Design Charts For Finite-Length Journal Bearings

8
Design Charts for Finite-Length

Journal Bearings
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In the preceding chapters, the analysis of infinitely long and short journal
bearings have been presented. In comparison, the solution of a finite-length
journal bearing (e.g., L=D ¼ 1) is more complex and requires a computer
program for a numerical solution of the Reynolds equation. The first numerical
solution of the Reynolds equation for a finite-length bearing was performed by
Raimondi and Boyd (1958). The results were presented in the form of dimen-
sionless charts and tables, which are required for journal bearing design. The
presentation of the results in the form of dimensionless charts and tables is
convenient for design purposes because one does not need to repeat the numerical
solution for each bearing design. The charts and tables present various dimen-
sionless performance parameters, such as minimum film thickness, friction, and
temperature rise of the lubricant as a function of the Sommerfeld number, S. Let
us recall that the dimensionless Sommerfeld number is defined as
2
R mn
S¼ ð8-1Þ
C P
Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

where n is the speed of the journal in revolutions per second (RPS), R is the
journal radius, C is the radial clearance, and P is the average bearing pressure
(load, F, per unit of projected contact area of journal and bearing), given by
F F
P¼ ¼ ð8-2Þ
2RL DL
Note that S is a dimensionless number, and any system of units can be applied for
its calculation as long as one is consistent with the units. For instance, if the
Imperial unit system is applied, length should be in inches, force in lbf, and m in
reynolds [lbf-s=in.2 ]. In SI units, length is in meters, force in newtons, and the
viscosity, m, in [N-s=m2 ]. The journal speed, n, should always be in revolutions
per second (RPS), irrespective of the system of units used, and the viscosity, m,
must always include seconds as the unit of time.
8.2 DESIGN PROCEDURE

The design procedure starts with the selection of the bearing dimensions: the
journal diameter D, the bearing length L, and the radial clearance between the
bearing and the journal C. At this stage of the design, the shaft diameter should
already have been computed according to strength-of-materials considerations.
However, in certain cases the designer may decide, after preliminary calculations,
to increase the journal diameter in order to improve the bearing hydrodynamic
load capacity.
One important design decision is the selection of the L=D ratio. It is
obvious from hydrodynamic theory of lubrication that a long bearing has a higher
load capacity (per unit of length) in comparison to a shorter bearing. On the other
hand, a long bearing increases the risk of bearing failure due to misalignment
errors. In addition, a long bearing reduces the amount of oil circulating in the
bearing, resulting in a higher peak temperature inside the lubrication film and the
bearing surface. Therefore, short bearings (L=D ratios between 0.5 and 0.7) are
recommended in many cases. Of course, there are many unique circumstances
where different ratios are selected.
The bearing clearance, C, is also an important design factor, because the
load capacity in a long bearing is proportional to ðR=CÞ2 . Experience over the
years has resulted in an empirical rule used by most designers. They commonly
select a ratio R=C of about 1000. The ratio R=C is equal to the ratio D=DD
between the diameter and the diameter clearance; i.e., a journal of 50-mm
diameter should have a 50-mm (fifty-thousandth of a millimeter)-diameter
clearance. The designer should keep in mind that there are manufacturing
tolerances of bearing bore and journal diameters, resulting in significant toler-
ances in the journal bearing clearance, DD. The clearance can be somewhat
smaller or larger, and thus the bearing should be designed for the worst possible

scenario. In general, high-precision manufacturing is required for journal bear-
ings, to minimize the clearance tolerances as well as to achieve good surface
finish and optimal alignment.
For bearings subjected to high dynamic impacts, or very high speeds,
somewhat larger bearing clearances are chosen. The following is an empirical
equation that is recommended for high-speed journal bearings having an L=D
ratio of about 0.6:
C n
¼ ð0:0009 þ Þ ð8-3Þ
D 83;000
where n is the journal speed (RPS). This equation is widely used to determine the
radial clearance in motor vehicle engines.
8.3 MINIMUM FILM THICKNESS

One of the most critical design decisions concerns the minimum film thickness,
hn . Of course, the minimum fluid film thickness must be much higher than the
surface roughness, particularly in the presence of vibrations. Even for statically
loaded bearings, there are always unexpected disturbances and dynamic loads,
due to vibrations in the machine, and a higher value of the minimum film
thickness, hn , is required to prevent bearing wear. In critical applications, where
the replacement of bearings is not easy, such as bearings located inside an engine,
more care is required to ensure that the minimum film thickness will never be
reduced below a critical value at which wear can initiate.
Another consideration is the fluid film temperature, which can increase
under unexpected conditions, such as disturbances in the operation of the
machine. The temperature rise reduces the lubricant viscosity; in turn, the oil
film thickness is reduced. For this reason, designers are very careful to select hn
much larger than the surface roughness. The common design practice for
hydrodynamic bearings is to select a minimum film thickness in the range of
10–100 times the average surface finish (in RMS). For instance, if the journal and
the bearing are both machined by fine turning, having a surface finish specified by
an RMS value of 0.5 mm (0.5 thousandths of a millimeter), the minimum film
thickness can be within the limits of 5–50 mm. High hn values are chosen in the
presence of high dynamic disturbances, whereas low values of hn are chosen for
steady operation that involves minimal vibrations and disturbances.
Moreover, if it is expected that dust particles would contaminate the
lubricant, a higher minimum film thickness, hn , should be selected. Also, for
critical applications, where there are safety considerations, or where bearing
failure can result in expensive machine downtime, a coefficient of safety is
applied in the form of higher values of hn .

