A CHRISTIAN PERSPECTIVE ON THE PSYCHOLOGY OF CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT

A STUDY GUIDE

Prepared by Donna J. Habenicht, Ed.D. Professor Emerita Educational and Counseling Psychology

2013

Andrews University Berrien Springs, Michigan 49104

2013 Donna J. Habenicht

TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD4

SECTION 1 FOUNDATION CONCEPTS 5

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

DEFINITION OF CHARACTER .......................................................................................... 6 IMPORTANCE OF CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT .................................................... 16 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES..................................................................................... 20 CRITERIA FOR CHARACTER ......................................................................................... 25 RESEARCH ON MORAL DEVELOPMENT .................................................................... 37 HISTORY OF M ORAL EDUCATION. 55 VALUES EDUCATION ........................................................................................................ 58

SECTION II FACTORS IN THE PROCESS OF MORAL CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT . 71

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

THE INDIVIDUAL ............................................................................................................... 72 GOD'S ORIGINAL PLAN.................................................................................................... 77 RELIGION AND SPIRITUAL POWER............................................................................. 81 CONSCIENCE ....................................................................................................................... 90 MODELING ........................................................................................................................... 98 INSTRUCTION ................................................................................................................... 103 DISCIPLINE ........................................................................................................................ 112 CHOICE AND WILL .......................................................................................................... 134 SERVICE AND CAREERS ................................................................................................ 141 HEALTH AND THE BRAIN ............................................................................................. 152

18. 19.

LIFE EXPERIENCES ......................................................................................................... 161 SECULAR-RELIGIOUS COMPARISON ........................................................................ 168

SECTION III MORAL CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT THROUGHOUT THE LIFESPAN . 170

20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26.

MASS MEDIA...................................................................................................................... 171 INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD ......................................................................................... 187 ADOLESCENCE AND ADULTHOOD ............................................................................ 203 HOME INFLUENCES ........................................................................................................ 216 SCHOOL INFLUENCES .................................................................................................... 228 CHURCH INFLUENCES ................................................................................................... 239 REJECTION OF VALUES ................................................................................................ 249

BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................................. 256 APPENDIX A: SELF-CONCEPT 277 APPENDIX B: EMOTIONS. 281 APPENDIX C: MIND AND BODY.. 286

FOREWORD

Just a word before we begin our study. . . . This study guide represents the combined research and teaching experience of the author and her mentor, Dr. Ruth Murdoch, as well as the contributions of many students who have taken the course. When I studied this course under Dr. Murdoch, I aspired to someday teach the course myself. With that goal in mind, I prepared a 150page notebook for my final project. That notebook eventually became the beginning of this study guide. The field of moral development is expanding so rapidly it would be impossible to produce a study guide that is completely up to date. Therefore, this book is a constantly evolving guideline for study, rather than the last word on moral character development. Each new edition represents a major effort to consolidate the material and add recent research. I hope each student who uses this material will contribute to its improvement. I have attempted to integrate the secular and religious viewpoints on moral development and character development. That is not always an easy task, as there are striking points of disagreement, as well as areas of agreement. When appropriate, each topic is approached from both the secular and the religious viewpoint. By secular I do not mean to imply antireligious although that is sometimes the casebut rather material which does not come from a religious base and is intended to be applied in nonreligious settings. Many people have contributed to this material. First, the graduate assistants who worked diligently on the content: Lloyd Erickson, Karen Madgwick, Sherry Tryon, Ellen Kaatz, Kristin Batchelder, Trudy Holmes, Victor Korniejczuk, Ermine Leader, Ralph Schroder, and Lester Collins. Second, the people who produced the computer master copies: Karen Holford, Margaret Stauffer, Hedwich Nikyuluw, Julie Dant, and Shan Farrell. I would like to thank each person for his or her contribution. Without the combined efforts of everyone, this material would still be in my notebooks, inaccessible to others. I believe this is the most important topic anyone can study because eternal values are at stake. Teachers, parents, counselors, administrators, and ministers are inescapably involved in character development. Each of us daily confronts issues in the development of our own characters. I hope you will find the study of character development challenging and helpful in your work with people.

D. J. H.

SECTION I

FOUNDATION CONCEPTS

CHAPTER ONE DEFINITION OF CHARACTER

What is character? How does it differ from personality? How does it differ from moral judgment, moral development, values, and ethics? How does character compare with conduct or reputation? What five dimensions may be used to describe character? What are the main differences between character development from the SDA Christian viewpoint and moral development as defined in the current developmental literature?

Before we can study how moral character develops, we must come to a clear definition of terms. Herein is the difficulty. Each term used in this field has been defined in more than one way, thereby causing much confusion in both the professional and lay literature and in everyday practice. Research conclusions are based on the definitions used in conceptualizing the study. In evaluating each theory or model, definitions of morality must be considered. Since such great differences exist in definitions, studies which appear to be similar may in actuality be looking at very different aspects of the problem. Therefore, our first task is to examine definitions of terms used in the study of character and morality. First we will look at various definitions of character, followed by definitions of personality, and other related terms (i.e., ethics, morality, moral judgment). This chapter concludes with a discussion of five dimensions of character which must be considered in order to fully understand its scope.

DEFINITIONS DEFINITIONS OF CHARACTER Dictionary Definition "Moral vigor or firmness, especially as acquired through self-discipline" (Webster, 1939, p. 170). Moral excellence (Mirriam-Webster, 2000, CD-ROM version). Psychological Definitions Moral character is a "pattern of acts, rather consistent through time, which may be said to `characterize' and define the human individual . . . , they emphasize the inward elements of motivation and intent as the major determinants of character. . . . In so far as concerns moral character, the intent that counts is the intent to do good or ill to other people" (Peck & Havighurst, 1960, pp. 1, 2). ". . . individual character: a persisting pattern of attitudes and motives which produce a rather predictable kind and quality of moral behavior" (Peck & Havighurst, 1960, p. 164). "Here, then, is the nature of character. It consists, not in forms of external behavior or negative ethics, but in strength and unselfishness of action. It is not inherited, but must be developed. Its motivation is not fear of punishment but the desire of self-realization and love" (Ligon, 1975, p. 112). "Character, then, is the power and the unselfishness with which one behaves. The man who carries through his purposes with the greatest force and with the fewest deviations from his purpose is the man of

strongest character. It must not be defined in terms of external behavior. If we develop strong character, our behavior will be ethical; but it does not follow that if our behavior is ethical, we will have strong character. Far too many Christians are good, not because they are thoroughly inspired by justice and mercy, and faith, but because they are afraid to be bad. Such characters are good, but not strong, nor even admirable" (Ligon, 1975, p. 124). "Character, in psychology, refers to the acquired system of motivational tendencies that enable a person to react consistently to moral values and issues. Consistency of behavior and conduct are external signs of gains in internal character structure" (Pikunas, 1969, p. 289). "Character consists of operative values, values in action. We progress in our character as a value becomes a virtue, a reliable inner disposition to respond to situations in a morally good way. "Character so conceived has three interrelated parts: moral knowing, moral feeling, and moral behavior. Good character consists of knowing the good, desiring the good, and doing the good habits of the mind, habits of the heart, and habits of action. All three are necessary for leading a moral life; all three make up moral maturity" (Lickona, 1991, p. 51). Good character is knowing the good, loving the good, and doing the good . . . . living virtuously (Ryan, 1999, p. x,xi). "Character may be thought of as a habitual way of responding to life experiences. . . . The highest goal of character training is the development of that habitual pattern of response to life experiences which is in harmony with the basic laws of relationship for the universe, summarized in the moral law as supreme love to God and regard for one's fellow beings equal to that of one for himself." Marion Merchant, Professor of Behavioral Science, Andrews University (unpublished). Non-Psychological Definitions "Character is what you are in the dark." Dwight Moody. "Character is simply long habit continued." Plutarch "According to White, character is not just an inventory of actions performed or a description of moral intent, freedom, or reasoning, but the measure of an internalized principle that gives motivation, coherence, consistency, and direction to the total relational and behavioral functions of man. The construct of character includes what a man is--his motives, feelings, and thoughts--and what he does--his actions and habits--in respect to his relational nature that includes his relationship to God, man, and himself" (John Fowler,1977, p. 236). "True character is a quality of the soul, revealing itself in the conduct" (White, Child Guidance, p. 161).

"Character consists of the power of the will and the power of self control" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 4, p. 656). "Character is the total of single acts well done" (White, Messages to Young People, p. 144). "If the thoughts are wrong, the feelings will be wrong; and the thoughts and feelings make up the character" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 5, p. 310). In the religious view, character development is closely related to the process of sanctification. "Therefore, since we have been justified through faith, we have peace with God through our Lord Jesus Christ, through whom we have gained access by faith into this grace in which we now stand. And we rejoice in the hope of the glory of God. Not only so, but we also rejoice in our suffering, because we know that suffering produces perseverance; perseverance, character; and character, hope. And hope does not disappoint us, because God has poured out his love into our hearts by the Holy Spirit, whom he has given us" (Romans 5:1-5, KJV). "When all kinds of trials and temptations crowd into your lives, my brothers, don't resent them as intruders, but welcome them as friends! Realize that they come to test your faith and to produce in you the quality of endurance. But let the process go on until that endurance is fully developed, and you will find you have become men of mature character, men of integrity with no weak spots" (James 1:2-4, Phillips). In the scriptures the word "character" is seldom used. Most often the word "heart" is used to describe the inner person, the seat of life or strength. Cruden's Complete Concordance suggests that "heart" may mean mind, soul, spirit, or one's entire emotional nature and understanding. In this sense it would be closely related to character. "Listen, my son, and be wise, and keep your heart on the right path" (Proverbs 23:19, NIV). "Above all else, guard your heart, for it is the wellspring of life" (Proverbs 4:23, NIV).

DEFINITIONS OF PERSONALITY Great differences exist also in the definition of personality. In 1937, Allport collected at least 50 definitions of personality, which he divided into five types: Omnibus (sum total), arrangement (arranged in an orderly manner), hierarchical (stages of development in fixed order), adjustment finding identify and adjusting to the world, and distinctiveness (individuals uniqueness). Allports definition was: Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustment to the world (Corsini, 1988, p. 2). Each theory tends to define personality differently. Some sample definitions follow. "Personality: 2: the collection of emotional and behavioral traits that characterize a person 3: distinction of personal and social traits. Syn: individuality, temperament, disposition, makeup (Mirriam-Webster Dictionary, 2000, CD-ROM version). "We define personality as the pattern of psychological and behavioral characteristics by which each person can be compared and contrasted with other people. It is this unique pattern of characteristics that

emerges from the blending of inherited and acquired tendencies to make each person an identifiable individual (Bernstein, Roy, Scrull, & Wickens, p. 504). "An individual's characteristic pattern of behavior and thought, including an accordant self-concept and a set of traits consistent over time" (Kaluger & Kaluger, 1974, p. 502). Personality is defined as "the sum total of one's reactions and reaction possibilities as viewed by one's fellow human beings" (Bernard, 1978, p. 596). Personality is the totality of what a person is. It includes physical, mental, social and emotional aspects. Character deals more with the sense of right and wrong and the morality of one's actions. Character is the core of a person that deals with issues of right and wrong. Personality is the totality of the way one relates and acts, the sum of a person. Character is an aspect of personality. Character might be thought of as the roots of a tree--the anchor or the inner being--and personality as the visible tree, the branches.

DEFINITIONS OF RELATED TERMS Morality: There is little consensus among theorists about the definition of the term morality. "Theorists agree that morality involves judgments of right and wrong. Beyond that there is broad disagreement." The definition depends on the theory (All definitions, including direct quotations, are taken from Lifton, 1985, pp. 308-310). Type 1 - Psychoanalytic Morality is the "rules, norms, values, and traditions of a particular society." Moral codes and societal standards are equivalent and vary from culture to culture. Etiology and nature of morality: societal control imposed on a person. Type 2 - Cognitive-developmental Morality is "certain universal and transhistorical principles common to all humankind. . . . fundamental to the natural order of human existence." Justice or caring is viewed as the universal principle underlying all moral judgments. Etiology and nature of morality: "a philosophical principle revealed to a person." Type 3 - Interactional, socioanalytic, personological Morality is "values, standards, beliefs, and principles developed by a person for the purpose of effective interaction with other persons. . . a personal set of guidelines developed intrapersonally. . . and interpersonally." Ego processes, personality traits, and social expectations "influence the unique moral judgments and moral actions of persons." Etiology and nature of morality: "a personal precept created by a person" "Morality . . . depends on the orchestration of human caring, objective thinking and determined action. . . . Morality is neither good motives nor right reasoning nor resolute action; it is all three" (Hersh, Miller, & Fielding, 1980, p. 2). There is greater agreement on the definition of other terms. Moral development: "transition over time of a person's moral beliefs"

Moral level: "the sophistication of a person's moral beliefs at a particular time" Moral orientation: "the predominant moral belief of a person at any or all points in time" Moral maturity: "the highest moral level a person achieves and constitutes the endpoint of that person's moral development" Moral judgment: "evaluating right and wrong on the basis of moral beliefs" Moral character: "the psychological structure that serves to organize a person's moral beliefs" Moral reasoning: "cognitive activity based on moral beliefs" Moral action: "behavioral activity based on moral beliefs" Conduct: ". . .in ethics, the voluntary control and direction of one's actions toward moral or spiritual development" (Webster, 1976, p. 380). Reputation: ". . . the estimation in which a person, thing, or action is held by others;. . . character attributed or reputed" (Webster, 1976, p. 1537). Ethics: "The study of standards of conduct and moral judgment; moral philosophy . . . the system or code of morals of a particular philosopher, religion, group, profession, etc." (Webster, 1976, p. 627). Values: ideals, customs, institutions, etc., that arouse an emotional response, for or against them, in a given society or a given person (Random House Dictionary,1969, p. 1453). Values provide a sense of purpose for life. They direct the means and ends of actions. They are standards of conduct. They are qualities of the soul (Habenicht, 2000, p. 17). In our search for the meaning of character, it may be compared or contrasted with conduct and reputation. Conduct is the outward expression of character. Character is the cause and conduct is the effect. Character is the habitual expression of responses and behavior. An individual's reputation--what others think of him--may not be in conformity to his true character. "Mental ability and genius are not character, for these are often possessed by those who have the very opposite of a good character. True character is a quality of the soul, revealing itself in the conduct" (White, Child Guidance, p.161). Character is often viewed as implying a certain consistency or predictability of moral behavior. Many theorists and researchers prefer to think of moral actions as more situationally dependent and have shied away from the concept of a "character" core in the personality. "Character education" was frowned upon for several decades. However, now we are seeing a resurgence of the concept of "character education"-- education for total character development, not just moral thinking. Character education is openly talked about among educators and researchers in the field of moral development. Schools are developing programs for the character education of their students.

10

THEORETICAL DEFINITIONS Each of the different theoretical perspectives defines moral development differently and proceeds from different assumptions. The psychoanalytic, learning, cognitive, humanistic, and theological perspectives are discussed in the respective chapters in Teaching for Moral Growth by Bonnidell Clouse (1993). A brief overview is provided here. Learning Theory - (Moral Behavior) "To be moral is to act in ways that benefit the society; to be immoral is to act in ways that harm the society" (p. 168). Morality can be learned through classical or instrumental conditioning and through observing others (Clouse, 1993, Chapter 6). Cognitive Theory - (Moral Reasoning) Moral development occurs through reasoning and progresses through a series of stages. This development occurs within the individual and runs parallel to intellectual development (Clouse, 1993, Chapter 8). Humanistic Theory - (Moral Potential) Each human is born with the potential to develop morality which comes from within the individual and can be influenced by environmental factors. Since each individual is an integrated whole, morality cannot be separated from the other areas in each individual's life (Clouse, 1993, Chapter 10). Psychoanalytic Theory - (Moral Conflict) Each person is born depraved, and for moral development to occur, the person must overcome internal conflict and internalize the rules and demands of society. The optimal time for this development is when the individual is between the ages of two and six years although moral development can occur later (Clouse, 1993, Chapter 4).

DIMENSIONS OF CHARACTER Character has five main dimensions, each important for a complete understanding of character and how it develops: (1) moral and evaluative, (2) developmental, (3) motivational, (4) social, and (5) spiritual. We shall briefly examine these dimensions in order to more fully understand our definition of character.

MORAL AND EVALUATIVE Character usually implies the evaluation of behavior, the rightness and wrongness of actions or thoughts compared with some standard of morality. This, of course, implies the ability to think about moral issues and apply principles to daily living. To what degree do we live up to our best impulses? "God requires you to possess moral courage" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 2, p. 130). "There is an indomitableness about true Christian character which cannot be molded or subdued by adverse circumstances. Men must have moral backbone, an integrity which cannot be flattered, bribed, or terrified" (vol. 5, p. 297).

11

"Character is the total effect of one's evaluative attitudes on the social influence of his personality" (Ligon, 1956, pp. 274-275). "One who is interested in character at the higher level--that of conscience and the adherence to moral principles--must be concerned with the personal characteristics which favor the development of character on this level. "First among these characteristics is an intelligent understanding of moral principles and the ability to apply them to problems of daily conduct. Second, and more important, is the conviction that moral principles are worth sacrifice--even the sacrifice of social acceptance and popularity. "Only with these characteristics will a person possess a stable character; and only then can he behave with true morality in the ever-changing situations of modern life. This person will be able to discriminate among values and to deviate from the moral status quo of the community, when such deviation is necessary to the realization of higher moral principles. This person alone can become a moral leader" (Havighurst & Taba, 1949, p. 189). ". . . then choose for yourselves this day whom you will serve. . . . But as for me and my household we will serve the Lord" (Joshua 24:15, NIV).

DEVELOPMENTAL Peck and Havighurst, Piaget, Kohlberg and other theorists see morality as developing through rather well defined stages of growth, although not all persons reach the highest levels of moral development. From the spiritual viewpoint, character may also be seen as developmental, especially as it relates to the process of sanctification. "A definition of the aims of moral education as the stimulation of natural development is the most clear-cut area of moral judgment, where there appears to be considerable regularity of sequence and direction in development in various cultures" (Kohlberg, 1969, p. 252). "Central to Kohlberg's theory of moral development and to other cognitive-developmental theories is the concept of the invariant sequence of stages. Stage development is held to be irreversibly progressive (but may stop at any stage), with no regression in competence, and no skipping of stages" (Walker, 1982, p. 1330). "The formation of character is the work of a lifetime, and it is for eternity. . . . The harvest of life is character, and it is this that determines destiny, both for this life and for the life to come" (White, Child Guidance, p. 162). "The germination of the seed represents the beginning of spiritual life, and the development of the plant is a figure of the development of character. There can be no life without growth. The plant must either grow or die. As its growth is silent and imperceptible, but continuous, so is the growth of character. At every stage of development our life may be perfect; yet if God's purpose for us is fulfilled, there will be constant advancement" (White, Education, pp. 105, 106). "He will eat curds and honey when he knows enough to reject the wrong and choose the right. But before the boy knows enough to reject the wrong and choose the right, . . ." (Isaiah 7:15-16, NIV, implying that children, including Jesus, develop the ability to choose between right and wrong).

12

"We have much to say about this, but it is hard to explain because you are slow to learn. In fact, though by this time you ought to be teachers, you need someone to teach you the elementary truths of God's word all over again. You need milk, not solid food! . . . But solid food is for the mature, who by constant use have trained themselves to distinguish good from evil" (Hebrews 5:11-14, NIV).

MOTIVATIONAL From both the secular and religious viewpoints, an individual's character (or morality) may be defined more accurately by the reasons behind a particular action than by the action itself. The motives, or intent, are crucial in understanding an action. Many theorists emphasize this point and it is central to the religious viewpoint. "The concept is not new that character is to be defined by the intent as much as by the deed: `As a man thinketh in his heart, so is he.' Insofar as concerns moral character, the intent that counts is the intent to do good or ill to other people" (Peck and Havighurst, 1960, p. 2). "Every course of action has a twofold character and importance. It is virtuous or vicious, right or wrong, according to the motive which prompts it" (White, Child Guidance, p. 201). "It is the motive that gives character to our acts, stamping them with ignominy or with high moral worth. Not the great things which every eye sees and every tongue praises does God account most precious. The little duties cheerfully done, the little gifts which make no show, and which to human eyes may appear worthless, often stand highest in His sight" (White, The Desire of Ages, p. 615). "All a man's ways seem right to him, but the Lord weighs the heart" (Proverbs 21:2, NIV). ". . . The Lord does not look at the things man looks at. Man looks at the outward appearance, but the Lord looks at the heart" (1 Samuel 16:7, NIV).

SOCIAL Many secular authors define the level of moral development in terms of the degree to which the individual conforms to the social mores of his/her group. The Christian cannot accept this viewpoint because character is to be a reflection of the Law of God and the life of Christ. These standards for character development might conflict with the mores of the social group. However, since character develops within a social context and an individual's character influences other people, the social dimension is important to understanding character. While it is important to be able to evaluate a situation from a moral standpoint (social-cognitive model), it is also essential to have the inner strength and personal integrity to act on one's conviction in a social situation. "Even a child is known by his actions, by whether his conduct is pure and right" (Proverbs 20:11, NIV). "Character is that part of personality which is most subject to social approval" (Havighurst & Taba, 1949, p. 3). "Morality comes from the Latin word moralis; it means `customs, manners, or patterns of behavior that conform to the standards of the group.' . . . These judgments lead society to label him as `moral', or `immoral', depending on the degree of his conformity" (Hurlock, 1967, p. 427).

13

"To be moral is to act in ways that benefit the society; to be immoral is to act in ways that harm the society" (Clouse, 1993, p. 168). From a strictly anthropological, social viewpoint, moral or immoral judgments do depend on the standards of the society. "One cannot be moral until one recognizes the social consequences of one's acts, and one is moral to the degree that one controls one's conduct with concern for these consequences" (Chave, 1937, cited in Hurlock, 1967, p. 427). "Character, however, as we define it in CRP [Character Research Project], has no meaning apart from action, feeling, or thinking. . . . We watch him as he meets his environment, and we observe the quality of that interaction" (Ligon, 1956, p. 149). "`Love your neighbor as yourself'" (Matthew 22:39, NIV). "For this very reason, make every effort to add to your faith, goodness; and to goodness, knowledge; and knowledge, self-control; and to self-control, perseverance; and to perseverance, godliness; and to godliness, brotherly kindness; and to brotherly kindness, love" (2 Peter 1:5-7, NIV). Additional references: Leviticus 19:16-18.

SPIRITUAL Under the theological approach to moral development, Clouse (1985) defines morality as godliness. "Morality cannot be separated from goodness, and goodness cannot be separated from God" (p. 302). This definition includes moral conflict, moral behavior, moral reasoning, and moral potential. Each person is born with the capacity for good and evil and which prevails is determined by numerous factors including temperament, models of parents, teachers and peers, and punishments and reinforcers experienced (cf. Clouse, 1985, Chapter 6). The Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) view of character development is an outgrowth of a world view including the Great Controversy between God and Satan. Satan attacked God's character, saying that His demands were too great. Jesus came to this earth as a man and demonstrated perfect obedience to God's commandments, thereby showing the false nature of Satan's insinuations. Jesus vindicated God's character. This is the goal of the Christian's character development: to demonstrate to the universe that God's character can be reproduced in His children. This is crucial to proving God's justice. In this view, the spiritual dimension is central to the development of character. Crucial to character development is our ability to trust God to develop His likeness in us because Christian character cannot be developed by our efforts alone. The goal of reproducing God's character in the life of any human being is unattainable with solely human efforts. Character can only be truly developed within a spiritual context because the spiritual dimension affects all other dimensions. Gods grace is essential for character development.

14

SUGGESTED READINGS Dictionaries and encyclopedias under "character" and "personality". Clouse, Bonnidell. (1993). Teaching for moral growth. Answers the question of how an infant becomes a moral person using the learning, cognitive, humanistic, psychoanalytic, and theological approaches. Fowler, John M. (1977). The concepts of character development in the writings of Ellen G. White, pp. 74-98, 218-221. Excellent synthesis and summary of the concept of character development as developed in the published writings of Ellen G. White. Hersh, Richard H., Miller, John P. and Fielding, Glen D. (1980). Models of moral education, pp. 1-7. Excellent introduction to the field of moral education. Lickona, Thomas J. (1991). Educating for character: How our schools can teach respect and responsibility, chapters 1-4. Excellent and detailed summary of character education programs with definite suggestions for the practice of character education in schools. Ryan, Kevin & Bohlin, Karen E. (1999). Building Character in Schools, Foreword and Preface. A practical manual on building childrens character in schools. White, Ellen. (1952). Education, pp. 13-14. White, Ellen. (1954). Child guidance, pp. 161-163. White, Ellen. (1956). The sanctified life, pp. 80-88. White, Ellen. (1977). Mind, character, and personality, pp. 545-651. Index to the Writings of Ellen G. White under "Character".

15

CHAPTER TWO IMPORTANCE OF CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT

Why is character development important to the individual and to society? In what direction is the individual and collective morality of your society moving? What factors are contributing to that direction? INTRODUCTION Individual character provides the underpinning for society. A society is no stronger than the moral values of its individual citizens. When a society no longer sends a strong, cohesive message about moral living to the younger generation, that society begins to deteriorate from within. Honesty, productivity, caring for people, law and order become relics from a bygone era and individuals live in fear. From the religious viewpoint, eternal destiny is at stake, for character is the sum of the person's relationship with God. The Word of God provides a standard for values and moral decisions. Without this standard, individuals and groups wallow in a quagmire of shifting values with no stable anchor point. Values become subject to the exigencies of the moment and strength of character becomes a rarity. During the early decades of the twentieth century, character was a central focus of education. Schools were supposed to teach positive character traits in their curricula. Character development was viewed as one of the most important goals of education. Toward the middle of the century, interest in character education waned. Moral judgment became the password and research tended to focus on the "bits and pieces" of morality. The concept of character as a central, more stable, predictable core of personality became unpopular. The word was practically expunged from the research literature. However, toward the end of the 80's decade, a few educators began to reintroduce the notion of character. The "character" of politicians and other public persons became the subject of media exploitation. The lack of character in the citizenry, as evidenced by the drastic change in moral values, has recently become the focus of considerable attention. We appear to be on the way to again focusing on individual moral character after a hiatus of several decades. We are beginning to realize that a person may articulate a high level of moral reasoning with all the "right reasons", but may, indeed, behave in a completely different fashion. The average man or woman on the street could have told us this long ago. The following excerpts from different publications are arranged in chronological order, beginning with the most recent and ending with statements from earlier times. Throughout these decades there have always been voices speaking out for ethical values and morality, even though the research literature was focused on "value-free" education and moral judgment. The religious literature has always spoken out strongly for moral character. SECULAR VIEWS Very high on any wise list of dreams for our children is the hope that they do indeed become people of integrity. Of course, we may hope that they enjoy success and health and status and happiness, but we know that if they are lacking in integrity, all that will prove hollow. We also realize that if they have

16

integrity, they will be, despite any setback and discouragement, people whom we will admire as well as people who are proud of themselves. After all, their integrity is the one thingperhaps the only thingthat can never be taken away by anybody else. It is the unfailing compass within that always gives them a true reading north . . . it is the source of their identity. . . . Integrity, essential as it is, is untreated by most parenting writers (Riera & Di Prisco, 2002, pp. xi-xiii). Today in America we have far too many twelve-year-olds pushing drugs, fourteen-year-olds having babies, sixteen-year-olds killing each other, and kids of all ages admitting to lying, cheating, and stealing. We have crime and violence everywhere and unethical behavior in business, the professions, and government. In other words, we have a crisis of character all across America that is threatening to destroy the goodness that, as de Tocqueville put it, is the very foundation of our greatness. . . In other words we need to dramatically uplift the character of our nation (Ryan & Bohlin, 1999, p. x). How do we decide what is of lasting value in ourselves in a society which is impatient, which focuses on the immediate moment? How can long-term goals be pursued in an economy devoted to the short term? How can mutual loyalties and commitments be sustained in institutions which are constantly breaking apart or continually being redesigned? These are the questions about character posed by the new, flexible capitalism (Sennett, 1998, p. 10). ...Too many childrenthe affluent and the poor alikeare drifting through their childhood years without finding the skills, virtues, or sense of purpose that they will need to sustain a fruitful life. Social commentators have argued about where we may look for the sources of present-day youth problems....In all the places that children are raisedthe family, the school, the communityone conspicuous change has occurred within the lifetime of everyone reading this book: All the commonly accepted standards for young peoples skills and behavior have fallen drastically....Either as a cause or as a result, instruction, discipline, the very fostering of competence and character in the young are fast becoming lost arts. Every social analysis that I have seen pales in the light of this one disquieting fact (Damon, 1995, pp. xii, xiii). "There was a time when it was all basic education and skills building. Now we're giving the same attention to character building" (Fitzgerald, 1990, p. 37). The March/April Gallup poll on social values attempted to determine how important "following a strict moral code" was to Americans. Of those who responded, 60% indicated it was very important. In 1981, only 47% of the respondents felt that following a strict moral code was very important (Public values intangible assets more than material possessions, 1989, p. 38). "In earlier times, the crime rate stayed relatively low because of the prevailing morality - despite rapid urbanization, a large influx of poor immigrants, and other negative factors, according to Wilson. Today's culture, however, `replaces the ethic of self-control with the ethic of self-expression.' Readily admitting that he does not know how government could teach virtue to its citizens, Wilson urges a reevaluation of the relationship between the governmental role and character building" (Lack of virtue = social problems, 1986, p.8). An essential component of long-term business survival is character" (Herzberg, 1982, p. 29). "Many of the decisions in our lives are moral ones--that is, we are often faced with some dilemma which requires that we make a judgment about what we `ought' to do in that situation... It is frequently the case that our own moral judgments are antagonistic to those of others, as evidenced not only by the great moral debates of our times, but also by the more mundane moral conflicts in our day-to-day interpersonal lives" (Arbuthnot & Faust, 1981, p. 5).

17

"In our day of a self-sufficient teen-age society and unchaperoned paired relationships, teenagers are called upon to make more moral decisions before they are 20 years of age than their great-grandparents made in a lifetime" (Landis, 1954, cited in Hurlock, 1967, p. 428). What about today - the 21st century?

RELIGIOUS VIEW "Our most basic need is a moral and spiritual renewal that will touch every aspect of our lives. The problems we will confront . . . are fundamentally moral and spiritual: World hunger, economic and social injustice, the threat of a nuclear holocaust, the plight of the poor. They will never be solved without a change of heart, in which greed and indifference are replaced with compassion and sacrifice" (Graham, 1985, p. 138). "We have a deep primitive sense that morality is woven into the fabric of our humanness. Morality is not a con game that makes losers out of those who play it seriously. It is not a false rumor planted in an insecure society to help the weak keep the powerful in check by playing on their conscience. Nor is morality just an impressive name for the strong feelings we have about some things, a word we use to add some clout to our complaints. Morality is a basic component of any human sort of life, a reality we feel surely even if we cannot define it clearly. We do have choices, and they are sometimes between real moral options. The choice we make can put us in the wrong with God and our ideal selves - or leave us in the right. And being in the right means being in harmony with God's design for our humanity. "Morality, then emerges from what we are as human beings. To demoralize life is to dehumanize it. The call of morality is an invitation to the truly human life" (Smedes, 1983, p. vii). "A character formed according to the Divine likeness is the only treasure that we can take from this world to the next. Those who are under the instruction of Christ in this world will take every divine attainment with them to the heavenly mansions. And in heaven we are continually to improve. How important, then, is the development of character in this life" (White, Christ's Object Lessons, p. 322). "True education does not ignore the value of scientific knowledge or literary acquirements; but above information it values power; above power, goodness; above intellectual acquirements, character. The world does not so much need men of great intellect as of noble character. It needs men in whom ability is controlled by steadfast principle" (White, Education, p. 225). "Character building is the great work of life" (White, Patriarchs and Prophets, p. 596). "The greatest work that can be done in our world is to glorify God by living the character of Christ" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 6, p. 439). "The precious hours of probation are granted that you may remove every defect from your character, and this you should seek to do, not only that you may obtain the future life, but that you may be useful in this life. A good character is a capital of more value than gold or silver. . . Integrity, firmness, and perseverance are qualities that all should seek earnestly to cultivate; for they clothe the possessor with a power which is irresistible--a power which makes him strong to do good, strong to resist evil, strong to bear adversity" (White, Messages to Young People, pp. 415-416). Additional references: John 5:28, 29; Matthew 5:48; Matthew 7:21; Revelation 22:12, 14; White, Counsels to Parents, Teachers, and Students, p. 61; White, Education, p. 109, 225; White, Child Guidance, 162; White, Selected Messages, vol 1, p. 259; White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 4, p. 657.

18

SUGGESTED READINGS Fowler, John M. (1977). The concepts of character development in the writings of Ellen G. White, p. 98105, 221-223. Coles, Robert. (1997). The moral intelligence of children, preface. Grant, Barry. (1985). The moral nature of psychotherapy. Counseling and values, 29(2), 141-150. Habenicht, Donna J. (2000). 10 Christian values every kid should know: A guide for families, chapters 1 and 2. Lickona, Thomas J. (1991). Educating for character: How our schools can teach respect and responsibility, chapter 3. White, Ellen. (1952). Education, pp. 28-30, 104-112, 225-229.

19

CHAPTER THREE THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

What major theoretical perspectives are used to explain and describe moral development and what are the major contributions of each perspective? What areas of agreement are evident? In what ways do these theories complement each other? Are there irreconcilable differences in the way they approach moral development? What is the emphasis or thrust of contemporary research on moral development and what approach is taken toward character development? How does each theory explain how an amoral infant becomes a moral individual?

THE ROLE OF THEORY Researchers in human development usually work from a particular theoretical position because this facilitates systematic observation and conclusions regarding the process of development. Contemporary major theoretical viewpoints which have contributed the most in the area of moral development are: (1) Psychoanalytic, (2) social-learning, (3) cognitive-development, and (4) humanistic. The cognitive-developmental approach dominates the field. The humanistic view has contributed some ideas about values (mainly through values clarification and the personological approaches), while the ethological perspectives generally do not address moral development in a systematic way. Recently the information processing approach and the constructivist model have been applied to moral character development

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY The psychoanalytic view of moral development assumes there is a basic core personality that is formed by the unconscious and continuous interaction between the id, ego, and superego between the second and sixth year. The child is originally born with irrational impulses and a desire to satisfy his or her own needs (id). These desires are modified by the development of the superego which forms the moral character of the person and is diametrically opposed to the desires of the id. When the child becomes frustrated with parental control and develops hostility over anticipated punishment or loss of parental love, the child adopts the rules of the parents (and thereby the rules of society). In order to avoid guilt, the child acts according to the parental prohibitions he or she has internalized. When conflicts arise and feelings of guilt and anxiety are present, the ego employs defense mechanisms (such as denial, repression, projection) to restore psychic equilibrium and enable the child to defend against conscious impulses to act in a way contrary to parental demands. Research emanating from this viewpoint usually emphasizes identification processes, guilt, parental disciplinary techniques and parent-child interaction styles. Motives and affect are major considerations. SOCIAL-LEARNING THEORY This viewpoint is not strictly developmental because the process is the same at all ages. A person learns by imitating the behavior of other people. The stimulus, a model, acts upon the person who makes a response. The response is linked to a reinforcer which ensures the continuance or discontinuance of the response until a habit pattern is formed.

20

Morality is usually defined as specific acts which are right or wrong, generally as defined by the culture. Conscience, for example, is simply a reflex conditioned through rewards or punishments. Self-administered rewards and punishments have been the subject of much study because these would lead to the development of internal moral standards. Observational learning has become an important part of this viewpoint. Obviously parents and teachers become very important agents for socializing children to act in the right ways. This approach has generated a great deal of research on behavior change and has proven effective in working with both antisocial and prosocial behavior. Research has also focused on the development of the ability to resist temptations to deviate from a moral norm.

COGNITIVE-DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY The cognitive-developmental view sees morality as a developmental process where a person changes as he or she progresses from lower to more complex levels of morality by interacting with the environment and reorganizing stimuli to further personal adaptation and level of functioning. Moral development occurs within the person and cannot be generated by an outside source. It parallels the person's intellectual development. Morality moves from a relatively undifferentiated and global reasoning process to an increasingly differentiated and integrated reasoning process. Each new stage emerges from its predecessor due to a cognitive conflict where disequilibrium causes a need to restructure views and adapt to the surrounding world by synthesizing the content of old and new stages. The order of stages is universal, hierarchical, and invariate. Progression from one stage to the next is an active process in which the child engages the environment in interactions that eventually modify the cognitive structures underlying behavior. This view has focused primarily on moral judgment (thought processes), generating criticism that actions and feelings are not sufficiently considered. The stages of moral judgment proposed by Kohlberg, the principal proponent of this view, are backed by extensive research.

HUMANISTIC THEORY Humanism reflects the idea that the greatest attributes are those that make people distinctly human. It places its emphasis on the positive aspects of the human condition: human beings are born with the potential for moral development, they are born good and with abilities to integrate the elements in their environments for good. As children grow, their perceptive field enlarges to include not only their own needs but also the needs of others and they strive to achieve good. Moral development comes from within the individual. Morals are self determined and depend on personal perception. Development and change occur when the perception changes. Although moral development comes from within, it must be encouraged by a suitable environment or development will be hindered. Since human beings are integrated wholes, all development is interrelated. This means that the sum of all experiencescognitive, affective and behavioralwill contribute to their moral development.

21

Moral choices are made by the clarification of the individual's personal values. Great emphasis is placed on the process of forming values as it is through this process the individual can reach self-actualization. The individual must realize that there are always better choices and move toward them. Morality has many forms of expression and finds its greatest meaning in relationships between people. For the humanists, the moral ideal is self-actualization. A self-actualized person experiences a deep feeling of identification with others, and has a genuine desire to help them. As a morally mature individual, he is altruistic, generous and cooperative.

COMPARISON OF THEORIES In general these theoretical viewpoints are very different in their perspectives on moral development. As we have noted, the psychoanalytic view stresses motives and affect, the sociallearning approach stresses actions, the cognitive-developmental view focuses on thought processes, while the humanistic view focuses on potential. However, there are some points of agreement, as suggested by Mussen and Eisenberg-Berg (1977): "Children are initially self-centered; children become more oriented toward others as they achieve greater cognitive maturity and experience; and with development the control of moral behavior shifts from external rewards to internalized motives or individualized principles" (p. 34). Actually the viewpoints are somewhat complementary although they have not been integrated into a cohesive theory. Some attempts have been made to join different views, but no systematic, all-inclusive theory has yet emerged. Ryan and Lickona (1987) have proposed a model which includes moral knowing, feeling, and action. The model is further expanded in Educating for Character (1991, chapter 4). Thomas (1997) has made a serious attempt to explain how moral development occurs in his book: An Integrated Theory of Moral Development. The social-cognitive and information processing models are currently receiving considerable attention.

RESEARCH AND CURRICULAR EFFORTS The succeeding chapters will examine the major classic research studies and moral education models. Each of these comes from a particular theoretical viewpoint. To provide a framework for understanding these models, it is important to identify the underlying theory.

22

Moral Development
Peck & Havighurst Hoffman (discipline) Bronfenbrenner Bandura (modeling) Piaget Kohlberg Fowler Dewey Maslow Raths, Harmin, & Simon

Theory
Psychoanalytic

Moral Education
Inculcation Action Learning Consideration Moral Development Analysis Rationale Building Values Clarification Union (Confluent Education) Action Learning

Social-Learning CognitiveDevelopmental Humanistic

APPROACHES TO MORAL DEVELOPMENT Psychologists depict moral development in many ways: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Increasing capacity for guilt Conformity to group norms Internal regulation of behavior in absence of external sanctions Prosocial or helping behavior (including empathy and altruism) Reasoning about justice

Each of these conceptions contributes to understanding moral development, but by itself is inadequate to provide a complete understanding. An integrating approach to psychological research is needed. Carroll and Rest (1982) propose "that a fully developed morality involves: "1. Recognition and sensitivity: translating and disambiguating a given social situation so as to be aware that a moral problem exists; to be sensitive enough to recognize that someone's welfare is at stake; "2. Moral judgment: determining what ideally ought to be done in the situation, what one's moral ideals call for or which moral norms apply in the given circumstances; "3. Values and influences: devising a plan of action with one's moral ideal in mind but also taking into account nonmoral values and goals which the situation may activate, as well as the influence of situational pressures; "4. Execution and implementation of moral action: behaving in accordance with one's goal despite distractions, impediments, and incidental adjustments; organizing and sustaining behavior to realize one's goals. "People can fail to act morally due to deficiencies in any one of these four processes" (pp. 434-435). This model has increased in status and is currently quite widely accepted.

23

ISSUES IN CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH ON MORAL DEVELOPMENT Research on moral development has burgeoned during the last twenty-five years. Researchers are interested in many different aspects of moral development, including, but not limited to, altruism, modeling, prosocial behavior, antisocial behavior, aggression, empathy, discipline, parenting styles, moral education, and media influence. Many different types of research have a bearing on the problem of moral development. For example: bystander reactions to emergencies, social inferential ability, assertiveness, empathy, role-taking ability, socialization, judgments of responsibility, analysis of information-processing as applied to moral judgments, stage theory of development, cognitive development, delinquency, fairmindedness, behavioral observations of specific actions (i.e., cheating, keeping a promise), values, delay of gratification, resistance to deviation, identification theory, social learning theory, personality theory, and others. Moral character has recently reemerged in the research literature, after a hiatus of decades. Although many contemporary researchers still do not view moral development as character development, the idea is being seriously discussed. In psychology, character implies unity and predictiveness of behavior, a concept in disrepute since the work of Hartshorne and May (1928). Today some leaders in the field believe Hartshorne and May were misinterpreted and their findings given too much prominence. As research on moral development becomes more sophisticated, there is increasing awareness of the complexity of the problem of moral development, especially as it relates to character development.

SUGGESTED READING Carroll, James L., & Rest, James R. (1982). Moral development. In Wolman, Benjamin B. & George Stricker (Eds.), Handbook of developmental psychology (pp. 434-451). Clouse, Bonnidell. (1993). Teaching for moral growth. Gruen, Gerald E., & Larrieu, Julie. (1983). The development of moral values and behavior: Implications for clinical practice. In C. Eugene Walker and Michael C. Roberts (Eds.), Handbook of clinical child psychology (pp. 937-957). Lapsley, Daniel K. (1996). Moral psychology. Lifton, Peter D. (1985). Individual differences in moral development: The relation of sex, gender, and personality to morality. Journal of Personality, 53, 306-334. Sapp, Gary L. (Ed.). (1986). Handbook of moral development. Thomas, R. Murray. (1997) An integrated theory of moral development. Thomas, R. Murray. (1997) Moral development theoriessecular and religious: A comparative study.

24

CHAPTER FOUR CRITERIA FOR CHARACTER

How can character be evaluated? When is it proper or improper to do so? What are the criteria used to evaluate character from each of the main secular theoretical viewpoints? from a religious viewpoint? What secular and religious revelations of character are available? How do the Ten Commandments reveal the character of God? How does the life of Christ on this earth provide criteria for character development? How does nature reveal criteria for character development? What is the goal of character development from a secular and a religious viewpoint? Why is character called the "passport to heaven"?

This chapter seeks to address some fundamental questions related to character development. First, how can character be evaluated, in ourselves and in others? Teachers and parents are regularly called upon to make evaluations. In fact, the responsibility of helping a child or adolescent develop character assumes that someone else (the parent or teacher) can evaluate where the child needs help. However, evaluating the inner qualities of character is always difficult and uncertain. Second, what are the criteria used to evaluate character? The secular and religious views have very different answers to this question. Third, are there examples of character which provide guidance for character growth? Again, the secular and religious views approach the answer very differently. And finally, what is the goal of character development? Since the secular and the religious views provide very different, sometimes opposing, answers to these questions, this chapter is organized around a comparison of the secular and religious views of criteria for judging character, revelations (models of character), and the goal of character development.

CRITERIA FOR CHARACTER Theoretical View Learning Theory - In this approach, the survival of society is paramount and the individual must be of benefit to society instead of causing harm to be considered moral. To ensure the survival of society, an individual is taught to be moral through environmental conditioning which can be a process of classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning, and modeling and imitation of others. Morality is not fixed; it changes as the occasion changes. Each group, culture and society determines what is moral and immoral. The criteria for judging what is moral is determined by what promotes optimal functioning for the group. Cognitive Theory - This approach states that moral development occurs within the individual and changes as the individual develops intellectually. Morality develops in a series of stages which occur universally and are invariant and hierarchical. Movement through the stages occurs through experiencing conflict between their experiences and perceptions which come about by increased intellectual development.

25

Humanistic Theory - This approach assumes that humans are born with the potential to develop morally and that this development comes from within the individual and is partially influenced by environmental factors which can impede or facilitate a person's moral development. All development is a person's life is related and therefore morality cannot be separated from other aspects of a person's life. Psychoanalytic Theory - In this approach, the human is considered to be depraved with irrational passions and drives which the person desires to accomplish. For moral development to occur, the person must internalize the rules and demands of society as demonstrated by parents. The optimal time for moral development is between ages two and six when the parents are informing the child of the `shoulds' and the `should nots' of life. Moral development occurs within conflict. The conflict is between the person's desire to satisfy self and the expectations of society. Theological Theory - This approach assumes that each individual is born with the potential for both good and evil; good because humans were created in the image of God, evil because of the sin of Adam. The direction the individual takes is influenced by temperament, modeling of significant others, and reinforcements, and many other factors. Moral development is inseparable from goodness which is inseparable from godliness which encompasses the perfection and majesty of God and sets the standard for morality.

Secular View In judging character secular authorities place emphasis on conformity to the standards of the group. "Plainly, no natural (objective or material) principles exist in the world. Morality can only be the agreements that people make with one another. Moral traditions and norms have no greater objective reality. Originally they were constructed as agreements among people. Therefore morality is but one kind of social knowledge. . . morality can be based on nothing more (or less) than the common moral agreements achieved by people across time and place. No objective principles of morality exist apart from human experience to guide our characterizations of morality" (Haan, 1982, pp. 1097, 1103). "At every age, the individual is judged by how he conforms to the standards of the group. These judgments lead society to label him as `moral' or `immoral', depending on the degree of his conformity" (Hurlock, 1967, p. 427). "Misconduct or good conduct must be understood, like other conduct, in the terms of the child's needs, his group's values, and the demands of the situation" (Kohlberg, 1964, p. 424).

Religious Views Through Divine inspiration, finite beings are cautioned against judging the character of another human being because we are not able to adequately judge the underlying motives of another or even our own motives. Appearances are often deceptive. ". . .He has not committed to us the work of judging character and motive. He knows our nature too well to entrust this work to us. . . .Often we regard as hopeless subjects the very ones whom Christ is

26

drawing to Himself. . . .Many who think themselves Christians will at last be found wanting. Many will be in heaven who their neighbors supposed would never enter there. Man judges from appearance, but God judges the heart" (White, Christ's Object Lessons, 71-72). "Remember that you cannot read hearts. You do not know the motives which prompted the actions that to you look wrong" (White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 494). "Christ has plainly taught that those who persist in open sin must be separated from the church, but he has not committed to us the work of judging character and motive" (White, Christ's Object Lessons, p. 71). "Appearance is not positive evidence of Christian character" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 1, p. 322). Additional references: Matthew 7:1-5; Matthew 13:24-30; Matthew 25:31-46; White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 483. Can character be judged? Yes, to some extent evaluations can be made according to what people say and do. "Ye shall know them by their fruits" (Matthew 7:16). Although only God can truly understand the motives behind actions, a helping person must make some assessment of needs, otherwise there is no direction for helping the child, the client, the student or the parishioner. Society generally evaluates character by the standards of the group. From the Christian viewpoint, evaluation means comparing with God's standard to identify areas of needed growth and change. God has provided the criteria for judging character: His Law. He alone is able to pass judgment on the character of human beings. The Law of God is a description of how people behave if they love God and their fellow man. It is a description of God's character. "Every act of our lives, whether excellent and praiseworthy or deserving of censure, is judged by the Searcher of hearts according to the motives which prompted it" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 2, pp. 511-512). "Obedience is the test that proves character" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol 4, p. 188). "God's holy law is the only thing by which we can determine whether we are keeping His way or not" (White, Selected Messages, vol 1, p. 315). "It is difficult for us to understand ourselves, to have a correct knowledge of our own characters. The Word of God is plain, but often there is an error in applying it to one's self" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 5, p. 332). ". . .For one thing, I do not mean that God speaks his moral will only through the `thou shalt's' of the Bible. The Bible has many styles and many methods for telling us what God expects us to do. Moreover, the Bible is not the only place that God speaks His will. The community of faith may discern the will of God in the silences and storms of its own life, and it may hear the voice of God in the cries of the hungry children of our world" (Smedes, 1983, p. 5). "-Kingdom people will live with a sense of repentance and faith, both in entering the kingdom and in their ongoing work in the kingdom.

27

-Kingdom people will live with a sense of responsible stewardship about life and material possessions. Jesus' parables about stewards and talents illustrate this. -Kingdom people will live with a sense of grace. This grace would be understood as the very presence of God with us, gracing us with Himself and through that we grace others. The parable of the vineyard is an example. -Kingdom people will live out a sense of service. Our culture has trained us so well that servanthood is `being used' that we fail to see the power the comes from this model of life. -Kingdom people will live with perseverance. Once their hand is to the plow, they don't look back. (If you do you will plow a crooked row, even with modern tillers!) Once their goal is set, their eye remains on the goal. They stay on course. So, a spirit of tenacity, of staying with it, is indicated. -Kingdom people will love. This flowed through everything Jesus said or did. He took time to talk to children. Mark said He held them in the crook of His arm (Mark 10:13-16) or hugged them. What an attractive, fun person He must have been for children to have wanted to be close to Him. When asked what was the best thing of all one could do, Jesus said, `Love God and right along beside that love your neighbor' (Matt 22:37-40, author's paraphrase)" (Tillman & Gilbert, 1986, pp. 50-51). Additional References: White, The Desire of Ages, 615; White, Education, 19; White, The Sanctified Life, 38, 58.

REVELATIONS OF CHARACTER Secular Views From a secular viewpoint there are some revelations of character (however limited): 1. People 2. Norms of Society "First premise determines the kind of moral system that can be constructed: If humans are innately selfish, morality becomes society's control of selfishness, society being invented to curb everyone's selfishness and thereby insure survival" (Haan, 1982, p. 1098). "The general conclusion seems inescapable that a child's character is the direct product, almost a direct reproduction of the way his parents treat him. As they are to him, so he is to all others" (Peck & Havighurst, 1960, p. 178). "He (the child) may argue against parental precepts one day and be overheard the next passing them along as his own convictions. . . . As most adults realize, many of their preachments sound fatuous to the children they are meant to influence, but they ought not on that account to abandon their notions of conduct and morals. The way children continue to take on adult values even as they resist them implies also that little pitchers have big ears" (Stone & Church, 1973, p. 356). "If character is really as important to us Americans as we say it is, then there should be rigorous, alert recruitment and selection of teachers and other youth leaders on grounds of maturity of personality and character. Their own natures are going to influence children much more than any verbal information they convey" (Peck & Havighurst, 1960, p. 191).

28

Religious View God has revealed His character through His Law, the life of Christ, His created works, His Word, and the lives of His followers. God has not left human beings in doubt about the model for character. "Christ, the Word, the revelation of God--the manifestation of His character, His law, His love, His life--is the only foundation upon which we can build a character that will endure" (White, Thoughts from the Mount of Blessing, p. 149). The Law of God "His law is a transcript of His own character, and it is the standard of all character. . . . The life of Christ on earth was a perfect expression of God's law, and when those who claim to be children of God become Christlike in character, they will be obedient to God's commandments. Then the Lord can trust them to be of the number who shall compose the family of heaven" (White, Christ's Object Lessons, p. 315). "The law of God is as sacred as Himself. It is a revelation of His will, a transcript of His character, the expression of divine love and wisdom" (White, Patriarchs and Prophets, p. 52). Additional references: White, Thoughts from the Mount of Blessing, p. 97:3; White, Selected Messages, vol. 1, p. 213, 317; vol. 2, p. 318; White, The Great Controversy, p. 465; White, Signs of the Times, vol. 24, p. 114; 1 John 5:2, 3; 1 John 2:3-6; John 17:7; Psalm 119:105; Psalm 19:7-10; Psalm 1:1-3. The Life of Christ The life of Christ is the most tangible evidence of what God is like. Through the witnesses who saw Christ, we can see what Jesus was like. "In our character building Christ is the example" (White, Child Guidance, p. 166). "Through Christ had been communicated every ray of divine light that had ever reached our fallen world. . . . In Him was found the perfect ideal" (White, Education, p. 73). "In the Teacher sent from God, heaven gave to man its best and greatest. . . . To reveal this ideal as the only true standard for attainment; to show what every human being might become; what, through the indwelling of humanity by divinity, all who received Him would become--for this, Christ came into the world" (p. 73). "The Saviour's entire life was characterized by disinterested benevolence and the beauty of holiness. He is our pattern of goodness. From the beginning of His ministry, men began to comprehend more clearly the character of God. He carried out His teachings in His own life. He showed consistency without obstinacy, benevolence without weakness, tenderness and sympathy without sentimentalism. He was highly social, yet He possessed a reserve that discouraged any familiarity. His temperance never led to bigotry or austerity. He was not conformed to the world, yet He was attentive to the wants of the least among men" (White, Counsels to Parents, Teachers, and Students, p. 262). Additional references: John 14:8, 9; Hebrews 1:3; John 6:35; John 14:6, 21; White, The sanctified life, pp. 7, 8; White, The Desire of Ages, p. 762.

29

The Book of Nature "Upon all created things is seen the impress of the Deity. Nature testifies of God. The susceptible mind, brought in contact with the miracle and mystery of the universe, cannot but recognize the working of infinite power. . . "The same power that upholds nature, is also working in man. . . . Only in harmony with Him can be found its true sphere of action. For all the objects of His creation the condition is the same--a life sustained by receiving the life of God, a life exercised in harmony with the Creator's will. To transgress His law, physical, mental or moral, is to place one's self out of harmony with the universe, to introduce discord, anarchy, ruin. "To him who learns thus to interpret its teachings, all nature becomes illuminated; the world is a lesson book, life a school. The unity of man with nature and with God, the universal dominion of the law, the results of transgression, cannot fail of impressing the mind and molding the character" (White, Education, pp. 99-100). "All created things, in their original perfection, were an expression of the thought of God. To Adam and Eve nature was teeming with divine wisdom. But by transgression man was cut off from learning of God through direct communion and, to a great degree, through His works. The earth, marred and defiled by sin, reflects but dimly the Creator's glory. It is true that His object lessons are not obliterated. Upon every page of the great volume of His created works may still be traced His handwriting. Nature still speaks of her Creator. Yet these revelations are partial and imperfect. And in our fallen state, with weakened powers and restricted vision we are incapable of interpreting aright. We need the fuller revelation of Himself that God has given in His written word" (pp. 16-17). Nature reveals God's character through the orderliness in the universe (consistency), humor, love of beauty, attention to details, infinite variety (He must be imaginative), and care for each little thing (sparrow). Additional references: Romans 1:20; John 1:1-3; Proverbs 6:6; Luke 12:24, 27, 28; Psalm 19:1; White, The Sanctified life, p. 75; Fowler, 1977, p. 109.

The Lives of His Followers Throughout the ages God has provided, through the lives of godly men and women, a revelation of the workings of His will on the life of those who follow His leading. In every age--no matter how corrupt--His followers have shone through the darkness as beacons of hope to mankind. "The purity and beneficence of Joseph, the faith and meekness and long-suffering of Moses, the steadfastness of Elisha, the noble integrity and firmness of Daniel, the ardor and self-sacrifice of Paul, the mental and spiritual power manifest in all these men, and in all others who had ever dwelt on the earth, were but gleams from the shining of His glory. In Him was found the perfect ideal" (White, Education, p. 73). "The character of Daniel is presented to the world as a striking example of what God's grace can make of men fallen by nature and corrupted by sin. The record of his noble, self-denying life is an encouragement to our common humanity. From it we may gather strength to nobly resist temptation, and

30

firmly, and in the grace of meekness, stand for the right under the severest trial" (White, Counsels on Diet and Foods, pp. 30, 31). "How was Joseph enabled to make such a record of firmness of character, uprightness, and wisdom? - In his early years he had consulted duty rather than inclination; and the integrity, the simple trust, the noble nature, of the youth bore fruit in the deeds of the man. A pure and simple life had favored the vigorous development of both physical and intellectual powers. Communion with God through His works, and the contemplation of the grand truth entrusted to the inheritors of the faith, had elevated and ennobled his spiritual nature, broadening and strengthening the mind as no other study could do. Faithful attention to duty in every station, from the lowliest to the most exalted, had been training every power for its highest service" (White, Patriarchs and Prophets, p. 222). Even today we are asked to imitate the revelation of God's character as closely as possible: "If Christian mothers will present to society children with integrity of character, with firm principles and sound morals, they will have performed the most important of all missionary labors. Their children, thoroughly educated to take their places in society, are the greatest evidence of Christianity that can be given to the world" (White, Child Guidance, p. 163). "With our limited powers we are to be as holy in our sphere as God is holy in His sphere. To the extent of our ability, we are to make manifest the truth and love and excellence of the divine character" (White, Selected Messages, vol. 1, pp. 336-337). God's followers demonstrate both positive and negative aspects of character. By careful observation we can observe how God works in both instances. However, while the example of individuals is a powerful influence in the development of character, especially in the young, we are directed to look to a more perfect example. "For us to imitate the example of any man--even a person who in our human judgment we might regard as perfect in character--would be to put our trust in an imperfect, defective human being, who is unable to impart one jot or title of perfection to any other human being" (White, Our High Calling, p. 108).

GOAL OF CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT Secular View Responsibility and Respect "The natural moral law defining the public school's moral agenda can be expressed in terms of two great values: respect and responsibility. These values constitute the core of a universal, public morality. They have objective, demonstrable worth in that they promote the good of the individual and the good of the whole community" (Lickona, 1991, p. 43).

31

Integrity "The growing person who realizes life and its possibilities most fully is the one who is able to draw to the fullest extent, within the limits set by heredity and circumstances, on the capacities and resources that go with life. "One moral attribute of a life so lived, when viewed from within, is that it has integrity, a quality that might be called `trueness to self' in the sense that the individual, whether his talents be great or small, is as genuine and authentic as a human being in his circumstances can be" (Jersild, 1960, p. 415). "The shortest and surest way to live with honor in the world, is to be in reality what we would appear to be." Socrates. Mature Love "Alone among types, therefore, such a person is capable of mature, unselfish, realistic love (rationalaltruistic type). If he cannot be ruled at all times by this, nonetheless the very capacity to do it makes him qualitatively different from the less mature people" (Peck & Havighurst, 1960, p. 172). Develop a Value System "Well-established values systems within and among each of these main categories [theoretical, aesthetic, economic, social, political, religious] furnish an individual with relative standards and not only determine his choices in different life situations but also give him a feeling of security for making those choices. Rather than flounder in trying to arrive at decisions, he is able to direct more attention and energy to the attainment of goals" (Garrison, Kingston, & Bernard, 1967, pp. 242-243).

Self-Actualization "Healthy growth is. . . usually defined now as `growth toward self-actualization', . . . Selfactualization is defined in various ways but a solid core of agreement is perceptible. All definitions accept or imply, (a) acceptance and expression of the inner core or self, i.e., actualization of these latent capacities, and potentialities, `full functioning,' availability of the human and personal essence" (Maslow, 1968, p. 197).

"The self-actualizing people are motivated toward growth. This is perhaps their most distinctive characteristic because most other people deficiency-motivated, seeking to overcome or compensate for negative influences. "Self-actualizers feel secure in their own significance, pursue their goals relatively oblivious to the pressures that would have them act otherwise, and do not depend on, or make undue demands of, others. "They accept themselves and are content to be what they are and what they are becoming. "They understand themselves and view their weaknesses with somewhat the same objectivity they have for the weaknesses of others: Throughout life they become increasingly autonomous and can stand on their own feet in their present location.

32

"They perceive the deficiencies of certain aspects of society but they are not rebelling against authority... The word tolerant is apropos in this context. "They recognize their own competencies but they are willing to accept advice and direction in areas where they are less competent. They combine pride with humility. "They are active participants in life. "They accept responsibility for their own growth and perceive responsibility for the welfare of others. "They relate positively to others and win some friends, but their clear perception of reality may not make them highly social persons. "Recognizing all humans as having frailties, their acceptance of self and others leads to increased control over such feelings as anger, hate, fear, and jealousy. "They behave spontaneously . . . Simplicity and naturalness become salient aspects of their lifestyles. "They react with resilience to temporary stress, contradiction, and disappointment. Life has for them a face of continued freshness. "Self-actualizing people are creative" (Bernard, 1978, pp. 560, 561). "An essential element of self-actualization is to be so self-sufficient that one can smile at and accept the tolerance of compatriots yet proceed confidently on one's own course. The thing that keeps this independence from being criminal is that creative people do not feel compelled to flaunt their differences" (Bernard, 1978, p. 558). Maturity Summary of the characteristics of the mature individual: Capable of continued change Capable of self-determination Development of wisdom Expression of humor At home with reality At home with himself Human relationships have a high priority Powerful concern with social problems Committed to a democratic code of ethics Does not accept values ready-made Lives in consciousness of his own mortality The mature person knows "that the only real rewards of life come with continued growth, and that there is no room in the one material life he has for major regrets. . . . The individual who has approached maturity can know that he has loved, has done his work, has made his mark on people, and, although he wishes there were more time, that he has made the most of what there was. "In sum, the adult with a capacity for true maturity is one who has grown out of childhood without losing childhood's best traits. He has retained the basic emotional strengths of infancy, the stubborn

33

autonomy of toddlerhood, the capacity for wonder and pleasure and playfulness of the preschool years, the capacity for affiliation and intellectual curiosity of the school years, and the idealism and passion of adolescence. He has incorporated these into a new pattern of simplicity dominated by adult stability, wisdom, knowledge, sensitivity to other people, responsibility, strength, and purposiveness" (Stone & Church, 1973, p. 499).

Religious View Christlikeness "We are conformed to the moral likeness of Jesus as we are being made holy by him and sanctified by his spirit. . . This will enable us to more fully describe God's moral-spiritual intention for humans, which includes growing as unique individuals in the context of relational unity" (Sholl, 1983, p. 189). "The character of Christ is the one perfect pattern which we are to copy" (White, Counsels to Parents, Teachers, and Students, p. 50). "Higher than the highest human thought can reach is God's ideal for His children. Godliness-godlikeness--is the goal to be reached" (White, Education, p. 18). "He is a perfect and holy example, given for us to imitate. We cannot equal the pattern; but we shall not be approved of God if we do not copy it and according to the ability which God has given, resemble it" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 2, p. 549). "Obedience to the law of God develops in man a beautiful character that is in harmony with all that is pure and holy and undefiled. . . . His daily obedience to the law of God obtains for him a character that assures him eternal life in the kingdom of God" (White, Sons and Daughters of God, p. 42). "To bring back into harmony with God, so to elevate and ennoble his moral nature that he may again reflect the image of the Creator, is the great purpose of all the education and discipline of life" (White, Counsels to Parents, Teachers, and Students, p. 49). "The goal for the Christian personality is to make the child admire the qualities of Jesus, so that Jesus will become his ideal" (Ligon, 1935, p. 337). Perfection "God's ideal for His children is higher than the human thought can reach. `Be ye therefore perfect, even as your Father which is in heaven is perfect.'. . . The ideal of Christian character is Christlikeness. As the Son of man was perfect in His life, so His followers are to be perfect in their life" (White, The Desire of Ages, p. 311). "God's work is perfect as a whole because it is perfect in every part, however minute. He fashions the tiny spear of grass with as much care as He would exercise in making a world. If we desire to be perfect, even as our Father in heaven is perfect, we must be faithful in doing little well. Whatever your work may be, do it faithfully. Speak of truth in regard to the smallest matters. Each day do loving deeds and speak cheerful words. Scatter smiles along the pathway of life" (White, Messages to Young People, p. 144).

34

"One defect, cultivated instead of being overcome, makes the man imperfect, and closes against him the gate of the Holy City. He who enters heaven must have a character that is without spot or wrinkle or any such thing. Naught that defileth can ever enter there. In all the redeemed host not one defect will be seen" (p. 144). "God will accept only those who are determined to aim high. He places every human agent under obligation to do his best. Moral perfection is required of all. Never should we lower the standard or righteousness in order to accommodate inherited or cultivated tendencies to wrongdoing. We need to understand that imperfection of character is sin. All righteous attributes of character dwell in God as a perfect, harmonious whole, and everyone who receives Christ as a personal Saviour is privileged to possess these attributes" (White, Christ's Object Lessons, p. 330). "Perfection of character is thus a divine expectation and a necessary result of the divine-human unity brought about by the empowering of the Holy Spirit in response to man's continual faith in, and acceptance of, the divine provision for character development" (Fowler, 1977, pp. 146-147). "I will be your representative in heaven. The Father beholds not your faulty character, but He sees you as clothed in My perfection" (White, The Desire of Ages, p. 357). "Through the measure of His grace furnished to the human agent, not one need miss heaven. Perfection of character is attainable by everyone who strives for it. This is made the very foundation of the new covenant of the gospel" (White, Selected Messages, vol. 1, p. 211-212). Perfection is a continuous growth, not easy or quick. It is not an end in itself; it is a process (Fowler, 1977, p. 150). Perfection of character must be accomplished now; it will not be conferred at Christ's coming. "When He comes He is not . . . to remove from us the defects in our characters. . . . No work will then be done for them to remove their defects and give them holy characters. . . . This is all to be done in these hours of probation. It is now that this work is to be accomplished for us" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 2, p. 355). [Notice the last two words: for us, not by us.] Additional References: Matthew 16:24-27; 1 John 3:2; White, Christ's Object Lessons, p. 69; White, Education, p. 15-16, 106; White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 4, p. 521; White, Selected Messages, vol. 1, p. 337.

Why is character called the "passport to heaven"? "He who co-operates with the divine purpose in imparting to the youth a knowledge of God, and molding the character into harmony with His, does a high and noble work. As he awakens a desire to reach God's ideal, he presents an education that is as high as heaven and as broad as the universe; an education that cannot be completed in this life, but that will be continued in the life to come; an education that secures to the successful student his passport from the preparatory school of earth to the higher grade, the school above" (White, Education, p. 19). Character can rightly be called "the passport to heaven" because it is the only thing we can take from this earth to heaven and determines our fitness to dwell in the heavenly atmosphere (White, Christ's Object Lessons, p. 315). Probationary time on earth is given to develop a character

35

suitable for heaven (White, Messages to Young People, pp. 147-148, 415-416 and Christ's Object Lessons, p. 332). A passport identifies one as a citizen of the country--by birth or by choice. Likewise character identifies the Christian as having been "born into the family of God." Acceptance of salvation through the grace offered by Christ might be thought of as the ticket to heaven. The character (passport) identifies the person as belonging there. Additional references: John 5:39; Matt. 7:20; Matt. 12:36,37; Matt. 19:17; Matt. 20:26-28; Romans 14:13; Matt. 7:1; 1 Sam. 16:7.

SUGGESTED READING Clouse, Bonnidell. (1985). Teaching for moral growth. Fowler, John M. (1977). The concepts of character development in the writings of Ellen G. White, pp. 106-122, 223-224, 228-230. Lickona, Thomas J. (1991). Educating for character: How our schools can teach respect and responsibility, chapter 3. White, Ellen. The sanctified life, pp. 7-79, 89-96. White, Ellen. Christ's object lessons, pp. 17-24, 124-134, 307-319. White, Ellen. Education, pp. 51-70, 99-120, 123-192, 301-309. White, Ellen. Mind, character, and personality, pp. 89-98; 562-571. White, Ellen. Counsels to parents, teachers and students, pp. 220-226. White, Ellen. Thoughts from the mount of blessing, pp. 1-152.

36

CHAPTER FIVE RESEARCH ON MORAL DEVELOPMENT

What classic major studies have been done on moral or character development? How do their findings agree or disagree? What stages of character and moral development have been postulated by researchers in this area? What is the emphasis or thrust of contemporary research on moral development, reasoning, emotions, and behavior? What approach do contemporary researchers take toward character/moral development?

Throughout the history of religion, many individuals have written about character or moral issues or ethics. Early writers in psychology (William James, for example) addressed the issue. During the early part of the twentieth century, educators assumed that character development was an important goal of education. Early textbooks for teacher education discussed the acquirement of "character traits" as an important goal of education. However, scientific investigations in this field did not begin seriously until the 1920s with the extensive work of Hartshorne and May. Other classic studies include the work of Piaget on the moral judgment of children, who laid the foundation for Kohlberg's work in the 1960s and onward. Emerging from the Kohlbergian framework was the work of James Fowler on the development of faith and Gilligan's work from a feminist perspective. Other classic studies include the longitudinal study conducted by Peck and Havighurst during the late 1940s, Bronfenbrenner's comparisons of Soviet and American character structure, and the lifelong studies of Ernest Ligon from a Christian perspective. Contemporary researchers in the field are too numerous to list. The research has burgeoned during the last forty years, led by the ground breaking work of Lawrence Kohlberg. This chapter attempts to briefly outline the primary contributions of each of these classic studies which laid the foundation for contemporary research in the field of moral development. The following questions are provided to guide your evaluation of each study: 1. How is morality defined? 2. What are the basic assumptions underlying this research? 3. How was the research conducted? What are its major conclusions? 4. How is moral development described? 5. How does an individual move from one stage of development to another, if stages are proposed? How are the stages different from one another? 6. What process is recommended for encouraging moral development? 7. What is the goal of moral development? 8. What are the strengths and weaknesses of this research? 9. What effect has this research had on subsequent research on moral development? 10. What effect has this research had on practice (teaching in schools, religious education, counseling, parenting, etc.?

