Republic Act No.

386
June 18, 1949

The Civil Code of the Philippines

AN ACT TO ORDAIN AND INSTITUTE THE CIVIL CODE

OF THE PHILIPPINES

PRELIMINARY TITLE

CHAPTER I
EFFECT AND APPLICATION OF LAWS

Article 1. This Act shall be known as the "Civil Code of the

Philippines." (n)
Art. 2. Laws shall take effect after fifteen days following the
completion of their publication in the Official Gazette, unless
it is otherwise provided. This Code shall take effect one year
after such publication. (1a)

Art. 3. Ignorance of the law excuses no one from

compliance therewith. (2)

Art. 4. Laws shall have no retroactive effect, unless the

contrary is provided. (3)

Art. 5. Acts executed against the provisions of mandatory or

prohibitory laws shall be void, except when the law itself
authorizes their validity. (4a)

Art. 6. Rights may be waived, unless the waiver is contrary

to law, public order, public policy, morals, or good customs,
or prejudicial to a third person with a right recognized by
law. (4a)

Art. 7. Laws are repealed only by subsequent ones, and their

violation or non-observance shall not be excused by disuse,
or custom or practice to the contrary.

When the courts declared a law to be inconsistent with the

Constitution, the former shall be void and the latter shall
govern.
Administrative or executive acts, orders and regulations
shall be valid only when they are not contrary to the laws or
the Constitution. (5a)

Art. 8. Judicial decisions applying or interpreting the laws or

the Constitution shall form a part of the legal system of the
Philippines. (n)

Art. 9. No judge or court shall decline to render judgment by

reason of the silence, obscurity or insufficiency of the laws.
(6)

Art. 10. In case of doubt in the interpretation or application

of laws, it is presumed that the lawmaking body intended
right and justice to prevail. (n)

Art. 11. Customs which are contrary to law, public order or

public policy shall not be countenanced. (n)

Art. 12. A custom must be proved as a fact, according to the

rules of evidence. (n)

Art. 13. When the laws speak of years, months, days or

nights, it shall be understood that years are of three hundred
sixty-five days each; months, of thirty days; days, of twenty-
four hours; and nights from sunset to sunrise.

If months are designated by their name, they shall be

computed by the number of days which they respectively
have.

In computing a period, the first day shall be excluded, and

the last day included. (7a)

Art. 14. Penal laws and those of public security and safety
shall be obligatory upon all who live or sojourn in the
Philippine territory, subject to the principles of public
international law and to treaty stipulations. (8a)

Art. 15. Laws relating to family rights and duties, or to the

status, condition and legal capacity of persons are binding
upon citizens of the Philippines, even though living abroad.
(9a)

Art. 16. Real property as well as personal property is subject

to the law of the country where it is stipulated.

However, intestate and testamentary successions, both with

respect to the order of succession and to the amount of
successional rights and to the intrinsic validity of
testamentary provisions, shall be regulated by the national
law of the person whose succession is under consideration,
whatever may be the nature of the property and regardless
of the country wherein said property may be found. (10a)

Art. 17. The forms and solemnities of contracts, wills, and

other public instruments shall be governed by the laws of
the country in which they are executed.

When the acts referred to are executed before the diplomatic

or consular officials of the Republic of the Philippines in a
foreign country, the solemnities established by Philippine
laws shall be observed in their execution.

Prohibitive laws concerning persons, their acts or property,

and those which have, for their object, public order, public
policy and good customs shall not be rendered ineffective by
laws or judgments promulgated, or by determinations or
conventions agreed upon in a foreign country. (11a)

Art. 18. In matters which are governed by the Code of

Commerce and special laws, their deficiency shall be
supplied by the provisions of this Code. (16a)

CHAPTER 2
HUMAN RELATIONS (n)

Art. 19. Every person must, in the exercise of his rights and
in the performance of his duties, act with justice, give
everyone his due, and observe honesty and good faith.
Art. 20. Every person who, contrary to law, wilfully or
negligently causes damage to another, shall indemnify the
latter for the same.

Art. 21. Any person who wilfully causes loss or injury to

another in a manner that is contrary to morals, good
customs or public policy shall compensate the latter for the
damage.

Art. 22. Every person who through an act of performance by

another, or any other means, acquires or comes into
possession of something at the expense of the latter without
just or legal ground, shall return the same to him.

Art. 23. Even when an act or event causing damage to

another's property was not due to the fault or negligence of
the defendant, the latter shall be liable for indemnity if
through the act or event he was benefited.
Art. 24. In all contractual, property or other relations, when
one of the parties is at a disadvantage on account of his
moral dependence, ignorance, indigence, mental weakness,
tender age or other handicap, the courts must be vigilant for
his protection.

Art. 25. Thoughtless extravagance in expenses for pleasure

or display during a period of acute public want or emergency
may be stopped by order of the courts at the instance of any
government or private charitable institution.

Art. 26. Every person shall respect the dignity, personality,

privacy and peace of mind of his neighbors and other
persons. The following and similar acts, though they may not
constitute a criminal offense, shall produce a cause of action
for damages, prevention and other relief:

(1) Prying into the privacy of another's residence: (2)

Meddling with or disturbing the private life or family
relations of another; (3) Intriguing to cause another to
be alienated from his friends; (4) Vexing or humiliating
another on account of his religious beliefs, lowly station
in life, place of birth, physical defect, or other personal
condition.
Art. 27. Any person suffering material or moral loss because
a public servant or employee refuses or neglects, without
just cause, to perform his official duty may file an action for
damages and other relief against he latter, without prejudice
to any disciplinary administrative action that may be taken.
Art. 28. Unfair competition in agricultural, commercial or
industrial enterprises or in labor through the use of force,
intimidation, deceit, machination or any other unjust,
oppressive or highhanded method shall give rise to a right of
action by the person who thereby suffers damage.

Art. 29. When the accused in a criminal prosecution is

acquitted on the ground that his guilt has not been proved
beyond reasonable doubt, a civil action for damages for the
same act or omission may be instituted. Such action requires
only a preponderance of evidence. Upon motion of the
defendant, the court may require the plaintiff to file a bond
to answer for damages in case the complaint should be
found to be malicious.

If in a criminal case the judgment of acquittal is based upon

reasonable doubt, the court shall so declare. In the absence
of any declaration to that effect, it may be inferred from the
text of the decision whether or not the acquittal is due to
that ground.

Art. 30. When a separate civil action is brought to demand

civil liability arising from a criminal offense, and no criminal
proceedings are instituted during the pendency of the civil
case, a preponderance of evidence shall likewise be
sufficient to prove the act complained of.

Art. 31. When the civil action is based on an obligation not

arising from the act or omission complained of as a felony,
such civil action may proceed independently of the criminal
proceedings and regardless of the result of the latter.

Art. 32. Any public officer or employee, or any private

individual, who directly or indirectly obstructs, defeats,
violates or in any manner impedes or impairs any of the
following rights and liberties of another person shall be
liable to the latter for damages:

(1) Freedom of religion; (2) Freedom of speech;

(3) Freedom to write for the press or to maintain a
periodical publication; (4) Freedom from arbitrary or
illegal detention; (5) Freedom of suffrage; (6) The
right against deprivation of property without due
process of law; (7) The right to a just compensation
when private property is taken for public use; (8) The
right to the equal protection of the laws; (9) The right
to be secure in one's person, house, papers, and effects
against unreasonable searches and seizures; (10) The
liberty of abode and of changing the same; (11) The
privacy of communication and correspondence;
(12) The right to become a member of associations or
societies for purposes not contrary to law; (13) The
right to take part in a peaceable assembly to petition
the government for redress of grievances; (14) The
right to be free from involuntary servitude in any form;
(15) The right of the accused against excessive bail;
(16) The right of the accused to be heard by himself
and counsel, to be informed of the nature and cause of
the accusation against him, to have a speedy and public
trial, to meet the witnesses face to face, and to have
compulsory process to secure the attendance of
witness in his behalf; (17) Freedom from being
compelled to be a witness against one's self, or from
being forced to confess guilt, or from being induced by
a promise of immunity or reward to make such
confession, except when the person confessing
becomes a State witness; (18) Freedom from
 excessive fines, or cruel and unusual punishment,
unless the same is imposed or inflicted in accordance
with a statute which has not been judicially declared
unconstitutional; and (19) Freedom of access to the
courts.
In any of the cases referred to in this article, whether or not
the defendant's act or omission constitutes a criminal
offense, the aggrieved party has a right to commence an
entirely separate and distinct civil action for damages, and
for other relief. Such civil action shall proceed independently
of any criminal prosecution (if the latter be instituted), and
mat be proved by a preponderance of evidence.
The indemnity shall include moral damages. Exemplary
damages may also be adjudicated.

The responsibility herein set forth is not demandable from a

judge unless his act or omission constitutes a violation of the
Penal Code or other penal statute.

Art. 33. In cases of defamation, fraud, and physical injuries a

civil action for damages, entirely separate and distinct from
the criminal action, may be brought by the injured party.
Such civil action shall proceed independently of the criminal
prosecution, and shall require only a preponderance of
evidence.

Art. 34. When a member of a city or municipal police force

refuses or fails to render aid or protection to any person in
case of danger to life or property, such peace officer shall be
primarily liable for damages, and the city or municipality
shall be subsidiarily responsible therefor. The civil action
herein recognized shall be independent of any criminal
proceedings, and a preponderance of evidence shall suffice
to support such action.

Art. 35. When a person, claiming to be injured by a criminal

offense, charges another with the same, for which no
independent civil action is granted in this Code or any special
law, but the justice of the peace finds no reasonable grounds
to believe that a crime has been committed, or the
prosecuting attorney refuses or fails to institute criminal
proceedings, the complaint may bring a civil action for
damages against the alleged offender. Such civil action may
be supported by a preponderance of evidence. Upon the
defendant's motion, the court may require the plaintiff to file
a bond to indemnify the defendant in case the complaint
should be found to be malicious.
If during the pendency of the civil action, an information
should be presented by the prosecuting attorney, the civil
action shall be suspended until the termination of the
criminal proceedings.

Art. 36. Pre-judicial questions which must be decided before

any criminal prosecution may be instituted or may proceed,
shall be governed by rules of court which the Supreme Court
shall promulgate and which shall not be in conflict with the
provisions of this Code.

BOOK I
PERSONS

Title I. - CIVIL PERSONALITY

CHAPTER 1
GENERAL PROVISIONS

Art. 37. Juridical capacity, which is the fitness to be the

subject of legal relations, is inherent in every natural person
and is lost only through death. Capacity to act, which is the
power to do acts with legal effect, is acquired and may be
lost. (n)
Art. 38. Minority, insanity or imbecility, the state of being a
deaf-mute, prodigality and civil interdiction are mere
restrictions on capacity to act, and do not exempt the
incapacitated person from certain obligations, as when the
latter arise from his acts or from property relations, such as
easements. (32a)

Art. 39. The following circumstances, among others, modify

or limit capacity to act: age, insanity, imbecility, the state of
being a deaf-mute, penalty, prodigality, family relations,
alienage, absence, insolvency and trusteeship. The
consequences of these circumstances are governed in this
Code, other codes, the Rules of Court, and in special laws.
Capacity to act is not limited on account of religious belief or
political opinion.
A married woman, twenty-one years of age or over, is
qualified for all acts of civil life, except in cases specified by
law. (n)

CHAPTER 2
NATURAL PERSONS

Art. 40. Birth determines personality; but the conceived child

shall be considered born for all purposes that are favorable
to it, provided it be born later with the conditions specified
in the following article. (29a)
Art. 41. For civil purposes, the fetus is considered born if it is
alive at the time it is completely delivered from the mother's
womb. However, if the fetus had an intra-uterine life of less
than seven months, it is not deemed born if it dies within
twenty-four hours after its complete delivery from the
maternal womb. (30a)

Art. 42. Civil personality is extinguished by death.

The effect of death upon the rights and obligations of the

deceased is determined by law, by contract and by will. (32a)

Art. 43. If there is a doubt, as between two or more persons

who are called to succeed each other, as to which of them
died first, whoever alleges the death of one prior to the other,
shall prove the same; in the absence of proof, it is presumed
that they died at the same time and there shall be no
transmission of rights from one to the other. (33)

CHAPTER 3
JURIDICAL PERSONS

Art. 44. The following are juridical persons:

(1) The State and its political subdivisions; (2) Other
corporations, institutions and entities for public
interest or purpose, created by law; their personality
begins as soon as they have been constituted according
to law; (3) Corporations, partnerships and associations
for private interest or purpose to which the law grants
a juridical personality, separate and distinct from that
of each shareholder, partner or member. (35a)
Art. 45. Juridical persons mentioned in Nos. 1 and 2 of the
preceding article are governed by the laws creating or
recognizing them.
Private corporations are regulated by laws of general
application on the subject.
Partnerships and associations for private interest or purpose
are governed by the provisions of this Code concerning
partnerships. (36 and 37a)

Art. 46. Juridical persons may acquire and possess property

of all kinds, as well as incur obligations and bring civil or
criminal actions, in conformity with the laws and regulations
of their organization. (38a)

Art. 47. Upon the dissolution of corporations, institutions and

other entities for public interest or purpose mentioned in No.
2 of Article 44, their property and other assets shall be
disposed of in pursuance of law or the charter creating them.
If nothing has been specified on this point, the property and
other assets shall be applied to similar purposes for the
benefit of the region, province, city or municipality which
during the existence of the institution derived the principal
benefits from the same. (39a)

Title II. - CITIZENSHIP AND DOMICILE

Art. 48. The following are citizens of the Philippines:

(1) Those who were citizens of the Philippines at the time
of the adoption of the Constitution of the Philippines;
(2) Those born in the Philippines of foreign parents
who, before the adoption of said Constitution, had been
elected to public office in the Philippines; (3) Those
whose fathers are citizens of the Philippines; (4) Those
whose mothers are citizens of the Philippines and, upon
reaching the age of majority, elect Philippine
citizenship; (5) Those who are naturalized in
accordance with law. (n)
Art. 49. Naturalization and the loss and reacquisition of
citizenship of the Philippines are governed by special laws.
(n)
Art. 50. For the exercise of civil rights and the fulfillment of
civil obligations, the domicile of natural persons is the place
of their habitual residence. (40a)

Art. 51. When the law creating or recognizing them, or any

other provision does not fix the domicile of juridical persons,
the same shall be understood to be the place where their
legal representation is established or where they exercise
their principal functions. (41a)

Title III. - MARRIAGE

CHAPTER 1
 REQUISITES OF MARRIAGE

Art. 52. Marriage is not a mere contract but an inviolable

social institution. Its nature, consequences and incidents are
governed by law and not subject to stipulation, except that
the marriage settlements may to a certain extent fix the
property relations during the marriage. (n)
Art. 53. No marriage shall be solemnized unless all these
requisites are complied with:

(1) Legal capacity of the contracting parties; (2) Their

consent, freely given; (3) Authority of the person
performing the marriage; and (4) A marriage license,
except in a marriage of exceptional character (Sec. 1a,
Art. 3613).
Art. 54. Any male of the age of sixteen years or upwards, and
any female of the age of fourteen years or upwards, not
under any of the impediments mentioned in Articles 80 to 84,
may contract marriage. (2)
Art. 55. No particular form for the ceremony of marriage is
required, but the parties with legal capacity to contract
marriage must declare, in the presence of the person
solemnizing the marriage and of two witnesses of legal age,
that they take each other as husband and wife. This
declaration shall be set forth in an instrument in triplicate,
signed by signature or mark by the contracting parties and
said two witnesses and attested by the person solemnizing
the marriage.

In case of a marriage on the point of death, when the dying

party, being physically unable, cannot sign the instrument by
signature or mark, it shall be sufficient for one of the
witnesses to the marriage to sign in his name, which fact
shall be attested by the minister solemnizing the marriage.
(3)

Art. 56. Marriage may be solemnized by:

(1) The Chief Justice and Associate Justices of the Supreme

Court; (2) The Presiding Justice and the Justices of the
Court of Appeals; (3) Judges of the Courts of First
Instance; (4) Mayors of cities and municipalities; (5)
Municipal judges and justices of the peace; (6) Priests,
rabbis, ministers of the gospel of any denomination,
church, religion or sect, duly registered, as provided in
Article 92; and (7) Ship captains, airplane chiefs,
military commanders, and consuls and vice-consuls in
special cases provided in Articles 74 and 75. (4a)
Art. 57. The marriage shall be solemnized publicly in the
office of the judge in open court or of the mayor; or in the
church, chapel or temple, as the case may be, and not
elsewhere, except in cases of marriages contracted on the
point of death or in remote places in accordance with Article
72 of this Code, or in case of marriage referred to in Article
76 or when one of the parents or the guardian of the female
or the latter herself if over eighteen years of age request it
in writing, in which cases the marriage may be solemnized at
a house or place designated by said parent or guardian of
the female or by the latter herself in a sworn statement to
that effect. (5a)
Art. 58. Save marriages of an exceptional character
authorized in Chapter 2 of this Title, but not those under
Article 75, no marriage shall be solemnized without a license
first being issued by the local civil registrar of the
municipality where either contracting party habitually
resides. (7a)

Art. 59. The local civil registrar shall issue the proper license
if each of the contracting parties swears separately before
him or before any public official authorized to administer
oaths, to an application in writing setting forth that such
party has the necessary qualifications for contracting
marriage. The applicants, their parents or guardians shall
not be required to exhibit their residence certificates in any
formality in connection with the securing of the marriage
license. Such application shall insofar as possible contain the
following data:

(1) Full name of the contracting party; (2) Place of birth;

(3) Age, date of birth; (4) Civil status (single, widow
or widower, or divorced); (5) If divorced, how and
when the previous marriage was dissolved; (6)
Present residence; (7) Degree of relationship of the
contracting parties; (8) Full name of the father; (9)
Residence of the father; (10) Full name of the mother;
(11) Residence of the mother; (12) Full name and
residence of the guardian or person having charge, in
case the contracting party has neither father nor
mother and is under the age of twenty years, if a male,
or eighteen years if a female. (7a)
Art. 60. The local civil registrar, upon receiving such
application, shall require the exhibition of the original
baptismal or birth certificates of the contracting parties or
copies of such documents duly attested by the persons
having custody of the originals. These certificates or certified
copies of the documents required by this article need not to
be sworn to and shall be exempt from the documentary
stamp tax. The signature and official title of the person
issuing the certificate shall be sufficient proof of its
authenticity.
If either of the contracting parties is unable to produce his
baptismal or birth certificate or a certified copy of either
because of the destruction or loss of the original, or if it is
shown by an affidavit of such party or of any other person
that such baptismal or birth certificate has not yet been
received though the same has been requested of the person
having custody thereof at least fifteen days prior to the date
of the application, such party may furnish in lieu thereof his
residence certificate for the current year or any previous
years, to show the age stated in his application or, in the
absence thereof, an instrument drawn up and sworn to
before the local civil registrar concerned or any public official
authorized to solemnize marriage. Such instrument shall
contain the sworn declaration of two witnesses, of lawful
age, of either sex, setting forth the full name, profession,
and residence of such contracting party and of his or her
parents, if known, and the place and date of birth of such
party. The nearest of kin of the contracting parties shall be
preferred as witnesses, and in their default, persons well
known in the province or the locality for their honesty and
good repute.

The exhibition of baptismal or birth certificates shall not be

required if the parents of the contracting parties appear
personally before the local civil registrar concerned and
swear to the correctness of the lawful age of said parties, as
stated in the application, or when the local civil registrar
shall, by merely looking at the applicants upon their
personally appearing before him, be convinced that either or
both of them have the required age. (8a)

Art. 61. In case either of the contracting parties is a

widowed or divorced person, the same shall be required to
furnish, instead of the baptismal or birth certificate required
in the last preceding article, the death certificate of the
deceased spouse or the decree of the divorce court, as the
case may be. In case the death certificate cannot be found,
the party shall make an affidavit setting forth this
circumstance and his or her actual civil status and the name
and the date of the death of the deceased spouse.

In case either or both of the contracting parties, being

neither widowed nor divorced, are less than twenty years of
age as regards the male and less than eighteen years as
regards the female, they shall, in addition to the
requirements of the preceding articles, exhibit to the local
civil registrar, the consent to their marriage, of their father,
mother or guardian, or persons having legal charge of them,
in the order mentioned. Such consent shall be in writing,
under oath taken with the appearance of the interested
parties before the proper local civil registrar or in the form of
an affidavit made in the presence of two witnesses and
attested before any official authorized by law to administer
oaths. (9a)

Art. 62. Males above twenty but under twenty-five years of

age, or females above eighteen but under twenty-three
years of age, shall be obliged to ask their parents or
guardian for advice upon the intended marriage. If they do
not obtain such advice, or if it be unfavorable, the marriage
shall not take place till after three months following the
completion of the publication of the application for marriage
license. A sworn statement by the contracting parties to the
effect that such advice has been sought, together with the
written advice given, if any, shall accompany the application
for marriage license. Should the parents or guardian refuse
to give any advice, this fact shall be stated in the sworn
declaration. (n)

Art. 63. The local civil registrar shall post during ten
consecutive days at the main door of the building where he
has his office a notice, the location of which shall not be
changed once it has been placed, setting forth the full names
and domiciles of the applicants for a marriage license and
other information given in the application. This notice shall
request all persons having knowledge of any impediment to
the marriage to advise the local registrar thereof. The license
shall be issued after the completion of the publication,
unless the local civil registrar receives information upon any
alleged impediment to the marriage. (10a)

Art. 64. Upon being advised of any alleged impediment to the

marriage, the local civil registrar shall forthwith make an
investigation, examining persons under oath. If he is
convicted that there is an impediment to the marriage, it
shall be his duty to withhold the marriage license, unless he
is otherwise ordered by a competent court. (n)

Art. 65. The local civil registrar shall demand the previous
payment of fees required by law or regulations for each
license issued. No other sum shall be collected, in the nature
of a fee or tax of any kind, for the issuance of a marriage
license. Marriage licenses shall be issued free of charge to
indigent parties, when both male and female do not each
own assessed real property in excess of five hundred pesos,
a fact certified to, without cost, by the provincial treasurer,
or in the absence thereof, by a statement duly sworn to by
the contracting parties before the local civil registrar. The
license shall be valid in any part of the Philippines; but it
shall be good for no more than one hundred and twenty days
from the date on which it is issued and shall be deemed
canceled at the expiration of said period if the interested
parties have not made use of it. (11a)

Art. 66. When either or both of the contracting parties are

citizens or subjects of a foreign country, it shall be necessary,
before a marriage license can be obtained, to provide
themselves with a certificate of legal capacity to contract
marriage, to be issued by their respective diplomatic or
consular officials. (13a)

Art. 67. The marriage certificate in which the contracting

parties shall state that they take each other as husband and
wife, shall also contain:

(1) The full names and domiciles of the contracting parties;

(2) The age of each; (3) A statement that the proper
marriage license has been issued according to law and
that the contracting parties have the consent of their
parents in case the male is under twenty or the female
under eighteen years of age; and (4) A statement that
the guardian or parent has been informed of the
marriage, if the male is between the ages of twenty and
twenty-five years, and the female between eighteen
and twenty-three years of age. (15a)
Art. 68. It shall be the duty of the person solemnizing the
marriage to furnish to either of the contracting parties one of
the three copies of the marriage contract referred to in
Article 55, and to send another copy of the document not
later than fifteen days after the marriage took place to the
local civil registrar concerned, whose duty it shall be to issue
the proper receipt to any person sending a marriage contract
solemnized by him, including marriages of an exceptional
character. The official, priest, or minister solemnizing the
marriage shall retain the third copy of the marriage contract,
the marriage license and the affidavit of the interested party
regarding the solemnization of the marriage in a place other
than those mentioned in Article 57 if there be any such
affidavit, in the files that he must keep. (16a)
Art. 69. It shall be the duty of the local civil registrar to
prepare the documents required by this Title, and to
administer oaths to all interested parties without any charge
in both cases.

The documents and affidavits filed in connection with

applications for marriage licenses shall be exempt from the
documentary stamp tax. (17a)

Art. 70. The local civil registrar concerned shall enter all
applications for marriage licenses filed with him in a register
book strictly in the order in which the same shall be received.
He shall enter in said register the names of the applicants,
the date on which the marriage license was issued, and such
other data as may be necessary. (18a)

Art. 71. All marriages performed outside the Philippines in

accordance with the laws in force in the country where they
were performed, and valid there as such, shall also be valid
in this country, except bigamous, polygamous, or incestuous
marriages as determined by Philippine law. (19a)

CHAPTER 2
MARRIAGES OF EXCEPTIONAL CHARACTER

Art. 72. In case either of the contracting parties is on the

point of death or the female has her habitual residence at a
place more than fifteen kilometers distant from the
municipal building and there is no communication by railroad
or by provincial or local highways between the former and
the latter, the marriage may be solemnized without
necessity of a marriage license; but in such cases the official,
priest, or minister solemnizing it shall state in an affidavit
made before the local civil registrar or any person authorized
by law to administer oaths that the marriage was performed
in articulo mortis or at a place more than fifteen kilometers
distant from the municipal building concerned, in which
latter case he shall give the name of the barrio where the
marriage was solemnized. The person who solemnized the
marriage shall also state, in either case, that he took the
necessary steps to ascertain the ages and relationship of the
contracting parties and that there was in his opinion no legal
impediment to the marriage at the time that it was
solemnized. (20)
Art. 73. The original of the affidavit required in the last
preceding article, together with a copy of the marriage
contract, shall be sent by the person solemnizing the
marriage to the local civil registrar of the municipality where
it was performed within the period of thirty days, after the
performance of the marriage. The local civil registrar shall,
however, before filing the papers, require the payment into
the municipal treasury of the legal fees required in Article 65.
(21)

Art. 74. A marriage in articulo mortis may also be solemnized

by the captain of a ship or chief of an airplane during a
voyage, or by the commanding officer of a military unit, in
the absence of a chaplain, during war. The duties mentioned
in the two preceding articles shall be complied with by the
ship captain, airplane chief or commanding officer. (n)

Art. 75. Marriages between Filipino citizens abroad may be

solemnized by consuls and vice-consuls of the Republic of
the Philippines. The duties of the local civil registrar and of a
judge or justice of the peace or mayor with regard to the
celebration of marriage shall be performed by such consuls
and vice-consuls. (n)

Art. 76. No marriage license shall be necessary when a man

and a woman who have attained the age of majority and who,
being unmarried, have lived together as husband and wife
for at least five years, desire to marry each other. The
contracting parties shall state the foregoing facts in an
affidavit before any person authorized by law to administer
oaths. The official, priest or minister who solemnized the
marriage shall also state in an affidavit that he took steps to
ascertain the ages and other qualifications of the contracting
parties and that he found no legal impediment to the
marriage. (n)

Art. 77. In case two persons married in accordance with law

desire to ratify their union in conformity with the regulations,
rites, or practices of any church, sect, or religion it shall no
longer be necessary to comply with the requirements of
Chapter 1 of this Title and any ratification made shall merely
be considered as a purely religious ceremony. (23)

Art. 78. Marriages between Mohammedans or pagans who

live in the non-Christian provinces may be performed in
accordance with their customs, rites or practices. No
marriage license or formal requisites shall be necessary. Nor
shall the persons solemnizing these marriages be obliged to
comply with Article 92.