The surface finish of the two surfaces (bearing and journal) must be
considered. A dimensionless film parameter, L, relating hn to the average surface
finish, has been introduced; see Hamrock (1994):
hn
L¼ ð8-4Þ
ðR2s; j þ R2s;b Þ1=2
where Rs; j ¼ surface finish of the journal surface (RMS) and Rs;b ¼ surface finish
of the bearing surface (RMS).
As discussed earlier, the range of values assigned to L depends on the
operating conditions and varies from 5 to 100. The minimum film thickness is not
the only limitation encountered in the design of a journal bearing. Other
limitations, which depend on the bearing material, determine in many cases the
maximum allowable bearing load. The most important limitations are as follows.
1. Maximum allowed PV value (depending on the bearing material) to
avoid bearing overheating during the start-up of boundary lubrication.
This is particularly important in bearing materials that are not good
heat conductors, such as plastics materials.
2. Maximum allowed peak pressure to prevent local failure of the bearing
material.
3. Maximum allowed peak temperature, to prevent melting or softening
of the bearing material.
In most applications, the inner bearing surface is made of a thin layer of a soft
white metal (babbitt), which has a low melting temperature. The design procedure
must ensure that the allowed values are not exceeded, for otherwise it can result in
bearing failure. If the preliminary calculations indicate that these limitations are
exceeded, it is necessary to introduce design modifications. In most cases, the
design of hydrodynamic bearing requires trial-and-error calculations to verify that
all the requirements are satisfied.
8.4 RAIMONDI AND BOYD CHARTS AND

TABLES
8.4.1 Partial Bearings
A partial journal bearing has a bearing arc, b, of less than 360 , and only part of
the bearing circumference supports the journal. A full bearing is where the
bearing arc b ¼ 360 ; in a partial bearing, the bearing arc is less than 360 , such
as b ¼ 60 ; 120 , and 180 . A partial bearing has two important advantages in
comparison to a full bearing. First, there is a reduction of the viscous friction
coefficient; second, in a partial bearing there is a faster circulation of the
lubricant, resulting in better heat transfer from the bearing. The two advantages

result in a lower bearing temperature as well as lower energy losses from viscous
friction. In high-speed journal bearings, the friction coefficient can be relatively
high, and partial bearings are often used to mitigate this problem. At the same
time, the load capacity of a partial bearing is only slightly below that of a full
bearing, which make the merits of using a partial bearing quite obvious.
8.4.2 Dimensionless Performance Parameters

Using numerical analysis, Raimondi and Boyd solved the Reynolds equation.
They presented the results in dimensionless terms via graphs and tables.
Dimensionless performance parameters of a finite-length bearing were presented
as a function of the Sommerfeld number, S. The Raimondi and Boyd performance
parameters are presented here by charts for journal bearings with the ratio
L=D ¼ 1; see Figs. 8-1 to 8-10. For bearings having different L=D ratios, the
performance parameters are given in tables; see Tables 8-1 to 8-4.
The charts and tables of Raimondi and Boyd have been presented for both
partial and full journal bearings, and for various L=D ratios. Partial journal
bearings include multi-lobe bearings that are formed by several eccentric arcs.
The following ten dimensionless performance parameters are presented in
charts and tables.
1. Minimum film thickness ratio, hn =C. Graphs of minimum film
thickness ratio versus Sommerfeld number, S, are presented in Fig.
8-1.
2. Attitude angle, f, i.e., the angle at which minimum film thickness is
attained. The angle is measured from the line along the load direction
as shown in Fig. 8-2.
3. Friction coefficient variable, ðR=CÞf . Curves of the dimensionless
friction coefficient variable versus S are presented in Fig. 8-3.
4. In Fig. 8-4, curves are plotted of the dimensionless total bearing flow
rate variable, Q=nRCL, against the Sommerfeld number.
5. The ratio of the side flow rate (in the z direction) to the total flow rate,
Qs =Q, as a function of the Sommerfeld number is shown in Fig. 8-5.
The side flow rate, Qs , is required for determining the end leakage,
since the bearing is no longer assumed to be infinite. The side flow
rate is important for cooling of the bearing.
6. The dimensionless temperature rise variable, crDT =P, is presented in
Fig. 8-6. It is required for determining the temperature rise of the
lubricant due to friction. The temperature rise, DT , is of the lubricant
from the point of entry into the bearing to the point of discharge from
the bearing. The estimation of the temperature rise is discussed in
greater detail later.

F IG. 8-1 Minimum film thickness ratio versus Sommerfeld number for variable bearing arc b; L=D ¼ 1. (From Raimondi and Boyd, 1958,
with permission of STLE.)

F IG. 8-2 Attitude angle versus Sommerfeld number for variable bearing arc b; L=D ¼ 1. (From Raimondi and Boyd, 1958, with
permission of STLE.)

F IG. 8-3 Friction coefficient versus Sommerfeld number for variable bearing arc b; L=D ¼ 1. (From
Raimondi and Boyd, 1958, with permission of STLE.)

FIG. 8-4 Total bearing flow rate variable versus Sommerfeld number, ðL=D ¼ 1Þ. (From Raimondi and Boyd, 1958, with permission of
STLE.)

F IG. 8-5 Ratio of side flow (axial direction) to total flow versus Sommerfeld number ðL=D ¼ 1Þ. (From Raimondi and Boyd, 1958, with

F IG. 8-6 Temperature rise variable versus Sommerfeld number ðL=D ¼ 1Þ. (From Raimondi and
Boyd, 1958, with permission of STLE.)

