UNIT-1 (BASIC OF MECHANISMS)

Mechanisms A mechanism is a combination of rigid or restraining bodies so shaped and connected that they move upon each other with a definite relative motion. A simple example of this is the slider crank mechanism used in an internal combustion or reciprocating air compressor. Machine A machine is a mechanism or a collection of mechanisms which transmits force from the source of power to the resistance to be overcome,and thus perform a mechanical work. Plane and Spatial Mechanisms If all the points of a mechanism move in parallel planes, then it is defined as a plane mechanism. If all the points do not move in parallel planes then it is called spatial mechanism. Kinematic Pairs A mechanism has been defined as a combination so connected that each moves with respect to each other. A clue to the behaviors lies in the nature of connections, known as kinetic pairs. The degree of freedom of a kinetic pair is given by the number independent coordinates required to completely specify the relative movement. Lower Pairs A pair is said to be a lower pair when the connection between two elements is through the area of contact.Its 6 types are : Revolute Pair Screw Pair Spherical Pair Prismatic Pair Cylindrical Pair Planar Pair Higher Pairs A higher pair is defined as one in which the connection between two elements has only a point or line of contact. A cylinder and a hole of equal radius and with axis parallel make contact along a surface. Two cylinders with unequal radius and with axis parallel make contact along a line. A point contact takes place when spheres rest on plane or curved surfaces (ball bearings) or between teeth of a skew-helical gears. in roller bearings, between teeth of most of the gears and in cam-follower motion. The degree of freedom of a kinetic pair is given by the number independent coordinates required to completely specify the relative movement. Wrapping Pairs Wrapping Pairs comprise belts, chains, and other such devices.

To define a mechanism we define the basic elements as follows : Link A material body which is common to two or more kinematic pairs is called a link. Kinematic Chain A kinematic chain is a series of links connected by kinematic pairs. The chain is said to be closed chain if every u link is connected to atleast two other links, otherwise it is called an open chain. A link which is connected to only one other link is known as singular link.If it is connected to two other links, it is called binary link. If it is connected to three other links, it is called ternary link, and so on. A chain which consists of only binary links is called simple chain. A type of kinematic chain is one with constrained motion, which means that a definite motion of any link produces unique motion of all other links. Thus motion of any point on one link defines the relative position of any point on any other link.So it has one degree of freedom. Kinematic inversions The process of fixing different links of a kinematic chain one at a time to produce distinct mechanisms is called kinematic inversion. Here the relative motions of the links of the mechanisms remain unchanged.
INVERSION OF 4-BAR KINEMATIC CHAIN

First, let us consider the simplest kinematic chain,i.e., achain consisting of four binary links and four revolute pairs. The four different mechanisms can be obtained by four different inversions of the chain.

First inversion: (double crank mechanism) In which shortest link is fixed, adjacent links having rotary motion. Application: Shaping mechanism Second inversion: (double rocker/lever mechanism) Link opposite to shortest link is fixed, both the links adjacent to fixed link having oscillating motions only Applications: Acckerman steering mechanism, pantograph. Third and fourth inversion :( Crank and rocker/lever mechanism) Link adjacent to shortest link is fixed, having one rotary motion and one oscillating motion.

Applications: rotary beam engine

Slider Crank mechanism It has four binary links, three revolute pairs, one prismatic pair. By fixing links 1, 2, 3 in turn we get various inversions. A four-bar linkage with output cranks and ground member of infinite length. A slider crank (see illustration) is most widely used to convert reciprocating to rotary motion (as in an engine) or to convert rotary to reciprocating motion (as in pumps), but it has numerous other applications. Positions at which slider motion reverses are called dead centers. When crank and connecting rod are extended in a straight line and the slider is at its maximum distance from the axis of the crankshaft, the position is top dead center (TDC); when the slider is at its minimum distance from the axis of the crankshaft, the position is bottom dead center (BDC).