HARTSHORNE AND MAY

(Studies in the Nature of Character, Vols. 1-3, 1928-30) This study, in progress from 1924-1929, is considered the most extensive and in-depth study ever conducted. Eleven thousand children in grades 5 through 8 were involved. The following aspects of moral development were studied:

37

1. Moral Knowledge: Did they know if something was right or wrong? 2. Moral Attitudes: What should they do about it? 3. Moral Behavior: What do they do about it? Three aspects of character were studied in depth: 1. Deceit: Situations were set up where students had the opportunity to cheat. 2. Self-control: Relation of mental content, desires and social behavior to one another and to social-self-integration. 3. Service: Opportunities were given to help other children. Purpose: To determine the relationship of the knowledge of right and wrong to behavior and character development. Findings: 1. Conventional and didactic ethical instruction in the school and church had little influence on moral character. 2. Moral/religious knowledge did not correlate with "good" behavior. It did correlate with intelligence. Character is not all of one piece. It is not predictable but tends to be situational. (The good were bad, and the bad were good sometimes.) Therefore, character as such does not exist; there is only situationally determined moral behavior. Those who regularly attended church had a higher sense of honesty and exhibited more self-control. When children were helped to think about the morality of a situation they usually gave a more moral response.

3.

4.

5.

"Hand in hand with development of codes must go the types of experience in which honor is the natural and rewarded behavior, to be learned by practice in those situations where the child finds himself ethically at home. Only when thus learned, is it to be expected that, as his experience enlarges to include areas of life which have not yet been brought under the dominance of ethical ideals, the child will possess the insight and self-mastery to challenge an imperfect world with high ideal" (Hartshorne & May, 1928, vol. 1., p. 400-401). The work of Hartshorne and May was highly influential. Their study was an attempt to revive character education, as it had languished a bit during the early part of the 20th century. It was believed that each person had a certain consistency of behavior called character, which led to predictability of actions. Hartshorne and May concluded that this consistent "character" was an illusion. This study demonstrated that children were unpredictable and were more influenced by social pressures than an innate "character" structure. Their work was influential in the larger movement toward downgrading the notion of "character" and moving toward the identification of specific components (i.e., moral reasoning, moral acts) which are not consistent within the individual, nor useful for predicting future behavior. More recently, their work has been reexamined and criticized from a methodological viewpoint. Although Hartshorne and May have been attributed with downgrading character education in the schools, this was not their intent. They concluded that the mere didactic teaching of character

38

values was not sufficient, as suggested in the following two samples: ...the mere urging of honest behavior by teachers or the discussion of standards and ideas...has no necessary relation to the control of conduct (Hartshorne & May, 1928, p. 413). The general relations that exist between the teacher and the class influence cheating. On the whole, there is less cheating, when these relations are free and cordial and there is a spirit of good will and cooperation.... The progressive schools tested do not cheat as much as most of the conventional schools tested. This seems to be due to the factor of school or classroom morale, for which the teacher is largely responsible but which also characterizes the whole school or class group from year to year. (Hartshorne & May, 1928, p. 411). Rather than completely reformulating character education, they suggested that current practices simply needed to be improved by focusing less on direct methods of instruction (such as lecturing and exhortation) and more on indirect methods (such as a positive school climate and service activities) (Hartshore & May, 1928). In fact, what they concluded was that lecturing and exhorting were not much help in forming character in children, but probably the classroom climate, the teachers relationship with the students, and the types of activities students engaged in were more important.

39

JEAN PIAGET
(The Moral Judgment of the Child, 1965) Jean Piaget was a twentieth century French researcher who worked in Switzerland. His studies on the moral judgment of the child were first published in 1932, although his work did not become well known in the U.S. until the 1960's. Piaget postulated a series of stages in the development of moral judgment. As he observed children at play, he was interested in the rules children developed while playing games with marbles. Observations were followed by clinical interviews with the children, during which he told them stories involving moral dilemmas and solicited their judgment of "Who was the naughtiest?" From these observations and clinical interviews, Piaget developed a stage theory of moral development. He suggested that movement through the stages is related to (1) experience, and (2) intelligence. He defined morality as "a system of rules and the essence of all morality is to be sought for in the respect which the individual acquires for these rules" (Piaget, 1965, p. 1). Stages of Moral Development 1. No Morality--Before Age 3 Problems are resolved by ritual without any understanding of the moral issues. The child is unable to do any thinking about what is involved, he can only do what he has been taught. 2. Objective Morality--(Moral Realism)--ages 3-8 Objective responsibility is dominant. There is literal evaluation of an act in terms of its exact conformity to a rule, rather than the intent of the rule. Rules are unchangeable; values are absolute; everyone shares the same ideas of right and wrong. Moral wrongness is defined by sanctions and a child defines the wrongness of an act by the severity of the punishment. Duty is defined as obedience to authority. Immanent justice, the belief that violations of social norms are followed by accidents or misfortunes inflicted by nature or God, dominates thinking. 3. Subjective Morality--(Moral Relativism)--After Age 8 The child gradually learns that rules can be changed or defied. He begins to think about motives and the possibility of human error. The idea of immanent justice fades and the child begins to believe that punishment should be related to the deed (including restitution). Duty and obligation now revolve around peer expectation, putting one's self in the place of others, too. Piaget is most famous for his seminal work on the cognitive development of children. His conclusions regarding moral development spring from his cognitive developmental theory. In the late 1950s, Kohlberg built his theory of the development of moral judgment on Piaget's work.

40

PECK AND HAVIGHURST

(The Psychology of Character Development, 1960) Robert Peck and Robert Havighurst and coworkers conducted a longitudinal study to determine what shapes character and to determine if moral knowledge is correlated with moral behavior. The subjects were 120 children born in 1933 and living in Prairie City, Illinois (10,000 population). Extensive data were collected between 1943-1950, through means of: 1. 2. 3. 4. personal observation by teachers and field workers interviews with subjects' parents, teachers, work supervisors psychological testing of subjects ratings by teachers, peers, and field workers.

Peck and Havighurst defined character as it was used in their study: "The concept is not new that character is to be defined by the intent as much as by the deed: `As [a man] thinketh in his heart, so is he.' Insofar as concerns moral character, the intent that counts is the intent to do good or ill to other people. This too, is at the heart of the definitions of ethical character that have come down to us from many sources: Christ, the Biblical prophets, Buddha, Confucius . . ." (Peck & Havighurst, 1960, p. 2). "In short, if character be defined in terms of powerful, emotion-laden attitudes, as well as action patterns that tend to become habituated, the evidence indicates that there is indeed such a thing as individual character, and that it tends to persist through the years" (Peck & Havighurst, 1960, p. 165).

General Findings: 1. 2. Character can be measured on a continuum (sequence of steps). The home is the most important influence on character development (parent-child relationship). Love and discipline are the most important factors in the home. Character is learned in the home (as opposed to being inherited). There is a positive correlation between character development and the character-building agencies (the good children went to church). Character is largely developed before age 10, possibly earlier. Deformed character can be changed in only one way; through close, prolonged association with someone who cares deeply and gives the nurturance of a good parent.

3. 4. 5.

6. 7.

41

Stages of Character Development: Peck and Havighurst proposed a motivational theory of character development. Certain aspects of personality appeared closely related to certain character types. Moral stability, ego and superego strength must be present for a person to make the transitions between stages. 1. Amoral (develops during infancy) This person cannot understand moral principles (infant, sociopath). 2. Expedient (develops during early childhood) This person is self-centered with inconsistent behavior, no conscience and a "me-first" type of thinking (early childhood, "Me, mine!!"). 3. Conforming (develops during later childhood) This person does what others do because he fears the disapproval of others. He does things out of habit and he follows the leader. 4. Irrational-Conscientious (develops during later childhood) This person judges a given act according to his own internal standard of right and wrong but goes to fanatical extremes, has an irrational conscience, and is picky (an act is "good" or "bad" because of how he defines it, not because of the effects it has on others). 5. Rational-Altruistic (develops in adolescence and adulthood) This person has unselfish moral principles, a strong, reasonable conscience, feels guilty when wrong and rectifies mistakes. He is others-centered, courageous, consistent, does right because it is right, and accepts the blame for his own actions. His public and private values are almost identical and he expects everyone to work constructively, producing results which are useful. Peck and Havighurst's work also included different types of conscience, as well as effective disciplinary methods and the parent-child relationship. These aspects will be discussed in later chapters on these topics.

42

LAWRENCE KOHLBERG (1963)

Kohlberg built on the work of Jean Piaget. His original work was done at the University of Chicago in the late 1950's and 1960's, and continued at the Institute for Moral Development at Harvard University until his death in 1990. His work has dominated the field of moral reasoning and has generated a large volume of research. Kohlberg's theory is very philosophical. It is a developmental stage theory where the stages imply invariant sequence. They are also hierarchical; that is, they proceed in proper order. Moral development occurs naturally in the same way the physical body grows. Kohlberg defines moral judgment as moving to the ultimate stage of "justice". He visualizes "the just society" prevailing for every member of society. For Kohlberg, morality "has generally been defined as conscience, as a set of cultural rules of social action which have been internalized by the individual. Moral development has been conceived of as the increase in such internalization of basic cultural rules" (1964, p. 384). Kohlberg (1980) defines justice as "reciprocity and equality in human relations. . . .The most basic principle of justice is equality: treat every man's claim equally, regardless of the man. Equality is the principle of distributive justice, but there is another form of justice - commutative justice or reciprocity. Punishment for something bad, reward for something good, contractual exchange are all forms of reciprocity, which is equality in exchange" (p. 49). Determination of the stage of development of an individual is based on an evaluation of essay responses to classic moral dilemma stories presented in the Moral Judgment Instrument. The story of Heinz is the dilemma most frequently used as an illustration of Kohlbergs approach. Hienz lived in Europe. His wife was near death from a special kind of cancer, but there was one drug, a form of radium that the doctors thought might save her. The druggist in the town was charging ten times what it cost to make and told Heinz he could not have any of it unless he paid $2,000 in advance. Heinz said that even if he borrowed all that he could, it would only amount to $1,000. He asked the druggist to either sell it for less or let him pay the rest later, but the druggist said no. So, Heinz, being desperate, broke into the store and stole the drug for his wife. Did Heinz do right or did Heinz do wrong? It is not the action but the reason for the action that is important. Therefore, the action is neither right nor wrong. Scoring for stage of development is based on the motivation given for the suggested action. The scoring system is rather complex and requires training to master. Regarding his stages, Kohlberg believed a person would be unhappy with a solution at a lower level than he normally functions. Thus, a teacher can cause "cognitive disequilibrium" (mental conflict) by suggesting concepts one stage above the student's current thinking. The teacher does not make any judgments of right or wrong.

43

Steps in the Educational Process (moving someone from one stage to another): 1. Confront a moral dilemma 2. State an opinion 3. Test that opinion 4. Reflect on the reasons See Chapter 8 for more detail regarding these steps. Stages of Moral Development Level I - Preconventional or Premoral level Stage 1. Punishment and Obedience Orientation - Will I get in trouble? Avoidance of punishment, deference to superior power or prestige (what pleases Mom and Dad). Stage 2. Instrumental Realistic Orientation - What's in it for me? Right action is whatever satisfies one's own needs and occasionally the needs of others. "You scratch my back, and I'll scratch yours" concept (what makes you and me happy). At this level behavior abides by cultural rules because of punishment or reward consequences.

Level II - Conventional level Stage 3. "Good Boy, Nice Girl" Concept - What will people think of me? Good Behavior is what pleases and is approved by others. Response to stereotype. Maintaining good relationships (being good to others). Stage 4. "Law and Order" Orientation - What if everybody did it? Right behavior accepted and shows respect for authority. Doing one's duty for the good of the social order. Laws are permanent and not likely to change (obeying the laws). Behavior is self-controlled due to expectations of others and desire to conform and accept social expectations.

Level III - Postconventional, autonomous, or principled level Stage 5. Social Contract, Utilitarian Orientation - Respect the rights of every person Adherence to legal rights commonly agreed upon by society but with law subject to interpretation and change in terms of rational consideration for the rights of the individual while maintaining respect of self and others (obeying the right laws).

44

Stage 6. Universal Ethical Principles, or Individual Principles of Conscience Right behavior is defined in terms of ethical principles based on logical comprehensiveness, universality, and consistency, and which respects the inherent dignity of human beings as individuals (obeying my conscience). Effort to define moral values and principles that are valid beyond the authority of the groupand even beyond the self. Stage 7. Hypothetical stage - determined by contemplating the meaning of life. Summary of Kohlberg's stages as found in Kastenbaum (1979, p. 360). One method of moving people through stages is to teach fairness. "This approach requires parents to respect kids by considering their point of view. It teaches kids to reason morally - to think of others' needs as well as their own. That's a big part of what's involved in progressing through the moral stages: getting better and better at considering everyone's needs when solving a problem. "The fairness approach also gives kids the necessary practice in the skills of conflict resolution: expressing a viewpoint, listening to the other person, and finding common middle ground. The important life skills will help kids translate their moral reasoning into fair behavior in their human relationships" (Lickona, 1983, p. 271). Kohlberg's work has been the most influential theoretical approach during the last half of the twentieth century and into the 21st century. He and his colleagues have diligently pursued the notion of the "just society" through many field studies in schools. His ideas have been adopted by schools and churches. Lickona's popular book on Raising Good Children describes a parenting model built on Kohlberg's ideas. Today Kohlberg is still the most respected name in the field of moral development, although since his death the field has broadened and the voices questioning his approach have become stronger.

JAMES REST
(Development in Judging Moral Issues, 1979) The Moral Judgment Instrument is time consuming to score. Another instrument was needed to advance the research on moral development. James Rest, one of Kohlbergs students, developed the Defining Issues Test (DIT), an objective, easily scored test of moral judgment. The great majority of research studies on moral judgment have used the DIT to assess subjects stage of moral development. Rest spent a lifetime as a professor at the University of Minnesota, where he came to be recognized as a major contributor to the research on moral development. Carroll and Rest (1982) proposed four essential requirements for a fully developed morality: (1) Recognition and sensitivity, (2) moral judgment, (3) values and influences, and (4) execution and implementation of moral action. People can fail to act morally because of deficiencies in any one of these processes. These are generally recognized as important aspects of morality and have provided significant guidance in the field of moral development.

45

CAROL GILLIGAN
(In a Different Voice, 1982) Carol Gilligan, one of Kohlberg's students, postulated that women are more concerned about caring than justice, questioning the usefulness of Kohlberg's theory for explaining the moral development of girls and women. Her first book articulating this view, In a Different Voice, was not received enthusiastically by the moral development "establishment." In fact, she has been rejected by many of Kohlberg's followers. However, she and her colleagues have persisted with their research agenda and have achieved a measure of success and recognition for their work. In fact, presently there is a noticeable trend to talk about the "voices of justice and caring," integrating the two perspectives. Her research methods primarily focus on qualitative analysis of narratives of moral conflict and choice provided by subjects. This method assumes that the reader can understand the narrative as the individual who related the story intended it to be understood. The narrative is read four times. The goal of the first reading is to simply understand the story, to look for recurrent words or images, metaphors, emotions, use of first, second, or third person voice, and other aspects of the story. The next three readings focus on the ways in which self and the voices of caring and justice are represented. The voice of caring addresses the narrator's concerns for attachment, attention and responsiveness to people. The voice of justice attends to the concerns that people be treated fairly and with equal respect. Gilligan proposes that people use both voices of caring and justice. These voices are gender-related (males use the justice view more often than females, while females use the voice of caring more often), but they are not gender-specific. Caring and justice may even be interwoven into a single statement. In outlining the process of women's moral judgments, she discovered that "the sequence of women's moral judgment proceeds from an initial concern with survival to a focus on goodness and finally to a reflective understanding of care as the most adequate guide to the resolution of conflicts in human relationships" (1982, p. 105). Gilligan represented a new voice in the arena of moral development, a voice questioning the establishment. The debate was on. A number of researchers have attempted to determine the validity of Gilligans claim by comparing the development of the ethic of justice and the ethic of caring in men and women. The general consensus seems to be that both genders use both justice and caring. Their use generally overlaps when men and women are compared, but there are women who use predominantly justice and men who use predominantly caring, while the reverse is also true. The conclusion is that it is not wise to categorize an individual by gender. Gilligans introduction of the ethic of caring has influenced the field greatly. Today justice and caring define moral development, rather than justice alone..

46

URIE BRONFENBRENNER
(Two Worlds of Childhood, 1970) Bronfenbrenner's work began in the 1960's and continues currently. A well-known psychologist/sociologist, his studies focus on parent-child relationships and socio-cultural influences on child development. He has compared the education of American and Soviet children in his well-known book, Two Worlds of Childhood (1970). Bronfenbrenner suggests five types of character structure. They are as follows:

Character Structure Description TYPE 1 Self-oriented, self-gratificated

Characteristics Asocial, amoral, no regard for others, no internalized standard of behavior Completely submissive, incapable of leadership Goes along with the group, values change right along with the group's values Adult version of TYPE 3 (i.e. a Soviet man), but here group values are enduring and unchanging Values are inner directed

Parenting Behaviors Permissive, inconsistent, indulgent

TYPE 2 Adult-oriented

Strong parent values, intensive family socialization Permissive parents with early exposure to group children

TYPE 3 Peer-oriented

TYPE 4 Collective-oriented

The early years of the child spent in collective setting

TYPE 5 Objectively principled

Family organization strongly differentiated; individuals within the family have strong identity; high affection and discipline. Children have experienced group activities outside the home and have integrated these with what goes on in the family.

47

JAMES FOWLER (Stages of Faith, 1981) James Fowler, a student of Lawrence Kohlberg, was dissatisfied with the exclusive emphasis on justice as the major moral principle. He subsequently studied the development of faith, identifying six stages which correspond somewhat to Kohlberg's stages of moral development. "Faith is not always religious in its content or context. . . Faith is a person's or group's way of moving into the force field of life. It is our way of finding coherence in and giving meaning to the multiple forces and relations that make up our lives. Faith is a person's way of seeing him- or herself in relation to others against a background of shared meaning and purpose" (Fowler, 1981, p. 4). By the term "stage" Fowler (1980) means "one of a sequence of formally describable `styles' of composing an ultimate environment, of committing the self to centers of value and power, of symbolizing and expressing those commitments, and of relating them to the value perspectives of others" (p. 143). He believes his stages of faith are invariant--they come in the order presented here and persons do not skip over a stage. Stage descriptions focus on the how of faith rather than on the what, or the content of faith. Stage 0 - Undifferentiated Faith (birth to 2 years) The preconceptual and prelinguistic stage of infancy where the infant views the world as an extension of self. Stage 1 - Intuition - Projective Faith (2 to 6/7 years) This is the first stage of self-awareness where the child cannot assume the perspectives of another. It is fantasy-filled and imitative where child is influenced by adults' examples, moods, actions, and language organizes sensory experience into meaningful units of speech. Stage 2 - Mythical - Literal Faith (elementary school years) The child sorts out reality from the make-believe in a literal and concrete fashion by demanding proof for concepts and facts. Stage 3 - Synthetic - Conventional Faith (adolescence) The adolescent or adult synthesizes other spheres (home, school, work, media) into his experience. Values and information are synthesized, providing a basis for identity and outlook. Authority is external and the individual conforms to the expectations of significant others. Stage 4 - Individuative - Reflective Faith (not constructed by everyone) This is a demythologizing stage where the individual must take responsibility for his own life, commitments, beliefs, and attitudes. The decision of defining the self or being defined by the group must be accomplished. Stage 5 - Paradoxical - Consolidative Faith (Conjunctive) (unusual before mid-life)

48

The individual reworks his past, coming to terms with unconscious elements (culture, religion, social class) which partly determine his responses. It is demonstrated in the ability to see all sides of an issue simultaneously and the ability to see, know, and to act despite conflicting loyalties. Stage 6 - Universalizing Faith (rarely reached) In this stage, individuals feel part of a human community and that an ultimate environment includes all beings.

49

ERNEST LIGON (The Psychology of Christian Personality, 1935) From the early 1930's through the 1970's Ernest Ligon presented a Christian model of character development. His book, The Psychology of Christian Personality, was first published in 1935 and republished in 1975. His work is unique. Ligon believes that character is the power and unselfishness with which one behaves. Character is the test of a person's personality. Love is power and there is no character apart from love, which is expressed in unselfish service and self-realization. Character also involves dedication to a personal philosophy of values. Character is built on eight fundamental emotional attitudes taken from the Beatitudes which are divided into two groups. The first group "consists of the attitudes of experimental faith. It includes the poor in spirit, those who hunger and thirst after righteousness, the meek, the pure in heart. The second group gives the characteristics of fatherly love. It includes those who mourn, the merciful, the peacemakers, and those who are persecuted for righteousness' sake. These 8 traits constitute the Christian personality" (1975, p. 28). According to his mathematical group theory, there are sixteen elements in human potential. Any two dimensions creatively interact, form predictable triads, which form strength of character. Within the individual, awaiting creative development, are the resources for character development. Strength of character includes: (1) strength of purpose, (2) breadth and effectiveness of social influence, (3) and the degree of dedication to a philosophy of values. Ligon's formula for character development includes: 1. 2. 3. 4. Finding a life purpose which uses all your capacities Participating in social service which you believe in strongly Having faith in your ability to perform Obtaining your greatest pleasure from this service

Ligon also details eight basics for true greatness which can be taught to any child. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. "Give the child the firm belief that there are great spiritual principles, which if discovered would solve the problems of personality and society. "Develop in him a dominant desire to discover these principles. "Teach him to believe that whatever happens is in accordance with these laws, and that if he can discover them, he can prevent evil and achieve great happiness for himself and all mankind. "Let him make this vision the completely dominating purpose in his life. "Then teach the child that the universe is fatherly. "Fill him with the desire to give every man the opportunity to attain the best and happiest life of which he is capable. "Make him anxious to solve the conflicts that tear men's minds with fears and angers, hates and suspicions; and solve the conflicts that men have with one another as individuals and as social groups, races, social classes, and nations. "Finally, challenge him to be willing to sacrifice his very life, if necessary, for the attainment of these ends" (1975, p. 361-362).

8.

In summary, Ligon stresses the central role of religion in character development, as well as unlimited human potential. Positive attitude formation is central to the theory (the eight dimensions). Modeling an ideal for the child to follow is very important. An integrated

50

experience for the child where home, church, and school agree is essential for character formation. The Union College Character Research Project has developed curricular materials for teaching Christian values throughout the life span, beginning with infancy.

51

INFLUENTIAL CONTEMPORARY RESEARCHERS ROBERT COLES As a psychiatrist and professor at Harvard University, Coles conducted a well- known and very influential qualitative study of American children. Out of this study emerged two books related to moral development: The Moral Life of Children and The Spiritual Life of Children. Later he also wrote The Moral Intelligence of Children and The Call of Stories. All of these books are worthwhile reading to the student of character development. Coles is very well known as an advocate for children and a student of children. He is a prolific writer who has written extensively in the scientific literature and for the lay public.

WILLIAM DAMON Well known for his studies of the moral development of children, Damon currently continues his research on character issues focusing now on adolescence. He is well known for his book, The Moral Child, which is an excellent summary of moral development during childhood. His book, Greater Expectations, was a wake-up call to families and schools to overcome the culture of indulgence for the sake of the character development of children and youth. Damon is very active in the Association for Moral Education.

KEVIN RYAN AND THOMAS LICKONA Kevin Ryan from Boston University and Thomas Lickona from the State University of New York are both well known for their efforts to develop practical ways for schools to influence the moral character development of their students. When it was not popular to talk about character, Ryan and Lickona were often the only serious voices pursuing the development of character in their research and writing. With his book, Educating for Character, Lickona brought character education back into the schools. He has also written books about character education for parents. His books are well worth reading.

OTHERS Nancy Eisenberg, Melanie Killen, Daniel Lapsley, Darcia Narvaez, Larry Nucci, Judith Smetana, and many other contemporary scholars could be named. A review of the program contents of the Association for Moral Education easily identifies important researchers, invited plenary speakers, and others whose voices are well known and respected in the moral character development arena.

SUGGESTED READING Brabeck, Mary. (1989). Who cares? Theory, research, and educational implications of the ethics of care. Bronfenbrenner, Urie. (1979). The ecology of human development.

52

Carroll, James L. and Rest, James R. (1982). Moral development. In B. Wolman and G. Stricker (Eds.), Handbook of developmental psychology, pp. 434-451. Coles, Robert. (1986). The moral life of children. Coles, Robert. (1989). The call of stories: Teaching and the moral imagination. Coles, Robert. (1997). The moral intelligence of children. Damon, William. (1988). The moral child: Nurturing children's natural moral growth. Damon, William. (1995). Great expectations: Overcoming the culture of indulgence in our homes and schools. Dykstra, Craig. (1986). Faith development and religious education. In Craig Dykstra & Sharon Parks (Eds.), Faith development and Fowler, pp. 251-271. Eisenberg, Nancy. (1989). The roots of prosocial behavior in children. Fowler, James (1980). Moral stages and the development of faith. In Brenda Munsey (Ed.), Moral development, moral education, and Kohlberg: Basic issues in philosophy, psychology, religion, and education, pp. 130-160. Fowler, James. (1981). Stages of faith: The psychology of human development and the quest for meaning. Fowler, James. (1986). Faith and the structuring of meaning. In Craig Dykstra & Sharon Parks (Eds.), Faith development and Fowler, pp. 15-42. Fowler, John M. (1977). The concepts of character development in the writings of Ellen G. White, pp. 30-73. Gilligan, Carol. (1982). In a different voice. Hartshorne, Hugh, & May, Mark A. (1928). Studies in the nature of character, vols. 1-3. Hartshorne, Hugh, & May, Mark A. (1930). A summary of the work of the character education inquiry. Religious Education, 25, pp. 607-619, 754-762. Hoffman, Martin. (1970). Moral development. In Paul H. Mussen (Ed.), Carmichael's manual of child psychology (3rd. ed.), vol. 2, pp. 261-359. Killen, Melanie, & Smetana, Judith (Eds.). (2006). Handbook of moral development. Kohlberg, Lawrence. (1964). Development of moral character and moral ideology. In Martin L. Hoffman & Lois Wladis Hoffman (Eds.), Review of child development research, vol. 1, pp. 383431.

53

Kohlberg, Lawrence. (1980). Stages of moral development as a basis for moral education. In Brenda Munsey (Ed.), Moral development, moral education, and Kohlberg: Basic issues in philosophy, psychology, religion, and education, pp. 15-98. Kohlberg, Lawrence. (1984). Essays on moral development, vol. 2: The psychology of moral development. Kurtines, William M., & Gewirtz, Jacob L. (Eds.). (1984). Morality, moral behavior, and moral development. Kurtines, William M., & Gewirtz, Jacob L. (1990). Moral behavior and development. Lapsley, Daniel K. (1996). Moral Psychology. Lifton, Peter D. (1985). Individual differences in moral development: The relation of sex, gender, and personality to morality. Journal of Personality, 53, pp. 306-334. Ligon, Ernest (1975). The psychology of Christian personality. Narvaez, Darcia, & Lapsley, Daniel K, Eds. (2009). Personality, Identity, and Character: Explorations in Moral Psychology. Nucci, Larry P. & Narvaez, Darcia, Eds. (2008). Handbook of Moral and Character Education. Peck, Robert, & Havighurst, Robert. (1960). The psychology of character development. Piaget, Jean. (1965). The moral judgment of the child. Rest, James. (1979). Development in judging moral issues. Rest, James et al. (1999). Postconventional moral thinking: A neo-Kohlbergian approach, ch. 1 & 2.

54

CHAPTER SIX HISTORY OF MORAL EDUCATION

Throughout previous centuries, what role did morality play in social relationships? Who conducted education prior to the Middle Ages? What was the purpose of education during this time? How did education develop during the Middle Ages and subsequent centuries? How did education develop in your country during the 19th , 20th, and 21st centuries? How do public/government and parochial schools relate to character education and the teaching of values? How is the teaching of values related to the home schooling movement? To what extent has moral/character education been shaped by the contemporary zeitgeist?

HISTORICAL CONTEXT "For many generations, morality was the central category for defining social relationships and development, and the social sciences were termed `the moral sciences.' The great theorists of the twentieth century also considered morality to be the key to understanding social development, as indicated by McDougall's (1908) statement that `the fundamental problem of social psychology is the moralization of the individual by the society,' or Freud's (1930) statement that `the sense of guilt is the most important problem in the evolution of culture'" (Kohlberg, 1964, p. 383). Prior to the Middle Ages, all education was largely the prerogative of the church: the Jewish synagogue, Catechumenal schools, Monastic schools and Cathedral schools. Later the chancellor of the Cathedral granted requests for other teachers to open schools. Prior to this, learning centered on areas of interest to the church and church dogmas. Moral education was a paramount concern. Secular education was seen as anti-moral and, therefore, suspect. As universities developed during the Middle Ages, higher education gradually became secularized. During the Middle Ages Castle schools trained for knighthood, and Burgher schools educated some of the growing middle class. Both emphasized moral education. As an example of the development of moral education, we will briefly examine what happened in the United States. Similar situations may have occurred in other countries. What was it like in your country? For the sake of clarity, the historical context of moral education in the United States will be divided into three stages.

STAGE 1 - EARLY AMERICA The United States was settled mostly by people who came here for religious reasons. The settlers had found Europe intolerant, but when they arrived in America, they too became intolerant of others' views. During the early national period and continuing throughout most of the nineteenth century, the main purpose of moral education was to shape the child's habits in accordance with the stern virtues of the Puritan ethic. Moral and spiritual training were considered indispensable requirements of democracy. Schools were religious and moral in nature. Public schools were sectarian. The job of the schoolmaster was to teach the children to read the Bible and train them in habits of obedience and piety. Thus, moral development was the curriculum.

55

STAGE 2 - THE MIDDLE YEARS In the latter half of the nineteenth century there was a large immigrant movement to the U.S. These immigrants came mostly from southern Europe and were of the Roman Catholic faith. Naturally, they did not want their children taught Protestantism. This led to the establishment of public schools which were supposed to be nonsectarian. Horace Mann, in Massachusetts, was responsible for much of the new direction. Most of the students of foreign birth or immigrant parents were of the working class. Society and the school were growing more pluralistic and more secular. The school was viewed as the bulwark against degeneracy and crime. Education attempted to "redeem" the immigrant student from the influence of his family background.

STAGE 3 - THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Around 1900 a reform movement arose, known as progressivism. Its major proponent was John Dewey. He postulated that education should provide social cohesion, not by drilling students in specific moral rules, but by developing intellectual power. By the end of the 1940's the influence of progressivism had waned. During the 1950's the nation was preoccupied with expanding its economic and military might. Moral education was virtually nonexistent. During the late 1960's and through the 1970's the need for moral education asserted itself anew. Protests over Vietnam, demands for civil rights, riots in the cities, and campus shutdowns demanded attention. The public schools began to include moral or values education in the curriculum, largely influenced by the theories of Lawrence Kohlberg and the Values Clarification movement. Many conservative parents labeled these approaches as "secular humanism" and vigorously protested. Dissatisfaction with the moral climate and teachings of the public schools caused many conservative parents to withdraw their children from local community schools and begin private, often church-related, schools. This movement, during the late 1970's and the decade of the 80s, created an influential number of new private schools which were added to the well-established systems of church-related schools (Catholic, Lutheran, Seventh-day Adventist, and others). Other conservative parents kept their children in public schools, but demanded a voice in curriculum decisions. This led to a number of skirmishes as school personnel and parents clashed in local confrontations and in court over issues relating to Bible reading and prayer in schools, teaching of evolution or creation, and objections to library books and textbooks. Another group of conservative parents chose to withdraw their children from all schools and educate them at home so they could exercise greater control over the values their children learned. The home schooling movement grew rapidly during the decades of the 80s and 90s and continues in the 21st century. Legal skirmishes have occurred in many states as local school districts fought the right of parents to teach their own children. However, now most school districts have come to terms with home schooling and sometimes provide some support for parents who wish to educate their own children. Many colleges and universities openly court home schoolers as prospective students because experience has demonstrated that they are generally high achieving students with

56

excellent ethical values. In larger population areas, home schoolers get together for group activities, such as field trips, musical groups, and to provide the children with social interaction. Home schooling curricula are available from a number of sources. Since about 1900 there has been a complete separation of church and state in this country. The U.S. now has secular public schools (completely divorced from religion). All sectarian schools are operated privately. Recently, plurality of values and culture, rather than the "melting pot" view, has become the dominant theme in the United States. In this context, the public school is caught in the middle. Whose values shall be taught? Are there values common to all groups? Who should decide which values will be taught? Caught in this dilemma, modern theorists attempt to teach moral development outside of religion. They have attempted to develop a theory and a process that will work for any set of values. Moral thinking, rather than action, has been the dominant theme for the last three decades. However, the general deterioration of societal standards, and consequently the behavior of youth, has caused many schools to reevaluate their attempts to teach moral values. Character education has been reintroduced in the professional literature on education and many school districts are taking a serious look at this area. No consensus has emerged, however, on how to teach moral values more successfully. Lickona (1991) and Ryan and Bohlin (1999) have made a serious attempt to provide direction in their books: Educating for Character and Building Character in Schools.

SUGGESTED READING Hersh, Richard H., Miller, John P., & Fielding, Glen D. (1980). Models of moral education: An Appraisal, pp. 13-25. Lickona, Thomas. (1991). Educating for character. Nucci, Larry P., & Narvaez, Darcia (Eds.). (2008). Handbook of moral and character education. Ryan, Kevin, & Bohlin, Karen E. (1999). Building character in schools.

57

CHAPTER SEVEN VALUES (CHARACTER) EDUCATION

How do each of the following approaches to values education define morality? What are the objectives of each approach? What theory of moral development does each one postulate? What is the theoretical foundation for each of these approaches? 1. Inculcation 5. Action Learning 2. Moral Development 6. Consideration 3. Analysis 7. Evocation and Union 4. Clarification 8. Character Education A number of moral education models have been proposed for use in schools. More details about the above models may be found in Hersh, Miller, & Fielding (1980), Lickona (1991), and Superka, et al. (1976). These classic models have been used for decades. Current curriculum development and research efforts are primarily directed toward the Character Education model. INCULCATION Definition and Objectives The purpose of inculcation is to instill certain preselected values into others by establishing identity and socialization with a person, group, or society. Theory of Development The philosophy of inculcation sees identification and socialization as imperative. It sees the person as a reactor, not an initiator of ideas. Society defines the needs and goals of individuals. There are universal and absolute values, but analysis or clarification is not necessary. Commitment is necessary. The extent to which this is accepted by individuals depends on their respect and affection for the authority involved. Many fundamentalist churches follow this model. Process of Education Free choice is not encouraged; children should act according to the desired values. Methods used in this model include the following: 1. Modeling 2. Positive and negative reinforcement 3. Mocking, nagging, manipulating 4. Giving incomplete or biased data 5. Games, simulations, role-playing, discovery learning. Critique Strengths: Inculcation is often used in church settings. After all, Scripture does say to "train up a child in the way he should go" (Proverbs 22:6) and "teach [these words] diligently unto thy children" (Deuteronomy 6:7). If used appropriately, inculcation can give a very strong and clear value message.

58

Weaknesses:

Examples of inculcation include Jonestown, the military, and some communist societies. Thus most secular theorists tend to downgrade the inculcation model.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Is this model used too extensively? Is this model used to the exclusion of other useful models? Has this model become a crutch, or the easy way? Is this model misused? Are all methods used in this model compatible with the Biblical view? How can inculcation be combined with more analytical methods and yet give a clear value message?

MORAL DEVELOPMENT Lawrence Kohlberg's Cognitive Development Model represents this viewpoint. Definition and Objectives Kohlberg utilizes a developmental approach and identifies three levels and six stages of moral development. The main concern of this view is the moral reasoning and the motives a child uses to justify a moral choice. Advancing in stages assumes understanding of previous stages the individual has passed through and the reorganization of the pattern of the individual's thought process. Theory of Development See the discussion of Kohlberg's concept of stages in Chapter 7. Note that the stages are hierarchical in nature and have an invariant sequence. This theory is strongly based on Piaget's stages of cognitive development. Process of Education Helping the child move from one level of moral thinking to the next is the main responsibility of the teacher in a classroom setting. Research has shown that classroom discussion can promote movement to a higher stage of moral reasoning. Kohlberg has indicated important conditions for this advancement: 1. Know the child's stage of functioning. 2. Expose children to the stage of reasoning directly above their own. 3. Expose children to moral conflict situations. 4. Create an atmosphere of open communication to talk about the moral conflict and solutions.

59

THE TEACHING PROCESS USING A MORAL DILEMMA STEP ONE: Confront a moral dilemma Present the dilemma State the circumstances Define terms State the problem for the central character Reflect on an individual position Establish individual positions Establish class position Establish reasons for positions Examine reasons in small groups Examine different reasons in terms of: Issues Analogous dilemmas Consequences Previous dilemmas Summarize reasoning State a reason

STEP TWO: State a tentative position

STEP THREE: Examine the reasoning

STEP FOUR: Reflect on an individual position

Adapted from: Figure 2Diagram of the teaching process for teaching a moral dilemma, from Moral Reasoning: Teaching Strategies for adapting Kohlberg to the Classroom (1976) by Ronald E. Galbraith and Thomas M. Jones, p. 64. Greenhaven Press, Inc., 1611 Polk St., N. E., Minnneapolis, MN 55413.

Critique Strengths: Strong research base which supports the stages of moral judgment Clear and concise methods Used in many settings - schools, churches, etc.

Weaknesses: Philosophical base Selection of underlying principle of justice--are there other important principles? Moral actions vs. moral reasoning Affective component in moral action and reasoning Limited effectiveness for young children Moral dilemmas--does the choice become the "least of two evils"? Ignored or underestimated social and cultural variables

60

ANALYSIS Two analytical models will be considered--Rationale Building and Value Analysis. RATIONALE BUILDING Definition and Objectives James Shaver's model is based on a democratic society and the role of criterion reflection, where the goal is to develop individuals into independent moral thinkers. Specific analytic skills must be taught to evaluate `things' (people, objects, actions, situations, and ideas). This model holds that values are concepts, dimensional categories, and the basis for value judgment. They exist without self-awareness or public affirmation. To Shaver, value judgments are the assertions we make on the basis of our values: aesthetic values, instrumental values, and moral values. Theory of Development Shaver does not outline a theory of how values develop. Rather, he is essentially interested in the teacher's understanding of a democratic society and how the teacher assists students in thinking about values. He is most interested in ways of thinking about values, not how they develop. Process of Education Shaver does not propose a specific program for moral education, but does suggest some basic considerations. He suggests values identification first of all. This involves bringing value commitments to the conscious level (locating and surfacing value commitments). He suggests that these values be examined in concrete situations of choice. This appears to be like a "dilemma" in Kohlberg's theory. Then children should be taught to view their values in the context of basic democratic, moral norms (label generalization). Students should be taught to analyze the conflict in values and make a qualified decision. Critique Strengths: Cognitive analysis of values

Weaknesses: No theory of how values develop No methodology for teaching values Not adapted for elementary students

VALUE ANALYSIS Definition and Objectives Value analysis is a systematic approach for resolving value conflicts and establishing value reasoning. It is modeled after the scientific model of investigation and resolves values according to reason and the scientific method. It is more directly concerned with helping students gather and weigh the facts involved in value judgments than either values clarification or cognitive moral development.

61

Theory of Development There is no discussion of how values are developed; however, the school seems to be the setting for all the discussions and assembling and testing of value criteria in coming to a value principle. Process of Education In this model, values are taught by the use of the teaching process. Teaching strategies suggested by Coombs and Meux to enhance the value analysis process include the teacher actively engaging the students in the tasks of value determination and educating the students about the importance using rational thought to make these decisions. Coombs and Meux identified six tasks in the analytical process of determining values: 1. Identify and clarify the value question with definition and examples. 2. Assemble relevant facts needed to answer the values question. 3. Assess the truth of the facts. 4. Clarify the relevance of the facts to answering the value questions. 5. Make a tentative value decision. 6. Test the value principle to determine its acceptability. "A value decision is rational only if the evaluator can accept the value principle implied in the decision. Four tests to determine the adequacy of a value principle are available" (Hersh, Miller, & Fielding, 1980, p. 109). 1. New Cases Test: Attempt to apply the judgments implied in the decision to other relevant cases. Do the principles hold equally well in these situations? Subsumption Test: Explicitly formulate the principle, then try to show that the principle is an instance of some more general value principle that one accepts. What is implied in the principle? Bring out all implications. Role Exchange Test: The evaluator imaginatively exchanges roles with someone else affected by the application of the principle to see whether or not he can still accept the principle as it applies in this new role. Universal Consequences Test: The evaluator imagines what the consequences would be if everyone in similar circumstances were to engage in the action being evaluated.

2.

3.

4.

Critique Strengths: Step-by-step process for analyzing complex value issues. Weaknesses: Severely logical. No affective component. Student may see process as an academic exercise with no carry over to real life.

62

CLARIFICATION The model to be considered is Values Clarification developed by Louis Raths, Mervill Harmin and Sydney Simon. Definition and Objectives Values are defined as guides to behavior; these guides tend to give focus to life. They are not fixed positions or eternal truths. They are guides grounded in an individual's personal and social experiences. The model attempts to help the individual decide what to value. The main purposes of Values Clarification are: 1. 2. 3. 4. To help students become aware of and identify their own values and those of others To help students communicate openly and honestly with others about their values To help students use both rational thinking and emotional awareness to examine their personal feelings, values, and behavior patterns To help students build socially constructive goals (freedom, justice, and equality) which will be standards and guides for their behavior

Theory of Development There are no correct values. Identification of individual feelings about values is what is important. Values are relativistic. There is no right or wrong. This approach uses rational thinking and emotional awareness to examine behavior patterns and to clarify and actualize values. The individual is seen as an initiator of interaction with society and the environment. Internal rather than external factors are seen as the prime determinants of human behavior. No formal developmental stages are suggested. Process of Education There are seven steps in values clarification which include choosing, prizing, and acting upon values: 1. Choosing freely - Values are not to be products of coercion. 2. Choosing from among alternatives - If there are no alternatives there is not choice. 3. Choosing after thoughtful consideration of the consequences of each alternative - Four types of consequences include short-term, personal, distant, and social consequences. 4. Prizing and cherishing - The values must be prized and cherished even if they are not always pleasant. 5. Affirming - The value must incite public acknowledgement by the individual. 6. Acting upon choices - The individual must act upon his chosen values. 7. Repeating - Value choices should not be changed like clothing but should be consistent through various and different situations. (Adapted from Sichel, 1982, pp. 132-148) Suggested methods for values clarification include: role playing games, simulations, contrived or real value-laden situations, in-depth self-analysis exercises, sensitivity activities, out-of-class activities, and small group discussion. Emphasis is on process, rather than content. The proponents of this model have written extensively describing suggested methods for schools, churches, and the home. As a result, this model has been used widely in all these areas.

63

Critique Strengths: Excellent method for raising important value issues Strategies interesting, create relaxed, open climate Easy for teacher to continue focus on moral dimensions

Weaknesses: Contradictions in theory Limited definition of values and morality Lack of distinction between moral and nonmoral values Allows for self-interested, egotistic values and desires Considerable peer pressure in some strategies Some Christian standards presented as extremes of behavior, pressuring student toward middle position Useful for raising an issue, but not for arriving at a solid conclusion

ACTION LEARNING The model to be considered is Fred Newmann's Social Action model. Definition and Objectives This model attempts to integrate several dimensions from other models and relate them to citizen involvement in social change. The main goal is to teach students how to influence public policy and provide the students with opportunities to act upon their values. This is the only model whose primary focus is on citizen action. Since Newmann believes each citizen has the right to actively influence public affairs, his program provides students with a way to actively participate in the democratic process. While the model discusses the importance of discussion skills, development of trust and commitment, and the use of moral reasoning skills, the main focus is on citizen action. Theory of Development Valuing is seen primarily as the process of self-actualization in which individuals consider alternatives, choose freely, prize, affirm, and act. It places more emphasis on action-taking inside and outside the classroom than values clarification. The process of self-actualization is viewed as being tempered by social factors and group pressures. Values are seen as having their source neither in society nor in the individual, but in the interactive process between the person and society. The person and the environment are viewed as mutual co-creators. The person cannot be defined outside of his or her context (Gestalt, field theories). The model is viewed as circular. One may enter at any point and work forward or backward.

Process of Education The steps in action learning are: 1. Becoming aware of a problem or issue. 2. Understanding the problem or issue and taking a position. 3. Deciding whether or not to act. 4. Planning strategies and action steps.

64

5. Implementing strategies and taking action. 6. Reflecting on actions taken and considering next step. Critique Strengths: Produces lasting effects on society Rational and action-oriented Utilizes the skills of organizing, writing, speaking, and working

Weaknesses: Does not address the Christian viewpoint

CONSIDERATION The Lifeline Curriculum Project by Peter McPhail will be considered. Definition and Objectives This model is based on the Schools Moral Education Curriculum Project in Britain. The Lifeline Curriculum is published in both British and North America. McPhail, although concerned with reason and judgment, was most interested in emotions and caring in the formation of values on a broad basis. McPhail's aim in moral education is to free individuals from destructive impulses and to enhance personal authenticity, creativity, and insight. The desired finished product is students who can give and receive, give brotherly love and caring, and live in harmony with others. Theory of Development This model provides no clear conceptual base for the development of moral values or the mechanisms by which adolescents move from one stage to another. The stages of moral responses are poorly defined. The source of motivation for moral behavior is not clear, except that it is more pleasant to be moral. Feelings are "front and center" in this model. It is a personality theory which sees consideration for others as a general style of relating to others, rather than something to think about. Process of Education According to McPhail, moral education is mainly concerned with cultivating dispositions and shaping behavior, although it does deal some with problem-solving abilities. He believes morality is "contagious": consideration is learned by being around considerate people. Modeling and social learning play a significant role. Teachers need to model moral behavior and thinking in lifelike situations. The Lifeline Curriculum is the greatest strength of the consideration model. The cards and booklets are attractive, the content is lifelike, and the questions are stimulating. The material was extensively field-tested in British classrooms with more than twenty thousand students. "Lifeline is divided into three sections, which present students with progressively more complex social situations. These situations generally place heavier intellectual demands on the student than one might expect in view of McPhail's disdain for self-consciously rational forms of moral education. In fact,

65

when we compare McPhail's specific objectives for Lifeline with his global pronouncements on moral development, we see that the objectives are compatible with the more intellectually orientated models. . . . Lifeline is designed to encourage observation and understanding of all the cues, verbal and nonverbal, that are pointers to people's needs, interests, and feelings. The program also seeks to sharpen the student's ability to calculate and predict the consequences of actions, as well as to foster the acquisition of scientific knowledge relevant to the understanding of consequences" (Hersh, Miller, & Fielding, 1980, pp. 58-59). "The Lifeline curriculum is, in sum, a relatively comprehensive approach to moral education. The situations move from simple and immediate face-to-face interactions to complex historical problems" (p. 69). Critique Strengths: Excellent curriculum--comprehensive and attractive Emphasis on relations with people Social learning approach

Weaknesses: Theory of moral development fragmented and inconsistent Heavy emphasis on feelings, much less on thinking Better in practice than in theory.

EVOCATION AND UNION Confluent education based on the Union model will be considered. Definition and Objectives Value education based on the confluent education model combines the affective and cognitive aspects in individual and group learning. To be most effective, learning requires the intellectual activity of the mind and the emotional or feeling aspects associated with learning. This approach is rooted in humanistic psychology. Evocation "Its purpose is to help students evince and express their values genuinely and spontaneously without thought, hesitation, or discussion" (Superka, 1976, p. 191). "Some educators, Roger included, believe that one of the key goals of values education should be to help persons once again `get in touch' with their spontaneous, emotional, and organismically based valuing process and integrate it into their value system" (pp. 191, 192). Union "Valuing is seen as a process of making contact with the core of being inside and outside oneself. The contact focuses on a feeling of `at-oneness' with the cosmos, variously termed cosmic consciousness, individuation of the self, power of being, peak experience, and the You are It feeling" (p. 193).

66

Theory of Development The individual is not considered apart from God, but as one with God (existentialism: Tillich, Jung, Watts). Values are eternal ideas that have their source in God. God is the absolute monarch who dictates the "right" spiritual values to his followers. Value indoctrination and spiritual inculcation fit in this category. Valuing is considered a mystical socialization process in which values from an outside source, in this case--God--rather than the culture, are being instilled into persons. Valuing, even though it involves ultimate, absolute values, cannot be an inculcation process because there is no external force imposing values from without. Valuing is seen as a process of making contact with the core of being within and without oneself. Contemporary New Age ideas fit this model. Process of Education Methods for making contact with our inner core are: 1. Dream analysis 2. Transcendental meditation 3. Self-hypnosis 4. Use of imagination 5. Use of drugs 6. Use of Eastern meditation type models 7. Prayer 8. Group process Magic Circle, a well known, but controversial program for schools comes from this model. Critique Strengths: Weaknesses: This model seems to deal primarily with the emotional aspects of "feeling in touch" with God. The rationality of serving a thinking God is not emphasized. A core of self-centeredness seems to be present in this model. The Magic Circle program has been criticized as too humanistic and too close to therapy for educational settings.

CHARACTER EDUCATION The model to be considered is Lickona and Ryan's model of Values and Character Education. Definition and Objectives Values and Character Education is an attempt to respond to the increasing awareness that character development is needed in schools as much as academic achievement. The general objective is to develop the character of the our children in a complex and changing world, assuming that just as character is the ultimate measure of an individual, so it is the ultimate measure of a nation.

67

Theory of Development Character is conceived as having three interrelated parts: moral knowing (knowing the good, moral feeling (loving the good), and moral behavior (doing good)habits of the mind, habits of the heart, and habits of action. Moral judgment can give rise to moral feeling, but moral emotion can also influence thinking. Moral judgment and moral feelings affect moral behavior, especially if they work together. "In the lived moral life, these various components of character typically work together in complex, simultaneous ways of which we may not even be aware" (p. 52). Additionally, the whole school environment, the moral culture of the school, has to support that growth. Process of Education In order to foster character development, schools must take a comprehensive, all-embracing approach to values education that uses all phases of school life. Classroom Strategies Within the classroom, a comprehensive approach calls upon the teacher to: 1. Act as caregiver, model, and mentor. 2. Create a moral community in the classroom. 3. Practice moral discipline. 4. Create a democratic classroom environment. 5. Teach values through the curriculum. 6. Use cooperative learning. 7. Develop the "conscience of craft" by fostering students' academic responsibility. 8. Encourage moral reflection. 9. Teach conflict resolution. Schoolwide Strategies A comprehensive approach calls upon the school to: 10. Foster caring beyond the classroom. 11. Create a positive moral culture in the school. 12. Recruit parents and the community as partners in values education. (Cf. pp. 68-70).

Critique Strengths: A model which denies value free education. Includes cognitive, affective, and behavioral aspects of character. Based on character education programs that have worked well Based on the research on moral character development

Weaknesses: Although this model is solidly based on field research, it would be strengthened by more specific research

68

What is good character?

MORAL THINKING Moral awareness Knowing moral values Perspective-taking Moral reasoning Decision-making Self-knowledge MORAL FEELING Conscience Self-esteem Empathy Loving the good Self-control Humility MORAL ACTIONS Competence Will Habit

Adapted from: Lickona, Thomas J. (1991). Educating for Character: How Our Schools Can Teach Respect and Responsibility, pp. 49-63.

SUGGESTED READING Borba, Michele. (2001) Building Moral Intelligence: The Seven Essential Virtues That Teach Kids to Do the Right Thing. [Focus on teaching methods for parents] Fowler, John M. (1977). The concept of character development in the writings of Ellen G. White, pp. 3073. Hersh, Richard H., Miller, John P., & Fielding, Glen D. (1980). Models of moral education: An appraisal, pp. 26-179. Kuzma, Kay and Jan. (1979). Building character, pp. 111-128. [Focus on teaching methods for parents] Lewis, Kathleen N. (1982). Values clarification: A critique. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 1, pp. 2-8. Lickona, Thomas J. (1991). Educating for character: How our schools can teach respect and responsibility. Ryan, Kevin & Bohlin, Karen E. (1999) Building Character in Schools, chapters 1 & 2. Sichel, Betty. (1982). Value education for an age of crisis, chapter 7. Silver, Michael. (1976). Values education, chapter 5. [Includes a description of and methods for teaching various models and references.]

69

Simon, Sidney B., & Clark, Jay. (1975). Beginning values clarification: Strategies for the classroom. Simon, Sidney B., & Old, Sally Wendkos. (1976). Helping your children learn right from wrong: A guide to values clarification. Superka, Douglas P., Ahrens, Christine, & Hedstrom, Judith E. (1976). Values education sourcebook. [information about values and analysis summaries, annotated bibliography] Weissbourd, Richard. (2009). The parents we mean to be: How well-intentioned adults undermine childrens moral and emotional development. [Focus on parenting skills]

70

SECTION II

FACTORS IN THE PROCESS OF MORAL CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT

71

CHAPTER EIGHT THE INDIVIDUAL

How do the individual's personal characteristics affect the development of moral character? What is the relationship between gender, intelligence, education, personality and moral development? How does culture affect moral development?

Character development always occurs in the context of the individual's personal characteristics. As we consider the factors involved in the development of character, we must always remember that these factors interact with personal characteristics. Lickona calls this individuality the "moral personality," and suggests that it includes: a. Stage of moral reasoning b. Temperament c. Position in family constellation d. Parents' personalities e. Socialization history f. Idiosyncratic beliefs and values g. Self-concept h. Emotional security i. Other aspects which are not understood To Lickona's list we might add: j. Sex or gender identity (Gilligan) k. Intellectual ability (Piaget and Kohlberg) l. Development of social and self-identity (Lifton) m. Culture (Damon) n. Opportunities for spiritual development (Holy Scriptures) Lifton provides an excellent summary of the research literature on this point in his article, "Individual differences in moral development: The relation of sex, gender, and personality to morality." Muuss reviews Gilligan's theory of sex differences with special focus on adolescence. Damon focuses on issues of culture and gender in chapter 6 of his book, The Moral Child. All of these reviews are worthwhile reading to gain an overview of the issues. Most of the individual differences mentioned above will be discussed in subsequent chapters so they will not be elaborated on here, with the exception of intellectual ability. "All children cannot be treated in the same way, for that restraint which must be kept on one would crush out the life of another. Study the minds and characters of your children. During the first years of their lives is the time to work and watch and pray and encourage every good inclination" (White, Review and Herald, vol. 76(49), p. 782). Additional references: White, The Health Reformer, vol 12(10), pp. 300-302.

72

INTELLIGENCE There are three questions we might ask about intelligence and character: How is intelligence related to moral character development? To what extent can mentally handicapped individuals develop moral understanding? Can a person develop a moral character and neglect the development of intellect?

IMPORTANCE OF THE MIND "Every human being, created in the image of God, is endowed with a power akin to that of the Creator - individuality, power to think and do. The men in whom this power is developed are the men who bear the responsibilities, who are leaders in enterprise, and who influence character" (White, Education, p. 17). "An ordinary mind, well-disciplined, will accomplish more and higher works that will the most highly educated mind and the greatest talents without self-control" (White, Christ's Object Lessons, p. 335). "God requires the training of the mental faculties. He designs that His servants shall possess more intelligence and clearer discernment than the worldling, and He is displeased with those who are too careless or too indolent to become efficient, well-informed workers. The Lord bids us love Him with all the heart, and with all the soul, and with all the strength, and with all the mind. This lays upon us the obligation of developing the intellect to its fullest capacity, that with all the mind we may know and love our Creator. "If placed under the control of His Spirit, the more thoroughly the intellect is cultivated, and the more effectively it can be used in the service of God. The uneducated man who is consecrated to God and who longs to bless others can be, and is, used by the Lord in His service. But those who, with the same spirit of consecration, have had the benefit of a thorough education, can do a much more extensive work for Christ. They stand on vantage ground" (White, Christ's Object Lessons, p. 333). Additional references: White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 3, p. 32-33; vol. 4, p. 606; White, Counsels to Parents, Teachers, and Students, p. 20; White, Education, p. 17.

RELATIONSHIP OF INTELLIGENCE TO CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT Intellectual ability correlates positively with moral judgment in studies using the cognitivedevelopmental model. The following statements represent a sampling of conclusions in this area. "A child's intelligence has an important bearing on the cognitive aspects of moral development. Numerous investigations have shown that children and adolescents of high intelligence are likely to make a better showing than less intelligent youngsters on tests of moral judgments and attitudes" (Jersild, 1960, p. 409). "Intelligence quotient correlates well with maturity of moral judgment and almost equally well with behavioral measures of honesty. At the kindergarten level, the capacity to make judgments of

73

good or bad in terms of standards rather than in terms of punishment and egoistic interests is a capacity almost completely determined by cognitive development on Piaget tests of cognition" (Kohlberg, 1969, p. 248). "A low level of intelligence makes it difficult for the child to understand the teaching of moral concepts and to perceive the situations in which they apply" (Hurlock, 1972, p. 378). Peck and Havighurst (1962) point out that to be highly moral, "one must probably have the ability to perceive fairly complex situations realistically, to relate abstract ideas above the level of observation of immediate details, and to include a number and variety of factors in forming a general, integrated picture. Further, one must be able to envision and mentally test various solutions to a problem involving moral issues" (p. 12). It is easy to see from these statements that the mentally handicapped cannot form complex moral judgments. However, God's expectations are always in accord with the individual's capabilities. He expects no more than the person can give. The mentally handicapped can have a simple trust in God similar to young children.

INTELLIGENCE AND RELATIONSHIP TO GOD "Ignorance will not increase the humility or spirituality of any professed follower of Christ. The truths of the divine word can best be appreciated by an intellectual Christian. Christ can best be glorified by those who serve Him intelligently" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 3, p. 160). "The creative energy that called the worlds into existence is the word of God. This word imparts power; it begets life . . . . It transforms the nature and recreates the soul in the image of God. The mind, the soul, is built up by that upon which it feeds; and it rests with us to determine upon what it shall be fed. It is within the power of everyone to choose the topics that shall occupy the thoughts and shape the character" (White, Education, pp. 126-127). Additional references: White, Counsels to Parents, Teachers, and Students, p. 67.

CONTINUING DEVELOPMENT OF THE MIND "Never think that you have learned enough, and that you may now relax your efforts. The cultivated mind is the measure of the man. Your education should continue during your lifetime; every day you should be learning and putting into practical use the knowledge gained. Remember that in whatever position you may serve you are revealing motive, developing character. Whatever your work, do it with exactness, with diligence; overcome the inclination to seek an easy task" (White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 499).

74

"If we improve our minds to the utmost of our ability we shall through the eternal ages continue to study the ways and works of God, and to know more and more of Him" (White, Counsels to Parents, Teachers, and Students, p. 252). Additional references: 2 Timothy 2:15. See Appendix C.

CULTURE, GENDER, AND RACE All the original and classic studies on moral development used white, male subjects. Race and gender were ignored. Beginning with Gilligans work (see chapter 5), gender entered the picture. Only recently has serious research focused on race as a factor. Siddle Walker and Snareys book, Race-ing Moral Formation: African American Perspsectives on Care and Justice, published in 2004, holds the potential to change the landscape of moral development. In terms of the overall care-versus-justice debate, historical and cultural patterns suggest that African Americans find it unnatural to subordinate either care to justice or justice to care (p. 6). They suggest five African American justice and care basic values: 1. Race is not subordinate to gender. 2. Resistance is not subordinate to accommodation. 3. Religion is not subordinate to ethics. 4. Agency is not subordinate to legacy. 5. The community is not subordinate to the individual. Their conclusion: Race matters. A large number of studies have focused on culture. See Damon, chapter 6, for a sample.

SUGGESTED READINGS Coles, Robert. (1997). The Moral Intelligence of Children. Cortese, Anthony. (1981). The interpersonal approach to morality: A gender and cultural analysis. The Journal of Social Psychology, 129, pp. 429-441. Damon, William. (1988). The moral child: Nurturing children's natural moral growth, chapter 6. Donenberg, Geri & Hoffman, Lois. (1988). Gender differences in moral development. Sex Roles, 18, pp. 701-717. Graham, Douglas. (1972). Moral learning and development: Theory and research, pp. 239-244. Habenicht, Donna J. (1993). Educational psychology: A Christian perspective, chapter 3. Lapsley, Daniel K. (1996). Moral psychology, chapters 10-12. Lifton, Peter. (1985). Individual differences in moral development: The relation of sex, gender, and personality to morality. Journal of Personality, 53, pp. 306-331. Muuss, Rolf. (1988). Carol Gilligan's theory of sex differences in the development of moral reasoning during adolescence. Adolescence, 23, pp. 229-243.

75

White, Ellen. (1952). Education, pp. 123-192, 225-229. White, Ellen. (1977). Mind, character, and personality, pp. 89-130.

76

CHAPTER NINE GOD'S ORIGINAL PLAN

What was God's original plan for character development? What modifications have been made in this plan to help fallen man?

THE ORIGINAL PLAN Although Adam and Eve were created perfect, it was God's intention that they should experience continued character growth, becoming more and more like their Creator as they learned from Him and fulfilled the objective of their creation. God designed that character growth for Adam and Eve would be aided by (1) receiving face-to-face instruction and communication from God, (2) choosing to follow God's directions, (3) studying God's words and works, (4) working in nature, and (5) participating in the home school where they would encourage each other and teach their children God's ways. Character growth for Adam and Eve did not involve a transformation of character, but rather meant continued growth in the direction of the original creation. "When Adam came from the Creator's hand, he bore, in his physical, mental, and spiritual nature, a likeness to his Maker. . . . Face-to-face, heart-to-heart communion with his Maker was his high privilege. Had he remained loyal to God all this would have been his forever. Throughout eternal ages he would have continued to gain new treasures of knowledge, to discover fresh springs of happiness, and to obtain clearer and yet clearer conceptions of the wisdom, the power, and the love of God. More and more fully would he have fulfilled the object of his creation, more and more fully have reflected the Creator's glory" (White, Education, p. 15). "God is the creator of all. God created one human race, though there may be several expressions of it. He created all human beings in His image. In other words, all human creatures have enough of the original reflection of God in them to have a sense of conscience, to have imagination, to work, to enjoy community, and even to have a sense of worship. This in no way implies that everyone has salvation through the presence of the image of God. It means, rather, that human beings, though they are fallen, have a sense of receptivity that may grow to faith in Christ" (Tillman & Gilbert, 1986, pp. 82-83). God gave Adam and Eve a choice to develop their characters. He did not want them to ever know the consequences of sin, but He allowed that possibility through choice. Without free will and choice, there could have been no character development. "Our first parents were not placed beyond the possibility of wrongdoing. God might have created them without the power to transgress His requirements, but in that case there could have been no development of character; their service would not have been voluntary, but forced. Therefore He gave them the power of choice--the power to yield or to withhold obedience" (White, Education, p. 23). "It is not God's purpose to coerce the will. Man was created a free moral agent. Like the inhabitants of all other worlds, he must be subjected to the test of obedience; but he is never brought into such a position that yielding to evil becomes a matter of necessity. No temptation or trial is permitted to come to him which he is unable to resist" (White, Patriarchs and Prophets, pp. 331-332).

77

In God's original plan the family was to provide a home school where children would learn of His ways and plans for them. Parents were entrusted with the responsibility of teaching their children the way of the Lord and developing their character. "The system of education instituted at the beginning of the world was to be a model for man throughout all aftertime. As an illustration of its principles a model school was established in Eden, the home of our first parents. The Garden of Eden was the schoolroom, nature was the lesson book, the Creator Himself was the instructor, and the parents of the human family were the students" (White, Education, p. 20). "The Garden of Eden was a representation of what God desired the whole earth to become, and it was His purpose that, as the human family increased in numbers, they should establish other homes and schools like the one He had given. Thus in course of time the whole earth might be occupied with homes and schools where the words and works of God should be studied, and where the students should thus be fitted more and more fully to reflect, throughout endless ages, the light of the knowledge of His glory" (p. 22). Additional references: White, Education, p. 23.

MODIFICATIONS AFTER THE FALL After the fall, the nature of human beings was changed from the perfect creation of God with no desire for evil, to a natural tendency toward evil. In this setting human beings are incapable of developing their own characters. In effect, they are incapable of making all the "right" choices needed for positive character growth. A total transformation of their nature is necessary. This complete "remaking" of the person can only occur through the power of Jesus Christ working in the life, a power which changes the focus of the life and the desires. "None but Christ can fashion anew the character that has been ruined by sin. He came to expel the demons that had controlled the will. He came to lift us up from the dust, to reshape the marred character after the pattern of His divine character, and to make it beautiful with His own glory" (White, The Desire of Ages, pp. 37-38). God planned that each family be a school to train its young in the ways of the Lord. Even through the days of ancient Israel, the home school was still operating. "A knowledge of God, fellowship with Him in study and in labor, likeness to Him in character, were to be the source, the means, and the aim of Israel's education--the education imparted by God to the parents, and by them to be given to their children" (White, Education, p. 44). But Israel failed in its task of educating the youth through the home. And so the schools of the prophets were established to train leaders for Israel. Later, when Christ came to earth, he established a school for His disciples. "Wherever in Israel God's plan of education was carried into effect, its results testified of its Author. But in very many households the training appointed by Heaven, and the characters thus developed, were alike rare. God's plan was but partially and imperfectly fulfilled. . . . Fathers and mothers in Israel became indifferent to their obligation to God, indifferent to their obligation to their children" (p. 45).

78

"To meet this growing evil, God provided other agencies as an aid to parents in the work of education" (p. 46). "In the training of the disciples the Saviour followed the system of education established at the beginning. . . . They (the twelve) were with Him in the house, at the table, in the closet, in the field. They accompanied Him on His journeys, shared His trials and hardships, and, as much as in them was, entered into His work" (White, Child Guidance, p. 294). Today God's character is to be revealed to the youth through their parents and teachers. "The great principles of education are unchanged . . . for they are the principles of the character of God. To aid the student in comprehending these principles, and in entering into that relation with Christ which will make them a controlling power in the life, should be the teacher's first effort and his constant aim. The teacher who accepts this aim is in truth a co-worker with Christ, a laborer together with God" (White, Education, p. 30). "Higher than the highest human thought can reach is God's ideal for His children. . . . He who cooperates with the divine purpose in imparting to the youth a knowledge of God, and molding the character into harmony with His, does a high and noble work. As he awakens a desire to reach God's ideal, he presents an education that is as high as heaven and as broad as the universe; an education that cannot be completed in this life, but that will be continued in the life to come; an education that secures to the successful student his passport from the preparatory school of earth to the higher grade, the school above" (p. 19). "To restore in man the image of his Maker, to bring him back to the perfection in which he was created, to promote the development of body, mind and soul, that the divine purpose in his creation might be realizedthis was to be the work of redemption. This is the object of education, the great object of life" (p. 16). Christ has linked human beings with God through His perfect life on earth and His sacrifice on Calvary. Only through Christ can character be completely changed to pattern after the Divine model. "In the apostasy, man alienated himself from God; earth was cut off from heaven. Across the gulf that lay between, there could be no communion. But through Christ, earth is again linked with heaven. With His own merits, Christ has bridged the gulf which sin had made so that the ministering angels can hold communion with man. Christ connects fallen man in his weakness and helplessness with the Source of infinite power" (White, Steps to Christ, p. 20). "If Christ is formed within, the hope of glory, then the truth of God will so act upon your natural temperament that its transforming agency will be revealed in a changed character. . . ." (White, Mind, Character, and Personality, p. 355). "By dwelling upon the love of God and our Saviour, by contemplating the perfection of the divine character and claiming the righteousness of Christ as ours by faith, we are to be transformed into the same image" (p. 337).

79

SUGGESTED READING Clouse, Bonnidell. (1993). Teaching for moral growth, chapter 2. Genesis 1 and 2. White, Ellen. Education, pp. 13-30. White, Ellen. Patriarchs and prophets, pp. 33-70. White, Ellen. Steps to Christ.

80

CHAPTER TEN RELIGION AND SPIRITUAL POWER

What is the role of religion and spiritual power in character development? What responsibility does the individual have in character development? What part do faith in Jesus Christ, the Holy Spirit, study of the Holy Scriptures, and prayer play in the development of Christian character? What steps are included in God's plan for character change? What is the role of each step in this plan? What counterfeits has Satan introduced to nullify God's plan?

THE ROLE OF SPIRITUAL POWER Do we need help from an outside power in character development? The secular psychologist would say, No. He would insist that each individual has within self wisdom, good judgment, and unselfishness. Only an accepting atmosphere is needed to release these good elements in the character. Each person can reach these heights when unencumbered by hate and other selfdestroying emotions. Through the right choices individuals can reach a higher state of being called self-actualization. Jersild, a developmentalist and a creationist, does indicate the need for a higher power in character development. Victor Frankl, a psychiatrist who experienced internment during World War II, has stated that the only ones who came through the internment camp were those who had a trust in Divine Power. William James, a psychologist bridging the 19th and 20th centuries wrote extensively about the role of religion in moral development. Many studies of moral reasoning, using the cognitive-developmental model, place individuals from conservative religious backgrounds at lower stages of moral reasoning, when compared with subjects from liberal religious backgrounds. This is, in general, a major point of difference between psychologists with a secular viewpoint and those with a religious viewpoint, although some voices in the 21st century are calling for a rapproachment between religion and morality. The viewpoint given by God Himself clearly indicates that it is impossible to reach perfection without Divine aid. Man does not have within himself the power to perfect character. "The heart of man is by nature cold and dark and unloving; whenever one manifests a spirit of mercy and forgiveness, he does it not of himself, but through the influence of the divine Spirit moving upon his heart. `We love because He first loved us.' 1 John 4:19, R.V." (White, Thoughts from the Mount of Blessing, pp. 21-22.

