() __asm__ __volatile__ ("wdr") #dene _WD_PS3_MASK 0x00 #dene _WD_CONTROL_REG WDTCR #dene _WD_CHANGE_BIT WDCE #dene wdt_enable(value) #dene wdt_disable() #dene WDTO_15MS 0 #dene WDTO_30MS 1 #dene WDTO_60MS 2 #dene WDTO_120MS 3 #dene WDTO_250MS 4 #dene WDTO_500MS 5 #dene WDTO_1S 6 #dene WDTO_2S 7 #dene WDTO_4S 8 #dene WDTO_8S 9
25.96.1

Avr Libc User Manual 1.8.0

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What is avr-libc?

What is avr-libc?

What are the main components of the AVR toolchain?

What are the main components of the AVR toolchain?

avr-libc

Generated by Doxygen 1.7.6.1

Memory Sections 4.1 4.2 4.3 The .text Section

The .data Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 The .bss Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

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4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5

The .eeprom Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 The .noinit Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Data in Program Space 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5

avr-libc and assembler programs 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4

How to Build a Library 8.1 8.2

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 How the Linker Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

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8.3 8.4 8.5 9

How to Design a Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Creating a Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Using a Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 53

Benchmarks 9.1 9.2

A few of libc functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Math functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 55

10 Porting From IAR to AVR GCC

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 10.2 Registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

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11.14What registers are used by the C compiler?

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17 Acknowledgments 18 Todo List 19 Deprecated List 20 Module Index

131 132 132 133

20.1 Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 21 Data Structure Index 135

21.1 Data Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 22 File Index 135

22.1 File List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 23 Module Documentation 140

23.6.2 Dene Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

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23.11 <string.h>: Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 23.11.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

23.14.2 Dene Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

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23.27.2 Dene Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 23.28 <util/crc16.h>: CRC Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

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23.28.1 Detailed Description

23.37Combining C and assembly source les

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23.38.3 Compiling and Linking

24.1 div_t Struct Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 24.1.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371

24.2.2 Field Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 25 File Documentation 372

25.1 assert.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 25.1.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372

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25.2 atoi.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 25.2.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372

25.3 atol.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 25.3.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372

25.4 atomic.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 25.4.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372

25.5 boot.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 25.5.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374

25.7.1 Detailed Description 25.8 ctype.h File Reference

25.8.1 Detailed Description

25.9 delay.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 25.9.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380

25.10delay_basic.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 25.10.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380

25.11errno.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 25.11.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380

25.12fdevopen.c File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 25.12.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381

25.13ffs.S File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 25.13.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381

25.15.1 Detailed Description

25.16fuse.h File Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 25.16.1 Detailed Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381

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