Principal parts of slider-crank mechanism. The conventional internal combustion engine employs a piston arrangement in which the piston becomes the slider of the slider-crank mechanism. Radial engines for aircraft employ a single master connecting rod to reduce the length of the crankshaft. The master rod, which is connected to the wrist pin in a piston, is part of a conventional slider-crank mechanism. The other pistons are joined by their connecting rods to pins on the master connecting rod. To convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion, the slider crank is part of a wide range of machines, typically pumps and compressors. Another use of the slider crank is in toggle mechanisms, also called knuckle joints. The driving force is applied at the crankpin so that, at TDC, a much larger force is developed at the slider. See also Four-bar linkage.

Double Slider Crank mechanism It has four binary links, two revolute pairs, two sliding pairs.Its various types are : Kinematics and Dynamics : Double Slider Crank mechanism Scotch Yoke mechanism: Here the constant rotation of the crank produces harmonic translation of the yoke.Its four binary links are : Fixed Link Sliding Block Crank Yoke The four kinematic pairs are : revolute pair (between 1 & 2) prismatic pair (between 3 & 4) revolute pair (between 2 & 3) prismatic pair (between 4 & 1) Oldhams Coupling: It is used for transmitting angular velocity between two parallel but eccentric shafts Elliptical Trammel: Here link 4 is fixed. Any point on the link 2 describes an ellipse as it moves.The mid-point of the link 2 will obiviously describe a circle.

Very often a mechanism with higher pair can be replaced by an equivalent mechanism with lower pair.This equivalence is valid for studying only the instantaneous characteristics.The equivalent lower-pairmechanism facilitates analysis as a certain amount of sliding takes place between connecting links in a higher-pair mechanism. Another example of an equivalent lower-pair mechanism for a cam-follower system is shown.The sliding block is the additional link and thebhigher pair is replaced by two lower pairs, one revoluteand other prismatic. C is the center of curvature of the cam surface at the point of contact between the cam and the follower. DEGREE OF FREEDOM:

Let n be the no. of links in a mechanism out of which, one is fixed, and let j be the no. of simple hinges(ie, those connect two links.) Now, as the (n-1) links move in a plane, in the absence of any connections, each has 3 degree of freedom; 2 coordinates are required to specify the location of any reference point on the link and 1 to specify the orientation of the link. Once we connect the links there cannot be any relative translation between them and only one coordinate is necessary to specify their relative orientation. Thus, 2 degrees of freedom (translation) are lost, and only one degree of freedom (rotational) is left. So, no. of degrees of freedom is: F=3(n-1)-2j Most mechanisms are constrained, ie F=1. Therefore the above relation becomes, 2j-3n+4=0 this is called Grubler's Criterion. Failure of Grubler's criterion A higher pair has 2 degrees of freedom .Following the same argument as before, The degrees of freedom of a mechanism having higher pairs can be written as, F=3(n-1)-2j-h Often some mechanisms have a redundant degree of freedom. If a link can move without causing any movement in the rest of the mechanism, then the link is said to have a redundant degree of freedom.

Unit III (KINEMATICS OF CAM)

Cam and Follower Systems

A cam is a component on which a particular profile has been machined. The profile of the cam imparts (causes) a follower to move in a particular way. This can be seen if we examine the diagram below. As the shaft is rotated the cam rotates with it causing the follower to move up and down. Cams fall into two main categories: 1. edge, plate or face cams and 2. cylindrical cams.

Category No.1

The plate cam is merely a flat disc that has had a certain shape (or profile) machined on to it. The follower is placed in contact with this profile and as the cam is rotated the profile of it translates into a particular movement of the follower usually up and down. This can be seen in the diagram above. The face cam is a disc the has a groove machined into its face and a roller follower is used to follow the groove as the cam rotates. Category No.2 The cylinder or drum cam is a cylinder which has had a profile machined onto it and as the cam rotates the profile imparts a particular motion on its follower.