81

"God is personally dealing with each one of us. Some may be given credit for natural energy of character, but God is the source whence all our capabilities spring" (White, Review and Herald, vol. 73(48), p. 758). "The perfection of Christian character depends wholly upon the grace and strength found alone in God" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 3, p. 188). "There is no power in any man to remedy the defective character. Individually our hope and trust must be in One who is more than human" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol 9, p. 280). "It is not human, but divine power, that works transformation of character" (White, The Acts of the Apostles, p. 274). "Through the merits of Christ you may part with that which scars and deforms the soul, and which develops a misshapen character" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 4, p. 92). "When one turns away from human imperfections to behold Jesus, a divine transformation takes place in the character. The Spirit of Christ working upon the heart conforms it to His image" (White, Christ's Object Lessons, p. 42). "Devotion and piety establish so close a relation between Jesus and His disciples that the Christian becomes like Him. Through the power of God, his weak, vacillating character becomes changed to one of strength and steadfastness. He becomes a person of sound principle, clear perception, and reliable, wellbalanced judgment" (White, Counsels to Parents, Teachers, and Students, p. 38). Our acceptance with God is sure only through His beloved Son, and good works are but the result of the working of His sin-pardoning love. They are no credit to us, and we have nothing accorded to us for our good works by which we may claim a part in the salvation of our souls. Salvation is God's free gift to the believer, given to him for Christ's sake alone. The troubled soul may find peace through faith in Christ, and his peace will be in proportion to his faith and trust. He cannot present his good works as a plea for the salvation of his soul. But are good works of no real value? Is the sinner who commits sin every day with impunity, regarded of God with the same favor as the one who through faith in Christ tries to work in his integrity? The Scripture answers, We are His workmanship, created in Christ Jesus unto good works, which God hath before ordained that we should walk in them. In His divine arrangement, through His unmerited favor, the Lord has ordained that good works shall be rewarded. We are accepted through Christ's merit alone; and the acts of mercy, the deeds of charity, which we perform, are the fruits of faith; and they become a blessing to us; for men are to be rewarded according to their works. It is the fragrance of the merit of Christ that makes our good works acceptable to God, and it is grace that enables us to do the works for which He rewards us. Our works in and of themselves have no merit. When we have done all that it is possible for us to do, we are to count ourselves as unprofitable servants. We deserve no thanks from God. We have only done what it was our duty to do, and our works could not have been performed in the strength of our own sinful natures. The Lord has bidden us to draw nigh to Him and He will draw nigh to us; and drawing nigh to Him, we receive the grace by which to do those works which will be rewarded at His hands (White, Gods Amazing Grace, p. 331). Additional references: John 15:4; Acts 4:12; White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 2, p. 174.

82

ASPECTS OF SPIRITUAL POWER "When the truth is received as truth by the heart, it is passed through the conscience, and has captivated the soul with its pure principles. It is placed in the heart by the Holy Spirit, who reveals its beauty to the mind, that its transforming power may be seen in the character" (White, Evangelism, pp. 291-292).

FAITH IN JESUS CHRIST By faith in Christ, walking with Him, growing in Him, and claiming His grace for oneself, a person becomes more Godlike in character. "Through faith in Christ, every deficiency of character may be supplied, every defilement cleansed, every fault corrected, every excellence developed" (White, Education, p. 257). "Rightly understood, faith is not a substitute for moral conduct but a means toward it. The tree does not serve in lieu of the fruit but as an agent by which fruit is secured. Fruit, not trees, is the end God has in mind in yonder orchard; so Christ-like conduct is the end of Christian faith. To oppose faith to works is to make the fruit the enemy of the tree; yet that is exactly what we have managed to do. And the consequences have been disastrous. . . . It is much easier to pray that a poor friend's needs be supplied than to supply them" (Tozer, 1980, pp. 156, 157). ...Come to Jesus by living faith. Put off evil, which clings to the soul to poison all its springs of action. We must fight against the sins that war against the soul. You cannot in your own strength do this work, but come to Jesus in faith. He will help you and strengthen you to put away evil tendencies, and will array you in the true beauty of his character. We are exhorted to put on the Lord Jesus. Simple faith and obedience go hand in hand. Your faith without obedience to God's holy law is of no value, but obedience to God and faith in the Great Sacrifice offered,-- that his blood was shed for you, and you will accept the righteousness of Christ,--will make you an overcomer. Put your trust in Jesus Christ, and he will bring you off more than conqueror (White, The Youths Instructor, Aug. 18, 1886). Good character does not come by chance; it is formed by persevering, untiring effort..... The world's Redeemer says, Without me ye can do nothing. Faith in Jesus Christ as your personal Saviour, will give strength and solidity to your character (White, The Youths Instructor, Jan. 18, 1894).

83

Christ's Answer to Man's Need Our Problem Pride, Insecurity Poor Self-Image Christ's Answer "The Poor in Spirit" recognize need and do something about it Results Acceptance of self Conquest of false pride Meaningful communion with God and man Clear conscience Evidence of acceptance by God and man Acceptance of Authority Development of trust and confidence in God and man Healthy emotions Wholistic development Right with God and man Improvement of relationships Identification, sharing Love to God and man Moral freedom Law of God in heart Right doing toward God and man Peace that passes understanding Portrayal of God to man

Sin and Guilt

"They that Mourn" Repentance from and turning from sin "The Meek" Submissiveness and dedication to the will of God for us "They which do Hunger and Thirst after Righteousness" Filled with the Water of Life "The Merciful" Forgiving attitude, willingness to share, spiritual growth "The Pure in Heart" Cleanliness, purity, integrity in life

Rebelliousness, Anger, Lack of Confidence Unhappiness, Fear, Frustration, Worry

Bitterness and Selfishness

Impurity and Immorality

Despair and Apathy

"The Peacemakers" Exude peace, happiness, contentment share these with all with whom you come in contact

Taken from Van Dolson & Spangler, 1977, p. 107.

THE WORK OF THE HOLY SPIRIT "It is not always the most learned presentation of God's truth that convicts and converts the soul. Not by eloquence or logic are men's hearts reached, but by the sweet influences of the Holy Spirit which operate quietly but surely in transforming and developing character. It is the still, small voice of the Spirit of God that has power to change the heart" (White, Prophets and Kings, p. 169). "Through the grace of Christ, the highest attainments in character are possible; for every soul who comes under the modeling influence of the Spirit of God, may be transformed in mind and heart" (White, Fundamentals of Christian Education, p. 214).

84

"The Holy Spirit operates the same the world over. When it is received into the heart, the whole character is changed.... Old habits and customs and national pride and prejudice are broken down. . . . [And this resulted in] unity of thought and action" (White, Review and Herald, Nov. 3, 1885). The Holy Spirit and Children That Spirit loves to address the children, and discover to them the treasures and beauties of the word. The promises spoken by the Great Teacher will captivate the senses and animate the soul of the child with a spiritual power that is divine. There will grow in the receptive mind a familiarity with divine things which will be as a barricade against the temptations of the enemy (White, Counsels to Parents and Teachers, p. 172). As the Holy Spirit moves upon the hearts of the children, cooperate with His work. Teach them that the Saviour is calling them, that nothing can afford Him greater joy than for them to give themselves to Him in the bloom and freshness of their years (White, Ministry of Healing, p. 44). Even the babe in its mothers arms may dwell as under the shadow of the Almighty through the faith of the praying mother. John the Baptist was filled with the Holy Spirit from his birth. If we will live in communion with God, we too may expect the divine Spirit to mold our little ones, even from their earliest moments (White, The Desire of Ages, p. 512).

PRAYER Two types of personal prayer are important: a personal quiet time for meditation and prayer, as well as prayer throughout the day. "Prayer is heaven's ordained means of success in the conflict with sin and the development of Christian character. The divine influences that come in answer to the prayer of faith will accomplish in the soul of the suppliant all for which he pleads. For the pardon of sin, for the Holy Spirit, for a Christlike temper, for wisdom and strength to do His work, for any gift He has promised, we may ask; and the promise is, `Ye shall receive.'" (White, The Acts of the Apostles, p. 564).

BIBLE STUDY "In every generation and in every land the true foundation for character-building has been the same,-the principles contained in the word of God. The only safe and sure rule is to do what God says" (p. 564). Know Jesus "The knowledge of God as revealed in Christ is the knowledge that all who are saved must have. It is the knowledge that works transformation of character" (White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 425). "When one turns away from human imperfections to behold Jesus, a divine transformation takes place in the character. The spirit of Christ working upon the heart conforms it to His image" (White, Christ's Object Lessons, p. 250).

85

Faith Key to Knowledge "Eve coveted what God had forbidden: she distrusted His wisdom, she cast away faith, the key to knowledge" (White, Education, p. 24). Additional references: II Peter 1:5,6; I John 5:4,5; Romans 1:17; Habakkuk 2:4. Gods Law a Mirror He [God] has given us his law as a mirror into which we may look and discover the defects in our character (White, Testimonies to the Church, Vol. 3, p. 116).

GUARDIAN ANGELS "Your guardian angels will be at your side, prompting you to a better course, choosing your words for you, and influencing your actions" (White, Messages to Young People, p. 90).

GODS LOVE John did not naturally possess the loveliness of character that his later experiences revealed. By nature he had serious defects. He was not only proud, self-assertive and ambitious for honor but impetuous, and restful under injury.... Evil temper, the desire for revenge, the spirit of criticism, were all in the beloved discipline.... Jesus rebuked his self-seeking, disappointed his ambitions, tested his faith. But he revealed to him that for which his soul longedthe beauty of holiness, the transforming power of love (White, Acts of the Apostles, p. 540). The only safeguard against evil is the indwelling of Christ in the heart through faith in His righteousness. It is because selfishness exists in our hearts that temptation has power over us. But when we behold the great love of God, selfishness appears to us in its hideous and repulsive character, and we desire to have it expelled from the soul. As the Holy Spirit glorifies Christ, our hearts are softened and subdued, the temptation loses its power, and the grace of Christ transforms the character (White, Mount of Blessing, p. 118:3).

86

CHANGE FROM A SPIRITUAL VIEWPOINT GOD'S PLAN Guilt (Holy Spirit) Acts 2:37-38 SATAN'S COUNTERFEIT Eliminating Guilt: 1. No values 2. "Dead conscience" 3. Rejecting the voice of Holy Spirit 4. Neurotic constant guilt 5. Salvation by works 6. Situational values Eliminating repentance: 1. No repentance, pride of opinion 2. False repentance 3. Denial of wrong, self-justification and rationalization 4. Rebellion 5. Giving up 6. Wrong motives Eliminating confession: 1. No confession 2. Superficial confession 3. Forced confession 4. False confession Eliminating or confusing forgiveness: 1. Can't forgive self/cant forgive others 2. Can't accept God's forgiveness Eliminating restitution: 1. Not necessary 2. Partial only Eliminating: 1. No attempt to forsake 2. Weak attempt with own will power only failure 3. Lack of trust in God Prodigal Son: In fully restoring the son, did not the father open himself to a repeat performance by the son? What was to prevent the son from taking advantage? Can we really deal with people this way?

Repentance Joel 2:13

Confession 1 John 1:9

Forgiveness Jeremiah 33:8

Restitution Luke 19:8

Forsaking sin John 8:11 Restoration Philippians 2:13 Future potential

"Flowers do not unfold under the breath of a blighting wind" (White, Education, p. 291). "Simon was touched by the kindness of Jesus in not openly rebuking him. . .Jesus. . .sought by a true statement of the case to convince his mind, and by pitying kindness to subdue his heart. Stern

87

denunciation would have hardened. . .but patient admonition convinced. . . His pride was humbled. . ." (White, The Desire of Ages, pp. 567-568).

GODS WAY OF DEALING WITH TEMPTATION James 1:13,14 God does not tempt us. We are drawn by our own evil natures. ...God cannot be tempted to evil, nor does He Himself tempt anyone. But each one is tempted when he is drawn away by his own desires and enticed. Our evil nature encourages us to linger with the temptation. Then, after desire has conceived, it gives birth to sin; and sin when it is full-grown, gives birth to death. DESIRE (from evil nature) CONCEPTION BIRTH of sin the idea develops in our mind GROWTH of sin practiced, becomes part of the life DEATH fully on Satans side John 17:15 We live in a world surrounded by sin; God does not remove us from this world, but rather promises to protect us from succumbing to sin. Our responsibility is to resist immediately, pray, and claim Gods promises. Do not allow conception to take place. Pray for an inner change of attitude. ...submit to God. Resist the devil and he will flee from you. Draw near to God and He will draw near to you. Beware of overconfidence! So, if you think you are standing firm, be care that you dont fall! Everyone is tempted alike, but no one is tempted more than can be overcome through Christs strength. ...God is faithful, who will not allow you to be tempted beyond what you are able, but with the temptation will also make the way of escape, that you may be able to endure it. ...the Lord knows how to deliver the godly out of temptation...

James 1:15

James 4:7,8

1 Cor. 10:12

1 Cor. 10:13

2 Peter 2:9

88

SUGGESTED READING Clouse, Bonnidell. (1993). Teaching for moral growth, chapter 12. Ligon, Ernest. (1975). The psychology of Christian personality. Rowen, Samuel F. (1983). Testing validity: Moral development and Biblical faith. In Donald M. Joy (Ed.)., Moral development foundations: Judeo-Christian alternatives to Piaget/Kohlberg, pp. 111137. White, Ellen. Steps to Christ, pp. 1-88. White, Ellen. The Desire of Ages, pp. 328-332.

89

CHAPTER ELEVEN THE CONSCIENCE

What is the conscience and how does the conscience develop during childhood? How is it related to character development? How are the neurotic and the psychopathic conscience different? What are some of the more important characteristics of the child with a character disorder and the adult psychopath? What is the role of education in the development of conscience? What is the role of the voice of God? How can the conscience be strengthened or weakened? How can adults help children develop a strong, religious conscience? How does conscience develop during adulthood?

DEFINITION OF CONSCIENCE SECULAR The literal meaning of the word conscience is "a joint knowledge"--to know together. "The child's conscience consists of the sum total of moral ideas, standards, and values by which he judges what is right and wrong and holds himself accountable for what he does and for what he is and what he should strive to do. . . . The child's conscience includes not only his awareness of the goodness or blameworthiness of his conduct and character but also a sense of feeling of obligation to act, think, and feel in a way that is in keeping with his conception of what is right or wrong" (Jersild, 1960, p. 407). "The adolescent's conscience is the controlling force that makes external restraints unnecessary. `Conscience' refers to a sense of rightness or wrongness of one's own acts" (Hurlock, 1967, p. 249). "Conscience is the guardian in the individual of the rules which the community has evolved for its own preservation." W. Somerset Maugham. Websters New Twentieth Century Dictionary Unabridged, 2nd Edition: knowledge or feeling of right and wrong; the faculty, power, or principle of a person which decides on the lawfulness or unlawfulness of his actions, with a compulsion to do right; moral judgment that prohibits or opposes the violation of a previously recognized ethical principle.

RELIGIOUS Conscience is: the voice of God speaking to man the voice of the Holy Spirit speaking to the inward soul communication with God somewhat intuitive, though not an intuition supernatural, implanted in man by God, not a sixth sense, not custom, not education, not training, not habit, not impression, not environment

Conscience is:

90

"Conscience is the voice of God, heard amid the conflict of human passions; when it is resisted, the Spirit of God is grieved" (White, Testimonies for the Church, p. 120). "Conscience says `Do good and avoid evil'. It does not say what is good or evil. Conscience must be educated (Dederen, 1987). The conscience is a safe guide of our behavior so long as the Guide of our conscience is safe. It is presumption to go our own way and then expect our conscience to be reliable or untainted by self-deception. God is the only safe guide for our conscience.

HOW IS CONSCIENCE DEVELOPED? SECULAR VIEWS Secular authorities in general believe that conscience is developed, or learned, through the experiences of life. In current literature, the concept of conscience has fallen somewhat into disuse. "The acquisition of conscience is an important stage in growing up. Without personal, internalized standards of behavior, an individual must depend upon others to guide him; and his independence and sense of autonomy are seriously cramped" (Garrison, Kingston, & Bernard, 1967, p. 252). "Just as there is evidence that people are not born moral or immoral but become so through experience, so is there evidence that the individual's conscience is a product of experience. It is often referred to as `the voice of the herd' because the control of the individual's behavior comes from his knowledge of what the cultural group expects of him" (Hurlock, 1967, p. 434). "The task in moral training is `conscience building.' Only when the individual knows what is expected of him and is willing to accept the mores of the group as a guide to his own behavior is he controlled by his conscience. That early experiences in the home play an important role in conscience building has been emphasized by Sears et al: Mothers who love and accept their children and who use love-oriented techniques of discipline rather than material or physical techniques, produce relatively more children with high conscience" (p. 435). "Children are born amoral. They must develop inner controls and respect for rules and acquire a system of values if they are to participate successfully in human affairs. The initial learnings are the prohibitions and denials imposed by parents. Because the voices and images of adults are internalized to become the conscience, it is necessary that the parents be ethically united on social and economic pursuits" (Bernard, 1978, p. 312). "The task of distinguishing and internalizing concepts of right and wrong (developing a conscience) is achieved through direct teaching, observation of the cultural mores, and by the example set by adults. Learning to distinguish these concepts is less difficult than internalizing them, which means that the concept has been accepted as an orientation to action and thus serves as a source of motivation" (p. 281). Types of Conscience In psychoanalytic theory, the superego, developing in the early years of life, is formed of two subsystems: the conscience and the ego ideal. The ego ideal is the self-image and is positive when the standard is met. The conscience is negative and self-criticizing when parental demands are not met. It

91

develops as the child is punished and produces feelings of guilt. Both subsystems are necessary for moral growth (cf. Clouse, 1985, chapter 5). Peck and Havighurst (1960), through their research, described four types of conscience: (1) "The first, most primitive, and least effectual consists of a collection of harsh, crude `Don'ts.' At best, these act in an unthinkingly repressive way. At worst, they are so internally inconsistent or so excessively frustrating that they are impossible to follow." This type generally appears in the Amoral and Expedient groups, sometime sin the more childish Conformers. (2) "The second kind of conscience is largely a matter of rule conformity, with the main weight of authority still residing in the people around one. Its one central principle is a willing, sometimes anxious desire to do whatever the `respected others' require. . . . They do possess a body of internalized rules for action which they could not easily discard nor dramatically alter without feelings of guilt. The preponderant element in their moral control system, nonetheless, seems to be the desire to do `what people I respect want me to do.' They find a good deal of needed reassurance in their acceptance by the `respected other,' and experience shame when found wanting." (3) "The third kind of conscience consists of a firmly organized body of internalized moral rules which maintain their own autonomy. They are not much affected by what other people may say; but neither do they permit themselves to be questioned or tested by rational inquiry. This kind of conscience is largely walled-off from influence by ego functions." (4) "The fourth kind of conscience is the one found in the Rational-Altruistic subjects. It is a firm set of internalized moral principles which are accessible to rational questioning and testing. . . . This most mature form of conscience is not a discrete entity, functioning in isolation from day-to-day experience. Instead, it changes and deepens in wisdom as new experiences are encountered" (pp. 170-171). Defective Conscience Development In the development of conscience two extremes are obviously to be avoided: (1) the neurotic conscience which constantly and irrationally condemns, and (2) the psychopathic, nonexistent conscience (Antisocial Personality Disorder) which never condemns. Both probably have their origins in defective early childhood experiences. The neurotic, constantly condemning conscience, most likely originates in a childhood where the child was never able to please or to live up to the standards of the parents (or other involved adults). This child develops a self-condemnatory attitude toward self and lives with a pervasive neurotic guilt which constantly irrationally condemns. Therapeutic and spiritual experiences can help the neurotic conscience to become less self-condemnatory and more rational. The psychopathic conscience which never condemns appears to originate in the extreme rage experienced by the child who has never bonded to his or her parents or other caregivers. Wilson & Herrnstein (1985) believe there is a genetic component also which predisposes to psychopathic behavior (APD). If an infant lacks characteristics which encourage bonding, in most cases the parent-child interaction is affected and weak bonding may occur. This child never develops a sense of trust (Erickson) in his parents and, consequently, the world in general. Mistrust pervades his life. He must control and manipulate others because he trusts no one but himself. This unattached child (character-disturbed) becomes the adult with Antisocial Personality Disorder (psychopath). There is no known cure for this disorder.

92

Cline (1979) presents a profile of the character-disturbed child: 1. Lack of ability to give and receive affection 2. Self-destructive behavior 3. Cruelty to others 4. Phoniness 5. Severe problems with stealing, hoarding and gorging on food 6. Speech pathology 7. Marked control problems 8. Lack of long-term friends 9. Abnormalities in eye contact 10. Parents appear angry and hostile 11. Preoccupation with fire, blood or gore 12. Superficial attractiveness and friendliness with strangers 13. Various types of learning disorders 14. A particular pathological type of lying"primary process lying" (cited in Magid & McKelvey, 1987, pp. 13-14). Hare (1986) presents a profile of the adult psychopath which is more inclusive than the description found in the DSM-IV. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Glibness/superficial charm Grandiose sense of self-worth Need for stimulation/proneness to boredom Pathological lying Conning/manipulative Lack of remorse or guilt Shallow affect Callous/lack of empathy Parasitic lifestyle Poor behavioral controls Promiscuous sexual behavior Early behavior problems Lack of realistic, long-term plans Impulsivity Irresponsibility Failure to accept responsibility for own actions Many short-term marital relationships Juvenile delinquency Revocation of conditional release Criminal versatility (cited in Magid & McKelvey, 1987, p. 14).

RELIGIOUS VIEWS Conscience originates with God "To man alone, the crowning work of His creation, God has given a conscience to realize the claims of the divine law, and a heart capable of loving it as holy, just and good; and of man prompt and perfect obedience is required" (White, Selected Messages, vol. 1, p. 216).

93

"God has lent man talents--an intellect to originate, a heart to be the place of His throne, affection to flow out in blessings to others, a conscience to convict of sin" (White, Counsels on Stewardship, p. 114). In Genesis 3 we find the first mention of condemnation on the part of conscience--Adam and Eve realized they were naked. "Then the eyes of both of them were opened, and they realized they were naked; so they sewed fig leaves together and made coverings for themselves" (Gen 3:7, NIV). Before that conscience had commended; after sin it condemned. The Development of Conscience "A conscience once violated is greatly weakened. It needs the strength of constant watchfulness and unceasing prayer" (White, Mind, character, and personality, p. 321). "If they (the young) are watchful and prayerful, God will keep their consciences sensitive and their perceptions clear, that they may discern the workings of the enemy and be fortified against his attacks" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 3, p. 373).

Biblical Perspective The word "conscience" is not used in the Old Testament. The word "heart" is generally used. In the New Testament the word "conscience" usually means a general moral guide "... since they show that the requirements of the law are written on their hearts, their consciences also bearing witness..." (Romans 2:14, 15, NIV). "...On the contrary, by setting forth the truth plainly we commend ourselves to every man's conscience in the sight of God" (2 Cor. 4:2, NIV). "But do this with gentleness and respect, keeping a clear conscience, so that those who speak maliciously against your good behavior in Christ may be ashamed of their slander" (Peter 3:16, NIV). "I am not lying, my conscience confirms it in the Holy Spirit" (Romans 9:1-4, NIV). (Holy spirit and conscience, conscience must be sanctified and brought into conformity to the will of God.) "...How much more, then, will the blood of Christ, who through the eternal Spirit offered himself unblemished to God, cleanse our consciences from acts that lead to death, so that we may serve the living God!" (Heb. 9:13, 14, NIV). "When you sin against your brothers in this way and wound their weak conscience, you sin against Christ" (1 Cor. 8:7-12, NIV). The Holy Scriptures describe the functions of conscience, as well as different types of conscience, indicating clearly that the conscience can be a reliable as well as an unreliable guide for behavior. Types of Conscience: good, Acts 23:1 pure, 2 Tim. 1:3 wounded, 1 Cor. 8:12 weak, 1 Cor. 8:7 Functions of Conscience: bears witness, Rom 2:25 convicts, John 8:9 testifies of God, 2 Cor. 1:12

94

defiled, Titus 1:15 purged, Heb. 9:14 evil, Heb. 10:22 seared, 1 Tim. 4:2

Ellen White has written much about the conscience, including many ways in which the conscience can be strengthened or weakened. Things That Strengthen Conscience: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) Union with Christ sanctifies conscience Bible study Prayer Avoiding actions that weaken conscience Asking for tender conscience and discernment Following leadings of conscience Repelling unholy thoughts Cheerfully doing life's duties Christ's grace overcomes guilt Following the laws of health

Negative Ways in Which the Voice of Conscience can be Altered: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Participating in frivolous amusement Indulgence of appetite Cherishing selfishness A wavering mind An uncontrolled imagination

"Frivolous amusements, pride of dress, indulgence of appetite, hardened the heart and benumbed the conscience, so that the voice of truth was not heard" (White, Patriarchs and Prophets, p. 558). "When a person once neglects to heed the invitations, reproofs, and warnings of the Spirit of God, his conscience is seared, and the next time he is admonished, it will be more difficult to yield obedience than before. And thus with every repetition" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 5, p. 120). Positive Ways in Which the Voice of Conscience can be Altered: 1) 2) 3) 4) Christ's grace to overcome guilt Bible study Communion with Him Following the laws of health

"We must resist and conquer inclination, and obey the voice of conscience without parleying or compromise, lest its promptings cease and will and impulse control" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 5, p. 69).

95

"He may be converted; he may see the wickedness of his injustice to his fellow-men, and, as far as possible, make restitution; but the scars of a wounded conscience will ever remain" (White, Mind, Character, and Personality, p. 326). "He alone (Christ) can bring your moral and mental powers into a state of health. Your heart may be warm with the love of God; your understanding, clear and mature; your conscience, illuminated, quick, and pure; your will, upright and sanctified, subject to the control of the Spirit of God. . . .`Choose ye this day whom you will serve'" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 2, p. 565). Additional references: Titus 1:15; 1 Tim. 4:2; Acts 24:16; 1 Tim. 1:5; White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 4, p. 254.

ROLE OF CONSCIENCE IN CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT Conscience is a guide to character development. Since "God has given a conscience to realize the sacred claims of the divine law," and the character will ultimately be judged by the divine law, conscience is necessary to the development of character. Without a conscience there would be no basis on which to build character. Conscience is a guide for moral actions. "The greatest want of the world is the want of men--men who will not be bought or sold; men who in their inmost souls are true and honest; men who do not fear to call sin by its right name; men whose conscience is as true to duty as the needle to the pole, men who will stand for the right though the heavens fall" (White, Education, p. 57). In recent years, some specialists in moral development have begun to see the importance of conscience development in the young child and its relationship with morality. See Thompson, Meyer and McGinley (chapter 10) in Kellen and Smetana.

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS CONSCIENCE DEVELOPMENT 1. Provide opportunities for strong bonding with your child. Bonding with the parent is essential for the development of trust, a foundation for conscience development. a. Be the primary caretaker of your child during infancy and early childhood. b. Attend to your child's needs, physical and emotional. c. Provide plenty of loving physical contact. d. Provide plenty of opportunities for emotional closeness. e. Be there when your child needs you. Be reasonable in your requirements. Don't expect perfection. Allow for childish mistakes and learning. Motivate your child by commenting on what you like about her behaviornot belittling her. Provide a consistent set of do's and don'ts to guide your child's behavior. Don't pass one day and punish the next. Your child will be confused about right and wrong.

2.

3. 4.

96

5.

The early childhood years are the most important ones for conscience development. Try to make the messages about right and wrong the same from all important people in your child's lifemom, dad, grandparents, babysitters, church, preschool, etc. Provide consistent consequences for wrong behavior. Your child will thus learn that wrong behavior has undesirable effects. You've heard that children "do what we do, not what we say." It's true! Watch your modeling! Educate your child's conscience through Bible and character building stories. Recognize when your child feels the pangs of conscience and is repentant. Guilt is a sign of conscience development. Sometimes the guilt feelings are all the child needs to change her behavior. If you punish severely you may destroy the guilt feelings and in their place your child may feel resentful. SUGGESTED READING

6.

7.

8. 9.

Callahan, Sidney Cornelia. (1991). In good conscience: Reason and emotion in moral decision making. Graham, Douglas. (1972). Moral learning and development: Theory and research, pp. 81-90. Hoffman, Martin L. (1971). Development of internal moral standards in children. In Merton Strommen (Ed.), Research on religious development (pp. 246-252). Kagan, Jerome. (1983). Classification of the child. In Paul Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Formerly Carmichael's manual of child psychology (pp. 542-547). Magid, Ken, & McKelvey, Carole. (1988). High risk. Peck, Robert F., & Havighurst, Robert J. (1960). The psychology of character development, pp. 170-171. Perry, David, & Bussey, Kay. (1984). Social development, pp. 182-187. Thompson, Ross A., Meyer, Sara, & McGinley, Meredith. (2006). Understanding values in relationships: The development of conscience. In Melanie Killen & Judith Smetana, Handbook of moral development (pp. 267-297). White, Ellen. Christ's object lessons, pp. 95-102. White, Ellen. The Desire of Ages, pp. 183-195. White, Ellen. Mind, character, and personality, pp. 319-328.

97

CHAPTER TWELVE MODELING

What is the role of modeling in character development? When, where, and how does learning through modeling occur? What are some of the most significant results of the research studies related to modeling? How can parents and teachers improve the effects of modeling on the character development of children?

GENERAL Modeling occurs in many different relationships: Parent-child and siblings, teacher-student, minister-congregation, friends, peers, and community. Modeling also occurs in other situations, including the total home environment, the school environment, the community, movies, theater, television and other mass media, and stories. It also plays an important role in religious life in forming a relationship with Christ through learning to pray, listening to Bible stories, and studying and meditating on the life of Christ. Modeling is constantly affecting an individual, either positively or negatively. An individual can choose to use modeling positively by focusing on positive behavior and consciously emulating selected models and by avoiding negative models. Various studies on the effects of modeling have been carried out in the Social Psychology field. The most famous studies are those conducted by Milgram, Asch, and Bandura. Solomon Asch (1952) conducted a study where subjects were asked to compare the lengths of lines. When the subject was placed in a room with 7 to 8 cohorts who all gave the same incorrect response, 33.2% of the subjects also gave the same incorrect response (cf. Paicheler, 1988, pp. 84-87). Stanley Milgram (1974) studied compliance to authority figures. The subject was to administer mild to progressively dangerous shocks when incorrect answers were given on a learning test. Even when the shocks reached a dangerous level, subjects continued to administer them at the request of the authority figure. Albert Bandura is the foremost contemporary researcher on the modeling process (social learning theory). His laboratory studies with children and Bobo dolls are now famous. These experiments demonstrated that children who had seen filmed acts of aggression would later imitate these same acts against the Bobo dolls (Bandura, Ross, & Ross, 1963). In the field of prosocial behavior (actions such as cooperation, helping others, and sharing), studies are usually focused on the study of empathy, self-control, and friendliness. Bandura himself has not extensively researched this area, but his studies demonstrate that human behavior is learned and maintained by anticipated rewards as much as by immediate rewards. New behaviors can also be learned by observing and imitating others (social modeling, vicarious reinforcement) and the person learns standards from others and begins to self-reinforce own behavior (cf. Bandura, 1977). In a group experiment, the group which heard arguments against certain facts refuted had the strongest belief and acceptance of these facts (McGuire). This has strong implications for religious settings.

98

There are four phases in learning from models. 1. Attentional phase - Attention is given to models with high competence, high status, and expertise. Student's characteristics (dependency, self-esteem, affect) and incentives for attending influence whether attention will be given to model. 2. Retention phase - Contiguity of attention to the model and placing what was seen into long term memory is necessary to ensure retention. Rehearsal is also important. 3. Reproduction phase - Images or codes from the verbal memory guide the actual performance of the behavior. This is perfected through overt enactment, body-position cues, and corrective feedback. 4. Motivational phase - Behavior is more likely to be enacted if is reinforced (Adapted from Gage & Berliner, 1992, pp. 258-262). Research on modeling is incomplete but does suggest that a model who yields in a particular situation weakens the child's resistance to the temptation. No model or a non-yielding model has little effect. Other research findings related to modeling are: Negative modeling appears more effective in causing behavior than positive modeling. Aggression can be learned through modeling. Modeling is far more likely to undermine the effects of past impulse control and self-denial than to strengthen self-control and self-denial. People tend to model after people high in their affection or esteem. Prestige, power, competence--all affect modeling. An individual is more likely to model a community in which he finds warmth and acceptance. The effect of modeling is strengthened when the model explains why he/she chose a particular action. Children are more affected by models with whom they spend a large amount of time.

PARENTAL MODELING PARENTS REPRESENT GOD TO THEIR CHILDREN "Happy . . . the child to whom the tenderness and justice and long-suffering of father and mother and teacher interpret the love and justice and long-suffering of God; the child who by trust and submission and reverence toward his earthly protectors learns to trust and obey and reverence his God. He who imparts to child or pupil such a gift has endowed him with a treasure more precious than the wealth of all the ages--a treasure as enduring as eternity" (White, Education, p. 245). "Fathers and mothers and teachers need to appreciate more fully the responsibility and honor that God has placed upon them, in making them, to the child, the representatives of Himself. The character revealed in the contact of daily life will interpret to the child, for good or for evil, those words of God" (p. 244). CHILDREN COPY PARENTAL BEHAVIOR "The relationship between parents has perhaps more to do with what we may call the family style of life than any other aspect of the parents' behavior. If there is tolerance, respect, affection between the

99

parents, all of the children are likely to reflect these characteristics both in their own personalities and in their relationships with each other" (Forer, p. 16). "Indeed, it seems reasonable to say that, to an almost startling degree, each child learns to feel and act, psychologically and morally, as just the kind of person his father and mother have been in their relationships with him. . . . The general conclusion seems inescapable that a child's character is the direct product, almost a direct reproduction, of the way his parents treated him. As they are to him, so is he to all others" (Peck & Havighurst, 1960, p. 177, 178). "Children imitate their parents; hence great care should be taken to give them correct models. Parents who are kind and polite at home, while at the same time they are firm and decided, will see the same traits manifested in their children. If they are upright, honest, and honorable, their children will be quite likely to resemble them in these particulars. If they reverence and worship God, their children, trained in the same way, will not forget to serve Him also" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 5, pp. 319-320). "Give your children an example of that which you wish them to be . . ." (White, Child Guidance, p. 219). Additional References: White, The Adventist Home, pp. 267, 421; White, Child Guidance, pp. 215, 218, 482; White, Spiritual Gifts, vol. 2, p. 291; White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 4, p. 621.

THE MODELING OF SIGNIFICANT OTHERS TEACHERS Teachers are to do more for their students than to impart a knowledge of books. Their position as a guide and instructor of the youth is most responsible, for to them is given the work of molding mind and character. Those who undertake this work should possess well balanced symmetric characters. They should be refined in manner, neat in dress, careful in all their habits; and they should have the true Christian courtesy that wins confidence and respect. The teacher should be himself what he wishes his students to become" (White, Counsels to Parents, Teachers, and Students, p. 65). "God-fearing teachers will practice every principle they seek to imprint on the minds of the children" (p. 65). Additional References: White, Counsels on Sabbath School Work, p. 184; White, Education, p. 277. PEERS Hall and Cairns (1984) studied the aggressive behavior of children and whether it is an outcome of modeling or social reciprocity. The results demonstrated that although the modeling was seen as providing information about acceptable behaviors in an unfamiliar setting to a child, "Virtually all features of the traditional modeling effect were altered significantly by the powerful contributions of the other child's (the social reciprocity factor) ongoing actions" (p. 744). "The older students in our schools should remember that it is in their power to mold the habits and practices of the younger students, and they should seek to make the best of every opportunity. Let these students, determine that they will not through their influence betray their companions into the hands of the enemy" (White, Counsels to Parents, Teachers, and Students, p. 255).

100

"It must be remembered that the youth are forming habits which will, in nine cases out of ten, decide their future. The influence of the company they keep, the association they form, and the principles they adopt will be carried with them through life" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 4, p. 426). Additional Readings: White, Counsels to Parents, Teachers, and Students, p. 221; White, The Signs of the Times, 7(41), p. 482:1. ADULTS "It is much more important, then, to give the child an ideal that is ethical, than to teach him what behavior is ethical. If he has hero-worship for such an ideal, he will come much more nearly developing moral character" (Ligon, 1935, p. 334). "If the older ones manifest a cold, harsh, unsympathetic spirit, the children will manifest the same, and their characters will not be molded after the divine model" (White, Counsels on Sabbath School Work, p. 85). "Adults are also changed by the process of identification. Whenever someone comes into a man's life whom he admires or loves, his life will be slightly changed by that person" (Ligon, 1935, p. 367). Additional references: 1 Timothy 4:12.

THE PERFECT MODEL--JESUS CHRIST "Never will the human heart know happiness until it is submitted to be molded by the Spirit of God. The Spirit conforms the renewed soul to the model, Jesus Christ" (White, Messages to Young People, pp. 55-56). "He (Christ) is the only true model of goodness and perfection. From the beginning of His ministry men began more clearly to comprehend the character of God" (White, Mind, Character, and Personality, pp. 182-183). "When one turns away from human imperfections to behold Jesus, a divine transformation takes place in the character. The Spirit of Christ working upon the heart conforms it to His image. Then let it be your effort to lift up Jesus" (White, Christ's Object Lessons, p. 250). "Do you, my brethren and sisters, inquire: What model shall we copy? I do not point you to the great and good men, but to the world's Redeemer. If we would have a true missionary spirit we must be imbued with the love of Christ; we must look to the Author and Finisher of our Faith, study His character, cultivate His spirit of meekness and humility, and walk in His footsteps" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 5, p. 385). Additional references: 1 Peter 2:21; John 13:15; 1 Cor. 10:11; Rom. 14:7; 1 Cor. 11:1; 1 Tim. 4:12; 2 Cor. 3:18; 1 John 2:6; White, Christ's Object Lessons, p. 233; White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 1, p. 505; vol. 5, p. 306.

101

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS LIVING THE VALUES (VIRTUES) 1. Live the values (or virtues) you want your child to learn. Children copy their parents behavior faster than their parents teachings. Explain and point out the values you are living. This strengthens the effect of your model. Discuss value decisions family members must make. Be a real person. Admit you arent always right. Provide a model for how to deal with failure. Strengthen your marital relationship because it is a key factor in living the values. Teach your oldest child with great care. He or she will model for younger children. Choose day care, school, and church with character growth and values in mind. Time is a great asset in modeling your values. Unclutter your life and make time for your children. Limit child and adult activities to reasonable amounts. Give your child great amounts of time. Quality time springs from quantity time together.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

9.

Adapted from: Donna J. Habenicht. (2000). 10 Christian Values Every Kid Should Know, p. 34.

SUGGESTED READING Bandura, Albert. (1977). Social learning theory. Gage, N., & Berliner, D. (1992). Educational psychology (5th ed.), chapter 14. Bryan, James H. (1975). You will be well advised to watch what we do instead of what we say. In David J. DePalma & Jeanne M. Foley (Eds.), Moral development: Current theory and research (pp. 95111). Fowler, John M. (1977). The concept of character development in the writings of Ellen G. White, pp. 194-197. Habenicht, Donna. (1993). Educational psychology: A Christian perspective, chapter on modeling. Habenicht, Donna J. (2000). 10 Christian Values Every Kid Should Know, chapter 3. Paicheler, Genevieve. (1988). The psychology of social influence. Tumangday, Miriam S. (1977). Albert Bandura and Ellen G. White: A comparative study of their concepts of behavior modification through modeling, pp. 196-207.

102

CHAPTER THIRTEEN INSTRUCTION

What is the role of instruction in character development? How does instruction affect the development of conscience? of morality? of character? What methods did Jesus use in His instruction focused on character development? What is the role of knowledge, feelings (attitudes), and actions in the process of instruction for character development? How can questions be used effectively to enhance character development? Why are stories such an effective method for character development? How can they be used most effectively? How can parents and teachers use instruction more effectively to influence the character development of children?

Much research has focused on instructional methods for teaching moral values, including Kohlberg's work with the "Just Community", the values clarification emphasis in humanistic schools, and the research on the teaching of values. The main models for moral education were summarized in Chapter 8. Character education is currently the focus of many schools. The research findings have been mixed, with some studies showing a clear instructional influence on moral judgment, at least, and others suggesting that instruction is not effective in producing moral actions on a consistent basis. Most studies have focused on changes in moral reasoning where instruction appears to generally have a positive effect. Measuring the moral action component has been difficult and the research results equivocal. The problem may lie with measurement techniques, rather than the effectiveness of instruction. Lickona's (1991) research has taken him across the U.S.A. and Canada. He lists eight outstanding school projects designed to promote positive values and good character. Some of these projects have spread to many school systems through different states. Even though Lickona recognizes that "most of the current efforts in values education have not been subjected to a controlled research evaluation" (p. 28), his optimism is revealed when he affirms that early indicators are encouraging. As an example, he mentions that the most extensive evaluation of any values education programCalifornia's Child Development Project, sponsored by Hewlett Foundation showed statistically significant differences between program schools and comparison schools, in four areas: classroom behavior, playground behavior, social problem-solving skills, and commitment to democratic values. Berkowitz, Battistich and Bier, in their chapter in Handbook of Moral and Character Education (2008), have tried to identify what works in character education. They concluded that character education effectively promotes character development, impacts academic achievement, impacts many aspects of character development, and tends to be a set of implementation strategies. Very little attention, if any, has been given to studying the effects of parental instruction on the moral character of their offspring. The wisdom of the ages suggests a strong influence. Certainly God has been very clear in giving parents a strong responsibility to teach their children moral values.

103

HOME INSTRUCTION "Upon all parents there rests the obligation of giving physical, mental, and spiritual instruction. It should be the object of every parent to secure to his child a well-balanced, symmetrical character. . . . A right foundation must be laid, a framework, strong and firm, erected, and then day by day the work of building, polishing, perfecting, must go forward" (White, Counsels to Parents, Teachers, and Students, p. 107). "The instructions given in childhood will follow them all through life" (White, Child Guidance, p. 175). "They should not leave the children to guess at what is right, but should point out the way in unmistakable terms and teach them to walk therein" (p. 87). "The little children may be Christians, having an experience in accordance with their years. This is all that God expects of them. They need to be educated in spiritual things, and parents should give them every advantage that they may form characters after the similitude of the character of Christ" (White, Christ's Object Lessons, p. 84). Additional references: Proverbs 22:6; Matthew 5:19; White, The Ministry of Healing, 131, 386; Deuteronomy 6:6,7.

NATURE AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT Very little work has been done on the relationship between nature and moral development. Kahn (2006) wrote a provocative chapter on this topic in which he concluded that contact with nature is essential for moral development during childhood. The Sabbath provides an excellent opportunity for instruction through contact with nature that develops character both in the church and the home. "Since the Sabbath is the memorial of creative power, it is the day above all others when we should acquaint ourselves with God through His works. In the minds of the children the very thought of Sabbath should be bound up with the beauty of natural things. . . . By such associations parents may bind their children to their hearts, and thus to God, by ties that can never be broken" (White, Education, p. 251). "Teach the children to see Christ in nature. . . . in all the wonderful works of nature teach them to see an expression of His love. . . . Do not weary them with long prayers and tedious exhortations, but through nature's lessons teach them obedience to the law of God" (White, Child Guidance, p. 534). Some lessons to be learned from nature: Laws control nature-laws control our lives. Only in obedience can we find true happiness. Law of ministry - everything created serves a purpose - each ministers to world's life and thus secures its own. Sowing in faith. Germination of spiritual life. Effect follows cause. Life through death. Trust.

104

Self-reliance. God's care for His creatures. Adaptation and protective coloration are some of God's protection for His creatures. "To the little child, not yet capable of learning from the printed page or of being introduced to the routine of the schoolroom, nature presents an unfailing source of instruction and delight. . . . The unseen is illustrated by the seen. On everything upon the earth, from the loftiest tree of the forest to the lichen that clings to the rock, from the boundless ocean to the tiniest shell on the shore, they may behold the image and superscription of God" (White, Education, p. 100). "Yet even the child, as he comes in contact with nature, will see cause for perplexity. He cannot but recognize the working of antagonistic forces. It is here that nature needs an interpreter. Looking upon the evil manifest in the natural world, all have the same sorrowful lesson to learn--`an enemy hath done this.' Matt. 13:28" (p. 101).

THE INSTRUCTION OF JESUS When Jesus lived on earth teaching was one of his principal activities. He taught individually, in small groups, and in large groups. Since the main purpose of His instruction was to awaken spiritual understanding and build character in his hearers, his instructional methods provide a model for our teaching activities. "And it came to pass, when Jesus had ended these sayings, the people were astonished at his doctrine: For He taught them as one having authority, and not as the scribes." Matthew 7:28, 29.

CHARACTERISTICS OF JESUS' TEACHING Look up each of the following texts and write out what method Christ used: Matthew 9: 35, 36 ________________________________________________________ Matthew 22:16 ___________________________________________________________ Matthew 7:28, 29 _________________________________________________________ Mark 2:15-17 ____________________________________________________________ John 4:1-42 ______________________________________________________________ Luke 10:38-41 ____________________________________________________________ Luke 14:1 9 ______________________________________________________________ Luke 19:1-7 ______________________________________________________________ Luke 19:10 _______________________________________________________________

105

Jesus established an atmosphere of confidence and compassion. He used a variety of methods in His teaching and gave attention to the individual as well as to the crowd.

GUIDE TO TEACHING (by Evelyn Witter, 1976) Did you ever think of the New Testament as a guide to how to teach? Study Jesus' life; you will find in Him the greatest help you can hope for. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Jesus taught by word and deed, by illustration, story, and question. His lessons had preparation, presentation, and conclusion. Jesus used effective illustrations, accompanying the statement of a general principle with a concrete example. His figures of speech made the truth plain even to the unlearned. He was a wonderful storyteller. His stories were simple, full of action, and had a point. He asked good questions, making His listeners think until the truth was found. Jesus' teaching was on the plane of His hearer's own experience. He taught essentials. He grasped the great principle in every issue and made it clear. Jesus always brought His lessons to a definite conclusion. Jesus taught by what He did as well as by what He said. Jesus was the embodiment of all He taught, the example of a perfect life.

INSTRUCTIONAL PROCESS The ultimate goal of character education should be action. Many children have knowledge they know what they should do, but do not take appropriate action. Feelings (attitudes) often prevent knowledge from being translated into action (behavior). Lickona and Ryan put it this way: love the values. Without this component, knowledge doesnt translate into action.

KNOWLEDGE Facts: What do the rules say about how I should behave? [What does the Bible say?] Understanding: I understand the meaning of the lesson.

ATTITUDE Feeling: The teacher cares about me. [God cares] Understanding: What does this mean to me personally? Motivation: I want to please parents, teachers, [God]. I love the good.

ACTION Application: This lesson applies to me. Conviction: "I should." Choice: "I will." [with God's grace] Practice: I do something about it.

106

Faith in Jesus and the conviction of the Holy Spirit work through all of these. Knowledge alone is not sufficient--the devils believe and tremble. Knowledge must affect feelings and action. The conviction of the Holy Spirit plays a major part. Christ always directed His hearers toward action: "Go . . . and sin no more." Our responsibility is for action. Knowledge without commitment to action may immunize the child or adult against the right way. He becomes insensitive to the needed action response. To translate knowledge into action: 1) present the problem 2) find the principle [Biblical or school rule] 3) discuss the use of the principle 4) ask for commitment 5) [pray] 6) share experiences of the actions taken (at a later date) Additional references: Matthew 28:19,20; Titus 2:10; Psalm 32:8; Matt. 7:29; John 3:2;1 Tim. 6:2,3; Heb. 5:12; Luke 20:21.

SCHOOL INSTRUCTION "Moral instruction is a necessary component of moral education programs, and can help educators to promote rational morality and encourage pupils to avoid the extremes of moral bigotry and nihilism" (Hyland, 1986, p. 127). "There is a new awareness that the academic curriculum has been a sleeping giant in values education" (Lickona, 1991, p. 162). "The academic curriculum is the chief business of schooling. We would be wasting a great opportunity if we failed to use that curriculum as a vehicle for developing values and ethical awareness" (pp. 162, 163). "The character of Napoleon Bonaparte was greatly influenced by his training in childhood. Unwise instructors inspired him with a love for conquest, forming mimic armies and placing him at the head as commander. Here was laid the foundation for his career of strife and bloodshed. Had the same care and effort been directed to making him a good man, imbuing his young heart with the spirit of the Gospel, how widely different might have been his history" (White, Child Guidance, p. 196). "True education does not ignore the value of scientific knowledge or literary requirements; but above information it values power; above power, goodness; above intellectual acquirements, character. The world does not so much need men of great intellect as of noble character. . . . Character building is the most important work ever entrusted to human beings; and never before was its diligent study so important as now" (White, Education, p. 225). Additional references: Psalms 86:11; 90:12; 27:11; 32:8; White, Counsels to Parents, Teachers, and Students, p. 61; White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 5, p. 31.

107

THE USE OF STORIES FOR INSTRUCTION "The recent resurgence of interest in moral education of children has given rise to the search for new methods that will be more effective in instilling moral values. The concern is not only that children learn to reason morally but that they internalize the moral lessons that will determine what their choices in behavior will be. The search for new methods has unearthed an old method of moral instructionthe use of stories. Theorists and advocates point out that stories provide examples of real life situations in which choices are made and good choices are rewarded. Stories provide an opportunity for reflection, and can be given by the children themselves. For hundreds, indeed for thousands of years, stories have been central to education on the Western cultural heritage. This educational heritage sometimes called the Great Tradition, has been advocated recently as relevant to our educational crisis by several theorists. . . . The use of stories is one of the few universal aspects of moral education. From such unanimity it seems reasonable to conclude that stories have substantial educational utility. A clear policy implication and testable hypothesis is that stories should be more effective at teaching morality than the present non-narrative approaches" (Vitz, 1990, p. 717). ". . . As an educational medium the story is by far superior to commonly accepted methods of didactic instruction. . . storytelling addresses the whole child. It stills his limbs, engages his total concentration, and stirs his heart. Such total involvement is the key to meaningful education" (Petrash, 1983, p.14). ". . . Stories allow the child a vicarious experience of a much wider moral world [than can be experienced in school activities]. Of course, this experience should not be left without moral reflection, guided by the teacher and others. "A child's understanding of moral issues is an interpersonal, emotional, imaginistic, and story-like phenomenon and as such Kohlberg, Piaget models fail to respond to much of the child's mental life with abstract, logicosocial thinking" (Vitz, 1990, p. 718). "Over the course of the history of children's literature, many books have proven themselves particularly worthy of sharing with children. These books provide graceful, nourishing images of how things `can' or `should' be. They help children recognize and strive toward ideals" (Rovenger, 1988, pp. 45-46). William Bennett (1988) gives a number of reasons why teaching morality to students involves using stories. First, stories provide an example to the young of the traits of character that are most desired. Stories work because they are interesting and are excellent means of engaging the attention of the young. Unlike exercises in moral reasoning, stories give youngsters some "specific, common reference points." The stories help anchor the young in their culture, its history and its traditions. "This is necessary, because individual morality is inextricably bound to the conscience and the memory of society. Our traditions are a source of knowing the ideals by which we wish to live our lives" (p. 33). A somewhat different method of using stories as a tool for moral development was developed by Tappan and Browne (1989). They proposed the narrative approach to moral development. Instead of telling children stories, children tell their own stories about moral decisions that they made. Tappan and Browne maintain that narrative is a powerful and unified means of understanding human experience. The individual who tells the story gets the opportunity to learn about his own actions and decisions by reflection on the story. As author of the story, the person

108

telling the story assumes responsibility for the thoughts, feelings, and actions taking place in the story, as well as the changes that need to be made to improve the moral outcome of the story. Stories are also used for bibliotherapy, which is defined as the use of guided reading with individuals for remedial or developmental purposes. The affective changes that can result from using bibliotherapy include: empathy, positive attitudes, personal and social adjustment, promoting tolerance, respecting and accepting others, and helping the reader to identify socially acceptable behavior. Through stimulation of moral values, the student experiences a desire to emulate models. The process for change begins with identification, catharsis, and insight followed by action or changed behavior. If a story is to accomplish the goal of moral development, it must relate to the individual child's anxieties, aspirations, and goals, and it must suggest solutions to the problem. Character education programs generally include significant components related to the teaching of literature. Ryan & Bohlin (1999) suggest three different ways of approaching character education through literature: The views-driven approach, the values-driven approach, and the virtues-driven approach (chapter 2). Additional References: Ellenwood, Stephan, & Ryan, Kevin. (1991). Literature and morality: An experimental curriculum. In William M. Kurtines & Jacob L. Gewirtz, Handbook of Moral Behavior and Development (vol. 3, pp. 55-67).

THE USE OF QUESTIONING One way to help children reason about their behavior is by using questions. When children are asked questions related to their behavior, their attention is captured and they must start thinking. Many questions can be used to get children to cooperate while developing their moral reasoning. The questioning method is useful for parents and teachers alike and can be used to help children think beyond self-interest and take the perspective of others. For details on this topic read Lickona's Raising Good Children in the chapter, "The Ask-Don'tTell Method of reasoning With Kids."

SUMMARY Research on instruction in moral development has focused primarily on values education in schools. This chapter gave attention to moral education in the home as well as in the school. The pen of inspiration has indicated that the instruction of children in the home will have lasting effects on their behavior as well as their reasoning. Instruction for the development of character is a part of religious instruction and God has provided many resources to be used in teaching our children. Jesus, when he was on earth, provided a model for teaching that develops character. He involved experiences and actions in all His instruction, thus affecting thoughts and feelings of His hearers. One of Jesus' most used methods of teaching was through storytelling. Recent moral literature is focusing on the use of stories in moral instruction in schools as well. This neglected method which has been used for centuries to instill lessons may again prove to be the most reliable means to affect, not only the way children think morally, but also how they behave. Another method Jesus used was questioning. Questioning is an important tool that can be used with children to help them think about their actions and develop moral reasoning.

109

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS Teaching for Character Development 1. Be very clear about right and wrong. Teach with authority. 2. Take advantage of associations. Link learning to relationships with adults. Make learning pleasant. 3. Use Sabbath and nature for spiritual instruction. 4. Use family worship for spiritual instruction. Make family worship sweet, short, simple, and spiritual. 5. Use short periods of time. Don't bore children with lengthy exhortations. 6. Use frequent repetitions. Children and adults need to hear the message many times before it "sinks in." 7. Use key guiding phrases frequently until they become part of the child's guiding precepts. 8. Use stories to teach moral lessons. Reread or retell key stories many times. 9. Use surprise and shocking statements to catch attention and make people think about the moral issues. 10. Encourage children to think about moral dilemmas and reach a conclusion which they can act on. Have a family council to discuss the dilemma. 11. Use questions instead of directives. Questions help people think for themselves about what they have done or will do. 12. Use everyday experiences to teach moral lessons. Have children tell a story about moral decisions they madeor need to makeand discuss the decision and its implications. 13. Vary teaching methods according to the age and understanding of the individual. Young children need more directive methods when they are learning what is right and wrong, while older children need more opportunities to think through a situation and develop a guiding principle. 14. Make teaching personal, according to the child's interests, aptitudes, temperament, and experiences. 15. Answer questions patiently and carefully. Try to understand the intent of the questioner, not just the words. Respond to the intent also.

110

SUGGESTED READING Arbuthnot, Jack, & Faust, David (1981). Teaching moral reasoning: Theory and practice. Part II, pp. 105-276. Bennett, William J. (1993). The book of virtues. Bennett, William J. (1995). The moral compass. Briscoe, Stuart & Jill. (1995). The family book of Christian values: Timeless stories for todays families. Coles, Robert. (1989). The call of stories: Teaching and the moral imagination. Fowler, John M. (1977). The concepts of character development in the writings of Ellen G. White, pp. 200-203. Hersh, Richard H., Paolitto, Diana Pritchard, & Reimer, Joseph. (1979). Promoting moral growth: from Piaget to Kohlberg, chapters 5-6, pp. 113-232. Kahn, Peter H., Jr. (2006). Nature and moral development. In Melanie Killen & Judith Smetana, Handbook of Moral Development, pp. 461-480. Lickona, Thomas J. (1991). Educating for character: How our schools can teach respect and responsibility, part 2. Riera, Michael & DiPrisco, Joseph. (2002). Right from wrong: Instilling a sense of integrity in your child. Ryan, Kevin & Bohlin, Karen E. (1999). Building character in schools, chapter 2 and appendices. Smith, Ruth & Habenicht, Donna J. (1993). An old moral education method rediscovered. Education, 113, 541-547. White, Ellen. Christ's object lessons, pp. 17-27. White, Ellen. Counsels to parents, teachers, and students, pp. 41-70. White, Ellen. Counsels on education, pp. 1-30, 52-57, 138-147. White, Ellen. Education, pp. 123-271.

111

CHAPTER FOURTEEN DISCIPLINE

What is the role of discipline in the development of moral character? What is the difference between punishment and discipline? What effect do the different types of discipline (or childrearing practices) have on the development of moral character? What is the difference between power assertion and non-power assertion discipline, including love withdrawal and induction, as described by Hoffman? What are the characteristics of each type? Which type is most effective for enhancing moral development? What additional perspectives on discipline come from the Christian view? According to the book Education, which are the most important principles for discipline in Christian schools? How do these principles relate to character development? How can parents and teachers discipline children for more positive character development?

NECESSITY OF DISCIPLINE FOR CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT Discipline, in both its preventive and corrective aspects, is essential for the development of moral character in children and adolescents. Both the secular and religious sources stress its importance. However, the research literature related to different types of discipline and their effects on moral development is not plentiful. In this chapter we will first look at the need for discipline and the aims of discipline. The major portion of the chapter will be devoted to a brief review of several types of discipline which are positively correlated to moral development in children and adolescents. Before proceeding, however, we need to define discipline. Narramore (1979), in his book on discipline attempts to differentiate between punishment and discipline by suggesting that punishment is focused on the past while discipline is focused on the future. Discipline includes training and correction with the purpose of helping the child mature. Note the following differences in purpose, focus, and attitude: Punishment Purpose To satisfy the demands Discipline To promote growth and maturity of justice Christ-like deeds and attitudes of the past and of the future Love (Taken from Narramore, 1979, p. 57) We could expand the definition of discipline to include instruction, training, and correction. Modeling could be included as part of the instructional process. Thus, the chapters on modeling and instruction are integrally tied to this chapter on discipline. Although discipline should be closely tied to moral education, the material on discipline in the schools tends to be focused on correction. Hoffman's work on discipline and moral development and the three parenting styles

Focus

Sinful deeds and attitudes

Attitude

Anger

112

linked to Lewin's and Baumrind's separate work tend to address the broader definition of discipline. Lickona views classroom discipline as an integral part of the overall picture of character education. The quotations from Hurlock are often focused on correction, although she also includes the future focus of discipline and the development of conscience as an important goal of discipline, thus linking it to moral character. The Christian perspective is strongly focused on the development of moral character in the likeness of God. James Dobson of Focus on the Family has been an outspoken advocate for discipline as an important component of the development of character through the family. His books, Dare to Discipline (1978) and The New Dare to Discipline (1992), provide a strong counterbalance for families during particularly permissive periods of time. "The major determinants in the parent-child interaction appear to be love and discipline" (Peck & Havighurst, 1960, p. 180). "Children need to be guarded from their own ignorance and restrained when their self-restraint is yet inadequate" (p. 193). "Teachers are to bind the students to their hearts by the cords of love and kindness and strict discipline. Love and kindness are worth nothing unless united with the discipline that God has said should be maintained" (White, Counsels to Parents, Teachers, and Students, p. 265). "The work of `breaking the will' is contrary to the principles of Christ. The will of the child must be directed and guided. Save all the strength of the will, for the human being needs it all; but give it proper direction. Treat it wisely and tenderly, as a sacred treasure. Do not hammer it to pieces; but by precept and true example wisely fashion and mold it until the child comes to years of responsibility" (p. 116). "Everyone needs discipline (rules of conduct) in order to adjust his needs and desires to those of others, and in order to keep the affection and approval of people around him. Without discipline the adolescent will not develop the ego controls needed to help him adjust to the reality demands of life; with discipline, he will develop these controls and, as a result, make good adjustments to life's demands" (Hurlock, 1967, p. 444). "One of the first lessons a child needs to learn is the lesson of obedience. Before he is old enough to reason, he may be taught to obey. By gentle, persistent effort, the habit should be established. This to a great degree may prevent those later conflicts between will and authority that do so much to create alienation and bitterness toward parents and teachers, and too often resistance of all authority, human and divine" (White, Education, p. 287). Discipline is not a simple device for securing superficial peace in the classroom; it is the morality of the classroom as a small society (Emile Durkheim, p. 148) A moral education approach to discipline. . .uses discipline as a tool for teaching the values of respect and responsibility. This approach holds that the ultimate goal of discipline is self-disciplinethe kind of self-control that underlies voluntary compliance with just rules and laws, that is a mark of mature character, and that a civilized society expects of its citizens. Discipline without moral education is merely crowd controlmanaging behavior without teaching morality. . . . (Lickona, 1991, p. 110)

113

AIM OF DISCIPLINE "The object of discipline is the training of the child for self-government. He should be taught selfreliance and self-control. Therefore as soon as he is capable of understanding, his reason should be enlisted on the side of obedience. Let all dealing with him be such as to show obedience to be just and reasonable" (White, Education, p. 287). Moral discipline . . . has the long-range goal of helping young people to behave responsibly in any situation, not just when theyre under the control of a particular adult. Moral discipline seeks to develop students reasoned respect for rules, the rights of others, and the teachers legitimate authority; students sense of responsibility for their own behavior; and their responsibility to the moral community of the classroom (Lickona, 1991, p. 110). "The goal of all discipline is to mold the child so that he will be able to adjust to the traditional roles prescribed by the cultural group with which he is identified" (Hurlock, 1972, p. 380). "The ultimate test of a disciplinary pattern is the extent to which it helps the individual reach a place of maturity wherein he can make all decisions for himself and face the responsibilities for his own choices, whether good or bad" (Hurlock, 1967, p. 447).

TYPES OF DISCIPLINE RESEARCH ON DISCIPLINE Martin Hoffman Hoffman, through his research on the effects of child-rearing practices on moral development, has identified two main types of discipline: power assertion and non-power assertion. Power Assertion This type of discipline includes physical punishment (sometimes psychological), authoritarianism, force, parental power over the child, deprivation of privileges or threat of any of these. It tends to be quickly administered. The child does not develop a strong conscience, just a fear of breaking the rules. Non-power Assertion Hoffman has identified two types of non-power assertion discipline: love withdrawal and induction. a. Love withdrawal A child needs parental love for proper development, but in this form of non-power assertion, the parent gives direct expression to his anger by ignoring the child, turning his back, refusing to listen, stating his own dislike, isolating the child, threatening to leave, etc. These are highly punitive. This type of discipline is more prolonged than power assertion. It is unpredictable and variable for the child. It implies abandonment and separation to the child.

114

b. Induction This type of discipline gives explanations for changing behavior. It appeals to reason; the dominant feeling is to persuade or convince. It appeals to mastery, feeling grown-up, concern for others, inner pride in behavior, etc. It could also appeal to religious motives. There is a Selforiented Induction and an Other-oriented Induction. Other-oriented induction looks at the effect of an action on others: "That hurts Johnny when you hit him." "That hurt my feelings." It appeals to the needs or desires of others: "He's afraid of the dark, please turn the light on." It also explains the other person's motives. Hoffman suggests that Induction is most effective in terms of moral development. It teaches children to reason about actions, to use their own resources. It is not based on reward-punishment motivation. However, it is possible to effectively combine power assertion with induction. Love withdrawal has very negative effects on the child's development.

Peck and Havighurst Peck and Havighurst (1960) describe three basic types of discipline and their effects on children: a. "Harshly autocratic but consistent parents create a child who is overtly submissive during youth and apt to take over the role of a rigid rule-transmitter upon embarking on parenthood himself. . . . By late adolescence, most such children show a restless urge to break free and set up their own families where they can be `boss'. This replication of the parental style does not obtain in all cases; but the replication of the authoritarian, conforming value system does seem to apply in all such cases" (p. 178). "Parents who are lazy and uncritically glad to let their child run loose to rear himself betray a childish self-centeredness that is mirrored in a child who is selfishly expedient. He is anxious enough for further approval to make him responsive to social expectations, but his capacities for selfdiscipline and self-restraint are too weak to generate very dependable moral behavior. Such parental `indulgence' may be obvious or subtle, but it is discernible and its effect is predictably poor character" (p. 178). "The most democratic of these families, relative to the total population, were by no means `childcentered' in the manner caricatured as `progressive.' The parents unmistakably and firmly reserved the right to make final decisions, whenever they felt it necessary. They had an attitude, though, of expecting and encouraging the child to learn to make an increasing number of decisions each year, on more issues, as his judgment became competent on such issues" (p. 177).

b.

c.

"Parental control which was at once consistent, truthful, averse to severe punishment, and giving some limited but growing practice in decision-making--this kind of discipline produced mature, selfdisciplined adolescents" (p. 181). "Lack of discipline, or inconsistent parental control, produced only poor character. Severe, autocratic discipline, consistently applied, produced adolescents who were passively conforming to direction and convention in an unthinking, unautonomous way" (p. 181).

115

Parenting Styles Kurt Lewin, a social psychologist, in a classic study conducted in the 1930s with camp counselors and the boys in their units, identified three patterns of leadership which have become well known in psychological and sociological literature: Autocratic, laissez faire, and democratic (Lewin, Lippett & White, 1939). In the 1960s, Diana Baumrind, working with preschool children and their families, identified three main parenting styles (authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative). Maccoby and Martin, in a 1983 review of over 500 studies on parent-child interaction, summarized the research into four parenting styles (authoritarian-autocratic, indulgent-permissive, authoritative-reciprocal, and indifferent-uninvolved) and their effects on various aspects of child development, including moral development. Interestingly, in the late 1800s Ellen White also identified three parenting styles and their effects on the child's character which correspond closely to those identified by the above studies. This is the aspect of parenting which has been studied the most extensively. There is general agreement among developmental psychologists on the four parenting styles identified by Maccoby and Martin in their review of the literature. Research continues on the effects of each parenting style as well as the reasons for those effects, although there is also general agreement that the authoritative style is the most conducive to growth and maturity in most situations. Authoritative Parenting (2013) reviews the research on the parenting styles and concludes that the authoritative style shows the best results in all cultures that have been investigated to date. The two main dimensions of the parenting styles are support (warmth vs. hostility and rejection) and control (restrictive vs. permissive). The diagram on the next page places the four styles in their respective quadrants. Authoritative parenting uses high support and high control. Children of authoritative parents tend to be higher in moral development than children whose parents used other styles. We will examine the descriptions of the parenting styles given by Diana Baumrind and Ellen White. Additionally, we will look at Bruce Narramore's description of family government from a Biblical perspective.

116

ADULT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS
HIGH SUPPORT (warmth)

Authoritative-communicative
Consistent Limits Firm, patient, loving, reasonable Considerate of childs needs Warm relationship with child Adult is self-controlled Teaches child to reason and make choices

Permissive-indulgent
Limits inconsistent Discipline inconsistent Values not stated Little control Warm relationship with child Child develops own values without adult guidance

HIGH CONTROL (restrictive)

LOW CONTROL (permissive)

Authoritarian-autocratic
Inconsistent or consistent demands Excessive force and punishment No concern for childs needs Harsh and dictatorial Unsympathetic and cold Angry, uncontrolled adult

Indifferent-uninvolved
Inconsistent demands No attempt to guide child Ignores child Adult may be abusive No concern for childs needs Uninvolved with child

LOW SUPPORT (hostility)

117

Baumrind An authoritative parent displays neither the coercive disciplinary style expected to an authoritarian personality nor the indulgent disciplinary style expected of a democratic personality but in contrast to both is responsive and demanding, confrontive and autonomy supportive, affectionate and power assertive. . . . Misunderstanding of parental authority and of the authoritative construct is fostered when parental control and love are represented as opposite ends of the same continuum rather than as two independent dimensions. . . . Authoritative parenting is not an approach that strikes a balance between love and control but an approach that treats love and control as two independent dimensions. . . . authoritative parents are neither unconditionally accepting nor rejecting. They are high on both control and love, and thus the antithesis of disengaged parenting, which is low on both love and control, not the antithesis of either authoritarian or permissive parenting. The authoritative style is . . . both power assertive and demanding (a mark of authoritarian parenting) and loving and responsive (a mark of permissive parenting). . . . Although permissive and authoritative parents are both loving, in contrast to permissive parents who are unconditionally accepting, authoritative parents explicitly sanction acts of which they disapprove. Although authoritarian and authoritative parents are both power assertive, in contrast to authoritarian parents, who are coercive as well as confrontive, authoritative parents are responsive and confrontive, but not coercive. (Baumrind, Diana. (2013). Authoritative parenting revisited: History and current status. Authoritative parenting: Synthesizing nurturance and discipline for optimal child development. Larzelere, et al, eds., pp. 13-14.) White "Iron Rod" (authoritarian-autocratic) Description Selfish, unsympathetic, cold Harsh and dictatorial Magnifies his own authority Partial and impatient Arbitrarily restrains Unduly severe Angry and uncontrolled Magnifies indiscretion Publicly exposes and humiliates Uses force and military control Gives loud-voiced commands Results Determined rebelliousness Broken will Destroys cheerfulness and ambition Pushes child on Satan's ground No respect for God's or man's authority Indecision Affects nerves of child Develops a spirit of "I don't care"

Supporting statements: "To direct the child's development without hindering it by undue control should be the study of both parent and teacher. Too much management is as bad as too little. The effort to `break the will' of a child is a terrible mistake. Minds are constituted differently; while force may secure outward submission, the result with many children is a more determined rebellion of the heart. Even should the parent or teacher succeed in gaining the control he seeks, the outcome may be no less harmful to the child. The discipline

118

of a human being who has reached the years of intelligence should differ from the training of a dumb animal" (White, Education, p. 288). "There are many families of children who appear to be well trained, while under the training discipline; but when the system which has held them to set rules is broken up, they seem to be incapable of thinking, acting or deciding for themselves. These children have been so long under iron rule, not allowed to think and act for themselves in those things in which it was highly proper that they should, that they have no confidence in themselves to move out upon their own judgment, having an opinion of their own. And when they go out from their parents to act by themselves they are easily led by others' judgment in the wrong direction. They have not stability of character. They have not been thrown upon their own judgment as fast and as far as practicable, and therefore their minds have not been properly developed and strengthened" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 3, pp. 132-133). "The severe training of youth--without properly directing them to think and act for themselves as their own capacity and turn of mind will allow, that by this means they may have growth of thought, feelings of self-respect, and confidence in their own ability to perform--will ever produce a class who are weak in mental and moral power" (White, Child Guidance, p. 286). "Parents who exercise a spirit of domination and authority, which leads them to be exacting in their discipline and instruction will not train their children aright. By their severity in dealing with their errors, they stir up the worst passions of the human heart and leave their children the very disposition that they themselves have imparted to them" (p. 286). "God never designed that one human mind should be under the complete control of another. And those who make efforts to have the individuality of their pupils merged in themselves, and to be mind, will and conscience for them assume fearful responsibilities. These scholars may, upon certain occasions, appear like well drilled soldiers. But when the restraint is removed, there will be seen a want of independent action from firm principles existing in them" (p. 228). Additional References: White, The Adventist Home, p. 308; White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 3, p. 533.