However, twenty years after approval of this Code, all

marriages performed between Mohammedans or pagans
shall be solemnized in accordance with the provisions of this
Code. But the President of the Philippines, upon
recommendation of the Secretary of the Interior, may at any
time before the expiration of said period, by proclamation,
make any of said provisions applicable to the Mohammedan
and non-Christian inhabitants of any of the non-Christian
provinces. (25a)

Art. 79. Mixed marriages between a Christian male and a

Mohammedan or pagan female shall be governed by the
general provision of this Title and not by those of the last
preceding article, but mixed marriages between a
Mohammedan or pagan male and a Christian female may be
performed under the provisions of the last preceding article
if so desired by the contracting parties, subject, however, in
the latter case to the provisions of the second paragraph of
said article. (26)

CHAPTER 3
VOID AND VOIDABLE MARRIAGES

Art. 80. The following marriages shall be void from the

beginning:
(1) Those contracted under the ages of sixteen and
fourteen years by the male and female respectively,
even with the consent of the parents; (2) Those
solemnized by any person not legally authorized to
perform marriages; (3) Those solemnized without a
marriage license, save marriages of exceptional
character; (4) Bigamous or polygamous marriages not
falling under Article 83, Number 2; (5) Incestuous
marriages mentioned in Article 81; (6) Those where
one or both contracting parties have been found guilty
of the killing of the spouse of either of them; (7) Those
between stepbrothers and stepsisters and other
marriages specified in Article 82. (n)
Art. 81. Marriages between the following are incestuous and
void from their performance, whether the relationship
between the parties be legitimate or illegitimate:
(1) Between ascendants and descendants of any degree;
(2) Between brothers and sisters, whether of the full or
half blood; (3) Between collateral relatives by blood
within the fourth civil degree. (28a)
Art. 82. The following marriages shall also be void from the
beginning:
(1) Between stepfathers and stepdaughters, and
stepmothers and stepsons; (2) Between the adopting
father or mother and the adopted, between the latter
and the surviving spouse of the former, and between
the former and the surviving spouse of the latter; (3)
 Between the legitimate children of the adopter and the
adopted. (28a)
Art. 83. Any marriage subsequently contracted by any
person during the lifetime of the first spouse of such person
with any person other than such first spouse shall be illegal
and void from its performance, unless:
(1) The first marriage was annulled or dissolved; or (2)
The first spouse had been absent for seven consecutive
years at the time of the second marriage without the
spouse present having news of the absentee being alive,
or if the absentee, though he has been absent for less
than seven years, is generally considered as dead and
believed to be so by the spouse present at the time of
contracting such subsequent marriage, or if the
absentee is presumed dead according to Articles 390
and 391. The marriage so contracted shall be valid in
any of the three cases until declared null and void by a
competent court. (29a)
Art. 84. No marriage license shall be issued to a widow till
after three hundred days following the death of her husband,
unless in the meantime she has given birth to a child. (n)
Art. 85. A marriage may be annulled for any of the following
causes, existing at the time of the marriage:

(1) That the party in whose behalf it is sought to have the

marriage annulled was between the ages of sixteen and
twenty years, if male, or between the ages of fourteen
and eighteen years, if female, and the marriage was
solemnized without the consent of the parent, guardian
or person having authority over the party, unless after
attaining the ages of twenty or eighteen years, as the
case may be, such party freely cohabited with the other
and both lived together as husband and wife; (2) In a
subsequent marriage under Article 83, Number 2, that
the former husband or wife believed to be dead was in
fact living and the marriage with such former husband
or wife was then in force; (3) That either party was of
unsound mind, unless such party, after coming to
reason, freely cohabited with the other as husband or
wife; (4) That the consent of either party was obtained
by fraud, unless such party afterwards, with full
knowledge of the facts constituting the fraud, freely
cohabited with the other as her husband or his wife, as
the case may be; (5) That the consent of either party
was obtained by force or intimidation, unless the
violence or threat having disappeared, such party
afterwards freely cohabited with the other as her
husband or his wife, as the case may be; (6) That
 either party was, at the time of marriage, physically
incapable of entering into the married state, and such
incapacity continues, and appears to be incurable. (30a)
Art. 86. Any of the following circumstances shall constitute
fraud referred to in Number 4 of the preceding article:
(1) Misrepresentation as to the identity of one of the
contracting parties; (2) Non-disclosure of the previous
conviction of the other party of a crime involving moral
turpitude, and the penalty imposed was imprisonment
for two years or more; (3) Concealment by the wife of
the fact that at the time of the marriage, she was
pregnant by a man other than her husband.
No other misrepresentation or deceit as to character, rank,
fortune or chastity shall constitute such fraud as will give
grounds for action for the annulment of marriage. (n)
Art. 87. The action for annulment of marriage must be
commenced by the parties and within the periods as follows:

(1) For causes mentioned in Number 1 of Article 85, by the

party whose parent or guardian did not give his or her
consent, within four years after attaining the age of
twenty or eighteen years, as the case may be; or by the
parent or guardian or person having legal charge, at
any time before such party has arrived at the age of
twenty or eighteen years; (2) For causes mentioned in
Number 2 of Article 85, by the spouse who has been
absent, during his or her lifetime; or by either spouse of
the subsequent marriage during the lifetime of the
other; (3) For causes mentioned in Number 3 of Article
85, by the sane spouse, who had no knowledge of the
other's insanity; or by any relative or guardian of the
party of unsound mind, at any time before the death of
either party; (4) For causes mentioned in Number 4, by
the injured party, within four years after the discovery
of the fraud; (5) For causes mentioned in Number 5, by
the injured party, within four years from the time the
force or intimidation ceased; (6) For causes mentioned
in Number 6, by the injured party, within eight years
after the marriage. (31a)
Art. 88. No judgment annulling a marriage shall be
promulgated upon a stipulation of facts or by confession of
judgment.
Art. 89. Children conceived or born of marriages which are
void from the beginning shall have the same status, rights
and obligations as acknowledged natural children, and are
called natural children by legal fiction.

Children conceived of voidable marriages before the decree

of annulment shall be considered as legitimate; and children
conceived thereafter shall have the same status, rights and
obligations as acknowledged natural children, and are also
called natural children by legal fiction. (n)

Art. 90. When a marriage is annulled, the court shall award

the custody of the children as it may deem best, and make
provision for their education and support. Attorney's fees
and expenses incurred in the litigation shall be charged to
the conjugal partnership property, unless the action fails.
(33a)

Art. 91. Damages may be awarded in the following cases

when the marriage is judicially annulled or declared void
from the beginning:

(1) If there has been fraud, force or intimidation in

obtaining the consent of one of the contracting parties;
(2) If either party was, at the time of the marriage,
physically incapable of entering into the married state,
and the other party was unaware thereof; (3) If the
person solemnizing the marriage was not legally
authorized to perform marriages, and that fact was
known to one of the contracting parties, but he or she
concealed it from the other; (4) If a bigamous or
polygamous marriage was celebrated, and the
impediment was concealed from the plaintiff by the
party disqualified; (5) If in an incestuous marriage, or
a marriage between a stepbrother and a stepsister or
other marriage prohibited by article 82, the relationship
was known to only one of the contracting parties but
was not disclosed to the other; (6) If one party was
insane and the other was aware thereof at the time of
the marriage. (n)

CHAPTER 4
AUTHORITY TO SOLEMNIZE MARRIAGES

Art. 92. Every priest, or minister, or rabbi authorized by his

denomination, church, sect, or religion to solemnize
marriage shall send to the proper government office a sworn
statement setting forth his full name and domicile, and that
he is authorized by his denomination, church, sect, or
religion to solemnize marriage, attaching to said statement a
certified copy of his appointment. The director of the proper
government office, upon receiving such sworn statement
containing the information required, and being satisfied that
the denomination, church, sect, or region of the applicant
operates in the Philippines, shall record the name of such
priest or minister in a suitable register and issue to him an
authorization to solemnize marriage. Said priest or minister
or rabbi shall be obliged to exhibit his authorization to the
contracting parties, to their parents, grandparents,
guardians, or persons in charge demanding the same. No
priest or minister not having the required authorization may
solemnize marriage. (34a)
Art. 93. Freedom of religion shall be observed by public
officials in the issuance of authorization to solemnize
marriages. Consequently, no public official shall attempt to
inquire into the truth or validity of any religious doctrine
held by the applicant or by his church. (n)

Art. 94. The public official in charge of registration of priests

and ministers shall cancel the authorization issued to a
bishop, head, priest, rabbi, pastor or minister of the gospel
of any denomination, church, sect, or religion, on his own
initiative or at the request of any interested party, upon
showing that the church, sect or religion whose ministers
have been authorized to solemnize marriage is no longer in
operation. The cancellation of the authorization granted to a
priest, pastor or minister shall likewise be ordered upon the
request of the bishop, head, or lawful authorities of the
denomination, church, sect or religion to which he belongs.
(35a)

Art. 95. The public official in charge of registration of priests

and ministers, with the approval of the proper head of
Department, is hereby authorized to prepare the necessary
forms and to promulgate regulations for the purpose of
enforcing the provisions of this Title. Said official may also
by regulations fix and collect fees for the authorization of
priests and ministers to solemnize marriages. (36a)

Art. 96. The existing laws which punish acts or omissions

concerning the marriage license, solemnization of marriage,
authority to solemnize marriages, and other acts or
omissions relative to the celebration of marriage shall
remain and continue to be in force. (n)

Title IV. - LEGAL SEPARATION

Art. 97. A petition for legal separation may be filed:

(1) For adultery on the part of the wife and for
concubinage on the part of the husband as defined in
the Penal Code; or (2) An attempt by one spouse
against the life of the other. (n)
Art. 98. In every case the court must take steps, before
granting the legal separation, toward the reconciliation of
the spouses, and must be fully satisfied that such
reconciliation is highly improbable. (n)
Art. 99. No person shall be entitled to a legal separation who
has not resided in the Philippines for one year prior to the
filing of the petition, unless the cause for the legal
separation has taken place within the territory of this
Republic. (Sec. 2a, Act No. 2710)

Art. 100. The legal separation may be claimed only by the

innocent spouse, provided there has been no condonation of
or consent to the adultery or concubinage. Where both
spouses are offenders, a legal separation cannot be claimed
by either of them. Collusion between the parties to obtain
legal separation shall cause the dismissal of the petition. (3a,
Act No. 2710)

Art. 101. No decree of legal separation shall be promulgated

upon a stipulation of facts or by confession of judgment.

In case of non-appearance of the defendant, the court shall

order the prosecuting attorney to inquire whether or not a
collusion between the parties exists. If there is no collusion,
the prosecuting attorney shall intervene for the State in
order to take care that the evidence for the plaintiff is not
fabricated. (n)

Art. 102. An action for legal separation cannot be filed

except within one year from and after the date on which the
plaintiff became cognizant of the cause and within five years
from and after the date when such cause occurred. (4a, Act
2710)

Art. 103. An action for legal separation shall in no case be

tried before six months shall have elapsed since the filing of
the petition. (5a, Act 2710)

Art. 104. After the filing of the petition for legal separation,
the spouses shall be entitled to live separately from each
other and manage their respective property.

The husband shall continue to manage the conjugal

partnership property but if the court deems it proper, it may
appoint another to manage said property, in which case the
administrator shall have the same rights and duties as a
guardian and shall not be allowed to dispose of the income
or of the capital except in accordance with the orders of the
court. (6, Act 2710)
Art. 105. During the pendency of legal separation
proceedings the court shall make provision for the care of
the minor children in accordance with the circumstances and
may order the conjugal partnership property or the income
therefrom to be set aside for their support; and in default
thereof said minor children shall be cared for in conformity
with the provisions of this Code; but the Court shall abstain
from making any order in this respect in case the parents
have by mutual agreement, made provision for the care of
said minor children and these are, in the judgment of the
court, well cared for. (7a, Act 2710)

Art. 106. The decree of legal separation shall have the

following effects:

(1) The spouses shall be entitled to live separately from

each other, but marriage bonds shall not be severed;
(2) The conjugal partnership of gains or the absolute
conjugal community of property shall be dissolved and
liquidated, but the offending spouse shall have no right
to any share of the profits earned by the partnership or
community, without prejudice to the provisions of
Article 176; (3) The custody of the minor children shall
be awarded to the innocent spouse, unless otherwise
directed by the court in the interest of said minors, for
whom said court may appoint a guardian; (4) The
offending spouse shall be disqualified from inheriting
from the innocent spouse by intestate succession.
Moreover, provisions in favor of the offending spouse
made in the will of the innocent one shall be revoked by
operation of law. (n)
Art. 107. The innocent spouse, after a decree of legal
separation has been granted, may revoke the donations by
reason of marriage made by him or by her to the offending
spouse. Alienation and mortgages made before the notation
of the complaint for revocation in the Registry of Property
shall be valid.
This action lapses after four years following the date the
decree became final. (n)

Art. 108. Reconciliation stops the proceedings for legal

separation and rescinds the decree of legal separation
already rendered.

The revival of the conjugal partnership of gains or of the

absolute conjugal community of property shall be governed
by Article 195. (10a. Act 2710)
 Title V. - RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS
BETWEEN HUSBAND AND WIFE

Art. 109. The husband and wife are obliged to live together,
observe mutual respect and fidelity, and render mutual help
and support. (56a)
Art. 110. The husband shall fix the residence of the family.
But the court may exempt the wife from living with the
husband if he should live abroad unless in the service of the
Republic. (58a)

Art. 111. The husband is responsible for the support of the

wife and the rest of the family. These expenses shall be met
first from the conjugal property, then from the husband's
capital, and lastly from the wife's paraphernal property. In
case there is a separation of property, by stipulation in the
marriage settlements, the husband and wife shall contribute
proportionately to the family expenses. (n)

Art. 112. The husband is the administrator of the conjugal

property, unless there is a stipulation in the marriage
settlements conferring the administration upon the wife. She
may also administer the conjugal partnership in other cases
specified in this Code. (n)

Art. 113. The husband must be joined in all suits by or

against the wife, except:

(1) When they are judicially separated; (2) If they have in

fact been separated for at least one year; (3) When
there is a separation of property agreed upon in the
marriage settlements; (4) If the administration of all
the property in the marriage has been transferred to
her, in accordance with Articles 196 and 197; (5)
When the litigation is between the husband and wife;
(6) If the suit concerns her paraphernal property; (7)
When the action is upon the civil liability arising from a
criminal offense; (8) If the litigation is incidental to
the profession, occupation or business in which she is
engaged; (9) In any civil action referred to in Articles
25 to 35; and (10) In an action upon a quasi-delict. In
the cases mentioned in Nos. 7 to 10, the husband must
be joined as a party defendant if the third paragraph of
Article 163 is applicable. (n)
Art. 114. The wife cannot, without the husband's consent
acquire any property by gratuitous title, except from her
ascendants, descendants, parents-in-law, and collateral
relatives within the fourth degree. (n)
Art. 115. The wife manages the affairs of the household. She
may purchase things necessary for the support of the family,
and the conjugal partnership shall be bound thereby. She
may borrow money for this purpose, if the husband fails to
deliver the proper sum. The purchase of jewelry and
precious objects is voidable, unless the transaction has been
expressly or tacitly approved by the husband, or unless the
price paid is from her paraphernal property. (62a)

Art. 116. When one of the spouses neglects his or her duties
to the conjugal union or brings danger, dishonor or material
injury upon the other, the injured party may apply to the
court for relief.

The court may counsel the offender to comply with his or her
duties, and take such measures as may be proper. (n)

Art. 117. The wife may exercise any profession or occupation

or engage in business. However, the husband may object,
provided:

(1) His income is sufficient for the family, according to its

social standing, and (2) His opposition is founded on
serious and valid grounds.
In case of disagreement on this question, the parents and
grandparents as well as the family council, if any, shall be
consulted. If no agreement is still arrived at, the court will
decide whatever may be proper and in the best interest of
the family. (n)

Title VI. - PROPERTY RELATIONS

BETWEEN HUSBAND AND WIFE

CHAPTER 1
GENERAL PROVISIONS

Art. 118. The property relations between husband and wife

shall be governed in the following order:
(1) By contract executed before the marriage; (2) By the
provisions of this Code; and (3) By custom. (1315a)
Art. 119. The future spouses may in the marriage
settlements agree upon absolute or relative community of
property, or upon complete separation of property, or upon
any other regime. In the absence of marriage settlements, or
when the same are void, the system of relative community or
conjugal partnership of gains as established in this Code,
shall govern the property relations between husband and
wife. (n)
Art. 120. A minor who according to law may contract
marriage, may also execute his or her marriage settlements;
but they shall be valid only if the persons designated by law
to give consent to the marriage of the minor take part in the
ante-nuptial agreement. In the absence of the parents or of
a guardian, the consent to the marriage settlements will be
given by the family council. (1318a)

Art. 121. In order that any modification in the marriage

settlements may be valid, it must be made before the
celebration of the marriage, subject to the provisions of
Article 191. (1319a)

Art. 122. The marriage settlements and any modification

thereof shall be governed by the Statute of Frauds, and
executed before the celebration of the marriage. They shall
not prejudice third persons unless they are recorded in the
Registry of Property. (1321a)

Art. 123. For the validity of marriage settlements executed

by any person upon whom a sentence of civil interdiction has
been pronounced, the presence and participation of the
guardian shall be indispensable, who for this purpose shall
be designated by a competent court, in accordance with the
provisions of the Rules of Court. (1323a)

Art. 124. If the marriage is between a citizen of the

Philippines and a foreigner, whether celebrated in the
Philippines or abroad, the following rules shall prevail:

(1) If the husband is a citizen of the Philippines while the

wife is a foreigner, the provisions of this Code shall
govern their relations; (2) If the husband is a foreigner
and the wife is a citizen of the Philippines, the laws of
the husband's country shall be followed, without
prejudice to the provisions of this Code with regard to
immovable property. (1325a)
Art. 125. Everything stipulated in the settlements or
contracts referred to in the preceding articles in
consideration of a future marriage shall be rendered void
and without effect whatever, if the marriage should not take
place. However, those stipulations that do not depend upon
the celebration of the marriage shall be valid. (1326a)

CHAPTER 2
DONATIONS BY REASON OF MARRIAGE

Art. 126. Donations by reasons of marriage are those which

are made before its celebration, in consideration of the same
and in favor of one or both of the future spouses. (1327)
Art. 127. These donations are governed by the rules on
ordinary donations established in Title III of Book III,
except as to their form which shall be regulated by the
Statute of Frauds; and insofar as they are not modified by
the following articles. (1328a)

Art. 128. Minors may make and receive donations in their

ante-nuptial contract, provided they are authorized by the
persons who are to give their consent to the marriage of said
minors. (1329a)

Art. 129. Express acceptance is not necessary for the validity

of these donations. (1330)

Art. 130. The future spouses may give each other in their
marriage settlements as much as one-fifth of their present
property, and with respect to their future property, only in
the event of death, to the extent laid down by the provisions
of this Code referring to testamentary succession. (1331a)

Art. 131. The donor by reason of marriage shall release the

property donated from mortgages and all other
encumbrances upon the same, with the exception of
easements, unless in the marriage settlements or in the
contracts the contrary has been stipulated. (1332a)

Art. 132. A donation by reason of marriage is not revocable,

save in the following cases:

(1) If it is conditional and the condition is not complied

with; (2) If the marriage is not celebrated; (3) When
the marriage takes place without the consent of the
parents or guardian, as required by law; (4) When the
marriage is annulled, and the donee acted in bad faith;
(5) Upon legal separation, the donee being the guilty
spouse; (6) When the donee has committed an act of
ingratitude as specified by the provisions of this Code
on donations in general. (1333a)
Art. 133. Every donation between the spouses during the
marriage shall be void. This prohibition does not apply when
the donation takes effect after the death of the donor.
Neither does this prohibition apply to moderate gifts which
the spouses may give each other on the occasion of any
family rejoicing. (1334a)

Art. 134. Donations during the marriage by one of the

spouses to the children whom the other spouse had by
another marriage, or to persons of whom the other spouse is
a presumptive heir at the time of the donation are voidable,
at the instance of the donor's heirs after his death. (1335a)

CHAPTER 3
PARAPHERNAL PROPERTY

Art. 135. All property brought by the wife to the marriage, as

well as all property she acquires during the marriage, in
accordance with article 148, is paraphernal. (1381a)
Art. 136. The wife retains the ownership of the paraphernal
property. (1382)

Art. 137. The wife shall have the administration of the

paraphernal property, unless she delivers the same to the
husband by means of a public instrument empowering him to
administer it.

In this case, the public instrument shall be recorded in the

Registry of Property. As for the movables, the husband shall
give adequate security. (1384a)

Art. 138. The fruits of the paraphernal property form part of

the assets of the conjugal partnership, and shall be subject
to the payment of the expenses of the marriage.

The property itself shall also be subject to the daily expenses

of the family, if the property of the conjugal partnership and
the husband's capital are not sufficient therefor. (1385a)

Art. 139. The personal obligations of the husband can not be

enforced against the fruits of the paraphernal property,
unless it be proved that they redounded to the benefit of the
family. (1386)

Art. 140. A married woman of age may mortgage, encumber,

alienate or otherwise dispose of her paraphernal property,
without the permission of the husband, and appear alone in
court to litigate with regard to the same. (n)

Art. 141. The alienation of any paraphernal property

administered by the husband gives a right to the wife to
require the constitution of a mortgage or any other security
for the amount of the price which the husband may have
received. (1390a)

CHAPTER 4
CONJUGAL PARTNERSHIP OF GAINS
 SECTION 1. - General Provisions

Art. 142. By means of the conjugal partnership of gains the

husband and wife place in a common fund the fruits of their
separate property and the income from their work or
industry, and divide equally, upon the dissolution of the
marriage or of the partnership, the net gains or benefits
obtained indiscriminately by either spouse during the
marriage. (1392a)
Art. 143. All property of the conjugal partnership of gains is
owned in common by the husband and wife. (n)

Art. 144. When a man and a woman live together as husband

and wife, but they are not married, or their marriage is void
from the beginning, the property acquired by either or both
of them through their work or industry or their wages and
salaries shall be governed by the rules on co-ownership. (n)

Art. 145. The conjugal partnership shall commence precisely

on the date of the celebration of the marriage. Any
stipulation to the contrary shall be void. (1393)

Art. 146. Waiver of the gains or of the effects of this

partnership during marriage cannot be made except in case
of judicial separation.

When the waiver takes place by reason of separation, or

after the marriage has been dissolved or annulled, the same
shall appear in a public instrument, and the creditors shall
have the right which Article 1052 grants them. (1394a)

Art. 147. The conjugal partnership shall be governed by the

rules on the contract of partnership in all that is not in
conflict with what is expressly determined in this Chapter.
(1395)

SECTION 2. - Exclusive Property of Each Spouse

Art. 148. The following shall be the exclusive property of

each spouse:
(1) That which is brought to the marriage as his or her
own; (2) That which each acquires, during the marriage,
by lucrative title; (3) That which is acquired by right of
redemption or by exchange with other property
belonging to only one of the spouses; (4) That which is
purchased with exclusive money of the wife or of the
husband. (1396)
Art. 149. Whoever gives or promises capital to the husband
shall not be subject to warranty against eviction, except in
case of fraud. (1937)
Art. 150. Property donated or left by will to the spouses,
jointly and with designation of determinate shares, shall
pertain to the wife as paraphernal property, and to the
husband as capital, in the proportion specified by the donor
or testator, and in the absence of designation, share and
share alike, without prejudice to what is provided in Article
753. (1398a)

Art. 151. If the donations are onerous, the amount of the

charges shall be deducted from the paraphernal property or
from the husband's capital, whenever they have been borne
by the conjugal partnership. (1399a)

Art. 152. If some credit payable in a certain number of years,

or a life pension, should pertain to one of the spouses, the
provisions of Articles 156 and 157 shall be observed to
determine what constitutes the paraphernal property and
what forms the capital of the husband. (1400a)

SECTION 3. - Conjugal Partnership Property

Art. 153. The following are conjugal partnership property:

(1) That which is acquired by onerous title during the
marriage at the expense of the common fund, whether
the acquisition be for the partnership, or for only one of
the spouses; (2) That which is obtained by the industry,
or work, or as salary of the spouses, or of either of
them; (3) The fruits, rents or interests received or due
during the marriage, coming from the common property
or from the exclusive property of each spouse. (1401)
Art. 154. That share of the hidden treasure which the law
awards to the finder or the proprietor belongs to the
conjugal partnership. (n)
Art. 155. Things acquired by occupation, such as fishing and
hunting, pertain to the conjugal partnership of gains. (n)

Art. 156. Whenever an amount or credit payable in a certain

number of years belongs to one of the spouses, the sums
which may be collected by installments due during the
marriage shall not pertain to the conjugal partnership, but
shall be considered capital of the husband or of the wife, as
the credit may belong to one or the other spouse. (1402)

Art. 157. The right to an annuity, whether perpetual or of life,

and the right of usufruct, belonging to one of the spouses
shall form a part of his or her separate property, but the
fruits, pensions and interests due during the marriage shall
belong to the partnership.

The usufruct which the spouses have over the property of

their children, though of another marriage, shall be included
in this provision. (1403a)

Art. 158. Improvements, whether for utility or adornment,

made on the separate property of the spouses through
advancements from the partnership or through the industry
of either the husband or the wife, belong to the conjugal
partnership.

Buildings constructed, at the expense of the partnership,

during the marriage on land belonging to one of the spouses,
also pertain to the partnership, but the value of the land
shall be reimbursed to the spouse who owns the same.
(1404a)

Art. 159. Whenever the paraphernal property or the

husband's capital consists, in whole or in part, of livestock
existing upon the dissolution of the partnership, the number
of animals exceeding that brought to the marriage shall be
deemed to be of the conjugal partnership. (1405a)

Art. 160. All property of the marriage is presumed to belong

to the conjugal partnership, unless it be proved that it
pertains exclusively to the husband or to the wife. (1407)

SECTION 4. - Charges Upon and Obligation

of the Conjugal Partnership

Art. 161. The conjugal partnership shall be liable for:

(1) All debts and obligations contracted by the husband for
the benefit of the conjugal partnership, and those
contracted by the wife, also for the same purpose, in
the cases where she may legally bind the partnership;
(2) Arrears or income due, during the marriage, from
obligations which constitute a charge upon property of
either spouse or of the partnership; (3) Minor repairs
or for mere preservation made during the marriage
upon the separate property of either the husband or the
wife; major repairs shall not be charged to the
partnership; (4) Major or minor repairs upon the
conjugal partnership property; (5) The maintenance of
the family and the education of the children of both
husband and wife, and of legitimate children of one of
the spouses; (6) Expenses to permit the spouses to
complete a professional, vocational or other course.
 (1408a)
Art. 162. The value of what is donated or promised to the
common children by the husband, only for securing their
future or the finishing of a career, or by both spouses
through a common agreement, shall also be charged to the
conjugal partnership, when they have not stipulated that it is
to be satisfied from the property of one of them, in whole or
in part. (1409)
Art. 163. The payment of debts contracted by the husband or
the wife before the marriage shall not be charged to the
conjugal partnership.

Neither shall the fines and pecuniary indemnities imposed

upon them be charged to the partnership.

However, the payment of debts contracted by the husband or

the wife before the marriage, and that of fines and
indemnities imposed upon them, may be enforced against
the partnership assets after the responsibilities enumerated
in Article 161 have been covered, if the spouse who is bound
should have no exclusive property or if it should be
insufficient; but at the time of the liquidation of the
partnership such spouse shall be charged for what has been
paid for the purpose above-mentioned. (1410)

Art. 164. Whatever may be lost during the marriage in any

kind of gambling, betting or game, whether permitted or
prohibited by law, shall be borne by the loser, and shall not
be charged to the conjugal partnership. (1411a)

SECTION 5. - Administration of the Conjugal Partnership

Art. 165. The husband is the administrator of the conjugal

partnership. (1412a)
Art. 166. Unless the wife has been declared a non compos
mentis or a spendthrift, or is under civil interdiction or is
confined in a leprosarium, the husband cannot alienate or
encumber any real property of the conjugal partnership
without the wife's consent. If she refuses unreasonably to
give her consent, the court may compel her to grant the
same.

This article shall not apply to property acquired by the

conjugal partnership before the effective date of this Code.
(1413a)

Art. 167. In case of abuse of powers of administration of the

conjugal partnership property by the husband, the courts, on
petition of the wife, may provide for receivership, or
administration by the wife, or separation of property. (n)

Art. 168. The wife may, by express authority of the husband

embodied in a public instrument, administer the conjugal
partnership property. (n)

Art. 169. The wife may also by express authority of the

husband appearing in a public instrument, administer the
latter's estate. (n)

Art. 170. The husband or the wife may dispose by will of his
or her half of the conjugal partnership profits. (1414a)

Art. 171. The husband may dispose of the conjugal

partnership property for the purposes specified in Articles
161 and 162. (1415a)

Art. 172. The wife cannot bind the conjugal partnership

without the husband's consent except in cases provided by
law. (1416a)

Art. 173. The wife may, during the marriage, and within ten
years from the transaction questioned, ask the courts for the
annulment of any contract of the husband entered into
without her consent, when such consent is required, or any
act or contract of the husband which tends to defraud her or
impair her interest in the conjugal partnership property.
Should the wife fail to exercise this right, she or her heirs,
after the dissolution of the marriage, may demand the value
of property fraudulently alienated by the husband. (n)

Art. 174. With the exception of moderate donations for

charity, neither husband nor wife can donate any property of
the conjugal partnership without the consent of the other.
(n)

SECTION 6. - Dissolution of the Conjugal Partnership

Art. 175. The conjugal partnership of gains terminates:

(1) Upon the death of either spouse; (2) When there is a
decree of legal separation; (3) When the marriage is
annulled; (4) In case of judicial separation of property
under Article 191. (1417a)
Art. 176. In case of legal separation, the guilty spouse shall
forfeit his or her share of the conjugal partnership profits,
which shall be awarded to the children of both, and the
children of the guilty spouse had by a prior marriage.
However, if the conjugal partnership property came mostly
or entirely from the work or industry, or from the wages and
salaries, or from the fruits of the separate property of the
guilty spouse, this forfeiture shall not apply.
In case there are no children, the innocent spouse shall be
entitled to all the net profits. (n)

Art. 177. In case of annulment of the marriage, the spouse

who acted in bad faith or gave cause for annulment shall
forfeit his or her share of the conjugal partnership profits.
The provision of the preceding article shall govern. (n)

Art. 178. The separation in fact between husband and wife

without judicial approval, shall not affect the conjugal
partnership, except that:

(1) The spouse who leaves the conjugal home or refuses to

live therein, without just cause, shall not have a right
to be supported; (2) When the consent of one spouse to
any transaction of the other is required by law, judicial
authorization shall be necessary; (3) If the husband
has abandoned the wife without just cause for at least
one year, she may petition the court for a receivership,
or administration by her of the conjugal partnership
property, or separation of property. (n)
SECTION 7. - Liquidation of the Conjugal Partnership

Art. 179. Upon the dissolution of the conjugal partnership,

an inventory shall be formed, but such inventory shall not be
necessary:
(1) If, after the dissolution of the partnership, one of the
spouses should have renounced its effects and
consequences in due time; or (2) When separation of
property has preceded the dissolution of the
partnership. (1418a)
Art. 180. The bed and bedding which the spouses ordinarily
use shall not be included in the inventory. These effects, as
well as the clothing for their ordinary use, shall be delivered
to the surviving spouse. (1420)
Art. 181. The inventory having been completed, the
paraphernal property shall first be paid. Then, the debts and
charges against the conjugal partnership shall be paid.
(1422a)

Art. 182. The debts, charges and obligations of the conjugal

partnership having been paid; the capital of the husband
shall be liquidated and paid to the amount of the property
inventoried. (1423a)

Art. 183. The deductions from the inventoried property

having been made as provided in the two preceding articles,
the remainder of said property shall constitute the credit of
the conjugal partnership. (1424)

Art. 184. The loss or deterioration of the movables belonging

to either spouse, although through fortuitous event, shall be
paid from the conjugal partnership of gains, should there be
any.