Types of follower: There are three main types of follower: 1. the knife edge follower (seen in the cam and follower system table below) 2. the roller follower (seen in the cam and follower system table below) 3. the flat follower (seen in the cam and follower system table below) The table below shows three different system each containing a different type of follower.

Knife edge follower

Roller follower

Flat follower

Cam and Follower Systems

As a cam rotates it imparts a particular motion on the follower in contact with it. From the image shown below we can see that as the cam shaft rotates the follower will be forced to move up and down. That is of course provided that there is an external downward force on the follower that makes it keep contact with the cam.

The next consideration is the type of the upward and downward motion of the cam and follower system. The are three different types of motion that could have been imparted on the follower. These are: 1. Uniform Velocity 2. Simple Harmonic Motion 3. Acceleration/Retardation

Uniform Velocity: Velocity is the rate of change of displacement with respect to time. This change may be a change of speed or a changein direction. From the definition uniform velocity therefore means that the change in displacement is a steady change. Or to put it differently it means that the change in displacement in the first second of the uniform velocity motion is the same as the change in displacement in any other second in that motion.

Simple Harmonic Motion: The motion of a follower is simple harmonic motion if its acceleration towards a particular point if its acceleration towards a particular point is proportional to its displacement from that point. The best way to understand this non-uniform motion is to imagine a pendulum swinging. If you examine the pendulum as it swings you can see that as it swings towards A it slows down until it finally stops at A. Then it starts to swing back in the other direction. As it does so it starts to gain speed until it reaches it max speed at O. Once the pendulum passes O it starts to slow down on its approach to B. At B the pendulum stops and begins to swing back. Again it speed up as it approaches O, reaches its maximum speed at O, then slows down on its approach to A, stops at A and then swings back in the other direction. This cycle then keeps repeating itself. If you watch the swinging pendulum shown later in the site you should be able to notice the non-unifromity of its motion.

Displacement Diagram for Simple Harmonic Motion.

Acceleration/Retardation: Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time. This motion is used where the follower is required to rise or fall with uniform acceleration, that is it's velocity is changing at a constant rate.

Summary: In cam and follower systems, the motion of the follower is usually perpendicular to the axis around which the cam is rotating. Three types of motion that the follower cam experience are; 1. Uniform velocity; 2. Simple harmonic motion; 3. Uniform accelaration and retardation.

Unit IV (GEARS)

GEAR CLASSIFICATION
Gears may be classified according to the relative position of the axes of revolution. The axes may be 1. parallel, 2. intersecting, 3. neither parallel nor intersecting. Here is a brief list of the common forms. We will discuss each in more detail later.

Gears for connecting parallel shafts

Gears for connecting intersecting shafts Neither parallel nor intersecting shafts

Gears for connecting parallel shafts 1. Spur gears

The left pair of gears makes external contact, and the right pair of gears makes internal contact 2. Parallel helical gears

3. Herringbone gears (or double-helical gears)

4. Rack and pinion (The rack is like a gear whose axis is at infinity.)

Gears for connecting intersecting shafts 1. Straight bevel gears

2. Spiral bevel gears Neither parallel nor intersecting shafts 1. Crossed-helical gears

2. Hypoid gears 3. Worm and wormgear

7.2 GEAR-TOOTH ACTION

7.2.1 Fundamental Law of Gear-Tooth Action

Figure 7-2 shows two mating gear teeth, in which

Tooth profile 1 drives tooth profile 2 by acting at the instantaneous contact point K. N1N2 is the common normal of the two profiles. N1 is the foot of the perpendicular from O1 to N1N2 N2 is the foot of the perpendicular from O2 to N1N2.