"Do as you please" (permissive-indulgent) Description Blindly indulges Treats children as pets or ignores Allows child to rule Sentimentally wavers Coaxes and bribes Accepts substitute behavior Submits to child's will Results Open rebellion Creates stubborn self will Defies authority Uses deceit/evasion to avoid punishment Follows own headstrong, ungoverned will

119

Supporting Statements: "Blind parental affection is the greatest obstacle in the way of the proper training of children" (White, Child Guidance, p. 235). "Mistaken parents are teaching their children lessons that will prove ruinous to them, and are also planting thorns for their own feet. They think that by gratifying the wishes of their children, and letting them follow their own inclinations, they can gain hold of their love. What an error! . . . To a great extent, parents hold in their hands the future happiness of their children. Upon them rests the important work of forming the character of these children" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 1, p. 393). "Those who have too little courage to reprove wrong, or who through indolence or lack of interest make no earnest effort to purify the family or the church of God, are held accountable for the evil that may result from their neglect of duty. We are just as responsible for the evils that we might have checked in others by exercise of parental or pastoral authority, as if the acts had been our own" (White, Child Guidance, pp. 235-236).

"With love and firmness" (authoritative-communicative) Description Under discipline to Christ Self-controlled Show love and kindness Uses great tact and gentleness Makes friends of children Shows firmness and strict discipline Show sympathy and understanding Results Preserves self-respect of child Inspires with courage Binds children's hearts to parents Obedience from principle not compulsion Results not apparent at once but develop over a lifetime Leads to self-discipline and self-control, strong moral character

Supporting Statements: "You must control yourself in the management of your children. You must remember that Justice has a twin sister, Mercy. When you would exercise justice, show mercy, tenderness, and love, and you will not labor in vain" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 4, p. 363). "Excessive indulgence and undue severity are alike to be avoided. While vigilance and firmness are indispensable, so also are sympathy and tenderness" (White, Child Guidance, p. 263; cf. also pp. 226227). "God's method of government is an example of how children are to be trained. There is no oppression in the Lord's service, and there is to be no oppression in the home, or in the school. Yet neither parents nor teachers should allow disregard of their word to pass unnoticed. . . . Let them be sparing of censure. Let kindness be the law of the home, and of the school. Let the children be taught to keep the law of the Lord, and let a finer loving influence restrain them from evil" (White, Counsels to Parents, Teachers, and Students, p. 155).

120

"[Father's] Do not discourage your children. Combine affection with authority, kindness and sympathy with firm restraint" (White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 391). "Uniform firmness and unimpassioned control are necessary to the discipline of every family. Say what you mean calmly, move with consideration, and carry out what you say without deviation" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 3, p. 532). "Since the surrender of the will is so much more difficult for some pupils than for others, the teacher should make obedience to his requirements as easy as possible. The will should be guided and molded, but not ignored or crushed" (White, Education, pp. 288-289). Additional References: White, Child Guidance, pp. 242, 245; White, Education, pp. 288-289; White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 384; White, Prophets and Kings, 34; White, The Adventist Home, p. 440.

Individuals will tend to parent the way they were parented unless they consciously intervene to change the pattern. Discipline is not punishment. Discipline has the forward look of trying to guide the child into a particular type of behavior. The purpose of discipline is to promote growth. If we care, we (as parents or teachers) discipline. From the child's perspective, discipline is proof of being loved and of belonging.

OFF LIMITS: Methods of discipline which breed hostility and subsequent rejection of parental values. 1. Threats 5. Comparisons 2. Arguments 6. Mass punishment 3. Humiliation 7. Forced confession 4. Sarcasm 8. Challenge to misbehave Guilt is sometimes the only discipline a person needs.

Narramore Bruce Narramore (1979) takes a Biblical approach to parenting. He calls the Biblical form of family government "loving" or "benevolent" authority. His description closely coincides with the authoritative model described previously. "Characteristics of benevolent authority in the family are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Deep respect for each child as an image-bearer and creation of the living God Sensitivity to the unique needs and capabilities of each child Commitment to provide for the needs of the child Delegated authority exercised by parents as a trust from God Keen awareness of the parent's own sinfulness, fallibility, and need of grace Sensitive establishment of necessary limits and guidelines Training and correction based on biblical injunctions Warm and loving family atmosphere" (p. 45).

121

Narramore also suggests nine Biblical principles of correction. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Correction will be preceded by the parent's positive example. Correction will be preceded by the parents providing for the child's physical, social, emotional and spiritual needs. Correction will be preceded by instruction. Correction will be done in love, not out of frustration. Correction will be done for the welfare of the child. Correction will produce security and respect. Correction will be prayerfully designed and carried out. Correction will be fair and sensitive. Correction will promote understanding and communication. (pp. 73-76)

Dobson James Dobson, well known family educator and advocate, has written extensively about discipline. His first book, which catapulted him to national prominence in Christian circles, was on the topic of discipline: Dare to Discipline (1978). This book was an attempt to counterbalance the extreme permissiveness which was prominent then in the child-rearing literature. He has been criticized as too authoritarian, largely by humanistic educators and social workers, who themselves are perhaps reacting to the prevalence of child abuse by criticizing all corporal punishment. However, if the entirety of Dobson's writings are examined, he appears to support authoritative parenting, but with a high level of control. The New Dare to Discipline (1992) attempts to bring the book up to date for a new generation of families.

Others An overwhelming number of books about discipline are available to parents. Most take a very behavioral approach and say nothing about the moral development implications of child discipline. Christian publishers have tried to provide books which approach discipline from a biblical perspective, with strong emphasis on the development of moral character. Kay Kuzmas book, Easy Obedience: Teaching Children Self-discipline With Love is of that genre.

122

DISCIPLINE IN THE SCHOOLS Models A number of models for school discipline have been suggested, using different theoretical perspectives, and ranging from the very permissive, supportive Rogerian model, to the very directive behavioral model. The chart on the next page (adapted from Wolfgang & Glickman, 1986) describes school discipline, identifying different theoretical approaches to classroom management on a continuum from least controlling to most controlling. Jerry Canter (1976) popularized the behavioral model and William Glasser the Reality Therapy model (1965, 1969, 1977). Rudolph Driukers has written extensively in support of a model based on the Adlerian approach which includes an emphasis on class meetings (Druikers & Cassell,1972; Druikers, Grunwalk, & Pepper, 1982). All of these approaches are widely used in schools. Studies on creating and enforcing rules in a classroom have also contributed to current ideas about discipline. Susan Stengel (1982), feels that "the long-range goals [of moral education] should be kept in mind when formulating and enforcing basic rules" (p. 26). Rules in a classroom and at home must be based on principles which are clearly understood by the children. The children may need assistance in learning the rules and being reminded of them, but the combination of patience and consistent enforcement along with logical consequences for actions "appeals to children's sense of fairness and maintains their integrity" (p. 27). Cullingford's study (1988) showed a different attitude toward rules. Children in his study saw rules not as a positive encouragement toward good behavior, but instead saw rules as a means of preventing things from going wrong. "No one mentioned any association between rules and doing good, or being well-behaved. It seems that children accept the natural depravity of human beings and wish to see it restrained" (p. 6). The cooperative learning approach to classroom instruction includes student involvement in decisions about classroom rules. This approach appears to encourage moral development of the students. Lickonas approach to moral discipline places moral character development squarely in the middle of the discipline process. Indeed, it is the purpose for discipline. He suggests eleven guidelines for moral discipline: Moral discipline, which uses discipline as a tool for moral growth, has these elements: 1. The teachers role as the central moral authority of the classroom. 2. Cooperative rule-setting, or discussing with students how the classroom rules express mutual respect and serve the good of the classroom community. 3. An educational approach to consequences, using the occasion of rule-enforcement to help students understand and voluntarily follow the rules. 4. Logical consequences for rule infraction to help students gain self-control, understand why their behavior was inappropriate, and make reparation. 5. Where appropriate, deciding consequences on a case-by-case basis. 6. Individual conferences to promote teacher-student understanding, uncover the cause of a problem, and work out an agreed-upon plan for correcting it. 7. Providing situational supports for self-control . . . methods that help students gain control through self-awareness.

123

8. Including positive and/or negative incentives as part of individual behavior improvement plans where such incentives are needed for motivation. 9. Taking care to use group and individual incentives in a way that supports rather than undermines the moral foundation of classroom rules. 10. Taking a wholistic approach that sees students as persons and searches for solutions that help them succeed as members of the classroom community. 11. Involving parents. . . in dealing with problems. (Lickona, 1991, p. 130)

Discipline for character development should include the following: The teachers model and instruction. Cooperative rule setting. An individual approach to consequences which makes sure the student understands why his/her behavior was wrong, and enlists the students desire and commitment to change in the future. Total classroom support for the development of self-responsibility and respect. A wholistic approach to the total person of the student. Very little research has been done on the effects of the various models of classroom management on moral development. To the extent that the models support the principles of democratic group leadership and the authoritative parenting style, there is a strong probability that there would be a correlation with the development of moral character. One would suppose classroom management would also have to be supported with instruction in moral values to encourage the development of moral character.

124

CLASSROOM DISCIPLINE (Teacher Behavior Continuum)

Child Centered
non-interventionists

Teacher Directed
interactionists interventionists

General behaviors

Visually looking on

Nondirective statements

Questions

Directive statements

Modeling

Reinforcement Isolation

Phisical intervention

Schools of thought

Relationship Listening

Cooperative Learning

Confronting Contracting

Teaching

Rules Rewards and Punishments

Transactional Analysis Models Values Clarification (Simon & Raths) Teacher Effectiveness Training (Gordon)

Discipline Without Tears (Dreikur) Behavior Modification Reality Therapy (Glasser) Dare to Discipline (Dobson) Moral Discipline (Lickona) Assertive Discipline (Canter)

Adapted from Wolfgang & Glickman, 1986.

125

White In the book Education, (pages 287-297), Ellen White has provided an excellent essay on discipline in the school. From this ten-page chapter, 29 statements about discipline have been identified, with the corresponding reason for the statement. These statements were then distilled into ten general principles for discipline from a Christian perspective. While these were written for the school situation, the ten general principles appear to apply equally well for the home. Each general principle includes the particular statements from which it is drawn.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DISCIPLINE General Principles Includes Statement No.

1. Parents and teachers represent God. 2. Work towards self-government 3. Guide the will. Teach how to make decisions. 4. Prevent misbehavior, if possible. 5. Be lovingly firm. 6. Be persistent. Do not give up. 7. Have few rules and enforce. 8. Request, rather than command; state reasons. 9. Correct calmly, in private, and direct to God. 10. Encourage, focus on future potential. Be forgiving. Expect good behavior.

4, 19 8 5, 6, 7 10, 24 14, 22, 1 2, 25 12, 13 3, 11 17, 21, 23 9, 15, 16, 18, 20, 26, 28, 29

INSTRUCTION REGARDING DISCIPLINE (as stated in Education, "Discipline," pp. 287-297)

Statement 1. Obedience first lesson to be taught.

Reason 1. Prevents later conflicts between the will and authority. 2. Prevents alienation.

2. Establish habit by gentle, persistent, effort.

126

3. Reason with child as soon as he can understand. 4. Teachers and parents represent God --child to obey them. 5. Direct development without undue control--do not `break the will.'

3. All things under law, save from harm and loss. 4. Their laws are His laws; they also must obey God. 5. The will needed for strength and steadfastness. Child must learn to govern self. 6. Surrender of will difficult for some children; must be guided and moldednot crushed. 7. Choice, the governing power. Everyone must choose. 8. Most permanently successful because child will choose for self. 9. Suspicion demoralizes, encourages evil. Children will prove themselves worthy of trust. 10. This method works better than distrust. 11. Obedience from choice rather than from force. 12. Will consider rules just and have greater responsibility to obey. 13. Mind adapts to that which it cannot change--otherwise hopes for indulgence. 14. Allows evil habits to develop, an injustice to the child. Only under obedience to the law is there true freedom. 15. Bewilders, does not reform, fatal to effort. Self-fulfilling prophecy--child sees fault as especially his. Creates discouragement and hopelessness hidden under bravado and indifference. 16. Child co-operative, only permanently successful method. 127

6. Make obedience as easy as possible.

7. Teach the child the true force of the will. 8. Teach self-control.

9. Encourage sense of honor--trust the child, treat with confidence and respect.

10. Watch the workings of the child's mind and prevent evil. 11. Request rather than command.

12. Let child help make rules.

13. Have few, well considered rules which are enforced.

14. Allow no compromise with evil-bribing, coaxing, or accepting substitute behavior.

15. Guard against fault finding or censure.

16. Help child see his fault and enlist his will for its correction.

17. Direct child to source of pardon and power. 18. Preserve self-respect and inspire with courage and hope--encourage. 19. Always have own emotions under control. There is power in silence. 20. Be especially careful with sensitive and nervous children, difficult ones.

17. Cleanses conscience and provides strength for future. 18. Gives child incentive for trying.

19. Otherwise arouses resentment and discipline ineffective. 20. Remember own struggles and do "as ye would that others do unto you." God's rule sacredly observed toward all--blundering, rebellious-members of God's family. 21. Child becomes discouraged and feels he must justify himself in eyes of others. 22. Only true representation of God's character to child. 23. Alienates child when errors are misstated or harsh spirit is used.

21. Avoid making faults public. Do not reprove in presence of others.

22. Blend mercy and justice through love, tenderness, patience and self-control. 23. Reprove with humble language, not exaggerated. Show error with gentle spirit. Err on the side of mercy. 24. Gain confidence of child and focus on good in character, develop this aspect. Correct evil without undue attention. 25. Never grow weary of forgiving.

24. Reinforces the evil to call attention to it.

25. This is the way Christ worked.

26. Teach children to meet trials bravely. Do not foster self-pity. 27. Teach children to work, even though no recognition is received. 28. Every mistake, fault, difficulty conquered a steppingstone to better things. 29. Show children something better, rather than arbitrary denunciations.

26. Child needs this strength in life.

27. Preparing child for reality of life.

28. Success is achieved step by step.

29. Gives child positive goal to reach, rather than discouragement.

Additional references: Col. 3:20,21; Prov. 3:11,12; Prov. 22:6; Prov. 23:13; Prov. 19:18; Prov. 29:15-17; II Tim. 3:16,17; Heb. 12:5; Rev. 3:19.

128

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS COPING WITH A DIFFICULT CHILD 1. Keep eating, sleeping, and exercise routines the same. Regularity is very important. 2. Prepare the child ahead of time for changes or situations that may be troubling. Security is very important - the child needs to know what is going to happen. No surprises! 3. Establish a few well-chosen rules and stick to these. Don't pass today and punish tomorrow. 4. Seek professional advice for possible medical, emotional or learning problems. 5. Avoid "junk" foods, excessive sugar and food colorings. Sometimes this is helpful for hyperactive children. 6. Limit activities which overly excite the child (such as scary TV programs or large groups of people or new situations). 7. Be happy with very small steps - don't expect enormous progress. 8. Demonstrate plenty of love. Be sure the child feels loved. 9. Look for strengths and positive qualities and encourage these. Don't let the child get the idea he is a disappointment to you. This may become a self-fulfilling prophecy which is very hard to overcome. 10. Recognize the child's feelings and emphasize, but confidently carry on. 11. Save the battles for really important issues. 12. Give yourself a break. Get away, do something fun for yourself. 13. Pray for patience and understanding. DO NOT GIVE UP.

129

KEEPING THE LINES OPEN When you try to talk with your child, do you get a busy signal? Is there so must static interference you can't get through? Or do you get the message, "This number has been temporarily (or permanently) disconnected"? The first step in discipline is getting the message through.

1. Listen Stop what you are doing Listen to the words Listen to the language of behavior Listen to the feeling "between the lines"

Prov. 18:13

2. Think before speaking Answer questions Respond to feelings Allow for differences of opinion 3. Watch the timing

Prov. 21:23 Prov. 15:28

Eccl. 3:1,7 Prov. 15:23 Prov. 10:3

4. Use a calm, soft answer "I" vs "You" messages Off limits: labeling, sarcasm ridicule, nagging Anger breeds resentment Soft answers come from God

Prov. 15:1 Eph. 4:29 Eph. 6:4

5. Be encouraging Forgive - and forget Focus on future potential

Prov. 12:25 Isa. 50:4 Prov. 12:18

Reckless words pierce like a sword, but the tongue of the wise brings healing. Proverbs 12:18

130

SPANKING IS NOT THE ONLY WAY . . . Teaching a new behavior 1. Identify the new behavior you want to teach. 2. Model the behavior yourself. 3. Show your child how to do the new actions. 4. Repeat the new behavior frequently. 5. Be very consistent - do it every time. 6. Provide an incentive to do it until the behavior is firmly established. Then an occasional word of encouragement will be enough to keep it going. Start with an incentive every time, taper to occasionally. Changing an undesirable behavior 1. Ignore it - it may go away by itself. 2. Replace it with a desirable behavior. Follow steps for teaching new behaviors. 3. Use natural consequences Allow child to learn from natural results of actions. Do not interfere with these results, except to protect from serious injury. Very effective method for school-age children and adolescents. Teaches responsibility and self-discipline. 4. Use logical consequences Select the consequence and inform ahead of time. Follow through with the consequence when needed. Logical consequences does not work when the adult is angry. 5. Use physical punishment Spanking should be a last resort when other methods do not work. This method is more appropriate for younger children. Be sure the child knows the reason for the spanking - talk about it. Spank hard enough to remembered - not just a little swat or slap. Be sure to show loving concern so the child feels your love. 6. Correction Ask child: What did you do? not Why did you do it? Secure admission of guilt. Ask child: Why was that wrong? Secure reason from child. Ask child: What are you going to do in the future? Secure promise of future behavior from the child. If punishment is needed to remember in the future, use logical consequences for first offense. Save physical punishment for later. Point child to God who forgives. Demonstrate God's forgiveness in the way you act Focus on future potential for better behavior. Preventing undesirable behaviors and attitudes 1. Anticipate situations - "in five minutes. . . " 2. Laugh with children, play with them, be their friend. Enjoy them. 3. Give clear directions, one step at a time. Write them down. 4. Help the child over a difficult spot. Suggest the next step for a project. 5. Make learning a game. Sing songs while you are working, tell stories, etc. 6. Be prepared with extra activities for difficult times (i.e., before supper). 7. Keep children on a regular schedule for sleeping, eating, playing and working. 8. Don't expect more than your child is capable of doing. 9. Avoid exposure to models of undesirable behavior (i.e., television). 10. Pray for God's Spirit to be present in your home continually. 131

SETTING LIMITS When setting a limit, ask yourself: 1. Is it necessary? 2. Is it reasonable? 3. Is it OK for my child's age? 4. Is it enforceable? If all answers are YES, go ahead. When enforcing limits: 1. Be clear - the child needs to understand the limit. 2. Be predictable - don't pass one day and punish the next. 3. Be confident and firm. 4. Be loving. 5. Be reasonable - an exception might be appropriate.

SUGGESTED READING Berger, Elizabeth. (1999). Raising children with character. Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson Inc. Canter, Lee. (1976). Assertive discipline. Dobson, James. (1992). The new dare to discipline. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers. Druikers, R. & Cassell, P. (1972). Discipline without tears: What to do with children who misbehave. Dubanoski, Richard, Inaba, Michaek, & Kent Gerkewicz. (1983). Corporal punishment in schools: Myths, problems, and alternatives. Child Abuse and Neglect, vol. 7, pp. 271-278. Fowler, John M. (1977). The concept of character development in the writings of Ellen G. White, pp. 197-200. Glasser, William. (1969). Schools without failure. Hoffman, Martin. (1970). Moral development. In Paul H. Mussen (Ed.), Carmichael's manual of child psychology (3rd. ed.), vol. 2, pp. 261-359. Kuzma, Kay. (1997). Easy obedience: Teaching children self-discipline with love. Lickona, Thomas J. (1991). Educating for character: How our schools can teach respect and responsibility, chapter 7. Mendler, Allen N. (1992). How to achieve discipline with dignity in the classroom. Narramore, Bruce. (1979). Parenting with love and limits. Perry, David G., & Kay, Bussey. (1984). Social development, pp. 78-109.

132

Stengel, Susan. (1982). Moral education for young children. Young Children, vol. 37(6), p. 23-31. Walsh, Kevin & Cowles, Milly. (1982). Developmental discipline. Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press. Watson, Marilyn. (2008). Developmental discipline and moral education. Handbook of Moral and Character Education, pp. 175-203. Weissbourd, Richard. (2009). The parents we mean to be: How well-intentioned adults undermine childrens moral and emotional development. White, Ellen. Education, pp. 287-297. Wolfgang, Charles H., & Glickman, Carl D. (1986). Solving discipline problems: Strategies for classroom teachers.

133

CHAPTER FIFTEEN CHOICE AND WILL

What is the role of the will and choice in the development of character? What contribution does religion make toward the decisions of an individual? What can parents do to help children become more resistant toward moral temptations?

The term "will" has, in general, fallen in disrepute in psychological circles and has been replaced by the term "motivation." In this substitution something was lost. Motivation does not seem to imply a sense of determination or strength of moral character which is implied by the term will. Recently, some psychologists have suggested going back to studying the will because they believe it is different from motivation. Psychological research on resistance to temptation appears to be somewhat related to will - at least some aspects of will, although the term is not used in this literature. The term "conation" seems to be closest to "will" and there is some current research using this concept. Lickona (1991) uses the will as a component of good character. His moral action component includes competence, will, and habit (p. 53). While choices are implied in moral actions, literature is scarce which specifically addresses choices in relation to morality. Moral behavior is addressed without the focus on making choices. Lickona includes decision-making as a component of moral knowledge.

DEFINITION OF THE WILL The will "is the governing power in the nature of man, the power of decision, or of choice" (White, Steps to Christ, p. 47).

IMPORTANCE OF THE WILL "The right choice in a moral situation is usually the hard one. Being good frequently requires a real act of will, a mobilizing of moral energy to do what we think we should. "It takes will to keep emotion under control of reason. It takes will to see and think through all the moral dimensions of a situation. It takes will to put duty before pleasure. It takes will to resist temptation, stand up to peer pressure, and buck the tide. Will is at the core of moral courage" (Lickona, 1991, p. 62).

134

"Everything depends on the right action of the will. The power of choice God has given to men; it is theirs to exercise. You cannot change your heart, you cannot of yourself give to God its affections; but you can choose to serve Him. You can give Him your good will; He will then work in you to will and to do according to His good pleasure" (White, Steps to Christ, p. 47). "Through the right exercise of the will, an entire change may be made in your life. By yielding up your will to Christ, you ally yourself with the power that is above all principalities and powers" (p. 48). "One of the most deplorable effects of the original apostasy was the loss of man's self-control. Only as this power is regained can there be real progress" (White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 129). "Christ will give strength to all who seek it. No man without his own consent can be overcome by Satan. The tempter has no power to control the will or to force the soul to sin. He may distress, but he cannot contaminate. He can cause agony, but not defilement. The fact that Christ has conquered should inspire His followers with courage to fight manfully the battle against sin and Satan" (White, The Great Controversy, p. 510). Additional References: White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 176; White, Steps to Christ, p. 51; White, Christ's Object Lessons, p. 331; White, The Desire of Ages, p. 300; White, My Life Today, p. 318; White, Temperance, p. 113.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE WILL "Self-discipline is the most effective form of discipline and the promotion of self-discipline is an important goal for all schools. Students with self-mobilization and commitment perform most effectively in school settings. In addition, with self-organization and control are prerequisite to developing a sense of care for others" (Rogus, 1985, p. 271). "The power of self-restraint strengthens by exercise. (White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 491). "As the will of man cooperates with the will of God, it becomes omnipotent. Whatever is to be done at His command may be accomplished in His strength. All His biddings are enablings" (White, Christ's Object Lessons, p. 333). "A noble character is the result of self-discipline, the subjection of the lower to the higher nature_the surrender of self for the service of love to God and man" (White, Education, p. 57). "Doing, not merely saying, is expected of the followers of Christ. It is through action that character is built. `As many as are led by the Spirit of God, they are the sons of God.' Rom. 8:14. Not those whose hearts are touched by the Spirit, not those who now and then yield to its power, but they that are led by the Spirit, are the sons of God" (White, Thoughts from the Mount of Blessing, p. 189). "The doing is not in accordance with the feeling or the inclination, but with the known will of our Father which is in heaven" (White, Mind, Character, and Personality, p. 757). "Many never attain to the position which they might occupy, because they wait for God to do for them that which He has given them power to do for themselves. All who are fitted for usefulness in this life must be trained by the severest mental and moral discipline, and then God will assist them by combining divine power with human effort" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 4, p. 611). 135

"God permitted your surroundings to exist to develop character. . . . by resisting or enduring temptation, circumstances are controlled by the might of the will in the name of Jesus. This is overcoming as Christ overcame" (p. 346). "Your part is to put your will on the side of Christ. When you yield your will to His, He immediately takes possession of you, and works in you to will and to do of His good pleasure. Your nature is brought under the control of His Spirit. Even your thoughts are subject to Him. If you cannot control your impulses, your emotions, as you may desire, you can control your will, and thus an entire change will be wrought in your life. When you yield up your will to Christ, your life is hid with Christ in God. It is allied to the power which is above all principalities and powers. You have a strength from God that holds you fast to His strength; and a new life, even the life of faith, is possible to you" (White, Temperance, p. 113). "You can never be successful in elevating yourself, unless your will is on the side of Christ, cooperating with the Spirit of God. Do not feel that you cannot; but say, `I can, I will.' And God has pledged His Holy Spirit to help you in every decided effort" (p. 113-114). "The strongest and noblest characters rest upon the foundation of patience and love, and trusting submission to the will of God" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 5, p. 168). Additional References: White, Counsels to Parents, Teachers, and Students, p. 222; White, The Desire of Ages, p. 203; White, Selected Messages, vol. 1, p. 336; White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 4, p. 452.

CHARACTER, THE WILL AND CHOICE From eternity God has always been committed to individual choice and free will, as demonstrated by His dealing with Satan, the rebellious angels, Adam and Eve, and a host of other Biblical examples. In fact, God's commitment to individual choice is a guiding factor in how He has dealt with all individuals through the course of history. He does not force loyaltyrather He clearly delineates the results of choosing between God's way or Satan's way, and then allows the individual to make his or her own decision. Choice is not always easy. Sometimes the direction for the choice is clear, but the followthrough is difficult. The ultimate expression of our trust in God is giving Him our will so that He can lead in our choices. The building of character is accomplished by the daily choices an individual makes. These determine the direction of character growth.

THE IMPORTANCE OF CHOICES "Perhaps the most important part of character development is learning to make wholesome choices; choices between God and Satan" (Kuzma, 1979, p. 60). "The present world is designed as a scene of probation for man. He is here to form a character which will pass with him into the eternal world. Good and evil are placed before him, and his future state depends upon the choice he makes" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 1, p. 196). "God might have created them without the power to transgress His requirements, but in that case there could have been no development of character; their service would not have been voluntary, but

136

forced. Therefore He gave them the power of choice, the power to yield or to withhold obedience" (White, Education, p. 23). "Without freedom of choice . . . there could have been no development of character. Such a course would have been contrary to God's plan in dealing with the inhabitants of other worlds. It would have been unworthy of man as an intelligent being, and would have sustained Satan's charge of God's arbitrary rule" (White, Patriarchs and Prophets, p. 49).

INFLUENCE OF THOUGHTS ON CHOICE "As a man `thinketh in his heart, so is he.' Many thoughts make up the unwritten history of a single day; and these thoughts have much to do with the formation of character. Our thoughts are to be strictly guarded; for one impure thought makes a deep impression on the soul. . . . If the thoughts are pure and holy, the man is better for having cherished them. By them the spiritual pulse is quickened, and the power for doing good is increased. And as one drop of rain prepares the way for another in moistening the earth, so one good thought prepares the way for another" (White, Messages to Young People, p. 144). "If we consent, He will so identify Himself with our thoughts and aims, so blend our hearts and minds into conformity to His will, that when obeying Him we shall be but carrying out our own impulses. The will, refined, and sanctified, will find its highest delight in doing His service. When we know God as it is our privilege to know Him, our life will be a life of continual obedience. Through an appreciation of the character of Christ, through communion with God, sin will become hateful to us" (White, The Desire of Ages, p. 668).

THE WILL AND CHOICES The right choice in a moral situation is usually the hard one. Being good frequently requires a real act of will, a mobilizing of moral energy to do what we think we should. It takes will to keep emotion under the control of reason. It takes will to see and think through all the moral dimensions of a situation. It takes will to put duty before pleasure. It takes will to resist temptation, stand up to peer pressure, and buck the tide. Will is at the core of moral courage (Lickona, 1991, p. 62). "This is the governing power in the nature of man, the power of decision, of choice. Everything depends on the right action of the will. . . . God has given us the power of choice; it is ours to exercise. We cannot change our hearts, we cannot control our thoughts, our impulses, our affections. We cannot make ourselves pure, fit for God's service. But we can choose to serve God, we can give Him our will; then He will work in us according to His good pleasure. Thus our whole nature will be brought under the control of Christ" (White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 176). "Everyone may place his will on the side of the will of God, may choose to obey Him, and by thus linking himself with divine agencies, he may stand where nothing can force him to do evil. In every youth, every child, lies the power, by the help of God, to form a character of integrity and to live a life of usefulness" (White, Child Guidance, p. 209). "Since the surrender of the will is so much more difficult for some pupils than for others, the teacher should make obedience to his requirements as easy as possible. The will should be guided and molded, 137

but not ignored or crushed. Save the strength of the will; in the battle of life it will be needed" (White, Education, p. 288-289). Additional references: Matt. 26:39, John 7:17, 1 Cor. 7:37, Philippians 2:13, 1 John 5:14, Ps. 51:12.

CHOICES DURING YOUTH "Values which stand the test of time as they are transmitted from generation to generation become the stable basis of principles which direct behavior. However, Greeley (1968) made an important point with his caution that in order for moral choice in sexual situations to be in accord with principles, these principles must be a well-integrated part of the personality" (Juhasz & Sonnenshein-Schneider, 1987, p. 580). In a great many situations, moral conduct benefits from habit. People who have good character, as William Bennett has pointed out, act truthfully, loyally, bravely, kindly, and fairly without being much tempted by the opposite course. Often they dont even think consciously about the right choice. They do the right thing by force of habit. For this reason, children need, as part of their moral education, lots of opportunities to develop good habits, plenty of practice at being good persons. That means repeated experiences in doing whats helpful and honest and courteous and fair. The good habits thereby formed will serve them well even when the going is tough (Lickona, 1991, p. 62). "The youth must each for himself, make the choice that shapes his life; and no pains should be spared that he may understand the forces with which he has to deal, and the influences which mold character and destiny" (White, Education, p. 202). "On the other hand, the young should not be left to think and act independently of their parents and teachers. Children should be taught to respect experienced judgment and to be guided by their parents and teachers. . . . They should be so educated that their minds will be united with the minds of their parents and teachers, and so instructed that they can see the propriety of heeding their counsel. Then when they go forth from the guiding hand of their parents and teachers, their characters will not be like the reed trembling in the wind" (White, Child Guidance, p. 226). "The severe training of the youth, without properly directing them to think and act for themselves as their own capacity and turn of mind will allow, that by this means they may have growth of thought, feelings of self-respect, and confidence in their own ability to perform, will ever produce a class who are weak in mental and moral power. And when they stand in the world to act for themselves, they will reveal the fact that they were trained, like the animals, and not educated. Their wills, instead of being guided, were forced into subjection by the harsh discipline of parents and teachers" (p. 226). Additional references: 1 Cor. 9:24; Joshua 24:15; 1 Kings 18:21; Proverbs 23:7; White, Child Guidance, p. 226.

The research literature on resistance to temptation provides some insights into how children develop this facet of morality. Perry and Bussey summarize the research in the following statement:

138

"Morality should not be considered a unitary entity or a personality trait. Instead, there are three distinct aspects of morality: moral reasoning, self-evaluation, and overt resistance to deviation. Most people display considerable situational specificity in each of these aspects of morality. In other words, a child may reason about one kind of moral dilemma at a high level of sophistication, but deal with a different moral conflict at a much lower level; a child may feel guilty following one kind of misbehavior, but not after another; and so on. "The likelihood of children deviating when faced with temptations to perform immoral behavior depends on their child-rearing experiences, their cognitions when contemplating deviation, and situational factors. Children of parents who firmly and consistently insist that their children learn and practice habits of self-regulation, who justify their disciplinary action with inductive reasoning, who are warm and communicative, who avoid the use of unnecessarily harsh power assertive discipline, and who are models of self-controlled behavior have children who are most likely to display desirable conduct when free of the watchful eyes of adults. Children who think of themselves as intrinsically motivated to behave morally, who anticipate self-recrimination for deviating, who expect pride for good behavior, who know how to talk themselves out of deviating, and who know how to avoid thinking about forbidden activities in arousing and consummatory ways are better able to resist temptations than children lacking these qualities. Situational incentives and children's moods at the times they are faced with temptations also influence their likelihood of resisting temptation" (Perry & Bussey, 1984, pp. 195, 196).

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS TEACHING DECISION-MAKING SKILLS How long will you waver between two opinions? If the Lord is God, follow him, but if Baal is God, follow him. 1 Kings 18:21 Begin early with very simple choices between two alternatives, which are equally mutually exclusive. acceptable, but

Give lots of practice in making choices at this simple level before moving on to a more difficult level when you feel the child is ready. Accept the child's choice. Do not offer alternatives which are not acceptable to you. Once made, help the child to follow through on the decision. Gradually enlarge the parameters (the fence) within which the child may make the decision. Be sure the boundaries are clear. Allow natural consequences to operate in case of a wrong decision. Be sure the child knows you are supportive and will do all you can to help him through this situation which he has brought on by a wrong choice, but you cannot remove the consequences. Teach your young child a very simple approach to making decisions: a. What are my choices? b. What are the consequences? 139

As the child gets older, help her learn to weigh alternatives and look at long-range consequences as she makes a decision. a. Write out the pros and cons. b. Try to anticipate the consequences. c. Is there a clear right or wrong in this situation? d. Is it purely a matter of preference, with no right or wrong? e. Are there other people who will be affected? How? f. What are the limits within which this decision must be made? g. Seek God's guidance through prayer and Bible study. If the decision is within the capabilities of the child (inside the fence), allow complete freedom of choice. Do not make the decision for him! Express confidence in child's ability to make the decision and follow through. Help the child to know (both on a mental and a feeling level) that God is deeply interested every aspect of her life and will guide in every decision. in

SUGGESTED READING Brunt, John. (1979). Decisions. Fowler, John M. (1977). The concept of character development in the Writings of Ellen G. White, pp. 203-205. Habenicht, Donna J. (2000) 10 Christian Values, chapter 8. Kagan, Jerome. (1983). Classifications of the child. In Paul Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Formerly Carmichael's manual of child psychology, vol. 2, pp. 542-547. Kuzma, Kay & Jan. (1979). Building character, pp. 59-69. Perry, David G., & Bussey, Kay. (1984). Social development, pp. 187-196. White, Ellen G. The Desire of Ages, pp. 662-684. White, Ellen G. Mind, character, and personality, pp. 685-694. White, Ellen G. Thoughts from the mount of blessing, pp. 141-144. White, Ellen G. Messages to young people, pp. 151-155.

140

CHAPTER SIXTEEN SERVICE AND CAREERS

What is the role of service in character development? What effect does altruistic behavior have on the helper? How do children develop altruism and the ability to behave prosocially? According to the Christian view, what relationship exists between character development and the individual's career? What can parents and teacher do to encourage children to be helpful to others?

ROLE OF WORK AND SERVICE In the Garden of Eden useful work was part of God's plan for character development. After the Fall, work continued to be an important part of God's plan for helping individuals develop a mature Christian character. This view continued for many centuries. However, in our modern society work is often viewed as something a person must do in order to have time for pleasure. Responsibility and thoroughness are in disrepute in some circles. Generations have been reared to expect someone else ("the government") to take care of them. Today, even when work assumes a very important place in a person's life, the focus is often on what I can get or how can I further my career, rather than on service to others. Christianity has traditionally emphasized service to others as an expression of the love of God and a main purpose of existence. Service to others often provides an antidote for selfishness and self-centeredness.

ALTRUISM DURING ADULTHOOD Psychologists have been interested in how children develop altruism (unselfish concern for others) and educators have often suggested that community service projects are an important means for developing moral character as expressed in concern for others. Kohn (1988) summarized some of the research findings in this area: "Even in our society, says New York University psychologist Martin Hoffman, the evidence is overwhelming that most people, when confronted with someone in a distress situation, will make a move to help very quickly if circumstances permit" (p. 35).

141

Situational and personal factors appear to influence the likelihood that an individual will help someone in distress. The situational factors include knowing the person in distress, seeing the person as similar to oneself, and residing in a small town rather than a large city. People are also more likely to help if there is no one else around. But some people are more likely to help, regardless of the situation. These individuals feel in control of what happens in their lives and have little need for approval from others. Also if people are in a good state of mind, they are more likely to help. The people who are more inclined to be prosocially oriented "have a positive view of people in general, . . . are concerned about others welfare, and take . . . personal responsibility for how other people are doing. . . ." "Raising children to triumph over others in school and at play is a good way to snuff out their inclination to help" (Kohn, 1988, p. 38). Allan Luks, executive director of the Institute for the Advancement of Health in New York city, reported in the same issue of Psychology Today that "volunteering makes people feel good, physically and emotionally. And like runner's calm, it's probably good for your health." Helpers experience a "helper's high", which may be related to the release of endorphins similar to those released with vigorous exercise, but this is not known with certainty. Helpers experience "relief from stress-related disorders, such as headaches, voice loss, and even pain associated with lupus and multiple sclerosis" (Luks, 1988, p. 39). Many women helpers also reported greater calmness and selfworth after helping. Harvard cardiologist Herbert Benson (cited in Luks, 1988) stated, For millennia people have been describing techniques on how to forget oneself, to experience decreased metabolic rates and blood pressure, heart rate, and other health benefits. Altruism works this way, just as do yoga, spirituality and meditation (p. 42). The literature on adult altruists frequently cites values, personal responsibility for helping others, and prosocial personal norms as motivators of altruism. Adolescents who are particularly committed to caring for others describe themselves using moral personality traits and goals, and talk about the importance of beliefs and values. (See Eisenberg and Fabes, 1998.) Colby and Damron (1992) found two characteristics that were dramatically evident in adult moral exemplars: (a) Exceptional clarity about what they believed was right and their own personal responsibility to act in ways consistent with those beliefs, and (b) the centrality of their moral goals in their own identity and the integration of their moral and personal goals.

DEVELOPMENT OF ALTRUISM IN CHILDHOOD Infants and toddlers have often been observed performing prosocial acts showing concern for others, such as offering their own bottle to a distressed child or adult. Young children who are most likely to be sympathetic to others appear to come from homes where they have been guided with rational, affective explanations about how to behave ("You made Sarah cry; it's not nice to hit"). These explanations help to develop empathy. There appears to be no difference between the sexes on helping behavior, but younger children are more likely to help a child of the same sex, rather than one of the opposite sex. By third or fourth grade children are more likely to help on the basis of who needs help the most. Children from less industrialized societies where they have important responsibilities for helping the family are more likely to develop a cooperative, altruistic attitude earlier. The stress which Western societies place on competition and individual goals appears to diminish cooperation and

142

helpfulness. In some studies, Western children in the primary grades have been observed attempting to lower their competitor's score in a game, even though there was no benefit to themselves to do so. This competitive attitude appears to be acquired very early. Children who observe adults who model altruistic behavior and also give exhortations about behaving altruistically, are more likely to behave altruistically, especially if they have developed a warm and friendly relationship with the adult. Children can also be helped to develop an altruistic self-concept if adults tell them they are "helpful" when they behave that way. As children develop the ability to describe the self psychologically (early elementary school years), they are particularly susceptible to this type of reinforcement. The development of prosocial behavior is enhanced by a sense of connection with others, exposure to parental warmth, adult guidance, and participation in prosocial activities. Some genetic influence also appears to have a bearing on the development of prosocial behavior. See Eisenberg and Fabes (1998) for an extensive summary of the research on the development of prosocial behavior in children and adolescents.

DEVELOPMENT OF RESPONSIBILITY IN CHILDHOOD One important way to help children develop morally is to help them learn responsibility. Responsibility that contributes to moral development includes contributing to the welfare of others and being involved in activities that are not entirely self-directed. Learning to be responsible is not a theoretical process, it demands action. Children need to be assigned responsibilities that will give them first-hand experience in knowing what it means to be responsible. Children need to be made aware that they are needed and that their contributions to the family and community are important. "Kids learn to care by performing caring actions. It is not always easy, however, when our lives are hectic and harried, to take the time to involve kids in responsible, caring roles. Sometimes it's more work to get kids to help than to do the job ourselves. But we need to remember that work that serves others is critical for their moral development. If more kids learned early in life that they have responsibilities as well as rights, there'd be fewer teenagers, and fewer adults, who are always demanding their rights but have no sense of their obligations" (Lickona, 1985, p. 26). Additional References: Habenicht (2000), 10 Christian values every kid should know, pp. 151-167; Schulman & Mekler, Helping your child meet responsibilities at home, school and in the community, pp. 275-282; and White, Child guidance, pp. 119-121 and 131-134.

SERVICE REVEALS AND DEVELOPS CHARACTER "Character, then, is the power and the unselfishness with which one behaves" (Ligon, 1935, p. 124). "Above any other agency, service for Christ's sake in the little things of everyday experience has power to mold the character and to direct the life into lines of unselfish ministry. To awaken this spirit, to encourage and rightly to direct it, is the parents' and the teacher's work. No more important work could be committed to them. The spirit of ministry is the spirit of heaven, and with every effort to develop and encourage it angels will cooperate" (White, Child Guidance, p. 296). "Christ's followers have been redeemed for service. Our Lord teaches that the true object of life is ministry. Christ Himself was a worker, and to all His followers He gives the law of service, service to God, and to their fellow men. Here Christ has presented to the world a higher conception of life than they 143

had ever known. By living to minister for others, man is brought into connection with Christ. The law of service becomes the connecting link which binds us to God and to our fellow men" (White, Christ's Object Lessons, p. 326). "The law of love calls for the devotion of body, mind and soul to the service of God and our fellow men. And this service, while making us a blessing to others, brings the greatest blessing to ourselves. Unselfishness underlies all true development" (White, Education, p. 16). "A noble character is not the result of an accident; it is not due to special favors or endowments of Providence. It is the result of self-discipline, of subjection of the lower to the higher nature, of surrender of self to the service of God and man" (White, Prophets and Kings, p. 488). Additional references: Matthew 20:26-28; 22:39; 25:34-40; White, The Desire of Ages, p. 623; White, Steps to Christ, p. 80.

THE LIFEWORK AND CHARACTER From a Christian perspective, the primary objective of the lifework is to bring glory to God and to serve others. God has a plan for each individual and has provided the potential to carry out his purpose. The natural aptitudes are indications of God's plan and the talents He entrusts to the users are for them to develop and use to the greatest extent possible. The development of character through the lifework is accomplished by faithful service to others, setting and achieving high goals and following God's plan as indicated by His providence. 1. Each Individual has a Unique Place in God's Plan

"Each has his place in the eternal plan of heaven. . . . Not more surely is the place prepared for us in the heavenly mansions than is the special place designated on earth where we are to work for God" (White, Christ's Object Lessons, p. 326). Additional references: White, Education, p. 58; White, The Desire of Ages, p. 668; White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 476. 2. The Natural Aptitudes Indicate the Direction of the Lifework

"The specific place appointed to us in life is determined by our capabilities. Not all reach the same development or do with equal efficiency the same work. God does not expect the hyssop to attain the proportions of the cedar or the olive the height of the stately palm. But each should aim just as high as the union of human with divine power makes it possible for him to reach" (White, Education, p. 267). "The natural aptitudes indicate the direction of the lifework, and, when legitimate, should be carefully cultivated" (p. 233). Additional references: White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 5, p. 87. 3. All Talents (Aptitudes, Abilities) Belong to God, their Giver

144

"The youth need to be impressed with the truth that their endowments are not their own. Strength, time, intellect, are but lent treasures. They belong to God, and it should be the resolve of every youth to put them to the highest use" (White, Education, p. 57). Additional references: White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 4, p. 498; White, Messages to Young People, 170. 4. God Requires Each Individual to Develop All of his Talents to Their Fullest Potential A. Cultivate talents as a duty "We are indebted to Him who gave us existence, for all the talents which have been entrusted to us; and it is a duty we owe to our Creator to cultivate and improve upon the talents He has committed to our trust" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 3, p. 160).

B.

Aptitudes (Talents) increase through use and education

"The Lord desires us to use every gift we have; and if we do this, we shall have greater gifts to use. He does not supernaturally endow us with the qualifications we lack; but while we use that which we have, He will work with us to increase and strengthen every faculty. . . . As we cherish and obey the promptings of the Spirit, our hearts are enlarged to receive more and more of His power, and to do more and better work. Dormant energies are aroused, and palsied faculties receive new life" (White, Christ's Object Lessons, pp. 353-354). "If placed under the control of His Spirit, the more thoroughly the intellect is cultivated, the more effectively it can be used in the service of God" (White, Messages to Young People, 173). God's plan of career development designs that "His servants shall possess more intelligence and clearer discernment than the worldly" (p. 273). C. Importance of developing all faculties "The youth should be taught to aim at the development of all their faculties, the weaker as well as the stronger. With many there is a disposition to restrict their study to certain lines, for which they have a natural liking. This error should be guarded against. The natural aptitudes indicate the direction of the lifework, and, when legitimate, should be carefully cultivated. At the same time it must be kept in mind that a well-balanced character and efficient work in any line depend, to a great degree, on that symmetrical development which is the result of thorough, all-round training" (White, Education, pp. 232233). 5. God has outlined clear guidelines for the choice of a lifework A. Accept present work as God's will now The disciples were enjoined to begin their work "where they were." His modern-day disciples are likewise asked to do well the work that is nearest. Then their efforts may be "extended as far as God's hand may lead the way" (White, The Desire of Ages, p. 822). B. Present work provides training for future 145

"It is those who perform faithfully their appointed work day by day, who in God's own time will hear His call, `Come up higher'" (White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 477). Character and motive are revealed each day in the performance of the daily work (cf. White, Messages to Young People, p. 193). A person's work is to begin where he is, not at some glorious future time with some thought-tobe-more-important job. He should do well the work that is assigned to him. It should be accepted as God's work for him at that moment (cf. White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 427). Additional references: White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 473. C. Commit the future to God As individuals truly commit their ways to God, He will direct their steps (cf. White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 478) D. Accept God's leading "Often our plans fail that God's plans for us may succeed" (White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 473). "Too many, in planning for a brilliant future, make an utter failure. Let God plan for you. . . . God never leads His children otherwise than they would choose to be led, if they could see the end from the beginning and discern the glory of the purpose which they are fulfilling as co-workers with Him" (p. 479). 1. Present affairs to God

"Those who decide to do nothing in any line that will displease God, will know, after presenting their case before Him, just what course to pursue. And they will receive not only wisdom, but strength. Power for obedience, for service, will be imparted to them, as Christ has promised" (White, The Desire of Ages, p. 668). 2. God works through providence

"God's voice is revealed in His providential workings; and it will be recognized if we do not separate our souls from Him by walking in our own ways, doing according to our own wills, and following the promptings of an unsanctified heart until the senses have become so confused that eternal things are not discerned, and the voice of Satan is so disguised that it is accepted as the voice of God" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 5, p. 512). 3. 4. 5. 6. Recognize his leading and follow step by step Scriptures provide guidance Teachers, counselors, friends, and family can also provide guidance

The Primary Purpose of the Lifework Should be to Glorify God

"If you would secure the grand aim and purpose of life without mistake in your choice or fear of failure, you must make God first and last and best in every plan and work and thought" (White, Selected Messages, vol. 2, p. 167).

146

Every young person should be inspired to view his future occupation as a means for reaching souls with salvation, a means of witnessing for his Savior. "Make this the main, the important work of your life. Make it your special life work" (White, Messages to Young People, p. 227). 7. Every Young Person Should Receive Training in Practical Skills

While the training of the mind to high achievement is an important aspect of the development of an individual's talents, without the complementary aspect of practical training the business of daily living will be at a disadvantage. In God's plan for career development, "every youth, on leaving school, should have acquired a knowledge of some trade or occupation by which, if need be, he may earn a livelihood" (White, Education, p. 218). Some of the practical skills in that time included food preparation, first aid, treatment of disease, building skills, business principles, accounting, use of the English language, typing, agriculture, vegetable and flower gardening, sewing and homemaking skills (cf. White, Messages to Young People, p. 184; White, Education, pp. 214-222). Perhaps today auto mechanics and computers would also be included. "The minister, the missionary, the teacher, will find their influence with the people greatly increased when it is manifest that they possess the knowledge and skill required for the practical duties of everyday life. . . . The ability to prepare food, to deal with accidents and emergencies, to treat disease, to build a house, or a church if need be - often these make all the difference between success and failure in the lifework" (White, Education, p. 221). 8. Each Individual Should Aim Toward the Mastery of the Circumstances of Life A. Importance of decision-making skills Each young person should be guided by his mentors in decision-making skills because "without decision an individual . . . can never be truly successful" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 4, p. 454). "The youth must, each for himself, make the choice that shapes his life; and no pains should be spared that he may understand the forces with which he has to deal, and the influences which mold character and destiny" (White, Education, p. 202). B. Importance of a definite aim

A definite aim, worthy of the person's endeavor, is essential for success in any line of work. (White, Education, p. 262). C. Importance of mastering circumstances "Man can shape circumstances, but circumstances should not be allowed to shape the man. We should seize upon circumstances as instruments by which to work. We are to master them, but should not permit them to master us" (White, Messages to Young People, p. 194). 9. The Conditions for Success in the Lifework are Clearly Indicated by God 147

A. Prayer "Prayer is a science that everyone who would make his lifework a success must understand" (White, Education, p. 257).

B.

Application

"Every youth should be taught the necessity and power of application. Upon this, far more than upon genius or talent does success depend. Without application the most brilliant talents avail little, while with rightly directed effort persons of very ordinary natural abilities have accomplished wonders. And genius, at whose achievements we marvel, is almost invariably united with untiring, concentrated effort" (White, Education, p. 232).

C. Faithfulness in all duties "While the worker for God is following his employment, angels of God stand by his side, listening to his words, noting the manner in which his work is done, to see if larger responsibilities may be entrusted to his hands" (White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 477). D. High aims Every young person should aim high as "there is no limit to the good you may do" (White, Messages to Young People, p. 125). E. Quick grasp of opportunities

"Fine mental qualities and a high tone of character are not the result of accident. God gives opportunities; success depends upon the use made of them. The openings of Providence must be quickly discerned and eagerly entered. There are many who might become mighty men, if, like Daniel, they would depend upon God for grace to be overcomers, and for strength and efficiency to do their work" (White, Messages to Young People, pp. 147-148). F. Dependence on God

"It is not the capabilities you now possess or ever will have that will give you success. It is that which the Lord can do for you. We need to have far less confidence in what man can do and far more confidence in what God can do for every believing soul. . . . He longs to have you expect great things from Him. He longs to give you understanding in temporal as well as in spiritual matters. He can sharpen the intellect. He can give tact and skill. Put your talents into the work, ask God for wisdom, and it will be given you" (White, Christ's Object Lessons, p. 146). G. Specific traits Youth should be encouraged to cultivate the traits of character that make a man successful and honored among men - "The irrepressible desire for some greater good, the indomitable will, the strenuous exertion, the untiring perseverance" (White, Messages to Young People, p. 24).

148

"Of all the excellencies of character this (self- forgetfulness) is one of the most beautiful, and for every true lifework it is one of the qualifications most essential" (White, Education, p. 237). Essential ingredients in the success formula include true humility, uprightness, purity, honesty, thrift, temperance, enthusiasm, and zeal (cf. White, Patriarchs and Prophets, pp. 553_554; White, Education, p. 135; White, Prophets and Kings, p. 263). Additional references: White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 3, p. 148.

149

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS Teaching Work Values Whatever your hand finds to do, do it with all your might. Ecclesiastes 9:10 (NIV) 1. Start with easy jobs and gradually increase the difficulty. a. List work skills you want your child to have when he leaves home. b. Decide which ones are appropriate for each age. c. Talk about the list with your child. Give him a copy so he can monitor his progress. Give specific instructions so your child will know how to do the job well: a. The best methods for doing the job. b. What the job includes (write this, if child can read). c. How long the job will probably take. d. When and how often the job should be done. Work with your child. a. Helps the child learn to do the job well. b. Develops companionship. Make it rewarding to do work. a. Make the child part of the family team. b. Tie sharing the family work to sharing the family income. c. Reward especially difficult or unusual jobs (money or pleasures). d. Suggest something special to do when the job is completed. e. Compliment a job well done. f. Compliment any steps toward a better job. Develop responsible, positive attitudes toward work. a. Show why work is important. b. Talk pleasurably about your work. c. Talk about different occupations, visit job sites, etc. d. Rotate jobs to avoid boredom. Let your child choose jobs. e. Keep a record of your child's work accomplishments (i.e., a chart with check marks or stickers). f. Require a responsible attitude. (1) Follow "Grandma's Rule" (work before play). (2) Don't accept sloppy work. Develop pride in a job well done. Encourage jobs outside the home. a. Encourage both earning and non-earning jobs. b. Be sure the child knows how to do the job. c. Monitor balance among work/study/play. d. Decide beforehand what expenses the child will cover from his income. Teach your child how to keep accurate records. a. Provide a small notebook (as soon as child can write) and require a written record of all income and expenses. b. Help your child make a "budget." c. Go over the account book frequently (you are not judging what she has spent, but checking on record keeping).

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Your goal: A responsible, confident and skilled person

150

Teaching Kindness and Compassion Be a warm, empathic parent who models kindness and compassion. Communicate deep disapproval of hurting people or animals. Help children understand how other people feel. Promote a positive view of people. Give children many opportunities to help and to think of themselves as helpful, caring people. Replace give-me-itis with sharing and caring about others. Get your family involved in helping projects. Adapted from Habenicht (2000), p. 214.

Teaching Responsibility 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Be a parent who models a responsible life style. Give children real responsibilities. Notice and compliment responsible actions. Let children experience the consequences of their behavior. Dont rescue them. Dialogue about short-term and long-term consequences of behavior. Establish consequences for irresponsible behavior. Teach that responsibility has two sides: avoiding wrong and doing right. Help children own their behavior. Encourage responsibility to God, as well as to family, friends, and community. Adapted from Habenicht (2000), p. 167.

SUGGESTED READING Eisenberg, Nancy & Fabes, Richard A. (1998). Prosocial development (pp. 701-778) in Handbook of child psychology, 5th ed., Vol 3: Social, Emotional, and Personality Development. Habenicht, Donna J. (2000). 10 Christian values every kid should know, chapters 12 and 15. Kohn, Alfie. (1988). Beyond selfishness. Psychology Today, pp. 34-38. Ligon, Ernest M. (1975). The psychology of Christian personality, pp. 92-100. Shaffer, David R. (1993). Developmental psychology: Childhood and adolescence (3rd ed.), pp. 539-548. White, Ellen G. Child guidance, pp. 119-133. White, Ellen G. Christ's object lessons, pp. 325-365. White, Ellen G. Education, pp. 262-273. White, Ellen G. Messages to young people, pp. 169-230 White, Ellen G. Mind, character, and personality, pp. 271-277. White, Ellen G. The ministry of healing, pp. 497-502. 151

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN HEALTH AND THE BRAIN

What relationship exists between health, the brain, and the development of character? What are some of the factors which predispose young people toward drug abuse? What can parents do to prevent drug abuse by their children? In the battle for the control of an individual's mind, what strategies does Satan use? What can parents and teachers do to help neutralize these strategies?

HEALTH, THE BRAIN, AND CHARACTER Conscience, moral decision making, insight, willpower, moral actions, and spirituality originate in the frontal lobes of the brain. Anything which affects the functioning of the brain and hinders the progress of the nerve impulses impedes clear thinking and acting on moral issues. The use of alcohol and the mind-altering drugs provides an example of what can happen when the functioning of the brain is impaired. Anything which damages the frontal lobes of the brain, impairs moral functioning. From the Christian viewpoint, damage in the ability of the brain to think also impedes God's ability to communicate with the individual. Research has identified many effects of compromised frontal lobes, including several which appear to be closely related to character development: (1) moral principle impairment, (2) social impairment (loss of love for family), (3) lack of foresight, (4) lack of abstract reasoning, (5) loss of empathy, and (6) lack of restraint (boasting, hostility, aggressiveness). An impaired frontal lobe easily becomes an impaired character. Many complex functions depend on a well-functioning frontal lobes: self-control, trustworthiness, reliability, and interpersonal relations (See Nedley 1998, chapter 12). Compromised frontal lobes can be the result of an accident, surgery, or lifestyle issues. In my opinion, the effects of lifestyle and nutrition on our frontal lobe are ultimately more important than their effects on heart disease, cancer, osteoporosis, kidney failure, and all the other degenerative diseases combined. The brain deserves priority for protection when you realize that this is where our quality of life originates (Nedley, 1998, p. 264). Definition of Health Health has been defined in various ways: Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary (27th edition): "A state of optimal physical, mental and social well being, not merely the absence of disease or infirmity" (1988, p. 735). Loma Linda University School of Health: "Health is the ability to carry out our daily tasks with vigor and alertness, without undue fatigue, and with ample energy to enjoy leisure pursuits and to meet unforeseen emergencies." Herald A. Habenicht, M.D.: "All body systems working together harmoniously at maximum potential."

152

Mental health is an assumed or stated part of most of these definitions. The relationship between mental health and morality has been investigated some, but perhaps assumed more than actually defined. Relationship Between Health and Character General research in the area of moral character has generally ignored the relationship between health and character. A careful reading of the general health literature can, however, provide many possible connections based on the main thesis that anything which affects the functioning of the brain, especially the frontal lobes, also affects moral thinking, feeling, and acting. Some of the main health-related areas which potentially affect the functioning of the frontal lobes of the brain include alcohol, nicotine, caffeine, drugs (both legal and illegal). Other health-related areas affect the entire brain (including the frontal lobes): diet, sleep deprivation, exercise, oxygen needs, overstimulation, noise, and sexuality. "The brain nerves which communicate with the entire system are the only medium through which Heaven can communicate to man and affect his inmost life. Whatever disturbs the circulation of the electric system lessens the strength of the vital powers, and the result is a deadening of the sensibilities of the mind" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 2, p. 347). "Anything that lessens physical strength enfeebles the mind, and makes it less capable of discriminating between right and wrong. We become less capable of choosing the good, and have less strength of will to do that which we know to be right" (White, Christ's Object Lessons, p. 346). "The body is the only medium through which the mind and the soul are developed for the upbuilding of character. . . . His (Satan's) success here means the surrender to evil of the whole being" (White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 130). "Whatever promotes physical health, promotes the development of a strong mind and a well_balanced character. Without health, no one can as distinctly understand or as completely fulfill his obligations to himself, to his fellow beings, or to his Creator. Therefore the health should be as faithfully guarded as the character" (White, Child Guidance, pp. 360-361). "Every habit that injures health reacts upon the mind. . . . Firm, quiet nerves and a healthy circulation help men to follow right principles and to listen to the promptings of conscience" (White, Counsels to Parents, Teachers, and Students, p. 298). "Mental and moral power is dependent upon the physical health" (White, Mind, Character, and Personality, p. 61). "People whose bodies are free from defects can more easily think well of themselves. Those possessing physical vigor, who are not discomforted or distracted by physical irritations, can more easily marshall their resources for effective living and self_fulfillment than can those afflicted by physical ailments. However, there do appear to be exceptions because some who have poor health show admirable tendencies toward self_actualization. They relate positively to others, they seek more complete self_fulfillment, they control the manifestation of negative emotions, and they face stress and strain with equanimity. Physical handicaps may represent a challenge to growth and adjustment; it is possible to have a strong and healthy mind in a weak or even a devastated body" (Bernard, 1978, pp. 573).

153

In a study of 52 psychiatric inpatients, it was determined that the inpatients believed some factors affected the development of illnesses: 81% believed that proper diet, amount of sleep, and exercise affect the development of illness and 23% believed that sin-related factors, such as sinful thoughts or acts, have such an effect (cf. Sheehan & Kroll, 1990, pp. 112, 113). Additional references: White, Patriarchs and Prophets, p. 601; White, Counsels to Parents, Teachers, and Students, pp. 294-295; White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 380; White, Prophets and Kings, pp. 488-489; White, Child Guidance, pp. 186-187. Diet "Christ has left us here a most important lesson. He would lay before us the danger of making our eating and drinking paramount. He presents the result of unrestrained indulgence of appetite. The moral powers are enfeebled, so that sin does not appear sinful. Crime is lightly regarded, and passion controls the mind, until good principles and impulses are rooted out, and God is blasphemed" (White, Counsels on Health, p. 24). "You cannot arouse the moral sensibilities of your children while you are not careful in the selection of their food" (White, Child Guidance, p. 460). "The health of the body is to be regarded as essential for growth in grace and the acquirement of an even temper. If the stomach is not properly cared for, the formation of an upright, moral character will be hindered. The brain nerves are in sympathy with the stomach. Erroneous eating and drinking will result in erroneous thinking and acting." (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 9, p. 160). "There are few who realize as they should how much their habits of diet have to do with their health, their character, their usefulness in this world, and their eternal destiny. The appetite should ever be in subjection to the moral and intellectual powers" (White, Patriarchs and Prophets, p. 562). Exercise "Without physical exercise no one can have a sound constitution and vigorous health; and the discipline of well-regulated labor is no less essential to the securing of a strong, active mind and a noble character" (White, Messages to Young People, p. 177). Additional references: 1 Corinthians 3:16-17; 9:25-27; 10:31; White, Letter 102, 1903; White, Mind, Character, and Personality, p. 333; White, Testimonies, p. 31. Oxygen "Air, the precious boon of heaven, which all may have, will bless you with its invigorating influence if you will not refuse it entrance. Welcome it, cultivate a love for it, and it will prove a precious soother of the nerves. . . . The influence of pure, fresh air is to cause the blood to circulate healthfully through the system. It refreshes the body and tends to render it strong and healthy, while at the same time its influence is decidedly felt upon the mind, imparting a degree of composure and serenity" (White, My Life Today, p. 137). "The teacher should impress upon his pupils the importance of deep breathing. Show how the health action of the respiratory organs, assisting the circulation of the blood, invigorates the whole system,

154

excites the appetite, promotes digestion and induces sound, sweet sleep, thus not only refreshing the body, but soothing and tranquilizing the mind" (White, Education, p. 198). Sleep "Since the work of building up the body takes place during the hours of rest, it is essential, especially in youth, that sleep should be regular and abundant" (White, My Life Today, p. 143). "Body and mind need rest, that the mind may not become unbalanced and excited from being subjected to a constant strain. In our camp meetings great pains is taken in Bible readings and sermons to make important points of truth so clear that none need to be in ignorance. And good and regular sleep should be secured, that the mind may be clear, and in the best condition possible to weigh the arguments presented and to decide between truth and error" (White, The Review and Herald, 61(47), p. 737:10). Noise "It is of great importance in the work of character building that students who attend our colleges be taught to take up the work that is appointed them, throwing off all inclination to sloth. They need to become familiar with the duties of daily life. They should be taught to do their domestic duties thoroughly and well, with as little noise and confusion as possible. Everything should be done decently and in order" (White, The Adventist Home, p. 88). "It is not God's will that His people shall settle in the cities, where there is constant turmoil and confusion. Their children should be spared this; for the whole system is demoralized by the hurry and rush and noise" (p. 184). Additional Reference: White, Child Guidance, p. 97. Overstimulation "Avoid exciting the brain. Too much study stimulates the brain and increases the flow of blood to it. The sure result of this is depravity. The brain cannot be unduly excited without producing impure thoughts and actions. The whole nervous system is affected, and this leads to impurity. The physical and mental powers are depraved, and the temple of the Holy Spirit is defiled. The evil practices are communicated, and the consequences cannot be estimated. I am compelled to speak plainly on this subject" (White, Mind, Character, and Personality, p. 508). "You have indulged in novel and story reading until you live in an imaginary world. The influence of such reading is injurious to both the mind and the body; it weakens the intellect and brings a fearful tax upon the physical strength. At times your mind is scarcely sane because the imagination has been overexcited and diseased by reading fictitious stories. The mind should be so disciplined that all its powers will be symmetrically developed. The memory is greatly injured by ill-chosen reading, which has a tendency to unbalance the reasoning powers and to create nervousness, weariness of the brain, and prostration of the entire system. If the imagination is constantly overfed and stimulated by fictitious literature, it soon becomes a tyrant, controlling all the other faculties of the mind and causing the taste to become fitful and the tendencies perverse" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol 4, p. 497).

155

Sexuality "Some who make a high profession do not understand the sin of self-abuse [masturbation] and its sure results. Long-established habit has blinded their understanding. They do not realize the exceeding sinfulness of this degrading sin, which is enervating the system and destroying their brain nerve power. Moral principle is exceedingly weak when it conflicts with established habit. Solemn messages from Heaven cannot forcibly impress the heart that is not fortified against the indulgence of this degrading vice. The sensitive nerves of the brain have lost their healthy tone by morbid excitation to gratify an unnatural desire for sensual indulgence. The brain nerves which communicate with the entire system are the only medium through which Heaven can communicate to man, and affect his inmost life. Whatever disturbs the circulation of the electric currents in the nervous system, lessens the strength of the vital powers, and the result is a deadening of the sensibilities of the mind" (White, Counsels on Health, p. 616). "[To women encouraging the attentions of single and married men] These things, if allowed, deaden the moral senses and blind the mind so that crime does not appear sinful. Thoughts are awakened that would not have been if the woman had kept her place in modesty and sobriety" (p. 226). "Few temptations are more dangerous or more fatal to young men than the temptation to sensuality, and none if yielded to will prove so deadly ruinous to soul and body for time and eternity" (p. 231).

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS TEACHING HEALTH VALUES My son, pay attention to what I say: listen closely to my words. . . . for they are life to those who find them and health to a man's whole body. Proverbs 4: 20, 22 (NIV) DIET 1. Start early with breastfeeding and slow addition of solid food. 2. Keep regular mealtimes. 3. In general, do not allow snacking. Use healthful snacks for children who must wait a long time between the noon meal and the evening meal. 4. Use desserts and sugar sparingly. Avoid "junk" foods. 5. Serve hearty breakfastmost important meal of the day. 6. Use a variety of natural foods from basic food groups. Teach children how to select and prepare healthful diet. 7. Cultivate mealtime as a happy family time. 8. Water is the perfect beverage. Offer small children water frequently. Make it possible to get a drink easily. 9. Avoid using the bottle as a pacifier for non-hungry crying babies. 10. Avoid all pop, soft drinks, and caffeinated beverages. 11. Avoid large amounts of fluid at bedtime or mealtime. EXERCISE 1. Spend some time outdoors daily from infancy. 2. Play and work with children so they will have an adult model. 3. Teach coordination earlyhigh school is too late. Run-skip-climb-throw-lift-tumble, etc.

156

4. Deemphasize organized school sports and encourage lifetime leisure activities, such as swimming, hiking, running, skiing, tennis. 5. Deemphasize competition and encourage physical development and social enrichment. 6. Encourage useful exercisegardening, carpentry, mechanics. 7. Help children live a balanced life. Avoid long hours of physical inactivity (TV, video games, the computer, reading, etc.).

SLEEP 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Encourage regular times for sleeping, according to need. Provide a quiet, peaceful environment. Provide a bed for each child. Avoid before bedtime excitement. Avoid using bed or sleep to punish. Avoid drugs or medications for sleep. Avoid bedtime snack. Make bedtime spiritual/social highlight of the day. Read stories, talk about the day, develop closeness.

PERSONAL CARE 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Keep clothes repaired and clean. Teach children to select attractive clothes. Avoid garments which are too tight or irritating. Be sure clothes are the proper size. Check frequently, as children grow fast. Teach cleanliness: regular bathing, washing hands before eating, brushing teeth, using clean clothes, deodorants, etc. 6. Teach about body changes during pre-adolescence and adolescence. 7. Help children learn to care for hair and skin attractively.

TEACHING DRUG-FREE VALUES "Children should be trained and educated so that they may calculate to meet with difficulties, and expect temptations and dangers. . . . The moral powers of youth who have been properly educated, if they make God their trust, will be equal to stand the most powerful test" (White, Temperance, p. 185). Paul and Carol Cannon, directors of The Bridge Fellowship, a Seventh-day Adventist residential substance abuse treatment program, suggest the following approach to the prevention of drug abuse in SDA families. [Their complete material, which includes treatment as well as prevention, may be ordered from The Bridge Fellowship, Inc., 1650 Pleasant Grove Road, Bowling Green, KY 42101.] I have adapted the Cannons material with additions from the current research literature on adolescent substance abuse.