Those suffered by real property shall not be reimbursable in

any case, except those on paraphernal property
administered by the husband, when the losses were due to
his fault. He shall pay for the same. (1425a)

Art. 185. The net remainder of the conjugal partnership of

gains shall be divided equally between the husband and the
wife or their respective heirs, unless a different basis of
division was agreed upon in the marriage settlements.
(1426a)

Art. 186. The mourning apparel of the widow shall be paid

for out of the estate of the deceased husband. (1427a)

Art. 187. With regard to the formation of the inventory, rules

for appraisal and sale of property of the conjugal partnership,
and other matters which are not expressly determined in the
present Chapter, the Rules of Court on the administration of
estates of deceased persons shall be observed. (1428a)

Art. 188. From the common mass of property support shall

be given to the surviving spouse and to the children during
the liquidation of the inventoried property and until what
belongs to them is delivered; but from this shall be deducted
that amount received for support which exceeds the fruits or
rents pertaining to them. (1430)

Art. 189. Whenever the liquidation of the partnership of two

or more marriages contracted by the same person should be
carried out at the same time, in order to determine the
capital of each partnership all kinds of proof in the absence
of inventories shall be admitted; and in case of doubt, the
partnership property shall be divided between the different
partnerships in proportion to the duration of each and to the
property belonging to the respective spouses. (1431)

CHAPTER 5
SEPARATION OF PROPERTY OF THE SPOUSES
AND ADMINISTRATION OF PROPERTY
BY THE WIFE DURING THE MARRIAGE
Art. 190. In the absence of an express declaration in the
marriage settlements, the separation of property between
spouses during the marriage shall not take place save in
virtue of a judicial order. (1432a)
Art. 191. The husband or the wife may ask for the separation
of property, and it shall be decreed when the spouse of the
petitioner has been sentenced to a penalty which carries
with it civil interdiction, or has been declared absent, or
when legal separation has been granted.

In case of abuse of powers of administration of the conjugal

partnership property by the husband, or in case of
abandonment by the husband, separation of property may
also be ordered by the court, according to the provisions of
Articles 167 and 178, No. 3.

In all these cases, it is sufficient to present the final

judgment which has been entered against the guilty or
absent spouse. (1433a)

The husband and the wife may agree upon the dissolution of
the conjugal partnership during the marriage, subject to
judicial approval. All the creditors of the husband and of the
wife, as well as of the conjugal partnership shall be notified
of any petition for judicial approval or the voluntary
dissolution of the conjugal partnership, so that any such
creditors may appear at the hearing to safeguard his
interests. Upon approval of the petition for dissolution of the
conjugal partnership, the court shall take such measures as
may protect the creditors and other third persons.

After dissolution of the conjugal partnership, the provisions

of Articles 214 and 215 shall apply. The provisions of this
Code concerning the effect of partition stated in Articles 498
to 501 shall be applicable. (1433a)

Art. 192. Once the separation of property has been ordered,

the conjugal partnership shall be dissolved, and its
liquidation shall be made in conformity with what has been
established by this Code.

However, without prejudice to the provisions of Article 292,

the husband and the wife shall be reciprocally liable for their
support during the separation, and for the support and
education of their children; all in proportion to their
respective property.

The share of the spouse who is under civil interdiction or

absent shall be administered in accordance with the Rules of
Court. (1434a)

Art. 193. The complaint for separation and the final

judgment declaring the same, shall be noted and recorded in
the proper registers of property, if the judgment should refer
to immovable property. (1437)

Art. 194. The separation of property shall not prejudice the

rights previously acquired by creditors. (1438)

Art. 195. The separation of property ceases:

(1) Upon reconciliation of the spouses, in case of legal

separation; (2) When the civil interdiction terminates;
(3) When the absent spouse appears; (4) When the
court, at the instance of the wife, authorizes the
husband to resume the administration of the conjugal
partnership, the court being satisfied that the husband
will not again abuse his powers as an administrator;
(5) When the husband, who has abandoned the wife,
rejoins her.
In the above cases, the property relations between the
spouses shall be governed by the same rules as before the
separation, without prejudice to the acts and contracts
legally executed during the separation.
The spouses shall state, in a public document, all the
property which they return to the marriage and which shall
constitute the separate property of each.

This public document shall be recorded in the Registry of

Property.

In the cases referred to in this article, all the property

brought in shall be deemed to be newly contributed, even
though all or some may be the same which existed before
the liquidation effected by reason of the separation. (1439a)

Art. 196. With the conjugal partnership subsisting, the

administration of all classes of property in the marriage may
be transferred by the courts to the wife:

(1) When she becomes the guardian of her husband; (2)

When she asks for the declaration of his absence; (3)
In case of civil interdiction of the husband.
The courts may also confer the administration to the wife,
with such limitation as they may deem advisable, if the
husband should become a fugitive from justice or be in
hiding as a defendant in a criminal case, or if, being
absolutely unable to administer, he should have failed to
provide for administration. (1441a)
Art. 197. The wife to whom the administration of all the
property of the marriage is transferred shall have, with
respect to said property, the same powers and responsibility
which the husband has when he is the administrator, but
always subject to the provisions of the last paragraph of the
preceding article. (1442a)

CHAPTER 6
SYSTEM OF ABSOLUTE COMMUNITY (n)

Art. 198. In case the future spouses agree in the marriage

settlements that the system of absolute community shall
govern their property relations during marriage, the
following provisions shall be of supplementary application.
Art. 199. In the absence of stipulation to the contrary, the
community shall consist of all present and future property of
the spouses not excepted by law.

Art. 200. Neither spouse may renounce any inheritance

without the consent of the other. In case of conflict, the
court shall decide the question, after consulting the family
council, if there is any.

Art. 201. The following shall be excluded from the

community:

(1) Property acquired by gratuitous title by either spouse,

when it is provided by the donor or testator that it shall
not become a part of the community; (2) Property
inherited by either husband or wife through the death
of a child by a former marriage, there being brothers or
sisters of the full blood of the deceased child; (3) A
portion of the property of either spouse equivalent to
the presumptive legitime of the children by a former
marriage; (4) Personal belongings of either spouse.
However, all the fruits and income of the foregoing classes
of property shall be included in the community.
Art. 202. Ante-nuptial debts of either spouse shall not be
paid from the community, unless the same have redounded
to the benefit of the family.

Art. 203. Debts contracted by both spouses or by one of

them with the consent of the other shall be paid from the
community. If the common property is insufficient to cover
common debts, the same may be enforced against the
separate property of the spouses, who shall be equally liable.
Art. 204. Debts contracted by either spouse without the
consent of the other shall be chargeable against the
community to the extent that the family may have been
benefited thereby.

Art. 205. Indemnities that must be paid by either spouse on

account of a crime or of a quasi-delict shall be paid from the
common assets, without any obligation to make
reimbursement.

Art. 206. The ownership, administration, possession and

enjoyment of the common property belong to both spouses
jointly. In case of disagreement, the courts shall settle the
difficulty.

Art. 207. Neither spouse may alienate or encumber any

common property without the consent of the other. In case
of unjustifiable refusal by the other spouse, the courts may
grant the necessary consent.

Art. 208. The absolute community of property shall be

dissolved on any of the grounds specified in Article 175.

Art. 209. When there is a separation in fact between

husband and wife, without judicial approval, the provisions
of Article 178 shall apply.

Art. 210. Upon the dissolution and liquidation of the

community, the net assets shall be divided equally between
the husband and the wife or their heirs. In case of legal
separation or annulment of marriage, the provisions of
Articles 176 and 177 shall apply to the net profits acquired
during the marriage.

Art. 211. Liquidation of the absolute community shall be

governed by the Rules of Court on the administration of the
estate of deceased persons.

CHAPTER 7
SYSTEM OF COMPLETE SEPARATION OF PROPERTY (n)

Art. 212. Should the future spouses agree in the marriage

settlements that their property relations during marriage
shall be based upon the system of complete separation of
property, the following provisions shall supplement the
marriage settlements.
Art. 213. Separation of property may refer to present or
future property or both. It may be total or partial. In the
latter case, the property not agreed upon as separate shall
pertain to the conjugal partnership of gains.

Art. 214. Each spouse shall own, dispose of, possess,

administer and enjoy his or her own separate estate, without
the consent of the other. All earnings from any profession,
business or industry shall likewise belong to each spouse.

Art. 215. Each spouse shall proportionately bear the family

expenses.

Title VII. - THE FAMILY (n)

CHAPTER 1
THE FAMILY AS AN INSTITUTION

Art. 216. The family is a basic social institution which public

policy cherishes and protects.
Art. 217. Family relations shall include those:

(1) Between husband and wife; (2) Between parent and

child; (3) Among other ascendants and their
descendants; (4) Among brothers and sisters.
Art. 218. The law governs family relations. No custom,
practice or agreement which is destructive of the family shall
be recognized or given any effect.
Art. 219. Mutual aid, both moral and material, shall be
rendered among members of the same family. Judicial and
administrative officials shall foster this mutual assistance.

Art. 220. In case of doubt, all presumptions favor the

solidarity of the family. Thus, every intendment of law or
facts leans toward the validity of marriage, the
indissolubility of the marriage bonds, the legitimacy of
children, the community of property during marriage, the
authority of parents over their children, and the validity of
defense for any member of the family in case of unlawful
aggression.

Art. 221. The following shall be void and of no effect:

(1) Any contract for personal separation between husband

and wife; (2) Every extra-judicial agreement, during
marriage, for the dissolution of the conjugal
partnership of gains or of the absolute community of
property between husband and wife; (3) Every
collusion to obtain a decree of legal separation, or of
annulment of marriage; (4) Any simulated alienation of
property with intent to deprive the compulsory heirs of
their legitime.
Art. 222. No suit shall be filed or maintained between
members of the same family unless it should appear that
earnest efforts toward a compromise have been made, but
that the same have failed, subject to the limitations in Article
2035.

CHAPTER 2
THE FAMILY HOME (n)

SECTION 1. - General Provisions

Art. 223. The family home is the dwelling house where a

person and his family reside, and the land on which it is
situated. If constituted as herein provided, the family home
shall be exempt from execution, forced sale or attachment,
except as provided in Articles 232 and 243.
Art. 224. The family home may be established judicially or
extrajudicially.

SECTION 2. - Judicial Constitution of the Family Home

Art. 225. The family home may be constituted by a verified

petition to the Court of First Instance by the owner of the
property, and by approval thereof by the court.
Art. 226. The following shall be beneficiaries of the family
home:

(1) The person establishing the same; (2) His or her

spouse;
(3) His or her parents, ascendants, descendants, brothers
and sisters, whether the relationship be legitimate or
otherwise, who are living in the family home and who
depend upon him for support.
Art. 227. The family home may also be set up by an
unmarried person who is the head of a family or household.
Art. 228. If the petitioner is married, the family home may be
selected from the conjugal partnership or community
property, or from the separate property of the husband, or,
with the consent of the wife, from her paraphernal property.

Art. 229. The petition shall contain the following particulars:

(1) Description of the property; (2) An estimate of its

actual value; (3) A statement that the petitioner is
actually residing in the premises; (4) The
encumbrances thereon; (5) The names and addresses
of all the creditors of the petitioner and of all
mortgagees and other persons who have an interest in
 the property; (6) The names of the other beneficiaries
specified in Article 226.
Art. 230. Creditors, mortgagees and all other persons who
have an interest in the estate shall be notified of the petition,
and given an opportunity to present their objections thereto.
The petition shall, moreover, be published once a week for
three consecutive weeks in a newspaper of general
circulation.
Art. 231. If the court finds that the actual value of the
proposed family home does not exceed twenty thousand
pesos, or thirty thousand pesos in chartered cities, and that
no third person is prejudiced, the petition shall be approved.
Should any creditor whose claim is unsecured, oppose the
establishment of the family home, the court shall grant the
petition if the debtor gives sufficient security for the debt.

Art. 232. The family home, after its creation by virtue of

judicial approval, shall be exempt from execution, forced
sale, or attachment, except:

(1) For nonpayment of taxes; or (2) In satisfaction of a

judgment on a debt secured by a mortgage constituted
on the immovable before or after the establishment of
the family home.
In case of insolvency of the person constituting the family
home, the property shall not be considered one of the assets
to be taken possession of by the assignee for the benefit of
creditors.
Art. 233. The order of the court approving the establishment
of the family home shall be recorded in the Registry of
Property.

Art. 234. When there is danger that a person obliged to give

support may lose his or her fortune because of grave
mismanagement or on account of riotous living, his or her
spouse, if any, and a majority of those entitled to be
supported by him or by her may petition the Court of First
Instance for the creation of the family home.

Art. 235. The family home may be sold, alienated or

encumbered by the person who has constituted the same,
with the consent of his or her spouse, and with the approval
of the court. However, the family home shall under no
circumstances be donated as long as there are beneficiaries.
In case of sale, the price or such portion thereof as may be
determined by the court shall be used in acquiring property
which shall be formed into a new family home. Any sum of
money obtained through an encumbrance on the family
home shall be used in the interest of the beneficiaries. The
court shall take measures to implement the last two
provisions.

Art. 236. The family home may be dissolved upon the

petition of the person who has constituted the same, with
the written consent of his or her spouse and of at least one
half of all the other beneficiaries who are eighteen years of
age or over. The court may grant the petition if it is
satisfactorily shown that the best interest of the family
requires the dissolution of the family home.

Art. 237. In case of legal separation or annulment of

marriage, the family home shall be dissolved, and the
property shall cease to be exempt from execution, forced
sale or attachment.

Art. 238. Upon the death of the person who has set up the
family home, the same shall continue, unless he desired
otherwise in his will. The heirs cannot ask for its partition
during the first ten years following the death of the person
constituting the same, unless the court finds powerful
reasons therefor.

Art. 239. The family home shall not be subject to payment of

the debts of the deceased, unless in his will the contrary is
stated. However, the claims mentioned in Article 232 shall
not be adversely affected by the death of the person who has
established the family home.

SECTION 3. - Extra-judicial Creation of the Family Home

Art. 240. The family home may be extrajudicially constituted

by recording in the Registry of Property a public instrument
wherein a person declares that he thereby establishes a
family home out of a dwelling place with the land on which it
is situated.
Art. 241. The declaration setting up the family home shall be
under oath and shall contain:

(1) A statement that the claimant is the owner of, and is

actually residing in the premises; (2) A description of
the property; (3) An estimate of its actual value; and
(4) The names of the claimant's spouse and the other
beneficiaries mentioned in Article 226.
Art. 242. The recording in the Registry of Property of the
declaration referred to in the two preceding articles is the
operative act which creates the family home.
Art. 243. The family home extrajudicially formed shall be
exempt from execution, forced sale or attachment, except:

(1) For nonpayment of taxes; (2) For debts incurred before

the declaration was recorded in the Registry of
Property; (3) For debts secured by mortgages on the
premises before or after such record of the declaration;
(4) For debts due to laborers, mechanics, architects,
builders, material-men and others who have rendered
service or furnished material for the prosecution of the
building.
Art. 244. The provisions of Articles 226 to 228 and 235 to
238 are likewise applicable to family homes extrajudicially
established.
Art. 245. Upon the death of the person who has
extrajudicially constituted the family home, the property
shall not be liable for his debts other than those mentioned
in Article 243. However, he may provide in his will that the
family home shall be subject to payment of debts not
specified in Article 243.

Art. 246. No declaration for the extrajudicial establishment

of the family home shall be recorded in the Registry of
Property if the estimated actual value of the building and the
land exceeds the amount stated in Article 231.

Art. 247. When a creditor whose claim is not mentioned in

Article 243 obtains a judgment in his favor, and he has
reasonable grounds to believe that the family home of the
judgment debtor is worth more than the amount mentioned
in Article 231, he may apply to the Court of First Instance for
an order directing the sale of the property under execution.

Art. 248. The hearing on the petition, appraisal of the value

of the family home, the sale under execution and other
matters relative to the proceedings shall be governed by
such provisions in the Rules of Court as the Supreme Court
shall promulgate on the subject, provided they are not
inconsistent with this Code.

Art. 249. At the sale under execution referred to in the two

preceding articles, no bid shall be considered unless it
exceeds the amount specified in Article 231. The proceeds of
the sale shall be applied in the following order:

(1) To the amount mentioned in Article 231; (2) To the

judgment and the costs.
The excess, if any, belongs to the person constituting the
family home.
Art. 250. The amount mentioned in Article 231 thus received
by the person who has established the family home, or as
much thereof as the court may determine, shall be invested
in constitution of a new family home. The court shall take
measures to enforce this provision.

Art. 251. In case of insolvency of the person creating the

family home, the claims specified in Article 243 may be
satisfied notwithstanding the insolvency proceedings.

If the assignee has reasonable grounds to believe that the

actual value of the family home exceeds the amount fixed in
Article 231, he may take action under the provisions of
Articles 247, 248 and 249.

CHAPTER 3
THE FAMILY COUNCIL (n)

Art. 252. The Court of First Instance may, upon application of

any member of the family, a relative, or a friend, appoint a
family council, whose duty it shall be to advise the court, the
spouses, the parents, guardians and the family on important
family questions.
Art. 253. The family council shall be composed of five
members, who shall be relatives of the parties concerned.
But the court may appoint one or two friends of the family.

Art. 254. The family council shall elect its chairman, and
shall meet at the call of the latter or upon order of the court.

Title VIII. - PATERNITY AND FILIATION

CHAPTER 1
LEGITIMATE CHILDREN

Art. 255. Children born after one hundred and eighty days
following the celebration of the marriage, and before three
hundred days following its dissolution or the separation of
the spouses shall be presumed to be legitimate.
Against this presumption no evidence shall be admitted
other than that of the physical impossibility of the husband's
having access to his wife within the first one hundred and
twenty days of three hundred which preceded the birth of
the child.

This physical impossibility may be caused:

 (1) By the impotence of the husband; (2) By the fact that
the husband and wife were living separately, in such a
way that access was not possible; (3) By the serious
illness of the husband. (108a)
Art. 256. The child shall be presumed legitimate, although
the mother may have declared against its legitimacy or may
have been sentenced as an adulteress. (109)
Art. 257. Should the wife commit adultery at or about the
time of the conception of the child, but there was no physical
impossibility of access between her and her husband as set
forth in Article 255, the child is prima facie presumed to be
illegitimate if it appears highly improbable, for ethnic
reasons, that the child is that of the husband. For the
purposes of this article, the wife's adultery need not be
proved in a criminal case. (n)

Art. 258. A child born within one hundred eighty days

following the celebration of the marriage is prima facie
presumed to be legitimate. Such a child is conclusively
presumed to be legitimate in any of these cases:

(1) If the husband, before the marriage, knew of the

pregnancy of the wife; (2) If he consented, being
present, to the putting of his surname on the record of
birth of the child; (3) If he expressly or tacitly
recognized the child as his own. (110a)
Art. 259. If the marriage is dissolved by the death of the
husband, and the mother contracted another marriage
within three hundred days following such death, these rules
shall govern:
(1) A child born before one hundred eighty days after the
solemnization of the subsequent marriage is disputably
presumed to have been conceived during the former
marriage, provided it be born within three hundred
days after the death of the former husband: (2) A child
born after one hundred eighty days following the
celebration of the subsequent marriage is prima facie
presumed to have been conceived during such marriage,
even though it be born within the three hundred days
after the death of the former husband. (n)
Art. 260. If after a judgment annulling a marriage, the
former wife should believe herself to be pregnant by the
former husband, she shall, within thirty days from the time
she became aware of her pregnancy, notify the former
husband or his heirs of that fact. He or his heirs may ask the
court to take measures to prevent a simulation of birth.
The same obligation shall devolve upon a widow who
believes herself to have been left pregnant by the deceased
husband, or upon the wife who believes herself to be
pregnant by her husband from whom she has been legally
separated. (n)

Art. 261. There is no presumption of legitimacy or

illegitimacy of a child born after three hundred days
following the dissolution of the marriage or the separation of
the spouses. Whoever alleges the legitimacy or the
illegitimacy of such child must prove his allegation. (n)

Art. 262. The heirs of the husband may impugn the

legitimacy of the child only in the following cases:

(1) If the husband should die before the expiration of the

period fixed for bringing his action; (2) If he should die
after the filing of the complaint, without having
desisted from the same; (3) If the child was born after
the death of the husband. (112)
Art. 263. The action to impugn the legitimacy of the child
shall be brought within one year from the recording of the
birth in the Civil Register, if the husband should be in the
same place, or in a proper case, any of his heirs.
If he or his heirs are absent, the period shall be eighteen
months if they should reside in the Philippines; and two
years if abroad. If the birth of the child has been concealed,
the term shall be counted from the discovery of the fraud.
(113a)

Art. 264. Legitimate children shall have the right:

(1) To bear the surnames of the father and of the mother;

(2) To receive support from them, from their
ascendants and in a proper case, from their brothers
and sisters, in conformity with Article 291; (3) To the
legitime and other successional rights which this Code
recognizes in their favor. (114)

CHAPTER 2
PROOF OF FILIATION OF LEGITIMATE CHILDREN

Art. 265. The filiation of legitimate children is proved by the

record of birth appearing in the Civil Register, or by an
authentic document or a final judgment. (115)
Art. 266. In the absence of the titles indicated in the
preceding article, the filiation shall be proved by the
continuous possession of status of a legitimate child. (116)

Art. 267. In the absence of a record of birth, authentic

document, final judgment or possession of status, legitimate
filiation may be proved by any other means allowed by the
Rules of Court and special laws. (117a)

Art. 268. The action to claim his legitimacy may be brought

by the child during all his lifetime, and shall be transmitted
to his heirs if he should die during his minority or in a state
of insanity. In these cases the heirs shall have a period of
five years within which to institute the action.

The action already commenced by the child is transmitted

upon his death to the heirs, if the proceeding has not yet
lapsed. (118)

CHAPTER 3
LEGITIMATED CHILDREN

Art. 269. Only natural children can be legitimated. Children

born outside wedlock of parents who, at the time of the
conception of the former, were not disqualified by any
impediment to marry each other, are natural. (119a)
Art. 270. Legitimation shall take place by the subsequent
marriage between the parents. (120a)

Art. 271. Only natural children who have been recognized by

the parents before or after the celebration of the marriage,
or have been declared natural children by final judgment,
may be considered legitimated by subsequent marriage.

If a natural child is recognized or judicially declared as

natural, such recognition or declaration shall extend to his or
her brothers or sisters of the full blood: Provided, That the
consent of the latter shall be implied if they do not impugn
the recognition within four years from the time of such
recognition, or in case they are minors, within four years
following the attainment of majority. (121a)

Art. 272. Children who are legitimated by subsequent

marriage shall enjoy the same rights as legitimate children.
(122)

Art. 273. Legitimation shall take effect from the time of the
child's birth. (123a)

Art. 274. The legitimation of children who died before the

celebration of the marriage shall benefit their descendants.
(124)

Art. 275. Legitimation may be impugned by those who are

prejudiced in their rights, when it takes place in favor of
those who do not have the legal condition of natural children
or when the requisites laid down in this Chapter are not
complied with. (128a)

CHAPTER 4
ILLEGITIMATE CHILDREN

SECTION 1. - Recognition of Natural Children

Art. 276. A natural child may be recognized by the father and

mother jointly, or by only one of them. (129)
Art. 277. In case the recognition is made by only one of the
parents, it shall be presumed that the child is natural, if the
parent recognizing it had legal capacity to contract marriage
at the time of the conception. (130)

Art. 278. Recognition shall be made in the record of birth, a

will, a statement before a court of record, or in any authentic
writing. (131a)

Art. 279. A minor who may not contract marriage without

parental consent cannot acknowledge a natural child, unless
the parent or guardian approves the acknowledgment or
unless the recognition is made in a will. (n)

Art. 280. When the father or the mother makes the

recognition separately, he or she shall not reveal the name
of the person with whom he or she had the child; neither
shall he or she state any circumstance whereby the other
parent may be identified. (132a)

Art. 281. A child who is of age cannot be recognized without

his consent.

When the recognition of a minor does not take place in a

record of birth or in a will, judicial approval shall be
necessary.

A minor can in any case impugn the recognition within four

years following the attainment of his majority. (133a)

Art. 282. A recognized natural child has the right:

(1) To bear the surname of the parent recognizing him: (2)

To receive support from such parent, in conformity with
article 291; (3) To receive, in a proper case, the
hereditary portion which is determined in this Code.
(134)
Art. 283. In any of the following cases, the father is obliged
to recognize the child as his natural child:
(1) In cases of rape, abduction or seduction, when the
period of the offense coincides more or less with that of
the conception; (2) When the child is in continuous
possession of status of a child of the alleged father by
the direct acts of the latter or of his family; (3) When
the child was conceived during the time when the
mother cohabited with the supposed father; (4) When
the child has in his favor any evidence or proof that the
defendant is his father. (n)
Art. 284. The mother is obliged to recognize her natural
child:
(1) In any of the cases referred to in the preceding article,
as between the child and the mother; (2) When the
birth and the identity of the child are clearly proved.
(136a)
Art. 285. The action for the recognition of natural children
may be brought only during the lifetime of the presumed
parents, except in the following cases:
(1) If the father or mother died during the minority of the
child, in which case the latter may file the action before
the expiration of four years from the attainment of his
majority; (2) If after the death of the father or of the
mother a document should appear of which nothing had
been heard and in which either or both parents
recognize the child.
In this case, the action must be commenced within four
years from the finding of the document. (137a)
Art. 286. The recognition made in favor of a child who does
not possess all the conditions stated in Article 269, or in
which the requirements of the law have not been fulfilled,
may be impugned by those who are prejudiced by such
recognition. (137)

SECTION 2. - Other Illegitimate Children

Art. 287. Illegitimate children other than natural in

accordance with Article 269 and other than natural children
by legal fiction are entitled to support and such successional
rights as are granted in this Code. (n)
Art. 288. Minor children mentioned in the preceding article
are under the parental authority of the mother. (n)

Art. 289. Investigation of the paternity or maternity of

children mentioned in the two preceding articles is permitted
under the circumstances specified in Articles 283 and 284.
(n)
 Title IX. - SUPPORT

Art. 290. Support is everything that is indispensable for

sustenance, dwelling, clothing and medical attendance,
according to the social position of the family.
Support also includes the education of the person entitled to
be supported until he completes his education or training for
some profession, trade or vocation, even beyond the age of
majority. (124a)

Art. 291. The following are obliged to support each other to

the whole extent set forth in the preceding article:

(1) The spouses; (2) Legitimate ascendants and

descendants; (3) Parents and acknowledged natural
children and the legitimate or illegitimate descendants
of the latter; (4) Parents and natural children by legal
fiction and the legitimate and illegitimate descendants
of the latter; (5) Parents and illegitimate children who
are not natural.
Brothers and sisters owe their legitimate and natural
brothers and sisters, although they are only of the half-blood,
the necessaries for life, when by a physical or mental defect,
or any other cause not imputable to the recipients, the latter
cannot secure their subsistence. This assistance includes, in
a proper case, expenses necessary for elementary education
and for professional or vocational training. (143a)
Art. 292. During the proceedings for legal separation, or for
annulment of marriage, the spouses and children, shall be
supported from the conjugal partnership property. After the
final judgment of legal separation, or of annulment of
marriage, the obligation of mutual support between the
spouses ceases. However, in case of legal separation, the
court may order that the guilty spouse shall give support to
the innocent one, the judgment specifying the terms of such
order. (n)

Art. 293. In an action for legal separation or annulment of

marriage, attorney's fees and expenses for litigation shall be
charged to the conjugal partnership property, unless the
action fails. (n)

Art. 294. The claim for support, when proper and two or
more persons are obliged to give it, shall be made in the
following order:

(1) From the spouse; (2) From the descendants of the

nearest degree; (3) From the ascendants, also of the
 nearest degree; (4) From the brothers and sisters.
Among descendants and ascendants the order in which they
are called to the intestate succession of the person who has
a right to claim support shall be observed. (144)
Art. 295. When the obligation to give support falls upon two
or more persons, the payment of the same shall be divided
between them in proportion to the resources of each.

However, in case of urgent need and by special

circumstances, the judge may order only one of them to
furnish the support provisionally, without prejudice to his
right to claim from the other obligors the share due from
them.