FIG. 8-7 Average to maximum pressure ratio versus Sommerfeld number ðL=D ¼ 1Þ. (From Raimondi and Boyd, 1958, with

FIG. 8-8 Position of maximum pressure versus Sommerfeld number ðL=D ¼ 1Þ. (From Raimondi and Boyd, 1958, with permission of
STLE.)

FIG. 8-9 Termination of pressure wave angle versus Sommerfeld number ðL=D ¼ 1Þ. (From Raimondi and Boyd, 1958, with permission
of STLE.)

F IG. 8-10 Chart for determining the value of the minimum film thickness versus bearing arc for maximum load,
and minimum power loss ðL=D ¼ 1Þ. (From Raimondi and Boyd, 1958, with permission of STLE.)

TABLE 8-1 Performance Characteristics for a Centrally Loaded 360 Bearing

T ABLE 8-2 Performance Characteristics for a Centrally Loaded 180 Bearing



7. The ratio of average pressure to maximum pressure, P=pmax , in the
fluid film as a function of Sommerfeld number is given in Fig. 8-7.
8. The location of the point of maximum pressure is given in Fig. 8-8. It
is measured in degrees from the line along the load direction as shown
in Fig. 8-8.
9. The location of the point of the end of the pressure wave is given in
Fig. 8-9. It is measured in degrees from the line along the load
direction as shown in Fig. 8-9. This is the angle y2 in this text, and it
is referred to as yp in the chart of Raimondi and Boyd.
10. Curves of the minimum film thickness ratio, hn =C as a function of the
bearing arc, b (Deg.), are presented in Fig. 8-10 for two cases: a.
maximum load capacity, b. minimum power losses due to friction.
These curves are useful for the design engineer for selecting the
optimum bearing arc, b, based on the requirement of maximum load
capacity, or minimum power loss due to viscous friction.
Note that the preceding performance parameters are presented by graphs only for
journal bearings with the ratio L=D ¼ 1. For bearings having different L=D ratios,
the performance parameters are listed in tables.
In Fig. 8-1 (chart 1), curves are presented of the film thickness ratio, hn =C,
versus the Sommerfeld number, S for various bearing arcs b. The curves for
b ¼ 180 and b ¼ 360 nearly coincide. This means that for an identical bearing
load, a full bearing (b ¼ 360 ) does not result in a significantly higher value of hn
in comparison to a partial bearing of b ¼ 180 . This means that for an identical
hn , a full bearing (b ¼ 360 ) does not have a much higher load capacity than a
partial bearing. At the same time, it is clear from Fig. 8-3 (chart 3) that lowering
the bearing arc, b, results in a noticeable reduction in the bearing friction (viscous
friction force is reduced because of the reduction in oil film area).
In conclusion, the advantage of a partial bearing is that it can reduce the
friction coefficient of the bearing without any significant reduction in load
capacity (this advantage is for identical geometry and viscosity in the two
bearings). In fact, the advantage of a partial bearing is more than indicated by
the two figures, because it has a lower fluid film temperature due to a faster oil
circulation. This improvement in the thermal characteristics of a partial bearing in
comparison to a full bearing is considered an important advantage, and designers
tend to select this type for many applications.

8.5 FLUID FILM TEMPERATURE
8.5.1 Estimation of Temperature Rise
After making the basic decisions concerning the bearing dimensions, bearing arc,
and determination of the minimum film thickness hn , the lubricant is selected. At
this stage the bearing temperature is unknown, and it should be estimated. We
assume an average bearing temperature and select a lubricant that would provide
the required bearing load capacity (equal to the external load). The next step is to
determine the flow rate of the lubricant in the bearing, Q, in the axial direction.
Knowledge of this flow rate allows one to determine the temperature rise inside
the fluid film from the charts. This will allow one to check and correct the initial
assumptions made earlier concerning the average oil film temperature. Later, it is
possible to select another lubricant for the desired average viscosity, based on the
newly calculated temperature. A few iterations are required for estimation of the
average temperature.
The temperature inside the fluid film increases as it flows inside the bearing,
due to high shear rate flow of viscous fluid. The energy loss from viscous friction
is dissipated in the oil film in the form of heat. There is an energy balance, and a
large part of this heat is removed from the bearing by continuous convection as
the hot oil flows out and is replaced by a cooler oil that flows into the bearing
clearance. In addition, the heat is transferred by conduction through the sleeve
into the bearing housing. The heat is transferred from the housing partly by
convection to the atmosphere and partly by conduction through the base of the
housing to the other parts of the machine. In most cases, precise heat transfer
calculations are not practical, because they are too complex and because many
parameters, such as contact resistance between the machine parts, are unknown.
For design purposes it is sufficient to estimate the temperature rise of the
fluid DT, from the point of entry into the bearing clearance (at temperature Tin ) to
the point of discharge from the bearing (at temperature Tmax ). This estimation is
based on the simplified assumptions that it is possible to neglect the heat
conduction through the bearing material in comparison to the heat removed by
the continuous replacement of fluid. In fact, the heat conduction reduces the
temperature rise; therefore, this assumption results in a design that is on the safe
side, because the estimated temperature rise is somewhat higher than in the actual
bearing. The following equation for the temperature rise of oil in a journal
bearing, DT , was presented by Shigley and Mitchell (1983):
8:3Pð f R=CÞ
DT ¼ ð8-5Þ
Q
106 ð1 0:5Qs =QÞ
nRCL
where DT is the temperature rise [ C], P ¼ F=2RL [Pa]. All the other parameters
required for calculation of the temperature rise are dimensionless parameters.