157

General Preventive Measures 1. Cultivate a strong family relationship. This is the best protection your child can have against drug abuse. 2. Educate yourself about drugs and drug abuse. 3. Practice what you preach. Hypocrisy makes children "turn off" your values. 4. Allow expression of feelings and encourage open communication, while disallowing inappropriate actions. 5. Allow your child to grow in his/her unique way. Encourage individuality. 6. Provide strategic information: information about drugs and their abuse, and family history of chemical dependency [be carefulsome children tend to take a predestination attitude toward negative information]. Do this early, before the child is old enough to be defensive. Emphasize the health issue, but also include the moral/spiritual issue. Emphasize his/her right to choose rather than being authoritarian. 7. Allow natural consequences to prevail. Don't overprotect or make excuses for the child. 8. Teach responsible decision-making skills by using wisely every opportunity for decisionmaking. 9. Enhance your child's self-esteem. Do everything possible to help your child develop personal strengths as a basis for self-esteem. 10. Give plenty of love and affection, especially from father during the pre-and-early-teen years. 11. Teach your child to think rationally. 12. Establish reasonable rules, provide adequate supervision, have an open house and always be supportive.

Children at Risk for Substance Abuse 1. Dysfunctional families typically increase the risk of drug abuse. In these families often there are bizarre rules, distorted communications, repression of feelings and important problems, and rigid enforcement of values. This could set up a child to be vulnerable to addictive disorders. Family dysfunction typically occurs in the following environment: a. When one or both parents suffer from an addictive disorderanywhere from workaholism to alcoholism. b. When there is deep disappointment or disillusionment in the marriage relationship that remains unresolved. c. When there are family secrets or traumas that aren't talked about. Family members play let's pretend nothing happened. d. When traditional values are conveyed in a harsh, autocratic manner and candid communication is not allowed.

2.

158

e.

When parents promote helplessness in their children and control them through intimidation, and dependency.

3.

Positive changes in the family system are possible. It is the parent's responsibility to change the family system. Some changes can be effected through personal study, while others may require counseling. Certain factors are believed to lead to drug problems. Quite a number of predictive variables have been identified by researchers: a. Family dysfunction (as described above). b. Lack of discipline and control during early childhood leading to weak self-control. c. Weak father-child bond during pre-adolescent and adolescent years. d. Negligent or authoritarian parenting styles (force child into early peer identification). e. Peer influence (negative social networks). f. Certain personality factors: rebelliousness, autonomy striving, liberalism, willingness to try new experiences, independence, high sensation seeking, low self-esteem, low impulse control, behavioral disinhibition, and nonconventionality. g. Failure of parents to communicate love in a meaningful way. h. Positive drug expectancies. i. Conduct disorders and ADHD. j. High levels of familial stress. k. Parental deviance or antisocial behavior, as well as substance abuse. l. Parental disinterest and lack of involvement with their child. m. Genetic issues (family history of substance abuse).

4.

Resources for Prevention Listen (magazine) The Health Connection, 55 W. Oak Ridge Dr., Hagerstown, MD 21740 Parent to Parent, Pareting for Safe and Drug-Free Youth, The Passage Group, 1240 Johnson Ferry Place., Suite F10, Marietta, GA 30068 National Federation of Parents for Drug-Free Youth, 11159-B South Town Square, St. Louis, MO 63123 Web search: Drug Free Youth. SUGGESTED READING Brown, Sandra A., Aarons, Gregory A., & Abrantes, Ana M. (2001). Adolescent alcohol and drug abuse. In Handbook of clinical child psychology, 3rd edition , chapter 38. Brusius, Ron. (Ed.). (1989). Parenting moral teens in immoral times. Excellent chapters on how to help teenagers through the immorality surrounding them. Chapters related to health: sexuality, suicide, drugs, music. Fowler, John M. (1977). The concept of character development in the writings of Ellen G. White, pp. 160-170. 159

Hopkins, Gary L. & Hopp, Joyce W. (2002). It takes a church: Every members guide to keeping young people safe and saved, chapters 4, 6, 8, and 9 (social support, sex, drugs, pornography). Lickona, Thomas. (1991). Educating for character, chapter 19. Nedley, Neil. (1998). Proof positive, chapter 12. White, Ellen. Education, pp. 195-222. White, Ellen. Mind, character, and personality, pp. 373-412. White, Ellen. The sanctified life, pp. 18-33.

160

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN LIFE EXPERIENCES

What is the role of the experiences of life in character development? Why do some people grow through stress, while others flounder and become embittered? How do negative experiences help moral growth?

EXPERIENCES OF LIFE Sow a thought, reap an act; Sow an act, reap a habit; Sow a habit, reap a character; Sow a character, reap a destiny. "God is more concerned about our character than our comfort. His goal is not to pamper us physically but to perfect us spiritually." Paul Powell Character is formed daily by an individual's relationship to the experiences of life. "Every act of life, however, small, has its bearing for good or for evil. Faithfulness or neglect in what are apparently the smallest duties may open the door for life's richest blessings or its greatest calamities. It is the little things that test the character. It is the unpretending acts of daily self-denial, performed with a cheerful willing heart, that God smiles upon" (White, Patriarchs and Prophets, p. 158). Character is forming and evolving constantly by and through the individual's relationship to his/her life experiences. Developmental theory is based on the belief that a child develops physically, psychologically, spiritually and characterologically through a series of stages or steps. An individual is expected to reach a level of competency or to accomplish certain achievement in order for a healthy identity to emerge. Each step offers a unique contribution to the developing ego. Developmental theory also suggests that specific experiences that occur during particular life stages will result in "equally specific vulnerabilities" (Sutkin, 1984, p. 1). It is reasonable to theorize that the ability to bounce back or recover from a disappointing life experience will change or flex in response to situational variables. The capacity to successfully master change involves spiritual, psychological, and biological strengths and is being identified as "resilience" in recent psychological studies (cf. Dugan & Coles, 1989, p. 3). Oser (2002) proposes that negative experiences pave the way for moral growth. Years ago, Victor Frankl (1959 1963) developed Logotherapy from his experiences in German concentration camps during World War II. "Many people do survive and recover from developmental setbacks along the way . . . While the task of maturity is made harder for such people, they occasionally do especially good, even if delayed, jobs of growing up. Adversity, although hardly to be recommended, does sometimes seem to have a strengthening effect" (Stone & Church, 1973, p. 493).

161

SUFFERING AND TRIALS Throughout the ages human beings have experienced trials and suffering - natural disasters, crime, illness, death, physical handicaps, financial reverses, rejection by loved ones, and other losses. "Why?" has been the more frequent response to these difficult life experiences. Paul, an individual who had personally experienced sufferings and trials, provides a character-related response in Romans 5:2-5: "And we rejoice in the hope of the glory of God. Not only so, but we also rejoice in our sufferings, because we know that suffering produces perseverance; perseverance, character; and character, hope. And hope does not disappoint us, because God has poured out his love into our hearts by the Holy Spirit, whom he has given us." Many individuals have attempted an explanation of why God lets us suffer. We cannot address this problem without thinking about the origin of evil and why God allows evil in the world. Theologians debate the issue intensely. However, on the personal level, theological debate is less important than a practical understanding of God's relationship to individuals who suffer. Some helpful commentary on this problem emerged from a panel discussion sponsored by the Loma Linda University Ethics Center: "A Christian approach to the problem of suffering must pursue three objectives: (1) it must affirm the perfect goodness and perfect power of God. A God who is less than perfect in goodness is not worthy of worship, and a God less than perfect in power leaves us without hope. (2) Our response must acknowledge the reality of evil. It is counterintuitive to deny that evil exists, and the view that all suffering is either needed or deserved removes the negative character of evil. For if every instance of evil can be accounted for in terms of past misdeeds or of benefits that eventually come to us, then everything balances out nicely and evil is not negative after all. This contradicts the Christian belief that evil is fundamentally opposed to God's will. Evil represents an intrusion into God's creation. It is the ultimate absurdity. (3) An adequate response must also provide a basis for meeting it courageously on the level of practical experience. . . . "God created beings in the world who could serve him out of choice, not because they had been programmed to do so. Beings capable of voluntary loyalty could also use their freedom to reject God's authority. . . . "If we ask why God created a world in which suffering was even possible, the answer is because the highest values we know of, such as love, loyalty, and compassion, presuppose personal freedom. God cannot create a world where personal values are possible without giving its inhabitants the freedom which such values presuppose. . . . "All this means there is a risk in creating beings morally free. There was the genuine possibility that they would fall, and this is where evil began. God's creatures, then are responsible for evil and its consequences, while God is blameless. Because it began in an act of personal freedom, there is no explanation for evil. Indeed, evil makes no sense at all. . . . "The absurdity of evil on the cosmic level has its counterpart on the personal level. In most cases there is no answer to the question, Why did this misfortune happen? The sad fact is that we live in a world where things have gone wrong. Bad things happen, and they often happen to good people. Ordinarily there is no rational explanation for suffering, and it only makes matters worse to try to find one. . . . "The second element in our response to suffering concerns the condition of the world here and now. Evil and suffering give the present world a tragic character. There is a profound discrepancy between what is and what was meant to be. But God has not abandoned the world to its sorry fate. Though his creatures have rejected him, God still lives and cares for them. Indeed, he takes their sufferings upon himself. . . .

162

"The third element in an adequate response to suffering looks to the disposition of evil. Evil and suffering are incompatible with the sovereignty of God: they cannot go on indefinitely. The Christian hope anticipates no suffering in the future. . . . "The most striking aspect of divine providence is the way God uses evil and suffering to bring about something good. "In everything God works for good" (Romans 8:28). No matter how devastating our circumstances or how deep our anguish, God can still bring about something good. . . "Why does God let us suffer? There is no final answer that neatly ties everything together and permits us to forget about it. Suffering is less a problem than a mystery. When reason has done all it can, the question of suffering remains. Responding to it will always be a matter of faith" (Rice, 1986, pp. 3-4). As Paul stated in Romans 5, trials and suffering can help perfect character. However, trials in and of themselves do not automatically perfect character. On the contrary, some people become embittered when faced with difficulties. How the individual relates to the suffering, how much he or she trusts God, in the Christian setting determines the effect on character. "I do not believe that sheer suffering teaches. If suffering alone taught, than all the world would be wise, since everyone suffers. To suffering must be added mourning, understanding, patience, love, openness, and the willingness to remain vulnerable" (Lindberg, 1981, p. 5). "The trials of life are God's workmen, to remove the impurities and roughness from our character. Their hewing, squaring, and chiseling, their burnishing and polishing, is a painful process; it is hard to be pressed down to the grinding wheel. But the stone is brought forth prepared to fill its place in the heavenly temple. Upon no useless material does the Master bestow such careful, thorough work. Only His precious stones are polished after the similitude of a palace" (White, Thoughts from the Mount of Blessing, p. 10). "Contrary to common thought, one of God's great blessings is pain. Through it we realize our mortalitythrough it we see ourselves in truthful perspective. Through pain the moral man grows. It is pain and suffering that force the individual to focus on his/her dilemma and decide what is of value. Values by any standard must be moral to survive the scrutiny of the incurably ill and dying. For the individual whose life has collapsed and who is struggling to find that spark that can lead out of black despair, only tested values have meaning. For the individual who has looked into the gaping jaws of death knowing the certainty of final moments, discerning value is a simple and direct process because the minutia of day to day living is quickly shed and instant perspective is achieved." Bill Johnson "It is in the heat of the furnace that the dross is separated from the true gold of the Christian character. . . . In His providence He brings them into positions that test their character and reveal defects and weaknesses that have been hidden from their own knowledge" (White, Patriarchs and Prophets, p. 129). "The cruel blow that blights the joys of earth will be the means of turning our eyes to heaven" (White, Thoughts from the Mount of Blessing, p. 10). "Many of your afflictions have been visited upon you, in the wisdom of God, to bring you closer to the throne of grace. He softens and subdues His children by sorrow and trials. . . . Through tribulation and distress the Christian becomes purified and strengthened, and develops a character after the model that Christ has given" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 4, p. 143). "To every stricken one, Jesus comes with the ministry of healing. The life of bereavement, pain, and suffering may be brightened by precious revealings of His presence. God would not have us remain 163

pressed down by dumb sorrow, with sore and breaking hearts. . . . The blessed Saviour stands by many whose eyes are so blinded by tears that they do not discern Him. He longs to clasp our hands, to have us look to Him in simple faith, permitting Him to guide us. His heart is open to our griefs, our sorrows, and our trials. . . . He will lift the soul above the daily sorrow and perplexity, into a realm of peace" (White, Thoughts from the Mount of Blessing, p. 12). "Of all the gifts that heaven can bestow upon men, fellowship with Christ in His sufferings is the most weighty trust and the highest honor" (White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 478). Additional references: Is. 48:10; I Cor. 10:13; 2 Cor. 1:3,4; 2 Cor. 12:9; 1 Peter 5:7; White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 6, p. 363:2; White, Early Writings, p. 210; White, Thoughts from the Mount of Blessing, p. 11; White, My Life Today, p. 92; White, Selected Messages, vol. 2, p. 161).

Building Through Suffering (Material for this section was provided by Jean McCutchan.) Trials, suffering, adversity or failure alone do not automatically strengthen character. In fact, many people become helpless and hopeless when faced with difficulties. People in physical, emotional, or spiritual pain can easily become disillusioned, bitter and mean, but so can many healthy people who are not having to deal with a crisis. Why does one person face difficulties with a creative, healthful resolve while another does not? How an individual faces and relates to suffering determines the eventual effect on one's character. One's inborn capacities and characteristics, learned behavior, and the value placed on trust in God, our Higher Being, as well as secular and religious supportive structures, all play a part. "Suffering itself does not do us in or sabotage the will to live. Usually we sabotage ourselves by foolishly trying to live lives in isolation. Without the comfort and love of human beings, none of us is very strong. Aligned with others who accept us and support us, we can survive most anything. . . . Faith is a powerful energy when it represents the trust that, with struggle, our sorrows can be overcome" (Stearns, 1987). "Suffering itself has not value; it is the use that one makes of suffering, through attitude and action, that can have value . . . . Living through desperation and despair with courage and honesty can prepare us to be more understanding of and compassionate toward ourselves and others . . . . Above all, through loss experiences we can teach ourselves a new kind of joy - one which is large enough to contain our pain and to transform it into a new kind of power, the power to make us whole" (Bozarth-Campbell, 1988, p. 5). The Chinese calligraphic character for the word "crisis" is made up of two other words, "danger" and "opportunity." "Danger" is characterized by a man on the edge of a precipice, and the "opportunity" character reminds one of the opportunities for personal growth which can be experienced as a result of dealing constructively with danger (Calligraphy Presentations, 1986).

Coping With Life's Changes "Suffering in human life does not come to people in equal or rational proportions" (Stearns, 1984, p. 67). . . . "One of the hardest things to do is release our unrealistic expectations concerning what we feel life ought to be. Life ought to be more fair in its distribution of suffering . . . . In human life fairness has

164

nothing to do with illness, death, divorce, accidents, shattered dreams, and a host of other losses . . . . We find that as we release our unrealistic expectations of life, the space is created for realistic self-renewal. In other words, we begin to recreate ourselves, our goals, our relations with others, our approach to living. Because our expectations of ourselves and others gradually become more realistic, we become less easily disillusioned and more easily satisfied. Life . . . is walking in gardens and learning to recognize that a garden is where one is" (pp. 177-178). Arnold Beisser, a gifted young physician who found himself beset with crippling illness, experienced much mental turmoil. As a result he wrote Flying Without Wings (1989), recounting his journey through loss and suffering and eventual personal resolution. He believes that the life expectations that people have greatly alter the way they perceive what happens to them. Refusing to relinquish expectations that life's changes have made unattainable prevents them from dealing with crises in a healthy manner. Growth through suffering means adjusting one's personal expectations. Beisser concluded that suffering is necessary for growth since one develops compassion for others. Discipline and acceptance promote finding those opportunities that exist and making the most of them. Earlier Peck (1978) came to the same conclusion. He proposed that the basis of all human illness is the tendency to avoid negative experiences. The discipline that is learned is the ability to delay gratification, to accept responsibility, and to dedicate to truth and balance. Developing Resiliency in Children According to Virginia Demos (1989), a Harvard psychologist who has studied resiliency in children, the capacity to develop resiliency is based on four factors: 1. 2. 3. 4. The child's temperament or innate abilities; The caregivers' responses to the child's unique characteristics that provide empathetic understanding, support and encouragement of individuality; Degree of flexibility within the family system; The family's ability to solve problems within their context without interfering in other life areas.

Parents take an active role in helping the child develop a sense of well-being. Positive influences are encouraged and negative experiences are turned into positive ones as soon as possible. The resilient child learns that problems can be solved in healthy ways. In the future, he/she will take an active stance toward difficulties or obstacles. The child learns persistence, flexibility, the ability to discriminate between situations and to evaluate the actions being taken. The child's efforts to change or improve must be successful or gratifying in order to develop the motivation to become resilient. Resilient children are confident that most human interchanges respect individuality and make moral sense, but are also able to understand why some interchanges do not. They have learned this from the way their parents respond to difficulties. Frederic Flach (1988) stated succinctly that resilience is "the psychological and biological strengths required to successfully master change." (p. xi). Resilience requires certain personality traits: creativity; the ability to tolerate emotional, physical, and spiritual pain; "insight into ourselves and what we are going through;" an independent spirit; self-respect; the ability to restore self-esteem when it is diminished or temporarily lost; a capacity for learning; the ability to make and keep friends; "freedom to depend on others, with the skill to set proper limits on the depths of . . . dependency" (p. xii); a healthy sense of humor and the ability to recognize its importance; and a 165

proactive, positive, perspective on life from which experiences are interpreted and personal meaning can be found.

Personal Testimony from Jean McCutchan From a personal perspective, I have had to learn to deal with several serious chronic illnesses which began in my late teens and continued to build through my thirties. I have experienced the normal and healthy reactions to suffering of grief and growth, but it has not been an easy process. After I received the diagnosis of my most potentially debilitating illness, I took three years simply trying to get through the stages of grief successfully. I was shocked at first, but appeared to be handling it well. I became angry, at myself, my family, my job, and the unfairness of all I had to deal with. I denied the presence of obvious symptoms. I searched for answers and for the things I felt I was losing. I became steadfast in my belief that I could deal with everything as well as I had previously and I could do it all by myself. Just as Beisser pointed out, I stubbornly refused to give up my past perspectives on life even though it was obvious that they were no longer appropriate. Finally, I reached the bottom of despair because I realized that I could not handle my life alone yet I had effectively pushed away everyone's efforts to help me. Even then I did not give up, but I gave in. I stopped struggling against myself because I realized that I am not the diseases, they are simply a part of me. I began to recover my physical, psychological, and spiritual balance and focus, and I adapted my goals and acquired a new meaning of life. Life is not meant to be suffered and lived alone, merely surviving. That is closer to death than life. I began to reach out for support and love from my family, from my friends (the ones who had not deserted me during my illness because of their own fears and limited view of life), and most importantly, from God. He had never left me alone, but had been patiently waiting for me to realize that all He needed from me was my faith that He would be with me through hard times and good. Then He would give me the strength that I had lacked without my faith. I learned to take an active stance toward my illnesses and my future. I learned that my fears could be overcome with knowledge and hope. I learned to be persistent in my attempts to improve my life. And I learned how to develop appropriate expectations of myself and others and how to accept my limitations without feeling failure. I creatively evaluate myself and my options on a day to day, sometimes hour to hour, basis. I accept and love myself and I accept the times when I need to depend on others for even the simple tasks, giving up my need for control. However, I keep control over all I canmy treatment programs, my personal responsibility for my health, and my strengths. Most importantly, now I can laugh at myself and realize the humor in painful situations which helps me to see how something good will come out of them. Why was I able to bounce back once I hit the depths of despair instead of giving up? I have asked myself this many times and I always come back to these things. (1) I have always had a powerful innate drive toward positive growth and a strong positive outlook on life; (2) I was born into a family where my strengths and interests were encouraged and where I always knew I had support; (3) I had strong role models in my family for persistence and problem solving, often on a grand scale; and (4) my family demonstrated their faith in the goodness of humanity and in God as our Guide and our Strength. I realized early that no matter how much I hurt I could learn something from the experience. This did not make my next bout of suffering any less painful, but my repertoire of appropriate ways to deal with difficulties was expanding. My eventual success in dealing constructively with my illness, which has given me my greatest challenges to date, has given me the courage to believe I can deal with just about anything. During my recovery process the only conscious decisions I made were to admit that I was unable to deal with my suffering alone, that I would never give up, and that I had to continually readjust my attitude coping strategies in order to productively and healthfully continue living under these stressful conditions. It was only when I began studying the topic, that I realized much of my resilience came from unconscious

166

traits which I was born with and which I had learned from my parents' modeling. New coping abilities I had lacked and those I already possessed were also being strengthened through individual counseling at that time. Resilience can be taught and learned if the individual has the positive motivation to change. If I had not been born with this personality into this family I feel I could have easily lost my personal struggle. Without either a basic strong, positive temperament or a supportive, empathetic, flexible home life in childhood, I question whether resilience is possible. It is not easy to deal with long, debilitating, life changing experiences. I would never want to give anyone the opinion that suffering is something that should be desired as an aspect of development. However, it seems inevitable that as humans we will have to face challenges which can offer us the opportunity to learn about ourselves and about life, if we choose to approach them from the positive perspective. I know that I am more mentally spiritually healthy than I was twenty years ago and therefore I feel and look healthier, even though my health has deteriorated. I have not only matured, but have gained a greater sense of joy in life, a healthier sense of independence and a new, more positive self image and self-concept. These are constantly being threatened by my illnesses, thereby causing me to continually reevaluate my needs, my wants and my goals, but not my opinion of the value of life. Things are very difficult at times and I feel my resolve diminishing. Anger and fear become inevitable. That is when my family and friends become the tangible reminders of the love God has for me. By His guidance and unfaltering strength I will pull through each crisis and continue to live a valuable life. It seems as if my progression through these crises has become easier and quicker as I learn from previous experiences. This gives me the hope and trust that I will continue to be able to face difficulties and not only survive, but also grow. As I was pulling out of my despair my father gave me a beautiful plaque with a simple prayer I say daily. "Lord, help me to remember that nothing is going to happen to me today that You and I together can't handle." Anonymous Additional references: Is 48:10; 1 Cor 10:13; 2 Cor 1:3-4; 12:7-10; 1 Peter 5:7; Job 5:17; Acts 5:41; 16:23-25.

SUGGESTED READING Beisser, Arnold. (1989). Flying without wings. Brown, Christy. (1955). My left foot. Dugan, Timothy, & Coles, Robert. (1989). The child in our times: Studies in the development of resiliency. Eareckson, Joni. (1976). Joni. Flach, Frederic. (1988). Resilience: Discovering a new strength at times of stress. Orser, Evelyn. (1984). On my back, looking up! Stearns, Ann Kaiser. (1984). Living through personal crisis. White, Ellen. The ministry of healing, pp. 469_496. White, Ellen. Steps to Christ, pp. 76_84.

167

CHAPTER NINETEEN SECULAR-RELIGIOUS COMPARISON

How do the main theoretical viewpoints on moral development, the findings of current studies on moral and character development and the proposed models of moral education compare with the concepts of Christian character development based on Scriptural principles?

AREAS OF AGREEMENT BETWEEN SECULAR VIEWS AND THE CHRISTIAN SDA VIEW 1. The vast importance of the early years in shaping character 2. The developmental nature of character development (stages of growth) 3. The importance of the home (parent-child relationships) 4. The importance of love and trust united with firm discipline 5. The importance of individual concern by significant others in the life of the developing child 6. The importance of non-judgmental child guidance 7. The importance of the will 8. Few individuals achieve the highest levels of moral development and self-actualization 9. The importance of internalization of values 10. The importance of caring for others (consideration model) 11. The important role of the teacher in the process of developing character 12. The vital role of motives in character formation 13. The need for continual individual growth 14. The importance of modeling in character development

168

AREAS OF DISAGREEMENT BETWEEN SECULAR VIEWS AND THE CHRISTIAN SDA VIEW 1. The nature of humans In general the secular studies hold a completely different basic viewpoint on this crucial issue. (See Section 1, Chapter 5) Hopelessness of change in later life General scientific agreement that character is formed--rather set--during the childhood and adolescent years, with very little change after that time. This, of course, leaves out the possibility of divine assistance for character development through the life time. Methods used for character development The psychologist stresses human choices, the use of their own wisdom, achievement of the potential within self through wise choices. Again, there is no ideal or model toward which individuals can aim, no one better than the self, no growth through divine assistance. The nature of absolutes Current studies indicate that the norms of society are the goals to be reached. Scripture insists on Divine absolutes. Source of norms The Scriptural view is that the source of norms for the Christian is God (not merely society). Ultimate destiny of man An unknown destiny vs. an eternal destiny with God. Motivation Some aspects of motivation are different: i.e., the source, quality and types of motivation. Change toward improvement The religious view includes the option that a dramatic difference can occur in a very short time. The secular view suggests gradual stages. Change toward regression Secular theories say there is no regression in the stages unless there is severe trauma. The scriptural view is that a Christian may sever his relationship with God and thus regress.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Additional references: Matthew 6:31-34; Matthew 16:26; Hebrews 11:26.

SUGGESTED READING Fowler, John M. (1977). The concept of character development in the writings of Ellen G. White, pp. 216-241. Joy, Donald M. (Ed.). (1983). Moral development foundations: Judeo-Christian alternatives to Piaget/Kohlberg.

169

SECTION III

MORAL CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT THROUGHOUT THE LIFESPAN

170

CHAPTER TWENTY MASS MEDIA 1

What are the characteristics of the media and the electronic world of the 21st century that affect moral character development? What influence do the media and the electronic world have on character development? How can adults lessen the negative effects of the media, electronic games, social media, and the internet on themselves and their children?

THE MEDIA'S INFLUENCE ON VALUES The media has become a primary influence on the character and value systems of children, teenagers and adults. The media has as much influence on the shaping of character as do parents. In fact, the typical teenager spends much more time watching television, playing video games, using social media sites or surfing the internet than he does communicating with parents. The media also forms a part of the peer influence since it creates the values that are reinforced and upheld by the peer group.

"Twenty years ago, the question: `Does television shape our culture or merely reflect it?' held considerable interest for many scholars and social critics. The questions have largely disappeared as television has gradually become our culture" (Michele, 1987, p. 2). A national survey by the Kaiser Family Foundation found that with technology allowing nearly 24hour media access as children and teens go about their daily lives, the amount of time young people spend with entertainment media has risen dramatically, especially among minority youth. Today, 8-18 year-olds devote an average of 7 hours and 38 minutes (7:38) using entertainment media across a typical day (more than 53 hours a week). And because they spend so much of that time media multitasking (using more than one medium at a time), they actually manage to pack a total of 1 hour and 45 minutes (10:45) worth of media content into those 7. The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. (2010). Generation M2: Media in the Lives of 8- to 18-Year-Olds.

In December, 1984, the American Academy of Pediatrics issued the following statement regarding Children, Adolescents, and Television: "Next to the family, television may be the most important source for information for children and a principal factor influencing their development. Children two to 12 years old in the United States watch approximately 25 hours of television per week. On an annual basis, children spend more time in front of their television sets than they spend in school.

Some of the material in this chapter was researched and organized by Jonathan Leach.
171

"Television is a powerful tool that can promote learning, create aspirations, and induce prosocial behavior. When it deals with medical topics, television contains many messages that promote health or prevent illness. However, television advertising and programming can adversely affect learning and behavior of children and adolescents in a number of significant areas: 1. "Repeated exposure to televised violence promotes a proclivity to violence and a passive response to its practice. "Television viewing increases consumption of high caloric density snacks, and increases the prevalence of obesity. "Although the evidence that television may have a deleterious effect on school performance may be confounded by other factors, learning from television is passive rather than active, and detracts from time spent reading or using active learning skills. "Television conveys unrealistic messages regarding drugs, alcohol, and tobacco, and indirectly encourages their use. "The portrayal of sex roles and sexuality on television is unrealistic and misleading: sexual relationships develop rapidly; the risk of pregnancy is rarely considered; adolescence is portrayed as a constant state of sexual crisis. These characteristics may contribute directly or indirectly to the risk of adolescent pregnancy and clearly alter age-dependent experiential learning with respect to sexuality. Pornography on cable television is a particularly important concern. "Television promotes ethnic and racial stereotypes and does little to promote a sympathetic understanding of handicapped people. "Television conveys an unrealistic view of problem solving or conflict resolution" (American Academy of Pediatrics, Task Force on Children and Television, 1984). In 1990 the American Academy of Pediatrics issued an updated policy statement: "In 1989 the average child in the United States still spent more time watching television than any other activity except sleeping. According to recent Neilsen data, children aged 2 to 5 years view approximately 25 hours per week, children aged 6 to 11 years watch more than 22 hours weekly, and adolescents 12 to 17 years watch 23 hours of television per week. Although the amount of commercial television viewed by children has declined since 1980, the most recent estimated of television viewing do not include VCR use. Therefore, the amount of time that children in our country spend in front of the television set has probably not decreased significantly in the past eight years. "Television's influence on children is a function of the length of time they spend watching and the cumulative effect of what they see. By the time today's child reaches age 70, he or she will have spent approximately seven years watching television. Therefore, television may displace more active experience of the world. For some children, the world shown on television becomes the real world. "In the six years since the original statement was released, sufficient data have accumulated to warrant the conclusion that protracted television viewing is one cause of violent or aggressive behavior. Television viewing also contributes substantially to obesity. "Although there is no clear documentation that the relationship between television viewing and sexual activity or the use of alcohol is causal, the frequency of adolescent pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases, and the prevalence of alcohol-related deaths among adolescents and young adults

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

172

represent major sources of illness, injury, and death. American teenagers see an estimated 14,000 sexual references and innuendoes per year on television, yet only 150 of these references deal with sexual responsibility, abstinence, or contraception. Therefore, the many implicit and explicit messages on television that promote alcohol consumption and promiscuous or unprotected sexual activity are a cause for concern". Based on these conclusions, the American Academy of Pediatrics' Committee on Communications made, among others, the following recommendations: 1. "Efforts should be developed and intensified to teach pediatricians and parents about the influence of television and furthermore, new initiatives should be developed to promote involvement by parents as well as critical television viewing skills among children. "Pediatricians should advice parents to limit their children's television viewing to one or two hours per day. In addition, pediatricians should include advice regarding the effects of television on children and the importance of limiting television time as part of anticipatory guidance during health maintenance visits. Parents should be encouraged to develop television substitutes such as reading, athletics and physical conditioning as well as instructive hobbies. "Families should participate in the selection of the programs that their children watch. Parents should watch television with their children in order to help interpret what they see. Parents should take advantage of the acceptable programs offered on video cassettes for their children's viewing, if affordable" (American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Communications, 1990).

2.

3.

In 2011 the American Academy of Pediatrics published the following recommendations for parents about media usage by children under two years of age: 1. 2. The AAP discourages media use by children younger than 2 years. The AAP realizes that media exposure is a reality for many families in todays society. If parents choose to engage their young children with electronic media, they should have concrete strategies to manage it. Ideally, parents should review the content of what their child is watching and watch the program with their child. Parents are discouraged from placing a television set in their childs bedroom. Parents need to realize that their own media use can have a negative effect on their children. Television that is intended for adults and is on with a young child in the room is distracting for both the parent and the child. Unstructured playtime is more valuable for the developing brain than any electronic media exposure. If a parent is not able to actively play with a child, that child should have solo playtime with an adult nearby. Even for infants as young as 4 months of age, solo play allows a child to think creatively, problem-solve, and accomplish tasks with minimal parent interaction. The parent can also learn something in the process of giving the child an opportunity to entertain himself or herself while remaining nearby. (American Academy of Pediatrics Policy Statement, published online in Pediatrics Vol. 128 No 5 November 1, 2011, pp. 1040-1045)

3. 4.

5.

173

Diana Foutz, of the University of Southern California, investigated children's reactions to three different adult dolls which have been heavily advertised and marketed to children: Mrs. Heart, She-Ra and Barbie. Mrs. Heart is a housewife with children and a husband, She-Ra is an adventurer, and Barbie exemplifies the "beautiful life" of gorgeous clothes, boy friends, and a conspicuous consumerism lifestyle. Boys and girls ages 4 to 6 chose their favorite dolls for friend, mentor and mother. Their choices reflected the marketed personalities of the dolls. Dr. Foutz concluded: "Parents should realize that the media images of dolls often become the ideals of children."

THE NEGATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MEDIA The mass media has several characteristics that serve its audience in a positive manner. Most media presentations are characterized by features which, however, have a negative rather than positive impact on the development of character. 1. The Thief of Time. The Research data indicate that attention to the media consumes a great deal of time for both adults and children. The average person watches television four hours daily. The average teenager spends 10,500 hours listening to rock music between the 7th and the 12th grade. The time spent attending to media greatly depletes time spent in family communication. For children, watching TV often interferes with schedules of eating and sleeping. Children may get less sleep than they need and be improperly nourished. Television, videos, computer games, and other electronic media cut into the time available for other play activities, especially outdoor play with other children and time for creative play. Under these circumstances, children do not develop age-appropriate physical and social skills, imagination or creativity. "Television, writes Richard Louv in Childhood's Future, is a thief of timecreative time, family time, time for friends, time for God. Furthermore, the media generates a demand for more experiences, more things to do, more stuff. Television is an inherently busy medium, so people who watch a lot of television get busier just to keep up with it" (Rice, 1991, p. 1). 2. The Addictive, Manipulative, and Selling Media. Television in particular is addictive and manipulative. The producers of the programming use the medium to promote their own agenda. Advertisements are created to influence the viewers to act to meet the needs of the vendors. Knowledge in the art of persuasion utilized in making advertisements also allows producers to be able to create programs that have a persuasive effect on the unsuspecting viewers. "This skewing of values is a natural result of TV's orientation as a sales tool. Television is structured to meet the needs of sponsors, not of the audience. Therefore, communication is one-way, and individuals in the audience are treated as consumers to be `influenced' in ways that have nothing to do with their needs or life histories" (Fore, 1987, p. 5). 3. The Unifying Media. The media has a unifying effect on people's lives which has resulted in a kind of "sameness" worldwide. Children of many countries share many of the same heroes, values, and interests because they are impacted upon by the music they listen to and presentations on television. They also use the information from these sources as guides in what they do more often than they seek advice from their parents and youth leaders.

174

4. Anti-Religion Media Bias. The producers of television programming, videos, newspapers and news magazines have an overt bias against traditional religion and Christianity. In both television programs and movies religion is slighted or downgraded while themes from the occult are often used in entertainment. Newspapers and news magazines have the same bias against traditional religion and Christianity. "Clearly on both television and in the movies, religion is often either ignored, or worse, ridiculed and attacked. Dr. Martin Marty of the University of Chicago says that his examination of popular film shows that there is no doubt that religion is slighted in the movies" (Dobson & Bauer, 1990, p. 209). 5. Anti-Family-and Parenting Media Bias. Christian family and parenting values are at odds with much that is portrayed in the media. With its strong influence on our culture, Hollywood ridicules traditional beliefs and commitment to family and faith. Its productions promote sexual liberation and radical feminism and often feature broken families. Television programs influence children to expect parents to be idealistic figures and judge their own parents from that standard. The opposite image is also pervasive on the media. Parentsespecially fathersare portrayed as bumbling and incompetent, while children are given the image of competence. They always know more than the adults and are the ones to get the adults out of difficult situations. Too much exposure to this image leaves children with a lack of respect for their parents and with the idea that they know best. "Television's most direct influence on parenting comes from its ability to define what children should expect of parents. TV parents are never exhausted after a day's work. They are never tense and irritable. They are always wise and extremely fair. . . . Children inevitably ask themselves why their own parents are not like TV parents. Next to these ideal media figures, their own flesh-and-blood parents appear unfair and mean. It's difficult for parents to establish authority in the eyes of children who view them as inadequate in comparison to TV parents" (Campolo, 1989, p. 74).

POSITIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MEDIA The media is not only a source of evil. When used with planning and discretion it can be a very useful means of influencing the lives of people with that which is positive, informational, and educating. Public Broadcasting, for example, regularly carries programs which assist individuals to acquire the information needed to pass the high school equivalency examinations. "Some researchers have concluded that although television's effect on prosocial behavior is more profound that its impact on aggression, little use has been made of either broadcast television or specially prepared videotapes for teaching social skills development. At the present time, this remains a fertile area for future study" (Sprafkin, Gadow, & Abelman, 1992, p. 98). The mass media is a useful tool for modeling desired behaviors. In one study, winter conservation techniques were demonstrated using a 20-minute video. Techniques addressed included: thermostat control, choice of clothing, use of blankets, preparation of children and visitors for colder weather. Results showed that viewers had reduced "the actual energy used for heating and cooling all-electric homes by as much as 25%" (Oskamp, 1984, p. 214). "Media provide a constant stream of news-related information that enables audience members to be aware of developments in the environment that may affect them. Surveillance may consist of a warning 175

function, alerting members of the audience to dangera hurricane or pollution of the water or air" (Ruben, 1988, p. 250). The media, in its presentation of information, provides also a setting in which that information can be interpreted and evaluated. It also provides a means of exposing people to other cultures, social norms and practices and the shared experiences of people. "Mass-mediated communication is used by members of the audience to provide novel and diverse experiences. Media provide exposure to diverse people, places, and circumstances, broadening the range of experiences available to members of the media audience" (p. 252).

NEGATIVE EFFECTS ON CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT Media programming and presentations, individually and collectively, are replete with features which can have a negative impact on the moral character development of consumers. The vicarious experiencing of violence, rebellion and general distortion of values can have strong negative effects on both the young and the old (cf. Liebert & Sprafkin, 1988). 1. Violent and Aggressive Behavior The preponderance of research and opinion indicates there is a cause-effect relationship between media violence and real life violence in society. Violence has gone main stream in the media and has greatly contributed to increased aggressiveness and violence in children and adults. Results: Young adults who had spent more time watching television during childhood and adolescence were significantly more likely to have a criminal conviction, a diagnosis of antisocial personality disorder, and more aggressive personality traits compared with those who viewed less television. The associations were statistically significant after controlling for sex, IQ, socioeconomic status, previous antisocial behavior, and parental control. The associations were similar for both sexes, indicating that the relationship between television viewing and antisocial behavior is similar for male and female viewers. Conclusions: Excessive television viewing in childhood and adolescence is associated with increased antisocial behavior in early adulthood. The findings are consistent with a causal association and support the American Academy of Pediatrics recommendation that children should watch no more than 1 to 2 hours of television each day. Robertson, Lindsay A., McAnally, Helena M., and Hancox, Robert J. (2013). Childhood and Adolescent Television Viewing and Antisocial Behavior in Early Adulthood. Pediatrics 2013; 131:439-446 . Recent reports from the American Psychological Association (APA) research indicate that children see about 100,000 acts of violence on television by the time they leave elementary school. These researchers concluded that observing acts of sexual violence leads to increased acceptance of rape. It is suspected that violence against women, which is rampant in the movies, is presented in an attractive manner and increases likelihood of such behavior in real life. As children model their behavior after the characters in the movies, they are particularly influenced by those characters that are seen in a positive light.

176

2. Mean-world Syndrome Heavier television viewers express more apprehension about society and they are more likely to feel that they are the victims. Often the fear that they experience is not conscious, but exhibits itself in their apprehension and mistrust. "While a few studies have produced ambiguous or negative results, the majority of new investigations suggest that viewing violent entertainment can increase aggression and cultivate the perception that the world is a mean and scary place" (Liebert & Sprafkin, 1988, p. 135). "Children who watch a lot of TV develop a view of the world as a mean, scary place. They have a tendency to be restless, and they are more likely to be aggressive" (Norris, 1990, p. 7).

3. The End of Childhood and the Perpetuation of Childishness Television, movies, videos, computer games, and pornography on the internet, with their unrestricted portrayal of violence, sex and corruption, enlighten children about adult problems long before they have the emotional or cognitive ability to understand or cope with these problems. In this way, they rob children of their childhood by giving them possession of adult knowledge and make parenting more difficult and undefined. In addition, an adult-child amalgam is created that retains the negative and immature behavior of childishness into later life (need for immediate gratification, lack of concern for consequences). "Childhood came to an abrupt end with the advent of electronic communication, particularly television [add the internet]. Now, youngsters of nine and ten years of age are aware that rapes and violence exist in their own neighborhoods. The evening news, television talk shows, and special reports on television have them well versed on such subjects as abortion, homosexuality and incest. By the time they reach the age of twelve, modern young people have an understanding of life that is already cynical and far beyond what we generally assume is appropriate for those at such a `tender' age. In reality, the media makes them adults in awareness, if not emotionally, well before they reach teenage years" (Campolo, 1987, p. 43).

4. Apathy, Boredom and Passivity Apathy and boredom with real life result from the effects of techniques used in media presentation. The technical changes that are used in advertisements, programming, and games to hold the viewers attention condition the audience to view life as dull. It becomes more difficult for children to be interested in church activities and family activities which are unable to compete with the media in their presentations. Many researchers claim that children become passive responders to the things happening in their environment, while others dispute the view that learning from the media sources is passive. Findings indicate that violent behavior, rough language and other immoral acts are viewed as less shocking after being flooded with like actions on the media.

177

5. Celebrity Worship The heroes of today are no longer those who are selfless in their behavior and hold the interest of others above their own. Instead they are the celebrities who have lifestyles promoting value systems not acceptable to Christians. "No honest secular sociologist would deny that television has created by means of its rock status a life-style that glorifies the defiance of societal norms and the acceptability of drug use, and one that endures permissiveness in sexual matters" (Campolo, 1987, p. 45).

6. Lack of Learning and Creativity The effect of the media on children is that "they are less creative. TV tends to hijack the creative part of the brain, the part that invents its own images and ideas. Kids who grow up with television are not used to creating their own stories, their own play, their own entertainment. They expect technology to amuse them" (Rice, 1991, p. 1).

7. Sexual Immorality and Perversion Most thoughtful analysts of the media agree that television relentlessly reveals and trivializes previously considered private and shameful things. By revealing subject matter that promotes the use of drugs, indulgence in sex and other dysfunctional activities television is promoting and modeling immorality and perversion before the young. "The number of hours children spend in front of the TV set is troubling. Of more concern is the antitradition, anti-family message that permeates so many programs as well as the constant diet of violence, and consequence-free, easy sex" (Dobson & Bauer, 1990, p. 206). The acceptance of homosexual lifestyles is openly promoted in movies, talk shows and news reports, while marriage is often poorly represented. The values of Hollywood are being conveyed to the nation although these values conflict with most of mainstream America. "Unfortunately, the cultural elite and its values control the "high ground" in Hollywood. From that perch they are able to constantly promote the values they believe insecularism, modernity, sexual liberation, radical feminismand they denigrate the values they rejectreligious faith, tradition, family, and patriotism. The values of Hollywood are, by and large, at war with the values of the average American" (Dobson & Bauer, 1990, p. 209). Immorality in the most extreme forms is depicted by the media in hard and soft core pornography available through the mainstream outlets of cable and video, with almost equal access to young and old alike. The conclusions of a study initiated by the Department of Justice indicated that best-selling "soft-core" pornographic magazines Playboy, Penthouse and Hustler "have promoted media sexual abuse of children and other perversions of male-female relationships." The conclusion was also reached that "a link exists between pornography and sexual violence." Bill Hybels writes of pornography that it is addicting, degrading to women, undermines marriage and is devastating to children. "If pornography distorts the sexual perspective of adults, think

178

what it must do to children who are incapable of making wise decisions about simple things, let alone something as complex as human sexuality. "Children become victims of pornography in another way. They fall prey to adults whose use of pornography has awakened in them a sickening interest in the sexual exploitation of children" (Hybels, 1989, p. 73). Since the above statement was written, the availability of pornography via the Internet has increased exponentially and poses a serious risk to children, adolescents, and adults. Each day many new pornographic sites appear on the Internet. Pornography is a multi-billion dollar business, enriching the coffers of its owners, but caring nothing for the wake of immorality and sexual addiction left in its trail. It has been estimated that more than 60 million people visit sex sites every day. New research has demonstrated that sexual fantasy and activity, because of naturally produced brain chemicals, has the ability to produce brain tolerance to sex, similar to any other form of addiction. (See Hopkins & Hopp, 2002, chapter 9, and p. 75 for above quotation.)

8. Health Risks Television has been linked to health risks. Studies have shown that people who spend more than two hours daily watching television are more at risk for high cholesterol and obesity. Too much television viewing encourages an inactive lifestyle and possibly the tendency to munch on fat, salty, or sweet foods at the same time. The health of children is adversely affected by TV advertisements for cereals and snack foods which are unhealthful and which children demand.

9. Rebellion Rebellion is a major theme in the lyrics of rock music. By accepting previously unacceptable levels of rebellion, youth seek more extreme ways to express their rebellion against society and the family. The acceptance of Christian rock music is going against the information available about the effects of the music itself. "What is important is the total Gestalt of the music, the unspoken lifestyle that it connotes and the value system that it represents: dress styles, mores, attitudes, modes of sexual behavior, orientations to the dominant culture, dispositions to family life, and state of religious consciousness. When young people become absorbed in a particular brand of music, they simultaneously tend to adopt the subcultural system that style of music evokes" (Campolo, 1989, p. 203).

10. Distortion of reality and values The media perpetuates distorted myths about reality and values. These lead to blurring and misconception of reality, attitudes, and values which can subsequently affect character. "Television programming and advertising are a sales medium that craftily and powerfully present entertainment and images, shrewdly portraying a tantalizing misperception of life that is more fantasy than reality. When put in a spiritual perspective, the myth targets the lowest levels of human nature" (Jahn, 1991, p. 46). 179

"TV replaces reality and human relationships with a fantasyunless families intervene. TV defines who and what is good or beautiful or worthy of imitation. TV frames life in split second images and instant solutions, often violent or sexual. TV entertains us and our children until we expect all discourse, all education, to be entertaining and simple" (Foth, 1987, p. 27). The Myths of Problem Resolution According to Neil Postman there are three myths the commercials teach children about values: "The first is that all problems are resolvable, the second is that all problems are resolvable quickly. The third is that all problems are resolvable quickly through the agency of some technology. . . . The essential message is that the problems that beset peoplewhether it is lack of self-confidence or boredom or even money problemsare entirely solvable if only we will allow ourselves to be ministered to by a technology" (Hewett, 1988, p. 363). The Myth of Affluence "Television and our affluence has combined to give too much too early to too many of our children. This generosity has jaded them. . . The significance of kids experiencing and getting pretty much what their hearts desire can't be underestimated in a consumer-oriented society in which adulthood means being able to buy what we want and go where we please" (Campolo, 1989, p. 121). The Myth of Happiness "Thus the mass media world view tells us that we are basically good, that happiness is the chief end of life, and that happiness consists in obtaining material goods. The media transforms the value of sexuality into sex appeal, the value of self-respect into pride, and the value of will-to-live into will-to power. Perhaps worst of all, the media constricts our experience and substitutes the media world for the real world so that we become less and less able to make the fine value judgments that living in a complex world requires" (Fore, 1987, pp. 4-5).

THE MEDIA AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT A growing number of child development experts, educators, and doctors are speaking out against too much time with computers at young ages. Too much exposure to computers may hinder the development of critical skills: creativity, imagination, motivation, attention spans, and perseverance. The real answers will not be in for five to twenty years, but what these experts have observed leads them to be very cautious about the use of computers during early childhood and the elementary school years. Playing with real-life objects (3-dimensional play) is definitely better than 2-dimensional play (computers or iPads) for young children. Children who have spent large amounts of time on the computer from very young ages appear not to be as social and outgoing, curious, and do not work as well in groups with other children. Some optometrists have noted younger and younger children having trouble with focusing, ostensibly related to excessive time with electronic screens. There are longstanding concernsbut no consensusabout the physical effects of extended computer time. Ergonomic injuries take many years to develop and no one knows at this time what may happen as result of exposure to these risks working at computer stations not designed for children. Some schools do not use computers until children have mastered reading and writing. Others start children on keyboarding at age 9, but do not start Internet use until age 12. Some schools

180

have a very careful plan for the use of computers which takes into account the childs age and development. (See Armstrong & Casement, 2000; Healy, 1998; Pawlowski, 2000.) Collinson (2001) points out that computers in the classroom lead to the need of much greater vigilance by the teacher for cybercrime. Some students appear to have low moral development and believe that anything they want to and can do on a computer is all right to do. The level of seriousness of offenses has increased. She notes that, Computers are equally inadequate in preparing adolescents socially and morally for life in a complex, democratic society. More, rather than fewer, teachers are needed to help students develop morally, teachers who demonstrate the qualities their students need to develop.

MASS MEDIA AND CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT FROM THE SPIRITUAL PERSPECTIVE "Do not love the world or anything in the world. If anyone loves the world, the love of the Father is not in him. For everything in the worldthe cravings of sinful man, the lust of his eyes and the boasting of what he has and doescomes not from the Father but from the world. The world and its desires pass away, the man who does the will of God lives forever" (1 John 2:15-17, NIV). "Do not conform any longer to the pattern of this world, but be transformed by the renewing of your mind. Then you will be able to test and approve what God's will ishis good and perfect will" (Romans 12:2, NIV). "He who walks righteously and speaks what is right . . . . who stops his ears from plots of murder and shuts his eyes against contemplating evilthis is the man who will dwell on the heights. . . (Isaiah 33:15, NIV). Finally, brothers, whatever is true, whatever is noble, whatever is right, whatever is pure, whatever is lovely, whatever is admirableif anything is excellent or praiseworthythink about such things (Philippians 4:8, NIV). "Those who would have that wisdom which is from God must become fools in the sinful knowledge of this age, in order to be wise. They should shut their eyes, that they may see and learn no evil. They should close their ears, lest they hear that which is evil and obtain knowledge which would stain their purity of thoughts and acts. And they should guard their tongues, lest they utter corrupt communications, and guile be found in their mouths" (White, The Adventist Home, p. 404). "If children are with those whose conversation is upon unimportant things, their minds will come to the same level. If they hear the principles of religion slurred and our faith belittled, if sly objections to the truth are dropped in their hearing, these things will fasten in their minds and mold their characters. "Nothing can more effectually prevent or banish serious impressions and good desires than association with vain, careless, and corrupt-minded persons. Whatever attractions such persons may possess by their wit, sarcasm, and fun, the fact that they treat religion with levity and indifference is sufficient reason why they should not be associated with. The more engaging they are in other respects, the more their influence be dreaded as companions because they throw around an irreligious life so many dangerous attractions. "Worldly associations attract and dazzle the senses so the piety, the fear of God, faithfulness, and loyalty have not power to keep men steadfast. The humble, unassuming life of Christ seems altogether unattractive. To many who claim to be sons and daughters of God, Jesus, the Majesty of heaven, is `as a root out of a dry ground: He hath no form nor comeliness" (White, The Adventist Home, p. 461). 181

"Avoid reading and seeing things which will suggest impure thoughts. Cultivate the moral and intellectual powers. Let not these noble powers become enfeebled and perverted by much reading of even story books. I know of strong minds that have been unbalanced and partially benumbed, or paralyzed by intemperance in reading" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 2, p. 410). "All should guard the senses, lest Satan gain victory over them; for these are the avenues of the soul. . . . You will have to become a faithful sentinel over your eyes, ears, and all your senses is you would control your mind and prevent vain and corrupt thoughts from staining your soul. The power of grace alone can accomplish this most desirable work" (White, The Adventist Home, p. 401). "`Keep thy heart with all diligence,' is the counsel of the wise man; `for out of it are the issues of life.' Proverbs 4:23. As man `thinketh in his heart, so is he.' Proverbs 23:7. The heart must be redeemed by divine grace, or it will be in vain to seek for purity of life. He who attempts to build up a noble, virtuous character independent of the grace of Christ is building his house upon the shifting sand" (White, Patriarchs and Prophets, p. 460). "Appetite and passions are overcoming thousands of Christ's professed followers. Their senses become so blunted on account of familiarity with sin that they do not abhor it, but view it as attractive" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 3, p. 473). "The heart preoccupied with the word of God is fortified against Satan. Those who make Christ their daily companion and familiar friend will feel that the powers of an unseen world are all around them; and by looking unto Jesus they will become assimilated to His image. By beholding they become changed to the divine pattern; their character is softened, refined, and ennobled for the heavenly kingdom" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 4, p. 616). Additional references: 2 Cor. 12:9; Phil. 4: 13; Ps. 101:2, 3; 2 Cor 10:3-5; 1 Cor. 15:33; Ps. 1:1; Eze. 44:23; Gal. 5:22,23; White, Messages to Young People, p. 92; White, Mind, Character and Personality, pp. 113, 590; White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 5, p. 518; White, The Adventist Home, pp. 401-402; White, Fundamentals of Christian Education, p. 422; White, The Acts of the Apostles, p. 518.

FACTS ABOUT THE MEDIA On television there are five times as many love scenes between unmarried couples as there are married. Crime occurs ten times more often on television than in real life. Children see at least 20,000 TV commercials a year. America is the largest exporter of direct culture (movies, books, TV, videos, music, newspapers, magazines, internet sites, etc.) in the history of the world. African Americans and Hispanic Americans tend to watch more television than European Americans, even when SES is controlled. When parents have a higher educational level, occupational status, and income, the family tends to watch less television.

182

Most children spend more time with the television set before the age of six than they will spend with their fathers during their entire lives. 40% of the sexual behaviors depicted in prime time TV would be illegal in real life (Sex and the Mass Media, funded by the Kaiser Family Foundation). The average child will see at least 16,000 hours of television by the age of 17. The average number of hours of television viewing per day increases from 2 hours at age 4 to 3 hours and 45 minutes at age 12, then gradually decreases during adolescence to 3 hours to age 20.

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS The American Psychological Association (2013) suggests parents regulate television viewing time for their children in the following ways:

Limit television viewing time to 1 to 2 hours a day. Make sure you know what TV shows your children watch, which movies they see, and what kinds of video games they play. Talk to your children about the violence that they see on TV shows, in the movies, and in video games. Help them understand how painful it would be in real life and the serious consequences for violent behaviors. Discuss with them ways to solve problems without violence. Help your children stand up against violence.

EVALUATING TELEVISION PROGRAMS Kate Moody (1980) suggests a number of important criteria for evaluating television programs (and movies and videos): 1. What kind of distinction is made between what is real and make-believe? 2. Is this program (video, movie, game) geared to my child's level of understanding? 3. How are problems solved? a. by using others? b. by hitting someone? c. by revenge? d. with money? e. magic? f. by cooperation? 183

g. h. i.

with determination? with communication? with consideration for others?

4. What role models are offered in the program (video, movie, game)? 5. What is the pace of the program (video, movie, game)? What production techniques are used? How often does the picture of the camera angle change? Which special effects are employed - animation, laugh track? What is the noise level or confusion level in the audio portion? 6. How is humor used? To what extent does a laugh track tell the child what is funny and what is not? 7. How is the world portrayed? Is it a dangerous place, something to be feared and avoided? Or is it a wonder to be explored? 8. What kinds of commercials are associated with this program? 9. What is the response of the child to particular programs and to cumulative viewing? Is he or she cooperative or aggressive after viewing? Excitable or calm? What kinds of play follow the program? What kinds of fantasy does it inspire? What kinds of behavior has the program encouraged? What body movements? Eye movements? Hand use? From the religious perspective, we might add some additional criteria: Is the program (video, movie, game, web site) good enough to be worth my time? What if there were "good" programs on 24 hours a day? Would you watch/visit them all? Does this program (video, movie, game, web site) inspire Christian living in accordance with God's Holy Word? Does it make sin look attractive? Does it promote a healthy lifestyle? Does it help me become more effective in serving humanity? Does it enhance the development of the fruits of the Spirit? (Gal. 5:22-23) Does the program (video, movie, game, web site) ridicule, deride or cast doubt on the Deity or the Word of God? How does it affect my desire to study God's Word? Does the program (video, movie, game, web site) help me feel closer to Christ? Does it increase my desire to be with Him? What motives does it appeal to?

MIND GAMES
God is in a very serious battle with Satan for the control of our minds. Whos going to win the battle for your mind? For your childs or teens mind? This is not a pretend battle; its a real battle with consequences for eternity. We have to deliberately choose Gods input. The default setting is Satans input. We have to choose Gods input every day, every hour, every minute, or our mind goes automatically to the default setting. Be careful! Watch out for attacks from the Devil, your great enemy. He prowls around like a roaring lion, looking for some victim to devour. Take a firm stand against him, and be strong in your faith 1 Peter 5:8,9 NLT.

184

Only sometimes he doesnt roar like a lion - he purrs like a kitty. He feels so soft and loving we want to keep him around. Much later we realize he really is a roaring lion who snarls and wants to devour us. Satan makes his input easy to access and very alluring - almost irresistible. A small click and youre there. A few steps and youre there. A lingering look and youre there. Unfortunately, the labels dont say Addictive. They should. They dont say Trap. They should. The Addictive label really belongs on mind-altering movies and novels, soap operas, violent video games, pornographic sites, computer games, and many web sites - even social networking sites - as well as mind-altering drugs, including alcohol. Little by little Satan is conditioning people - children and adults, including Christians - to accept spiritism, Satanism, and the occult as normal, natural, and desirable aspects of life, even as important guides for how to live. Television, movies, games, books, textbooks, and toys are full of these ideas. Satan has a purpose: To deceive everyone - even Gods people - at the end of time (Matthew 24:24). Sometimes we dont recognize his tactics. We laugh and say, Oh, Harry Potter [or the current favorite] is an innocent childrens story [or game or show]. No problem. All the kids are reading [playing, seeing] it. Precisely the issue. Everyone is being conditioned without realizing what is happening. Family conversation? Whats that? All the kids and teens - maybe mom and dad too have their heads buried in their computers or smart phones or other technology. Do you know what theyre playing [watching, doing]? Its time to alert your children to the Devils tactics and to help wean them off so much technology. Its time to alert the whole family to what God says about whats important. Its time to have family conversation at the dinner table. Its time to establish standards for the use of technology. How can families do this? Some research-based suggestions from Pediatrics (Vol. 126, No. 1): Set family rules for screen time. Consider the ages of your children. Set family rules for appropriate activities online. Be specific about boundaries. Establish tech-free zones that ban the use of technology in certain places at home, such as the dinner table. Encourage conversation instead. Set a good example for your children - limit your own use of technology. Get the kids moving and move with them. Get involved in physical activities as a family. Encourage active free-time play and individual or group sports activities. Some other important suggestions recommended by professionals and used successfully by many families to manage the media: Do not have a wireless connection in your house. Instead, place the computer with the wired internet connection in a central location where everyone can see what is going on. Do not give children or teens TVs in their own rooms. Instead, have a family TV in a central location where everyone can see what is being viewed. Set family rules for how to use smart phones. Collect your childrens and teens phones before bedtime. With their knowledge, look over their texting and online activities. Accountability is in. Teach your children how to use social networking sites wisely. The media has many wonderful advantages. Its an indispensable part of life in the 21st century. However, as parents, we have a new responsibility: Help our children learn how to use the media wisely and appropriately, according to Gods instruction. God will give you special wisdom. In the battle for our minds, we want to be on Gods side! Written by Donna J. Habenicht for the Pioneer Memorial Church bulletin. Copyright 2012. 185

SUGGESTED READING Armstrong, Alison & Casement, Charles. (2000). The child and the machine: How computers put our childs education at risk. Baehr, Ted. (1998). The media-wise family: A Christian family guide to making morally and spiritually responsible decisions about movies, TV, and mutimedia. Buckingham, David. (2000). After the death of childhood: Growing up in the age of electronic media. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Charren, Peggy, & Sandler, Martin W. (1983). Changing channels: Living (sensibly) with television. Everson, Eva Marie, & Everson, Jessica. (2005). Sex, Lies, and the Media: What Your Kids Know and Arent Telling You. Healy, Jane M. (1998). Failure to connect: How computers affect our childrens mindsfor better and worse. Hoga, Marjorie J., and Strasburger, Victor C. (2008). Media and Prosocial Behavior in Children and Adolescents. In Handbook of Moral and Character Education. Huston, Althea C. & Write, John C. (1998). Mass media and childrens development. In Handbook of Child Psychology, 5th ed., Vol 4. Kelly, Katy. (2002). False promise. U.S. News & World Report, Sept. 25. Levine, Madeline. (1996). Viewing violence: How media violence affects your childs and adolescents development. Pawlowski, Cheryl. (2000). Glued to the tube: The threat of television addiction for todays family. Postman, Neil. (1986). Amusing ourselves to death: Public discourse in the age of show business. Seiter, Ellen. (1995). Sold separately: Parents & children in consumer culture. Winn, Marie. (2002). The plug-in drug: Television, computers, and family life.

186

CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD

How do heredity and the prenatal environment influence character? Why are the preschool years so important for the development of character? How do the following theories explain moral development during childhood: psychoanalytic, cognitive-developmental, social learning, and social information processing? How does the Christian perspective fit with these theories? How do children develop empathy, altruism and prosocial behavior? How do children develop resistance to temptation? How do children develop moral reasoning , moral affect, and moral behavior? How are self-concept and character related? Who is primarily responsible for the character development of children during childhood? What can parents and teachers do to encourage the development of moral character during childhood?

PRENATAL INFLUENCES "Too much importance cannot be placed upon the early training of children. The lessons learned, the habits formed, during the years of infancy and childhood, have more to do with the formation of the character and the direction of the life than have all the instruction and training of after years" (White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 380). A wide spectrum of secular authorities would agree with this sentiment. The early years carry the weight of the rest of life on their shouldersthey provide the foundation for everything that follows. In this chapter we will look at the influences of prenatal life and heredity on character development, the importance of the early years, what happens to influence character, and who has the responsibility for character development during these years. We conclude with some practical suggestions for parents of preschool and school age children. While Ellen G. White has written strongly about the effects of prenatal influences on the child, science has generally considered this approach to fall in the category of "old wives tales." However, in recent years scientific observers have begun to recognize that there are some prenatal influences directly affecting the unborn child. Today the physical effects on the fetus of alcohol consumption, smoking and the use of drugs during pregnancy are widely recognized, but the behavioral, learning, and emotional problems which appear later are less known. Conduct disorders and behavioral and emotional problems are common. Nutritional deficiencies may also lead to emotional problems during young adulthood and early deaths. Some researchers suggest emotional stress may also affect the fetus and lead to similar problems later in life (see Papalia, Olds & Feldman, 2001, pp. 92-99). Interestingly, newborns recognize the voices of their parents and also prefer the type of music they have heard frequently while in utero. While there is no direct connection between the mother's nervous system and endocrine glands and the fetus, the autonomic nervous system secretes hormones, such as adrenalin, which cross the placental barrier. These hormones may affect the disposition of the fetus. Babies of highly anxious mothers tend to be hyperactive, irritable, irregular in feeding, sleeping and elimination. This may be the effect of the prenatal hormones; or, some researchers argue, the effect the anxious mother has on the baby after birth (cf. Shaffer, 1993, pp. 124, 125). 187

"Diseased children are born because of the gratification of appetite by the parents. . . . The basis of a right character in the future man is made firm by the habits of strict temperance in the mother prior to the birth of her child" (White, The Adventist Home, p. 258). The following two statements made by Ellen White a century ago are not easily explained from a scientific viewpoint, with our present knowledge. They do, however, provide food for thought for prospective parents. "Even before the birth of the child, the preparation should begin that will enable it to fight successfully the battle against evil. If before the birth of her child she is self-indulgent, if she is selfish, impatient, and exacting, these traits will be reflected in the disposition of the child. Thus many children have received as a birthright almost unconquerable tendencies to evil. But if the mother unswervingly adheres to right principles, if she is temperate and self-denying, if she is kind, gentle and unselfish, she may give her child these same precious traits of character" (p. 256). "The mother who is a fit teacher for her children must, before their birth, form habits of self-denial and self-control; for she transmits to them her own qualities, her own strong or weak traits of character. The enemy of souls understands this matter much better than do many parents. He will bring temptation upon the mother, knowing that if she does not resist him, he can through her affect her child. The mother's only hope is in God. She may flee to Him for grace and strength" (White, Counsels on Diet and Foods, p. 219). "Apparently the fetus is not perfectly insulated from his mother's emotional stress nor may the world be perfectly insulated from the fetus' reaction to her stress. If the world stresses his mother severely and for a prolonged time, then there is a small possibility that the child will add stress to the world in his turn" (Maurer & Maurer, 1988, p. 20). "If a mother is extremely anxious (about her pregnancy, her abilities as a mother, or any other problems in her life), the unborn child may be affected. Although the baby's nervous system is separate from the mother's, strong emotions in the mother such as rage, fear, and anxiety cause a great increase of hormones and other chemicals in her bloodstream. These substances pass through the placenta wall, and it is believed that they can reproduce the mother's physiological state in the fetus" (Salkind, 1990, p. 99). "[Recent studies have] found that mothers who are anxious or depressed during the latter part of pregnancy tend to carry these emotional states over to the period after the birth of the child and this affects the way they interact with the child, thus having an impact on the child's responses and behaviors" (Shaffer, 1993, p. 125). Additional references: White, The Adventist Home, pp. 258-259; White, The Ministry of Healing, pp. 371-372. HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT AND CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT The debate over the importance of heredity and environment is long standing in developmental psychology, with the proponents of each side arguing vigorously for their view. Recently, the controversy over heredity vs. environment has subsided in favor of research on the relative influences of each. Today most developmentalists view heredity and environment as inseparably intertwined in the development of the individual, with heredity probably setting the limits of development and environment the extent to which the potential is achieved.

188

"Psychologists now recognize that both nature and nurture play a role in all aspects of behavior. Thus, the controversy has moved away from an either/or position concerned with which of these two factors is critical in any given situation to the question of how, specifically, each contributes to development. The problem for researchers is to determine the manner by which heredity and environment interact to produce the behaviors we see in children, and eventually in adults. More than any other factor, these two forces together play the major role in shaping what the child becomes. . ." (Bukatko & Daehler, 1992, p. 43). "The inherited qualities of a man are largely determined at the moment of conception. . . . Heredity, then, sets definite limits on what trait goals we can expect of our children, and produces energies which are going to express themselves one way or another" (Ligon, 1956, p. 139). "Development is the product of many interacting causes. When we examine hereditary influences on development, we need to keep reminding ourselves that heredity never operates in isolation from the environment" (Hoffman, Paris, Hall, & Schell, 1988, p. 8). The work of behavior geneticists has contributed substantially to the present understanding of the role of heredity (cf. Shaffer, 1993, pp. 97-108, or any recent child or lifespan development textbook, for a discussion of hereditary influences on the individual's development). The following individual characteristics appear to have genetic components: Intelligence. The aggregate studies of intelligence suggest a heritability quotient of .68. Personality. Identical twins are more similar in general personality than siblings or unrelated individuals, suggesting that personality has moderate heritability, at the present time, thought to be in the .5 heritability quotient range. Temperament characteristics which are present at birth and appear to be fairly stable (although not totally) are believed to have a genetic component. Behavioral inhibition. Kagan and associates suspect that the tendency to withdraw from unfamiliar people or situations has a strong genetic component. Children who are very shy have different physiological reactions to new situations than other children. Empathy. Some studies suggest that the capacity for empathy is present at birth and may be innate. In a study of 114 pairs of identical twins (ages 42 to 57 years), the identical twins were more alike on tests of empathy than the fraternal twins. The researchers concluded, "To the extent that empathic concern for others leads to altruistic motivation, the present study provides evidence for a genetic underpinning of individual differences in prosocial behavior" (Matthews, Batson, Horn, & Roseman, 1981, p. 246). While most of the above characteristics are not major components of moral character, each is known to have some influence on how the individual reacts to life experiences. We may conclude that each has some influence on morality as well. Empathy has been studied extensively as a precursor to moral actions. Tendencies of character are inherited but these tendencies can be overcome as character is developed. God's grace is sufficient for all inherited character tendencies. "Character is not inherited. . . . Moral excellence and fine mental qualities are not the result of accident. The most precious gifts are of no value unless they are improved. The formation of a noble character is the work of a lifetime and must be the result of diligent and persevering effort. God gives 189

opportunities; success depends upon the use of made of them" (White, Patriarchs and Prophets, p. 223; cf. also White, Christ's Object Lessons, p. 331). "It should be obvious that character is not inherited. It must be achieved. If we look for the instinctive basis upon which strength of character can be built, we find in it the tendency to selfrealization" (Ligon, 1935, p. 110). Additional references: White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 2, p. 74, vol. 4, pp. 323, 439, 499; White, Counsels to Parents, Teachers, and Students, p. 192; White, The Ministry of Healing, pp. 371, 379, 455; White, Review and Herald, vol. 84(4), p. 8; White, Patriarchs and Prophets, p. 118.