When two or more recipients at the same time claim support

from one and the same person legally obliged to give it, and
the latter should not have sufficient means to satisfy all, the
order established in the preceding article shall be followed,
unless the concurrent obligees should be the spouse and a
child subject to parental authority, in which case the latter
shall be preferred. (145)

Art. 296. The amount of support, in the cases referred to in

the five numbers of article 291, shall be in proportion to the
resources or means of the giver and to the necessities of the
recipient. (146a)

Art. 297. Support in the cases referred to in the preceding

article shall be reduced or increased proportionately,
according to the reduction or increase of the needs of the
recipient and the resources of the person obliged to furnish
the same. (147)

Art. 298. The obligation to give support shall be demandable

from the time the person who has a right to receive the same
needs it for maintenance, but it shall not be paid except from
the date it is extrajudicially demanded.

Payment shall be made monthly in advance, and when the

recipient dies, his heirs shall not be obliged to return what
he has received in advance. (148a)

Art. 299. The person obliged to give support may, at his

option, fulfill his obligation either by paying the allowance
fixed, or by receiving and maintaining in his house the
person who has a right to receive support. The latter
alternative cannot be availed of in case there is a moral or
legal obstacle thereto. (149a)
Art. 300. The obligation to furnish support ceases upon the
death of the obligor, even if he may be bound to give it in
compliance with a final judgment. (150)

Art. 301. The right to receive support cannot be renounced;

nor can it be transmitted to a third person. Neither can it be
compensated with what the recipient owes the obligor.

However, support in arrears may be compensated and

renounced, and the right to demand the same may be
transmitted by onerous or gratuitous title. (151)

Art. 302. Neither the right to receive legal support nor any
money or property obtained as such support or any pension
or gratuity from the government is subject to attachment or
execution. (n)

Art. 303. The obligation to give support shall also cease:

(1) Upon the death of the recipient; (2) When the

resources of the obligor have been reduced to the point
where he cannot give the support without neglecting
his own needs and those of his family; (3) When the
recipient may engage in a trade, profession, or industry,
or has obtained work, or has improved his fortune in
such a way that he no longer needs the allowance for
his subsistence; (4) When the recipient, be he a forced
heir or not, has committed some act which gives rise to
disinheritance; (5) When the recipient is a descendant,
brother or sister of the obligor and the need for support
is caused by his or her bad conduct or by the lack of
application to work, so long as this cause subsists.
(152a)
Art. 304. The foregoing provisions shall be applicable to
other cases where, in virtue of this Code or of any other law,
by will, or by stipulation there is a right to receive support,
save what is stipulated, ordered by the testator or provided
by law for the special case. (153a)

Title X. - FUNERALS (n)

Art. 305. The duty and the right to make arrangements for
the funeral of a relative shall be in accordance with the order
established for support, under Article 294. In case of
descendants of the same degree, or of brothers and sisters,
the oldest shall be preferred. In case of ascendants, the
paternal shall have a better right.
Art. 306. Every funeral shall be in keeping with the social
position of the deceased.
Art. 307. The funeral shall be in accordance with the
expressed wishes of the deceased. In the absence of such
expression, his religious beliefs or affiliation shall determine
the funeral rites. In case of doubt, the form of the funeral
shall be decided upon by the person obliged to make
arrangements for the same, after consulting the other
members of the family.

Art. 308. No human remains shall be retained, interred,

disposed of or exhumed without the consent of the persons
mentioned in articles 294 and 305.

Art. 309. Any person who shows disrespect to the dead, or

wrongfully interferes with a funeral shall be liable to the
family of the deceased for damages, material and moral.

Art. 310. The construction of a tombstone or mausoleum

shall be deemed a part of the funeral expenses, and shall be
chargeable to the conjugal partnership property, if the
deceased is one of the spouses.

Title XI. - PARENTAL AUTHORITY

CHAPTER 1
GENERAL PROVISIONS

Art. 311. The father and mother jointly exercise parental

authority over their legitimate children who are not
emancipated. In case of disagreement, the father's decision
shall prevail, unless there is a judicial order to the contrary.
Children are obliged to obey their parents so long as they are
under parental power, and to observe respect and reverence
toward them always.

Recognized natural and adopted children who are under the

age of majority are under the parental authority of the father
or mother recognizing or adopting them, and are under the
same obligation stated in the preceding paragraph.

Natural children by legal fiction are under the joint authority

of the father and mother, as provided in the first paragraph
of this article. (154a)

Art. 312. Grandparents shall be consulted by all members of

the family on all important family questions. (n)

Art. 313. Parental authority cannot be renounced or

transferred, except in cases of guardianship or adoption
approved by the courts, or emancipation by concession.
The courts may, in cases specified by law, deprive parents of
their authority. (n)

Art. 314. A foundling shall be under the parental authority of

the person or institution that has reared the same. (n)

Art. 315. No descendant can be compelled, in a criminal case,

to testify against his parents and ascendants. (n)

CHAPTER 2
EFFECT OF PARENTAL AUTHORITY
UPON THE PERSONS OF THE CHILDREN

Art. 316. The father and the mother have, with respect to
their unemancipated children:
(1) The duty to support them, to have them in their
company, educate and instruct them in keeping with
their means and to represent them in all actions which
may redound to their benefit; (2) The power to correct
them and to punish them moderately. (155)
Art. 317. The courts may appoint a guardian of the child' s
property, or a guardian ad litem when the best interest of
the child so requires. (n)
Art. 318. Upon cause being shown by the parents, the local
mayor may aid them in the exercise of their authority over
the child. If the child is to be kept in a children's home or
similar institution for not more than one month, an order of
the justice of the peace or municipal judge shall be
necessary, after due hearing, where the child shall be heard.
For his purpose, the court may appoint a guardian ad litem.
(156a)

Art. 319. The father and the mother shall satisfy the support
for the detained child; but they shall not have any
intervention in the regime of the institution where the child
is detained. They may lift the detention when they deem it
opportune, with the approval of the court. (158a)

CHAPTER 3
EFFECT OF PARENTAL AUTHORITY
ON THE PROPERTY OF THE CHILDREN

Art. 320. The father, or in his absence the mother, is the

legal administrator of the property pertaining to the child
under parental authority. If the property is worth more than
two thousand pesos, the father or mother shall give a bond
subject to the approval of the Court of First Instance. (159a)
Art. 321. The property which the unemancipated child has
acquired or may acquire with his work or industry, or by any
lucrative title, belongs to the child in ownership, and in
usufruct to the father or mother under whom he is under
parental authority and in whose company he lives; but if the
child, with the parent's consent, should live independently
from them, he shall be considered as emancipated for all
purposes relative to said property, and he shall have over it
dominion, usufruct and administration. (160)

Art. 322. A child who earns money or acquires property with

his own work or industry shall be entitled to a reasonable
allowance from the earnings, in addition to the expenses
made by the parents for his support and education. (n)

Art. 323. The fruits and interest of the child's property

referred to in article 321 shall be applied first to the
expenses for the support and education of the child. After
they have been fully met, the debts of the conjugal
partnership which have redounded to the benefit of the
family may be paid from said fruits and interest. (n)

Art. 324. Whatever the child may acquire with the capital or
property of the parents belongs to the latter in ownership
and in usufruct. But if the parents should expressly grant
him all or part of the profits that he may obtain, such profits
shall not be charged against his legitime. (161)

Art. 325. The property or income donated, bequeathed or

devised to the unemancipated child for the expenses of his
education and instruction shall pertain to him in ownership
and usufruct; but the father or mother shall administer the
same, if in the donation or testamentary provision the
contrary has not been stated. (162)

Art. 326. When the property of the child is worth more than
two thousand pesos, the father or mother shall be
considered a guardian of the child's property, subject to the
duties and obligations of guardians under the Rules of Court.
(n)

CHAPTER 4
EXTINGUISHMENT OF PARENTAL AUTHORITY

Art. 327. Parental authority terminates:

(1) Upon the death of the parents or of the child; (2) Upon
emancipation; (3) Upon adoption of the child; (4)
Upon the appointment of a general guardian. (167a)
Art. 328. The mother who contracts a subsequent marriage
loses the parental authority over her children, unless the
deceased husband, father of the latter, has expressly
provided in his will that his widow might marry again, and
has ordered that in such case she should keep and exercise
parental authority over their children.
The court may also appoint a guardian of the child's property
in case the father should contract a subsequent marriage.
(168a)

Art. 329. When the mother of an illegitimate child marries a

man other than its father, the court may appoint a guardian
for the child. (n)

Art. 330. The father and in a proper case the mother, shall
lose authority over their children:

(1) When by final judgment in a criminal case the penalty

of deprivation of said authority is imposed upon him or
her; (2) When by a final judgment in legal separation
proceedings such loss of authority is declared. (169a)
Art. 331. Parental authority is suspended by the incapacity
or absence of the father, or in a proper case of the mother,
judicially declared, and also by civil interdiction. (170)
Art. 332. The courts may deprive the parents of their
authority or suspend the exercise of the same if they should
treat their children with excessive harshness or should give
them corrupting orders, counsels, or examples, or should
make them beg or abandon them. In these cases, the courts
may also deprive the parents in whole or in part, of the
usufruct over the child's property, or adopt such measures
as they may deem advisable in the interest of the child.
(171a)

Art. 333. If the widowed mother who has contracted a

subsequent marriage should again become a widow, she
shall recover from this moment her parental authority over
all her unemancipated children. (172)

CHAPTER 5
ADOPTION

Art. 334. Every person of age, who is in full possession of his

civil rights, may adopt. (173a)
Art. 335. The following cannot adopt:

(1) Those who have legitimate, legitimated, acknowledged

natural children, or natural children by legal fiction; (2)
The guardian, with respect to the ward, before the final
approval of his accounts; (3) A married person,
 without the consent of the other spouse; (4) Non-
resident aliens; (5) Resident aliens with whose
government the Republic of the Philippines has broken
diplomatic relations; (6) Any person who has been
convicted of a crime involving moral turpitude, when
the penalty imposed was six months' imprisonment or
more. (174a)
Art. 336. The husband and wife may jointly adopt. Parental
authority shall, in such case, be exercised as if the child
were their own by nature. (n)
Art. 337. Any person, even if of age, may be adopted,
provided the adopter is sixteen years older. (173a)

Art. 338. The following may be adopted:

(1) The natural child, by the natural father or mother; (2)

Other illegitimate children, by the father or mother;
(3) A step-child, by the step-father or step-mother. (n)
Art. 339. The following cannot be adopted:
(1) A married person, without the written consent of the
other spouse; (2) An alien with whose government the
Republic of the Philippines has broken diplomatic
relations; (3) A person who has already been adopted.
(n)
Art. 340. The written consent of the following to the
adoption shall be necessary:
(1) The person to be adopted, if fourteen years of age or
over; (2) The parents, guardian or person in charge of
the person to be adopted. (n)
Art. 341. The adoption shall:
(1) Give to the adopted person the same rights and duties
as if he were a legitimate child of the adopter: (2)
Dissolve the authority vested in the parents by nature;
(3) Make the adopted person a legal heir of the
adopter; (4) Entitle the adopted person to use the
adopter's surname. (n)
Art. 342. The adopter shall not be a legal heir of the adopted
person, whose parents by nature shall inherit from him.
(177a)
Art. 343. If the adopter is survived by legitimate parents or
ascendants and by an adopted person, the latter shall not
have more successional rights than an acknowledged natural
child. (n)

Art. 344. The adopter may donate property, by an act inter

vivos or by will, to the adopted person, who shall acquire
ownership thereof. (n)
Art. 345. The proceedings for adoption shall be governed by
the Rules of Court insofar as they are not in conflict with this
Code. (n)

Art. 346. The adoption shall be recorded in the local civil

register. (179a)

Art. 347. A minor or other incapacitated person may, through

a guardian ad litem, ask for the rescission of the adoption on
the same grounds that cause the loss of parental authority.
(n)

Art. 348. The adopter may petition the court for revocation
of the adoption in any of these cases:

(1) If the adopted person has attempted against the life of

the adopter; (2) When the adopted minor has
abandoned the home of the adopter for more than
three years; (3) When by other acts the adopted
person has definitely repudiated the adoption. (n)
CHAPTER 6
SUBSTITUTE PARENTAL AUTHORITY (n)

Art. 349. The following persons shall exercise substitute

parental authority:
(1) Guardians; (2) Teachers and professors; (3) Heads of
children's homes, orphanages, and similar institutions;
(4) Directors of trade establishments, with regard to
apprentices; (5) Grandparents; (6) The oldest brother
or sister.
Art. 350. The persons named in the preceding article shall
exercise reasonable supervision over the conduct of the child.
Art. 351. A general guardian or a guardian over the person
shall have the same authority over the ward's person as the
parents. With regard to the child's property, the Rules of
Court on guardianship shall govern.

Art. 352. The relations between teacher and pupil, professor

and student, are fixed by government regulations and those
of each school or institution. In no case shall corporal
punishment be countenanced. The teacher or professor shall
cultivate the best potentialities of the heart and mind of the
pupil or student.

Art. 353. Apprentices shall be treated humanely. No corporal

punishment against the apprentice shall be permitted.

Art. 354. Grandparents and in their default the oldest

brother or sister shall exercise parental authority in case of
death or absence of the child's parents. If the parents are
living, or if the child is under guardianship, the grandparents
may give advice and counsel to the child, to the parents or to
the guardian.

Art. 355. Substitute parental authority shall be exercised by

the grandparents in the following order:

(1) Paternal grandparents; (2) Maternal grandparents.

Title XII. - CARE AND EDUCATION OF CHILDREN

Art. 356. Every child:

(1) Is entitled to parental care; (2) Shall receive at least
elementary education; (3) Shall be given moral and
civic training by the parents or guardian; (4) Has a
right to live in an atmosphere conducive to his physical,
moral and intellectual development.
Art. 357. Every child shall:
(1) Obey and honor his parents or guardian; (2) Respect
his grandparents, old relatives, and persons holding
substitute parental authority; (3) Exert his utmost for
his education and training; (4) Cooperate with the
family in all matters that make for the good of the same.
Art. 358. Every parent and every person holding substitute
parental authority shall see to it that the rights of the child
are respected and his duties complied with, and shall
particularly, by precept and example, imbue the child with
highmindedness, love of country, veneration for the national
heroes, fidelity to democracy as a way of life, and
attachment to the ideal of permanent world peace.
Art. 359. The government promotes the full growth of the
faculties of every child. For this purpose, the government
will establish, whenever possible:

(1) Schools in every barrio, municipality and city where

optional religious instruction shall be taught as part of
the curriculum at the option of the parent or guardian;
(2) Puericulture and similar centers; (3) Councils for
the Protection of Children; and (4) Juvenile courts.
Art. 360. The Council for the Protection of Children shall look
after the welfare of children in the municipality. It shall,
among other functions:
(1) Foster the education of every child in the municipality;
(2) Encourage the cultivation of the duties of parents;
(3) Protect and assist abandoned or mistreated
children, and orphans; (4) Take steps to prevent
juvenile delinquency; (5) Adopt measures for the
health of children; (6) Promote the opening and
 maintenance of playgrounds; (7) Coordinate the
activities of organizations devoted to the welfare of
children, and secure their cooperation.
Art. 361. Juvenile courts will be established, as far as
practicable, in every chartered city or large municipality.
Art. 362. Whenever a child is found delinquent by any court,
the father, mother, or guardian may in a proper case be
judicially admonished.

Art. 363. In all questions on the care, custody, education and

property of children the latter's welfare shall be paramount.
No mother shall be separated from her child under seven
years of age, unless the court finds compelling reasons for
such measure.

Title XIII. - USE OF SURNAMES (n)

Art. 364. Legitimate and legitimated children shall principally

use the surname of the father.
Art. 365. An adopted child shall bear the surname of the
adopter.

Art. 366. A natural child acknowledged by both parents shall

principally use the surname of the father. If recognized by
only one of the parents, a natural child shall employ the
surname of the recognizing parent.

Art. 367. Natural children by legal fiction shall principally

employ the surname of the father.

Art. 368. Illegitimate children referred to in Article 287 shall

bear the surname of the mother.

Art. 369. Children conceived before the decree annulling a

voidable marriage shall principally use the surname of the
father.

Art. 370. A married woman may use:

(1) Her maiden first name and surname and add her
husband's surname, or (2) Her maiden first name and
her husband's surname or (3) Her husband's full name,
but prefixing a word indicating that she is his wife,
such as "Mrs."
Art. 371. In case of annulment of marriage, and the wife is
the guilty party, she shall resume her maiden name and
surname. If she is the innocent spouse, she may resume her
maiden name and surname. However, she may choose to
continue employing her former husband's surname, unless:
 (1) The court decrees otherwise, or (2) She or the former
husband is married again to another person.
Art. 372. When legal separation has been granted, the wife
shall continue using her name and surname employed before
the legal separation.
Art. 373. A widow may use the deceased husband's surname
as though he were still living, in accordance with Article 370.

Art. 374. In case of identity of names and surnames, the

younger person shall be obliged to use such additional name
or surname as will avoid confusion.

Art. 375. In case of identity of names and surnames between

ascendants and descendants, the word "Junior" can be used
only by a son. Grandsons and other direct male descendants
shall either:

(1) Add a middle name or the mother's surname, or (2)

Add the Roman Numerals II, III, and so on.
Art. 376. No person can change his name or surname
without judicial authority.
Art. 377. Usurpation of a name and surname may be the
subject of an action for damages and other relief.

Art. 378. The unauthorized or unlawful use of another

person's surname gives a right of action to the latter.

Art. 379. The employment of pen names or stage names is

permitted, provided it is done in good faith and there is no
injury to third persons. Pen names and stage names cannot
be usurped.

Art. 380. Except as provided in the preceding article, no

person shall use different names and surnames.

Title XIV. - ABSENCE

CHAPTER 1
PROVISIONAL MEASURES IN CASE OF ABSENCE

Art. 381. When a person disappears from his domicile, his

whereabouts being unknown, and without leaving an agent
to administer his property, the judge, at the instance of an
interested party, a relative, or a friend, may appoint a person
to represent him in all that may be necessary.
This same rule shall be observed when under similar
circumstances the power conferred by the absentee has
expired. (181a)
Art. 382. The appointment referred to in the preceding
article having been made, the judge shall take the necessary
measures to safeguard the rights and interests of the
absentee and shall specify the powers, obligations and
remuneration of his representative, regulating them,
according to the circumstances, by the rules concerning
guardians. (182)

Art. 383. In the appointment of a representative, the spouse

present shall be preferred when there is no legal separation.

If the absentee left no spouse, or if the spouse present is a

minor, any competent person may be appointed by the court.
(183a)

CHAPTER 2
DECLARATION OF ABSENCE

Art. 384. Two years having elapsed without any news about
the absentee or since the receipt of the last news, and five
years in case the absentee has left a person in charge of the
administration of his property, his absence may be declared.
(184)
Art. 385. The following may ask for the declaration of
absence:

(1) The spouse present; (2) The heirs instituted in a will,

who may present an authentic copy of the same; (3)
The relatives who may succeed by the law of intestacy;
(4) Those who may have over the property of the
absentee some right subordinated to the condition of
his death. (185)
Art. 386. The judicial declaration of absence shall not take
effect until six months after its publication in a newspaper of
general circulation. (186a)

CHAPTER 3
ADMINISTRATION OF THE PROPERTY OF THE ABSENTEE

Art. 387. An administrator of the absentee's property shall

be appointed in accordance with Article 383. (187a)
Art. 388. The wife who is appointed as an administratrix of
the husband's property cannot alienate or encumber the
husband's property, or that of the conjugal partnership,
without judicial authority. (188a)

Art. 389. The administration shall cease in any of the

following cases:
 (1) When the absentee appears personally or by means of
an agent; (2) When the death of the absentee is proved
and his testate or intestate heirs appear; (3) When a
third person appears, showing by a proper document
that he has acquired the absentee's property by
purchase or other title.
In these cases the administrator shall cease in the
performance of his office, and the property shall be at the
disposal of those who may have a right thereto. (190)

CHAPTER 4
PRESUMPTION OF DEATH

Art. 390. After an absence of seven years, it being unknown

whether or not the absentee still lives, he shall be presumed
dead for all purposes, except for those of succession.
The absentee shall not be presumed dead for the purpose of
opening his succession till after an absence of ten years. If
he disappeared after the age of seventy-five years, an
absence of five years shall be sufficient in order that his
succession may be opened. (n)

Art. 391. The following shall be presumed dead for all

purposes, including the division of the estate among the
heirs:

(1) A person on board a vessel lost during a sea voyage, or

an aeroplane which is missing, who has not been heard
of for four years since the loss of the vessel or
aeroplane; (2) A person in the armed forces who has
taken part in war, and has been missing for four years;
(3) A person who has been in danger of death under
other circumstances and his existence has not been
known for four years. (n)
Art. 392. If the absentee appears, or without appearing his
existence is proved, he shall recover his property in the
condition in which it may be found, and the price of any
property that may have been alienated or the property
acquired therewith; but he cannot claim either fruits or rents.
(194)

CHAPTER 5
EFFECT OF ABSENCE UPON THE
CONTINGENT RIGHTS OF THE ABSENTEE

Art. 393. Whoever claims a right pertaining to a person

whose existence is not recognized must prove that he was
living at the time his existence was necessary in order to
acquire said right. (195)
Art. 394. Without prejudice to the provision of the preceding
article, upon the opening of a succession to which an
absentee is called, his share shall accrue to his co-heirs,
unless he has heirs, assigns, or a representative. They shall
all, as the case may be, make an inventory of the property.
(196a)

Art. 395. The provisions of the preceding article are

understood to be without prejudice to the action of petition
for inheritance or other rights which are vested in the
absentee, his representatives or successors in interest.
These rights shall not be extinguished save by lapse of time
fixed for prescription. In the record that is made in the
Registry of the real estate which accrues to the coheirs, the
circumstance of its being subject to the provisions of this
article shall be stated. (197)

Art. 396. Those who may have entered upon the inheritance
shall appropriate the fruits received in good faith so long as
the absentee does not appear, or while his representatives
or successors in interest do not bring the proper actions.
(198)

Title XV. - EMANCIPATION AND AGE OF MAJORITY

CHAPTER 1
EMANCIPATION

Art. 397. Emancipation takes place:

(1) By the marriage of the minor; (2) By the attainment of
majority; (3) By the concession of the father or of the
mother who exercise parental authority. (314)
Art. 398. Emancipation treated of in No. 3 of the preceding
article shall be effected in a public instrument which shall be
recorded in the Civil Register, and unless so recorded, it shall
take no effect against third persons. (316a)
Art. 399. Emancipation by marriage or by voluntary
concession shall terminate parental authority over the child's
person. It shall enable the minor to administer his property
as though he were of age, but he cannot borrow money or
alienate or encumber real property without the consent of
his father or mother, or guardian. He can sue and be sued in
court only with the assistance of his father, mother or
guardian. (317a)

Art. 400. In order that emancipation by concession of the

father or of the mother may take place, it is required that the
minor be eighteen years of age, and that he give his consent
thereto. (318)

Art. 401. Emancipation is final or irrevocable. (319a)

CHAPTER 2
AGE OF MAJORITY

Art. 402. Majority commences upon the attainment of the

age of twenty-one years.
The person who has reached majority is qualified for all acts
of civil life, save the exceptions established by this Code in
special cases. (320a)

Art. 403. Notwithstanding the provisions of the preceding

article, a daughter above twenty-one but below twenty-three
years of age cannot leave the parental home without the
consent of the father or mother in whose company she lives,
except to become a wife, or when she exercises a profession
or calling, or when the father or mother has contracted a
subsequent marriage. (321a)

Art. 404. An orphan who is minor may, at the instance of any

relative or other person, obtain emancipation by concession
upon an order of the Court of First Instance. (322a)

Art. 405. For the concession and approval referred to in the

preceding article it is necessary:

(1) That the minor be eighteen years of age; (2) That he

consent thereto; and (3) That the concession be
deemed convenient for the minor.
The concession shall be recorded in the Civil Register. (323a)
Art. 406. The provisions of Article 399 are applicable to an
orphan who has been emancipated according to Article 404.
The court will give the necessary approval with respect to
the contracts mentioned in Article 399. In litigations, a
guardian ad litem for the minor shall be appointed by the
court. (324a)

Title XVI. - CIVIL REGISTER

Art. 407. Acts, events and judicial decrees concerning the

civil status of persons shall be recorded in the civil register.
(325a)
Art. 408. The following shall be entered in the civil register:

(1) Births;
(2) marriages;
 (3) deaths;
(4) legal separations;
(5) annulments of marriage;
(6) judgments declaring marriages void from the
beginning;
(7) legitimations;
(8) adoptions;
(9) acknowledgments of natural children;
(10) naturalization;
(11) loss, or (12) recovery of citizenship;
(13) civil interdiction;
(14) judicial determination of filiation;
(15) voluntary emancipation of a minor; and
(16) changes of name. (326a)
Art. 409. In cases of legal separation, adoption,
naturalization and other judicial orders mentioned in the
preceding article, it shall be the duty of the clerk of the court
which issued the decree to ascertain whether the same has
been registered, and if this has not been done, to send a
copy of said decree to the civil registry of the city or
municipality where the court is functioning. (n)
Art. 410. The books making up the civil register and all
documents relating thereto shall be considered public
documents and shall be prima facie evidence of the facts
therein contained. (n)

Art. 411. Every civil registrar shall be civilly responsible for

any unauthorized alteration made in any civil register, to any
person suffering damage thereby. However, the civil
registrar may exempt himself from such liability if he proves
that he has taken every reasonable precaution to prevent the
unlawful alteration. (n)

Art. 412. No entry in a civil register shall be changed or

corrected, without a judicial order. (n)

Art. 413. All other matters pertaining to the registration of

civil status shall be governed by special laws. (n)
 BOOK II

PROPERTY, OWNERSHIP, AND ITS MODIFICATIONS

Title I. - CLASSIFICATION OF PROPERTY

PRELIMINARY PROVISIONS

Art. 414. All things which are or may be the object of

appropriation are considered either:
(1) Immovable or real property; or (2) Movable or personal
property. (333)
CHAPTER 1
IMMOVABLE PROPERTY

Art. 415. The following are immovable property:

(1) Land, buildings, roads and constructions of all kinds
adhered to the soil; (2) Trees, plants, and growing
fruits, while they are attached to the land or form an
integral part of an immovable; (3) Everything attached
to an immovable in a fixed manner, in such a way that
it cannot be separated therefrom without breaking the
material or deterioration of the object; (4) Statues,
reliefs, paintings or other objects for use or
ornamentation, placed in buildings or on lands by the
owner of the immovable in such a manner that it
reveals the intention to attach them permanently to the
tenements; (5) Machinery, receptacles, instruments or
implements intended by the owner of the tenement for
an industry or works which may be carried on in a
building or on a piece of land, and which tend directly
to meet the needs of the said industry or works; (6)
Animal houses, pigeon-houses, beehives, fish ponds or
breeding places of similar nature, in case their owner
has placed them or preserves them with the intention
to have them permanently attached to the land, and
forming a permanent part of it; the animals in these
places are included; (7) Fertilizer actually used on a
piece of land; (8) Mines, quarries, and slag dumps,
while the matter thereof forms part of the bed, and
waters either running or stagnant; (9) Docks and
structures which, though floating, are intended by their
nature and object to remain at a fixed place on a river,
lake, or coast; (10) Contracts for public works, and
servitudes and other real rights over immovable
property. (334a)
 CHAPTER 2
MOVABLE PROPERTY

Art. 416. The following things are deemed to be personal

property:
(1) Those movables susceptible of appropriation which are
not included in the preceding article; (2) Real property
which by any special provision of law is considered as
personal property; (3) Forces of nature which are
brought under control by science; and (4) In general,
all things which can be transported from place to place
without impairment of the real property to which they
are fixed. (335a)
Art. 417. The following are also considered as personal
property:
(1) Obligations and actions which have for their object
movables or demandable sums; and (2) Shares of stock
of agricultural, commercial and industrial entities,
although they may have real estate. (336a)
Art. 418. Movable property is either consumable or
nonconsumable. To the first class belong those movables
which cannot be used in a manner appropriate to their
nature without their being consumed; to the second class
belong all the others. (337)

CHAPTER 3
PROPERTY IN RELATION TO THE PERSON TO WHOM IT
BELONGS

Art. 419. Property is either of public dominion or of private

ownership. (338)
Art. 420. The following things are property of public
dominion:

(1) Those intended for public use, such as roads, canals,

rivers, torrents, ports and bridges constructed by the
State, banks, shores, roadsteads, and others of similar
character; (2) Those which belong to the State, without
being for public use, and are intended for some public
service or for the development of the national wealth.
(339a)
Art. 421. All other property of the State, which is not of the
character stated in the preceding article, is patrimonial
property. (340a)
Art. 422. Property of public dominion, when no longer
intended for public use or for public service, shall form part
of the patrimonial property of the State. (341a)
Art. 423. The property of provinces, cities, and municipalities
is divided into property for public use and patrimonial
property. (343)

Art. 424. Property for public use, in the provinces, cities, and
municipalities, consist of the provincial roads, city streets,
municipal streets, the squares, fountains, public waters,
promenades, and public works for public service paid for by
said provinces, cities, or municipalities.