They can be obtained directly from the charts or tables of Raimondi and Boyd as
a function of the Sommerfeld number and L=D ratio. The average temperature in
the fluid film is determined from the temperature rise by the equation
Tin þ Tmax DT
Tav ¼ ¼ Ti þ ð8-6Þ
2 2
Equation (8-5) is derived by assuming that all the heat that is generated by
viscous shear in the fluid film is dissipated only in the fluid (no heat conduction
through the boundaries). This heat increases the fluid temperature. In a partial
bearing, the maximum temperature is at the outlet at the end of the bearing arc. In
a full bearing, the maximum temperature is after the minimum film thickness at
the end of the pressure wave (angle y2 ). The mean temperature of the fluid
flowing out, in the axial direction, Q, has been assumed as Tav , the average of the
inlet and outlet temperatures.
Example Problem 8-1

Calculation of Temperature Rise
A partial journal bearing ðb ¼ 180 Þ has a radial load F ¼ 10;000 N. The speed
of the journal is N ¼ 6000 RPM, and the viscosity of the lubricant is 0.006 N-
s=m2 . The geometry of the bearing is as follows:
Journal diameter: D ¼ 40 mm
Bearing length: L ¼ 10 mm
Bearing clearance: C ¼ 30 103 mm
a. Find the following performance parameters:
Minimum film thickness hn

Friction coefficient f
Flow rate Q
Axial side leakage Qs
Rise in temperature DT if you ignore the heat conduction through the
sleeve and journal
b. Given an inlet temperature of the oil into the bearing of 20 C, find the
maximum and average temperature of the oil.
Solution
This example is calculated from Eq. (8-5) in SI units.

The bearing data is given by:
b ¼ 180
L 1
¼
D 4
F
P¼ ¼ 25 106 Pa
LD
6000
n¼ ¼ 100 rPS
60
The Sommerfeld number [using Eq. (8-1)] is:
2
2 102 0:006 100
S¼ ¼ 0:0106
30 10 6 25 106
a. Performance Parameters
From the table for a b ¼ 180 bearing) and L=D ¼ 1=4, the following operating
parameters can be obtained for S ¼ 0:0106, the calculated Sommerfeld number.
Minimum Film Thickness:
hn
¼ 0:03 hn ¼ 0:9 103 mm
C
If the minimum film thickness obtained is less than the design value, the design
has to modified.
Coefficient of Friction: The coefficient of friction is obtained from the
table:
R
f ¼ 0:877 f ¼ 0:0013
C
Flow rate:
Q
¼ 3:29 Q ¼ 1:974 106 m3 =s
nRCL
Side Leakage:
Qs
¼ 0:961 Qs ¼ 1:897 106 m3 =s
Q
Temperature Rise DT : The estimation of the temperature rise is based on

Eq. (8-5) in SI units. The dimensionless operating parameters, from the appro-

priate table of Raimondi and Boyd, are substituted:

Q R
P ¼ 25 106 Pa 1 0:5 s ¼ 0:5195 f ¼ 0:877
Q C
8:3P½R=Cðf Þ 8:3 25 0:877
DTm ¼ ¼ ¼ 106 C
Q 3:29 0:5195
106 ½1 ð0:5ÞQs =Q
nRCL
b. Maximum and Average Oil Temperatures:
Maximum temperature:
Tmax ¼ Tin þ DT ¼ 20 þ 106 ¼ 123 C
Average temperature:
DT 106
Tav ¼ Tin þ ¼ 20 þ ¼ 73 C
2 2
Since the bearing material is subjected to the maximum temperature of 123 C,
the bearing material that is in contact with the lubricant should be resistant to this
temperature. Bearing materials are selected to have a temperature limit well above
the maximum temperature in the fluid film.
For bearing design, the Sommerfeld number, S, is determined based on
lubricant viscosity at the average temperature of 73 C.
8.5.2 Temperature Rise Based on the Tables of

Raimondi and Boyd
The specific heat and density of the lubricant affect the rate of heat transfer and
the resulting temperature rise of the fluid film. However, Eq. (8-5) does not
consider the properties of the lubricant, and it is an approximation for the
properties of mineral oils. For other fluids, such as synthetic lubricants, the
temperature rise can be determined more accurately from a table of Raimondi and
Boyd. The advantage of the second method is that it can accommodate various
fluid properties. The charts and tables include a temperature-rise variable as a
function of the Sommerfeld number. The temperature-rise variable is a dimen-
sionless ratio that includes the two properties of the fluid: the specific heat, c
(Joule=kg- C), and the density, r (kg=m3 ). Table 8-5 lists these properties for
engine oil as a function of temperature.
The following two problems illustrate the calculation of the temperature
rise, based on the charts or tables of Raimondi and Boyd. The two examples
involve calculations in SI units and Imperial units.* We have to keep in mind that
* The original charts of Raimondi and Boyd were prepared for use with Imperial units (the conversion
of energy from BTU to lbf-inch units is included in the temperature-rise variable). In this text, the
temperature-rise variable is applicable for any unit system.