Figure 7-2 Two gearing tooth profiles

Although the two profiles have different velocities V1 and V2 at point K, their velocities along N1N2 are equal in both magnitude and direction. Otherwise the two tooth profiles would separate from each other. Therefore, we have

(7-1) or

(7-2) We notice that the intersection of the tangency N1N2 and the line of center O1O2 is point P, and

(7-3) Thus, the relationship between the angular velocities of the driving gear to the driven gear, or velocity ratio, of a pair of mating teeth is

(7-4) Point P is very important to the velocity ratio, and it is called the pitch point. Pitch point divides the line between the line of centers and its position decides the velocity ratio of the two teeth. The above expression is the fundamental law of gear-tooth action.

7.2.2 Constant Velocity Ratio

For a constant velocity ratio, the position of P should remain unchanged. In this case, the motion transmission between two gears is equivalent to the motion transmission between two imagined slipless cylinders with radius R1 and R2 or diameter D1 and D2. We can get two circles whose centers are at O1 and O2, and through pitch point P. These two circle are termed pitch circles. The velocity ratio is equal to the inverse ratio of the diameters of pitch circles. This is the fundamental law of gear-tooth action. The fundamental law of gear-tooth action may now also be stated as follow (for gears with fixed center distance) (Ham 58):

The common normal to the tooth profiles at the point of contact must always pass through a fixed point (the pitch point) on the line of centers (to get a constant velocity ration).

7.2.3 Conjugate Profiles

To obtain the expected velocity ratio of two tooth profiles, the normal line of their profiles must pass through the corresponding pitch point, which is decided by the velocity ratio. The two profiles which satisfy this requirement are called conjugate profiles. Sometimes, we simply termed the tooth profiles which satisfy the fundamental law of gear-tooth action the conjugate profiles. Although many tooth shapes are possible for which a mating tooth could be designed to satisfy the fundamental law, only two are in general use: the cycloidal and involute profiles. The involute has important advantages -- it is easy to manufacture and the center distance between a pair of involute gears can be varied without changing the velocity ratio. Thus close tolerances between shaft locations are not required when using the involute profile. The most commonly used conjugate tooth curve is the involute curve (Erdman & Sandor 84).

7.3 INVOLUTE CURVE

The following examples are involute spur gears. We use the word involute because the contour of gear teeth curves inward. Gears have many terminologies, parameters and principles. One of the important concepts is the velocity ratio, which is the ratio of the rotary velocity of the driver gear to that of the driven gears.

The SimDesign file for these gears is simdesign/gear15.30.sim. The number of teeth in these gears are 15 and 30, respectively. If the 15-tooth gear is the driving gear and the 30-teeth gear is the driven gear, their velocity ratio is 2. Other examples of gears are in simdesign/gear10.30.sim and
simdesign/gear20.30.sim

7.3.1 Generation of the Involute Curve

Figure 7-3 Involute curve

The curve most commonly used for gear-tooth profiles is the involute of a circle. This involute curve is the path traced by a point on a line as the line rolls without slipping on the circumference of a circle. It may also be defined as a path traced by the end of a string which is originally wrapped on a circle when the string is unwrapped from the circle. The circle from which the involute is derived is called the base circle. In Figure 7-3, let line MN roll in the counterclockwise direction on the circumference of a circle without slipping. When the line has reached the position M'N', its original point of tangent A has reached the position K, having traced the involute curve AK during the motion. As the motion continues, the point A will trace the involute curve AKC.

7.3.2 Properties of Involute Curves

1. The distance BK is equal to the arc AB, because link MN rolls without slipping on the circle. 2. For any instant, the instantaneous center of the motion of the line is its point of tangent with the circle. Note: We have not defined the term instantaneous center previously. The instantaneous center or instant center is defined in two ways (Bradford & Guillet 43): 1. When two bodies have planar relative motion, the instant center is a point on one body about which the other rotates at the instant considered. 2. When two bodies have planar relative motion, the instant center is the point at which the bodies are relatively at rest at the instant considered. 3. The normal at any point of an involute is tangent to the base circle. Because of the property (2) of the involute curve, the motion of the point that is tracing the involute is perpendicular to the line at any instant, and hence the curve traced will also be perpendicular to the line at any instant. 4. There is no involute curve within the base circle.