All other property possessed by any of them is patrimonial

and shall be governed by this Code, without prejudice to the
provisions of special laws. (344a)

Art. 425. Property of private ownership, besides the

patrimonial property of the State, provinces, cities, and
municipalities, consists of all property belonging to private
persons, either individually or collectively. (345a)

PROVISIONS COMMON TO THE THREE PRECEDING CHAPTERS

Art. 426. Whenever by provision of the law, or an individual

declaration, the expression "immovable things or property,"
or "movable things or property," is used, it shall be deemed
to include, respectively, the things enumerated in Chapter 1
and Chapter 2.
Whenever the word "muebles," or "furniture," is used alone,
it shall not be deemed to include money, credits, commercial
securities, stocks and bonds, jewelry, scientific or artistic
collections, books, medals, arms, clothing, horses or
carriages and their accessories, grains, liquids and
merchandise, or other things which do not have as their
principal object the furnishing or ornamenting of a building,
except where from the context of the law, or the individual
declaration, the contrary clearly appears. (346a)

Title II. - OWNERSHIP

CHAPTER 1
OWNERSHIP IN GENERAL

Art. 427. Ownership may be exercised over things or rights.

(n)
Art. 428. The owner has the right to enjoy and dispose of a
thing, without other limitations than those established by
law.

The owner has also a right of action against the holder and
possessor of the thing in order to recover it. (348a)
Art. 429. The owner or lawful possessor of a thing has the
right to exclude any person from the enjoyment and disposal
thereof. For this purpose, he may use such force as may be
reasonably necessary to repel or prevent an actual or
threatened unlawful physical invasion or usurpation of his
property. (n)

Art. 430. Every owner may enclose or fence his land or

tenements by means of walls, ditches, live or dead hedges,
or by any other means without detriment to servitudes
constituted thereon. (388)

Art. 431. The owner of a thing cannot make use thereof in

such manner as to injure the rights of a third person. (n)

Art. 432. The owner of a thing has no right to prohibit the

interference of another with the same, if the interference is
necessary to avert an imminent danger and the threatened
damage, compared to the damage arising to the owner from
the interference, is much greater. The owner may demand
from the person benefited indemnity for the damage to him.
(n)

Art. 433. Actual possession under claim of ownership raises

disputable presumption of ownership. The true owner must
resort to judicial process for the recovery of the property. (n)

Art. 434. In an action to recover, the property must be

identified, and the plaintiff must rely on the strength of his
title and not on the weakness of the defendant's claim. (n)

Art. 435. No person shall be deprived of his property except

by competent authority and for public use and always upon
payment of just compensation.

Should this requirement be not first complied with, the

courts shall protect and, in a proper case, restore the owner
in his possession. (349a)

Art. 436. When any property is condemned or seized by

competent authority in the interest of health, safety or
security, the owner thereof shall not be entitled to
compensation, unless he can show that such condemnation
or seizure is unjustified. (n)

Art. 437. The owner of a parcel of land is the owner of its

surface and of everything under it, and he can construct
thereon any works or make any plantations and excavations
which he may deem proper, without detriment to servitudes
and subject to special laws and ordinances. He cannot
complain of the reasonable requirements of aerial navigation.
(350a)

Art. 438. Hidden treasure belongs to the owner of the land,

building, or other property on which it is found.

Nevertheless, when the discovery is made on the property of

another, or of the State or any of its subdivisions, and by
chance, one-half thereof shall be allowed to the finder. If the
finder is a trespasser, he shall not be entitled to any share of
the treasure.

If the things found be of interest to science of the arts, the

State may acquire them at their just price, which shall be
divided in conformity with the rule stated. (351a)

Art. 439. By treasure is understood, for legal purposes, any

hidden and unknown deposit of money, jewelry, or other
precious objects, the lawful ownership of which does not
appear. (352)

CHAPTER 3
RIGHT OF ACCESSION

GENERAL PROVISIONS

Art. 440. The ownership of property gives the right by

accession to everything which is produced thereby, or which
is incorporated or attached thereto, either naturally or
artificially. (353)

SECTION 1. - Right of Accession with Respect to

What is Produced by Property

Art. 441. To the owner belongs:

(1) The natural fruits; (2) The industrial fruits; (3) The
civil fruits. (354)
Art. 442. Natural fruits are the spontaneous products of the
soil, and the young and other products of animals.
Industrial fruits are those produced by lands of any kind
through cultivation or labor.

Civil fruits are the rents of buildings, the price of leases of

lands and other property and the amount of perpetual or life
annuities or other similar income. (355a)

Art. 443. He who receives the fruits has the obligation to pay
the expenses made by a third person in their production,
gathering, and preservation. (356)

Art. 444. Only such as are manifest or born are considered as

natural or industrial fruits.

With respect to animals, it is sufficient that they are in the

womb of the mother, although unborn. (357)

SECTION 2. - Right of Accession with Respect

to Immovable Property

Art. 445. Whatever is built, planted or sown on the land of

another and the improvements or repairs made thereon,
belong to the owner of the land, subject to the provisions of
the following articles. (358)
Art. 446. All works, sowing, and planting are presumed made
by the owner and at his expense, unless the contrary is
proved. (359)

Art. 447. The owner of the land who makes thereon,

personally or through another, plantings, constructions or
works with the materials of another, shall pay their value;
and, if he acted in bad faith, he shall also be obliged to the
reparation of damages. The owner of the materials shall
have the right to remove them only in case he can do so
without injury to the work constructed, or without the
plantings, constructions or works being destroyed. However,
if the landowner acted in bad faith, the owner of the
materials may remove them in any event, with a right to be
indemnified for damages. (360a)

Art. 448. The owner of the land on which anything has been
built, sown or planted in good faith, shall have the right to
appropriate as his own the works, sowing or planting, after
payment of the indemnity provided for in Articles 546 and
548, or to oblige the one who built or planted to pay the
price of the land, and the one who sowed, the proper rent.
However, the builder or planter cannot be obliged to buy the
land if its value is considerably more than that of the
building or trees. In such case, he shall pay reasonable rent,
if the owner of the land does not choose to appropriate the
building or trees after proper indemnity. The parties shall
agree upon the terms of the lease and in case of
disagreement, the court shall fix the terms thereof. (361a)

Art. 449. He who builds, plants or sows in bad faith on the

land of another, loses what is built, planted or sown without
right to indemnity. (362)
Art. 450. The owner of the land on which anything has been
built, planted or sown in bad faith may demand the
demolition of the work, or that the planting or sowing be
removed, in order to replace things in their former condition
at the expense of the person who built, planted or sowed; or
he may compel the builder or planter to pay the price of the
land, and the sower the proper rent. (363a)

Art. 451. In the cases of the two preceding articles, the

landowner is entitled to damages from the builder, planter or
sower. (n)

Art. 452. The builder, planter or sower in bad faith is entitled

to reimbursement for the necessary expenses of
preservation of the land. (n)

Art. 453. If there was bad faith, not only on the part of the
person who built, planted or sowed on the land of another,
but also on the part of the owner of such land, the rights of
one and the other shall be the same as though both had
acted in good faith.

It is understood that there is bad faith on the part of the

landowner whenever the act was done with his knowledge
and without opposition on his part. (354a)

Art. 454. When the landowner acted in bad faith and the
builder, planter or sower proceeded in good faith, the
provisions of article 447 shall apply. (n)

Art. 455. If the materials, plants or seeds belong to a third

person who has not acted in bad faith, the owner of the land
shall answer subsidiarily for their value and only in the event
that the one who made use of them has no property with
which to pay.

This provision shall not apply if the owner makes use of the
right granted by article 450. If the owner of the materials,
plants or seeds has been paid by the builder, planter or
sower, the latter may demand from the landowner the value
of the materials and labor. (365a)

Art. 456. In the cases regulated in the preceding articles,

good faith does not necessarily exclude negligence, which
gives right to damages under article 2176. (n)

Art. 457. To the owners of lands adjoining the banks of

rivers belong the accretion which they gradually receive
from the effects of the current of the waters. (336)
Art. 458. The owners of estates adjoining ponds or lagoons
do not acquire the land left dry by the natural decrease of
the waters, or lose that inundated by them in extraordinary
floods. (367)

Art. 459. Whenever the current of a river, creek or torrent

segregates from an estate on its bank a known portion of
land and transfers it to another estate, the owner of the land
to which the segregated portion belonged retains the
ownership of it, provided that he removes the same within
two years. (368a)

Art. 460. Trees uprooted and carried away by the current of

the waters belong to the owner of the land upon which they
may be cast, if the owners do not claim them within six
months. If such owners claim them, they shall pay the
expenses incurred in gathering them or putting them in a
safe place. (369a)

Art. 461. River beds which are abandoned through the

natural change in the course of the waters ipso facto belong
to the owners whose lands are occupied by the new course
in proportion to the area lost. However, the owners of the
lands adjoining the old bed shall have the right to acquire
the same by paying the value thereof, which value shall not
exceed the value of the area occupied by the new bed. (370a)

Art. 462. Whenever a river, changing its course by natural

causes, opens a new bed through a private estate, this bed
shall become of public dominion. (372a)

Art. 463. Whenever the current of a river divides itself into

branches, leaving a piece of land or part thereof isolated, the
owner of the land retains his ownership. He also retains it if
a portion of land is separated from the estate by the current.
(374)

Art. 464. Islands which may be formed on the seas within

the jurisdiction of the Philippines, on lakes, and on navigable
or floatable rivers belong to the State. (371a)

Art. 465. Islands which through successive accumulation of

alluvial deposits are formed in non-navigable and non-
floatable rivers, belong to the owners of the margins or
banks nearest to each of them, or to the owners of both
margins if the island is in the middle of the river, in which
case it shall be divided longitudinally in halves. If a single
island thus formed be more distant from one margin than
from the other, the owner of the nearer margin shall be the
sole owner thereof. (373a)

SECTION 3. - Right of Accession

with Respect to Movable Property

Art. 466. Whenever two movable things belonging to

different owners are, without bad faith, united in such a way
that they form a single object, the owner of the principal
thing acquires the accessory, indemnifying the former owner
thereof for its value. (375)
Art. 467. The principal thing, as between two things
incorporated, is deemed to be that to which the other has
been united as an ornament, or for its use or perfection.
(376)

Art. 468. If it cannot be determined by the rule given in the

preceding article which of the two things incorporated is the
principal one, the thing of the greater value shall be so
considered, and as between two things of equal value, that
of the greater volume.

In painting and sculpture, writings, printed matter,

engraving and lithographs, the board, metal, stone, canvas,
paper or parchment shall be deemed the accessory thing.
(377)

Art. 469. Whenever the things united can be separated

without injury, their respective owners may demand their
separation.

Nevertheless, in case the thing united for the use,

embellishment or perfection of the other, is much more
precious than the principal thing, the owner of the former
may demand its separation, even though the thing to which
it has been incorporated may suffer some injury. (378)

Art. 470. Whenever the owner of the accessory thing has

made the incorporation in bad faith, he shall lose the thing
incorporated and shall have the obligation to indemnify the
owner of the principal thing for the damages he may have
suffered.

If the one who has acted in bad faith is the owner of the
principal thing, the owner of the accessory thing shall have a
right to choose between the former paying him its value or
that the thing belonging to him be separated, even though
for this purpose it be necessary to destroy the principal
thing; and in both cases, furthermore, there shall be
indemnity for damages.
If either one of the owners has made the incorporation with
the knowledge and without the objection of the other, their
respective rights shall be determined as though both acted
in good faith. (379a)

Art. 471. Whenever the owner of the material employed

without his consent has a right to an indemnity, he may
demand that this consist in the delivery of a thing equal in
kind and value, and in all other respects, to that employed,
or else in the price thereof, according to expert appraisal.
(380)

Art. 472. If by the will of their owners two things of the

same or different kinds are mixed, or if the mixture occurs
by chance, and in the latter case the things are not separable
without injury, each owner shall acquire a right proportional
to the part belonging to him, bearing in mind the value of the
things mixed or confused. (381)

Art. 473. If by the will of only one owner, but in good faith,
two things of the same or different kinds are mixed or
confused, the rights of the owners shall be determined by
the provisions of the preceding article.

If the one who caused the mixture or confusion acted in bad

faith, he shall lose the thing belonging to him thus mixed or
confused, besides being obliged to pay indemnity for the
damages caused to the owner of the other thing with which
his own was mixed. (382)

Art. 474. One who in good faith employs the material of

another in whole or in part in order to make a thing of a
different kind, shall appropriate the thing thus transformed
as his own, indemnifying the owner of the material for its
value.

If the material is more precious than the transformed thing

or is of more value, its owner may, at his option, appropriate
the new thing to himself, after first paying indemnity for the
value of the work, or demand indemnity for the material.

If in the making of the thing bad faith intervened, the owner

of the material shall have the right to appropriate the work
to himself without paying anything to the maker, or to
demand of the latter that he indemnify him for the value of
the material and the damages he may have suffered.
However, the owner of the material cannot appropriate the
work in case the value of the latter, for artistic or scientific
reasons, is considerably more than that of the material.
(383a)

Art. 475. In the preceding articles, sentimental value shall be

duly appreciated. (n)

CHAPTER 3
QUIETING OF TITLE (n)

Art. 476. Whenever there is a cloud on title to real property

or any interest therein, by reason of any instrument, record,
claim, encumbrance or proceeding which is apparently valid
or effective but is in truth and in fact invalid, ineffective,
voidable, or unenforceable, and may be prejudicial to said
title, an action may be brought to remove such cloud or to
quiet the title.
An action may also be brought to prevent a cloud from being
cast upon title to real property or any interest therein.

Art. 477. The plaintiff must have legal or equitable title to, or
interest in the real property which is the subject matter of
the action. He need not be in possession of said property.

Art. 478. There may also be an action to quiet title or remove

a cloud therefrom when the contract, instrument or other
obligation has been extinguished or has terminated, or has
been barred by extinctive prescription.

Art. 479. The plaintiff must return to the defendant all

benefits he may have received from the latter, or reimburse
him for expenses that may have redounded to the plaintiff's
benefit.

Art. 480. The principles of the general law on the quieting of

title are hereby adopted insofar as they are not in conflict
with this Code.

Art. 481. The procedure for the quieting of title or the

removal of a cloud therefrom shall be governed by such rules
of court as the Supreme Court shall promulgated.

CHAPTER 4
RUINOUS BUILDINGS AND TREES IN DANGER OF FALLING

Art. 482. If a building, wall, column, or any other

construction is in danger of falling, the owner shall be
obliged to demolish it or to execute the necessary work in
order to prevent it from falling.
If the proprietor does not comply with this obligation, the
administrative authorities may order the demolition of the
structure at the expense of the owner, or take measures to
insure public safety. (389a)

Art. 483. Whenever a large tree threatens to fall in such a

way as to cause damage to the land or tenement of another
or to travelers over a public or private road, the owner of the
tree shall be obliged to fell and remove it; and should he not
do so, it shall be done at his expense by order of the
administrative authorities. (390a)

Title III. - CO-OWNERSHIP

Art. 484. There is co-ownership whenever the ownership of

an undivided thing or right belongs to different persons.
In default of contracts, or of special provisions, co-
ownership shall be governed by the provisions of this Title.
(392)

Art. 485. The share of the co-owners, in the benefits as well

as in the charges, shall be proportional to their respective
interests. Any stipulation in a contract to the contrary shall
be void.

The portions belonging to the co-owners in the co-ownership

shall be presumed equal, unless the contrary is proved.
(393a)

Art. 486. Each co-owner may use the thing owned in

common, provided he does so in accordance with the
purpose for which it is intended and in such a way as not to
injure the interest of the co-ownership or prevent the other
co-owners from using it according to their rights. The
purpose of the co-ownership may be changed by agreement,
express or implied. (394a)

Art. 487. Any one of the co-owners may bring an action in

ejectment. (n)

Art. 488. Each co-owner shall have a right to compel the

other co-owners to contribute to the expenses of
preservation of the thing or right owned in common and to
the taxes. Any one of the latter may exempt himself from
this obligation by renouncing so much of his undivided
interest as may be equivalent to his share of the expenses
and taxes. No such waiver shall be made if it is prejudicial to
the co-ownership. (395a)

Art. 489. Repairs for preservation may be made at the will of

one of the co-owners, but he must, if practicable, first notify
his co-owners of the necessity for such repairs. Expenses to
improve or embellish the thing shall be decided upon by a
majority as determined in Article 492. (n)

Art. 490. Whenever the different stories of a house belong to

different owners, if the titles of ownership do not specify the
terms under which they should contribute to the necessary
expenses and there exists no agreement on the subject, the
following rules shall be observed:

(1) The main and party walls, the roof and the other things
used in common, shall be preserved at the expense of
all the owners in proportion to the value of the story
belonging to each; (2) Each owner shall bear the cost
of maintaining the floor of his story; the floor of the
entrance, front door, common yard and sanitary works
common to all, shall be maintained at the expense of all
the owners pro rata; (3) The stairs from the entrance
to the first story shall be maintained at the expense of
all the owners pro rata, with the exception of the owner
of the ground floor; the stairs from the first to the
second story shall be preserved at the expense of all,
except the owner of the ground floor and the owner of
the first story; and so on successively. (396)
Art. 491. None of the co-owners shall, without the consent of
the others, make alterations in the thing owned in common,
even though benefits for all would result therefrom.
However, if the withholding of the consent by one or more of
the co-owners is clearly prejudicial to the common interest,
the courts may afford adequate relief. (397a)
Art. 492. For the administration and better enjoyment of the
thing owned in common, the resolutions of the majority of
the co-owners shall be binding.

There shall be no majority unless the resolution is approved

by the co-owners who represent the controlling interest in
the object of the co-ownership.

Should there be no majority, or should the resolution of the

majority be seriously prejudicial to those interested in the
property owned in common, the court, at the instance of an
interested party, shall order such measures as it may deem
proper, including the appointment of an administrator.

Whenever a part of the thing belongs exclusively to one of

the co-owners, and the remainder is owned in common, the
preceding provision shall apply only to the part owned in
common. (398)
Art. 493. Each co-owner shall have the full ownership of his
part and of the fruits and benefits pertaining thereto, and he
may therefore alienate, assign or mortgage it, and even
substitute another person in its enjoyment, except when
personal rights are involved. But the effect of the alienation
or the mortgage, with respect to the co-owners, shall be
limited to the portion which may be alloted to him in the
division upon the termination of the co-ownership. (399)

Art. 494. No co-owner shall be obliged to remain in the co-

ownership. Each co-owner may demand at any time the
partition of the thing owned in common, insofar as his share
is concerned.

Nevertheless, an agreement to keep the thing undivided for

a certain period of time, not exceeding ten years, shall be
valid. This term may be extended by a new agreement.

A donor or testator may prohibit partition for a period which

shall not exceed twenty years.

Neither shall there be any partition when it is prohibited by

law.

No prescription shall run in favor of a co-owner or co-heir

against his co-owners or co-heirs so long as he expressly or
impliedly recognizes the co-ownership. (400a)

Art. 495. Notwithstanding the provisions of the preceding

article, the co-owners cannot demand a physical division of
the thing owned in common, when to do so would render it
unserviceable for the use for which it is intended. But the co-
ownership may be terminated in accordance with Article 498.
(401a)

Art. 496. Partition may be made by agreement between the

parties or by judicial proceedings. Partition shall be
governed by the Rules of Court insofar as they are consistent
with this Code. (402)

Art. 497. The creditors or assignees of the co-owners may

take part in the division of the thing owned in common and
object to its being effected without their concurrence. But
they cannot impugn any partition already executed, unless
there has been fraud, or in case it was made
notwithstanding a formal opposition presented to prevent it,
without prejudice to the right of the debtor or assignor to
maintain its validity. (403)
Art. 498. Whenever the thing is essentially indivisible and
the co-owners cannot agree that it be allotted to one of them
who shall indemnify the others, it shall be sold and its
proceeds distributed. (404)

Art. 499. The partition of a thing owned in common shall not

prejudice third persons, who shall retain the rights of
mortgage, servitude or any other real rights belonging to
them before the division was made. Personal rights
pertaining to third persons against the co-ownership shall
also remain in force, notwithstanding the partition. (405)

Art. 500. Upon partition, there shall be a mutual accounting

for benefits received and reimbursements for expenses made.
Likewise, each co-owner shall pay for damages caused by
reason of his negligence or fraud. (n)

Art. 501. Every co-owner shall, after partition, be liable for

defects of title and quality of the portion assigned to each of
the other co-owners. (n)

Title IV. - SOME SPECIAL PROPERTIES

CHAPTER I
WATERS

SECTION 1. - Ownership of Waters

Art. 502. The following are of public dominion:

(1) Rivers and their natural beds; (2) Continuous or
intermittent waters of springs and brooks running in
their natural beds and the beds themselves; (3)
Waters rising continuously or intermittently on lands of
public dominion; (4) Lakes and lagoons formed by
Nature on public lands, and their beds; (5) Rain waters
running through ravines or sand beds, which are also of
public dominion; (6) Subterranean waters on public
lands; (7) Waters found within the zone of operation of
public works, even if constructed by a contractor; (8)
Waters rising continuously or intermittently on lands
belonging to private persons, to the State, to a province,
or to a city or a municipality from the moment they
leave such lands; (9) The waste waters of fountains,
sewers and public establishments. (407)
Art. 503. The following are of private ownership:
(1) Continuous or intermittent waters rising on lands of
private ownership, while running through the same; (2)
Lakes and lagoons, and their beds, formed by Nature on
 such lands; (3) Subterranean waters found on the
same; (4) Rain waters falling on said lands, as long as
they remain within the boundaries; (5) The beds of
flowing waters, continuous or intermittent, formed by
rain water, and those of brooks, crossing lands which
are not of public dominion. In every drain or aqueduct,
the water, bed, banks and floodgates shall be
considered as an integral part of the land of building for
which the waters are intended. The owners of lands,
through which or along the boundaries of which the
aqueduct passes, cannot claim ownership over it, or
any right to the use of its bed or banks, unless the
claim is based on titles of ownership specifying the
right or ownership claimed. (408)
SECTION 2. - The Use of Public Waters

Art. 504. The use of public waters is acquired:

(1) By administrative concession; (2) By prescription for
ten years.
The extent of the rights and obligations of the use shall be
that established, in the first case, by the terms of the
concession, and, in the second case, by the manner and form
in which the waters have been used. (409a)
Art. 505. Every concession for the use of waters is
understood to be without prejudice to third persons. (410)

Art. 506. The right to make use of public waters is

extinguished by the lapse of the concession and by non-user
for five years. (411a)

SECTION 3. - The Use of Waters of Private Ownership

Art. 507. The owner of a piece of land on which a spring or

brook rises, be it continuous or intermittent, may use its
waters while they run through the same, but after the
waters leave the land they shall become public, and their use
shall be governed by the Special Law of Waters of August 3,
1866, and by the Irrigation Law. (412a)
Art. 508. The private ownership of the beds of rain waters
does not give a right to make works or constructions which
may change their course to the damage of third persons, or
whose destruction, by the force of floods, may cause such
damage. (413)

Art. 509. No one may enter private property to search waters

or make use of them without permission from the owners,
except as provided by the Mining Law. (414a)
Art. 510. The ownership which the proprietor of a piece of
land has over the waters rising thereon does not prejudice
the rights which the owners of lower estates may have
legally acquired to the use thereof. (415)

Art. 511. Every owner of a piece of land has the right to

construct within his property, reservoirs for rain waters,
provided he causes no damage to the public or to third
persons. (416)

SECTION 4. - Subterranean Waters

Art. 512. Only the owner of a piece of land, or another

person with his permission, may make explorations thereon
for subterranean waters, except as provided by the Mining
Law.
Explorations for subterranean waters on lands of public
dominion may be made only with the permission of the
administrative authorities. (417a)

Art. 513. Waters artificially brought forth in accordance with

the Special Law of Waters of August 3, 1866, belong to the
person who brought them up. (418)

Art. 514. When the owner of waters artificially brought to

the surface abandons them to their natural course, they shall
become of public dominion. (419)

SECTION 5. - General Provisions

Art. 515. The owner of a piece of land on which there are

defensive works to check waters, or on which, due to a
change of their course, it may be necessary to reconstruct
such works, shall be obliged, at his election, either to make
the necessary repairs or construction himself, or to permit
them to be done, without damage to him, by the owners of
the lands which suffer or are clearly exposed to suffer injury.
(420)
Art. 516. The provisions of the preceding article are
applicable to the case in which it may be necessary to clear a
piece of land of matter, whose accumulation or fall may
obstruct the course of the waters, to the damage or peril of
third persons. (421)

Art. 517. All the owners who participate in the benefits

arising from the works referred to in the two preceding
articles, shall be obliged to contribute to the expenses of
construction in proportion to their respective interests.
Those who by their fault may have caused the damage shall
be liable for the expenses. (422)

Art. 518. All matters not expressly determined by the

provisions of this Chapter shall be governed by the special
Law of Waters of August 3, 1866, and by the Irrigation Law.
(425a)

CHAPTER 2
MINERALS

Art. 519. Mining claims and rights and other matters

concerning minerals and mineral lands are governed by
special laws. (427a)

CHAPTER 3
TRADE-MARKS AND TRADE-NAMES

Art. 520. A trade-mark or trade-name duly registered in the

proper government bureau or office is owned by and
pertains to the person, corporation, or firm registering the
same, subject to the provisions of special laws. (n)
Art. 521. The goodwill of a business is property, and may be
transferred together with the right to use the name under
which the business is conducted. (n)

Art. 522. Trade-marks and trade-names are governed by

special laws. (n)

Title V. - POSSESSION

CHAPTER 1
POSSESSION AND THE KINDS THEREOF

Art. 523. Possession is the holding of a thing or the

enjoyment of a right. (430a)
Art. 524. Possession may be exercised in one's own name or
in that of another. (413a)

Art. 525. The possession of things or rights may be had in

one of two concepts: either in the concept of owner, or in
that of the holder of the thing or right to keep or enjoy it, the
ownership pertaining to another person. (432)

Art. 526. He is deemed a possessor in good faith who is not

aware that there exists in his title or mode of acquisition any
flaw which invalidates it.

He is deemed a possessor in bad faith who possesses in any

case contrary to the foregoing.
Mistake upon a doubtful or difficult question of law may be
the basis of good faith. (433a)

Art. 527. Good faith is always presumed, and upon him who
alleges bad faith on the part of a possessor rests the burden
of proof. (434)

Art. 528. Possession acquired in good faith does not lose this
character except in the case and from the moment facts exist
which show that the possessor is not unaware that he
possesses the thing improperly or wrongfully. (435a)

Art. 529. It is presumed that possession continues to be

enjoyed in the same character in which it was acquired, until
the contrary is proved. (436)

Art. 530. Only things and rights which are susceptible of

being appropriated may be the object of possession. (437)

CHAPTER 2
ACQUISITION OF POSSESSION

Art. 531. Possession is acquired by the material occupation

of a thing or the exercise of a right, or by the fact that it is
subject to the action of our will, or by the proper acts and
legal formalities established for acquiring such right. (438a)
Art. 532. Possession may be acquired by the same person
who is to enjoy it, by his legal representative, by his agent,
or by any person without any power whatever: but in the
last case, the possession shall not be considered as acquired
until the person in whose name the act of possession was
executed has ratified the same, without prejudice to the
juridical consequences of negotiorum gestio in a proper case.
(439a)

Art. 533. The possession of hereditary property is deemed

transmitted to the heir without interruption and from the
moment of the death of the decedent, in case the inheritance
is accepted.

One who validly renounces an inheritance is deemed never

to have possessed the same. (440)

Art. 534. On who succeeds by hereditary title shall not suffer

the consequences of the wrongful possession of the
decedent, if it is not shown that he was aware of the flaws
affecting it; but the effects of possession in good faith shall
not benefit him except from the date of the death of the
decedent. (442)
Art. 535. Minors and incapacitated persons may acquire the
possession of things; but they need the assistance of their
legal representatives in order to exercise the rights which
from the possession arise in their favor. (443)

Art. 536. In no case may possession be acquired through

force or intimidation as long as there is a possessor who
objects thereto. He who believes that he has an action or a
right to deprive another of the holding of a thing, must
invoke the aid of the competent court, if the holder should
refuse to deliver the thing. (441a)

Art. 537. Acts merely tolerated, and those executed

clandestinely and without the knowledge of the possessor of
a thing, or by violence, do not affect possession. (444)

Art. 538. Possession as a fact cannot be recognized at the

same time in two different personalities except in the cases
of co-possession. Should a question arise regarding the fact
of possession, the present possessor shall be preferred; if
there are two possessors, the one longer in possession; if
the dates of the possession are the same, the one who
presents a title; and if all these conditions are equal, the
thing shall be placed in judicial deposit pending
determination of its possession or ownership through proper
proceedings. (445)

CHAPTER 3
EFFECTS OF POSSESSION

Art. 539. Every possessor has a right to be respected in his

possession; and should he be disturbed therein he shall be
protected in or restored to said possession by the means
established by the laws and the Rules of Court.
A possessor deprived of his possession through forcible
entry may within ten days from the filing of the complaint
present a motion to secure from the competent court, in the
action for forcible entry, a writ of preliminary mandatory
injunction to restore him in his possession. The court shall
decide the motion within thirty (30) days from the filing
thereof. (446a)

Art. 540. Only the possession acquired and enjoyed in the

concept of owner can serve as a title for acquiring dominion.
(447)

Art. 541. A possessor in the concept of owner has in his

favor the legal presumption that he possesses with a just
title and he cannot be obliged to show or prove it. (448a)
Art. 542. The possession of real property presumes that of
the movables therein, so long as it is not shown or proved
that they should be excluded. (449)

Art. 543. Each one of the participants of a thing possessed in

common shall be deemed to have exclusively possessed the
part which may be allotted to him upon the division thereof,
for the entire period during which the co-possession lasted.
Interruption in the possession of the whole or a part of a
thing possessed in common shall be to the prejudice of all
the possessors. However, in case of civil interruption, the
Rules of Court shall apply. (450a)

Art. 544. A possessor in good faith is entitled to the fruits

received before the possession is legally interrupted.