IMPORTANCE OF CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT DURING EARLY CHILDHOOD The early years lay the foundation for character and other aspects of personality. As in the construction of a building, the entire structure is not stronger than the foundation. God has provided an alternative to a weak foundation: Conversion and subsequent life changes under His direction. Then why should we be concerned about character development during early childhood if God can transform character in later life? Perhaps what is done during the early years has a great deal to do with whether the individual might respond to a character transformation by God in later years. In God's plan prevention is better than cure. "The impressions made on the heart early in life are seen in after years. They may be buried, but they will seldom be obliterated" (White, Child Guidance, p. 194). "To a great extent the character is determined in early years. . .Men and women of mature age generally are insensible to new impressions as is the hardened rock; but youth is impressible, and a right character may then be easily formed" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 4, pp. 574-575). "Character begins to set almost at the time of birth. Some of the underlying fears and pleasures are firmly set before school entrance, and the later structure of character does grow around this framework" (Peck & Havighurst, 1960, p. 194). "At birth, the child has no conscience and no scale of values. Thus he is nonmoral, or unmoral. Before he can behave in a moral way, he must learn what the group regards as right or wrong. He learns this primarily from the parent-child relationship, for the foundations of moral development are laid before the child comes in contact with the peer group" (Hurlock, 1972, p. 376). "Let every Christian father and mother understand, when their child is three years old, that they have done more than half of all they will ever do for his character" (Bushnell, 1960, p. 212). "The central core of any true morality, awareness of and concern for the feelings of others, has its beginnings early in life in the parents' love and respect for the child and for other creatures in the environment" (Stone & Church, 1973, p. 245). "Of all the tasks of parenting, none is as important as raising good children" (Lickona, 1983, p. 3). ". . . normal children learn that they can please their parents by behaving in certain ways: by sharing, by showing love, etc. When they do display such behavior they are demonstrating their parents' values, and the parents reward the children. Over time, and with further emotional development, children

190

internalize their parents' values. The internalization is usually locked in by age 11. From infancy a child goes through predictable stages as he develops his own conscience" (Magid & McKelvey, 1988, p. 77). "The pattern of motives and typical actions each individual shows by age ten, moreover, tends to persist through adolescence. (The likelihood seems very strong that character is even more stably persistent, in most people, in the adult years, although this was not tested in the present study.) This persistence is observable in two ways. The adequacy of an individual's moral motives and behavior, relative to his own age group, tends to stay at about the same relative level as he develops through later childhood and adolescence. While almost all children learn to exercise some increasing degree of selfcontrol, for example, from ten to sixteen, the ones who have relatively best self-control at ten are likely to the best self-control in their age group at sixteen, in terms of the behavioral norms of sixteen-year-olds. There are exceptional cases, to be sure, but not many" (Peck & Havighurst, 1960, p. 165). Additional references: Peck and Havighurst, 1960, p. 194; Stone and Church, 1973, p. 493; White, Child Guidance, pp. 144, 193-194, 198.

WHAT HAPPENS DURING THE EARLY YEARS TO INFLUENCE CHARACTER? Each of the main theoretical approaches to studying human development has different explanations for moral development during childhood. (See Clouse, 1985, for an explanation of the main theories and Damon, 1988, for a synthesis.) In reality, each theory carries some weight of truth, but is incomplete in itself. the combination of all the theories comes closer to explaining moral development, but is still lacking because no theory accounts for the Divine-human interaction. (See Clouse, 1985, on "A Theological Approach: Morality as Godliness.") The following points which attempt to answer the question, "What happens during the early years to influence character?" are a combination of ideas from different theoretical viewpoints. 1. Basic trust is learned primarily during the first year of life. High quality infant-caregiver attachment is crucial to the development of this trust, the first of the developmental issues proposed by Erikson. Lack of trust can be an almost insurmountable barrier to trust in God. It may also be one of the precursors of the psychopathic personality (APD). "The little ones who learn to trust and obey their mother are learning to trust and obey their Saviour" (White, The Desire of Ages, p. 515). "Without closing the door to the possibility of further personality development, researchers believe that basic trust is learned in the first few years of life" (Bernard, 1978, p. 582). 2. Personality is highly influenced by the environment of the first five or six years, especially by parent-child interaction, usually before significant contact with peers. Of course, personality may undergo change throughout the life, but the basic foundation is there. Any drastic change in direction of personality would require a very unusual occurrence.

3. The basis is laid for physical health. Physical health and character development are closely related.

191

"Whatever promotes physical health, promotes the development of a strong mind and a wellbalanced character. Without health, no one can as distinctly understand or as completely fulfill his obligations to himself, his fellow beings, or to his Creator. Therefore the health should be as faithfully guarded as the character" (White, Education, p. 195). Regularity of habits--sleeping, eating, exercise, posture--should be cultivated in the child. Parents should educate child's tastes and appetite. Self-indulgence results in the following: unfitted in mind and character to act a useful part; spiritual, mental and physical powers suffer; conscience becomes stupefied; susceptibility to good impressions impaired; predisposes to use of alcohol (cf. White, Child Guidance, p. 379, and White, Counsels on Diet and Foods, p. 230). 4. The foundation is laid for future intellectual development. Burton White, who has studied the first few years of life extensively, believes intellectual curiosity and the basis for all future intellectual development is set by twenty-four months. Intellectual development shows a high correlation with stage of moral judgment in the majority of the studies. "Perfection of character is attained through exercise of the faculties of the mind" (White, Selected Messages, vol. 2, p. 161). 5. Formation of attitudes and emotional tone of life is important during this stage. Young children have very sensitive feelings, a high susceptibility to impressions. Feelings are present and develop before judgment. Attitudes toward parents become attitudes toward God. Emotional identification with parents includes identification with their values. Teaching, identification with models, and positive discipline result in habitual responses. "The mother's love represents to the child the love of Christ, and the little ones who trust and obey their mother are learning to trust and obey the Saviour" (White, The Desire of Ages, p. 515). "Happy . . . the child to whom the tenderness and justice and longsuffering of father and mother and teacher interpret the love and justice and longsuffering of God . . ." (White, Education, p. 245). "Parents are not to compel their children to have a form of religion, but they are to place eternal principles before them in an attractive light" (White, The Adventist Home, p. 323). "Children must be drawn toward heaven, not harshly, but very gently" (White, Gospel Workers, p. 209). 6. Relationship to authority is established. Limits provide a sense of security for the child. Consistency of demands is vital to the establishment of values. Discipline with love and firmness will result in a healthy attitude toward authority, including the authority of God. Authoritative parenting is related to the development of morality, according to the work of Baumrind and Hoffman. According to Kochanska and her colleagues (see summary in Papalia, Olds & Feldman, 2002, pp. 222-225), committed compliance underlies the development of conscience.

192

Gentle guidance seems particularly suited to temperamentally fearful or anxious children, who tend to become upset when they misbehave. Such a child will readily internalize parental messages with a minimum of prodding; displays of power would merely make the child more anxious. Something more is needed with bolder children, but they too are likely to respond better to appeals to cooperate than to threats, and they are more likely to comply if they are securely attached (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2001, p. 225). "Children thus left to have their own way are not happy and where parental authority is lightly regarded, the authority of God will not be respected" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 5, p. 305). 7. Language skills are developed. Conscious memory seems to go along with language skills. There seems to be very little before age three to four. Language seems to be a tool of volition. Children use speech to start and stop their own actions. The child moves from external speech to internal regulatory speech, thereby evaluating actions and regulating behavior. 8. Patterns of living are established. Habits are learned before principles are understood. Children learn specific behaviors before generalized principles. They need to learn the pattern of obedience very early. Other habits for living are rather firmly established during the first few years of life. "The lessons learned, the habits formed, during the years of infancy and childhood have more to do with the formation of character and the direction of life than have all the instruction and training of after years" (White, Messages to Young People, p. 380). "What the child sees and hears is drawing deep lines upon the tender mind, which no after circumstances in life can entirely efface. The intellect is now taking shape, and the affections receiving direction and strength. Repeated acts in a given course become habits. These may be modified by severe training, in afterlife, but are seldom changed" (White, Child Guidance, pp. 199_200). "It is the repetition of the act that causes it to become habit, and molds the character either for good or for evil" (White, Child Guidance, p. 164). "We shall be individually, for time and eternity, what our habits make us. More than any natural endowment, the habits established in early years decide whether a man will be victorious or vanquished in the battle of life" (pp. 202-203). "Could the young but realize how quickly they will become mere walking bundles of habits, they would give more heed to their conduct while still in the plastic state" (William James, cited in Bernard, 1978, p. 581). 9. The first few years lay the foundation for the formation of conscience. Piaget's work seems to indicate that the conscience is largely formed by the do's and don'ts of the child's parents. If the home, the school, the church, and the playmates are in basic agreement about right and wrong it is easier for the child to establish the limits of behavior which form the basis for the developing conscience. The attachment between parent and child and the way the parents go about the task of socializing the child strongly affect the development of conscience.

193

"Children must see in the lives of their parents that consistency which is in accordance with their faith. By leading a consistent life and exercising self-control, parents may mold the characteristics of their children" (White, Child Guidance, p. 482). 10. The self-concept is largely formed during the preschool years. The developing sense of self gives conviction of freedom of choice, crucial to character development. A strong self-concept seems to be basic to the establishment of strong ethical values. "Moral development begins when the infant first understands a reproving gesture, a negative facial expression, or a verbal admonition and first realizes that he himself is something to be valued (or not valued)" (Garrison, Kingston, & Bernard, 1967, p. 245). "When children feel they are worthy of consideration, when limits are firm but established without parental condemnation, when encouragement rather than censure follows errors, the individual achieves a self-image that he and society find is worth cultivating. It is this self-image that develops the internalization of moral codes and becomes one's conscience" (Bernard, 1970, pp. 299-300). "Basic to establishment of a set of ethical values is a strong self-concept. Indeed, some consider the self-concept to be focal point in personal aspiration and in social participation" (p. 399). "It is not pleasing to God that you should demerit yourself. You should cultivate self-respect by living so that you will be approved by your own conscience and before men and angels... While we should not think of ourselves more highly than we ought, the Word of God does not condemn a proper self-respect. As sons and daughters of God, we should have a conscious dignity of character, in which pride and self-importance have no part" (White, Mind, Character, and Personality, p. 260). Stanley Coopersmith (1967), a well- known researcher on the development of self-esteem during childhood, suggests four main components of appropriate self-esteem which are useful when helping children develop self-esteem. 1) 2) 3) 4) Significance: I need to feel important to people who matter to me. Competence: I want to feel that I can do something well that is important to me. Power: I need to feel that I have some control over my lifethat I make some important decisions. Virtue: I need to do what I know to be right.

Other comments regarding Christian self-esteem and humility are found in Appendix A. Practical suggestions for helping children develop an appropriate self-esteem are found under Practical Suggestions at the end of this chapter. 11. Empathy, altruism and prosocial behavior have their roots in early childhood. The instruction and guidance the child receives play an important role in the development of these aspects of character. Research on child development suggests that there may be a genetic component to these characteristics, that it is much easier for some children to be empathic, altruistic, and to behave prosocially that for others. "If we wish our children to possess the tender spirit of Jesus, and the sympathy that angels manifest for us, we must encourage the generous, loving impulses of childhood" (White, The Desire of Ages, p. 516).

194

12. Religious influences may powerfully affect character development during the early years. "Even the babe in its mother's arms may dwell as under the shadow of the Almighty through the faith of the praying mother. John the Baptist was filled with the Holy Spirit form his birth. If we live in communion with God, we too may expect the divine Spirit to mold our little ones, even from their earliest moments" (White, The Desire of Ages, p. 512). "Bring your children in prayer to Jesus, for He has made it possible for them to learn religion as they learn to frame the words of the language" (White, The Adventist Home, p. 321).

RESPONSIBILITY FOR CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT DURING PRESCHOOL YEARS Character development in childhood is the primary responsibility of the parents. God holds parents responsible for the character development of their children, and society generally holds parents responsible for the actions of their children. "To a great extent, parents hold in their own hands that future happiness of their children. Upon them rests the important work of forming the character of these children. The instruction given in childhood will follow them all through life" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 1, p. 686). "God has given parents their work, to form the characters of their children after the divine Pattern. . . . This work should come first, for eternal interests are here involved. The character building of your children is more important than the cultivation of your farms, more essential than the building of houses to live in, or of prosecuting any manner of business or trade. . . . Fidelity to Christ on your part can be better expressed in the symmetrical character of your children than in any other way" (White, Child Guidance, pp. 169-70). "Their anxiety should not be how they can educate their children that they may be praised and honored of the world, but how they can educate them to form beautiful characters that God can approve" (p. 189). "Character, as defined in this study, appears to be predominantly shaped by the intimate, emotionally powerful relationship between child and parents, within the family" (Peck & Havighurst, 1960, p. 175). "The central core of any true morality, awareness of and concern for the feelings of others, has its beginnings early in life in the parents' love and respect for the child and for other creatures in the environment" (Stone & Church, 1973, p. 245). "After two decades of work among American children I have come to believe that many of us have forgotten about the moral requirements children have. Children need more than good food, a nice physical environment and psychological understanding; they need to learn ethical principlesa firm notion of what they ought to do, and what they ought not to do, and why. "They also need to believe in something beyond themselves; in principles and purposes that transcend their own personal lives. They need to know how to give as well as take, how to defer, how to obey as well as speak their minds and express themselves. . . . Moral imperatives have to be learned, of course. Life ought to be regarded by the youngall of usnot as one big "treat," but as a moral challenge, a journey whose purposes and destination must be examined carefully so that each individual 195

knows what he lives for, what he believes in, what he will stand by through thick and thin." Robert Coles, Family Week, p. 7. During the childhood years, moral emotions, moral (prosocial) behavior, and moral thinking are developing. Love and trust lay the foundation for all later development. Children learn what is right and wrong behavior. Self-concept, self-control, resistance to temptation, altruism, empathy, respect and responsibility all emerge as important components of the character structure and the conscience develops in a major way. By the age of twelve the child should be well on his or her way toward becoming a moral person with a character structure firmly in place. If this has not happened, the child is headed for serious emotional and character disturbances in subsequent years. Additional reading: White, Child Guidance, pp. 199, 170; White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 4, pp. 142, 144, vol. 5, p. 329; White, The Adventist Home, p. 187.

CHANGE IN CHARACTER The foundations of character that are laid during the early years become a part of who the child is and are increasingly difficult to change as the child ages. Change is possible, however, and Divine assistance is always available to make possible that which human effort fails to accomplish. "Psychology is not at all optimistic about changing adult personalities to any great extent. It is becoming more and more certain that unless the child is educated aright in the first place, his chances of strong personality [character] are very slight" (Ligon, 1975, p. 357). ". . . they have demonstrated that it is possible to teach such children to have greatly different, dramatically improved personalities and characters. It requires exhaustively long, patient, intensive treatment" (Peck & Havighurst, 1960, p. 179). "An adult who hopes to improve a child with immature character can only expect to do it by taking on the security-giving functions ordinarily performed by the parents. To do this effectively requires unusual wisdom, unusual personal maturity, and sometimes almost superhuman patience" (p. 190).

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS BUILDING CHRISTIAN SELF-ESTEEM 1. Teach children that God + Me = A Whole Person. God loves them, He made them special with unique characteristics, He loves them even when they do wrong, He died to save them and plans for them to live in heaven eternally. God is the Christian's foundation for positive self-esteem. (This formula -- God + Me -- originated with Norman Wright.) 2. Help children develop a feeling of significance by providing much love and approval. Provide plenty of emotional support.

196

3. Help children develop a feeling of competence by learning to perform well on tasks that are important to them. Be sure each child has something which will help the child be recognized by peers as competent. 4. Help children learn to make decisions about their everyday life. Give them as many opportunities as possible for making real decisions. This gives them a sense of power and control over circumstances. 5. Provide ways for children to recognize their accomplishments, to know how much they have learned and progressed. Young children need immediate feedback, but older children can look back on the last three months of the school year to recognize their accomplishments. 6. Help children set realistic goals for themselves. For example, if a child has never gotten more than 25 percent on a spelling test, it is unrealistic to say to the child, "I know you can get them all right this week!" This sets the child up for yet another failure. Instead, say, "I know you can get two more words right than you did last week!" Then help him study to get the extra words right. This is a realistic goal and helps build self-esteem. Unrealistic goals tear down self-esteem. Some children have goals which are unrealistically highnothing but perfection will satisfy them. No one can be prefect all the time and this expectation sets the child up for a low self-esteem. Help these children learn to try something just for fun. Don't expect perfection. 7. Help children learn how to deal with mistakes and setbacks. Demonstrate in your own life how to laugh at yourself, pick yourself up and go on. Children who are terribly afraid of making a mistake seldom try anything new. This attitude reinforces a negative self-esteem. 8. Help children learn how to develop their natural talents and abilities, including their personal appearance. Help them learn how to look attractive and use their bodies confidently. Help them recognize their talents and develop them. 9. Help children learn to compensate for their weaknesses. Encourage them to focus on the positive strengths, while at the same time learning specific strategies for dealing with weak areas. 10. Help children develop a realistic appraisal of themselvesneither an overinflated feeling that they are "better than everyone else" nor a self-deprecating feeling of being "worse than everyone else." Neither extreme goes with a healthy self-esteem. 11. Help children learn how to act in different social situations. Teach them to be polite, courteous, and well mannered. Children who behave in this way are welcome in any situation. Other people feel good about them and they feel good about themselves. Teach them how to handle peer pressure positively. 12. Watch the balance between positive and negative comments about children's behavior. In order to build positive self-esteem, the balance should be at least four positive comments to one negative comment. Otherwise children internalize the feeling that they are "no good." 13. Focus on strengths and positive aspects of the child's behavior. When adults focus mostly on the areas which need changing, the child may come to actually believe that these weaknesses are his or her badge of identification and will develop a negative identity. 14. When correcting children, do not make negative comments which downgrade the child's personhood or generalize children's mistakes to their entire person. Instead, concentrate on the behavior which 197

needs changing. For example, DO NOT SAY, "You're a terrible kid!" Instead, SAY, "I am very upset that you disobeyed." DO NOT SAY, "How stupid can you be?! You're always forgetting what I tell you to do!" Instead, SAY, "What were you supposed to do before you left for school this morning?" Wait for the child's response. Don't rush in with the answer. This allows the child to develop responsibility for his or her actions. 15. Help children learn what is right or wrong to do. When children do what is right they develop a sense of self-respect. When they do what is wrong, their self-respect suffers. Make it easy to do what is right, if possible. 16. Support children in taking risks (e.g., running for class president.) Help them to recognize and accept that sometimes a person doesn't succeed in the way he or she anticipated, but there is always another time and another way. The old saying applies in developing self-esteem: "Nothing ventured, nothing gained." 17. Help children work on a life plan for character development, identifying their strengths and weaknesses. Help them work on strengthening the weak areas and building on the natural strengths as they depend on the Lord. 18. Remember, self-concept and self-esteem can always be changed! Begin today to help your children build a positive self-esteem.

"TRADE SECRETS" FOR PARENTS OF PRESCHOOLERS These are the most important yearsthe years that will make a BIG difference when Michael and Michelle turn thirteen. It will really pay off later to do your job well now. No personal sacrifice is too much for these yearsthey can never be redone! Here are some hints to help you build a strong foundation for the rest of their lives: 1. Do everything you can to make the "new arrival" feel wanted, happy and loved. Be flexible about schedules, without ignoring routine. Don't be afraid to love and cuddle. Work closely with your physician. Your mother might even have some good ideas! 2. The most important lessons to be learned during the preschool years are love, trust, and obedience. Your child will learn to love and trust God in the same way he learns to love and trust you. 3. Teach your child love by the way you treat her. Express your love verbally and physically (a pat, a cuddle, a rock). Respond to your child's needs. Stop what you are doing and listen. Never scream, shake, jerk, or hit. Don't ever threaten withdrawal of affection if the child is naughty! This is one of the worst things you can do to the developing child. 4. Teach your child trust by showing him he can always trust you. Keep all your promises. Explain why and provide a substitute if you must break a promise. Never lie to your child. If you said you wouldn't leave him alone at Sabbath School, don't sneak out the door when he isn't looking. Provide for your child's needsfood, warmth, play, companionship. He learns that you (and the rest of the world and God) can be trusted.

198

5. Teach your child loving obedience by consistently requiring the same behavior. Tell the child just once. Don't be too busy or too careless to see that things are done right then. Prompt obedience is very importantand it is really learned before age three. Don't threaten and bluff! Children are very smart. They soon figure out they won't have to mid. Or they know you don't really mean what you say until the third time and you are sounding angry. Expect obedience and you will get it. 6. Make as few rules as possible, but then stick to them all the time. Children need the security of rules they can count on. Your children will be more relaxed and happyand so will you. 7. When your child gets old enough to think, explain why you are asking him to do something. Don't argue about requests, but do explain the reasons. Children need to learn to think. The most effective discipline helps children learn what effect their actions have on other people. 8. Differentiate between childish mistakes and out-and-out rebellion. You must help your child learn to respect authority. Most parents lose control during the first three years. If you can't handle your three-year-old, you most certainly won't be able to handle him when he is thirteen! 9. Maintain your God-given dignity and responsibility. Control your feelings. The child wins when you lose your temper. Your child must feel that there is someone whom he can respect and who will help him control his own feelings. 10. Never discipline in public, if it can possibly be avoided. Young children have feelings, too. Likewise, don't talk about your child in her presence. Even babies understand much more than you think. 11. Spanking may be necessary sometimes to let the child know you mean business, but it shouldn't be a twenty-times-a-day occurrence. There are other more effective ways to help children learn good behavior. 12. Help your preschooler develop desirable habitsthe kind you want her to live with the rest of her life. This includes health habits (eating, sleeping, elimination, cleanliness, exercise), mental curiosity (give plenty of opportunity to explore and learn), safety (matches, fire, medicines, etc.), courtesy ("thank you" and "please"), helpfulness (give many opportunities for your child to be useful and to help other members of the family), spiritual life (worship, prayer, Bible stories). This is the most important time for developing habits. a. Decide what habits you want to develop. b. Help your child do them consistentlyevery day, every time, no exceptions. c. Don't pay any attention to wheedling and whining. These can develop into bad habits. d. Habits develop slowly. Stick with your plan and in time you will see some marvelous results. 13. There is a stage when every response is "no". Avoid asking questions which can be answered by "no." Ignore the "no" and proceed to do what is being requested, such as putting on the child's coat. 14. Preschoolers need security: regular schedules and a calm life. Avoid too much excitement, especially scary television programs. 15. Treat your child's self-esteem gentlynever belittle or be sarcastic. Don't be afraid of compliments and loving messages. Your child learns what kind of a person he is from the way you treat him. 199

Many children learn from their parents that they are no-good people, and they believe this all their lives. Don't let it happen to your child! 16. Silence is not goldenfor toddlers. Investigate! 17. Help your child begin to make choices: what dress to wear or what toy to take outside. Children need to feel growing independence. 18. Diversion helps many difficult situations. Introduce a new activity or call the child's attention to something different. Regular schedules and anticipating trouble will dissolve many problems before they happen. 19. Your example is very important. Preschoolers are real copycats. Your child will copy what you do, while ignoring what you say! 20. Above allENJOY YOUR CHILDREN! Play with them, read to them, help them learn about the world around them. These are precious, beautiful years.

"TRADE SECRETS" FOR PARENTS OF SCHOOL-AGE CHILDREN These are the wonderful middle years between babyhood and adolescence. These are the years for fun and family togethernesscamping, exploring the out of doors, flying a kite, building a model plane, putting together a puzzle, reading a book, intimate talks, raking the leaves together, and worshipping together. These are the years to solidify the values you started teaching when your child was younger. These are the years to cultivate your child's friendship. These are the fun years! 1. Be sure your child is really ready for school before you start him. He needs to be ready physically, mentally, emotionally, and morally. Many children need an extra year to mature. You will avoid a lot of problems if you let school wait until your child is ready. 2. Speak joyfully of going to school. Help your child look forward to this great event. 3. Take an active interest in school, but don't criticize the school in front of the child. Take your problems to the teacher and work them out together. Most teachers are well trained and anxious to help you and your child. Teach your child to respect adult authorities - the policeman, the principal, the teacher, etc. This will save a lot of trouble later on. 4. If your child has homework, give him the responsibility for its completion. Nagging or begging is never the way! Do provide a quiet place to work and insist on no TV and no phoning during study time. Be interested, but don't do the work for her (see Practical Suggestions in Chapter 23). 5. A reward is often very helpfula special trip with Dad, for example, when a difficult project is complete. If you have to use punishment, isolation and loss of privileges are often effective. Use spanking only as a last resort when all else fails. Natural and logical consequences are very effective during these years. They help your child learn to be responsible for his own actions. Never ridicule or make fun of the child. Always discipline with loveand have your own temper under control.

200

6. Plan ahead . . . make your propaganda early! Prepare your child for adolescence. Talk about dating, use of the car, learning to make responsible decisions, friendships, and careers before your child is a teenager. Now you will be able to talk about these things casually and in a friendly manner. Later on, when your child is experiencing the ups and downs of adolescence, it may be difficult to discuss them calmly. The principles you have talked about earlier will be guides during those years. 7. These are the years to teach responsibility - for school work, for jobs around the house, for personal actions. Start with easy jobs, gradually increase difficulty as child grows in ability. Compliment a job well done. Compliment any steps toward a better job. Give specific instructions so your child will know exactly how to do the job well. Suggest how long the job will probably take, and something special to do when the job is completed. If you have several children, rotate home chores. A chart with check marks or stars is an effective way to keep record. Children this age can learn to take pride in a job well done. This develops their confidence. 8. These are the years to teach persistence. Remember, however, that children have many interests and they do have the right to decide one thing is not so important or interesting as they once thought. However, starting many projects and never completing them should not become a habit. This actually undermines their confidence. A word of encouragement from you, or even a bit of help, will make the difference. Don't be too busy to notice the level of persistenceor lack of ityour child is developing. 9. These are also the years to teach physical skillshow to play the piano, bat a ball, put together a model, or whatever. There is often some drudgery before the skill is mastered. No child will persist without reminders or incentives. You need to help by showing your interest, scheduling opportunities for practice, and helping your child feel rewarded for her efforts. Staying with it is the secret. But if your child shows no talent, please find another skill for which she does show talent. Everyone doesn't have to play the piano! If your child strikes out every time he goes to bat, practice with him. It's terribly important for his development to master these skills. 10. Study your child. What is his natural temperament? What are her talents? What goals do you have for this child? Which characteristics need to be encouraged and which subdued? Discuss these with her. As she grows older, help her set some personal goals. 11. Help your child learn to handle money. An allowance is appropriate. He can also earn some of his own spending money and tuition. Specify what expenses she will be responsible for and teach her God's principles of stewardship. Help your child keep a written record of all expenditures. 12. Friends are very important now. Help your child choose wisely. Invite his friends home. Make your home a place where children love to come. 13. Too much management is as bad as too little. Give your child as much independence as she can handle. She will learn responsibility. Don't bail her out of every difficulty. Let her learn from the consequences. Give plenty of opportunities for learning decision-making skills. 14. Try to be fair. Children this age have a high sense of justice and fair play. They appreciate "playing by the rules." 15. Teach your child the Ten CommandmentsGod's Rules for Living. Stress the rightness or wrongness of actions in the sight of God. Give your child a Biblical foundation for making decisions. "What does God say I should do?" rather than "What do I want to do?" Help your child 201

develop a personal devotional life and a fund of Scriptural knowledge on which to base life's decisions. This is very important! 16. Togetherness is importantplay, work, pray, and eat together every day. If you do this, you will develop a strong friendship with your child which will be very important in the years ahead. 17. Be a little hard of hearing and a little nearsighted at times. In other words, don't pick at every little thing your child does. After all, she is only a child. However, on important issues never compromise with evil. Let your child know you have convictions, based on God's Word, which are the basis for your thinking and acting. Allow your child as many innocent pleasures as possible. Reserve the "no's" for the really important issues. Remember, your goal is to work yourself out of a job!

SUGGESTED READING Berger, Elizabeth, MD. (1999). Raising children with character. Damon, William. (1988). The moral child: Nurturing children's natural moral growth. Elkind, David. (2001). The hurried child, 3rd edition. Fowler, John M. (1977). The concepts of character development in the writings of Ellen G. White, pp. 156-160, 189-191. Kuzma, Kay & Jan. (1979). Building character. Lickona, Thomas. (1983). Raising good children, chapters 1-9. Postman, Neil. (1982). The disappearance of childhood. Riera, Michael & Di Prisco, Joseph. (2002). Right from wrong: Instilling a sense of integrity in your child. Shaffer, David. (1988). Social and personality development, chapters 9-11. Smith, Leona J. (1968). Guiding the character development for the preschool child. White, Ellen. The Adventist home, pp. 255-259. White, Ellen. Child guidance, pp. 17-28, 79-88, 193-198. White Ellen. Mind, character, and personality, pp. 131-151. White, Ellen. The ministry of healing, pp. 371-378.

202

CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO ADOLESCENCE AND ADULTHOOD

How important is the development of character during adolescence and adulthood? What are the most important influences on character during these times? Who is primarily responsible for character development? How do the following theories explain moral development during adolescence and adulthood: psychoanalytic, cognitive-developmental, social learning, and humanistic? How does the Christian perspective fit with these theories? How do adolescents and adults develop moral reasoning, moral affect, and moral behavior? Why is peer pressure so strong today? What can the Christian family do to diminish the effects of contemporary society on their children? What can parents do to diminish the effects of peer pressure on their children?

Character development becomes the major responsibility of the individual during adolescence and adulthood. During childhood adults play a major role in character development (home, school, community, etc.), but the responsibility shifts during adolescence and adulthood, although parents remain influential during early adolescence.

ADOLESCENT MORAL DEVELOPMENT Adolescence is viewed as a period of transition from childhood to adulthood in all areas of development and moral development is no exception. Growth in the area of cognitive development, in particular, has an effect on the adolescent's moral development. "All adolescents must construct a set of values that will help them function successfully as adult members of society; it is one of the developmental tasks of adolescence. . . As the values of childhood are surrendered, adult values slowly emerge and solidify into a value system that guides interactions with others and the society for the remainder of the adolescent's life. . . Formal operational thinking allows the adolescent to interpret the social environment, including aspects of morality, in different ways. "Because adolescents are capable of devising new and idealistic social orders to which all are expected to conform, we may view them as moral philosophers. With further development a more balanced view of the social order is taken. "First, unlike children, the adolescent is concerned with what is right as opposed to what is wrong, reflecting an emerging sense of justice. Second, adolescents become preoccupied with personal and social moral codes. As they gain the competency to understand alternative points of view, they see that moral codes are relative, not absolute, Finally, the above changes result in some conflict between moral conduct and moral thinking during adolescence" (Dusek, 1991, p. 104).

203

"The development of adolescent egocentrism may contribute to moral development. Windmiller speculates that egocentric adolescents may be so concerned with personal issues that they may reject conventional morality in favor of more personal systems and may develop advanced levels of moral reasoning through the discussion of new ideas with peers" (Fuhrmann, 1986, p. 341). ". . .Without successful resolution of the identity crisis, advanced levels of moral reasoning are highly unlikely" (p. 342). ". . .Adolescents who have experienced family environments that include discussion, clear standards, moral principles, warmth, and little threat have thus experienced an enhancement of the development to high levels of moral judgment and behavior, while those whose parents continue to use authoritarian methods remain at lower levels of moral reasoning. Families in which there is a great deal of turmoil, as in the loss of the father through divorce may depress moral judgment levels because of the parental focus on anger, guilt, and rejection" (p. 343). Most individuals do not achieve Stage 4 and 5 of moral development until the adolescent or young adult years (see chart on the next page). Features of earlier moral reasoning such as approval, stereotypic prosocial reasoning and direct reciprocity decrease in use in adolescence. On the other hand, internalized norms and rules, law reasoning and generalized reciprocity emerge during adolescence. There may be slight differences in the rate of moral development for boys and girls. Eisenberg, et. al. (1991) found that role taking and sympathetic reasoning emerged earlier for girls than for boys. Boys showed increased hedonistic reasoning in adolescence. The researchers suggested that issues concerning responsibility for others were perhaps more problematic for boys. Girls used slightly higher levels of moral reasoning overall. In this study they also found a relationship between the moral reasoning reported and prosocial behavior, display of empathy, sympathy and perspective taking.

CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT DURING ADOLESCENCE AND ADULTHOOD During adolescence the character structure becomes clearly visible. Weak foundations from earlier years show in defective character. Adolescence becomes the crucible in which the character structure is refined for all of later life. Character continues to mature throughout life and becomes an important component of a satisfying, contributing life. The Importance of Continuing Character Development "The Hebrews recognized that man must fight on two fronts simultaneously. He must fight to reduce his despair and, at the same time, he must struggle to create happiness by developing his individual characterthe badge designating him as a person. "You cannot achieve good by merely avoiding evil, any more than you can achieve greatness by merely avoiding the problems of a pedestrian life. These truisms apply to developing your business as well. An essential component of long-term business survival is character" (Herzberg, 1982, p. 29).

204

THE STAGES OF MORAL REASONING d (Indicate reasonable developmental expectations for a child of normal intelligence growing up in a supportive moral environment.) Stage 0: Egocentric Reasoning (preschool years around age 4) What's right: Reason to be good: I should bet my own way. To get rewards and avoid punishment.

Stage 1: Unquestioning Obedience (around kindergarten age) What's right: Reason to be good: I should do what I am told. To stay out of trouble.

Stage 2: What's-in-it-for-Me-Fairness (early elementary grades) What's right: me. Reason to be good: I should look out for myself to be fair to those who are fair to Self-interest: What's in it for me?

Stage 3: Interpersonal Conformity (middle-to-upper elementary grades & early-to-mid teens) What's right: I should be a nice person and live up to the expectations of people I know and care about. Reason to be good: So others will think well of me (social approval) and I can think well of myself (self-esteem). Stage 4: Responsibility to the System (high school years or late teens) What's right: I should fulfill my responsibilities to the social or value system I fell a part of. Reason to be good: To keep the system from falling apart and to maintain selfrespect as somebody who meets my obligations. Stage 5: Principled Conscience (young adulthood) What's right: I should allow the greatest possible respect for the rights and dignity of every individual person and should support a system that protects human rights. Te principle of respect for all human beings.

Chart adapted from Lickona, 1983, p. 12, based on Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning. Stage 0 was adapted from Damon (1977) and Selman (1980).

205

"In earlier times, the crime rate stayed relatively low because of the prevailing moralitydespite rapid urbanization, a large influx of poor immigrants, and other negative factors, according to Wilson. Today's culture, however, replaces the ethic of self-control with the ethic of self expression.' Readily admitting that he does not know how government could teach virtue to its citizens, Wilson urges a reevaluation of the relationship between the governmental role and character building" (Lack of virtue = social problems, 1986, p. 8). Perhaps the most confusing aspect of flexibility [in the New Capitalism] is its impact on personal character. The old English speakers, and indeed writers going back to antiquity, were in no doubt about the meaning of character: it is the ethical value we place on our own desires and on our relations to others. Horace writes that the character of a man depends on his connections to the world. . . . Character particularly focuses upon the long-term aspect of our emotional experience. Character is expressed by loyalty and mutual commitment, or through the pursuit of long-term goals, or by the practice of delayed gratification for the sake of a future end. . . . Character concerns the personal traits which we value in ourselves and for which we seek to be valued by others. How do we decide what is of lasting value in ourselves in a society which is impatient, which focuses on the immediate moment? How can long-term goals be pursued in an economy devoted to the short term? How can mutual loyalties and commitments be sustained in institutions which are constantly breaking apart or continually being redesigned? These are the questions about character posed by the new, flexible capitalism (Sennett, 1998, p. 10).

A CONTINUOUS PROCESS "The formation of character is the work of a lifetime" (White, Child Guidance, p. 162). "Characters and personalities are developed over the years, not merely molded and shaped in early childhood. Children are influenced by all their experience. . . . They grow and they learn" (Peck & Havighurst, 1960, p. 126). "A character formed according to the divine likeness is the only treasure that we can take from this world to the next. Those who are under the instruction of Christ in this world will take every divine attainment with them to the heavenly mansions. And in heaven we are continually to improve" (White, Christ's Object Lessons, p. 332). "It is our thesis that maturity - all of postadolescence - can and should be a time of fulfillment, of continued growth and repeated discoveries and insights, of ever-renewed enthusiasms, of fresh understanding and solid wisdom" (Stone & Church, 1973, p. 513). In proposing a seventh stage of moral reasoning, Kohlberg attempted to look at the question, Why be moral? He thought the answer lies in achieving a cosmic perspectiveto see moral issues from the viewpoint of the whole universe. In experiencing this oneness with the universe (cosmos, nature, or God), people come to see that everything is interconnected, each persons actions affect everything and everyone else. This perspective, as well as Gilligans view, recognizes compassion and caring and the connections between people as the highest stage of moral reasoning. It is a perspective generally only found in adults whose self-centeredness has been changed by their life experiences.

206

ELEMENTS OF CHARACTER FORMATION As a life-time process, character development is constantly affected by our thoughts and actions, our experiences and our emotions. According to Kohlberg, advancement to the third level of moral reasoningfully principled, postconventional moralityis chiefly a function of experience. Most people do not reach this level until their twenties, if ever. Although cognitive awareness of higher moral principles often develops in adolescence, people typically do not commit themselves to such principles until adulthood. . . . Two experiences that spur moral development in young adults are encountering conflicting values away from home . . . and being responsible for the welfare of others (as in parenthood). Experience leads adults to reevaluate their criteria for what is right and fair. . . . Such experiences, strongly colored by emotion, . . . are more likely to help people see other points of view. . . . Furthermore, experience is interpreted within a cultural context (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2001, pp. 507-508). Colby and Damon (1992) studied 23 moral exemplars who had been nominated by a panel of experts, guided by five criteria: sustained commitment to principles that show respect for humanity; behavior consistent with ones ideals; willingness to risk self-interest; inspiring others to moral action; and humility, or lack of concern for ones ego (Papalia, Olds & Feldman, 2001, p. 582). The chosen exemplars included 10 men and 13 women, ages 35 to 86, from white, AfricanAmerican, and Hispanic backgrounds. Their education varied widely (from grade 8 to graduate degrees) and they were involved in different occupations and had many different concerns about society. They were very stable in their commitments to changing society and helping individuals and worked collaboratively. Their personal and moral goals were the same and they simply did what they thought needed to be done, without thought of personal consequences, not considering themselves particularly courageous. They were open to new ideas and wanted to learn from others. Their personality characteristics included: enjoyment of life, solidarity with others, ability to make the best of a bad situations, absorption in work, a sense of humor, and humility (p. 582). "Every act of life, however small, has its bearing for good or for evil. Faithfulness or neglect in what are apparently the smallest duties may open the door for life's richest blessings or its greatest calamities. It is little things that test the character" (White, Patriarchs and Prophets, p. 158). "Character does not come by chance. It is not determined by one outburst of temper, one step in the wrong direction. It is the repetition of the act that causes it to become habit, and molds character either for good or for evil. Right characters can be formed only by persevering, untiring effort, by improving every intrusted talent and capability to the glory of God" (Messages to Young People, p. 163). "There are few who realized the influence of the little things of life upon the development of character. Nothing with which we have to do is really small. The varied circumstances that we meet day by day are designed to test our faithfulness and to qualify us for greater trusts. By adherence to principle in the transactions of ordinary life, the mind becomes accustomed to hold the claims of duty above those of pleasure and inclination. Minds thus disciplined are not wavering between right and wrong, like the reed trembling in the wind; they are loyal to duty because they have trained themselves to habits of fidelity and truth. By faithfulness in that which is least they acquire strength to be faithful in greater matters" (White, Patriarchs and Prophets, p. 223). "Right thinking lies at the foundation of right action." (White, Fundamentals of Christian Education, p. 248). 207

"Sow a thought and reap an action. Sow an action and reap a habit. Sow a habit and reap a character. Sow a character and reap a destiny." Charles Reave. Additional References: Prov. 23:7; White, Messages to Young People, p. 144.

CHARACTER CHANGE While the foundations for character are largely laid during childhood, change can take place at any time during life. Secular authorities admit to gradual changes; Divine assistance admits to drastic changes. "Let no one say, I cannot remedy my defects of character. If you come to this decision, you will certainly fail of obtaining everlasting life. The impossibility lies in your own will. If you will not, then you can not overcome. The real difficulty arises from the corruption of an unsanctified heart, and an unwillingness to submit to the control of God" (White, Christ's Object Lessons, p. 331). "It is a generally accepted belief that the childhood years are perhaps the most important ones in forming broad personality patterns. . . . However, it should also be concluded that some growth will continue after early childhood. . . . Trends persist but change is continuous" (Bernard, 1970, p. 259). "It is certainly true that it is almost impossible to change a personality [character] which does not feel the need of being changed" (Ligon, 1975, p. 365). "Man may grow up into Christ, his living head. It is not the work of a moment, but that of a lifetime. By growing daily in the divine life, he will not attain to the full stature of a perfect man in Christ until his probation ceases. The growing is a continuous work. Men with fiery passions have a constant conflict with self; but the harder the battle, the more glorious will be the victory and the eternal reward" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 4, p. 367).

INDIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILITY While the home, school and community have important responsibilities for the character development of children, there comes a time when the individual has primary responsibility for personal character development. He or she cannot "blame" the home or school for personal defects because change is possible, with God's help. Personal choice determines future development. Character development throughout the lifespan is significantly affected by the individual's choices in relation to the circumstances and experiences of his or her life. Adulthood brings many opportunities for character growth as the individual deals with marriage, parenting, career, religion, community mores and culture, sickness and other personal reverses, societal issues (e.g., substance abuse, sexuality, war and peace, abortion, AIDS), media influences, and personal and family relationships. As a result of these choices, conscience can be strengthened or weakened; altruism can expand or shrivel; moral actions can become stronger or compromised; character can grow or shrink in purpose and action.

208

THE INDIVIDUAL HAS THE RESPONSIBILITY TO THE FOLLOWIING STEPS:

CO-OPERATE WITH DIVINITY "It rests with us to co-operate with the agencies which Heaven employs in the work of conforming to the divine model. None can neglect or defer this work but at the most fearful peril to their souls" (White, The Great Controversy, p. 623). "The work of gaining salvation is one of co-partnership, a joint operation. There is to be cooperation between God and the repentant sinner. This is necessary for the formation of right principles in the character. . . "God wishes us to have mastery over ourselves. But He cannot help us without our consent and cooperation. The divine Spirit works through the powers and faculties given to man . . . If we are `willing to be made willing,' the Saviour will accomplish this for us" (White, The Acts of the Apostles, p. 482). "While God was working in Daniel and his companions `to will and to do of His good pleasure,' `they were working out their own salvation.' Phil. 2:13. Herein is revealed the outworking of the divine principle of co-operation, without which no true success can be attained. Human effort avails nothing without divine power; and without human endeavor, divine effort is with many of no avail. To make God's grace our own, we must act our part. His grace is sufficient to work in us to will and to do, but never as a substitute for our effort" (White, Prophets and Kings, pp. 486, 487). "It is by loving Him, copying Him, depending wholly on Him, that you are to be transformed into His likeness" (White, Steps to Christ, p. 71).

REPENT "We have no power in ourselves to cleanse the soul temple from its defilement; but as we repent of our sins against God, and seek pardon through the merits of Christ, He will impart that faith which works by love and purifies the heart" (White, The Sanctified life, p. 83).

TRUST GOD (FAITH) "It is by faith in the Son of God that transformation takes place in the character, and the child of wrath becomes the child of God. . . . As a man is converted by the truth, the work of transformation of character goes on" (White, Selected Messages, p. 388). "The heavenly intelligences will work with the human agent who seeks with determined faith that perfection of character which will reach out to perfection in action. To everyone engaged in this work Christ says, I am at your right hand to help you" (White, Christ's Object Lessons, p. 332). "It is through the exercise of faith, hope, and love that we come nearer and nearer to the standard of perfect holiness" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 3, p. 188). "The righteousness of God is embodied in Christ. We receive righteousness by receiving Him" (White, Thoughts from the Mount of Blessing, p. 18). 209

CHOOSE GOD'S WAY (THE WILL) Successful character formation in this life requires a transformation of human nature. Humans are incapable of developing their own character to the fullest extent. It is the person's responsibility to make the correct choice. The individuals part is in placing his or her will firmly on the side of God. Then God can do His part in transforming the persons nature to reflect His. "Thus the divine provision for character development consists of God's initiative of grace, revealed in the activity of Christ and in the empowering of the Holy Spirit. When man responds to this provision and submits his will to the divine, the spirit actualizes in man `a new moral taste. . . a new motive power'" (Fowler, 1977, p. 133). "You cannot control your impulses, your emotions, as you may desire, but you can control the will, and you can make an entire change in your life" (White, Messages to Young People, p. 152). "We cannot change our hearts, we cannot control our thoughts, our impulses, our affections. . . . But we can choose to serve God, we can give Him our will . . . Thus our whole nature will be brought under the control of Christ" (White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 176). "God has given us the power of choice; it is ours to exercise. We cannot change our hearts, we cannot control our thoughts, our impulses, our affections. We cannot make ourselves pure, fit for God's service. But we can choose to serve God, we can give Him our will; then he will work in us to will and to do according to His good pleasure. Thus our whole nature will be brought under the control of Christ" (p. 176).

INVEST PERSONAL EFFORT "Moral excellence and fine mental qualities are not the result of accident. . . . The formation of a noble character is the work of a lifetime and must be the result of diligent and persevering effort. God gives opportunities; success depends upon the use made of them" (White, Patriarchs and Prophets, pp. 222-223). "The mental and moral powers which God has given us do not constitute character. They are talents, which we are to improve, and which, if properly improved, will form a right character. A man may have a precious seed in his hand, but that seed is not an orchard. The seed must be planted before it can become a tree. The mind is a garden; the character is the fruit. God has given us our faculties to cultivate and develop. Our own course determines our character. In training these powers so that they shall harmonize and form a valuable character, we have a work which no one but ourselves can do" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 4, p. 606). "While parents are responsible for the stamp of character, as well as for the education and training, of their sons and daughters, it is still true that our position and usefulness in the world depend, to a great degree, upon our own course of action. Daniel and his companions enjoyed the benefits of correct training and education in early life, but these advantages alone would not have made them what they were. The time came when they must act for themselves, when their future depended upon their own course. Then they decided to be true to the lessons given them in childhood" (White, Counsels on Diet and Foods, p. 29).

210

"Day by day and year by year we shall conquer self and grow into a noble heroism. This is our allotted task; but it cannot be accomplished without continual help from Jesus, resolute decision, unwavering purpose, continual watchfulness and unceasing prayer. Each one has a personal battle to fight. Each must win his own way through struggles and discouragements. Those who decline the struggle lose the strength and joy of victory. No one, not even God, can carry us to heaven unless we make the necessary effort on our part" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 5, p. 345). Additional References: White, Acts of the Apostles, p. 482; White, Christ's Object Lessons, p. 331, 353354; White, The Sanctified life, p. 84; White, Prophets and Kings, p. 487; White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 4, pp. 32-33.

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS "TRADE SECRETS" FOR PARENTS OF TEENAGERS Don't panic! The teen years need not be a disaster for your family. Here are some teen-tested hints to help you emerge in one pieceand proud of your young adults! 1. Encourage independenceneither too late nor too soon. Give your adolescents as much independence as they can handle. But even teenagers want and need guidance. They need to know you care enough to establish limits to their independence. They are not ready for total independence. 2. As your adolescents mature, make them responsible for more and more of their own decisions. You should have been teaching decision-making skills all along . . . but it's not too late to start. 3. Help your teenagers cope with reality and accept the consequences of their own actions. Don't overprotect or shield. Remember you are training for real life. 4. When discipline is needed, administer it with love and firmness. Try to be fair, not punitive. Never punish in anger. The authoritative approach works best. 5. Know the reasons for your convictions. Be able to support them with a "thus saith the Lord." At the same time, try to distinguish between passing cultural fads and issues of moral right and wrong. 6. Try to be an honest, real person who lives by his or her convictions. Don't be afraid to admit your mistakesyour adolescents already know you aren't perfect. Admitting it removes you from the "phony" class! 7. Try to give your adolescents an adequate concept of their own worth. Never belittle their persons by word or action. Your teenagers need self-respect. Express your confidence in them. They will live up to your expectations. 8. Treat your adolescents with respect for their needsnot your own emotional needs. Remember, you are the adult. 9. Be available to listen and dialogue. Encourage mutual respect for each other's point of view. Be willing to listen and thoughtfully consider your teenager's opinion. Don't feel you must always have 211

the answer. Some problems can be worked out together. Respect your adolescents' idealism. It is part of growing up. 10. Don't try to make your adolescents into carbon copies of yourself. Encourage them to experience different interests and to try out new ideas. Help them develop individual talents and abilities. 11. Don't get too far behind your teenagers. Know what is happening in their world. Learn some of the songs they like, read a modern version of the Bible, and try to understand how they think and feel. But don't act like one. They need an adult! 12. Respect your teenagers' feelings. They are just as real as yours. 13. While encouraging independence, be sure your adolescents are still part of the family unit. Eat together and worship together every day. Play and work together sometimes. They need their friends, but they still need to be part of a family unit. 14. Include your teenagers in family decisionswhere to go for vacations, major purchases, family rules, etc. 15. Welcome your teenagers' friends. Make your home attractive to teens. Invite your adolescents' friends to go with you on outings. 16. Never underestimate the value of work! Expect your teenagers to be part of the family firm and to carry their share of responsibility. As soon as they are old enough, they should have regular outsideof-the-home jobs, too. They should be responsible for their own personal expensesclothes, recreation, dates, gas for the car, etc. In addition, adolescents should contribute substantially to their school expenses. Don't provide teens with everything they want. They need to learn to work for things and to delay gratification. 17. Have clear expectations for your teenagers. Discuss these with them. Be sure they know what is expected. Then stick by what you have decided. Don't be swayed by the "everybody's doing it" song . . . but be reasonable. 18. Be sure yours is a praying home with regular worships and one where family members share each other's burdens. 19. Don't expect that your adolescents will agree with youor even like youall the time. That is the price of being a parent. Never respond in kind. Be sure your love always shines through. 20. Loving, firm, understanding guidance and much prayer will see you all through!

PEER PRESSURE Life is lived in the family, the neighborhood, the school, the community at large, and the nation. The prevailing cultural mores and moral attitudes profoundly affect all of life's experiences.

212

"A world corrupted by sin, the common human predicament affecting every age since the Fall, has always threatened society's existence by attacking its value system. A pervading belief in God, however distorted that may have been at times, has until recently held society together and reinforced innate moral values. During the past two and a half centuries, the erosion of Christian beliefs, the overemphasis on human potential, an obsessive drive for independence and freedom, among other factors - all converging at a time of almost instantaneous communication and transportation - have created a value-free society that has, in effect, declared there is no God" (Brusius, 1989, pp. 6, 7). Peer pressure has always been a significant factor in how individuals relate to their experiences. However, in recent years peer pressure has become an almost overpowering factor influencing the moral decisions of children and adolescents, especially. Sharon Scott, author of Peer Pressure Reversal, has suggested that the following societal changes have decreased the influence of the family on the developing child and increased peer pressure because they have lessened the quantity and quality of adult-child interaction. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Family mobility Lack of neighborhood unity Fewer extended families More single-parent families More dual-parent working families Busy hectic schedules More negative peer pressure from media Different types of role models Family separated by electrical devices Easy availability of alcohol and other drugs

The lessening of the influence of adults on the development of children and adolescents, when paired with the prevailing societal level of morality, has produced a serious need to address the issue of peer pressure in order to influence the development of moral character in children and adolescents. The Christian family must ask itself how these societal influences can be decreased so the family influence can be increased.

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS PROVIDE AN ALTERNATIVE TO PEER PRESSURE When Peter saw him, he asked, "Lord, what about him?" Jesus answered, "If I want him to remain alive until I return, what is that to you? You must follow me." John 21:21,22 (NIV) 1. Begin early with the idea that sometimes we cannot do what everyone else is doing. We choose to do something different because God wants us to. 2. Make your propaganda early! Talk about teenage activities before your child is a teenager. Establish expectancies for her behavior before the turmoil arrives. Discuss peer pressure and its effects. Prepare for it. 3. Encourage family, rather than peer orientation. a. Encourage interest in what your child is doing. b. Be one jump ahead. Plan many interesting family activities. c. Limit time with peers in favor of family activities. 213

d. e. f. g. h. i.

Invite other children to do things with your family. As children get older give them a voice in selecting family activities. Cultivate your child's friendship. Be creative in finding time to be with your child. Respect his growing maturity. Make home the most attractive place in the world.

4. Cultivate a positive self-respect in your child. The child who respects herself as a person can more easily resist peer pressure. 5. Encourage active involvement in worthwhile activities: work, extracurricular activities at school, service to others, etc. 6. Help your child learn to be a leader and suggest positive activities rather than follow the crowd into negative ones. 7. Help your child cultivate a skill in which he or she can excel which will give status, satisfaction and involvement in worthwhile endeavors. 8. Help your child learn to dress attractively and know what to do in social situations. 9. Establish clear guidelines for your child's behavior. "My dad said I can't" is a good backup for a child's decision. 10. Help your child learn about different careers. The teenager who has a clear career goal is less likely to be swayed by peer pressure because he is working toward something. 11. Teach your child that it is easier to influence a group if she states her conviction at the beginning and states it positively. Others may follow. 12. Teach your child how to recognize and respond to peer pressure. Practice different responses until your child has a repertoire of several ways to cope with negative peer pressure. 13. Inspire with high ideals from God's Word. Challenge to live in relationship with God every day. This is the best insurance against peer pressure.

PEER PRESSURE REVERSAL Peer Pressure Reversal is a systematic way to teach your child how to resist peer pressure and still keep friends. The manual for parents is entitled Peer Pressure Reversal: An Adult Guide to Developing a Responsible Child. It was developed by Sharon Scott and is available from Human Resource Development Press, Inc., 22 Amherst Road, Amherst, MA 01002. This method of helping children dealing with peer pressure includes three steps. The book describes how to teach and use each step. The complete manual is an invaluable guide to helping children cope with peer pressure. Step 1: CHECK OUT THE SCENE Look and Listen Apply the "Trouble?" Rule

214

Step 2: MAKE A DECISION Weigh Both Sides Decide: Stop or Go Step 3: ACT TO AVOID TROUBLE What to say How to say it Look the Part Sound Off Other books in the series are for children and adolescents: How to Say No and Keep Your Friends and When to Say Yes and Make More Friends. Teaching transparencies are available also. While this material is not written from a Christian perspective, it can be adapted to include Christian principles. SUGGESTED READING Brusius, Ron. (Ed.). (1989). Parenting moral teens in immoral times. Lickona, Thomas. (1983). Raising good children. Chapters 10-15, 17, 18. Lutes, Chris. (1990). Peer pressure: Making it work for you. Sapp, Gary L. (Ed.). (1986). Handbook of moral development. Chapter 7: "Moral Development in Adulthood: Lifestyle Processes" (Sloan & Hogan) Chapter 11: "Promoting Personal Development in the College Classroom" (Kwasnick) Chapter 14: "The Moral Reasoning of Men and Women when Confronting Hypothetical and RealLife Moral Dilemmas" (Brownfield) Chapter 15: "Moral Judgment and Religious Orientation" (Sapp) Scott, Sharon. (1985). Peer pressure reversal: An adult guide to developing a responsible child. Scott, Sharon. (1986). How to say no and keep your friends: PPR, Peer Pressure Reversal. Scott, Sharon. (1988). When to say yes! And make more friends. Sennett, Richard. (1998). The corrosion of character: The personal consequences of work in the new capitalism.

215

CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE HOME INFLUENCES

How important is the home in developing moral character? What factors in the home are the most influential on character? What is the role of father and mother in character development? Does socioeconomic status of the family influence character? Can good character develop in irreligious homes? What home setting is the most suitable for character development?

This chapter focuses briefly on some of the most important factors in the home which influence the character/moral development of children. All of these factors are discussed in more detail in other chapters. The process of character development described in Section Two applies to the home, largely through parent-child interaction. Therefore, in order to understand fully the influences of the home on the character development of children, one must understand the process of character development as described earlier in this study guide.

INFLUENCE OF THE HOME The Word of God, as well as all major research studies, suggest that the home is the most important factor in the character development of children. The home is the cocoon in which the child is nurtured and prepared for the larger world. Children identify with the values of their parents and learn how to live morally from their example. "In the formation of character, no other influence counts so much as the influence of the home" (White, Education, p. 107). "In an age of ongoing stress, economic pressures, dual-career couples, and family dissolutions, the task of moral education in the home becomes particularly challenging" (Shelton, 1989, p. 45). "All the important research in the moral development of children and adolescents emphasizes the importance of parents and the family in the total process" (Rice, 1990, p. 497). "Family relationships create a climate that promotes or inhibits adolescents' adoption of their parents' values" (Rice, 1990, p. 500). "The home continues to be the base from which values are strengthened or weakened throughout the child's life, even as other influences take over from time to time as the child grows and matures" (Piaget, 1965, p. 314). "The family lays the foundation for good character development. If the family fails, the other institutions which deal with the child face a tremendous, usually impossible, handicap" (Havighurst & Taba, 1949, p. 191). "The family is the fundamental social institution, on which all others must depend! . . . This is not to say that character-building agencies have no value. But there is increasing evidence that they must have active home participation to succeed" (Ligon, 1956, pp. 104-105).

216

Additional references: White, The Adventist Home, p. 200; White, Child Guidance, p. 174; White, Counsels to Parents, Teachers, and Students, p. 162.

FACTORS IN THE HOME WHICH INFLUENCE CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT The major research studies in the field of moral development and God's Word point to six key factors in the home which appear to be most influential in the development of character: (1) the parental model, (2) the emotional tone of the home, (3) the disciplinary practices, (4) the instruction of the children, (5) the spiritual and moral influences provided, and (6) the time devoted to parentchild interaction. Significant deficits in any of these factors result in weakened character structure for the children growing up in that home.

PARENTAL MODEL No influence is more important in molding the child's character than the parental model. Children tend to become what their parents are. Even adolescents tend to have values similar to their parents' values. While they may be less conservative than their parents, they definitely lean in the direction of parental values. Many studies, too numerous to mention here, have come to the conclusion that the parental model is the key factor in the learning of values. This is the most important and the most powerful of the factors in the home which influence the development of character. "Children must see in the lives of their parents that consistency which is in the accordance with their faith" (White, Child Guidance, p. 482). "The general conclusion seems inescapable that a child's character is the direct product, almost a direct reproduction of the way his parents treat him. As they are to him, so he is to all others" (Peck & Havighurst, 1960, p. 178). "Perhaps the maturity of personality and character of one's children is the acid test of one's own completeness of maturity, for maturity is far easier to display outside the family than in it, it seems" (Peck & Havighurst, 1960, p. 179). "An important factor in drug use is parent behavior and parent attitudes about drug use. Adolescents whose parents model drug use are more likely to use drugs, as are adolescents whose parents do not convey messages about the ills of drugs use" (Dusek, 1991, pp. 397-398). Additional references: Genesis 18:19; 2 Cor. 3:2-3; White, The Adventist Home, p. 322; White, Child Guidance, p. 170; White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 5, p. 37).

EMOTIONAL TONE The emotional atmosphere created by the parents within the home has as much of an impact on the moral development of children as the training that is given. Children from homes that are rent with strife and hostility tend to be the ones who have difficulty maintaining society's moral codes. 217

"There are, of course, a number of unique influences in the home on the development of character which the school cannot reproduce. These are not matters of specific moral training, however, but the emotional climate in which the child develops. The only parent attitude variables consistently found to relate to children's moral character are not `moral training' variables, but variables of parental warmth" (Kohlberg, 1969, p. 248). Character is "predominantly shaped by the intimate, emotionally powerful relationship between child and parents, within the family" (Peck & Havighurst, 1960, p. 175). A nurturant and involved father can have particular influence on the degree to which his child takes responsibility for his or her own actions. . . . researchers have reported an association between childrens having a nurturant father and their ability to confide in others and display empathy and altruism. . . . the fathers level of moral maturity, emotional warmth, and nurturance during his childs middle school years are actually more predictive of a sons or daughters behavior on reaching late adolescence or early adulthood than during childhood. . . . Individuals who were reported to have warm and loving fathers when they were five were likely to have long-term marriages, successful parenthood, and close friendships as adults. . . A number of additional studies also suggest linkages among positive paternal involvement during childhood and the sons and daughters adult capacity for empathic and responsible social behavior. . . . (Lamb, 1997, pp. 154-155). "The major determinants of character in the parent-child interaction appear to be love and discipline" (Peck & Havighurst, 1960, p. 180). "Due to the operation of the defense mechanism of projection, parents, instead of arguing with each other, will sometimes scorn and scold their children. Research reveals how markedly children reflect parental frustration, aggression, rejection, or vindictiveness" (Bernard, 1978, p. 537). "You must control yourself in the management of your children. You must remember that Justice has a twin sister, Mercy. When you would exercise justice, show mercy, tenderness, and love, and you will not labor in vain" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 4, p. 363). "Smile, parents . . . adapt yourselves to the children's needs, and make them love you. You must win their affection if you would impress religious truth upon their heart" (White, The Adventist Home, p. 432). "There is . . . evidence that the psychological climate of the home has important effects upon the development of the character of the children . . . in general, hostile, and aggressive children have imitated the hostile attitudes of their parents. Children who get into trouble with the law have, with few exceptions, internalized immoral standards and socially undesirable behavior patterns found in their homes" (Garrison, Kingston, & Bernard, 1967, p. 256).

DISCIPLINE Many studies of child development have concluded that the type of discipline in a home is a key factor in the socialization and moral/character development of children. An authoritative parenting style, including discipline discipline, helps children grow up to become responsible individuals who make a solid contribution to their families and communities. Authoritarian,

218

permissive, or neglectful discipline can have a deleterious effect on the child's character development. "When children feel they are worthy of consideration, when limits are firm but established without personal condemnation, when encouragement rather that censure follows errors, the individual achieves a self-image that he and society find is worth cultivating. It is this self-image that develops the internalization of moral codes and becomes one's conscience" (Bernard, 1970, pp. 299-300). "The family should teach the child that reward or approval follows right actions, and punishment or disapproval follows wrong actions. The family should make clear, consistent demands for conformity to certain moral rules" (Havighurst & Taba, 1949, p. 192). "Administer the rules of the home in wisdom and love, not with a rod of iron" (White, The Adventist Home, p. 18). "Parents are to consider that they are in the place of God to their children, to encourage every right principle and repress every wrong thought" (White, Child Guidance, p. 480). "From the present evidence, it appears that the only sure way to rear children with the best kind of character is by a combination of mature love and mature, permissive, but consistently guiding discipline. The fact is, these two kinds of parental behavior either occur together or neither occurs at all, in a mature form" (Peck & Havighurst, 1960, p. 125).

INSTRUCTION Children must be taught the values of the home. Through instruction they learn what is right and what is wrong. They learn to make moral decisions based on internalized principles. Children who are not instructed in moral values have only a hazy idea of the pathway to moral responsibility. They have no foundation on which to base moral decisions and actions. "Children are what their parents make them by their instruction, discipline, and example" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 5, p. 37). "In childhood the mind is readily impressed and molded, and it is then that boys and girls should be taught to love and honor God" (White, Child Guidance, p. 486).

MORAL AND SPIRITUAL INFLUENCES If the home provides strong spiritual influences, the base for character development will be stronger also. The spiritual foundation forms the character in ways which are impossible otherwise. "Parents may lay for their children the foundation for a healthy, happy life. They may send them forth from their homes with moral stamina to resist temptation, and courage and strength to wrestle successfully with life's problems. They may inspire in them the purpose and develop the power to make their lives an honor to God and a blessing to the world" (White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 352).

219

"There are few parents who realize how important it is to give to their children the influence of a godly example. Yet this is far more potent than precept. No other means is so effective in training them to right lines" (White, Review and Herald, vol. 88(41), p. 3).

TIME PRIORITIES When parents are too busy to interact with their children, all of above factors are weakened. Even the parents' model is not so powerful if the children rarely see their parents. Discipline and instruction are usually lacking when parents have little time for their children. Character development suffers greatly at the hands of excessive family busyness. Parents are too busy to notice the character weaknesses of their children. Peer pressure becomes stronger when children spend less time with parents and more with peers. "She (the mother) may, for want of time, neglect many things about her house, with no serious evil results; but she cannot with impunity neglect the proper discipline of her children. Their defective characters will publish her unfaithfulness" (White, The Adventist Home, p. 268). "When parents see the importance of their work in training their children, . . . they will feel they must devote their best time and thought to this work" (White, Child Guidance, p. 184). "You (speaking to mother) cannot overwork in any line without becoming disqualified for the work of training your little ones and making them what God would have them be" (White, The Adventist Home, p. 246). "While it has repeatedly been stated that the important factor in optimum child development is love, it is my postulation that time is even more basic. Many mothers and fathers love their children, but the press of duties and attempts to provide children with the necessities and comforts of life leave little time to manifest their love. Many parents in American society are faced with deciding whether a clean, orderly house, well-planned and cooked meals, or a comfortable income will pay as big dividends in a child's establishing identity as large as extra time spent in playing with, talking to, and showing interest in, and respect for, him by responding to his moods, questions, and interpersonal advances" (Bernard, 1978, p. 284).

ROLE OF THE MOTHER IN CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT Mothers have the single most far-reaching influence on the child's character development. The responsibility placed on the mother with regard to training and relating to her children is very great. The bonds that link the child and mother are most significant and the impact of the relationship will be evidenced in later development. Even in families where both parents have jobs, current research indicates that the mother generally carries the major responsibilities for child rearing, although there are families where the father is the primary caregiver for the children. ". . . The present study found that in most families the mother has had a more profound, direct influence on the child's character and personality than has the father" (Peck & Havighurst, 1960, p. 180). "If Christian mothers will present to society children with integrity of character, the firm principles and sound morals, they will have performed the most important of all missionary labors. Their children,

220

thoroughly educated to take their places in society, are the greatest evidence of Christianity that can be given to the world" (White, Child Guidance, p. 163). "This work of molding, refining, and polishing is the mother's. The character of the child is to be developed" (White, The Adventist Home, p. 234). "But it is only when she seeks, in her own life, to follow the teachings of Christ that the mother can hope to form the character of her children after the divine pattern" (p. 234). "The tenderest earthly tie is that between the mother and her child. The child is more readily impressed by the life and example of the mother than by that of the father, for a stronger and more tender bond of union unites them" (p. 240). "The king upon his throne has no higher work than has the mother. The mother is queen of her household. She has in her power the molding of her children's characters, that they may be fitted for the higher, immortal life. An angel could not ask for a higher mission; for in doing this work she is doing service for God" (p. 231). Today, working mothers are an accepted fact of modern life. The use of child-care alternatives often presents value conflicts which force parents to make decisions of long lasting effect. Although, in most cases, little can be done to change this trend, these changes appear to have a negative impact on the attitudes and behavior of children, and therefore, on the development of their characters. "One of the most immediate dilemmas faced by many parents who utilize child care is that the transmission of family values may be diluted because their children will have other adults as models of potentially different value systems. It is quite probable that a parent and a child-care provider would react at least somewhat differently to a situation that raises questions of `values'" (Googins, 1991, p. 201). "Working parents may have to confront two tiers of value conflicts. The first results from using child care, which represents an approach to child-rearing that may seem to conflict with some of the parents' own values. The second level of conflict arises when the care provider's values seem to differ from those of the parents" (Googins, 1991, p. 202). "Repeatedly it has been found that children who experienced full-time nonparental care in the first year of life are more likely to appear, at the end of their first year, insecure in their attachment to their parents and, between the birth and tenth years of life, more disobedient and aggressive than children whose day care was initiated after their first year" (Belsky, 1990, p. 10). "Comparable analyses of father's perceptions of their child suggest that differences in maternal employment status may be more consequential at age 5-6 than was the case earlier. In analyses based on mothers' current work status, part-time/full-time employment was significantly related to fathers' perception of problem behaviors: when mothers worked full time, fathers perceived more problems in their children" (Greenberger & O'Neil, 1992, p. 438). Additional References: White, The Adventist Home, pp. 232, 236, 240, 242, 266; White, Mind, Character, and Personality, p. 139.

221

ROLE OF THE FATHER IN CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT The father is most often viewed as the lawgiver and disciplinarian in the family and this he should be. However, he also needs to be a friend to his children and to become involved in their concerns and activities. He is also a role model for his sons and a key contributor to his daughters' development. Fathers should not neglect their part in the training of their children, for mothers cannot be expected to assume their role. "The father represents the divine Lawgiver in his family. He is a laborer together with God, carrying out the gracious designs of God and establishing in his children upright principles, enabling them to form pure and virtuous characters because he has preoccupied the soul with that which will enable his children to render obedience not only to their earthly parents but also their heavenly Father" (White, The Adventist Home, p. 212). "The father of boys should come into close contact with his sons, giving them the benefit of his larger experience, and talking with them in such simplicity and tenderness that he binds them to his heart. He should let them see that he has their best interests, their happiness, in view at all time. As priest of the household, he is accountable to God for the influence that he exerts over every member of the family" (White, Counsels to Parents, Teachers, and Students, p. 128). "All members of the family center in the father. He is the lawmaker, illustrating in his own manly bearing the sterner virtues: energy, integrity, honesty, patience, courage, diligence, and practical usefulness" (White, The Adventist Home, p. 212). "The father's duty to his children cannot be transferred to the mother" (p. 216). "Whatever may be the character of his business, it is not of so great importance that he may be excused in neglecting the work of educating and training his children to keep the way of the Lord" (p. 221). "Paternal dominance in discipline, when combined with a high level of paternal affection, is strongly associated with male children's sensitivity to their moral transgressions. The father who is able to firmly set limits and can also be affectionate and responsive to his child's needs seems to be a particularly good model for interpersonal sensitivity and moral development. . . . Adolescents who were morally mature were likely to have fathers who were warm and nurturant and high in their own level of moral development" (Biller, 1974, p. 65). Research on the effects of the father's participation in the child's life is much less than that of the mother. The research indicates that most fathers are not very directly involved with their children. In addition, fathers are more involved with male than with female children. The level of involvement becomes even less when fathers no longer live with their families. This is a concern when the quality of children's relationships with their fathers appears to affect their delinquency and taking responsibility for behavior. "Father's role in causing delinquency appears to be somewhat greater than mother's role. For both boys and girls, distance from father is more predictive of theft, vandalism, and assault than is distance from mother. Even though a youth's relationship with mother is generally more emotionally satisfying, there seem to be aspects of father's role that supersede affection in influencing delinquency" (Johnson, 1987, p. 313).

222

Even though fathers are more involved with their sons than with their daughters, some studies suggest that daughters can identify with their fathers, adopting their values and attitudes, if fathers are actively supportive. Girls need their father's approval, especially during preadolescence. The presence of the father and his positive role may help daughters avoid inappropriate feelings and behaviors toward men. If the girl has a good relationship with her father and feels supported by him she will probably achieve more in education and a career (Gunsberg, 1989; Rice, 1990; Tessman, 1989). "During adolescence, girls of divorced parents who live with their mothers may be inappropriately assertive, seductive, and sometimes promiscuous. These girls may have ambivalent feelings about men in inept and inappropriate ways" (Rice, 1990, p. 445). Additional Reading: White, The Adventist Home, pp. 198, 211, 220; Lamb, 1997, pp. 153-155.