T ABLE 8-5 Specific Heat and Density of Engine Oil
Temperature, T Specific heat, c Density, r

F
C J=kg- C BTU=lbm - F kg=m3 lbm=ft3
32 0 1796 0.429 899.1 56.13
68 20 1880 0.449 888.2 55.45
104 40 1964 0.469 876.1 54.69
140 60 2047 0.489 864.0 53.94
176 80 2131 0.509 852.0 53.19
212 100 2219 0.529 840.0 52.44
248 120 2307 0.551 829.0 51.75
284 140 2395 0.572 816.9 50.99
320 160 2483 0.593 805.9 50.31
both solutions are adiabatic, in the sense that the surfaces of the journal and the
bearing are assumed to be ideal insulation. In practice, it means that conduction
of heat through the sleeve and journal is disregarded in comparison to the heat
taken away by the fluid. In this way, the solution is on the safe side, because it
predicts a higher temperature than in the actual bearing.
Example Problem 8-2

Calculation of Transformation Rise in SI Units
Solve for the temperature rise DT for the journal bearing in Example Problem
8-1. Use the temperature-rise variable according to the Raimondi and Boyd tables
and solve in SI units. Use Table 8-5 for the oil properties. Assume that the
properties can be taken as for engine oil at 80 C
Solution
The temperature rise is solved in SI units based on the tables of Raimondi and
Boyd. The properties of engine oil at 80 C are:
Specific heat (from Table 8-5): c ¼ 2131 [Joule=kg- C]

Density of oil (from Table 8-5): r ¼ 852 [kg=m3 ]
Bearing average pressure (see Example Problem 8-1): P ¼ 25 106
[N=m2 ]
Temperature-rise variable (from Table 8-2 for b ¼ 180 ) is 6.46.
The equation is
cr
DT ¼ 6:46
P

The properties and P are given, and the preceding equation can be solved for the
temperature rise:
P 25 106
DT ¼ 6:46 ¼ 6:46 ¼ 88:9 C
cr 2131 852
This temperature rise is considerably lower than that obtained by the equation of
Shigley and Mitchell (1983) in Example Problem 8-1.
Example Problem 8-3

Calculation of Temperature Rise in Imperial Units
Solve for the temperature rise DT of the journal bearing in Example Problem 8-1.
Use the temperature-rise variable according to the Raimondi and Boyd tables and
solve in Imperial units. Use Table 8-5 for the oil properties. Assume that the
properties can be taken as for engine oil at 176 F (equal to 80 C in Example
Problem 8-2).
Solution
The second method is to calculate DT from the tables of Raimondi and Boyd in
Imperial units. The following values are used:
Density of engine oil (at 176 F, from Table 8-1): r ¼ 53:19 [lbm=ft3 ] ¼
53:19=123 ¼ 0:031 [lbm=in3 .]
Specific heat of oil (from Table 8-5): c ¼ 0:509 [BTU=lbm-F ]
Mechanical equivalent of heat: J ¼ 778 [lbf-ft=BTU] ¼ 778 12 [lbf-
inch=BTU]
This factor converts the thermal unit BTU into the mechanical unit lbf-ft:
c ¼ 0:509 ½BTU=lbm F 778 12 ½lbf -inch=BTU

¼ 4752 ½lbf -inch=lbm F
The bearing average pressure (from Example Problem 8-1):
P ¼ 2:5 106 Pa ¼ ð25 106 Þ=6895 ¼ 3626 ½lbf =in2 :
The data in Imperial units results in a dimensionless temperature-rise variable

where the temperature rise is in F.
Based on the table of Raimondi and Boyd, the same equation is applied as
in Example Problem 8-2:
cr
DT ¼ 6:46
P

Solving for the temperature rise:
P 3626
DT ¼ 6:46 ¼ 6:46 ¼ 159 F
cr 4752 0:031
5
DT ¼ 147:7 F ð C= FÞ ¼ 88:3 C
9
ðclose to the previous solution in SI unitsÞ
Note: The reference 32 F does not play a role here because we solve for the
temperature difference, DT .
8.5.3 Journal Bearing Design

Assuming an initial value for viscosity, the rise in temperature, DT , is calculated
and an average temperature of the fluid film is corrected. Accordingly, after using
the calculated average temperature, the viscosity of the oil can be corrected. The
new viscosity is determined from the viscosity–temperature chart (Fig. 2-3). The
inlet oil temperature to the bearing can be at the ambient temperature or at a
higher temperature in central circulating systems.
If required, the selection of the lubricant may be modified to account for the
new temperature. In the next step, the Sommerfeld number is modified for the
corrected viscosity of the previous oil, but based on the new temperature. Let us
recall that the Sommerfeld number is a function of the viscosity, according to Eq.
(8-1). If another oil grade is selected, the viscosity of the new oil grade is used for
the new Sommerfeld number. Based on the new Sommerfeld number S, the
calculation of Q and the temperature rise estimation DT are repeated. These
iterations are repeated until there is no significant change in the average
temperature between consecutive iterations. If the temperature rise is too high,
the designer can modify the bearing geometry.
After the average fluid film temperature is estimated, it is necessary to select
the bearing material. Knowledge of the material properties allows one to test
whether the allowable limits are exceeded. At this stage, it is necessary to
calculate both the peak pressure and the peak temperature and to compare those
values with the limits for the bearing material that is used. The values of the
maximum pressure and temperature rise in the fluid film are easy to determine
from the charts or tables of Raimondi and Boyd.
8.5.4 Accurate Solutions