Natural and industrial fruits are considered received from

the time they are gathered or severed.

Civil fruits are deemed to accrue daily and belong to the

possessor in good faith in that proportion. (451)

Art. 545. If at the time the good faith ceases, there should be
any natural or industrial fruits, the possessor shall have a
right to a part of the expenses of cultivation, and to a part of
the net harvest, both in proportion to the time of the
possession.

The charges shall be divided on the same basis by the two

possessors.

The owner of the thing may, should he so desire, give the

possessor in good faith the right to finish the cultivation and
gathering of the growing fruits, as an indemnity for his part
of the expenses of cultivation and the net proceeds; the
possessor in good faith who for any reason whatever should
refuse to accept this concession, shall lose the right to be
indemnified in any other manner. (452a)

Art. 546. Necessary expenses shall be refunded to every

possessor; but only the possessor in good faith may retain
the thing until he has been reimbursed therefor.

Useful expenses shall be refunded only to the possessor in

good faith with the same right of retention, the person who
has defeated him in the possession having the option of
refunding the amount of the expenses or of paying the
increase in value which the thing may have acquired by
reason thereof. (453a)
Art. 547. If the useful improvements can be removed without
damage to the principal thing, the possessor in good faith
may remove them, unless the person who recovers the
possession exercises the option under paragraph 2 of the
preceding article. (n)

Art. 548. Expenses for pure luxury or mere pleasure shall not
be refunded to the possessor in good faith; but he may
remove the ornaments with which he has embellished the
principal thing if it suffers no injury thereby, and if his
successor in the possession does not prefer to refund the
amount expended. (454)

Art. 549. The possessor in bad faith shall reimburse the

fruits received and those which the legitimate possessor
could have received, and shall have a right only to the
expenses mentioned in paragraph 1 of Article 546 and in
Article 443. The expenses incurred in improvements for pure
luxury or mere pleasure shall not be refunded to the
possessor in bad faith, but he may remove the objects for
which such expenses have been incurred, provided that the
thing suffers no injury thereby, and that the lawful
possessor does not prefer to retain them by paying the value
they may have at the time he enters into possession. (445a)

Art. 550. The costs of litigation over the property shall be

borne by every possessor. (n)

Art. 551. Improvements caused by nature or time shall

always insure to the benefit of the person who has
succeeded in recovering possession. (456)

Art. 552. A possessor in good faith shall not be liable for the
deterioration or loss of the thing possessed, except in cases
in which it is proved that he has acted with fraudulent intent
or negligence, after the judicial summons.

A possessor in bad faith shall be liable for deterioration or

loss in every case, even if caused by a fortuitous event.
(457a)

Art. 553. One who recovers possession shall not be obliged

to pay for improvements which have ceased to exist at the
time he takes possession of the thing. (458)

Art. 554. A present possessor who shows his possession at

some previous time, is presumed to have held possession
also during the intermediate period, in the absence of proof
to the contrary. (459)
Art. 555. A possessor may lose his possession:

(1) By the abandonment of the thing; (2) By an assignment

made to another either by onerous or gratuitous title;
(3) By the destruction or total loss of the thing, or
because it goes out of commerce; (4) By the
possession of another, subject to the provisions of
Article 537, if the new possession has lasted longer
than one year. But the real right of possession is not
lost till after the lapse of ten years. (460a)
Art. 556. The possession of movables is not deemed lost so
long as they remain under the control of the possessor, even
though for the time being he may not know their
whereabouts. (461)
Art. 557. The possession of immovables and of real rights is
not deemed lost, or transferred for purposes of prescription
to the prejudice of third persons, except in accordance with
the provisions of the Mortgage Law and the Land
Registration laws. (462a)

Art. 558. Acts relating to possession, executed or agreed to

by one who possesses a thing belonging to another as a
mere holder to enjoy or keep it, in any character, do not bind
or prejudice the owner, unless he gave said holder express
authority to do such acts, or ratifies them subsequently.
(463)

Art. 559. The possession of movable property acquired in

good faith is equivalent to a title. Nevertheless, one who has
lost any movable or has been unlawfully deprived thereof
may recover it from the person in possession of the same.

If the possessor of a movable lost or which the owner has

been unlawfully deprived, has acquired it in good faith at a
public sale, the owner cannot obtain its return without
reimbursing the price paid therefor. (464a)

Art. 560. Wild animals are possessed only while they are
under one's control; domesticated or tamed animals are
considered domestic or tame if they retain the habit of
returning to the premises of the possessor. (465)

Art. 561. One who recovers, according to law, possession

unjustly lost, shall be deemed for all purposes which may
redound to his benefit, to have enjoyed it without
interruption. (466)

Title VI. - USUFRUCT

 CHAPTER 1
USUFRUCT IN GENERAL

Art. 562. Usufruct gives a right to enjoy the property of

another with the obligation of preserving its form and
substance, unless the title constituting it or the law
otherwise provides. (467)
Art. 563. Usufruct is constituted by law, by the will of private
persons expressed in acts inter vivos or in a last will and
testament, and by prescription. (468)

Art. 564. Usufruct may be constituted on the whole or a part

of the fruits of the thing, in favor of one more persons,
simultaneously or successively, and in every case from or to
a certain day, purely or conditionally. It may also be
constituted on a right, provided it is not strictly personal or
intransmissible. (469)

Art. 565. The rights and obligations of the usufructuary shall

be those provided in the title constituting the usufruct; in
default of such title, or in case it is deficient, the provisions
contained in the two following Chapters shall be observed.
(470)

CHAPTER 2
RIGHTS OF THE USUFRUCTUARY

Art. 566. The usufructuary shall be entitled to all the natural,

industrial and civil fruits of the property in usufruct. With
respect to hidden treasure which may be found on the land
or tenement, he shall be considered a stranger. (471)
Art. 567. Natural or industrial fruits growing at the time the
usufruct begins, belong to the usufructuary.

Those growing at the time the usufruct terminates, belong to

the owner.

In the preceding cases, the usufructuary, at the beginning of

the usufruct, has no obligation to refund to the owner any
expenses incurred; but the owner shall be obliged to
reimburse at the termination of the usufruct, from the
proceeds of the growing fruits, the ordinary expenses of
cultivation, for seed, and other similar expenses incurred by
the usufructuary.

The provisions of this article shall not prejudice the rights of

third persons, acquired either at the beginning or at the
termination of the usufruct. (472)
Art. 568. If the usufructuary has leased the lands or
tenements given in usufruct, and the usufruct should expire
before the termination of the lease, he or his heirs and
successors shall receive only the proportionate share of the
rent that must be paid by the lessee. (473)

Art. 569. Civil fruits are deemed to accrue daily, and belong
to the usufructuary in proportion to the time the usufruct
may last. (474)

Art. 570. Whenever a usufruct is constituted on the right to

receive a rent or periodical pension, whether in money or in
fruits, or in the interest on bonds or securities payable to
bearer, each payment due shall be considered as the
proceeds or fruits of such right.

Whenever it consists in the enjoyment of benefits accruing

from a participation in any industrial or commercial
enterprise, the date of the distribution of which is not fixed,
such benefits shall have the same character.

In either case they shall be distributed as civil fruits, and

shall be applied in the manner prescribed in the preceding
article. (475)

Art. 571. The usufructuary shall have the right to enjoy any
increase which the thing in usufruct may acquire through
accession, the servitudes established in its favor, and, in
general, all the benefits inherent therein. (479)

Art. 572. The usufructuary may personally enjoy the thing in

usufruct, lease it to another, or alienate his right of usufruct,
even by a gratuitous title; but all the contracts he may enter
into as such usufructuary shall terminate upon the expiration
of the usufruct, saving leases of rural lands, which shall be
considered as subsisting during the agricultural year. (480)

Art. 573. Whenever the usufruct includes things which,

without being consumed, gradually deteriorate through wear
and tear, the usufructuary shall have the right to make use
thereof in accordance with the purpose for which they are
intended, and shall not be obliged to return them at the
termination of the usufruct except in their condition at that
time; but he shall be obliged to indemnify the owner for any
deterioration they may have suffered by reason of his fraud
or negligence. (481)

Art. 574. Whenever the usufruct includes things which

cannot be used without being consumed, the usufructuary
shall have the right to make use of them under the obligation
of paying their appraised value at the termination of the
usufruct, if they were appraised when delivered. In case
they were not appraised, he shall have the right to return at
the same quantity and quality, or pay their current price at
the time the usufruct ceases. (482)

Art. 575. The usufructuary of fruit-bearing trees and shrubs

may make use of the dead trunks, and even of those cut off
or uprooted by accident, under the obligation to replace
them with new plants. (483a)

Art. 576. If in consequence of a calamity or extraordinary

event, the trees or shrubs shall have disappeared in such
considerable number that it would not be possible or it
would be too burdensome to replace them, the usufructuary
may leave the dead, fallen or uprooted trunks at the disposal
of the owner, and demand that the latter remove them and
clear the land. (484a)

Art. 577. The usufructuary of woodland may enjoy all the

benefits which it may produce according to its nature.

If the woodland is a copse or consists of timber for building,

the usufructuary may do such ordinary cutting or felling as
the owner was in the habit of doing, and in default of this, he
may do so in accordance with the custom of the place, as to
the manner, amount and season.

In any case the felling or cutting of trees shall be made in

such manner as not to prejudice the preservation of the land.

In nurseries, the usufructuary may make the necessary

thinnings in order that the remaining trees may properly
grow.

With the exception of the provisions of the preceding

paragraphs, the usufructuary cannot cut down trees unless it
be to restore or improve some of the things in usufruct, and
in such case shall first inform the owner of the necessity for
the work. (485)

Art. 578. The usufructuary of an action to recover real

property or a real right, or any movable property, has the
right to bring the action and to oblige the owner thereof to
give him the authority for this purpose and to furnish him
whatever proof he may have. If in consequence of the
enforcement of the action he acquires the thing claimed, the
usufruct shall be limited to the fruits, the dominion
remaining with the owner. (486)

Art. 579. The usufructuary may make on the property held in

usufruct such useful improvements or expenses for mere
pleasure as he may deem proper, provided he does not alter
its form or substance; but he shall have no right to be
indemnified therefor. He may, however, remove such
improvements, should it be possible to do so without
damage to the property. (487)

Art. 580. The usufructuary may set off the improvements he

may have made on the property against any damage to the
same. (488)

Art. 581. The owner of property the usufruct of which is held

by another, may alienate it, but he cannot alter its form or
substance, or do anything thereon which may be prejudicial
to the usufructuary. (489)

Art. 582. The usufructuary of a part of a thing held in

common shall exercise all the rights pertaining to the owner
thereof with respect to the administration and the collection
of fruits or interest. Should the co-ownership cease by
reason of the division of the thing held in common, the
usufruct of the part allotted to the co-owner shall belong to
the usufructuary. (490)

CHAPTER 3
OBLIGATIONS OF THE USUFRUCTUARY

Art. 583. The usufructuary, before entering upon the

enjoyment of the property, is obliged:
(1) To make, after notice to the owner or his legitimate
representative, an inventory of all the property, which
shall contain an appraisal of the movables and a
description of the condition of the immovables; (2) To
give security, binding himself to fulfill the obligations
imposed upon him in accordance with this Chapter.
(491)
Art. 584. The provisions of No. 2 of the preceding article
shall not apply to the donor who has reserved the usufruct of
the property donated, or to the parents who are
usufructuaries of their children's property, except when the
parents contract a second marriage. (492a)
Art. 585. The usufructuary, whatever may be the title of the
usufruct, may be excused from the obligation of making an
inventory or of giving security, when no one will be injured
thereby. (493)
Art. 586. Should the usufructuary fail to give security in the
cases in which he is bound to give it, the owner may demand
that the immovables be placed under administration, that
the movables be sold, that the public bonds, instruments of
credit payable to order or to bearer be converted into
registered certificates or deposited in a bank or public
institution, and that the capital or sums in cash and the
proceeds of the sale of the movable property be invested in
safe securities.

The interest on the proceeds of the sale of the movables and

that on public securities and bonds, and the proceeds of the
property placed under administration, shall belong to the
usufructuary.

Furthermore, the owner may, if he so prefers, until the

usufructuary gives security or is excused from so doing,
retain in his possession the property in usufruct as
administrator, subject to the obligation to deliver to the
usufructuary the net proceeds thereof, after deducting the
sums which may be agreed upon or judicially allowed him for
such administration. (494)

Art. 587. If the usufructuary who has not given security

claims, by virtue of a promise under oath, the delivery of the
furniture necessary for his use, and that he and his family be
allowed to live in a house included in the usufruct, the court
may grant this petition, after due consideration of the facts
of the case.

The same rule shall be observed with respect to implements,

tools and other movable property necessary for an industry
or vocation in which he is engaged.

If the owner does not wish that certain articles be sold

because of their artistic worth or because they have a
sentimental value, he may demand their delivery to him
upon his giving security for the payment of the legal interest
on their appraised value. (495)

Art. 588. After the security has been given by the

usufructuary, he shall have a right to all the proceeds and
benefits from the day on which, in accordance with the title
constituting the usufruct, he should have commenced to
receive them. (496)

Art. 589. The usufructuary shall take care of the things given
in usufruct as a good father of a family. (497)
Art. 590. A usufructuary who alienates or leases his right of
usufruct shall answer for any damage which the things in
usufruct may suffer through the fault or negligence of the
person who substitutes him. (498)

Art. 591. If the usufruct be constituted on a flock or herd of

livestock, the usufructuary shall be obliged to replace with
the young thereof the animals that die each year from
natural causes, or are lost due to the rapacity of beasts of
prey.

If the animals on which the usufruct is constituted should all

perish, without the fault of the usufructuary, on account of
some contagious disease or any other uncommon event, the
usufructuary shall fulfill his obligation by delivering to the
owner the remains which may have been saved from the
misfortune.

Should the herd or flock perish in part, also by accident and

without the fault of the usufructuary, the usufruct shall
continue on the part saved.

Should the usufruct be on sterile animals, it shall be

considered, with respect to its effects, as though constituted
on fungible things. (499a)

Art. 592. The usufructuary is obliged to make the ordinary

repairs needed by the thing given in usufruct.

By ordinary repairs are understood such as are required by

the wear and tear due to the natural use of the thing and are
indispensable for its preservation. Should the usufructuary
fail to make them after demand by the owner, the latter may
make them at the expense of the usufructuary. (500)

Art. 593. Extraordinary repairs shall be at the expense of the

owner. The usufructuary is obliged to notify the owner when
the need for such repairs is urgent. (501)

Art. 594. If the owner should make the extraordinary repairs,

he shall have a right to demand of the usufructuary the legal
interest on the amount expended for the time that the
usufruct lasts.

Should he not make them when they are indispensable for

the preservation of the thing, the usufructuary may make
them; but he shall have a right to demand of the owner, at
the termination of the usufruct, the increase in value which
the immovable may have acquired by reason of the repairs.
(502a)

Art. 595. The owner may construct any works and make any
improvements of which the immovable in usufruct is
susceptible, or make new plantings thereon if it be rural,
provided that such acts do not cause a diminution in the
value of the usufruct or prejudice the right of the
usufructuary. (503)

Art. 596. The payment of annual charges and taxes and of

those considered as a lien on the fruits, shall be at the
expense of the usufructuary for all the time that the usufruct
lasts. (504)

Art. 597. The taxes which, during the usufruct, may be

imposed directly on the capital, shall be at the expense of
the owner.

If the latter has paid them, the usufructuary shall pay him
the proper interest on the sums which may have been paid in
that character; and, if the said sums have been advanced by
the usufructuary, he shall recover the amount thereof at the
termination of the usufruct. (505)

Art. 598. If the usufruct be constituted on the whole of a

patrimony, and if at the time of its constitution the owner
has debts, the provisions of Articles 758 and 759 relating to
donations shall be applied, both with respect to the
maintenance of the usufruct and to the obligation of the
usufructuary to pay such debts.

The same rule shall be applied in case the owner is obliged,

at the time the usufruct is constituted, to make periodical
payments, even if there should be no known capital. (506)

Art. 599. The usufructuary may claim any matured credits

which form a part of the usufruct if he has given or gives the
proper security. If he has been excused from giving security
or has been able to give it, or if that given is not sufficient,
he shall need the authorization of the owner, or of the court
in default thereof, to collect such credits.

The usufructuary who has given security may use the capital
he has collected in any manner he may deem proper. The
usufructuary who has not given security shall invest the said
capital at interest upon agreement with the owner; in default
of such agreement, with judicial authorization; and, in every
case, with security sufficient to preserve the integrity of the
capital in usufruct. (507)
Art. 600. The usufructuary of a mortgaged immovable shall
not be obliged to pay the debt for the security of which the
mortgage was constituted.

Should the immovable be attached or sold judicially for the

payment of the debt, the owner shall be liable to the
usufructuary for whatever the latter may lose by reason
thereof. (509)

Art. 601. The usufructuary shall be obliged to notify the

owner of any act of a third person, of which he may have
knowledge, that may be prejudicial to the rights of
ownership, and he shall be liable should he not do so, for
damages, as if they had been caused through his own fault.
(511)

Art. 602. The expenses, costs and liabilities in suits brought

with regard to the usufruct shall be borne by the
usufructuary. (512)

CHAPTER 4
EXTINGUISHMENT OF USUFRUCT

Art. 603. Usufruct is extinguished:

(1) By the death of the usufructuary, unless a contrary
intention clearly appears; (2) By the expiration of the
period for which it was constituted, or by the fulfillment
of any resolutory condition provided in the title
creating the usufruct; (3) By merger of the usufruct
and ownership in the same person; (4) By renunciation
of the usufructuary; (5) By the total loss of the thing in
usufruct; (6) By the termination of the right of the
person constituting the usufruct; (7) By prescription.
(513a)
Art. 604. If the thing given in usufruct should be lost only in
part, the right shall continue on the remaining part. (514)
Art. 605. Usufruct cannot be constituted in favor of a town,
corporation, or association for more than fifty years. If it has
been constituted, and before the expiration of such period
the town is abandoned, or the corporation or association is
dissolved, the usufruct shall be extinguished by reason
thereof. (515a)

Art. 606. A usufruct granted for the time that may elapse
before a third person attains a certain age, shall subsist for
the number of years specified, even if the third person
should die before the period expires, unless such usufruct
has been expressly granted only in consideration of the
existence of such person. (516)
Art. 607. If the usufruct is constituted on immovable
property of which a building forms part, and the latter
should be destroyed in any manner whatsoever, the
usufructuary shall have a right to make use of the land and
the materials.

The same rule shall be applied if the usufruct is constituted

on a building only and the same should be destroyed. But in
such a case, if the owner should wish to construct another
building, he shall have a right to occupy the land and to
make use of the materials, being obliged to pay to the
usufructuary, during the continuance of the usufruct, the
interest upon the sum equivalent to the value of the land and
of the materials. (517)

Art. 608. If the usufructuary shares with the owner the

insurance of the tenement given in usufruct, the former shall,
in case of loss, continue in the enjoyment of the new
building, should one be constructed, or shall receive the
interest on the insurance indemnity if the owner does not
wish to rebuild.

Should the usufructuary have refused to contribute to the

insurance, the owner insuring the tenement alone, the latter
shall receive the full amount of the insurance indemnity in
case of loss, saving always the right granted to the
usufructuary in the preceding article. (518a)

Art. 609. Should the thing in usufruct be expropriated for

public use, the owner shall be obliged either to replace it
with another thing of the same value and of similar
conditions, or to pay the usufructuary the legal interest on
the amount of the indemnity for the whole period of the
usufruct. If the owner chooses the latter alternative, he shall
give security for the payment of the interest. (519)

Art. 610. A usufruct is not extinguished by bad use of the

thing in usufruct; but if the abuse should cause considerable
injury to the owner, the latter may demand that the thing be
delivered to him, binding himself to pay annually to the
usufructuary the net proceeds of the same, after deducting
the expenses and the compensation which may be allowed
him for its administration. (520)

Art. 611. A usufruct constituted in favor of several persons

living at the time of its constitution shall not be extinguished
until death of the last survivor. (521)

Art. 612. Upon the termination of the usufruct, the thing in

usufruct shall be delivered to the owner, without prejudice
to the right of retention pertaining to the usufructuary or his
heirs for taxes and extraordinary expenses which should be
reimbursed. After the delivery has been made, the security
or mortgage shall be cancelled. (522a)

Title VII. - EASEMENTS OF SERVITUDES

CHAPTER 1
EASEMENTS IN GENERAL

SECTION 1. - Different Kinds of Easements

Art. 613. An easement or servitude is an encumbrance

imposed upon an immovable for the benefit of another
immovable belonging to a different owner.
The immovable in favor of which the easement is established
is called the dominant estate; that which is subject thereto,
the servient estate. (530)

Art. 614. Servitudes may also be established for the benefit

of a community, or of one or more persons to whom the
encumbered estate does not belong. (531)

Art. 615. Easements may be continuous or discontinuous,

apparent or nonapparent.

Continuous easements are those the use of which is or may

be incessant, without the intervention of any act of man.

Discontinuous easements are those which are used at

intervals and depend upon the acts of man.

Apparent easements are those which are made known and

are continually kept in view by external signs that reveal the
use and enjoyment of the same.

Nonapparent easements are those which show no external

indication of their existence. (532)

Art. 616. Easements are also positive or negative.

A positive easement is one which imposes upon the owner of

the servient estate the obligation of allowing something to
be done or of doing it himself, and a negative easement, that
which prohibits the owner of the servient estate from doing
something which he could lawfully do if the easement did
not exist. (533)
Art. 617. Easements are inseparable from the estate to
which they actively or passively belong. (534)

Art. 618. Easements are indivisible. If the servient estate is

divided between two or more persons, the easement is not
modified, and each of them must bear it on the part which
corresponds to him.

If it is the dominant estate that is divided between two or

more persons, each of them may use the easement in its
entirety, without changing the place of its use, or making it
more burdensome in any other way. (535)

Art. 619. Easements are established either by law or by the

will of the owners. The former are called legal and the latter
voluntary easements. (536)

SECTION 2. - Modes of Acquiring Easements

Art. 620. Continuous and apparent easements are acquired

either by virtue of a title or by prescription of ten years.
(537a)
Art. 621. In order to acquire by prescription the easements
referred to in the preceding article, the time of possession
shall be computed thus: in positive easements, from the day
on which the owner of the dominant estate, or the person
who may have made use of the easement, commenced to
exercise it upon the servient estate; and in negative
easements, from the day on which the owner of the
dominant estate forbade, by an instrument acknowledged
before a notary public, the owner of the servient estate, from
executing an act which would be lawful without the
easement. (538a)

Art. 622. Continuous nonapparent easements, and

discontinuous ones, whether apparent or not, may be
acquired only by virtue of a title. (539)

Art. 623. The absence of a document or proof showing the

origin of an easement which cannot be acquired by
prescription may be cured by a deed of recognition by the
owner of the servient estate or by a final judgment. (540a)

Art. 624. The existence of an apparent sign of easement

between two estates, established or maintained by the
owner of both, shall be considered, should either of them be
alienated, as a title in order that the easement may continue
actively and passively, unless, at the time the ownership of
the two estates is divided, the contrary should be provided in
the title of conveyance of either of them, or the sign
aforesaid should be removed before the execution of the
deed. This provision shall also apply in case of the division of
a thing owned in common by two or more persons. (541a)

Art. 625. Upon the establishment of an easement, all the

rights necessary for its use are considered granted. (542)

Art. 626. The owner of the dominant estate cannot use the
easement except for the benefit of the immovable originally
contemplated. Neither can he exercise the easement in any
other manner than that previously established. (n)

SECTION 3. - Rights and Obligations

of the Owners of the Dominant and Servient Estates

Art. 627. The owner of the dominant estate may make, at his
own expense, on the servient state any works necessary for
the use and preservation of the servitude, but without
altering it or rendering it more burdensome.
For this purpose he shall notify the owner of the servient
estate, and shall choose the most convenient time and
manner so as to cause the least inconvenience to the owner
of the servient estate. (543a)

Art. 628. Should there be several dominant estates, the

owners of all of them shall be obliged to contribute to the
expenses referred to in the preceding article, in proportion
to the benefits which each may derive from the work. Any
one who does not wish to contribute may exempt himself by
renouncing the easement for the benefit of the others.

If the owner of the servient estate should make use of the

easement in any manner whatsoever, he shall also be
obliged to contribute to the expenses in the proportion
stated, saving an agreement to the contrary. (544)

Art. 629. The owner of the servient estate cannot impair, in

any manner whatsoever, the use of the servitude.

Nevertheless, if by reason of the place originally assigned, or

of the manner established for the use of the easement, the
same should become very inconvenient to the owner of the
servient estate, or should prevent him from making any
important works, repairs or improvements thereon, it may
be changed at his expense, provided he offers another place
or manner equally convenient and in such a way that no
injury is caused thereby to the owner of the dominant estate
or to those who may have a right to the use of the easement.
(545)

Art. 630. The owner of the servient estate retains the

ownership of the portion on which the easement is
established, and may use the same in such a manner as not
to affect the exercise of the easement. (n)

SECTION 4. - Modes of Extinguishment of Easements

Art. 631. Easements are extinguished:

(1) By merger in the same person of the ownership of the

dominant and servient estates; (2) By nonuser for ten
years; with respect to discontinuous easements, this
period shall be computed from the day on which they
ceased to be used; and, with respect to continuous
easements, from the day on which an act contrary to
the same took place; (3) When either or both of the
estates fall into such condition that the easement
cannot be used; but it shall revive if the subsequent
condition of the estates or either of them should again
permit its use, unless when the use becomes possible,
sufficient time for prescription has elapsed, in
accordance with the provisions of the preceding
number; (4) By the expiration of the term or the
fulfillment of the condition, if the easement is
temporary or conditional; (5) By the renunciation of
the owner of the dominant estate; (6) By the
redemption agreed upon between the owners of the
dominant and servient estates. (546a)
Art. 632. The form or manner of using the easement may
prescribe as the easement itself, and in the same way. (547a)
Art. 633. If the dominant estate belongs to several persons
in common, the use of the easement by any one of them
prevents prescription with respect to the others. (548)

CHAPTER 2
LEGAL EASEMENTS

SECTION 1. - General Provisions

Art. 634. Easements imposed by law have for their object

either public use or the interest of private persons. (549)
Art. 635. All matters concerning easements established for
public or communal use shall be governed by the special
laws and regulations relating thereto, and, in the absence
thereof, by the provisions of this Title. (550)

Art. 636. Easements established by law in the interest of

private persons or for private use shall be governed by the
provisions of this Title, without prejudice to the provisions of
general or local laws and ordinances for the general welfare.

These easements may be modified by agreement of the

interested parties, whenever the law does not prohibit it or
no injury is suffered by a third person. (551a)

SECTION 2. - Easements Relating to Waters

Art. 637. Lower estates are obliged to receive the waters

which naturally and without the intervention of man descend
from the higher estates, as well as the stones or earth which
they carry with them.
The owner of the lower estate cannot construct works which
will impede this easement; neither can the owner of the
higher estate make works which will increase the burden.
(552)

Art. 638. The banks of rivers and streams, even in case they
are of private ownership, are subject throughout their entire
length and within a zone of three meters along their margins,
to the easement of public use in the general interest of
navigation, floatage, fishing and salvage.

Estates adjoining the banks of navigable or floatable rivers

are, furthermore, subject to the easement of towpath for the
exclusive service of river navigation and floatage.