SINGLE PARENTING While many mothers are working outside of the home, homes with only one resident parent are also rapidly increasing. The single parent, most often the mother, must care for the needs of the children without the physical support of the other parent, and often without very much support of any kind. Moral character development of children in single-parent families deserves major attention. "...Children from divorced families are more likely than others to become juvenile delinquents, psychiatric patients, suicide victims. More than half have trouble in schoolthe result of depression, anxiety, guilt, loneliness, low self-esteem, low achievement, and bad behavior" (Clarke-Stewart, 1989, p. 64). "When the single-mother group was compared with the maritally distressed and supported mother groups, single mothers reported more parenting stress and perceived their children as having significantly more behavior problems. These mother report data were corroborated by the independent observations, which indicated that children interacted with their single mothers with more total deviance and noncompliance than did children interacting with distressed or supported mothers. In turn, the single mothers were observed to be more critical and authoritarian and reported using spanking more often than either the distressed or supported mothers" (Webster-Stratton, 1989, p. 430). "The study demonstrates that the lower incidence of deviant behavior among adolescents living in biologically intact homes is paralleled by their lower level of susceptibility to pressure from their friends to engage in antisocial behavior. This is not surprising, in light of recent findings. . . . The present study therefore suggests a possible psychosocial link between family structure and adolescent deviance: family structure may affect adolescents' susceptibility to antisocial pressure, which in turn may affect their involvement in deviant or delinquent activity. "The results of the present study. . . support the view that youngsters living in stepfamilies are equally at risk for involvement in deviant behavior as are their peers living in single-parents households" (Steinberg, 1987, p. 275).

223

COMMUNITY The community within which children live will have a big part to play in character development. If what is seen and heard outside the home conflict with what is taught at home, the efforts to educate within the home may be undermined. The local schools are heavily influenced by the type of families living in the district. Inspiration has made it plain that character development is greatly facilitated by living in less crowded circumstances, particularly when surrounded by nature. Choices about where to live are much greater today than a few decades ago because of the transportability of many jobs through internet connections. Many families are taking advantage of this opportunity and are leaving their overscheduled and overcrowded lives in the city for a more natural environment. "We should not needlessly expose ourselves to influences that are unfavorable to the formation of Christian character. When we voluntarily place ourselves in an atmosphere of worldliness and unbelief, we displease God and drive holy angels from our homes" (White, Patriarchs and Prophets, p. 169). "In choosing a home, God would have us consider, first of all, the moral and religious influences that will surround us and our families. . . . Those who secure for their children worldly wealth and honor at the expense of their eternal interests, will find in the end that these advantages are a terrible loss. Like Lot, many see their children ruined, and barely save their own souls. Their lifework is lost; their life is a sad failure. Had they exercised true wisdom, their children might have had less of worldly prosperity, but they would have made sure of a title to the immortal inheritance" (p. 169). "It was not God's purpose that people should be crowded into cities, huddled together in terraces and tenements. In the beginning He placed our first parents amidst the beautiful sights and sounds He desires us to rejoice in today. The more nearly we come into harmony with God's original plan, the more favorable will be our position to secure health of body, and mind, and soul" (White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 365). "Instead of the crowded city seek some retired situation where your children will be, so far as possible, shielded from temptation, and there train and educate them for usefulness" (White, The Adventist Home, p. 138). "One of the most subtle and dangerous temptations that assail the children and youth in the cities is the love of pleasure" (White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 363). "Go where, apart from the distractions and dissipations of city life, you can give your children your companionship, where you can teach them to learn of God through His works, and train them for lives of integrity and usefulness" (p. 367). "There are thousands of wretched children, ragged and half starved, with vice and depravity written on their faces. Families are herded together in miserable tenements, many of them in dark cellars reeking with dampness and filth. Children are born in these terrible places. Infancy and youth behold nothing attractive, nothing of the beauty of natural things that God has created to delight the senses. These children are left to grow up molded and fashioned in character by the low precepts, the wretchedness, and the wicked example around them. They hear the name of God only in profanity" (vol. 6, p. 275). The great men of the Bible were raised in a country environment. God considered this to be the best environment for His son.

224

"What were the conditions chosen by the Infinite Father for His Son? A secluded home in the Galilean hills. . . ." (White, The Adventist Home, p. 133). Additional References: White, Testimonies to Ministers, p. 199; White, Testimonies for the Church, vol 2, p. 406; vol. 3, p. 427; vol. 4, p. 588; White, The Adventist Home, p. 133; White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 367. Sometimes the family finds itself in a situation where it is impossible to live in the country. Many individuals must live in cities in order to obtain jobs. God has promised help for those in such circumstances. "Though surrounded by temptations to self-indulgence, especially in our large cities, where every form of sensual gratification is made easy and inviting, yet by divine grace their purpose to honor God may remain firm. Through strong resolution and vigilant watchfulness they may withstand every temptation that assails the soul. But only by him who determines to do right will the victory be gained" (White, Prophets and Kings, p. 490). "When man is in fellowship with God, that unswerving purpose which preserved Joseph and Daniel amidst the corruption of heathen courts will make his life of unsullied purity. His robes of character will be spotless. In his life the light of Christ will be undimmed. The bright and morning Star will appear shining steadfastly above him in changeless glory. "Such a life will be an element of strength in the community. It will be a barrier against evil, a safeguard to the tempted, a guiding light to those who, amidst difficulties and discouragements, are seeking the right way" (White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 136). Additional References: White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 4, pp. 33, 106.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS AND CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT The socio-economic status of the home does seem to have some bearing on character development, primarily in the area of the standards upheld by the group. However, there are other variables linked with the financial condition of the home that make it difficult to conclude that socio-economic status is in itself responsible for the outcomes in character. Recent statistics indicate that most single parent families headed by women live below the poverty line. In addition, when children of divorce are awarded to the custody of the mother the family's standard of living in general declines and the income drops. Many poor families unavoidably live in slum neighborhoods and, therefore, peer pressure has a negative effect, particularly on those children whose parent/s are working. Family lifestyles, level of education, and parent involvement with children are very frequently deficient in homes of low socioeconomic levels. Drug and alcohol abuse is very common in poor communities. These are all factors that have been identified as having an effect on character development. "Many have shown, from what is in effect circumstantial evidence, that poverty, unemployment, and other environmental factors are positively correlated with crime" (Phillips, 1991, p. 556). The perception of being unwholesomeinstead of self-reliant and self-worthylowers the ability to control one's behavior. Poor persons often view themselves as inferior in character primarily because they have not accumulated a financial surplus. 225

"A statistically significant interaction was found between the subject's perceived economic status and character ratings" (Skafte, 1989, p. 97). This does not mean that children from poor homes cannot develop good characters. Scripture indicates that poverty can be a blessing to some. However, children living in poor environments may have many more negative obstacles to overcome, particularly if the environment is crowded and degenerate. Divine assurances and modern day examples indicate what God can make of an individual, no matter what his circumstances. Jersild (1960) suggests that there is a relationship between socioeconomic status and attitudes and actions that have moral implications. However, he states, there are many paradoxes in these relationships, such as two youngsters - one from the slums and the other from the best section of the community - acquire fine moral characters (p. 411). Resilient children have aroused considerable research interest. Why are they able to beat the odds? What factors play an important role in the positive, although unexpected, outcome? "Man can make his circumstances, but circumstances should never make the man. Man should seize circumstances as his instruments with which to work. He should master circumstances, but should never allow circumstances to master him" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 3, p. 496). "The Christian may stand uncontaminated in any surroundings" (White, The Acts of the Apostles, p. 467). "The circumstances in which a child is placed will often have a more effective influence on him than even the example of parents. There are wealthy men who expect their children to be what they were in their youth, and blame the depravity of the age if they are not. But they have no right to expect this of their children unless they place them in circumstances similar to those in which they themselves have lived. "Poverty was the father's master; abundance of means surrounds the son. All his wants are supplied. His father's character was molded under the severe discipline of frugality; every trifling good was appreciated. His son's habits and character will be formed, not by the circumstances which once existed, but by the present situation, ease and indulgence" (White, The Adventist Home, pp. 389, 390). "Children generally inherit the peculiar traits of character [personality] which the parents possess, and in addition to all this, many come up without any redeeming influence around them. They are too frequently huddled together in poverty and filth. With such surroundings and examples, what can be expected of the children when they come upon the stage of action, but that they will sink lower in the scale of moral worth than their parents, and their deficiencies in every respect be more apparent than theirs?" (White, Selected Messages, vol. 2, p. 421).

NONRELIGIOUS HOMES AND GOOD CHARACTER Can good moral characters develop in irreligious homes? Yes, if the parents are living by the values they espouse. Consistency between word and life is the most important factor in character development. Indeed, nonreligious homes which espouse and live by high ethical standards may have a more positive influence on character development -from the secular viewpoint - than purportedly religious homes where life and teachings are in disagreement and rigidity and authoritarian parenting prevail (cf. Sloat, 1986).

226

"Of all the complications confronting a child in his moral development the most significant is probably the discrepancy between the words and deeds of those who have charge of his upbringing" (Jersild, 1960, p. 413).

SUGGESTED READING Damon, William. (1988). The moral child: Nurturing children's natural moral growth, chap. 4 and 7. Fowler, John M. (1977). The concepts of character development in the writings of Ellen G. White, pp. 185-205. Hess, Robert D. (1970). Social class and ethnic influences upon socialization. In Paul H. Mussen (Ed.) Carmichael's manual of child psychology (3rd ed.), vol. 2, pp. 496-500. Hoffman, Martin L. (1981). The role of the father in moral internalization. In Michael E. Lamb (Ed.), The role of the father in child development, pp. 359-378. Lamb, Michael E. (Ed.). (1997). The role of the father in child development, 3rd ed. Lickona, Thomas. (1987). Character development in the family. In Kevin Ryan & George F. McLean (Eds.), Character development in the schools and beyond, Chapter 10. Sloat, Donald. (1986). The dangers of growing up in a Christian home. White, Ellen. Counsels to parents, teachers, and students, pp. 107_162. White, Ellen. Mind, character, and personality, pp. 152-186; 211-217. White, Ellen. The ministry of healing, pp. 349-394.

227

CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR SCHOOL INFLUENCES

What responsibility does the school have for developing moral character? What factors in the school are most influential on the character development of students? What is the role of the teachers, the staff, and the administrators? How effective are character education programs in schools? Can the school alter the effect of poor home training?

THE SCHOOL AND CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT While moral character development is a primary responsibility of the home, the school has traditionally played a definite part in this important area. One of the primary purposes for the establishment of parochial and private schools was the combination of academic, moral, and spiritual experiences. All values pertinent to character development and the religious persuasion of the sponsoring church can, and should, be taught. While parochial schools have always emphasized values and morality, the public schools have gone all the way from a strong focus on values during the earlier decades of this century to almost expunging values from the curriculum and vocabulary of educators. However, today many public school educators are calling for a return to the teaching of values through character education. The youth of America are clearly in moral crisis and the schools need to address the problem. "In the formation of character, no other influences count so much as the influences of the home. The teacher's work should supplement that of the parents, but it is not to take its place. In all that concerns the well-being of the child, it should be the effort of parents and teachers to co-operate" (White, Education, p. 283). "Instead of educated weaklings, institutions of learning may send forth men strong to think and to act, men who are masters and not slaves of circumstances, men who possess breadth of mind, clearness of thought, and the courage of their convictions. "Such an education provides more than mental discipline; it provides more than physical training. It strengthens the character, so that truth and uprightness are not sacrificed to selfish desire or worldly ambition. It fortifies the mind against evil. Instead of some master passion becoming a power to destroy, every motive and desire are brought into conformity to the great principles of right. As the perfection of His character is dwelt upon, the mind is renewed, and the soul is recreated in the image of God" (p. 18). "Schools cannot be ethical bystanders at a time when our society is in deep moral trouble. Rather, schools must do what they can to contribute to the character of the young and the moral health of the nation" (Lickona, 1991, p. 5).

228

"But there is another crucial objective for our schoolsmoral education of our children.... To have people who are well informed but not constrained by conscience is, conceivably, the most dangerous outcome of education possible. Indeed, it could be argued that ignorance is better than unguided intelligence, for the most dangerous people are those who have knowledge without a moral framework. It is not the lack of technological information that threatens our society; it is the lack of wisdom, and we run the risk today of having our discoveries outdistance our moral compass. "Moral education does mean that students should be concerned not just about what will work, but about what is right. It means teaching them to ask: `Is it good?' Moral education also seeks to help students develop a responsible way of thinking, believing, and acting. It involves application, instead of mere information. It teaches living, not just by concepts, but by conscience" (Boyer, 1989, p. 16). "Of all the areas of social environment, the school is the most important in the character formation of the adolescent. Even though the School Board and the high-school faculty may not talk about character education or plan for it explicitly, almost every decision they make has implications for character formation" (Havighurst & Taba, 1949, p. 196). "The school is potentially an excellent situation for learning moral behavior, because the child spends so much of his time there and because he feels so keenly the pain of social disapproval from his age mates and his teachers. If a child achieves a good relation to the social environment in the school, if he gets enough reward and not too much punishment, he is likely to adopt the moral standards presented to him there" (p. 192). "Moral codes do spring up from the cultural milieu, especially from the aid and support of admired adults. Teachers often underrate their power in guiding the formation of values" (Bernard, 1970, p. 323). Additional references: White, Counsels to Parents, Teachers, and Students, pp. 45-46, 65.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SCHOOLS WHICH INFLUENCE CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT During the later part of the 19th century and the early decades of the 20th century, many educators wrote about what the schools needed to do in order to foster character education. During this time, Ellen White wrote extensively on this topic from the religious viewpoint. Her viewpoint can be summarized as follows: Provide good MODELS for students. Provide opportunities for THINKING and APPLICATION to moral matters. Provide opportunities for SERVICE to others. Encourage RESPONSIBILITY of students for own actions and influence on others. Uphold the LAW OF GOD (or accepted values) by teaching and example. Administer DISCIPLINE with love, firmness and consistency. Allow students a VOICE in determining the curriculum and the rules. Treat students as PEOPLEnot things. As a result of their study of adolescent character and personality, Havighurst and Taba (1949) concluded that schools which are effective in character development have the following characteristics:

229

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 7) 8) 9)

Provide opportunities for everybody to do something satisfying. Train students to study moral problems and to apply moral principles to a wide variety of situations. Provide many opportunities in self-expression and self-examination. Use opportunities in literature, social studies, biography, history, and to intellectualize moral issues. Provide adequate counseling to assist young people think through their values and decisions. Teachers are an example in moral values. Teachers attempt to work with students with good moral values and make of them leaders, thus influencing many students. Teachers search for and work with those students who need special help in this area of concern. (pp. 190-200)

Leming (1985) reviewed the impact of schooling on adolescent development and concluded that: 1) Students must have meaningful participation in classroom and school life. When they are denied this participation, 5th - 8th grade students become alienated and their attitudes, values, and behavior are undesirable. Schools need to foster positive school climate and organization. These factors are clearly related to rates of school violence and crime. Democratic classrooms have a positive influence on student attitudes and moral reasoning. Students from these classrooms even developed democratically agreed-upon norms which they were willing to obey. Students need to regularly discuss moral dilemmas to facilitate the development of moral reasoning. Students need to participate in cooperative learning activities. These experiences foster desirable social attitudes and behaviors. (pp. 260-261)

2) 3)

4) 5)

After reviewing the research literature on the influence of schools on the moral character development of students and observing schools with proven programs for character development, Lickona (1991) proposed the following comprehensive strategies for character development in schools: "Faced with a deteriorating social fabric, schools that hope to build character must take a comprehensive, all-embracing approach to values education that uses all phases of school life to foster character development. This comprehensive approach includes twelve classroom and schoolwide strategies aimed at making respect and responsibility living values in the character of the young. "Within the classroom, a comprehensive approach calls upon the teacher to: L Act as a caregiver, model, and mentor, treating students with love and respect, setting a good example, supporting prosocial behavior, and correcting hurtful actions. L Create a moral community in the classroom, helping students know each other, respect and care about each other, and feel valued membership in the group. L Practice moral discipline, using the creation and enforcement of rules as opportunities to foster moral reasoning, self-control, and generalized respect for others. L Create a democratic class room environment, involving students in decision-making and shared responsibility for making the classroom a good place to be and to learn. L Teach values through the curriculum, using academic subjects as a vehicle for examining ethical issues. (This is simultaneously a schoolwide strategy when the curriculum addresses cross-grade concerns such as sex, drug, and alcohol education).

230

L L L L

Use cooperative learning to teach children the disposition and skills of helping each other and working together. Develop a "conscience of craft," fostering students' academic responsibility and their regard for the value of learning and work. Encourage moral reflection through reading, writing, discussion, decision-making exercises, and debate. Teach conflict resolution so that the students have the capacity and commitment to solve conflicts in fair, nonviolent ways.

"A comprehensive approach calls upon the school to: L Foster caring beyond the classroom, using inspiring role models and opportunities for school and community service to help students learn to care by giving care. L Create a positive moral culture in the school, developing a total school environment (through the leadership of the principal, schoolwide discipline, a schoolwide sense of community, democratic student government, a moral community among adults, and time for addressing moral concerns) that supports and amplifies the values taught in classrooms. L Recruit parents and the community as partners in values education, supporting parents as the child's first moral teacher; encouraging parents to support the school in its efforts to foster good values; and seeking the help of the community (e.g., churches, business, and the media) in reinforcing the values the school is trying to teach" (pp. 68-70). Lickona goes on to say, Schools inevitably teach good or bad values in everything they do. Every interaction, whether part of the academic curriculum or the human curriculum of rules, roles, and relationships, has the potential to affect a childs values and character for good or for ill. The question is not whether to do values education but whether to do it well (p. 70). In Educating for Character (1991), Lickona describes many different models for character development of students. Each of the above points is amplified in a chapter which outlines the specifics of how to do it in the classroom or the whole school. He also discusses moral discipline, drug and sex education, and other character education issues.

The following statements support the earlier summary of the recommendations of Ellen White on what schools can do to develop positive character in their students. Each summary statement is repeated, then followed by quotations from Ellen White and other authors. Schools should provide good models for students. "If character is really as important to us Americans as we say it is, then there should be rigorous, alert recruitment and selection of teachers and other youth leaders on grounds of maturity of personality and character. Their own natures are going to influence children much more than any verbal information they convey" (Peck & Havighurst, 1960, p. 191). "The teacher can gain the respect of his pupils in no other way than by revealing in his own character the principles which he seeks to teach them. Only as he does this in his daily association with them can he have a permanent influence over them for good" (White, Education, p. 277). Teachers can serve as modelsethical persons who demonstrate a high level of respect and responsibility both inside and outside the classroom. Teachers can also model moral concern and moral 231

reasoning by their reactions to morally significant events in the life of the school and in the world at large (Lickona, 1991, p. 72).

Schools should provide opportunities to think and study moral issues and to practice making moral decisions. "The youth should be taught the importance of cultivating their physical, mental, and moral powers, that they may not only reach the highest attainments in science, but, through a knowledge of God, may be educated to glorify Him; that they may develop symmetrical characters, and thus be fully prepared for usefulness in this world and obtain a moral fitness for the immortal life" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 4, p. 425). "Every human being, created in the image of God, is endowed with a power akin to that of the Creator - individuality, power to think and to do. The men in whom this power is developed are the men who bear responsibilities, who are leaders in enterprise, and who influence character. It is the work of true education to develop this power, to train the youth to be thinkers, and not mere reflectors to other men's thought. Instead of confining their study to that which men have said or written, let students be directed to the sources of truth, to the vast fields opened for research in nature and revelation. Let them contemplate the great facts of duty and destiny, and the mind will expand and strengthen" (White, Education, pp. 17-18). "The only method that works in favor of mature, dependable character is first to give people, whether children or adults, reason to feel an incentive to behave ethically; and then guide them intelligently, patiently, and with growing freedom to make and test their own decisions. This way works; none of the other methods of child rearing or of reformation, breeds more than unthinking, rigid compliance at best, and many methods breed savagely hostile revenge behavior" (Peck & Havighurst, 1960, p. 192). Children learn morality by living it. They need to be a communityto interact, form relationships, work out problems, grow as a group, and learn directly from their first-hand social experience, lessons about fair play, cooperation, forgiveness, and respect for the worth and dignity of every individual The need for this kind of positive social interaction in school is greater than ever because so many children arent getting it outside of school. . . . A middle school teacher comments: A lot of the kids were seeing now arent immoral; theyre amoral. They just havent learned. Their biggest source of interaction has been with something you plug in and turn on (Lickona, 1991, p. 90).

Schools should provide opportunities for service to others. "Those who reject the privilege of fellowship with Christ in service, reject the only training that imparts a fitness for participation with Him in His glory. They reject the training that in this life gives strength and nobility of character" (White, Education, p. 264). Simply learning about the value of caring may increase students moral knowledge. But it wont necessarily develop their own commitment to that value, their confidence that they themselves can help, or the skills needed to help effectively. To cultivate caring, as with any other moral quality, requires a learning-by-doing approach that develops all three aspects of character: knowing, feeling, and action. . . . To develop empathy and caring, students need ongoing, firsthand experience in face-to-face helping relationships. Thats how they come to bond with other people, value them, and discover the powerful rewards of touching anothers life. There is simply no substitute for person-to-person helping experience (Lickona, 1991, pp. 312, 313).

232

The life goals of many young people have been changed as a result of participation in a service project. Student missionary service, Maranatha projects, local soup kitchens, and national organizations where volunteers help fight hunger and poverty are examples of projects which introduce young people to how other people live and sometimes profoundly change their perspective on life.

Schools should encourage students to be responsible for their own actions and their influence on others. "The excellence of character that you possess must be the result of your own effort. Friends may encourage you, but they cannot do the work for you. Wishing, sighing, dreaming, will never make you great or good" (White, Fundamentals of Christian Education, p. 87). "There is a strong relationship between accepting responsibility for our actions and how we treat others" (Schulman & Mekler, 1980, p. 111). "The older students in our schools should remember that it is in their power to mold the habits and practices of the younger students; and they should seek to make the best of every opportunity. Let these students determine that they will not through their influence betray their companions into the hand of the enemy" (White, Messages to Young People, p. 415).

Schools should uphold the Law of God (or accepted community values) by teaching and example. "In our schools established in this city, the word of God is to be exalted as the study book, and the Law of God is to be honored and obeyed. The discipline of our schools is to be of the highest type" (White, Review and Herald, vol. 84(33) p. 21). "Let the students in our schools study the Book that has been so universally neglected. Let them read it with prayerful, earnest interest, lest they fail to be doers of the word" (White, The Youth's Instructor, vol 46(42), p. 826.

Schools should administer discipline with love, firmness, and consistency. "Teachers are to bind the students to their hearts by the cords of love and kindness and strict discipline. Love and kindness are worth nothing unless united with the discipline that God has said should be maintained." (White, Counsels to Parents, Teachers, and Students, p. 265). "Under all circumstances reproof should be spoken in love. Then our words will reform, but not exasperate" (White, Gospel Workers, p. 20). "Adults often tell the child what is `wrong' and what he should not do rather than what is `right' and what he should do. Too much emphasis is placed on the negative aspect of moral codes and too little on the positive, and so the path to goodness is undefined" (Hurlock, 1972, p. 378).

233

Discipline is not a simple device for securing superficial peace in the classroom; it is the morality of the classroom as a small societyEmile Durkheim (Lickona, 1991, p. 109). A moral education approach to discipline . . . . uses discipline as a tool for teaching the values of respect and responsibility. This approach holds that the ultimate goal of discipline is self-disciplinethe kind of self-control that underlies voluntary compliance with just rules and laws, that is a mark of mature character, and that a civilized society expects of its citizens. Discipline without moral education is merely crowd controlmanaging behavior without teaching morality (Lickona, 1991, p. 110).

Schools should allow students a voice in determining the curriculum and the rules. "The rules governing the schoolroom should, as far as possible, represent the voice of the school. Every principle involved in them should be so placed before the student that he may be convinced of its justice. Thus he will feel a responsibility to see that the rules which he himself has helped to frame are obeyed" (White, Education, p. 290). Lickonas concept of moral discipline strongly supports the concept that students should develop the classroom rules.

Schools should treat each pupil with respect and care. Children are people - not things. Teachers are needed, especially for the children, who are calm and kind, manifesting forbearance and love for the very ones who most need it. Jesus loved the children . . . . He always treated them with respect, and teachers should follow His example" (White, Counsels to Parents, Teachers, and Students, p. 175). I have come to a frightening conclusion that I am the decisive element in the classroom . . . As a teacher, I possess tremendous power to make a childs life miserable or joyous. I can be a tool of torture or an instrument of inspiration. I can humiliate or humor, hurt or heal. In all situations, it is my response that decides whether a crisis will be escalated or de-escalated, and a child humanized or dehumanized (Ginott, 1976, p. 13). The most basic form of moral education is the treatment we receive. British moral educator Peter McPhail states it well: Children take pleasure in being treated with care and warmth; their prime source of happiness is being treated in this way. Further, when children are supported by such treatment, they enjoy treating people, animals, and even inanimate objects, in the same way (Lickona, 1991, p. 72).

Schools should encourage cooperative learning. "Students, co-operate with your teacher. . . . If you have a fellow student who is backward, explain to him the lesson that he does not understand. This will aid your own understanding. . . . By helping your fellow student, you help your teachers. And often one whose mind is apparently stolid will catch ideas more quickly from a fellow student than from a teacher. This is the co-operation Christ commends" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 7, pp. 275-276). . . . cooperative learning teaches values and academics in a single stroke. . . . through the instructional process (Lickona, 1991, p. 186). Research has shown that cooperative learning helps

234

develop caring attitudes toward other children, as well as more altruistic attitudes and prosocial behavior in general. Implementing the above guidelines and those from Lickona will go a long ways toward reducing name-calling, bullying, and violence in schools, major character issues which are increasing in severity. The January, 2003, issue of The Readers Digest (see Waters, 2003) carried an article about the Chelwood Elementary School and the success of their proactive program to reduce fights. Many other schools are now using some version of their program. The goal is clearly to make a caring school a major goal of character education programs in general.

HOME AND SCHOOL INFLUENCES ON CHILDREN Can the school alter the effects of poor home training? To some extent it seems this is a possibility. We all know examples of children from very poor home environments who have, through the school, made gigantic steps in character development and ultimately achieved a life of usefulness. However, it is difficult for the school to work alone in character development. Significant changes in the life of a child or adolescent are usually the result of a very close, personal relationship of caring concern between a teacher with a mature character and the pupil. It is a long and arduous task. Divine intervention is an important component of a lasting change. "If parents are so engrossed in the business and pleasures of this life that they neglect the proper discipline of their children, the work of the teacher is not only made very hard and trying, but often rendered wholly fruitless" (White, Child Guidance, p. 319). "God holds teachers responsible for their work as educators. They must learn daily in the school of Christ, in order to uplift the youth who have had a lax training at home, who have not formed studious habits, who have little knowledge of the future immortal life, for which the highest price was paid by the God of heaven in giving His only-begotten Son to live a life of humiliation and die a most shameful death, `that whosoever believeth in Him should not perish, but have everlasting life'" (White, Fundamentals of Christian Education, p. 397). "School and church personnel should not expect to work many `miracles' of character reformation and certainly not by dealing with children en masse. It is possible to salvage even severely maldeveloped children, but it takes extremely intensive, long, personalized treatment. In a real sense, an adult who hopes to improve a child with immature character can only expect to do it by taking on the security-giving functions as well as the guiding functions ordinarily performed by the parents. To do this effectively requires unusual wisdom, unusual personal maturity, and sometimes almost superhuman patience. It also requires a strong, personal caring about the child, albeit of an unsentimental kind. In short, in teaching character as in teaching intellectual knowledge, no one can teach what he does not know. In character education, this includes much more than intellectual knowledge, alone; it requires that the `teacher' of character personally possess genuinely mature feelings, attitudes, and ethical behavior, or no success can be expected" (Peck & Havighurst, 1960, p. 190).

235

PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS TEACHING STUDY/LEARNING VALUES ". . . our competence comes from God." 2 Corinthians 3:5 (NIV) Because the influence of school is so powerful in the life of a child, a Christian education is one of the most important legacies you can give your children. It is worth every effort! But sending the child is not enough. Parents also need to be active supporters of the school program and provide a home atmosphere which encourages learning. 1. Create a learning atmosphere in your home. a. Make learning fun because everyone in the family is excited about learning! b. At mealtime share what each member of the family has learned during the day. c. Borrow interesting and informative books from the library. d. Read books together as a family. e. Help children use "school skills" at home (i.e., changing the quantity of a recipe, writing a "thank you" letter). f. Talk about the skills Mom and Dad use in their jobs. Relate these to what children are learning in school. g. Explore nature, make collections and read about them. h. Take trips to museums, industries, historical sites. i. Communicate through actions that learning is very important to your family. The children will get the message! Provide a well-balanced life for your child. a. Encourage vigorous physical exercise. This is essential for top mental functioning. b. Insist on regular hours for eating and sleeping. Many children do not function well in school because they are tired. Regularity at home makes it easier for children to adapt to school routines. c. Severely limit the amount of television and computer time. (1) Real-life experiences are needed to develop eye-hand coordination. (2) Eye movements needed for reading may become deficient from too much focusing on TV. (3) "TV zombies" are created by too much watching. Children lose interest in active thinking, find it difficult to concentrate on a task and don't want to read. It is easier to watch. (4) Some researchers are recommendingfor the sake of learning skillsthat children watch no television during the preschool years and very limited viewing until reading skills are well established. (5) Too much media TV, video games, internet - time stifles social development. d. Be sure children eat nutritious, well balanced meals with no "junk food" snacking. (1) Snacking diverts blood needed for brain activity to the stomach for digestion, decreasing brain efficiency. (2) Mental efficiency is decreased when children do not have an adequate breakfast (cereal, milk, fruit, protein food). General lethargy takes over by mid-morning. (3) Adequate supplies of vitamin B complex (in whole grain cereals) and water are needed for proper brain functioning. Too many sweets can also deplete energy levels.

2.

236

3.

Encourage learning. a. Show children you care by carefully looking over their papers from school. (1) Have a special place to post school papers. (2) Compliment improvement, no matter how small. (3) Do not compliment poor work, if child is capable of better. b. Know the child's abilities. Don't expect more than she can give. c. Help children develop their special abilities. Teach that God requires we develop our talents to the best of our ability. Provide a regular place and time for studying. a. Find a quiet corner for homework time, away from mainstream activities. b. Ban all TV, radio, and phone calls during study time. c. Limit social activities for teens during the week to encourage the right priorities. d. Show your interest and be available to help, but don't do the work for them. Children need encouragement to keep working at difficult tasks. Your active interest or a bit help with a rough spot will carry them through to end. e. Help with a difficult assignment. Here's how: (1) Pretend you are a teacher. Explain first step. (2) Have child do that step. (3) Explain next step. Have child do that one. (4) Proceed until a logical stopping point. (5) Go back and review all steps. (6) Have child explain steps in his own words. (7) Do another problem just like the first one. (8) Explain as many problems as needed for mastery. (9) Do as many problems as needed for mastery. f. Keep calm, pleasant, and patient when trying to help with an assignment. If child is tired or your patience is slipping, take an exercise break. Most children need repeated explanation and practice. g. Prevent a pileup of undone work by checking regularly. Communicate regularly with your children's teachers. a. Get acquainted with your children's teachers. b. Ask about areas of strength, as well as special needs. c. Communicate about some problems which might interfere with learning. d. Find out how you can help. Communicate that effort pays off. a. Teach children that effort counts for more than native ability. b. Expect consistent effort. Demonstrate this in your own life. c. Help your child develop responsibility for his own learning.

4.

5.

6.

REMEMBER: Learning is not what a teacher or parent does for a childit is what he does for himself!

SUGGESTED READING Damon, William. (1988). The moral child: Nurturing children's natural moral growth, chapter 8. 237

Fowler, John M. (1977). The concepts of character development in the writings of Ellen G. White, pp. 205_213. Journal of research in character education. Lickona, Thomas J. (1991). Educating for character: How our schools can teach respect and responsibility. Murphy, Madonna. (2002). Character education in Americas blue ribbon schools: Best practices for meeting the challenge, 2nd ed. Nicgorski, Walter. (1987). The college experience and character development. In Kevin Ryan & George F. McLean (Eds.)., Character development in schools and beyond (pp. 329-357). Ryan, Kein & Bohlin, Karen E. (1999). Building character in schools. Ryan, Kevin and McLean, George (Eds.). (1987). Character development in schools and beyond, Chapters 1, 4-9. The school's role in character development. (1985, December-1986, January). Educational Leadership, 43(4), pp. 3_78. White, Ellen. Counsels to parents and teachers, pp. 49_71. White, Ellen. Mind, character, and personality, pp. 187_201.

238

CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE CHURCH INFLUENCES

What part does the church play in character development? To what extent does church attendance affect character? What factors in the church are most influential in character development? What is the relationship between religion and moral character development?

Since religion relates to an individual's conclusion about the most basic issues of human life and includes a relationship to a supernatural being, religion naturally would seem to have a bearing on an individual's character development. Traditionally, religion has been viewed as the primary source of values and morality, as the value center for society. The role of the church in the development of character was not questioned, rather it was assumed. However, since Hartshorne and May introduced the scientific study of character, the role of religion and the church in character formation has undergone considerable questioning. The effect of religion and the church on the moral character of individuals is difficult to study from a scientific viewpoint. The variables have defied definitive explanation or analysis. Thus, the research has yielded surprising, and at times, confusing result. Among the many variables which must be considered are the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic religion as proposed originally by Allport and verified by other researchers in recent decades. Sapp (1986) summarized well the differences between the two orientations to religion: "The intrinsic orientation is a religious sentiment that provides meaning to one's life. Religious creeds and values are well-integrated into the personality structure, and the person attempts to act upon the beliefs that s/he has embraced. Religious faith is the master motive with other needs regarded as less than ultimately significant. Insofar as possible they are brought into harmony with the religious beliefs. Religion is the major influence in the person's life as faith is directed toward a unification of being, striving to transcend all self-centered needs. "The extrinsic orientation is instrumental and self-serving as religion is used to provide solace, social standing, self-justification, and endorsement of one's way of life. Religious creeds are lightly held and religion is not an integral part of life. Rather, it is used for special occasions or in time of crisis. The church itself becomes a place for social meetings and entertainment rather than for worship. The extrinsically oriented person uses her/his religion; s/he turns to God without turning away from self (Allport & Ross, 1967) (Sapp, 1986, p. 272). Another type of orientation has been identifiedthe proreligious personwho endorses both the intrinsic and extrinsic orientations. Individuals with this type of religious orientation appear to show an "inconsistent, undifferentiated cognitive style of thinking that tends to overgeneralize" (p. 274). The proreligious person appears to show the greatest amount of prejudice, and the intrinsic individual the least. There may be some relationship between Kohlberg's stages of moral thinking and the above religious orientations. (See Sapp, ch. 15.) In general, research studies have concluded that the more fundamental the religion, the lower the members score on Kohlberg's stages of moral development. Members from more liberal 239

denominations tend to score higher. Fundamental religions have tended to reject Kohlbergs entire thesis, contending that it cannot measure religious motivation adequately. Other religious factors which must be considered include: the strength of the religious influence in the life of the child/adolescent/adult, religious conversion and its effect on moral character development, the denomination to which the individual belongs, and others. "Most of the moral education programs currently in place employ as their basis for human development various perspectives that flow from philosophical and nonreligious humanistic education. . . . Yet religious perspectives on human behavior offer a much deeper foundation than the above approaches because they deal with the deeper aspects of our nature, our quest for the transcendental, for the will of God, for salvation, and for a future life. Furthermore, religious perspectives provide a deeper view of the person since the person is viewed in relationship to God, and human behavior is seen as being judged ultimately not just by humans but by the Maker of all" (Hennessy, 1987, p. 275). In an attempt to explore how faith is developed and how commitment is learned, during 199091 an extensive research Projectthe Valuegenesis studywas conducted among more than 11,000 Seventh-day Adventist students in grades six through twelve and more than 2,000 adults representing parents, pastors, teachers, and principals. Valuegenesis (Dudley with Gillespie, 1992) utilized a way of assessing faith maturity, developed from 1988 to 1990 by Search Institute of Minneapolis, Minnesota, for its national study of adults and youth in six Protestant denominations. In this study faith maturity is not conceived simply as a set of right beliefs, but more as a way of life, including dispositions and behaviors, and involving two overall dimensions: the verticala life-transforming relationship with Godand the horizontala consistent devotion to serving others. Among many findings, Valuegenesis determined that some prosocial behaviors, such as service and altruism, were best predicted, among others, by perceptions of a thinking climate in the local church congregation and time spent in intergenerational church contact. Building on this finding, Hopkins and Hopp (2002) strongly suggest that the key to keeping young people safe and saved is loving, caring concern for children and adolescents by all the adult members of the church. Knowing the name of every young person in the church, greeting them and developing friendships are the real keys to helping teens cope with the onslaught of the society that surrounds them and helping them over the tough identity-forming years. Reasons why religion provides a more adequate foundation for character development: 1. 2. The rights of the individual have their origin in the Creator, not from human law. Norms for morality and justice come from the declarations of the will of God found in the Bible, a general code for human behavior. The religious perspective provides conviction based on faith. This produces a qualitative difference in relating to norms for morality which aids in resisting group or peer pressure and societal patterns. Religion can provide true forgiveness and reconciliation for misdeeds and failures in character development. Religion can provide different standards for moral behavior which originate in universal principles designed by God for all people in all times.

3.

4.

240

5. Religion provides a means for coping with the worst experiences of life enabling people to deal with their life more adequately and to ultimately turn these experiences into growth in character.

INFLUENCE OF THE CHURCH ON CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT "Let the parents teach them of the love of God in such a way that it will be a pleasant theme in the family circle, and let the church take upon them the responsibility of feeding the lambs as well as the sheep of the flock" (White, Child Guidance, p. 42). "Altogether too little attention has been given to our children and youth. . . . The children have therefore failed to develop in the Christian life as they should have done. . . . The work that lies nearest to our church members is to become interested in our youth" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 6, p. 196). The church has an important role to play in character development. "Despite the criticisms, however, one must realize that few, if any, other institutions are so dedicated to the character development of children. Within the confines of religion or a single church, every act, example, word, story, pageant, celebration is devoted to teaching the moral and ethical behavior necessary for the attainment of man's highest spiritual goals. Insofar as the institutions are integrated with other forces in a child's life - his family and his school - they are effective" (Garrison, Kingston, & Bernard, 1967, p. 260). "For the young people who have dropped out of school, the church should assume a special responsibility, since it provides almost their only opportunity to associate with a group of their age mates. The church should offer them opportunities for leadership and in every way possible seek to encourage these boys and girls, knowing that many of them are uncertain of themselves because they have not done well in school" (Havighurst & Taba, 1949, pp. 193_194). "Character education must find its central dynamic in religion. . . As I examine the nature of character and consider the basic essentials for its development, it is my firm belief that the central matrix for effective character education must be the church" (Ligon, 1948, p. 139). Interestingly, contemporary human development textbooks tend to downplay or completely ignore the role of religion in the developmental life cycle of the individual, even though large numbers of individuals of many different cultures and religions state that religion is their primary method of coping with the stresses of their lives. Furthermore, research during recent decades has found that prayer and an active religious life are related to better health and longevity, and to less negative behavior among adolescents and youth. (See Koenig, McCulough, & Larson, 2001.)

CHURCH ATTENDANCE AND CHARACTER "Church affiliation, per se, and even church attendance was no guarantee of well-developed character; but that is scarcely unreasonable. It is true that most of the children with good character came from actively religious families. Even though there are exceptions, this indicates a favorable influence of religious activity in many cases" (Peck and Havighurst, 1960, p. 185). 241

"High frequency of church attendance and family discussion of religion are influential in shaping religious belief and practices of adolescents" (Rice, 1990, p. 500). "In general, students who are from smaller communities, are more religious, and. . . report lower rates of premarital coitus and cannabis consumption than do non church-going, nonreligious-affiliated big city students" (Rogers, 1985, p. 181). "Among the findings of a study conducted on freshmen to sophomore high school students, contrasting traditional and emerging value systems in the students, were: Students who attended church regularly, regardless of sex, had higher value scores in morality and placed greater emphasis upon independence than those who rarely or never attended church. Church-goers placed a higher value on the future. Values on the present increased as students had less and less interest in the church" (Cole & Hall, 1970, p. 480). "When parents and adolescents attend church regularly, delinquency is less frequent than in families characterized by nonattendance or periodic attendance. The church teaches conformity and supplies some needed values in the lives of adolescents" (Bernard, 1970, p. 543). "Research suggests that religious adolescents are significantly less likely than their peers to engage in premarital sexual intercourse and somewhat less likely to engage in deviant or delinquent behavior, such as drug use" (Steinberg, 1993, p. 312). In recent studies, church attendance and religious values have been correlated with less drug abuse, more responsible sex, and several other lifestyle variables in adolescents and youth.

INFLUENTIAL FACTORS IN CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT Example of the Members and the Leaders Consistency between word and deed Vibrant and active part of "real living" of adults Actions in community Emotional Tone of the Church Motivation: fear of hell vs. love of God, etc. Attitudes of church leaders and members toward children Location and atmosphere of children's divisions Opportunities for thinking and individual choices Atmosphere of open inquiry Personal Relationships between Children and Adults Children are not to be "tolerated" only Children are younger members of God's household All adults pay attention to needs of children Adults cultivate personal friendships with children and youth Instruction of the Parents Most appropriate place for parent education

242

Children and young adults most important members for helping with character development Parents teach their children __ church teaches the parents Instruction of the Children Systematic Careful thought and preparation Within their understanding Related to "real life" Provides for social needs, as well as spiritual Concern of all members and leaders

RELIGIOUS EDUCATION AND CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT The Sabbath school or Sunday school is the church at study. From the infant to the adult there should be opportunity to study God's Word at a level which can be appreciated by each hearer. Perhaps the greatest failing of the church religious education has been much learning of Bible facts and stories, but a lack in reaching into the life of the child with Bible principles as they apply to everyday life. "Those who are seeking to gather the children into the Sabbath School are doing a good work, the very work the Master would be pleased to have them do. The expanding minds of even small children may comprehend very much in regard to the teachings of Christ, and may be taught to love Him with all their ardent affections" (White, Counsels on Sabbath School Work, p. 55). "Religious instruction should be given to children from their earliest years. . . . in a cheerful, happy spirit" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 6, p. 93). "In our work for the children the object should be not merely to educate and entertain them, but to work for their conversion. We should ask the blessing of God on the seed sown, and the conviction of the Holy Spirit will take hold of even the little ones" (p. 105). "Never rest till every child in your class is brought to the saving knowledge of Christ" (White, Counsels on Sabbath School Work, p. 125). "Teach your children of the Saviour's life, death, and resurrection. Teach them to study the Bible. . . . Teach them to form characters that will live through the eternal ages" (White, Child Guidance, p. 494). The main object of the Sabbath/Sunday School is the salvation and character development of its students. As with all education, there are problems to be confronted, a few of which we will allude to in the following selections from various authors. "It should be the responsibility of those who lay the child's religious foundations - his parents, grandparents, and Sunday School teachers - to see that these foundations are of a type that will not lead to doubts and disbeliefs as the child grows older. Healthy religious foundations laid in childhood will go a long way towards producing a healthy attitude toward religion throughout life" (Hurlock, 1967b, p. 420). (Examples of the above: Please God by our works, God gives us all we ask in prayer, etc.) 243

"We are finding that the two most important things for a teacher to know are: first the age-level characteristics of the children being taught, and second, the personalities of the individual children in the class. Teaching methods as such seem to be relatively much less important" (Ligon, 1956, p. 69). "Character education, to be effective, must be individual in its nature. Group procedures which do not deal with the individual as an individual are probably doomed to failure before they begin" (p. 80). "It is highly probable that the amount of content included in many of our religious curricula is so great that retroactive inhibition alone almost guarantees that none of it can be retained" (p. xii). "We can say, then, that the church school plus the home can give religious education. We are much less likely to do so when there is no home participation" (p. 272). "Do not send the children away by themselves to study the Bible, but read it with them, teach them in a simple manner what you know, and keep in the school of Christ as diligent students yourselves" (White, Counsels on Sabbath School Work, p. 20). "If maximum reinforcement is to result and if the core of human faith and conscience is to attain optimum strength, those persons responsible for the religious education of youth must conscientiously relate their ideas to the principles of educational psychology, to all facets of daily living, to society's standards of excellence, and above all, to the ideas and goals of all other institutions which influence a child's character development" (Garrison, Kingston, & Bernard, 1967, p. 260). "From early childhood through the elementary-school years, numerous religious concepts will have relatively little meaning to a child in the abstract, and a problem in religious education is how to translate religious concepts into terms that are meaningful" (Jersild, 1960, p. 416). Criticisms leveled against religious education: 1) Teachings are divorced from everyday experiences of children. 2) Discrepancies within churches between concept and conduct. 3) Morality expressed in terminology which is conflicting or not understandable to the young child. "As followers of the Master Teacher, we, too, must have a personal knowledge of each child to whom we would minister the words of life. Children are hungry for attention. Someone has said that the child first comes to love his teacher. Then he loves his teacher's Bible, and finally he will love his teacher's Lord. But it all begins in a personal relationship" (Harris, 1959, p. 61).

IMPORTANCE OF RELIGION TO ADOLESCENTS Although some adolescents strike out at religion as a means of striking out against their parents, religion does provide for needs of the adolescent. "While the religious interest of adolescents may express itself in forms that differ from adult's interests, there is much evidence that adolescents are not only interested in religion but that they also feel that religion meets a strong need in their lives" (Hurlock, 1967, p. 392).

244

"When religious adjustment is satisfactory, it gives the individual a feeling of security and belonging that contributes to his adjustments. It helps him to establish a set of values and goals that are essential to give meaning to his life. Without this, he will have little to live or work for" (pp. 393, 394). "Although some adolescents do, indeed, experience one form or another of what might be called a religious crisis, most do not. Rather, for most adolescents, there is simply a renewed interest in religion as it begins to take on a more serious and personal meaning" (Dusek, 1991, p. 131). "An individual ordinarily shows more interest in religion during adolescence than in young adulthood. By adolescence, individuals are sufficiently mature to handle the abstractions involved in religious concepts and they have not yet become so submerged in problems of society that they have no time to ponder these concepts" (Rogers, 1985, pp. 186-187). Adolescents have some needs which are most effectively approached through religion: 1) Increasing capacity for generalization, need to have a clear outlook on life. Help in determining the ultimate purposes of life. 2) Conception of ethical clarity and ethical conviction. 3) Emotional sensitivity and creativity. 4) Identity development issues. "Loyalty to higher claims than chance impulses is one of the strengths of all sincere religions. This need of youth for rich emotional sensitivity is a religious need" (Bernard, 1957, pp. 389_390). "Subjectively, religion is important to an adolescent because it provides him with certainty and security not provided in other areas of life. Objectively, religion is important to an adolescent because it provides opportunities to enter into meaningful relationships with others in which he can share a common form of devotion. Of lesser importance, it helps to identify him with the people he wants to be identified with" (Hurlock, 1967, p. 390). "Young people want chiefly two things from their philosophy - a feeling of security that a rapidlychanging society does not give them and an emotional satisfaction that is not always supplied by the world of facts and statistics" (Cole & Hall, 1970, pp. 521-522). Cole and Hall further mention three important emotional values of religion for the adolescent: 1) 2) 3) Catharsis of guilt feelings through prayer, the confessional, or talks with ministers. Increase of security that may result from religious belief, trust in God, and the chance to work and help others. Basis for a sound philosophy of life. (p. 511)

"These values are not all of a religious nature, but they are of assistance in the search for happiness and adjustment. Religion, may, therefore be an important contributing factor to mental health" (p. 511). The relationship between an active religious life and positive mental health has been noted in research findings of the last two decades. (See Koenig, McCullough, & Larson, 2001.) A 2002 Barna Research survey of teenagers revealed the highest interest in religious matters and spirituality as a major consideration in life, along with the highest levels of participation in church by teens during the last quarter century. However, only 33% of the teens considered themselves born again and only 5% fit the criteria for evangelicals (born again; believe in the 245

accuracy of the Bible, salvation by grace alone, orthodox biblical views on God, Jesus and Satan; have a personal responsibility to evangelize), a decline from 12% in 1994. Teens appear to be involved in church activities for relational reasons, rather than spiritual reasons. Increasing numbers of teenagers accept moral relativism and have a pluralistic theology as the foundation for their faith. Another survey the same year revealed that Americans are most likely to base their faith on feelings, rather than belief in Gods Word. A 2001 survey concluded that adults who attended church as children show lifelong effects of their early exposure to religion. They are more likely to read the Bible, attend church services, and pray during a week. Barna conducts ongoing surveys of teenagers and young adults and their religious connections and attitudes (www.barna.org). Aden (1992) has proposed a close relationship between Eriksons stages of personality development and the Christian religious life. Mastery of each of Eriksons psychosocial stages of development leads to a more complete and satisfying relationship with God. The following statement provides some insight into this relationship during adolescence and youth: The meaning and significance of faith as ultimate identity can be elaborated briefly in terms of its two ingredients. In terms of confirmation, a sense of ultimate identity answers the adolescents need to be recognized and respected as a meaningful and significant person. In a minimal sense, it serves as an antidote to the adolescents struggle with inadequacy and self-doubt by indicating that he or she is of ultimate importance to God; in a maximal sense, it serves as an antidote to the adolescents feeling of guilt and failure by showing that he or she is accepted and forgiven by God beyond anything he or she can do or should do. In this sense, confirmation is a central answer to the adolescents need for authentic recognition, for it identifies him or her as an object of Gods unqualified love, as a creature of infinite value. Unconditional confirmation is essential not only to organismic validation but also to genuine continuity. It resolves the adolescents nagging feeling of discontinuity by making genuine and complete continuity possible. It undercuts the adolescents need to deny or distort unacceptable parts of the self and frees him or her to see and acknowledge the multidimensional aspects of his or her existence, no matter how unacceptable they may appear when judged by moralistic standards. Consequently, the adolescent experiences a deeper and more adequate continuity, a continuity that can hold past and present, self and other, possibility and limitation in some kind of vital balance Phenomenologically, it is experienced as a sense of belonging, as an oceanic and empowering confidence that one is in tune with the ultimate and underlying structures of life. In less neutral terms, it is a sense of being whole, because one is participating in the healing and reuniting power of God as manifested in Jesus the Christ (Aden, 1992, p. 29, 30). A religion for adolescents must meet their needs, have balance and allow for activity, discussion, logic, and personal commitment. "A religion for adolescents must have balance. An overemphasis on spirituality and morality will produce a disturbed individual. A well-balanced life demands physical exercise, intellectual experiences, and social contacts. . . . If preparation for an after life overlooks the problems of present day living, the religion lacks balance - there are individuals who have spent so much time in their devotions that they have failed to execute their earthly responsibilities" (Bernard, 1957, p. 393). "Any religion that can give the adolescent faith in life and a feeling of security will meet his needs. . . . The adolescent should have the type of religious belief that can stand the strain of the conflicts and doubts so universal at this age" (Hurlock, 1967, p. 393).

246

An adolescent who believes in God as a `very present help' not only in time of trouble, but also as a daily source of guidance for his best development, has a certain resource of strength and courage. His concept of himself extends into infinity" (Strang, 1957, p. 123). Adolescence is a period of doubts - about self, about others, about religion. The adults in the adolescent's life should sympathetically help him to resolve these doubts as quickly as possible so that he may come to a mature understanding of life. An open climate in the church invites discussion of these doubts and helps the adolescent think through his or her beliefs and lifestyle, ultimately leading to a stronger faith, as noted in the ValueGenesis study. "A person who does not have the courage to doubt may not acquire the wisdom to believe" (Strang, 1957, p. 121). "Because doubting always leads to a weakening of beliefs, even when doubts are met sympathetically and with attempts to clarify them, it is evident that the best way to cope with the problem is to prevent it from occurring. If it does occur, it should be handled quickly and with understanding, before its harmful effects have had a chance to set in. The best preventative is to see to it that the `specific and concrete beliefs' taught to children be beliefs compatible with the more abstract adult views, and not beliefs later to be discarded because of incompatibility" (Hurlock, 1967, pp. 402, 403). "The adolescent whose religious doubts are met unsympathetically, who is made to feel guilty because of his doubts, or who is threatened with punishment after death for doubting his family's faith, has little motivation to adjust his childhood religious concepts as he grows older or to try to find a religious faith that will meet his more mature needs. A too intolerant attitude on the part of the adults can readily turn him into an atheist or agnostic" (p. 403). "How important it is for adolescents to resolve their religious doubts become apparent when one realizes that doubts can and do become persistent. . . .Adolescence is a critical period in the religious development of the individual because it is a `period of choice, in which children are taking sides and making up their minds either to accept a religious philosophy or to ignore it.' "What decision the adolescent makes will set the pattern for his mature faith or lack of faith. . . . `What a student believes in college can hardly be ignored or considered as of mere transient importance.' If he decides then that religion is of little value to him, he may continue to believe this to be true for the major part of his adult life. A deep interest in religion during adolescence is usually reflected in an equally deep interest during old age; an attitude of skepticism in adolescence is reflected in disinterest during old age" (p. 420) (barring a conversion experience, of course). "The central role in character is still religion. Human nature can never achieve its highest potential without religion" (Ligon, 1948, p. 66). "Children must be drawn toward heaven, not harshly, but very gently" (White, Gospel Workers, p. 209). "An individual ordinarily shows more interest in religion during adolescence than in young adulthood. By adolescence, individuals are sufficiently mature to handle the abstractions involved in religious concepts and they have not yet become so submerged in problems of society that they have no time to ponder these concepts. All products of moral developmentvalues, ideals, and religionbecome part of an individual's philosophy of life, a blueprint of what life is all about. Whatever conclusions they reach at this stage tend to persist through life" (Rogers, 1984, pp. 186-87). 247

The role of religion in character development was also discussed earlier in chapters 9 and 10.

SUGGESTED READING Coles, Robert. (1990). The spiritual life of children. Dudley, Roger, with Gillespie, V. Bailey. (1992). Valuegenesis: Faith in the balance. Garber, Steven. (1996). The fabric of faithfulness: Weaving together belief and behavior during the university years. Habenicht, Donna J. (1994). How to help your child really love Jesus. Habenicht, Donna J. and Burton, Larry. (2004). Teaching the faith. Hennessy, Thomas C. (1987). The role of religion in character development. In Kevin Ryan & George McLean (Eds.), Character development in schools and beyond (pp.274-298). McDowell, Josh & Hostetler, Bob. (1994). Right from wrong: What you need to know to help youth make right choices. Rice, F. Phillip. (1990). The adolescent (6th ed.), chapter 18. Rogers, Dorothy. (1984). Adolescents and youth (5th ed.), chapter 6. Schuster, Clara Shaw, & Ashburn, Shirley Smith. (1980). The process of human development, pp. 539_555. White, Ellen G. Child guidance, pp. 471_552.

248

CHAPTER TWENTY-SIX REJECTION OF VALUES

Why do so many young people with good home, school and church backgrounds reject the values taught?

FACTORS AFFECTING THE ACCEPTANCE OR REJECTION OF VALUES BY YOUNG PEOPLE Why do so many young people with apparently "good" home, school, and church backgrounds feel alienated from the church? fail to develop a vital, living relationship with Jesus Christ? reject the values of their homes? are weak in moral character? The answers to these questions are not easily found. However, there are some factors which we might consider. Any one, or all, of them might be influential in the experience of a particular young person. Each of the main points is followed by some supporting statements, mostly from classic religious sources. For observations from research with adolescents and young adults, see Dudley (2000), Dudley with Gillespie (1992), Sloat (1986), and Dudley (1978). INCONSISTENCY OF ADULT BEHAVIOR a. b. c. d. "Home parent" may be different from the "outside parent" Relationship between parents Parents not in agreement Lives of teachers, ministers, and youth leaders

"Children must see in the lives of their parents that consistency which is in accordance with their faith" (White, Child Guidance, p. 482). "Children will develop characters similar to their parents" (White, Spiritual Gifts, vol. 3, p. 91). "The teacher can gain the respect of his pupils in no other way than by revealing in his own character the principles he seeks to teach them. Only as he does this . . . can he have a permanent influence over them for good" (White, Education, p. 277). "The question is often asked, `Why are the children of religious parents so often headstrong, defiant and rebellious?' The reason is to be found in the home training. Too often the parents are not united in their family government. A fitful government, at one time holding the lines firmly and at another allowing that which has been condemned, is ruination to a child" (White, The Adventist Home, p. 310).

249

"The child is born amoral and must develop inner controls and respect for rules and must acquire a system of values if he is to participate successfully in human affairs. The initial learnings are the prohibitions and denials imposed by parents. Because the voices and images of adults are internalized to become the conscience, it is necessary that the parents be ethically united on social and economic pursuits" (Bernard, 1970, p. 299). "The child who is taught why he should not cheat and then sees that his parents perform honestly is not likely even to consider cheating in school" (Montor, 1971, p. 97).

ADULTS VACILLATING ABOUT PRINCIPLES a. b. c. d. Afraid to state convictions Give in to youthful demands Pals or playmates instead of guardians Society sets no standards

"It should be made plain that the government of God knows no compromise with evil" (White, Education, p. 290). "The future well-being of the child requires kindly, loving, but firm discipline" (White, Counsels to Parents, Teachers, and Students, p. 112). ". . . the fond parents, disliking to deny them any indulgence, have -if they have said or done anything in the matter - taken a position so indefinite and undecided that the children have judged for themselves that the course they desired to pursue was in keeping with the Christian life and character" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 5, pp. 40-41). "While there was plenty of evildoing in previous generations, there was a solid disapproval of it. To the oncoming generations the general public tried to present a unified front, and although every boy and girl sooner or later found out that there was something behind the front, the early conditioning was likely to provide a basis for the development of attitudes. Today, adults go openly in all directions and frankly admit a large variety of attitudes on moral questions. It is not surprising that adolescents find the world confusing and that they are unable to establish moral concepts upon a firm foundation" (Cole & Hall, 1970, p. 521). This statement seems even more true today than when written. "He (the child) may argue against parental precepts one day and be overheard the next passing them along as his own convictions. . . . As most adults realize, many of their preachments sound fatuous to the children they are meant to influence, but they ought not on that account to abandon their notions of conduct and morals. The way children continue to take on adult values even as they resist them implies that little pitchers have big ears" (Stone & Church, 1973, p. 356). "Adults have the obligation to tell youth what they believe. . . . Immature persons should not have imposed upon them the necessity for making decisions before they have been prepared to make them. The adult as well as the adolescent needs the courage of his convictions" (Bernard, 1957, pp. 376-377).

250

ADULT INTOLERANCE AND NEGATIVE ATTITUDE a. b. c. d. e. Law of expectancy Intolerance toward new ideas Criticism instead of encouragement Lack of love Adolescent's need for self-respect

"Lead the youth to feel that they are trusted, and there are few who will not seek to prove themselves worthy of the trust" (White, Education, p. 290). "You must win their affection if you would impress religious truth upon their hearts" (White, The Adventist Home, p. 432). "Parents are not to compel their children to have a form of religion, but they are to place eternal principles before them in an attractive light" (p. 323). "Christian kindness and sociability are powerful factors in winning the affections of the youth" (White, Counsels to Parents, Teachers, and Students, p. 208). "It could be that their (adults) convictions have been concreted rather than anchored, so that there could be no tolerance for shifting currents of thought and manner" (Bernard, 1957, p. 369). "Faith in adolescents is a strong incentive to the pursuit of continued improvement" (p. 372).

DEFECTIVENESS OF EARLIER TRAINING a. b. c. Permissiveness Overstimulation, overgratification, lack of love Obedience and self-control

"The reason that children do not become godly is because they are allowed too much freedom. . . . The more they are indulged, the harder they will be to manage, and the more difficult it will be for them to live true, noble lives when they go out into the world. If you allow them to do as they please, their purity and loveliness of character will quickly fade" (White, Child Guidance, p. 271). "One of the first lessons a child needs to learn is the lesson of obedience. . . . Thus, to a great degree may be prevented those later conflicts between will and authority that do so much to create alienation and bitterness toward parents and teachers, and too often resistance of all authority, human and divine" (White, Education, p. 287). "Parents make a terrible mistake when they neglect the work of giving their children religious training, thinking that they will come out all right in the future and, as they get older, will of themselves be anxious for a religious experience. Cannot you see, parents, that if you do not plant the precious seeds of truth, of love, of heavenly attributes, in the heart, Satan will sow the field of the heart with tares?" (White, The Adventist Home, p. 319). "Generally speaking, the youth have but little moral strength. This is the result of neglected education in childhood" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 5, p. 23).

251

"The reason why the youth of the present age are not more religiously inclined is because of the defect in their education. It is not true love exercised towards children which permits in them the indulgence of passion, or allows disobedience of parental laws to go unpunished" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 1, pp. 546-547). "Building successful homes has always been a difficult task. In our bewilderingly complex society, it becomes more difficult every day. . . . If parents don't try, of course they don't succeed. But the reverse of that is not always true. The success of home teaching is not just a matter of effort. Some of the most heartbreaking tragedies I have seen have taken place in homes in which the parents almost literally ate their hearts out for their children, and still failed tragically. . . . It is because they didn't know how" (Ligon, 1956, p. 105). "As a rule, it's a picture in two parts. One part has to do with a child before five, and one part with today. In early childhood, a `charge' is loaded and primed; then in adolescence, the trigger is pulled and an explosion follows. . . . The point is that the three elements - overstimulation, lack of love, and overgratification - produce delinquent patterns when they occur together. Obviously there may be different concentrations of each in the picture at any one time, but usually it takes more than any one of them to produce the proneness to delinquency that later events can bring into full flower. . . . The lesson from all this is obvious. The golden age for preventing delinquency is about two" (Noshpitz, 1965, p. 22).

ATMOSPHERE OF HARSH AUTHORITARIANISM IN HOME AND SCHOOL a. b. c. Breeds hatred and rebellion, not love Lacks self-government and training in making decisions Need for growing independence

"The object of discipline is the training of the child for self-government. He should be taught selfreliance and self-control" White, Education, p. 287). "Too much management is as bad as too little. The effort to `break the will' of a child is a terrible mistake. . . . The will should be guided and molded, but not ignored or crushed. Save the strength of the will; in the battle of life it will be needed . . . The parent or teacher who . . . trains the child to self-control will be the most useful and permanently successful" (White, Education, pp. 288-289). "In our efforts to correct evil, we should guard against a tendency to faultfinding or censure . . . . Flowers do not unfold under the breath of a blighting wind" (White, Education, p. 291).

SOCIETAL PRESSURES a. b. c. d. Importance of peer influence Lack of moral values in present-day society Influence of mass media Decreasing influence of family

"Very many young men who have been religiously instructed at home, who go out to schools comparatively innocent and virtuous, become corrupt by associating with vicious companions. They lose self-respect and sacrifice noble principles. Then they are prepared to pursue the downward path, for they

252

have so abused their consciences that sin does not appear so exceedingly sinful" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 3, p. 148). "The home determines the initial strength and nature of the moral character of the child, and this strength, in turn, determines the degree to which the influences of the community can change the character" (Kaluger & Kaluger, 1984, p. 306).

INDIVIDUAL CHOICE a. b. c. d. e. f. Personality Sinful world - controversy between good and evil Heart religion cannot by forced Individual responsibility to God Power of prayer Power of never ending love

We live in a sinful world. God in heaven, a perfect parent, lost a third of His children through sin. Without a strong spiritual connection with God, the pull of human nature toward evil is too powerful to resist. "Parents may do everything in their power to give their children every privilege and instruction, in order that they may give their hearts to God; yet the children may refuse to walk in the light. . . . It is Satan who tempts children to follow in a course of sin and disobedience. . . . If they refuse to walk in the light . . . the light and the privileges they have had will rise up in judgment against them" (White, Child Guidance, p. 173). "Every man is free to choose what power he will have to rule over him" (White, The Desire of Ages, p. 258). "It is the still, small voice of the Spirit of God that has power to change the heart" (White, Prophets and Kings, p. 169). "Children cannot be brought to the Lord by force. They can be led, but not driven" (White, The Adventist Home, p. 307). "At the sound of fervent prayer, Satan's whole host trembles" (White, Messages to Young People, p. 53). "Prayer and faith will do what no power on earth can accomplish" (White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 509). "It rests with us individually to decide whether our lives shall be controlled by the mind or by the body. The youth must, each for himself, make the choice that shapes his life; and no pains should be spared that he may understand the forces with which he has to deal, and the influences which mold character and destiny" (White, Education, p. 202). "Though created innocent and holy, our first parents were not placed beyond the possibility of wrongdoing. God might have created them without the power to transgress His requirements, but in that case there could have been no development of character; their service would not have been voluntary, but

253

forced. Therefore He gave them the power of choice, the power to yield or to withhold obedience. And before they could receive in fullness the blessings He desired to impart, their love and loyalty must be tested" (p. 23). "Each one has a personal battle to fight. Not even God can make our characters noble or our lives useful, unless we become co-workers with Him. Those who would decline the struggle lose the strength and joy of victory" (White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 487). "By the thoughts and feelings cherished in early years every youth is determining his own life history. Correct, virtuous, manly habits formed in youth will become a part of the character and will usually mark the course of the individual through life. The youth may become vicious or virtuous, as they choose. They may as well be distinguished for true and noble deeds as for great crime and wickedness" (White, Child Guidance, p. 196). "Today men and nations are being measured by the plummet in the hand of Him who makes no mistake. All are by their own choice deciding their destiny, and God is overruling all for the accomplishment of His purposes" (White, Education, p. 178). "Esau and Jacob had alike been instructed in the knowledge of God, and both were free to walk in His commandments and to receive his favor; but they had not both chosen to do this. The two brothers had walked in different ways, and their paths would continue to diverge more and more widely" (White, Patriarchs and Prophets, p. 207). "Cain had the same opportunity of learning and accepting these truths as had Abel. He was not the victim of an arbitrary purpose. One brother was not elected to be accepted of God, and the other to be rejected. Abel chose faith and obedience; Cain, unbelief and rebellion. Here the whole matter rested" (p. 72). "Daniel and his companions enjoyed the benefits of correct training and education in early life, but these advantages alone would not have made them what they were. The time came when they must act for themselves, when their future depended upon their own course. Then they decided to be true to the lessons given them in childhood" (White, Counsels on Health, p. 167). From a religious viewpoint, God is always seeking to redeem each individual. We can confidently place our loved ones in His hands. He is capable and caring! In a moment, through a religious conversion experience, God can completely reorient an individuals life and begin to rebuild character. SUGGESTED READING Dudley, Roger L. (1978). Why teenagers reject religion and what to do about it. Dudley, Roger L. (2002). Why our teenagers leave the church. Dudley, Roger, with Gillespie, Bailey. (1992). Valuegenesis: Faith in the balance. Elkind, David. (1984). All grown up and no place to go. OFfill, Richard W. (2002). Lord, keep your mansions--just save my children.

254

Rogers, Dorothy. (1985). Adolescents and youth (5th ed.), pp. 163,170, 283, 308. Sloat, Dnald E. (1986). The dangers of growing up in a Christian home. Watts, Dorothy Eaton. (1996). When your child turns from God. White, Ellen. Child guidance, pp. 271-290. White, Ellen. Education, pp. 23-30. White, Ellen. Messages to young people, pp. 15-166.

255

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aden, LeRoy. (1992). Faith and the developmental cycle. In Christian perspectives on human development (Leroy Aden, David G. Benner & J. Harold Ellens, Eds.), Psychology and Christianity Series. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House. Allport, G. W. & Ross, J. M. (1967). Personal religious orientation and prejudice. Journal of personality and social psychology, 5, 432-443. American Academy of Pediatrics, Task Force on Children and Television. (1984). Children, adolescents, and television. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Communications. (1990). Children, adolescents and television. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics. Arbuthnot, Jack, & Faust, David (1981). Teaching moral reasoning: Theory and practice. New York, NY: Harper and Row. Armstrong, Alison & Casement, Charles. (2000). The child and the machine: How computers put our childs education at risk. Beltsville, MD: Robins Lane Press (a division of Gryphon House, Inc.) Armstrong, Delores M. (1971). Values are the basis of ethical behavior. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 50, 295-297. Ash, Solomon E. (1952). Social psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Baehr, Ted. (1998). The media-wise family: A Christian family guide to making morally and spiritually responsible decisions about movies, TV, and mutimedia. Colorado Springs, CO: ChariotVictor (a division of Cook Communications). Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1963). Vicarious reinforcement and imitative learning. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 67, 601-607. Bandura, Albert. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Barna Research Online. (2001). Adults who attended church as children show lifelong effects. Barna Research Online. (2002). Teens change their tune regarding self and church. Baumrind, Diana. (1971). Current patterns of parental authority. Developmental Psychology Monograph, 4(1, part 2), 1-103. Baumrind, Diana. (2013). Authoritative parenting revisited: History and current status. In Larzelere, Robert E., Morris, Amanda Sheffield, & Harrist, Amanda W., eds. (2013). Authoritative parenting: Synthesizing nurturance and discipline for optimal child development (pp. 11-34). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

256

Beisser, Arnold R. (1989). Flying without wings. New York: Doubleday. Belsky, Jay. (1990). Infant day care, child development, and family policy. Society, 37(5), 10-12). Bennett, William J. (1988). Moral literacy and the formation of character. NASSP Bulletin, 72(512), 29-34. Bennett, William J. (1993). The book of virtues. New York: Simon & Schuster. Bennett, William J. (1995). The moral compass. New York: Simon & Schuster. Berger, Elizabeth MD. (1999). Raising children with character. Northvale, NY: Jason Aronson Inc. Berkowitz, Leonard. (1977, July). The case for bottling up rage. Psychology Today, 7(2), 24-31. Bernard, Harold Wright. (1957). Adolescent development in American culture. Yonkers-on-Hudson, NY: World Book. Bernard, Harold. (1970). Human development in Western culture (3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Bernard, Harold. (1978). Human development in Western culture (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Bernstein, Douglas A., Roy, Edward J., Wickens, Christopher D., Srull, Thomas K. (1988). Psychology. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Biller, Henry B. (1974). Paternal deprivation. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books. Borba, Michele. (2001). Building moral intelligence: The seven essential virtues that teach kids to do the right thing. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Boyer, Ernest L. (1989). The third wave of school reform. Christianity Today, 33(13), 16-19. Bozarth-Campbell, Alla. (1988). Life is goodbye, life is hello: Grieving well through all kinds of losses (Quoted in a brochure "Going through hardship, growing through prayer", Care Notes). St. Meinrad, IN: Abbey Press. Brabeck, Mary. (1989). Who cares? Theory, research, and educational implications of the ethics of care. New York: Praeger. Briscoe, Stuart & Jill. (1995). The family book of Christian values: Timeless stories for todays family. Elgin, IL: Chariot Family Publishing (Cook Communications Ministries). Bronfenbrenner, Urie. (1979). The ecology of human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bronfenbrenner, Urie. (1970). Two worlds of childhood. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation. Brown, Christy. (1955). My left foot. New York: Simon & Schuster.