For design purposes, the average temperature of the fluid-film can be estimated as
described in the preceding section. Temperature estimation is suitable for most
practical cases. However, in certain critical applications, more accurate analysis is

required. The following is a general survey and references that the reader can use
for advanced study of this complex heat transfer problem.
In a fluid film bearing, a considerable amount of heat is generated by
viscous friction, which is dissipated in the oil film and raises its temperature. The
fluid film has a non-uniform temperature distribution along the direction of
motion (x direction) and across the film (z direction). The peak fluid film
temperature is near the point of minimum film thickness. The rise in the oil
temperature results in a reduction of the lubricant viscosity; in turn, there is a
significant reduction of the hydrodynamic pressure wave and load carrying
capacity. Accurate solution of the temperature distribution in the fluid film
includes heat conduction through the bearing material and heat convection by
the oil. This solution requires a numerical analysis, and it is referred to as a full
thermohydrodynamic (THD) analysis. This analysis is outside the scope of this
text, and the reader is referred to available surveys, such as by Pinkus (1990) and
by Khonsari (1987). The results are in the form of isotherms mapping the
temperature distribution in the sleeve. An example is included in Chap. 18.
8.6 PEAK TEMPERATURE IN LARGE, HEAVILY

LOADED BEARINGS
The maximum oil film temperature of large, heavily loaded bearings is higher
than the outlet temperature. Heavily loaded bearings have a high eccentricity
ratio, and at high speed they are subjected to high shear rates and much heat
dissipation near the minimum film thickness. For example, in high-speed turbines
having journals of the order of magnitude of 10 in. (250 mm) and higher, it has
been recognized that the maximum temperature near the minimum film thickness,
hn , is considerably higher than Tin þ DT , which has been calculated in the
previous section. In bearings made of white metal (babbitt), it is very important to
limit the maximum temperature to prevent bearing failure.
In a bearing with a white metal layer on its surface, creep of this layer can
initiate at temperatures above 260 F. The risk of bearing failure due to local
softening of the white metal is high for large bearings operating at high speeds
and small minimum film thickness. Plastic bearings can also fail due to local
softening of the plastic at elevated temperatures. The peak temperature along the
bearing surface is near the minimum film thickness, where there is the highest
shear rate and maximum heat dissipation by viscous shear. This is exacerbated by
the combination of local high oil film pressure and high temperature at the same
point, which initiates an undesirable creep process of the white metal. Therefore,
it is important to include in the bearing design an estimation of the peak
temperature near the minimum film thickness (in addition to the temperature
rise, DT ).

The yield point of white metals reduces significantly with temperature. The
designer must ensure that the maximum pressure does not exceed its limit. If the
temperature is too high, the designer can use bearing material with a higher
melting point. Another alternative is to improve the cooling by providing faster
oil circulation by means of several oil grooves. An example is the three-lobe
bearing that will be described in Chapter 9.
Adiabatic solutions were developed by Booser et al. (1970) for calculating
the maximum temperature, based on the assumption that the heat conduction
through the bearing can be neglected in comparison to the heat removed by the
flow of the lubricant. This assumption is justified in a finite-length journal
bearing, where the axial flow rate has the most significant role in heat removal.
The derivation of the maximum temperature considers the following
viscosity–temperature relation:
m ¼ kT n ð8-7Þ
where the constants k and n are obtained from the viscosity–temperature charts.
The viscosity is in units of lb-s=in2 . and the temperature is in deg. F.
The maximum temperatures obtained according to Eq. (8-8) were experi-
mentally verified, and the computation results are in good agreement with the
measured temperatures. The equation for the maximum temperature, Tmax , is
(Booser et al., 1970):
2
nþ1 4pkðn þ 1ÞN R
Tmax T1nþ1 ¼ DGj ð8-8Þ
60rcp C
Here, r is the lubricant density and cp is its specific heat at constant pressure. The
temperatures Tm and T1 are the maximum and inlet temperatures, respectively.
The temperatures, in deg. F, have an exponent of ðn þ 1Þ from the viscosity–
temperature equation (8-7). The journal speed N is in revolutions per minute. The
coefficient DGj is a temperature-rise multiplier. It can be obtained from Fig. 8-11.
It shows the rapid increase of DGj at high eccentricity ratios ðe ¼ 0:8–0.9),
indicating that the maximum temperature is highly dependent on the film
thickness, particularly under high loads.
For turbulent fluid films, the equation is
f p2 N 2 D3
Tmax T1 ¼ ðp y1 Þ ð8-9Þ
2gcp ð1 e2 Þ
where f is the friction coefficient, D is the journal diameter, and g is gravitational

acceleration, 386 in.=s2 . The angle y1 is the oil inlet angle (in radians). The

F IG. 8-11 Journal bearing temperature-rise multiplier for Eq. (8-8). (From Booser et
al., 1970, with permission of STLE.)
friction coefficient is determined by experiment or taken from the literature for a

similar bearing.
8.7 DESIGN BASED ON EXPERIMENTAL CURVES

In the preceding discussion, it was shown that the complete design of hydro-
dynamic journal bearings relies on important decisions: determination of the
value of the minimum film thickness, hn , and the upper limit of bearing operating
temperature. The minimum value of hn is determined by the surface finish of the
bearing and the journal as well as other operating conditions that have been
discussed in this chapter. However, the surface finish may vary after running the
machine, particularly for the soft white metal that is widely used as bearing
material. In addition to the charts of Raimondi and Boyd, which are based on
hydrodynamic analysis, bearing design engineers need design tools that are based