If it be necessary for such purpose to occupy lands of private

ownership, the proper indemnity shall first be paid. (553a)

Art. 639. Whenever for the diversion or taking of water from

a river or brook, or for the use of any other continuous or
discontinuous stream, it should be necessary to build a dam,
and the person who is to construct it is not the owner of the
banks, or lands which must support it, he may establish the
easement of abutment of a dam, after payment of the proper
indemnity. (554)

Art. 640. Compulsory easements for drawing water or for

watering animals can be imposed only for reasons of public
use in favor of a town or village, after payment of the proper
indemnity. (555)

Art. 641. Easements for drawing water and for watering

animals carry with them the obligation of the owners of the
servient estates to allow passage to persons and animals to
the place where such easements are to be used, and the
indemnity shall include this service. (556)

Art. 642. Any person who may wish to use upon his own
estate any water of which he can dispose shall have the right
to make it flow through the intervening estates, with the
obligation to indemnify their owners, as well as the owners
of the lower estates upon which the waters may filter or
descend. (557)

Art. 643. One desiring to make use of the right granted in the
preceding article is obliged:

(1) To prove that he can dispose of the water and that it is

sufficient for the use for which it is intended; (2) To
show that the proposed right of way is the most
convenient and the least onerous to third persons; (3)
To indemnify the owner of the servient estate in the
manner determined by the laws and regulations. (558)
Art. 644. The easement of aqueduct for private interest
cannot be imposed on buildings, courtyards, annexes, or
outhouses, or on orchards or gardens already existing. (559)
Art. 645. The easement of aqueduct does not prevent the
owner of the servient estate from closing or fencing it, or
from building over the aqueduct in such manner as not to
cause the latter any damage, or render necessary repairs
and cleanings impossible. (560)

Art. 646. For legal purposes, the easement of aqueduct shall

be considered as continuous and apparent, even though the
flow of the water may not be continuous, or its use depends
upon the needs of the dominant estate, or upon a schedule
of alternate days or hours. (561)

Art. 647. One who for the purpose of irrigating or improving

his estate, has to construct a stop lock or sluice gate in the
bed of the stream from which the water is to be taken, may
demand that the owners of the banks permit its construction,
after payment of damages, including those caused by the
new easement to such owners and to the other irrigators.
(562)

Art. 648. The establishment, extent, form and conditions of

the servitudes of waters, to which this section refers, shall
be governed by the special laws relating thereto insofar as
no provision therefor is made in this Code. (563a)

SECTION 3. - Easement of Right of Way

Art. 649. The owner, or any person who by virtue of a real

right may cultivate or use any immovable, which is
surrounded by other immovables pertaining to other persons
and without adequate outlet to a public highway, is entitled
to demand a right of way through the neighboring estates,
after payment of the proper indemnity.
Should this easement be established in such a manner that
its use may be continuous for all the needs of the dominant
estate, establishing a permanent passage, the indemnity
shall consist of the value of the land occupied and the
amount of the damage caused to the servient estate.

In case the right of way is limited to the necessary passage

for the cultivation of the estate surrounded by others and for
the gathering of its crops through the servient estate
without a permanent way, the indemnity shall consist in the
payment of the damage caused by such encumbrance.

This easement is not compulsory if the isolation of the

immovable is due to the proprietor's own acts. (564a)

Art. 650. The easement of right of way shall be established

at the point least prejudicial to the servient estate, and,
insofar as consistent with this rule, where the distance from
the dominant estate to a public highway may be the shortest.
(565)

Art. 651. The width of the easement of right of way shall be

that which is sufficient for the needs of the dominant estate,
and may accordingly be changed from time to time. (566a)

Art. 652. Whenever a piece of land acquired by sale,

exchange or partition, is surrounded by other estates of the
vendor, exchanger, or co-owner, he shall be obliged to grant
a right of way without indemnity.

In case of a simple donation, the donor shall be indemnified

by the donee for the establishment of the right of way. (567a)

Art. 653. In the case of the preceding article, if it is the land

of the grantor that becomes isolated, he may demand a right
of way after paying a indemnity. However, the donor shall
not be liable for indemnity. (n)

Art. 654. If the right of way is permanent, the necessary

repairs shall be made by the owner of the dominant estate. A
proportionate share of the taxes shall be reimbursed by said
owner to the proprietor of the servient estate. (n)

Art. 655. If the right of way granted to a surrounded estate

ceases to be necessary because its owner has joined it to
another abutting on a public road, the owner of the servient
estate may demand that the easement be extinguished,
returning what he may have received by way of indemnity.
The interest on the indemnity shall be deemed to be in
payment of rent for the use of the easement.

The same rule shall be applied in case a new road is opened

giving access to the isolated estate.

In both cases, the public highway must substantially meet

the needs of the dominant estate in order that the easement
may be extinguished. (568a)

Art. 656. If it be indispensable for the construction, repair,

improvement, alteration or beautification of a building, to
carry materials through the estate of another, or to raise
therein scaffolding or other objects necessary for the work,
the owner of such estate shall be obliged to permit the act,
after receiving payment of the proper indemnity for the
damage caused him. (569a)

Art. 657. Easements of the right of way for the passage of

livestock known as animal path, animal trail or any other,
and those for watering places, resting places and animal
folds, shall be governed by the ordinances and regulations
relating thereto, and, in the absence thereof, by the usages
and customs of the place.

Without prejudice to rights legally acquired, the animal path

shall not exceed in any case the width of 75 meters, and the
animal trail that of 37 meters and 50 centimeters.

Whenever it is necessary to establish a compulsory

easement of the right of way or for a watering place for
animals, the provisions of this Section and those of Articles
640 and 641 shall be observed. In this case the width shall
not exceed 10 meters. (570a)

SECTION 4. - Easement of Party Wall

Art. 658. The easement of party wall shall be governed by

the provisions of this Title, by the local ordinances and
customs insofar as they do not conflict with the same, and
by the rules of co-ownership. (571a)
Art. 659. The existence of an easement of party wall is
presumed, unless there is a title, or exterior sign, or proof to
the contrary:
 (1) In dividing walls of adjoining buildings up to the point
of common elevation; (2) In dividing walls of gardens
or yards situated in cities, towns, or in rural
communities; (3) In fences, walls and live hedges
dividing rural lands. (572)
Art. 660. It is understood that there is an exterior sign,
contrary to the easement of party wall:
(1) Whenever in the dividing wall of buildings there is a
window or opening; (2) Whenever the dividing wall is,
on one side, straight and plumb on all its facement, and
on the other, it has similar conditions on the upper part,
but the lower part slants or projects outward; (3)
Whenever the entire wall is built within the boundaries
of one of the estates; (4) Whenever the dividing wall
bears the burden of the binding beams, floors and roof
frame of one of the buildings, but not those of the
others; (5) Whenever the dividing wall between
courtyards, gardens, and tenements is constructed in
such a way that the coping sheds the water upon only
one of the estates; (6) Whenever the dividing wall,
being built of masonry, has stepping stones, which at
certain intervals project from the surface on one side
only, but not on the other; (7) Whenever lands
inclosed by fences or live hedges adjoin others which
are not inclosed.
In all these cases, the ownership of the walls, fences or
hedges shall be deemed to belong exclusively to the owner
of the property or tenement which has in its favor the
presumption based on any one of these signs. (573)
Art. 661. Ditches or drains opened between two estates are
also presumed as common to both, if there is no title or sign
showing the contrary.

There is a sign contrary to the part-ownership whenever the

earth or dirt removed to open the ditch or to clean it is only
on one side thereof, in which case the ownership of the ditch
shall belong exclusively to the owner of the land having this
exterior sign in its favor. (574)

Art. 662. The cost of repairs and construction of party walls

and the maintenance of fences, live hedges, ditches, and
drains owned in common, shall be borne by all the owners of
the lands or tenements having the party wall in their favor,
in proportion to the right of each.

Nevertheless, any owner may exempt himself from

contributing to this charge by renouncing his part-ownership,
except when the party wall supports a building belonging to
him. (575)

Art. 663. If the owner of a building, supported by a party

wall desires to demolish the building, he may also renounce
his part-ownership of the wall, but the cost of all repairs and
work necessary to prevent any damage which the demolition
may cause to the party wall, on this occasion only, shall be
borne by him. (576)

Art. 664. Every owner may increase the height of the party
wall, doing at his own expense and paying for any damage
which may be caused by the work, even though such damage
be temporary.

The expenses of maintaining the wall in the part newly

raised or deepened at its foundation shall also be paid for by
him; and, in addition, the indemnity for the increased
expenses which may be necessary for the preservation of the
party wall by reason of the greater height or depth which
has been given it.

If the party wall cannot bear the increased height, the owner
desiring to raise it shall be obliged to reconstruct it at his
own expense and, if for this purpose it be necessary to make
it thicker, he shall give the space required from his own land.
(577)

Art. 665. The other owners who have not contributed in

giving increased height, depth or thickness to the wall may,
nevertheless, acquire the right of part-ownership therein, by
paying proportionally the value of the work at the time of the
acquisition and of the land used for its increased thickness.
(578a)

Art. 666. Every part-owner of a party wall may use it in

proportion to the right he may have in the co-ownership,
without interfering with the common and respective uses by
the other co-owners. (579a)

SECTION 5. - Easement of Light and View

Art. 667. No part-owner may, without the consent of the

others, open through the party wall any window or aperture
of any kind. (580)
Art. 668. The period of prescription for the acquisition of an
easement of light and view shall be counted:

(1) From the time of the opening of the window, if it is

through a party wall; or (2) From the time of the formal
 prohibition upon the proprietor of the adjoining land or
tenement, if the window is through a wall on the
dominant estate. (n)
Art. 669. When the distances in Article 670 are not observed,
the owner of a wall which is not party wall, adjoining a
tenement or piece of land belonging to another, can make in
it openings to admit light at the height of the ceiling joints or
immediately under the ceiling, and of the size of thirty
centimeters square, and, in every case, with an iron grating
imbedded in the wall and with a wire screen.
Nevertheless, the owner of the tenement or property
adjoining the wall in which the openings are made can close
them should he acquire part-ownership thereof, if there be
no stipulation to the contrary.

He can also obstruct them by constructing a building on his

land or by raising a wall thereon contiguous to that having
such openings, unless an easement of light has been
acquired. (581a)

Art. 670. No windows, apertures, balconies, or other similar

projections which afford a direct view upon or towards an
adjoining land or tenement can be made, without leaving a
distance of two meters between the wall in which they are
made and such contiguous property.

Neither can side or oblique views upon or towards such

conterminous property be had, unless there be a distance of
sixty centimeters.

The nonobservance of these distances does not give rise to

prescription. (582a)

Art. 671. The distance referred to in the preceding article

shall be measured in cases of direct views from the outer
line of the wall when the openings do not project, from the
outer line of the latter when they do, and in cases of oblique
view from the dividing line between the two properties. (583)

Art. 672. The provisions of Article 670 are not applicable to

buildings separated by a public way or alley, which is not
less than three meters wide, subject to special regulations
and local ordinances. (584a)

Art. 673. Whenever by any title a right has been acquired to

have direct views, balconies or belvederes overlooking an
adjoining property, the owner of the servient estate cannot
build thereon at less than a distance of three meters to be
measured in the manner provided in Article 671. Any
stipulation permitting distances less than those prescribed in
Article 670 is void. (585a)

SECTION 6. - Drainage of Buildings

Art. 674. The owner of a building shall be obliged to

construct its roof or covering in such manner that the rain
water shall fall on his own land or on a street or public place,
and not on the land of his neighbor, even though the
adjacent land may belong to two or more persons, one of
whom is the owner of the roof. Even if it should fall on his
own land, the owner shall be obliged to collect the water in
such a way as not to cause damage to the adjacent land or
tenement. (586a)
Art. 675. The owner of a tenement or a piece of land, subject
to the easement of receiving water falling from roofs, may
build in such manner as to receive the water upon his own
roof or give it another outlet in accordance with local
ordinances or customs, and in such a way as not to cause
any nuisance or damage whatever to the dominant estate.
(587)

Art. 676. Whenever the yard or court of a house is

surrounded by other houses, and it is not possible to give an
outlet through the house itself to the rain water collected
thereon, the establishment of an easement of drainage can
be demanded, giving an outlet to the water at the point of
the contiguous lands or tenements where its egress may be
easiest, and establishing a conduit for the drainage in such
manner as to cause the least damage to the servient estate,
after payment of the property indemnity. (583)

SECTION 7. - Intermediate Distances

and Works for Certain Constructions and Plantings

Art. 677. No constructions can be built or plantings made

near fortified places or fortresses without compliance with
the conditions required in special laws, ordinances, and
regulations relating thereto. (589)
Art. 678. No person shall build any aqueduct, well, sewer,
furnace, forge, chimney, stable, depository of corrosive
substances, machinery, or factory which by reason of its
nature or products is dangerous or noxious, without
observing the distances prescribed by the regulations and
customs of the place, and without making the necessary
protective works, subject, in regard to the manner thereof,
to the conditions prescribed by such regulations. These
prohibitions cannot be altered or renounced by stipulation on
the part of the adjoining proprietors.

In the absence of regulations, such precautions shall be

taken as may be considered necessary, in order to avoid any
damage to the neighboring lands or tenements. (590a)

Art. 679. No trees shall be planted near a tenement or piece

of land belonging to another except at the distance
authorized by the ordinances or customs of the place, and, in
the absence thereof, at a distance of at least two meters
from the dividing line of the estates if tall trees are planted
and at a distance of at least fifty centimeters if shrubs or
small trees are planted.

Every landowner shall have the right to demand that trees

hereafter planted at a shorter distance from his land or
tenement be uprooted.

The provisions of this article also apply to trees which have

grown spontaneously. (591a)

Art. 680. If the branches of any tree should extend over a

neighboring estate, tenement, garden or yard, the owner of
the latter shall have the right to demand that they be cut off
insofar as they may spread over his property, and, if it be the
roots of a neighboring tree which should penetrate into the
land of another, the latter may cut them off himself within
his property. (592)

Art. 681. Fruits naturally falling upon adjacent land belong to

the owner of said land. (n)

SECTION 8. - Easement Against Nuisance (n)

Art. 682. Every building or piece of land is subject to the

easement which prohibits the proprietor or possessor from
committing nuisance through noise, jarring, offensive odor,
smoke, heat, dust, water, glare and other causes.
Art. 683. Subject to zoning, health, police and other laws and
regulations, factories and shops may be maintained provided
the least possible annoyance is caused to the neighborhood.

SECTION 9. - Lateral and Subjacent Support (n)

Sec. 684. No proprietor shall make such excavations upon

his land as to deprive any adjacent land or building of
sufficient lateral or subjacent support.
Art. 685. Any stipulation or testamentary provision allowing
excavations that cause danger to an adjacent land or
building shall be void.

Art. 686. The legal easement of lateral and subjacent support

is not only for buildings standing at the time the excavations
are made but also for constructions that may be erected.

Art. 687. Any proprietor intending to make any excavation

contemplated in the three preceding articles shall notify all
owners of adjacent lands.

CHAPTER 3
VOLUNTARY EASEMENTS

Art. 688. Every owner of a tenement or piece of land may

establish thereon the easements which he may deem
suitable, and in the manner and form which he may deem
best, provided he does not contravene the laws, public policy
or public order. (594)
Art. 689. The owner of a tenement or piece of land, the
usufruct of which belongs to another, may impose thereon,
without the consent of the usufructuary, any servitudes
which will not injure the right of usufruct. (595)

Art. 690. Whenever the naked ownership of a tenement or

piece of land belongs to one person and the beneficial
ownership to another, no perpetual voluntary easement may
be established thereon without the consent of both owners.
(596)

Art. 691. In order to impose an easement on an undivided

tenement, or piece of land, the consent of all the co-owners
shall be required.

The consent given by some only, must be held in abeyance

until the last one of all the co-owners shall have expressed
his conformity.

But the consent given by one of the co-owners separately

from the others shall bind the grantor and his successors not
to prevent the exercise of the right granted. (597a)

Art. 692. The title and, in a proper case, the possession of an

easement acquired by prescription shall determine the rights
of the dominant estate and the obligations of the servient
estate. In default thereof, the easement shall be governed by
such provisions of this Title as are applicable thereto. (598)

Art. 693. If the owner of the servient estate should have

bound himself, upon the establishment of the easement, to
bear the cost of the work required for the use and
preservation thereof, he may free himself from this
obligation by renouncing his property to the owner of the
dominant estate. (599)

Title VIII. - NUISANCE (n)

Art. 694. A nuisance is any act, omission, establishment,

business, condition of property, or anything else which:
(1) Injures or endangers the health or safety of others; or
(2) Annoys or offends the senses; or (3) Shocks, defies
or disregards decency or morality; or (4) Obstructs or
interferes with the free passage of any public highway
or street, or any body of water; or (5) Hinders or
impairs the use of property.
Art. 695. Nuisance is either public or private. A public
nuisance affects a community or neighborhood or any
considerable number of persons, although the extent of the
annoyance, danger or damage upon individuals may be
unequal. A private nuisance is one that is not included in the
foregoing definition.
Art. 696. Every successive owner or possessor of property
who fails or refuses to abate a nuisance in that property
started by a former owner or possessor is liable therefor in
the same manner as the one who created it.

Art. 697. The abatement of a nuisance does not preclude the

right of any person injured to recover damages for its past
existence.

Art. 698. Lapse of time cannot legalize any nuisance,

whether public or private.

Art. 699. The remedies against a public nuisance are:

(1) A prosecution under the Penal Code or any local

ordinance: or (2) A civil action; or (3) Abatement,
without judicial proceedings.
Art. 700. The district health officer shall take care that one
or all of the remedies against a public nuisance are availed of.
Art. 701. If a civil action is brought by reason of the
maintenance of a public nuisance, such action shall be
commenced by the city or municipal mayor.

Art. 702. The district health officer shall determine whether

or not abatement, without judicial proceedings, is the best
remedy against a public nuisance.
Art. 703. A private person may file an action on account of a
public nuisance, if it is specially injurious to himself.

Art. 704. Any private person may abate a public nuisance

which is specially injurious to him by removing, or if
necessary, by destroying the thing which constitutes the
same, without committing a breach of the peace, or doing
unnecessary injury. But it is necessary:

(1) That demand be first made upon the owner or

possessor of the property to abate the nuisance; (2)
That such demand has been rejected; (3) That the
abatement be approved by the district health officer
and executed with the assistance of the local police;
and (4) That the value of the destruction does not
exceed three thousand pesos.
Art. 705. The remedies against a private nuisance are:
(1) A civil action; or (2) Abatement, without judicial
proceedings.
Art. 706. Any person injured by a private nuisance may abate
it by removing, or if necessary, by destroying the thing
which constitutes the nuisance, without committing a breach
of the peace or doing unnecessary injury. However, it is
indispensable that the procedure for extrajudicial abatement
of a public nuisance by a private person be followed.
Art. 707. A private person or a public official extrajudicially
abating a nuisance shall be liable for damages:

(1) If he causes unnecessary injury; or (2) If an alleged

nuisance is later declared by the courts to be not a real
nuisance.
Title IX. - REGISTRY OF PROPERTY
Art. 708. The Registry of Property has for its object the
inscription or annotation of acts and contracts relating to the
ownership and other rights over immovable property. (605)

Art. 709. The titles of ownership, or of other rights over

immovable property, which are not duly inscribed or
annotated in the Registry of Property shall not prejudice
third persons. (606)

Art. 710. The books in the Registry of Property shall be

public for those who have a known interest in ascertaining
the status of the immovables or real rights annotated or
inscribed therein. (607)

Art. 711. For determining what titles are subject to

inscription or annotation, as well as the form, effects, and
cancellation of inscriptions and annotations, the manner of
keeping the books in the Registry, and the value of the
entries contained in said books, the provisions of the
Mortgage Law, the Land Registration Act, and other special
laws shall govern. (608a)

BOOK III

DIFFERENT MODES OF ACQUIRING OWNERSHIP

PRELIMINARY PROVISION

Art. 712. Ownership is acquired by occupation and by

intellectual creation.
Ownership and other real rights over property are acquired
and transmitted by law, by donation, by estate and intestate
succession, and in consequence of certain contracts, by
tradition.

They may also be acquired by means of prescription. (609a)

Title I. - OCCUPATION

Art. 713. Things appropriable by nature which are without an

owner, such as animals that are the object of hunting and
fishing, hidden treasure and abandoned movables, are
acquired by occupation. (610)
Art. 714. The ownership of a piece of land cannot be
acquired by occupation. (n)

Art. 715. The right to hunt and to fish is regulated by special

laws. (611)

Art. 716. The owner of a swarm of bees shall have a right to

pursue them to another's land, indemnifying the possessor
of the latter for the damage. If the owner has not pursued
the swarm, or ceases to do so within two consecutive days,
the possessor of the land may occupy or retain the same.
The owner of domesticated animals may also claim them
within twenty days to be counted from their occupation by
another person. This period having expired, they shall
pertain to him who has caught and kept them. (612a)
Art. 717. Pigeons and fish which from their respective
breeding places pass to another pertaining to a different
owner shall belong to the latter, provided they have not been
enticed by some article of fraud. (613a)

Art. 718. He who by chance discovers hidden treasure in

another's property shall have the right granted him in article
438 of this Code. (614)

Art. 719. Whoever finds a movable, which is not treasure,

must return it to its previous possessor. If the latter is
unknown, the finder shall immediately deposit it with the
mayor of the city or municipality where the finding has taken
place.

The finding shall be publicly announced by the mayor for two

consecutive weeks in the way he deems best.

If the movable cannot be kept without deterioration, or

without expenses which considerably diminish its value, it
shall be sold at public auction eight days after the
publication.

Six months from the publication having elapsed without the

owner having appeared, the thing found, or its value, shall
be awarded to the finder. The finder and the owner shall be
obliged, as the case may be, to reimburse the expenses.
(615a)

Art. 720. If the owner should appear in time, he shall be

obliged to pay, as a reward to the finder, one-tenth of the
sum or of the price of the thing found. (616a)

Title II. - INTELLECTUAL CREATION

Art. 721. By intellectual creation, the following persons

acquire ownership:
(1) The author with regard to his literary, dramatic,
historical, legal, philosophical, scientific or other work;
(2) The composer; as to his musical composition; (3)
The painter, sculptor, or other artist, with respect to
the product of his art; (4) The scientist or technologist
or any other person with regard to his discovery or
invention. (n)
Art. 722. The author and the composer, mentioned in Nos. 1
and 2 of the preceding article, shall have the ownership of
their creations even before the publication of the same. Once
their works are published, their rights are governed by the
Copyright laws.
The painter, sculptor or other artist shall have dominion over
the product of his art even before it is copyrighted.

The scientist or technologist has the ownership of his

discovery or invention even before it is patented. (n)

Art. 723. Letters and other private communications in

writing are owned by the person to whom they are
addressed and delivered, but they cannot be published or
disseminated without the consent of the writer or his heirs.
However, the court may authorize their publication or
dissemination if the public good or the interest of justice so
requires. (n)

Art. 724. Special laws govern copyright and patent. (429a)

Title III. - DONATION

CHAPTER 1
NATURE OF DONATIONS

Art. 725. Donation is an act of liberality whereby a person

disposes gratuitously of a thing or right in favor of another,
who accepts it. (618a)
Art. 726. When a person gives to another a thing or right on
account of the latter's merits or of the services rendered by
him to the donor, provided they do not constitute a
demandable debt, or when the gift imposes upon the donee a
burden which is less than the value of the thing given, there
is also a donation. (619)

Art. 727. Illegal or impossible conditions in simple and

remuneratory donations shall be considered as not imposed.
(n)

Art. 728. Donations which are to take effect upon the death
of the donor partake of the nature of testamentary
provisions, and shall be governed by the rules established in
the Title on Succession. (620)

Art. 729. When the donor intends that the donation shall
take effect during the lifetime of the donor, though the
property shall not be delivered till after the donor's death,
this shall be a donation inter vivos. The fruits of the property
from the time of the acceptance of the donation, shall
pertain to the donee, unless the donor provides otherwise.
(n)

Art. 730. The fixing of an event or the imposition of a

suspensive condition, which may take place beyond the
natural expectation of life of the donor, does not destroy the
nature of the act as a donation inter vivos, unless a contrary
intention appears. (n)

Art. 731. When a person donates something, subject to the

resolutory condition of the donor's survival, there is a
donation inter vivos. (n)

Art. 732. Donations which are to take effect inter vivos shall
be governed by the general provisions on contracts and
obligations in all that is not determined in this Title. (621)

Art. 733. Donations with an onerous cause shall be governed

by the rules on contracts and remuneratory donations by the
provisions of the present Title as regards that portion which
exceeds the value of the burden imposed. (622)

Art. 734. The donation is perfected from the moment the

donor knows of the acceptance by the donee. (623)

CHAPTER 2
PERSONS WHO MAY GIVE OR RECEIVE A DONATION

Art. 735. All persons who may contract and dispose of their
property may make a donation. (624)
Art. 736. Guardians and trustees cannot donate the property
entrusted to them. (n)

Art. 737. The donor's capacity shall be determined as of the

time of the making of the donation. (n)

Art. 738. Al those who are not specially disqualified by law

therefor may accept donations. (625)

Art. 739. The following donations shall be void:

(1) Those made between persons who were guilty of

adultery or concubinage at the time of the donation;
(2) Those made between persons found guilty of the
same criminal offense, in consideration thereof; (3)
Those made to a public officer or his wife, descedants
and ascendants, by reason of his office.
In the case referred to in No. 1, the action for declaration of
nullity may be brought by the spouse of the donor or donee;
and the guilt of the donor and donee may be proved by
preponderance of evidence in the same action. (n)
Art. 740. Incapacity to succeed by will shall be applicable to
donations inter vivos. (n)
Art. 741. Minors and others who cannot enter into a contract
may become donees but acceptance shall be done through
their parents or legal representatives. (626a)

Art. 742. Donations made to conceived and unborn children

may be accepted by those persons who would legally
represent them if they were already born. (627)

Art. 743. Donations made to incapacitated persons shall be

void, though simulated under the guise of another contract
or through a person who is interposed. (628)

Art. 744. Donations of the same thing to two or more

different donees shall be governed by the provisions
concerning the sale of the same thing to two or more
different persons. (n)

Art. 745. The donee must accept the donation personally, or

through an authorized person with a special power for the
purpose, or with a general and sufficient power; otherwise,
the donation shall be void. (630)

Art. 746. Acceptance must be made during the lifetime of the

donor and of the donee. (n)

Art. 747. Persons who accept donations in representation of

others who may not do so by themselves, shall be obliged to
make the notification and notation of which Article 749
speaks. (631)

Art. 748. The donation of a movable may be made orally or in

writing.

An oral donation requires the simultaneous delivery of the

thing or of the document representing the right donated.

If the value of the personal property donated exceeds five

thousand pesos, the donation and the acceptance shall be
made in writing, otherwise, the donation shall be void. (632a)

Art. 749. In order that the donation of an immovable may be

valid, it must be made in a public document, specifying
therein the property donated and the value of the charges
which the donee must satisfy.

The acceptance may be made in the same deed of donation

or in a separate public document, but it shall not take effect
unless it is done during the lifetime of the donor.
If the acceptance is made in a separate instrument, the
donor shall be notified thereof in an authentic form, and this
step shall be noted in both instruments. (633)

CHAPTER 3
EFFECT OF DONATIONS AND LIMITATIONS THEREON

Art. 750. The donations may comprehend all the present

property of the donor, or part thereof, provided he reserves,
in full ownership or in usufruct, sufficient means for the
support of himself, and of all relatives who, at the time of
the acceptance of the donation, are by law entitled to be
supported by the donor. Without such reservation, the
donation shall be reduced in petition of any person affected.
(634a)
Art. 751. Donations cannot comprehend future property.

By future property is understood anything which the donor

cannot dispose of at the time of the donation. (635)

Art. 752. The provisions of Article 750 notwithstanding, no

person may give or receive, by way of donation, more than
he may give or receive by will.

The donation shall be inofficious in all that it may exceed this

limitation. (636)

Art. 753. When a donation is made to several persons jointly,

it is understood to be in equal shares, and there shall be no
right of accretion among them, unless the donor has
otherwise provided.

The preceding paragraph shall not be applicable to donations

made to the husband and wife jointly, between whom there
shall be a right of accretion, if the contrary has not been
provided by the donor. (637)

Art. 754. The donee is subrogated to all the rights and

actions which in case of eviction would pertain to the donor.
The latter, on the other hand, is not obliged to warrant the
things donated, save when the donation is onerous, in which
case the donor shall be liable for eviction to the concurrence
of the burden.

The donor shall also be liable for eviction or hidden defects

in case of bad faith on his part. (638a)

Art. 755. The right to dispose of some of the things donated,

or of some amount which shall be a charge thereon, may be
reserved by the donor; but if he should die without having
made use of this right, the property or amount reserved shall
belong to the donee. (639)

Art. 756. The ownership of property may also be donated to

one person and the usufruct to another or others, provided
all the donees are living at the time of the donation. (640a)

Art. 757. Reversion may be validly established in favor of

only the donor for any case and circumstances, but not in
favor of other persons unless they are all living at the time of
the donation.

Any reversion stipulated by the donor in favor of a third

person in violation of what is provided in the preceding
paragraph shall be void, but shall not nullify the donation.
(614a)

Art. 758. When the donation imposes upon the donee the
obligation to pay the debts of the donor, if the clause does
not contain any declaration to the contrary, the former is
understood to be liable to pay only the debts which appear
to have been previously contracted. In no case shall the
donee be responsible for the debts exceeding the value of
the property donated, unless a contrary intention clearly
appears. (642a)

Art. 759. There being no stipulation regarding the payment

of debts, the donee shall be responsible therefor only when
the donation has been made in fraud of creditors.