7.4 TERMINOLOGY FOR SPUR GEARS

Figure 7-4 shows some of the terms for gears.

Figure 7-4 Spur Gear

In the following section, we define many of the terms used in the analysis of spur gears. Some of the terminology has been defined previously but we include them here for completeness. (See (Ham 58) for more details.)

Pitch surface : The surface of the imaginary rolling cylinder (cone, etc.) that the toothed gear may be considered to replace. Pitch circle: A right section of the pitch surface. Addendum circle: A circle bounding the ends of the teeth, in a right section of the gear. Root (or dedendum) circle: The circle bounding the spaces between the teeth, in a right section of the gear. Addendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the addendum circle. Dedendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the root circle. Clearance: The difference between the dedendum of one gear and the addendum of the mating gear. Face of a tooth: That part of the tooth surface lying outside the pitch surface. Flank of a tooth: The part of the tooth surface lying inside the pitch surface. Circular thickness (also called the tooth thickness) : The thickness of the tooth measured on the pitch circle. It is the length of an arc and not the length of a straight line. Tooth space: The distance between adjacent teeth measured on the pitch circle. Backlash: The difference between the circle thickness of one gear and the tooth space of the mating gear. Circular pitch p: The width of a tooth and a space, measured on the pitch circle. Diametral pitch P: The number of teeth of a gear per inch of its pitch diameter. A toothed gear must have an integral number of teeth. The circular pitch, therefore, equals the pitch circumference divided by the number of teeth. The diametral pitch is, by definition, the number of teeth divided by the pitch diameter. That is,

(7-5) and

(7-6) Hence

(7-7) where p = circular pitch P = diametral pitch N = number of teeth D = pitch diameter That is, the product of the diametral pitch and the circular pitch equals .

Module m: Pitch diameter divided by number of teeth. The pitch diameter is usually specified in inches or millimeters; in the former case the module is the inverse of diametral pitch. Fillet : The small radius that connects the profile of a tooth to the root circle. Pinion: The smaller of any pair of mating gears. The larger of the pair is called simply the gear. Velocity ratio: The ratio of the number of revolutions of the driving (or input) gear to the number of revolutions of the driven (or output) gear, in a unit of time. Pitch point: The point of tangency of the pitch circles of a pair of mating gears. Common tangent: The line tangent to the pitch circle at the pitch point. Line of action: A line normal to a pair of mating tooth profiles at their point of contact. Path of contact: The path traced by the contact point of a pair of tooth profiles. Pressure angle : The angle between the common normal at the point of tooth contact and the common tangent to the pitch circles. It is also the angle between the line of action and the common tangent. Base circle :An imaginary circle used in involute gearing to generate the involutes that form the tooth profiles.

Table 7-1 lists the standard tooth system for spur gears. (Shigley & Uicker 80)

Table 7-1 Standard tooth systems for spur gears

Table 7-2 lists the commonly used diametral pitches. Coarse pitch Fine pitch 2 20 2.25 24 2.5 32 3 40 4 48 6 64 8 96 10 120 12 150 16 200

Table 7-2 Commonly used diametral pitches

Instead of using the theoretical pitch circle as an index of tooth size, the base circle, which is a more fundamental circle, can be used. The result is called the base pitch pb, and it is related to the circular pitch p by the equation

(7-8)

7.5 CONDITION FOR CORRECT MESHING

Figure 7-5 shows two meshing gears contacting at point K1 and K2.