on previous experience and experiments. In particular for bearing design for
critical applications, there is a merit in also relying on experimental curves for
determining the limits of safe hydrodynamic performance.
In certain machines, there are design constraints that make it necessary to
have highly loaded bearings operating with very low minimum film thickness.
Design based on hydrodynamic theory is not very accurate for highly loaded
bearings at very thin hn . The reason is that in such cases, it is difficult to predict
the temperature rise, DT , and the hn that secure hydrodynamic performance. In
such cases, the limits of hydrodynamic bearing operation can be established only
by experiments or experience with similar bearings. There are many examples of
machines that are working successfully with hydrodynamic bearings having much
lower film thickness than usually recommended.
For journal bearings operating in the full hydrodynamic region, the friction
coefficient, f, is an increasing function of the Sommerfeld number. Analytical
curves of ðR=CÞf versus the Sommerfeld number are presented in the charts of
Raimondi and Boyd; see Fig. 8-3. These curves are for partial and full journal
bearings, for various bearing arcs, b. Of course, the designer would like to
operate the bearing at minimum friction coefficient. However, these charts are
only for the hydrodynamic region and do not include the boundary and mixed
lubrication regions. These curves do not show the lowest limit of the Sommerfeld
number for maintaining a full hydrodynamic film. A complete curve of ðR=CÞf
versus the Sommerfeld number over the complete range of boundary, mixed, and
hydrodynamic regions can be obtained by testing the bearing friction against
variable speed or variable load. These experimental curves are very helpful for
bearing design. Description of several friction testing systems is included in
Chapter 14.
8.7.1 Friction Curves

The friction curve in the boundary and mixed lubrication regions depends on the
material as well as on the surface finish. For a bearing with constant C=R ratio,
the curves of ðR=CÞf versus the Sommerfeld number, S, can be reduced to
dimensionless, experimental curves of the friction coefficient, f, versus the
dimensionless ratio, mn=P. These experimental curves are very useful for
design purposes. In the early literature, the notation for viscosity is z, and the
variable zN =P has been widely used. In this text, the ratio mn=P is preferred,
because it is dimensionless and any unit system can be used as long as the units
are consistent. In addition, this ratio is consistent with the definition of the
Sommerfeld number.
The variable zN =P is still widely used, because it is included in many
experimental curves that are provided by manufacturers of bearing materials.
Curves of f versus zN =P are often used to describe the performance of a specific

bearing of constant geometry and material combination. This ratio is referred to
as the Hersey* number. The variable zN =P is not completely dimensionless,
because it is used as a combination of Imperial units with metric units for the
viscosity. The average pressure is in Imperial units [psi], the journal speed, N, is
in revolutions per minute [RPM], and the viscosity, z, is in centipoise. In order to
have dimensionless variables, the journal speed, n, must always be in revolutions
per second (RPS), irrespective of the system of units used, and the viscosity, m,
must always include seconds as the unit of time. The variable zN =P is propor-
tional and can be converted to the dimensionless variable mn=P.
Transition from Mixed to Hydrodynamic

Lubrication
A typical experimental curve of the friction coefficient, f, versus the dimension-
less variable, mn=P, is shown in Fig. 8-12. The curve shows the region of
hydrodynamic lubrication, at high values of mn=P, and the region of mixed
F IG. 8-12 Friction coefficient, f, versus variable mn=P in a journal bearing,
* After Mayo D. Hersey, for his contribution to the lubrication field.

lubrication, at lower values of mn=P. The transition point ðmn=PÞtr from mixed to
hydrodynamic lubrication is at the point of minimum friction coefficient.
Hydrodynamic theory indicates that minimum film thickness increases with
the variable mn=P. Full hydrodynamic lubrication is where mn=P is above a
certain transition value ðmn=PÞtr . At the transition point, the minimum film
thickness is equal to the size of surface asperities. However, in the region of
full hydrodynamic lubrication, the minimum film thickness is higher than the size
of surface asperities, and there is no direct contact between the sliding surfaces.
Therefore, there is only viscous friction, which is much lower in comparison to
direct contact friction. In the hydrodynamic region, viscous friction increases with
mn=P, because the shear rates and shear stresses in the fluid film are increasing
with the product of viscosity and speed.
Below the critical value ðmn=PÞtr , there is mixed lubrication where the
thickness of the lubrication film is less than the size of the surface asperities.
Under load, there is direct contact between the surfaces, resulting in elastic as well
as plastic deformation of the asperities. In the mixed region, the external load is
carried partly by the pressure of the hydrodynamic fluid film and partly by the
mechanical elastic reaction of the deformed asperities. The film thickness
increases with mn=P; therefore, as the velocity increases, a larger portion of the
load is carried by the fluid film. In turn, the friction decreases with mn=P in the
mixed region, because the fluid viscous friction is lower than the mechanical
friction due to direct contact between the asperities. The transition value,
ðmN =PÞtr , is at the minimum friction, where there is a transition in the trend of
the friction slope.
Design engineers are often tempted to design the bearing at the transition
point ðmn=PÞtr in order to minimize friction-energy losses as well as to minimize
the temperature rise in the bearing. However, a close examination of bearing
operation indicates that it is undesirable to design at this point. The purpose of the
following discussion is to explain that this point does not have the desired
operation stability. The term stability is used here in the sense that the hydro-
dynamic operation would recover and return to normal operation after any
disturbance, such as overload for a short period or unexpected large vibration
of the machine. In contrast, unstable operation is where any such disturbance
would result in deterioration in bearing operation that may eventually result in
bearing failure.
Although it is important to minimize friction-energy losses, if the bearing
operates at the point ðmN =PÞtr , where the friction is minimal, any disturbance
would result in a short period of higher friction. This would cause a chain of
events that may result in overheating and even bearing failure. The higher friction
would result in a sudden temperature rise of the lubricant film, even if the
disturbance discontinues. Temperature rise would immediately reduce the fluid
viscosity, and the magnitude of the variable mn=P would decrease with the