257

Brown, Sandra A., Aarons, Gregory A., & Abrantes, Ana M. (2001). Adolescent Alcohol and Drug Abuse. In Handbook of Clinical Child Psychology, 3rd edition (C. Eugene Walker & Michael C. Roberts, Eds.). New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. (ch. 38, pp. 757-775) Brunt, John. (1979). Decisions. Nashville, TN: Southern Publishing Association. Brusius, Ron. (Ed.). (1989). Parenting moral teens in immoral times. St. Louis: Concordia. Bryan, James H. (1975). You will be well advised to watch what we do instead of what we say. In David J. DePalma & Jeanne M. Foley (Eds.), Moral development: Current theory and research (pp. 95111). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Bukatko, Danuta, & Daehler, Marvin W. (1992). Child development: A topical approach. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Bushnell, Horace. (1960). Christian nurture. New Haven: Yale University Press. Callahan, Sidney Cornelia. (1991). In good conscience: Reason and emotion in moral decision making. San Francisco: Harper San Francisco. Calligraphy Presentations. (1986). Crisis as opportunity. Greeting card of China Enterprise, Boulder, CO. Campolo, Anthony (1987). The youth culture in sociological perspective. In Warren S. Benson & Mark H. Senter III (Eds.). The complete book of youth ministry (pp. 37-48). Chicago: Moody Press. Campolo, Anthony. (1989). Growing up in America: A sociology of youth and ministry. Grand Rapids, MI: Youth Specialities. Canter, Lee. (1976). Assertive discipline. Los Angeles: Lee Canter Associates. Carroll, James L., & Rest, James R. (1982). Moral development. In Benjamin B. Wolman & George Stricker (Eds.), Handbook of developmental psychology (pp. 434-451). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Charren, Peggy, & Sandler, Martin W. (1983). Changing channels: Living (sensibly) with television. Reading, MA.: Addison-Wesley. Clarke-Stewart, K. Alison. (1989). Single-parents families: How bad for the children? NEA Today, 7(6), 60-64. Cline, F. (1979). Understanding and treating the severely disturbed child. Evergreen, CO: Evergreen Consultants in Human Behavior. Clouse, Bonnidell. (1985). Moral development: Perspectives in psychology and Christian belief. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker. Clouse, Bonnidell. (1993). Teaching for moral growth. Wheaton, IL: A BridgeBook (Victor Books).

258

Colby, Ann & Damron, William. (1992). Some do care: Contemporary lives of moral commitment. Toronto: Free Press. Cole, Luella, & Hall, Irma Nelson. (1970). Psychology of Adolescence (7th ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Coles, Robert. (1981, June 14). Family Week. Coles, Robert. (1986). The moral life of children. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Coles, Robert. (1989). The call of stories: Teaching and the moral imagination. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Coles, Robert. (1990). The spiritual life of children. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Coles, Robert. (1997). The moral intelligence of children: How to raise a moral child. New York: Random House. Collinson, Vivienne. (2001). Intellectual, social, and moral development: Why technology cannot replace teachers. The high school journal 85 (1): 35-44. Coopersmith, Stanley. (1967). The antecedents of self-esteem. New York: W.H. Freeman. Corsini, Raymond J. (1988). Introduction. In Current personality theories (Raymond J. Corsini, Ed.). Itasca, IL: F. E. Peacock Publishers, Inc. Damon, William. (1977). The social world of the child. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Damon, William. (1988). The moral child: Nurturing children's natural moral growth. New York: Free Press. Damon, William. (1997). Greater expectations: Overcoming the culture of indulgence in our homes and schools. New York: Free Press Paperbacks. Dederen, R. (1987). Lecture notes. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University. Demos, E. Virginia (1989). Resiliency in infancy. In Timothy F. Dugan & Robert Coles (Eds.), The child in our times: Studies in the development of resiliency (pp. 3-22). New York: Brunner/Mazel. Dobson, James C. (1978). Dare to discipline. Hollywood, CA: Media Five, 1978. Dobson, James C. (1980). Emotions: Can you trust them? Ventura, CA: Regal Books. Dobson, James C., & Bauer, Gary L. (1990). Children at risk: The battle for the hearts and minds of our children. Dallas, TX: Word. Dobson, James. (1992). The new dare to discipline. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers. Donenberg, Geri and Hoffman, Lois. (1988). Gender differences in moral development. Sex Roles, 18, 701-717.

259

Dorland's illustrated medical dictionary (27th ed.). (1988). Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders. Druikers, R. & Cassell, P. (1972). Discipline without tears: What to do with children who misbehave. New York: Hawthorn. Druikers, R., Grunwalk, B., & Pepper, F. (1982). Maintaining sanity in the classroom: Classroom management techniques (2nd Ed.). New York: Harper and Row. Dubanoski, Richard, Inaba, Michaek, & Kent Gerkewicz. (1983). Corporal punishment in schools: Myths, problems, and alternatives. Child Abuse and Neglect, 7, 271-278. Dudley, Roger L. (1978). Why teenagers reject religion and what to do about it. Washington: Review and Herald. Dudley, Roger, with Gillespie, V. Bailey. (1992). Valuegenesis: Faith in the balance. Riverside, CA: La Sierra University Press, 1992. Dudley, Roger L. (2002). Why our teenagers leave the church. Hagerstown, MD: Review and Herald Publishing Association. Dugan, Timothy, & Coles, Robert. (Eds.). (1989). The child in our times: Studies in the development of resiliency. New York: Brunner/Mazel. Durkheim, Emile. (1973). Moral education. New York: The Free Press. Dusek, Jerome B. (1991). Adolescent development and behavior (2nd. ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Dykstra, Craig. (1986). Faith development and religious education. In Craig Dykstra & Sharon Parks (Eds.), Faith development and Fowler (pp. 251-271). Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press. Dykstra, Craig, & and Parks, Sharon (Eds.). (1986). Faith development and Fowler. Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press. Eareckson, Joni. (1976). Joni. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan . Eisenberg, Nancy. (1989). The roots of prosocial behavior in children. New York: Cambridge University Press. Eisenberg, Nancy, Miller, Paul A., Shell, Rita, McNalley, Sandra, & Shea, Cindy (1991). Prosocial development in adolescence: A longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 27, 849-857. Eisenberg, Nancy & Fabes, Richard A. (1998). Prosocial development (pp. 701-778) in Handbook of child psychology, 5th ed., Vol 3: Social, Emotional, and Personality Development, William Damon, Editor-in-Chief and Nancy Eisenberg, Volume Editor. NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Elam, S. M., & Gallup, A. M. (1989, September). The 21st annual Gallup Poll of the public's attitudes toward the public schools. The Gallup Report, 288, 31-43.

260

Elkind, David. (1984). All grown up and no place to go. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Elkind, David. (2001). The hurried child: Growing up too fast too soon, 3rd ed. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing. Ellenwood, Stephan, & Ryan, Kevin. (1991). Literature and morality: An experimental curriculum. In William M. Kurtines & Jacob L. Gewirtz, Handbook of moral behavior and development (vol. 3, pp. 55-67). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Everson, Eva Marie & Everson, Jessica. (2005). Sex, lies, and the media: What your kids know and arent telling you. Colorado Springs, CO: Life Journey, Cook Communications Ministries. Eyre, Linda & Richard. (1993). Teaching your children values. NY: Simon & Schuster (Fireside). Fitzgerald, M. (1990). Character Education: NIE's Latest Trend. Editor & Publisher, 123, 37. Flach, Frederic. (1988). Resilience: Discovering a new strength at times of stress. New York: Ballantine. Fore, William I. (1987). Escape from Gilligan's Island. Media and Values, Summer/Fall, 2-5. Forer, Lucille K. (1969). Birth order and life roles. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. Foth, Margaret. (1987). Family life: Defending your center from a TV takeover. Media and Values, Summer/Fall, 27. Fowler, James (1980). Moral stages and the development of faith. In Brenda Munsey (Ed.), Moral development, moral education, and Kohlberg: Basic issues in philosophy, psychology, religion, and education (pp. 130-160). Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press. Fowler, James. (1981). Stages of faith: The psychology of human development and the quest for meaning. New York: Harper & Row. Fowler, James. (1986). Faith and the structuring of meaning. In Craig Dykstra & Sharon Parks (Eds.), Faith development and Fowler (pp. 15-42). Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press. Fowler, John M. (1977). The concepts of character development in the writings of Ellen G. White. Doctoral Dissertation, Andrews University. Frankl, Victor E. (1963). Mans search for meaning. New York: Pocket Books. Frazier, Alexander (1980). Values, curriculum, and the elementary school. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Fuhrmann, Barbara S. (1986). Adolescence, adolescents. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. Gage, N. L., & Berliner, David. (1992). Educational psychology (5th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Galbraith, Ronald E. & Jones, Thomas E. (1976). Moral reasoning: Teaching strategies for adapting Kohlberg to the classroom. Minneapolis, MN: Greenhaven Press, Inc.

261

Garber, Steven. (1996). The fabric of faithfulness: Weaving together belief and behavior during the university years. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. Garrison, Karl C., Kingston, Albert J., & and Bernard, Harold W. (1967). The psychology of childhood: A survey of development and socialization. New York, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons. Gilligan, Carol. (1982). In a different voice. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. Ginott, Haim G. (1976). Teacher and child. NY: Avon. Glasser, William. (1965). Reality therapy. New York: Harper and Row. Glasser, William. (1969). Schools without failure. New York: Harper and Row. Glasser, William. (1977). Ten steps to good discipline. Todays Education, 66, 61-63. Googins, Bradley K. (1991). Work/family conflicts: Private livespublic responses. New York: Auburn House. Gore, Tipper. (1987). Raising PG kids in an X-rated society. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. Graham, Billy. (1985, December). The need of the hour. U.S. News & World Report, p. 138. Graham, Douglas. (1972). Moral learning and development: Theory and research. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Grant, Barry. (1985). The moral nature of psychotherapy. Counseling and values, 29(2), 141-150. Greenberger, Ellen, & O'Neil, Robin. (1992). Maternal employment and perceptions of young children: Brofenbrenner et al. revisited. Child Development, 63, 431-448. Greenfield, Guy. (1982). The wounded parent. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House. Gruen, Gerald E., & Larrieu, Julie. (1983). The development of moral values and behavior: Implications for clinical practice. In C. Eugene Walker & Michael C. Roberts (Eds.), Handbook of clinical child psychology (pp. 937-957). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Gunsberg, Linda. (1989). Prelude. In Stanley H. Cath, Alan Gurtwitt, & Linda Gunsberg (Eds.), Fathers and their families (pp. 191-196). Hillsdale, NJ: The Analytic Press. Haan, N. (1982). Can research on morality be `scientific'? American Psychologist, 37, 1096-1104. Habenicht, Donna. (1993). Educational psychology: A Christian perspective. Berrien Springs, MI: Unpublished material. Habenicht, Donna J. (1994). How to help your child really love Jesus. (Hagerstown, MD: Review and Herald Publishing Association. Habenicht, Donna J. (2000). 10 Christian values every kid should know. Hagerstown, MD: Review and Herald Publishing Association.

262

Hall, William Michael, & Cairns, Robert B. (1984). Aggressive behavior in children: An outcome of modeling or social reciprocity? Developmental Psychology, 20, 739-745. Hanlin, H., & Zucker, K. (1986). Affect and cognition in moral judgment. Psychological Reports, 59, 1133-1134. Hare, Robert D. (1986). Criminal psychopaths. In J. C. Yuille (Ed.), Police selection and training: The role of psychology (pp. 187-206). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Martimus Nijhoff. Harris, William J. (1959). Our priceless primaries. Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press. Hartshorne, Hugh, & May, Mark A. (1928). Studies in the nature of character (Vols. 1-3). New York: Macmillan, 1928. Hartshorne, Hugh, & May, Mark A. (1930). A summary of the work of the character education inquiry. Religious Education, 25, 607-619, 754-762. Havighurst, Robert J., & Taba, Hilda. (1949). Adolescent character and personality. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Healy, Jane M. (1998). Failure to connect: How computers affect our childrens mindsfor better and worse. New York: Simon & Schuster. Hennessy, Thomas C. (1987). The role of religion in character development. In Kevin Ryan & George McLean (Eds.), Character development in schools and beyond (pp.274-298). New York: Praeger. Hersh, Richard H., Miller, John P., & Fielding, Glen D. (1980). Models of moral education: An appraisal. New York, NY: Longman. Hersh, Richard H., Paolitto, Diana Pritchard, & Joseph Reimer (1979). Promoting moral growth: From Piaget to Kohlberg. New York, NY: Longman. Herzberg, Frederick (1982). The lonely struggle to develop character. Industry Week, 214(4), 29. Hess, Robert D. (1970). Social class and ethnic influences upon socialization. In Paul H. Mussen (Ed.) Carmichael's manual of child psychology (3rd ed.) (Vol. 2, pp. 496-500). New York: John Wiley and Sons. Hewett, James S. (1988). Illustrations unlimited. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House. Hoffman, Lois, Paris, Scott, Hall, Elizabeth, & Schell, Robert. (1988). Developmental psychology today (5th ed.). New York: Random House. Hoffman, Martin. (1970). Moral development. In Paul H. Mussen (Ed.), Carmichael's manual of child psychology (3rd. ed.) (Vol. 2, pp. 261-359). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Hoffman, Martin L. (1971). Development of internal moral standards in children. In Merton Strommen (Ed.), Research on religious development (pp. 246-252). New York: Hawthorn.

263

Hoffman, Martin L. (1981). The role of the father in moral internalization. In Michael E. Lamb (Ed.), The role of the father in child development (pp. 359-378). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Hogan, Marjorie J. (2008). Media and prosocial behavior in children and adolescents. In In Nucci, Larry P. & Narvaez, Darcia. Handbook of moral and character education.(pp. 537-553). New York: Routledge. Hopkins, Gary L. & Hopp, Joyce W. (2002). It takes a church: Every members guide to keeping young people safe and saved. Nampa, ID: Pacific Press Publishing Association. Hurlock, Elizabeth B. (1967). Adolescent development (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Hurlock, Elizabeth B. (1967b). Child development (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Hurlock, Elizabeth B. (1972). Child development (5th. ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Huston, Aletha C. & Weight, John C. (1998). Mass media and childrens development. In Handbook of child psychology, 5th ed., vol. 4. William Dammon, Editor-in-chief, Irving E. Sigel & K. Ann Renninger, volume editors. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hybels, Bill. (1989, April). The sin that so easily entangles. Moody Monthly, pp. 68-73. Hyland, J. (1986). Instruction, rationality, and learning to be moral. Journal of Moral Education, 15, 127-138. Jahn, Steven. (1991). From Hollywood to Mendelhall. Youthworker, 8(2), pp. 44-47. Jersild, Arthur T. (1960). Child psychology (5th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Johnson, Bill. (nd). Personal communication with Jean McCutchen. Johnson, Henry C. (1984). On avoiding "single vision and Newton's sleep": Sketches from an unorthodox moral-education history. In William. M. Kurtines & Jacob L. Gewirtz (Eds.), Morality, moral behavior, and moral development (pp. 381-399). New York, John Wiley & Sons. Johnson, Richard E. (1987). Mother's versus father's role in causing delinquency. Adolescence, 22, 305315. Joy, Donald M. (Ed.). (1983). Moral development foundations: Judeo-Christian alternatives to Piaget/Kohlberg. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. Juhasz, Anne McCreary, E., & Sonnenshein-Schneider, Mary. (1987). Adolescent sexuality: Values, morality, and decision making. Adolescence, 22, 579-590. Kagan, Jerome. (1983). Classification of the child. In Paul Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Formerly Carmichael's manual of child psychology (vol. 2, pp. 527-560). New York: John Wiley and Sons.

264

Kahn, Peter H., Jr. (2006). Nature and moral development. In Killen, Melanie & Smetana, Judith G., eds. (2006). Handbook of moral development (pp. 461-480). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Kaluger, George, & Kaluger, Meriem Fair. (1974). Human development: The span of life. St. Louis: C.V. Mosby. Kaluger, George & Kaluger, Meriem Fair. (1984). Human development: The span of life. St. Louis, MO: Times Mirror/Mosby, College Publishing. Kastenbaum, Robert. (1979). Human development: A lifespan perspective. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Katz, Lillian G. (1991). How television violence affects kids. Parents' Magazine, p. 113. Kelly, Katy. (2002). False promise. U.S. News & World Report, Sept. 25, p. 48-55. Killen, Melanie & Smetana, Judith G., eds. (2006). Handbook of moral development. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Kneller, George F. (1964). Introduction to the philosophy of education. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. Knight, George R. (1980). Philosophy and education. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press. Koenig, Harold G., McCullough, Michael E., & Larson, David B. (2001). Handbook of religion and health. Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press. Kohlberg, Lawrence. (1964). Development of moral character and moral ideology. In Martin L. Hoffman & Lois Wladis Hoffman (Eds.), Review of child development research (Vol. 1, pp. 383431). New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Kohlberg, Lawrence. (1969). Moral education in the schools. In Robert E. Grinder (Ed.), Studies in adolescence: A book of readings in adolescent development (pp. 237-258). New York, Macmillan. Kohlberg, Lawrence. (1980). Stages of moral development as a basis for moral education. In Brenda Munsey (Ed.), Moral development, moral education, and Kohlberg: Basic issues in philosophy, psychology, religion, and education (pp. 15-98). Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press. Kohlberg, Lawrence. (1984). Essays on moral development, vol. 2: The psychology of moral development. San Francisco: Harper & Row. Kohn, Alfie. (1988, October). Beyond selfishness. Psychology Today, pp. 34-38. Kurtines, William M., & Gewirtz, Jacob L. (Eds.). (1984). Morality, moral behavior, and moral development. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Kurtines, William M., & Gewirtz, Jacob L. (1990). Moral behavior and development. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Kuzma, Kay & Jan. (1979). Building character. Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press.

265

Kuzma, Kay. (1997). Easy obedience: Teaching children self-discipline with love. Hagerstown, MD: Review and Herald Publishing Association. Lack of virtue = social problems. (1986, April). USA Today, 114, p. 8. Lamb, Michael E. (1997). The role of the father in child development, 3rd ed. NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Larzelere, Robert E., Morris, Amanda Sheffield, & Harrist, Amanda W., eds. (2013). Authoritative parenting: Synthesizing nurturance and discipline for optimal child development. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Leming, James. (1985). School curriculum and social development in early adolescence. Childhood Education, 61, 257-262. Levine, Madeline. (1996). Viewing violence: How media violence affects your childs and adolescents development. NY: Doubleday, 1996. Lewin, K., Lippett, R., & White, R. (1939). Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created social climates. Journal of Psychology 10, 271-299. Lewis, Kathleen N. (1982). Values clarification: A critique. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 1, 2-8. Lickona, Thomas. (1983). Raising good children. New York: Bantam Books. Lickona, Thomas. (1987). Character development in the family. In Kevin Ryan & George F. McLean (Eds.), Character development in the schools and beyond (pp. 253-273). New York: Praeger. Lickona, Thomas J. (1991). Educating for character: How our schools can teach respect and responsibility. New York: Bantam Books. Lickona, Thomas. (2004). Character matters: How to help our children develop good judgment, integrity, and other essential virtues. New York: Simon & Schuster (A Touchstone Book). Liebert, Robert M., & Sprafkin, Joyce N. (1988) The early window: effects of television on children and youth (3rd. ed.). New York: Pergamon Press. Lifton, Peter D. (1985). Individual differences in moral development: The relation of sex, gender, and personality to morality. Journal of Personality, 53, 306-334. Ligon, Ernest M. (1948). A greater generation. New York: Macmillan. Ligon, Ernest M. (1956). Dimensions of character. New York: Macmillan. Ligon, Ernest M. (1975). The psychology of Christian personality. Schenectady, NY: Character Research Press.

266

Lindberg, Ann Morrow. (1988). Hour of gold, hour of lead (Quoted in a brochure, Finding God in pain or illness, Care Notes). St. Meinrad, IN: Abbey Press. Lloyd, Marjorie Lewis. (1981). If I had a bigger drum. Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press. Luks, Allan. (1988, October). Helper's high. Psychology Today, pp. 39-42. Lutes, Chris. (1990). Peer pressure: Making it work for you. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Magid, Ken, & McKelvey, Carole A. (1988). High risk. Toronto: Bantam Books. Maslow, Abraham H. (1968). Toward a psychology of being. Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand. Matthews, Karen, Batson, Daniel, Horn, Joseph, & Rosenman, Ray. (1981). "Principles in his nature which interest him in the fortune of others . . .": The heritability of empathic concern for others. Journal of Personality, 49, 237-247. Maurer, Daphne & Maurer, Charles. (1988). The world of the newborn. New York: Basic Books. McDowell, Josh & Hostetler, Bob. (1994). Right from wrong: What you need to know to help youth make right choices. Dallas, TX: Word Publishing. Mendler, Allen N. (1992). How to achieve discipline with dignity in the classroom. Bloomington, IN: National Educational Service. Mental health is 1,2,3. New York: The National Association for Mental Health. Michele, Patrick (1987). Media and Values, Summer/Fall, 2. Milgram, Stanley. (1966). Issues in the study of obedience: A reply to Baumrind. American Psychologist, 19, 848-852. Milgram, Stanley. (1974). Obedience to authority. New York: Harper & Row. Montor, Karel. (1971). Cheating in high school. School and Society, 99, 96-98. Moody, Kate. (1980). Growing up on television: A report to parents. New York: Times Books. Munsey, Brenda. (Ed.). (1980). Moral development, moral education, and Kohlberg. Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press. Murphy, Madonna. (2002). Character education in Americas blue ribbon schools: Best practices for meeting the challenge, 2nd ed. Blue Ridge Summit, PA: Scarecrow Press, Inc. Mussen, Paul, & Eisenberg-Berg, N. (1977). Roots of caring, sharing, and helping. San Francisco: Freeman. Mussen, Paul H. (Ed.). (1970). Carmichael's manual of child psychology (3rd ed.) (Vol. 2). New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.

267

Muuss, Rolf. (1988). Carol Gilligan's theory of sex differences in the development of moral reasoning during adolescence. Adolescence, 23, 229-243. Narramore, Bruce. (1979). Parenting with love and limits. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Nedley, Neil. (1998). Proof positive. Ardmore, OK: Neil Nedley. Nicgorski, Walter. (1987). The college experience and character development. In Kevin Ryan & George F. McLean (Eds.)., Character development in schools and beyond (pp. 329-357). New York: Praeger. Norris, Bill. (1990, August 24). Commercial watchword or video nasty? The Times Educational Supplement, p. 7. Noshpitz, Joseph. (1965, May 24). How to answer the question: Where did the child go wrong? The National Observer, p. 22. Nucci, Larry P. & Narvaez, Darcia, eds. (2008). Handbook of moral and character education. New York: Routledge. Offill, Richard W. (2002). Lord, keep your mansions--just save my children. Hagerstown, MD: Review and Herald. Orser, Evelyn. (1984). On my back looking up! Washington, DC: Review & Herald. Oskamp, Stuart. (1984). Applied social psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Oser, Fritz K. (2002). On becoming moral: How negative experience can inspire the moral person (paper presented as the First James Quiellen Lecture at Stanford School of Education, May 2002). Overstreet, H. A. (1949). The mature mind. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. Paicheler, Genevieve. (1988). The psychology of social influence. New York: Cambridge University Press. Papalia, Diane E., Olds, Sally Wendkos, & Feldman, Ruth Duskin. (2001). Human development, 8th edition. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Pawlowski, Cheryl. (2000). Glued to the tube: The threat of television addiction for todays family. Naperville, IL: Sourcebooks, Inc. Peck, M. Scott. (1978). The road less traveled: A new psychology of love, traditional values and spiritual growth. New York: Simon & Schuster. Peck, Robert F., & Havighurst, Robert J. (1960). The psychology of character development. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Perry, David, & Bussey, Kay. (1984). Social development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Petrash, J. (1983, February). The storyWeaving the cultural fabric. Momentum, pp. 13-15.

268

Phillips, Margaret B. (1991). A hedgehog proposal. Crime and Delinquency, 37, 555-574. Piaget, Jean. (1965). The moral judgment of the child. New York: The Free Press. Pikunas, Justin. (1969). Human development: A science of growth. New York: McGraw-Hill. Postman, Neil. (1986). Amusing ourselves to death: Public discourse in the age of show business. NY: Penguin Books. Postman, Neil. (1982). The disappearance of childhood. NY: Delacorte Press. Public values intangible assets more than material possessions (1989, March/April). The Gallup Report, 282/283, 35-44. The Random House Dictionary of the English Language, College Edition. (1969). New York: Random House. Raths, Louis E., Harmin, Merrill, & Simon, Sidney B. (1978). Values and teaching. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill. Rest, James. (1979). Development in judging moral issues. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Rest, James, Narvaez, Darcia, Bebeau, Muriel J. & Thoma, Stephen J. (1999). Postconventional moral thinking: A neo-Kohlbergian approach. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Rice, F. Phillip. (1990). The adolescent (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Rice, Richard. (1986, October). The mystery of suffering. Update, pp 3-4. Rice, Wayne (1991). A word from the editor. Youthworker, 8(2), 1. Rideout, Victoria J., Foehr, Ulla G., Roberts, Donald F. (2010). Generation M2: Media in the lives of 8to 18-year-olds. A Kaiser Family Foundation Study (available online). Riera, Michael & Di Prisco, Joseph. (2002). Right from wrong: Instilling a sense of integrity in your child. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing. Robertson, Lindsay A., McAnally, Helena M., Hancox, Robert J. (2013). Child and adolescent television viewing and antisocial behavior in early adulthood. Pediatrics 31(3), 439-446 (March 2013). Rogers, Dorothy. (1984). Adolescents and youth (5th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Rogus, Joseph F. (1985). Promoting self-discipline: A comprehensive approach. Theory into Practice, 24, 271-276. Rovenger, J. (1988). Children's literature as a moral compass. School Library Journal, 34(11), 45-46.

269

Rowen, Samuel F. (1983). Testing validity: Moral development and Biblical faith. In Donald M. Joy (Ed.), Moral development foundations: Judeo-Christian alternatives to Piaget/Kohlberg (pp. 111137). Nashville, TN: Abington. Ruben, Brent D. (1988). Communication and human behavior (2nd ed.). New York: MacMillan. Ryan, Kevin & Bohlin, Karen E. (1999). Building character in schools: Practical ways to bring moral instruction to life. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Ryan, Kevin, & Lickona, Thomas. (1987). Character development: The challenge and the model. In Kevin Ryan & George McLean (Eds.), Character development in schools and beyond (pp. 3-35). New York: Praeger. Ryan, Kevin and McLean, George (Eds) (1987). Character development in schools and beyond. New York: Praeger. Sapp, Gary L. (Ed.). (1986). Handbook of moral development. Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press. Salkind, Neil. (1990). Child development (6th ed.). San Francisco: Holt, Rhinehart & Winston. Schmidt, P. (1984). Self-esteem: Assessing the moral dimension. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 3(1), 52-56. The school's role in character development. (1985, December-1986, January). Educational Leadership, 43(4), pp. 3-78. Schulman, Michael, & Mekler, Eva. (1980). Bringing up a moral child. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Schuster, Clara Shaw, & Ashburn, Shirley Smith. (1980). The process of human development. Boston, MA: Little, Brown & Co. Scott, Sharon. (1985). Peer pressure reversal: An adult guide to developing a responsible child. Amherst, MA: Human Resource Development Press. Scott, Sharon. (1986). How to say no and keep your friends: PPR, Peer Pressure Reversal. Amherst, MA: Human Resource Development Press. Scott, Sharon. (1988). When to say yes! And make more friends. Amherst, MA: Human Resource Development Press. Seiter, Ellen. (1995). Sold separately: Parents & children in consumer culture. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Selman, Robert L. (1980). The growth of interpersonal understanding. New York: Academic Press. Sennett, Richard. (1998). The corrosion of character: The personal consequences of work in the new capitalism. NY: W. W. Norton & Company.

270

Seventh-day Adventists believe . . . a biblical exposition of 27 fundamental doctrines. (1988). Washington, DC: Ministerial Association, General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists. Shaffer, David R. (1993). Developmental psychology: Childhood and adolescence (3rd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Shaffer, David. (1988). Social and personality development. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Sheehan, William, & Kroll, Jerome. (1990). Psychiatric patient's belief in general health factors and sin as cause of illness. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 112-113). Shelton, Charles M. (1989). Morality and the adolescent: A pastoral psychology approach. New York: Crossroad. Sholl, Doug. (1983). Unity and uniqueness: A theology of Christian relationship. In Donald M. Joy (Ed.), Moral development foundations: Judeo-Christian alternatives to Piaget/Kohlberg (pp. 183206). Nashville, TN: Abington. Sichel, Betty. (1982). Value education for an age of crisis. New York: University Press of America. Sigelman, Carol K. & Rider, Elizabeth A. (2012). Life-span human development, 7e. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Silver, Michael. (1976). Values education. Washington, DC: National Education Association. Simon, Sidney B., & Clark, Jay. (1975). Beginning values clarification: Strategies for the classroom. San Diego, CA: Pennant Press. Simon, Sidney B., & Old, Sally Wendkos. (1976). Helping your children learn right from wrong: A guide to values clarification. New York: Simon and Schuster. Skafte, Dianne. (1989). The effect of perceived wealth and poverty on adolescents' character judgements. Journal of Social Psychology, 129, 93-100. Sloat, Donald. (1986). The dangers of growing up in a Christian home. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson. Smith, Leona J. (1968). Guiding the character development for the preschool child. New York: Association Press. Smith, Ruth & Habenicht, Donna J. (1993). An old moral education method rediscovered. Education, 113, 541-547. Smedes, Lewis. (1983). Mere morality. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 1983. Sorkhabi, Nadia & Mandara, Jelani. (2013). Are the effects of Baumrinds parenting styles culturally specific or culturally equivalent? In Larzelere, Robert E., Morris, Amanda Sheffield, & Harrist, Amanda W., eds. (2013). Authoritative parenting: Synthesizing nurturance and discipline for optimal child development (pp.113-136). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

271

Special focus on moral development. (1985). Elementary School Guidance and Counseling, 19, 244-282. Sprafkin, Joyce, Gadow, Kenneth D., & Abelman, Robert. (1992). Television and the exceptional child: A forgotten audicence. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Sprinthall, Norman. (1986). Affective processes. In Gary A. Sapp (Ed.), Handbook of moral development (pp. 146-166). Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press. Stearns, Ann Kaiser. (1984). Living through personal crisis. New York: Ballantine. Stearns, Ann Kaiser. (1987, November). Living through personal crisis. Seminar presented at the Century Center, South Bend, IN, November 2, 1987. Stein, Jess (Ed.). (1966). Random House dictionary of the English language. New York: Random House. Steinberg, Laurence. (1987). Single parents, stepparents, and the susceptibility of adolescents to antisocial peer pressure. Child Development, 58, 269-275. Steinberg, Laurence. (1993). Adolescence (3rd. ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Stengel, Susan R. (1982). Moral education for young children. Young Children, 37(6), 23-31. Stone, Joseph, & Church, Joseph (1973). Childhood and adolescence (3rd. ed.). New York: Random House. Strang, Ruth May. (1957). The adolescent views himself: A psychology of adolescence. NY: McGrawHill. Superka, Douglas P., Ahrens, Christine, & Hedstrom, Judith E. (1976). Values education sourcebook. Boulder, CO: Social Science Education. Sutkin, LaFaye C. (1984). Introduction. In Myron G. Eisenberg, LaFaye C. Sutkin, & Mary A. Jansen, (Eds.), Chronic illness and disability through the life span: Effects on self and family (pp. 1-19). New York: Springer. Symonds, Percival M. (1962). Origins of personality. In Warren N. Baller (Ed.), Readings in the psychology of human growth and development (pp. 595-609). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Tappan, M. B. & Brown, L. M. (1989). Stories told and lessons learned: Toward a narrative approach. Harvard Educational Review, 59(2), 182-205. Tessman, Lora Heims. (1989). Fathers and daughters: Early tones, later echoes. In Stanley H. Cath, Alan Gurtwitt, & Linda Gunsberg (Eds.), Fathers and their families (pp. 197-223). Hillsdale, NJ: The Analytic Press. Tillman, William, & Gilbert, Timothy. (1986). Christian ethics: A primer. Nashville, TN: Broadman Press.

272

Thomas, R. Murray. (1997). Moral development theoriessecular and religious (Contributions to the study of education, No. 68, Paul Pedersen, Series Adviser). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Thomas, R. Murray. (1997). An integrated theory of moral development (Contributions to the study of education, No. 69, Paul Pedersen, Series Adviser). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Tozer, Aiden W. (1980). A treasury of A. W. Tozer. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House. Tumangday, Miriam S. (1977). Albert Bandura and Ellen G. White: A comparative study of their concepts of behavior modification through modeling. Doctoral dissertation, Andrews University. USA Today. (1992, February 27). p. 40. Van Dolson, Leo, & Spangler, Robert. (1977). God's footprint on my floor. Nashville, TN: Southern Publishing. Van Dolson, Leo R., & Spangler, J. Robert. (1975). Healthy, happy, holy. Washington, DC: Review & Herald. Van Evra, Judith. (1990). Television and child development. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Vitz, P. C. (1990). The use of stories in moral development: New psychological reasons for an old education method. American Psychologist, 45(6), 709-720. Walker, Lawrence. (1982). The sequentiality of Kohlberg's stages of moral development. Child development, 53, 1330-1336. Walsh, Kevin & Cowles, Milly. (1982). Developmental Discipline. Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press. Waters, Rob. (2003). Bully-proof kids. Readers Digest, January, 2003. Watson, Marilyn. (2008). Developmental discipline and moral education. In Nucci, Larry P. & Narvaez, Darcia. Handbook of moral and character education.(pp. 175-201). New York: Routledge. Watts, Dorothy Eaton. When your child turns from God. Hagerstown, MD: Review and Herald. Webster, Noah. (1939). Webster's collegiate dictionary. Springfield, MA: G. & C. Merriam. Webster, Noah. (1976). Webster's new twentieth century dictionary of the English language: Unabridged (2nd ed.). Cleveland: Collins + World. Webster-Stratton, Carolyn. (1989). The relationship of marital support, conflict, and divorce to parent perceptions, behaviors, and childhood conduct problems. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 51, 417-430. Weissbourd, Richard. (2009). The parents we mean to be: How well-intentioned adults undermine childrens moral and emotional development. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. White, Ellen G. (1951). The acts of the apostles. Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press.

273

White, Ellen G. (1952). The Adventist home. Nashville, TN: Southern Publishing. White, Ellen G. (1954). Child guidance. Nashville, TN: Southern Publishing. White, Ellen G. (1980). Christ's object lessons. Washington, DC: Review and Herald. White, Ellen G. (1976). Counsels on diet and foods. Washington, DC: Review and Herald. White, Ellen G. (1968). Counsels on education. Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press. White, Ellen G. (1951). Counsels on health. Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press. White, Ellen G. (1938). Counsels on Sabbath School work. Washington, DC: Review and Herald. White, Ellen G. (1979). Counsels on stewardship. Washington, DC: Review and Herald. White, Ellen G. (1950). Counsels to parents, teachers, and students. Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press. White, Ellen G. (1940). The Desire of Ages. Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press. White, Ellen G. (1963). Early writings. Washington, DC: Review and Herald. White, Ellen G. (1952). Education. Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press. White, Ellen G. (1946). Evangelism. Washington, DC: Review and Herald. White. Ellen G. (1923). Fundamentals of Christian education. Nashville, TN: Southern Publishing. White, Ellen G. (1973). Gods amazing grace. Washington, DC: Review and Herald. White, Ellen G. (1948). Gospel workers. Washington, DC: Review and Herald. White, Ellen G. (1982). The great controversy. Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press. White, Ellen G. (1877, October). Home duties of the father. The Health Reformer, 12(10), 300-302. White, Ellen G. (1903). Letter 102. White, Ellen G. (1904). Manuscript 64. White, Ellen G. (1963). Medical ministry. Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press. White, Ellen G. (1974). Messages to young people. Nashville, TN: Southern Publishing. White, Ellen G. (1977). Mind, character, and personality. Nashville, TN: Southern Publishing. White, Ellen G. (1909). The ministry of healing. Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press. White, Ellen G. (1952). My life today. Washington, DC: Review and Herald.

274

White, Ellen G. (1961). Our high calling. Washington, DC: Review and Herald. White, Ellen G. (1890). Patriarchs and prophets. Battle Creek, MI: Review and Herald. White, Ellen G. (1943). Prophets and kings. Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press. White, Ellen G. (1884, August 26). Importance of education. The Review and Herald. White, Ellen G. (1884, November 25). Notes of travel. The Review and Herald, 61(47), 737-738. White, Ellen G. (1885, November 3). The Swiss Conference and the European Council. The Review and Herald, par. 3. White, Ellen G. (1896, April 14). Character of the last conflict. The Review and Herald, 73(15), 225-226. White, Ellen G. (1896, December 1). The right use of God's gifts. The Review and Herald, 73(48), 757758. White, Ellen G. (1899, December 5). Home training. The Review and Herald, 76(49), 781-782. White, Ellen G. (1907, January 24). The mother's work. The Review and Herald, 84(4), 8. White, Ellen G. (1907, August 15). The work in Washington, D.C. The Review and Herald, 84(33), 2122. White, Ellen G. (1911, October 12). A godly example in the home. The Review and Herald, 88(41), 3-4. White, Ellen G. (1956). The sanctified life. Washington, DC: Review and Herald. White, Ellen G. (1955). Selected messages (Vols. 1-3). Washington, DC: Review and Herald. White, Ellen G. (1881, November 3). Early life of Samuel. The Signs of the Times, 7(41), 481-482. White, Ellen G. (1898). Christ and the Pharisees. The Signs of the Times, 23, 114-115. White, Ellen G. (1955). Sons and daughters of God. Washington, DC: Review and Herald. White, Ellen G. (1945). Spiritual gifts. Washington, DC: Review and Herald. White, Ellen G. (1960). Steps to Christ. Washington, DC: Review and Herald. White, Ellen G. (1952). Temperance. Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press. White, Ellen G. (1948). Testimonies for the church. 9 vols. Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press. White, Ellen G. (1962). Testimonies to ministers. Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press. White, Ellen G. (1960). Thoughts from the mount of blessing. Washington, DC: Review and Herald. White, Ellen G. (1886). The mirror. The youths instructor, August 18, par. 7.

275

White, Ellen G. (1894). Words to the young. The youths instructor, January 18, par. 11. White, Ellen G. (1898). Search the Scriptures, no. 2. The youth's instructor, 46(42, October 20), 825-826. Wilson, James O., & Herrnstein, Richard J. (1985). Crime and human nature. New York: Simon and Schuster. Windmiller, Myra, Lambert, Nadine, & Turiel, Elliot. (1980). Moral development and socialization. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Winn, Marie. (2002). The plug-in drug: Television, computers, and family life (25th Anniversary Edition). NY: Penguin Books. Witter, Evelyn. (1976). Guide to teaching. Milford, MI: Mott Media. Wolfgang, Charles H., & Glickman, Carl D. (1986). Solving discipline problems: Strategies for classroom teachers (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Wolman, Benjamin B., & Stricker, George. (Eds.). (1982). Handbook of developmental psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

276

APPENDIX A SELF-CONCEPT

What is the relationship between self-concept, self-esteem, self-respect and Christian humility? How are these related to moral character development?

First, lets look at the meaning of these different terms. Self-concept generally refers to who we think we are. An individual can have multiple self-concepts (e.g., a sports self-concept, an academic self-concept, a personal appearance self-concept). Each of these individual self-concepts is more amenable to change than the persons global self-concept. Self-esteem refers to how we feel about who we are. Our judgments about our own worth are also part of self-esteem. Self-respect is defined by Random House Dictionary as proper esteem or regard for the dignity of ones own character. Self-respect seems to be the term most closely related to moral character development. "Throughout the history of the Western world, one of the most common needs of people seeking personal counseling has been to build up their self-esteem. Until this century, such depressed, insecure people would likely have sought the help of a pastor or priest, who would have treated the problem by identifying various moral shortcomings contributing to their depressed self-image. Despite the everpopular search for self-esteem, very few of today's counselors are still promoting moral integrity as a means to that end. The declining concern about moral values in the counseling process has continued despite the prophetic warnings of Mowrer (1961), Glasser (1965), and Menninger (1973), and the more recent ones of Davies (1978), Hassett (1981), and Bergin (1980, 1983)" (Schmidt, 1984, p. 52).

CHRISTIAN HUMILITY VERSUS LOW SELF-ESTEEM The person with a low self-esteem centers his life around himself, indulging in self-pity and self-centeredness. It is difficult for her to heed the injunction of the Saviour to "love thy neighbor as thyself" because she does not have a healthy self-respect for herself. Her love for her neighbor would be very weak, if it were the same as her love for herself! The love of God can satisfy the longings of the heart and provide a self-respect (and self-esteem) consonant with the regard which God has for each person. A proper self-resepect provides a solid basis for many moral decisions. "The Lord is disappointed when His people place a low estimate upon themselves. He desires His chosen heritage to value themselves according to the price He has placed upon them. God wanted them, else He would not have sent His Son on such an expensive errand to redeem them. He has a use for them, and He is well pleased when they make the very highest demands upon Him, that they may glorify His name" (White, The Desire of Ages, p. 668). "While the Christian's life will be characterized by humility, it should not be marked with sadness and self-depreciation. It is the privilege of everyone so to live that God will approve and bless him. It is not the will of our heavenly Father that we should ever be under condemnation and darkness. There is no evidence of true humility in going with the head bowed down and the heart filled with thoughts of self. We may go to Jesus and be cleansed, and stand before the law without shame and remorse. 'There is therefore no condemnation to them that which are in Christ Jesus, who walk not after the flesh, but after the Spirit.' Romans 8:1" (White, The Great Controversy, p. 477).

277

"The heart in which Christ dwells, will be so filled, so satisfied, with His love that it will not be consumed with longing to attract sympathy and attention to itself" (White, Thoughts from the Mount of Blessing, p. 65). "We need to beware of self-pity. Never indulge the feeling that you are not esteemed as you should be, that your efforts are not appreciated, that your work is too difficult. Let the memory of what Christ has endured for us silence every murmuring thought" (White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 476). "It should not be difficult to remember that the Lord desires you to lay your troubles and perplexities at His feet, and leave them there. . . . Banish no longer your self-respect; for I have bought you with the price of My own blood. You are mine. Your weakened will I will strengthen. Your remorse for sin I will remove" (White, Testimonies to Ministers, pp. 519-520).

APPROPRIATE SELF-RESPECT AND CHRISTIAN HUMILITY Human beings were created in the image of God. In recognizing the dignity of people and their brotherhood, we recognize the price paid for their redemption and the esteem which God places upon each individual. A low self-esteem negates the personal interest of God in each person and leads to a lack of self-respect. On the other hand, pride caused the initial entrance of sin into this world and subsequent moral deterioration. A self-centered pride interferes with the development of empathy and altruism, as well as moral judgment. "When Adam came from the Creator's hand, he bore, in his physical, mental, and spiritual nature, a likeness to his Maker" (White, Education, p. 15). "It [True courtesy] teaches self-respect, respect for the dignity of man as man, a regard for every member of the great human brotherhood" (p. 240). "The perception of God's love works the renunciation of selfishness. In calling God our Father, we recognize all His children as our brethren. We are all a part of the great web of humanity, all members of one family" (White, Thoughts From the Mount of Blessing, p. 105). "The more closely he (the Christian) resembles Christ in character the more humble will be his opinion of himself. . . . Those who have had the deepest experience in the things of God are the farthest removed from pride or self-exaltation. They have the humblest thoughts of self, and the most exalted conceptions of the glory and excellence of Christ. They feel that the lowest place in His service is too honorable for them" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 5, p. 223). "Every man who praises himself brushes luster from his best efforts" (vol. 4, p. 607). "He who looks higher than himself will be humble; yet he will possess a dignity that is not abashed or disconcerted by outward display or human greatness" (White, Education, p. 237). "The youth need to be impressed with the truth that their endowments are not their own. Strength, time, intellect, are but lent treasures. They belong to God, and it should be the resolve of every youth to put them to the highest use" (White, Education, p. 57). "We need to beware of self-pity. Never indulge the feeling that you are not appreciated, that your work is too difficult. . . . 'Seekest thou great things for thyself? Seek them not.' (Jer. 45:5) The Lord has

278

no place in His work for those who have a greater desire to win the crown than to bear the cross. He wants men who are more intent upon doing their duty than upon receiving their reward--men who are more solicitous for principle than for promotion" (White, The Ministry of Healing, pp. 476-477). "Those who are humble, and who do their work as unto God, may not make so great a show as do those who are full of bustle and self-importance; but their work counts for more. Often those who make a great parade call attention to self, interposing between the people and God, and their work proves a failure" (p. 477). "Not that we are in any way confident of our own resources--our ability comes from God. It is He who makes us competent administrators of the new agreement, and we deal not in the letter but in the Spirit. The letter of the Law leads to the death of the soul; the Spirit of God can give life to the soul" (2 Cor. 3:5,6. Phillips) Additional references: White, Mind, Character, and Personality, p. 260; White, Our High Calling, p. 90; White, Testimonies to Ministers, p. 223; White, Messages to Young People, p. 170; White, Sons and Daughters of God, p. 15. True Christian humility is not concerned with personal advancement, nor is it concerned with recognition and personal glory. True Christian humility is only concerned with advancing the cause of God. This is in direct contrast to self-centered career advancement. Christian humility is not the denial of our gifts, but the recognition of their source. Benjamin Reeves (sermon delivered at Pioneer Memorial Church, Andrews University). Additional References: White, Thoughts From the Mount of Blessing, p. 105.

HUMILITY, SELF-ESTEEM AND CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT Neither overestimating nor underestimating one's abilities and importance leads to a solid sense of self-respect. An accurate estimate goes with an appropriate self-respect which provides a foundation for the development of moral codes for behavior. "To know oneself is great knowledge. True self-knowledge leads to a humility that will open the way for the Lord to develop the mind, and mold and discipline the character" (White, Counsels to Parents, Teachers, and Students, p. 419). "Self-pity is deteriorating to the characters of those who cherish it, and it exerts an influence that spoils the happiness of others" (White, Medical Ministry, p. 177). "Through indulgence in sin, self-respect is destroyed; and when that is gone, respect for others is lessened; we think that others are as unrighteous as we are ourselves" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 6, p. 53).

Norman Wright has suggested that the Christian equation for self-concept should read: God + Me = Whole Person

279

"I praise you because I am fearfully and wonderfully made." Psalm 139:13-16 "I was redeemed with the precious blood of Christ." 1 Peter 1:18-19 "I am an adopted heir of God and co heir with Christ." Romans 8:14-17 Without God, self-concept can be primarily self-centered and egotistic. God's Word condemns self-centeredness and pride, but promotes union with God to produce true Christian humility. As mentioned earlier, the moral dimensions of self-esteem are seldom addressed in the psychological literature. However, they are crucial to a solid self-esteem. When we knowingly do what we know is not right, we lose respect for ourselves and our self-concept begins to crumble. Knowing the self accurately leads to greater dependence on God because our character defects become obvious when contrasted with Christ's holy life. Instead of indulging in pity and discouragement over this knowledge, we can rejoice in Christ's acceptance and strength for overcoming defects of character. This assurance provides the Christian with a solid base for selfesteemshe is a child of God. [See chapter 21 for a discussion of the development of Christian selfesteem and self-respect during childhood and adolescence.] Additional references: Prov. 23:67; Lev. 19:18; Rom. 3:9; White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 5, p. 332; vol. 3, p. 63; vol. 2, pp. 132-133.

SUGGESTED READING Coopersmith, Stanley. (1967). The antecedents of self-esteem. Fowler, John M. (1977). The concepts of character development in the writings of Ellen G. White, pp. 155-156. Habenicht, Donna. (1993). Educational psychology: A Christian perspective, chapter on Self-Esteem. Habenicht, Donna J. (2000). 10 Christian Values Every Kid Should Know, chapter 7 on self-respect and confidence Lloyd, Marjorie Lewis. (1981). If I had a bigger drum. Schmidt, P. (1984). Self-esteem: Assessing the moral dimension. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 3(1), 52-56. White, Ellen. Mind, Character, and Personality, pp. 255-277.

280

APPENDIX B EMOTIONS

What is the relationship between emotions and moral character development? Does Christian character require repression of natural emotions? Compare or contrast good mental health with good character.

EMOTIONS AND CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT The development of Christian character calls for self-control when dealing with negative emotions (such as anger and hate) and replacing these with positive ones (such as love, happiness, contentment). Denying that the emotions exist can lead to emotional problems later on. To avoid this we acknowledge our deficiency and lack of self-control and ask for Divine help in dealing with undesirable emotions. In the past psychologists and counselors have tended to emphasize emotions as essential to dealing with feelings, particularly in the context of therapy. More recently, however, cognitive behavioral therapists have emphasized the importance of thought processes in dealing with feelings. Leonard Berkowitz, from the University of Wisconsin, an authority on aggression, has stated the case for "bottling up rage" very well. He emphasizes that children need to be taught a better way to control their emotions than striking out against whatever is nearest. The current trend in therapy appears to be following the same direction, especially when dealing with anger. Continual expression of anger tends to reinforce the anger, rather than subdue it. "Strength of character consists of two things--power of will and power of self-control. Many youth mistake strong, uncontrolled passion for strength of character; but the truth is that he who is mastered by his passions is a weak man. The real greatness and nobility of the man is measured by the power of the feelings he subdues, not by the power of the feelings that subdue him. The strongest man is he, who, while sensitive to abuse, will yet restrain passion and forgive his enemies. Such men are true heroes" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 4, p. 656). "The active virtues must be cultivated as well as the passive. The Christian, while he is ever ready to give the soft answer that turneth away wrath, must possess the courage of a hero to resist evil. With the charity that endureth all things, he must have the force of character which will make his influence a positive power for good. Faith must be wrought into his character. His principles must be firm; he must be noble-spirited, above all suspicion of meanness" (p. 404). "'He that is slow to anger,' says the wise man, 'is better than the mighty; and he that ruleth his spirit, than he that taketh a city,' The man or woman who preserves balance of the mind when tempted to indulge passion stands higher in the sight of God and heavenly angels than the most renowned general that ever led an army to battle and to victory" (White, Child Guidance, p. 95). "Children should not be allowed to manifest anger; they should not be permitted to throw themselves upon the floor, striking and crying because something has been denied them which was not for their best good. . . . If an evil is permitted once, it will be repeated, and its repetition will result in a habit, and so the child's character will receive an evil mold" (p. 92).

281

"Children of quick, passionate disposition need the special care of their parents. They should be dealt with in a particularly kind but firm manner; there should be no wavering or indecision on the part of the parents in their case. The traits of character which would naturally check the growth of their peculiar faults should be carefully nourished and strengthened" (p. 93). "Men with fiery passions have a constant conflict with self, but the harder the battle, the more glorious will be the victory and the eternal reward" (White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 4, p. 367). "Many look at things on their darkest side; they magnify their supposed grievances, nurse their wrath and are filled with revengeful, hateful feelings when in truth they had no real cause for these feelings... Resist these wrong feelings and you will experience a great change in your association with your fellow men" (White, Mind, Character, and Personality, vol. 2, p. 517). "If we indulge anger, lust, covetousness, hatred, selfishness, or any other sin, we become servants of Satan. `No man can serve two masters' (Matt. 6:24)" (White, The Sanctified Life, p. 32). "If you do not feel lighthearted and joyous, do not talk of your feelings. Cast no shadow upon the lives of others. A cold, sunless religion never draws souls to Christ. . . . Instead of thinking of your discouragements, think only of the power you can claim in Christ's name" (White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 488). Additional References: White, The Desire of Ages, p. 825; White, Mind, Character, and Personality, pp. 126-127; White, My Life Today, p. 318; White, Our High Calling, p. 87; White, Selected Messages, vol. 1, p. 328; White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 4, p. 606; vol. 5, p. 314. "The emotional attitude is the functional unit of personality. The type of personality, the kind of character, the health of mind of the individual, will depend upon the emotional attitudes developed. Some emotional attitudes are functionally unhealthy; some are decidedly wholesome. . . . The emotional attitude is not in itself inherited. It is a learned response adopted to satisfy inherited urges. It can be changed if other means of satisfying these urges can be found. . . . It is vitally important which attitudes we develop" (Ligon, 1935, pp. 13-14). A person should not pretend his feelings do not exist. "Sanctification by swallowing" is not God's plan. A Christian should be able to deal with her feelings by verbally communicating them. Many Christians tend to think it necessary to suppress all emotions. A better approach is to recognize emotions and handle them positively. Divine intervention can help with difficult emotions. Many people think that feelings must precede action. In other words, in order to act happy the person must first feel happy. However, there is another side to this issue. Many times acting the way the person wants to and thinks he should feel, even though he does not feel that way at the moment, will lead to a change in feelings. Often actions can precede feelings and lead to changed feelings. In this way significant changes can occur in an individual's life, such as rekindling love in a marriage through "acting loving" even though the person does not "feel loving."

282

MENTAL HEALTH AND CHARACTER The National Association for Mental Health has this to say about good mental health: "Mental health is something all of us want for ourselves, whether we know it by name or not. When we speak of happiness, or peace of mind, or enjoyment, or satisfaction, we are usually talking about mental health. "Mental health has to do with everybody's life. It means the over-all way that people get along--in their families, at school, on the job, at play, with their associates, ideals, feelings and his conscience in order to meet the demands of life as he has to face it. It has to do with: 1) How you feel about yourself 2) How you feel about other people 3) How you are able to meet the demands of life "There is no line that neatly divides the mentally healthy from the unhealthy. There are many different degrees of mental health. No one characteristic by itself can be taken as evidence of good mental health, nor can the lack of any one as evidence of mental illness. And nobody has all the traits of good mental health all the time. --Taken from the brochure: "Mental Health is 1, 2, 3" Good mental health and good moral character belong together. In the development of moral character the positive traits of good mental health are also developed. "Moral development is closely interrelated with a child's emotional development. His capacity for affection influences the way he will respond to the moral teachings of his elders" (Jersild, 1960, p. 411). "A child who is burdened with emotional difficulties apparently does not have as much freedom as a more serene child to develop ideas of his own concerning right and wrong. He is less able to make allowances for human frailty and, in his misery, he is more likely than a happy child to be punitive rather than compassionate in passing judgment on the misdeeds of others" (p. 412). Two studies carried out by Hanlin and Zucker (1986) "support the position that both affect and cognition play a significant role in moral judgments, although these data do not help determine which is primary" (p. 1133). "In some respects, the most audacious of all the great insights that have come into the world was the apparently absurd conviction of Jesus of Nazareth that men must love one another. `A new commandment I give unto you that ye love one another.' We can easily imagine the bewilderment--even the ribald laughter--of his hearers. A world that was still very far from reaching the level of universal justice could scarcely rise to the level of universal love. "In reality, this `new commandment' was not an absurd and arbitrary rule laid upon man from the outside. It was, rather, the most profound insight into man's nature that had yet been achieved. Today every psychiatrist would affirm its truth. Man is sound in psychological health to the degree that he relates himself affirmatively to his fellow man. To hate and fear is to be psychologically ill" (Overstreet, 1949, pp. 101-102). "Courage, hope, faith, sympathy, love, promote health and prolong life. A contented mind, a cheerful spirit, is health to the body and strengths to the soul. `A merry heart doeth good like a medicine.' Prov. 17:22" (White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 241).

283

"He who is at peace with God and his fellow men cannot be made miserable. Envy will not be in his heart; evil surmising will find no room there; hatred cannot exist. The heart that is in harmony with God is a partaker of the peace of heaven and will diffuse its blessed influence on all around. The spirit of peace will rest like dew upon hearts weary and troubled with worldly strife" (White, Thoughts from the Mount of Blessing, p. 28). "The heart in which Christ dwells, will be so filled, so satisfied, with His love that it will not be consumed with longing to attract sympathy and attention to itself" (p. 65). "If among a number of possible moral principles, some of them lead to neurosis and personality maladjustment whereas others lead to integration and dynamic personality, the latter are more characteristic of strong character. This, for example, certainly involves the formation of accurate and confident self-attitudes and self-other concepts" (Ligon, 1956, p. 276).

The following traits contribute to good mental health: Courage Hope Faith Sympathy Love Mercy Forgiveness Tenderness Peace Cheerfulness Submission to God

The following traits contribute to poor mental health: Fear Despair Lack of trust, suspicion disdain, antipathy Hate Jealousy Prejudice Guilt Envy

Today mental health experts believe there are biological reasons for certain types of mental illness. These probably do not have anything to do with character development. However, the traits cultivated in character development also contribute to good mental health. "Grief, anxiety, discontent, remorse, guilt, distrust, all tend to break down the life forces and to invite decay and death" (White, The Ministry of Healing, p. 241). Additional References: White, Testimonies for the Church, vol. 3, p. 377; vol. 5, p. 487; White, Thoughts from the Mount of Blessing, pp. 21-23.

SUGGESTED READING Berkowitz, Leonard. (1977, July). The case for bottling up rage. Psychology Today, pp. 24-31. Dobson, James C. (1980). Emotions: Can you trust them? Sprinthall, Norman. (1986). Affective processes. In Gary A. Sapp (Ed.), Handbook of moral development (pp. 146-166).

284

White, Ellen. Mind, character, and personality. pp. 451-541; 755-762. White, Ellen. The ministry of healing, pp. 241-259. White, Ellen. The sanctified life, pp. 89-96.

285

APPENDIX C MIND AND BODY Donna J. Habenicht, Ed.D. Herald A. Habenicht, M.D. The following article was prepared for the Ellen G. White Encyclopedia (publication pending, 2013): Ellen White wrote extensively regarding the mind and the interaction of the mind and the body (over 20,500 sources mentioning the mind and 2,000 mentioning the mind and body together). The importance of the mind to spiritual life is the primary focus of her writings on this topic. This summary is divided into two main sections: (1) The relationship between the mind and the body, and (2) the development of the mind. In most instances White uses brain, mind, and head interchangeably. Occasionally, character, will, heart, conscience, soul, moral, emotions, or passions appear to be used to describe mental functions or characteristics (e.g., MCP 51:2).

The Relationship Between the Mind and the Body Whites extensive writing in this area always describes an interdependence and reciprocal relationship between the mind and the body. In many instances the mind leads the way and the body follows, both for building up or tearing down. Mind Controls the Body The mind controls the body (3T 136; 1MCP 72; CH 586). ... when the soul is sick, the body is also affected (6T 301:1). Nine-tenths of diseases have their foundation in the mind (5T 444; 1MCP 59:2). The mind affects the body and the physical system in powerful ways. For example, cheerfulness encourages freer circulation of the blood and tones up the entire body (CH 28, MCP 60). The will and self-control (mind) can preserve and recover health (Ed 197). Cheerfulness, unselfishness, and gratitude have life giving power, while anger, discontent, selfishness and impurity have depressing and even ruinous effects (Ed 197). Mental activity creates electric power which vitalizes the whole system and aids in resisting disease (MCP 60:3). Body Affects the Mind At other times, usually depending on the purpose of her testimony or instruction, White emphasized that the body leads in the behavior and the mind or soul follows. The words body, appetite, and passions seem to be used interchangeably in many instances. The body is the only medium through which the mind and the soul are developed for the upbuilding of character (MH 130:1). The indulgence of appetite beclouds and fetters the mind, and blunts the holy emotions of the soul (3T 310:1). White gives many examples of how the body affects the mind. A sampling of these follows: Physical conditions that help the mind Exercise and fresh air rest and relax the mind (4T 264 (1876); MCP1 116:1); lead to composure and serenity, and induce sound, sweet sleep (1T 702 (1868); MCP 116:2); relieve the wearied brain and

286

prevent the mind from overwork (3T 152, MCP 117:2). Other physical conditions that invigorate the mind include manual labor each day (4T 264, MCP2 383:2); bathing (3T 70; MCP2 383:3); and physical activity (MCP 362:2 and 364:1; CEd 211:1; 5T 522:1; TM 241:2). Sleep and rest are essential to health of body and mind (7T 247:1). Physical conditions that hurt the mind White clearly identifies a number of physical issues that impair the functioning of the brain/mind: Loss of sleep and irregular hours for sleeping lessen mental and physical strength, blunting discernment (YI May 31, 1894; CDF 122:201; 3T 242:1; CDF 176:272; Ed 205). Bad habits of appetite (MCP 317:2), as well as alcohol, tobacco, and tea also hurt the mind (Te 79,80; MH 329; MCP1 321:4). Stimulants and the Brain One of Ellen Whites favorite topics when speaking or writing was Christian temperance. Here she found a platform for teaching the effects of the body upon the mind, soul, and character. In this context she spoke of stimulation, artificial stimulation, stimulants, and scale of artificial stimulation. These terms were often associated with appetite. White clearly stated that Satan gains control of the mind through appetite (Te 14:2). White refers to different degrees in the scale of artificial stimulation. Tea, coffee and tobacco, as well as alcoholic drinks, are different degrees in the scale of artificial stimulants (CDF 421:736). Flesh meats and tea and coffee prepare the way for stronger stimulants. Tobacco and liquor follow (Te 48, 57:1). Condiments and spices pave the way for stronger stimulants: tobacco and wine (Signs of the Times Oct 27, 1887; Te 57:2). Tobacco . . . excites then paralyzes the nerves. It weakens and clouds the brain (MH 327-8). Effects of Stimulants on the Mind According to White, stimulants can have a serious effect on the mind. Some of the effects mentioned include: Benumbing (Te 73-74) and beclouding (4T 28) of the mind and intellect; weakening the intellect (4T 28) and mental power (CH 432); injuring the mind (Te 59, 78) and character (MH 335); and unbalancing the mind (Te 78-79). Narcotics, opium, and morphine are hurtful and ruinous to the physical, mental, and moral powers... (CDF 421:734; CDF 62:92). The influence of the Holy Spirit is lessened (Te 80) and worship of God is hindered (CDF 426). The list of damaging influences also includes: Overeating (CDF 62:93, MH 306-307); irregularity in eating and drinking (CDF 62:91); bed time snacks (MH 303:3); condiments such as mustard, pepper, spices (CDF 339:556); self-abuse and masturbation (2T 361, 2T 469-70, 5T 91); and free use of flesh meats (CDF 389:678; MH 311-317; CDF 373-416). Diet affects the mind and spirituality (MCP 385-395; CDF 43-65). Indulged appetite is the greatest hindrance to mental improvement and soul sanctification (CDF 45:55). Different aspects of diet which affect the functioning of the mind and consequently the individuals spirituality include: Too much quantity of food (CDF 145-170; CDF 131-142); too much variety (MH 299); and too much sugar and desserts (CDF 327-335). Novel and frivolous story reading are also stimulants which negatively affect the mind and the spiritual life (AH 414:4, 415:1; CSW 21:2; 2MCP 591:1; OHC 275:3). Reciprocal Relationship Between Mind and Body At times White described a reciprocal relationship between the mind and the body, an interdependence between the two systems with mutual working together. Some examples follow: The brain is the organ and instrument of the mind and controls the whole body.... If by correct

287

habits of eating and drinking the blood is kept pure, the brain will be properly nourished (MM 291; MCP1 60:1). Between the mind and the body there is a mysterious and wonderful relationship. They react upon each other...to neglect the body is to neglect the mind (MCP 373:1) Balance should exist between mental and physical activity (MCP 3, 364, 377; MH 128:2; Ed 197; 5T 322; YI April 7, 1898). Importance of Correct Thinking for Physical Health Most diseases originate in mind sickness and their cure lies in the mind (5T 444; MCP 59-64; MH 241-259). Morbid imagination, depressing emotions hinder digestion and interfere with nutrition...Grief and anxiety...do great harm (MCP 62:3) Peace of mind, which comes from pure and holy motives and actions, will give free and vigorous springs to all the organs of the body (2T 327). The mind and the body are in close relationship. One sympathizes with the other. White offers many examples of this relationship: Cheerfulness increases the circulation and body tone; helping others helps the heart and life (CH 28:2). Brain electric power vitalizes the whole system and is an invaluable aid in resisting disease (Ed 197; MCP 396:2). Mental activity will produce health (MCP 396:3). The Holy Spirit is the best medicine (MM 12). The Development of the Mind Human beings were created in the image of God, and therefore, they are provided with one of Gods greatest gifts: the power of the mind, the aptitude to think and to reason. This unique endowment makes humans distinct from all other living things and lower animals. Every human being, created in the image of God, is endowed with a power akin to that of the Creatorindividuality, power to think and to do. . . . It is the work of true education to develop this power, to train the youth to be thinkers, . . . (Ed 17:2; MCP 361:1). Every man and every woman should feel that obligations are resting upon them to reach the very height of intellectual greatness (GW 166:1; 4T 413:2). The main purpose of the development of the human mind is to worship its Creator, honoring Him through making sound moral decisions, and serving Him guided by the principles of true love. Consequently, the human mind should be directed by God through prayer and study of Scriptures. The study of the Bible under the guidance of the Holy Spirit is the best means to reach the highest possibilities of mental development. Sincerely grasping the God-given truths will confer clear comprehension and sound judgment. The study of the Scripture will elevate and ennoble the mind, develop a well-balanced mind, lead to greater mental efficiency, and build breadth of mind, nobility of character, and stability of purpose (CEd 58:1; SC 94:4; FE 394:0; MCP 91:3; 5T 703.3). Healthy mental development is assured through a continuous communion with the Source of all wisdom, knowledge, and power. The intellect is developed, strengthened, and surrounded with genuine peace (Ch 163:2; MH 58:3; COL 146:4). God will give understanding in temporal as well as in spiritual matters (COL 146:4). The highest development of the mind can only occur under the influence of the Holy Spirit (DA 251:1; GW 285:3; CH 164:1; COL 24:1). Prayer, nature study, and useful work are also essential for mental development (CSW 40:1; CG 49:2, 50:1; CEd 205:0; PP 642:0; Ed 21:2; AH 286:2). The individual has a large role to play in the development of the mind. Diligence, self-discipline, and practice are essential for mental development (MCP 289:1; CH 405:1; 4T 561:3; 3T 32:1,2; MCP 588:0). The most brilliant talents are of no value unless they are improved; industrious habits and force of character must be gained by cultivation. A high moral character and fine mental qualities are not the result of accident. God gives opportunities; success depends upon the use made of them (5T 321:2). For the mind and the soul, as well as for the body, it is Gods Law that strength is acquired by effort (Ed 123:1).

288

The development of the mind can be affected by subjects that occupy the thoughts (CEd 65:1; CT 460:3), as well as the emotional atmosphere surrounding the individual (MH 257:1; 387:1). Physical factors play a large role in the development of the mind, both positively and negatively (see the first section). Other negative influences mentioned by White include overloading the mind (CT 296:2), moral perversion (5T 682:1), and futile and trivial reading material (FE 452:0). The ability to memorize is very important, especially memorizing the Scriptures. The memory needs to be disciplined and exercised so it can remember clearly (CT 506:1; 4T 399:1; Ed 252:1; 3T 12:1; GW 100:0). The Holy Spirit prompts the retrieval of truth when we are doing Gods work (CSW 41:1; DA 355:2). Putting words to music and singing and performing them are very effective memory devices (Ed 167:5, 168:1). The use of object lessons, associations, and illustrations help store information in the memory FE 95:1; Ed 186:1; CG 515:1; PP 592:2). A regular, orderly disciplined life also aids memory (CG 111:5; CD 137:2; FE 227:1). Memory is a gift from God which has been given to use for His glory. The truths of Gods word should be securely stored in our minds that we may share them with the world. By a knowledge of Gods promises, we have comfort and courage to press onward in the Christian life and the weapons necessary to successfully meet Satans temptations (CS 116:4; ML 28:1; GC 600:0). On the other hand, memory should not be used as a substitute for all learning. If this is done the mind is not trained to use the reasoning powers in thinking independently and making decisions. Thus the conscience is left dormant and becomes incapable of judging right from wrong (Ed 230:1-3). Summary In summary, White emphasizes the intimate association of mind and body. What affects one, affects the other. If our physical habits are not right, our mental and moral powers cannot be strong;... for great sympathy exists between the physical and the moral. The brain nerves which communicate with the entire system are the only medium through which Heaven can communicate to man and affect his inmost life (Te 13). Since the mind is Gods communication channel with human beings, the importance of maintaining a healthy body to support the mind and of developing the mind to its greatest capacity in order to worship God, honor Him through sound moral decisions, and serve Him guided by the principles of true love cannot be overemphasized. The relationship with God depends on the state of the mind.

289