Figure 7-5 Two meshing gears

To get a correct meshing, the distance of K1K2 on gear 1 should be the same as the distance of K1K2 on gear 2. As K1K2 on both gears are equal to the base pitch of their gears, respectively. Hence (7-9) Since

(7-10) and

(7-11) Thus

(7-12) To satisfy the above equation, the pair of meshing gears must satisfy the following condition:

(7-13)

7.6 ORDINARY GEAR TRAINS

Gear trains consist of two or more gears for the purpose of transmitting motion from one axis to another. Ordinary gear trains have axes, relative to the frame, for all gears comprising the train. Figure 7-6a shows a simple ordinary train in which there is only one gear for each axis. In Figure 7-6b a compound ordinary train is seen to be one in which two or more gears may rotate about a single axis.

Figure 7-6 Ordinary gear trains 7.6.1 Velocity Ratio

We know that the velocity ratio of a pair of gears is the inverse proportion of the diameters of their pitch circle, and the diameter of the pitch circle equals to the number of teeth divided by the diametral pitch. Also, we know that it is necessary for the to mating gears to have the same diametral pitch so that to satisfy the condition of correct meshing. Thus, we infer that the velocity ratio of a pair of gears is the inverse ratio of their number of teeth. For the ordinary gear trains in Figure 7-6a, we have

(7-14) These equations can be combined to give the velocity ratio of the first gear in the train to the last gear:

(7-15) Note:

The tooth number in the numerator are those of the driven gears, and the tooth numbers in the denominator belong to the driver gears. Gear 2 and 3 both drive and are, in turn, driven. Thus, they are called idler gears. Since their tooth numbers cancel, idler gears do not affect the magnitude of the input-output ratio, but they do change the directions of rotation. Note the directional arrows in the figure. Idler gears can also constitute a saving of space and money (If gear 1 and 4 meshes directly across a long center distance, their pitch circle will be much larger.) There are two ways to determine the direction of the rotary direction. The first way is to label arrows for each gear as in Figure 7-6. The second way is to multiple mth power of "-1" to the general velocity ratio. Where m is the number of pairs of external contact gears (internal contact gear pairs do not change the rotary direction). However, the second method cannot be applied to the spatial gear trains.

Thus, it is not difficult to get the velocity ratio of the gear train in Figure 7-6b:

(7-16)

7.7 PLANETARY GEAR TRAINS

Planetary gear trains, also referred to as epicyclic gear trains, are those in which one or more gears orbit about the central axis of the train. Thus, they differ from an ordinary train by having a moving axis or axes. Figure 7-8 shows a basic arrangement that is functional by itself or when used as a part of a more complex system. Gear 1 is called a sun gear , gear 2 is a planet, link H is an arm, or planet carrier.

Figure 7-8 Planetary gear trains

Figure 7-7 Planetary gears modeled using SimDesign

The SimDesign file is simdesign/gear.planet.sim. Since the sun gear (the largest gear) is fixed, the DOF of the above mechanism is one. When you pull the arm or the planet, the mechanism has a definite motion. If the sun gear isn't frozen, the relative motion is difficult to control.

7.7.1 Velocity Ratio

To determine the velocity ratio of the planetary gear trains is slightly more complex an analysis than that required for ordinary gear trains. We will follow the procedure: 1. Invert the planetary gear train mechanism by imagining the application a rotary motion with an angular velocity of H to the mechanism. Let's analyse the motion before and after the inversion with Table 7-3:

Table 7-3 Inversion of planetary gear trains.

Note:
H

is the rotary velocity of gear i in the imagined mechanism.

Notice that in the imagined mechanism, the arm H is stationary and functions as a frame. No axis of gear moves any more. Hence, the imagined mechanism is an ordinary gear train. 2. Apply the equation of velocity ratio of the ordinary gear trains to the imagined mechanism. We get

(7-17) or

(7-18)

7.7.2 Example
Take the planetary gearing train in Figure 7-8 as an example. Suppose N1 = 36, N2 = 18, 1 = 0, 2 = 30. What is the value of N? With the application of the velocity ratio equation for the planetary gearing trains, we have the following equation:

(7-19) From the equation and the given conditions, we can get the answer:
N

= 10.