viscosity. In turn, the bearing would operate in the mixed region, resulting in
higher friction. The higher friction causes further temperature rise and further
reduction in the value of mn=P. This can lead to an unstable chain reaction that
may result in bearing failure, particularly for high-speed hydrodynamic bearings.
In contrast, if the bearing is designed to operate on the right side of the
transition point, mn=P > ðmN =PÞtr , any unexpected temperature rise would also
reduce the fluid viscosity and the value of the variable mn=P. However in that
case, it would shift the point in the curve to a lower friction coefficient. The lower
friction would help to restore the operation by lowering the fluid film temperature.
The result is that a bearing designed to operate at somewhat higher value of mn=P
has the important advantage of stable operation.
The decision concerning hn relies in many cases on previous experience
with bearings operating under similar conditions. In fact, very few machines are
designed without any previous experience as a first prototype, and most designs
represent an improvement on previous models. In order to gain from previous
experience, engineers should follow several important dimensionless design
parameters of the bearings in each machine. As a minimum, engineers should
keep a record of the value of mn=P and the resulting analytical minimum film
thickness, hn , for each bearing. Experience concerning the relationship of these
variables to successful bearing operation, or early failure, is essential for future
designs of similar bearings or improvement of bearings in existing machinery.
However, for important applications, where early bearing failure is critical,
bearing tests should be conducted before testing the machine in service. This is
essential in order to prevent unexpected expensive failures. Testing machines will
be discussed in Chapter 14.
Problems
8-1 Select the lubricant for a full hydrodynamic journal bearing

ðb ¼ 360 Þ under a radial load of 1 ton. The design requirement is
that the minimum film thickness, hn , during steady operation, not be
less than 16 103 mm. The inlet oil temperature is 40 C, and the
journal speed is 3600 RPM. Select the oil type that would result in the
required performance. The bearing dimensions are: D ¼ 100 mm;
L ¼ 50 mm, C ¼ 80 103 mm.
Directions: First, determine the required Sommerfeld number,
based on the minimum film thickness, and find the required viscosity.
Second evaluate the temperature rise Dt and the average temperature,
and select the oil type (use Fig. 2-2).
8-2 Use the Raimondi and Boyd charts to find the maximum load
capacity of a full hydrodynamic journal bearing ðb ¼ 360 Þ. The

lubrication is SAE 10. The bearing dimensions are: D ¼ 50 mm,
L ¼ 50 mm, C ¼ 50 103 mm. The minimum film thickness, hn ,
during steady operation, should not be below 10 103 mm. The
inlet oil temperature is 30 C and the journal speed is 6000 RPM.
Directions: Trial-and-error calculations are required for
solving the temperature rise. Assume a temperature rise and average
temperature. Find the viscosity for SAE 10 as a function of tempera-
ture, and use the chart to find the Sommerfeld number and the
resulting load capacity. Use the new average pressure to recalculate
the temperature rise. Repeat iterations until the temperature rise is
equal to that in the previous iteration.
8-3 The dimensions of a partial hydrodynamic journal bearing, b ¼ 180 ,
are: D ¼ 60 mm, L ¼ 60 mm, C ¼ 30 103 mm. During steady
operation, the minimum film thickness, hn , should not go below
10 103 mm. The maximum inlet oil temperature (in the summer)
is 40 C, and the journal speed is 7200 RPM. Given a lubricant of
SAE 10, use the chart to find the maximum load capacity and the
maximum fluid film pressure, pmax .
8-4 A short journal bearing is loaded by 500 N. The journal diameter is
25 mm, the L=D ratio is 0.6, and C=R ¼ 0:002. The bearing has a
speed of 600 RPM. An experimental curve of friction coefficient, f,
versus variable mn=P of this bearing is shown in Fig. 8-12. The
minimum friction is at mn=P ¼ 3 108 .
a. Find the lubrication viscosity for which the bearing would operate at a
minimum friction coefficient.
b. Use infinitely-short-bearing theory and find the minimum film thick-
ness at the minimum-friction point.
c. Use the charts of Raimondi and Boyd to find the minimum film
thickness at the minimum-friction point.
d. For stable bearing operation, increase the variable mn=P by 20% and
find the minimum film thickness and new friction coefficient. Use the
short bearing equations.

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8

Design Charts for Finite-Length

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

8.2 DESIGN PROCEDURE

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8.3 MINIMUM FILM THICKNESS

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8.4 RAIMONDI AND BOYD CHARTS AND

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8.4.2 Dimensionless Performance Parameters

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Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Example Problem 8-1

a. Find the following performance parameters:

Minimum film thickness hn

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Temperature Rise DT : The estimation of the temperature rise is based on

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8.5.2 Temperature Rise Based on the Tables of

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Temperature, T Specific heat, c Density, r

Example Problem 8-2

Specific heat (from Table 8-5): c ¼ 2131 [Joule=kg- C]

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Example Problem 8-3

c ¼ 0:509 ½BTU=lbm F 778 12 ½lbf -inch=BTU

The bearing average pressure (from Example Problem 8-1):

P ¼ 2:5 106 Pa ¼ ð25 106 Þ=6895 ¼ 3626 ½lbf =in2 :

The data in Imperial units results in a dimensionless temperature-rise variable

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

8.5.3 Journal Bearing Design

8.5.4 Accurate Solutions

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8.6 PEAK TEMPERATURE IN LARGE, HEAVILY

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where f is the friction coefficient, D is the journal diameter, and g is gravitational

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friction coefficient is determined by experiment or taken from the literature for a

8.7 DESIGN BASED ON EXPERIMENTAL CURVES

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8.7.1 Friction Curves

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Transition from Mixed to Hydrodynamic

F IG. 8-12 Friction coefficient, f, versus variable mn=P in a journal bearing,