The donation is always presumed to be in fraud of creditors,

when at the time thereof the donor did not reserve sufficient
property to pay his debts prior to the donation. (643)

CHAPTER 4
REVOCATION AND REDUCTION OF DONATIONS

Art. 760. Every donation inter vivos, made by a person

having no children or descendants, legitimate or legitimated
by subsequent marriage, or illegitimate, may be revoked or
reduced as provided in the next article, by the happening of
any of these events:
(1) If the donor, after the donation, should have legitimate
or legitimated or illegitimate children, even though
they be posthumous; (2) If the child of the donor,
whom the latter believed to be dead when he made the
donation, should turn out to be living; (3) If the donor
subsequently adopt a minor child. (644a)
Art. 761. In the cases referred to in the preceding article, the
donation shall be revoked or reduced insofar as it exceeds
the portion that may be freely disposed of by will, taking into
account the whole estate of the donor at the time of the birth,
appearance or adoption of a child. (n)
Art. 762. Upon the revocation or reduction of the donation by
the birth, appearance or adoption of a child, the property
affected shall be returned or its value if the donee has sold
the same.

If the property is mortgaged, the donor may redeem the

mortgage, by paying the amount guaranteed, with a right to
recover the same from the donee.

When the property cannot be returned, it shall be estimated

at what it was worth at the time of the donation. (645a)

Art. 763. The action for revocation or reduction on the

grounds set forth in article 760 shall prescribe after four
years from the birth of the first child, or from his
legitimation, recognition or adoption, or from the judicial
declaration of filiation, or from the time information was
received regarding the existence of the child believed dead.

This action cannot be renounced, and is transmitted, upon

the death of the donor, to his legitimate and illegitimate
children and descendants. (646a)

Art. 764. The donation shall be revoked at the instance of the

donor, when the donee fails to comply with any of the
conditions which the former imposed upon the latter.

In this case, the property donated shall be returned to the

donor, the alienations made by the donee and the mortgages
imposed thereon by him being void, with the limitations
established, with regard to third persons, by the Mortgage
Law and the Land Registration Laws.

This action shall prescribe after four years from the

noncompliance with the condition, may be transmitted to the
heirs of the donor, and may be exercised against the donee's
heirs. (647a)

Art. 765. The donation may also be revoked at the instance

of the donor, by reason of ingratitude in the following cases:

(1) If the donee should commit some offense against the

person, the honor or the property of the donor, or of his
wife or children under his parental authority; (2) If the
 donee imputes to the donor any criminal offense, or
any act involving moral turpitude, even though he
should prove it, unless the crime or the act has been
committed against the donee himself, his wife or
children under his authority; (3) If he unduly refuses
him support when the donee is legally or morally bound
to give support to the donor. (648a)
Art. 766. Although the donation is revoked on account of
ingratitude, nevertheless, the alienations and mortgages
effected before the notation of the complaint for revocation
in the Registry of Property shall subsist.
Later ones shall be void. (649)
Art. 767. In the case referred to in the first paragraph of the
preceding article, the donor shall have a right to demand
from the donee the value of property alienated which he
cannot recover from third persons, or the sum for which the
same has been mortgaged.

The value of said property shall be fixed as of the time of the

donation. (650)

Art. 768. When the donation is revoked for any of the causes
stated in Article 760, or by reason of ingratitude, or when it
is reduced because it is inofficious, the donee shall not
return the fruits except from the filing of the complaint.

If the revocation is based upon noncompliance with any of

the conditions imposed in the donation, the donee shall
return not only the property but also the fruits thereof which
he may have received after having failed to fulfill the
condition. (651)

Art. 769. The action granted to the donor by reason of

ingratitude cannot be renounced in advance. This action
prescribes within one year, to be counted from the time the
donor had knowledge of the fact and it was possible for him
to bring the action. (652)

Art. 770. This action shall not be transmitted to the heirs of

the donor, if the latter did not institute the same, although
he could have done so, and even if he should die before the
expiration of one year.

Neither can this action be brought against the heir of the

donee, unless upon the latter's death the complaint has been
filed. (653)

Art. 771. Donations which in accordance with the provisions

of Article 752, are inofficious, bearing in mind the estimated
net value of the donor's property at the time of his death,
shall be reduced with regard to the excess; but this
reduction shall not prevent the donations from taking effect
during the life of the donor, nor shall it bar the donee from
appropriating the fruits.

For the reduction of donations the provisions of this Chapter

and of Articles 911 and 912 of this Code shall govern. (654)

Art. 772. Only those who at the time of the donor's death
have a right to the legitime and their heirs and successors in
interest may ask for the reduction or inofficious donations.

Those referred to in the preceding paragraph cannot

renounce their right during the lifetime of the donor, either
by express declaration, or by consenting to the donation.

The donees, devisees and legatees, who are not entitled to

the legitime and the creditors of the deceased can neither
ask for the reduction nor avail themselves thereof. (655a)

Art. 773. If, there being two or more donations, the

disposable portion is not sufficient to cover all of them, those
of the more recent date shall be suppressed or reduced with
regard to the excess. (656)

Title IV. - SUCCESSION

CHAPTER 1
GENERAL PROVISIONS

Art. 774. Succession is a mode of acquisition by virtue of

which the property, rights and obligations to the extent of
the value of the inheritance, of a person are transmitted
through his death to another or others either by his will or
by operation of law. (n)
Art. 775. In this Title, "decedent" is the general term applied
to the person whose property is transmitted through
succession, whether or not he left a will. If he left a will, he
is also called the testator. (n)

Art. 776. The inheritance includes all the property, rights and
obligations of a person which are not extinguished by his
death. (659)

Art. 777. The rights to the succession are transmitted from

the moment of the death of the decedent. (657a)

Art. 778. Succession may be:

 (1) Testamentary; (2) Legal or intestate; or (3) Mixed. (n)
Art. 779. Testamentary succession is that which results from
the designation of an heir, made in a will executed in the
form prescribed by law. (n)
Art. 780. Mixed succession is that effected partly by will and
partly by operation of law. (n)

Art. 781. The inheritance of a person includes not only the

property and the transmissible rights and obligations
existing at the time of his death, but also those which have
accrued thereto since the opening of the succession. (n)

Art. 782. An heir is a person called to the succession either

by the provision of a will or by operation of law.

Devisees and legatees are persons to whom gifts of real and

personal property are respectively given by virtue of a will.
(n)

CHAPTER 2
TESTAMENTARY SUCCESSION

SECTION 1. - Wills

SUBSECTION 1. - Wills in General

Art. 783. A will is an act whereby a person is permitted, with

the formalities prescribed by law, to control to a certain
degree the disposition of this estate, to take effect after his
death. (667a)
Art. 784. The making of a will is a strictly personal act; it
cannot be left in whole or in part of the discretion of a third
person, or accomplished through the instrumentality of an
agent or attorney. (670a)

Art. 785. The duration or efficacy of the designation of heirs,

devisees or legatees, or the determination of the portions
which they are to take, when referred to by name, cannot be
left to the discretion of a third person. (670a)

Art. 786. The testator may entrust to a third person the

distribution of specific property or sums of money that he
may leave in general to specified classes or causes, and also
the designation of the persons, institutions or
establishments to which such property or sums are to be
given or applied. (671a)

Art. 787. The testator may not make a testamentary

disposition in such manner that another person has to
determine whether or not it is to be operative. (n)

Art. 788. If a testamentary disposition admits of different

interpretations, in case of doubt, that interpretation by
which the disposition is to be operative shall be preferred.
(n)

Art. 789. When there is an imperfect description, or when no

person or property exactly answers the description, mistakes
and omissions must be corrected, if the error appears from
the context of the will or from extrinsic evidence, excluding
the oral declarations of the testator as to his intention; and
when an uncertainty arises upon the face of the will, as to
the application of any of its provisions, the testator's
intention is to be ascertained from the words of the will,
taking into consideration the circumstances under which it
was made, excluding such oral declarations. (n)

Art. 790. The words of a will are to be taken in their ordinary

and grammatical sense, unless a clear intention to use them
in another sense can be gathered, and that other can be
ascertained.

Technical words in a will are to be taken in their technical

sense, unless the context clearly indicates a contrary
intention, or unless it satisfactorily appears that he was
unacquainted with such technical sense. (675a)

Art. 791. The words of a will are to receive an interpretation

which will give to every expression some effect, rather than
one which will render any of the expressions inoperative;
and of two modes of interpreting a will, that is to be
preferred which will prevent intestacy. (n)

Art. 792. The invalidity of one of several dispositions

contained in a will does not result in the invalidity of the
other dispositions, unless it is to be presumed that the
testator would not have made such other dispositions if the
first invalid disposition had not been made. (n)

Art. 793. Property acquired after the making of a will shall

only pass thereby, as if the testator had possessed it at the
time of making the will, should it expressly appear by the
will that such was his intention. (n)

Art. 794. Every devise or legacy shall cover all the interest
which the testator could device or bequeath in the property
disposed of, unless it clearly appears from the will that he
intended to convey a less interest. (n)
Art. 795. The validity of a will as to its form depends upon
the observance of the law in force at the time it is made. (n)

SUBSECTION 2. - Testamentary Capacity and Intent

Art. 796. All persons who are not expressly prohibited by law
may make a will. (662)
Art. 797. Persons of either sex under eighteen years of age
cannot make a will. (n)

Art. 798. In order to make a will it is essential that the

testator be of sound mind at the time of its execution. (n)

Art. 799. To be of sound mind, it is not necessary that the

testator be in full possession of all his reasoning faculties, or
that his mind be wholly unbroken, unimpaired, or
unshattered by disease, injury or other cause.

It shall be sufficient if the testator was able at the time of

making the will to know the nature of the estate to be
disposed of, the proper objects of his bounty, and the
character of the testamentary act. (n)

Art. 800. The law presumes that every person is of sound

mind, in the absence of proof to the contrary.

The burden of proof that the testator was not of sound mind
at the time of making his dispositions is on the person who
opposes the probate of the will; but if the testator, one
month, or less, before making his will was publicly known to
be insane, the person who maintains the validity of the will
must prove that the testator made it during a lucid interval.
(n)

Art. 801. Supervening incapacity does not invalidate an

effective will, nor is the will of an incapable validated by the
supervening of capacity. (n)

Art. 802. A married woman may make a will without the

consent of her husband, and without the authority of the
court. (n)

Art. 803. A married woman may dispose by will of all her

separate property as well as her share of the conjugal
partnership or absolute community property. (n)

SUBSECTION 3. - Forms of Wills

Art. 804. Every will must be in writing and executed in a
language or dialect known to the testator. (n)
Art. 805. Every will, other than a holographic will, must be
subscribed at the end thereof by the testator himself or by
the testator's name written by some other person in his
presence, and by his express direction, and attested and
subscribed by three or more credible witnesses in the
presence of the testator and of one another.

The testator or the person requested by him to write his

name and the instrumental witnesses of the will, shall also
sign, as aforesaid, each and every page thereof, except the
last, on the left margin, and all the pages shall be numbered
correlatively in letters placed on the upper part of each page.

The attestation shall state the number of pages used upon

which the will is written, and the fact that the testator
signed the will and every page thereof, or caused some other
person to write his name, under his express direction, in the
presence of the instrumental witnesses, and that the latter
witnessed and signed the will and all the pages thereof in
the presence of the testator and of one another.

If the attestation clause is in a language not known to the

witnesses, it shall be interpreted to them. (n)

Art. 806. Every will must be acknowledged before a notary

public by the testator and the witnesses. The notary public
shall not be required to retain a copy of the will, or file
another with the Office of the Clerk of Court. (n)

Art. 807. If the testator be deaf, or a deaf-mute, he must

personally read the will, if able to do so; otherwise, he shall
designate two persons to read it and communicate to him, in
some practicable manner, the contents thereof. (n)

Art. 808. If the testator is blind, the will shall be read to him
twice; once, by one of the subscribing witnesses, and again,
by the notary public before whom the will is acknowledged.
(n)

Art. 809. In the absence of bad faith, forgery, or fraud, or

undue and improper pressure and influence, defects and
imperfections in the form of attestation or in the language
used therein shall not render the will invalid if it is proved
that the will was in fact executed and attested in substantial
compliance with all the requirements of Article 805. (n)

Art. 810. A person may execute a holographic will which

must be entirely written, dated, and signed by the hand of
the testator himself. It is subject to no other form, and may
be made in or out of the Philippines, and need not be
witnessed. (678, 688a)

Art. 811. In the probate of a holographic will, it shall be

necessary that at least one witness who knows the
handwriting and signature of the testator explicitly declare
that the will and the signature are in the handwriting of the
testator. If the will is contested, at least three of such
witnesses shall be required.

In the absence of any competent witness referred to in the

preceding paragraph, and if the court deem it necessary,
expert testimony may be resorted to. (619a)

Art. 812. In holographic wills, the dispositions of the testator

written below his signature must be dated and signed by him
in order to make them valid as testamentary dispositions. (n)

Art. 813. When a number of dispositions appearing in a

holographic will are signed without being dated, and the last
disposition has a signature and a date, such date validates
the dispositions preceding it, whatever be the time of prior
dispositions. (n)

Art. 814. In case of any insertion, cancellation, erasure or

alteration in a holographic will, the testator must
authenticate the same by his full signature. (n)

Art. 815. When a Filipino is in a foreign country, he is

authorized to make a will in any of the forms established by
the law of the country in which he may be. Such will may be
probated in the Philippines. (n)

Art. 816. The will of an alien who is abroad produces effect

in the Philippines if made with the formalities prescribed by
the law of the place in which he resides, or according to the
formalities observed in his country, or in conformity with
those which this Code prescribes. (n)

Art. 817. A will made in the Philippines by a citizen or

subject of another country, which is executed in accordance
with the law of the country of which he is a citizen or subject,
and which might be proved and allowed by the law of his
own country, shall have the same effect as if executed
according to the laws of the Philippines. (n)

Art. 818. Two or more persons cannot make a will jointly, or

in the same instrument, either for their reciprocal benefit or
for the benefit of a third person. (669)

Art. 819. Wills, prohibited by the preceding article, executed

by Filipinos in a foreign country shall not be valid in the
Philippines, even though authorized by the laws of the
country where they may have been executed. (733a)

SUBSECTION 4. - Witnesses to Wills

Art. 820. Any person of sound mind and of the age of

eighteen years or more, and not bind, deaf or dumb, and able
to read and write, may be a witness to the execution of a will
mentioned in Article 805 of this Code. (n)
Art. 821. The following are disqualified from being witnesses
to a will:

(1) Any person not domiciled in the Philippines; (2) Those

who have been convicted of falsification of a document,
perjury or false testimony. (n)
Art. 822. If the witnesses attesting the execution of a will
are competent at the time of attesting, their becoming
subsequently incompetent shall not prevent the allowance of
the will. (n)
Art. 823. If a person attests the execution of a will, to whom
or to whose spouse, or parent, or child, a devise or legacy is
given by such will, such devise or legacy shall, so far only as
concerns such person, or spouse, or parent, or child of such
person, or any one claiming under such person or spouse, or
parent, or child, be void, unless there are three other
competent witnesses to such will. However, such person so
attesting shall be admitted as a witness as if such devise or
legacy had not been made or given. (n)

Art. 824. A mere charge on the estate of the testator for the
payment of debts due at the time of the testator's death
does not prevent his creditors from being competent
witnesses to his will. (n)

SUBSECTION 5. - Codicils and Incorporation by Reference

Art. 825. A codicil is supplement or addition to a will, made
after the execution of a will and annexed to be taken as a
part thereof, by which disposition made in the original will is
explained, added to, or altered. (n)

Art. 826. In order that a codicil may be effective, it shall be

executed as in the case of a will. (n)

Art. 827. If a will, executed as required by this Code,

incorporates into itself by reference any document or paper,
such document or paper shall not be considered a part of the
will unless the following requisites are present:

(1) The document or paper referred to in the will must be

in existence at the time of the execution of the will; (2)
The will must clearly describe and identify the same,
stating among other things the number of pages
thereof; (3) It must be identified by clear and
satisfactory proof as the document or paper referred to
therein; and (4) It must be signed by the testator and
the witnesses on each and every page, except in case
of voluminous books of account or inventories. (n)
SUBSECTION 6. - Revocation of Wills and Testamentary
Dispositions

Art. 828. A will may be revoked by the testator at any time

before his death. Any waiver or restriction of this right is
void. (737a)
Art. 829. A revocation done outside the Philippines, by a
person who does not have his domicile in this country, is
valid when it is done according to the law of the place where
the will was made, or according to the law of the place in
which the testator had his domicile at the time; and if the
revocation takes place in this country, when it is in
accordance with the provisions of this Code. (n)

Art. 830. No will shall be revoked except in the following

cases:

(1) By implication of law; or (2) By some will, codicil, or

other writing executed as provided in case of wills; or
(3) By burning, tearing, cancelling, or obliterating the
will with the intention of revoking it, by the testator
himself, or by some other person in his presence, and
by his express direction. If burned, torn, cancelled, or
obliterated by some other person, without the express
direction of the testator, the will may still be
established, and the estate distributed in accordance
therewith, if its contents, and due execution, and the
fact of its unauthorized destruction, cancellation, or
obliteration are established according to the Rules of
Court. (n)
Art. 831. Subsequent wills which do not revoke the previous
ones in an express manner, annul only such dispositions in
the prior wills as are inconsistent with or contrary to those
contained in the latter wills. (n)
Art. 832. A revocation made in a subsequent will shall take
effect, even if the new will should become inoperative by
reason of the incapacity of the heirs, devisees or legatees
designated therein, or by their renunciation. (740a)

Art. 833. A revocation of a will based on a false cause or an

illegal cause is null and void. (n)

Art. 834. The recognition of an illegitimate child does not

lose its legal effect, even though the will wherein it was
made should be revoked. (714)

SUBSECTION 7. - Republication and Revival of Wills

Art. 835. The testator cannot republish, without reproducing

in a subsequent will, the dispositions contained in a previous
one which is void as to its form. (n)
Art. 836. The execution of a codicil referring to a previous
will has the effect of republishing the will as modified by the
codicil. (n)

Art. 837. If after making a will, the testator makes a second

will expressly revoking the first, the revocation of the second
will does not revive the first will, which can be revived only
by another will or codicil. (739a)

SUBSECTION 8. - Allowance and Disallowance of Wills

Art. 838. No will shall pass either real or personal property

unless it is proved and allowed in accordance with the Rules
of Court.
The testator himself may, during his lifetime, petition the
court having jurisdiction for the allowance of his will. In
such case, the pertinent provisions of the Rules of Court for
the allowance of wills after the testator's a death shall
govern.

The Supreme Court shall formulate such additional Rules of

Court as may be necessary for the allowance of wills on
petition of the testator.

Subject to the right of appeal, the allowance of the will,

either during the lifetime of the testator or after his death,
shall be conclusive as to its due execution. (n)

Art. 839. The will shall be disallowed in any of the following

cases:

(1) If the formalities required by law have not been

complied with; (2) If the testator was insane, or
 otherwise mentally incapable of making a will, at the
time of its execution; (3) If it was executed through
force or under duress, or the influence of fear, or
threats; (4) If it was procured by undue and improper
pressure and influence, on the part of the beneficiary or
of some other person; (5) If the signature of the
testator was procured by fraud; (6) If the testator
acted by mistake or did not intend that the instrument
he signed should be his will at the time of affixing his
signature thereto. (n)
SECTION 2. - Institution of Heir

Art. 840. Institution of heir is an act by virtue of which a

testator designates in his will the person or persons who are
to succeed him in his property and transmissible rights and
obligations. (n)
Art. 841. A will shall be valid even though it should not
contain an institution of an heir, or such institution should
not comprise the entire estate, and even though the person
so instituted should not accept the inheritance or should be
incapacitated to succeed.

In such cases the testamentary dispositions made in

accordance with law shall be complied with and the
remainder of the estate shall pass to the legal heirs. (764)

Art. 842. One who has no compulsory heirs may dispose by

will of all his estate or any part of it in favor of any person
having capacity to succeed.

One who has compulsory heirs may dispose of his estate

provided he does not contravene the provisions of this Code
with regard to the legitime of said heirs. (763a)

Art. 843. The testator shall designate the heir by his name
and surname, and when there are two persons having the
same names, he shall indicate some circumstance by which
the instituted heir may be known.

Even though the testator may have omitted the name of the
heir, should he designate him in such manner that there can
be no doubt as to who has been instituted, the institution
shall be valid. (772)

Art. 844. An error in the name, surname, or circumstances of

the heir shall not vitiate the institution when it is possible, in
any other manner, to know with certainty the person
instituted.
If among persons having the same names and surnames,
there is a similarity of circumstances in such a way that,
even with the use of the other proof, the person instituted
cannot be identified, none of them shall be an heir. (773a)

Art. 845. Every disposition in favor of an unknown person

shall be void, unless by some event or circumstance his
identity becomes certain. However, a disposition in favor of a
definite class or group of persons shall be valid. (750a)

Art. 846. Heirs instituted without designation of shares shall

inherit in equal parts. (765)

Art. 847. When the testator institutes some heirs individually

and others collectively as when he says, "I designate as my
heirs A and B, and the children of C," those collectively
designated shall be considered as individually instituted,
unless it clearly appears that the intention of the testator
was otherwise. (769a)

Art. 848. If the testator should institute his brothers and

sisters, and he has some of full blood and others of half
blood, the inheritance shall be distributed equally unless a
different intention appears. (770a)

Art. 849. When the testator calls to the succession a person

and his children they are all deemed to have been instituted
simultaneously and not successively. (771)

Art. 850. The statement of a false cause for the institution of

an heir shall be considered as not written, unless it appears
from the will that the testator would not have made such
institution if he had known the falsity of such cause. (767a)

Art. 851. If the testator has instituted only one heir, and the
institution is limited to an aliquot part of the inheritance,
legal succession takes place with respect to the remainder of
the estate.

The same rule applies if the testator has instituted several

heirs, each being limited to an aliquot part, and all the parts
do not cover the whole inheritance. (n)

Art. 852. If it was the intention of the testator that the

instituted heirs should become sole heirs to the whole estate,
or the whole free portion, as the case may be, and each of
them has been instituted to an aliquot part of the inheritance
and their aliquot parts together do not cover the whole
inheritance, or the whole free portion, each part shall be
increased proportionally. (n)

Art. 853. If each of the instituted heirs has been given an

aliquot part of the inheritance, and the parts together exceed
the whole inheritance, or the whole free portion, as the case
may be, each part shall be reduced proportionally. (n)

Art. 854. The preterition or omission of one, some, or all of

the compulsory heirs in the direct line, whether living at the
time of the execution of the will or born after the death of
the testator, shall annul the institution of heir; but the
devises and legacies shall be valid insofar as they are not
inofficious.

If the omitted compulsory heirs should die before the

testator, the institution shall be effectual, without prejudice
to the right of representation. (814a)

Art. 855. The share of a child or descendant omitted in a will

must first be taken from the part of the estate not disposed
of by the will, if any; if that is not sufficient, so much as may
be necessary must be taken proportionally from the shares
of the other compulsory heirs. (1080a)

Art. 856. A voluntary heir who dies before the testator

transmits nothing to his heirs.

A compulsory heir who dies before the testator, a person

incapacitated to succeed, and one who renounces the
inheritance, shall transmit no right to his own heirs except in
cases expressly provided for in this Code. (766a)

SECTION 3. - Substitution of Heirs

Art. 857. Substitution is the appointment of another heir so

that he may enter into the inheritance in default of the heir
originally instituted. (n)
Art. 858. Substitution of heirs may be:

(1) Simple or common; (2) Brief or compendious; (3)

Reciprocal; or (4) Fideicommissary. (n)
Art. 859. The testator may designate one or more persons to
substitute the heir or heirs instituted in case such heir or
heirs should die before him, or should not wish, or should be
incapacitated to accept the inheritance.
A simple substitution, without a statement of the cases to
which it refers, shall comprise the three mentioned in the
preceding paragraph, unless the testator has otherwise
provided. (774)
Art. 860. Two or more persons may be substituted for one;
and one person for two or more heirs. (778)

Art. 861. If heirs instituted in unequal shares should be

reciprocally substituted, the substitute shall acquire the
share of the heir who dies, renounces, or is incapacitated,
unless it clearly appears that the intention of the testator
was otherwise. If there are more than one substitute, they
shall have the same share in the substitution as in the
institution. (779a)

Art. 862. The substitute shall be subject to the same charges

and conditions imposed upon the instituted heir, unless and
testator has expressly provided the contrary, or the charges
or conditions are personally applicable only to the heir
instituted. (780)

Art. 863. A fideicommissary substitution by virtue of which

the fiduciary or first heir instituted is entrusted with the
obligation to preserve and to transmit to a second heir the
whole or part of the inheritance, shall be valid and shall take
effect, provided such substitution does not go beyond one
degree from the heir originally instituted, and provided
further, that the fiduciary or first heir and the second heir
are living at the time of the death of the testator. (781a)

Art. 864. A fideicommissary substitution can never burden

the legitime. (782a)

Art. 865. Every fideicommissary substitution must be

expressly made in order that it may be valid.

The fiduciary shall be obliged to deliver the inheritance to

the second heir, without other deductions than those which
arise from legitimate expenses, credits and improvements,
save in the case where the testator has provided otherwise.
(783)

Art. 866. The second heir shall acquire a right to the

succession from the time of the testator's death, even
though he should die before the fiduciary. The right of the
second heir shall pass to his heirs. (784)

Art. 867. The following shall not take effect:

(1) Fideicommissary substitutions which are not made in

an express manner, either by giving them this name, or
imposing upon the fiduciary the absolute obligation to
deliver the property to a second heir; (2) Provisions
 which contain a perpetual prohibition to alienate, and
even a temporary one, beyond the limit fixed in article
863; (3) Those which impose upon the heir the charge
of paying to various persons successively, beyond the
limit prescribed in article 863, a certain income or
pension; (4) Those which leave to a person the whole
part of the hereditary property in order that he may
apply or invest the same according to secret
instructions communicated to him by the testator.
(785a)
Art. 868. The nullity of the fideicommissary substitution does
not prejudice the validity of the institution of the heirs first
designated; the fideicommissary clause shall simply be
considered as not written. (786)
Art. 869. A provision whereby the testator leaves to a person
the whole or part of the inheritance, and to another the
usufruct, shall be valid. If he gives the usufruct to various
persons, not simultaneously, but successively, the provisions
of Article 863 shall apply. (787a)

Art. 870. The dispositions of the testator declaring all or part

of the estate inalienable for more than twenty years are void.
(n)

SECTION 4. - Conditional Testamentary Dispositions

and Testamentary Dispositions With a Term

Art. 871. The institution of an heir may be made

conditionally, or for a certain purpose or cause. (790a)
Art. 872. The testator cannot impose any charge, condition,
or substitution whatsoever upon the legitimes prescribed in
this Code. Should he do so, the same shall be considered as
not imposed. (813a)

Art. 873. Impossible conditions and those contrary to law or

good customs shall be considered as not imposed and shall
in no manner prejudice the heir, even if the testator should
otherwise provide. (792a)

Art. 874. An absolute condition not to contract a first or

subsequent marriage shall be considered as not written
unless such condition has been imposed on the widow or
widower by the deceased spouse, or by the latter's
ascendants or descendants.

Nevertheless, the right of usufruct, or an allowance or some

personal prestation may be devised or bequeathed to any
person for the time during which he or she should remain
unmarried or in widowhood. (793a)

Art. 875. Any disposition made upon the condition that the
heir shall make some provision in his will in favor of the
testator or of any other person shall be void. (794a)

Art. 876. Any purely potestative condition imposed upon an

heir must be fulfilled by him as soon as he learns of the
testator's death.

This rule shall not apply when the condition, already

complied with, cannot be fulfilled again. (795a)

Art. 877. If the condition is casual or mixed, it shall be

sufficient if it happens or be fulfilled at any time before or
after the death of the testator, unless he has provided
otherwise.

Should it have existed or should it have been fulfilled at the

time the will was executed and the testator was unaware
thereof, it shall be deemed as complied with.

If he had knowledge thereof, the condition shall be

considered fulfilled only when it is of such a nature that it
can no longer exist or be complied with again. (796)

Art. 878. A disposition with a suspensive term does not

prevent the instituted heir from acquiring his rights and
transmitting them to his heirs even before the arrival of the
term. (799a)

Art. 879. If the potestative condition imposed upon the heir

is negative, or consists in not doing or not giving something,
he shall comply by giving a security that he will not do or
give that which has been prohibited by the testator, and that
in case of contravention he will return whatever he may
have received, together with its fruits and interests. (800a)

Art. 880. If the heir be instituted under a suspensive

condition or term, the estate shall be placed under
administration until the condition is fulfilled, or until it
becomes certain that it cannot be fulfilled, or until the arrival
of the term.

The same shall be done if the heir does not give the security
required in the preceding article. (801a)

Art. 881. The appointment of the administrator of the estate

mentioned in the preceding article, as well as the manner of
the administration and the rights and obligations of the
administrator shall be governed by the Rules of Court. (804a)

Art. 882. The statement of the object of the institution, or

the application of the property left by the testator, or the
charge imposed by him, shall not be considered as a
condition unless it appears that such was his intention.

That which has been left in this manner may be claimed at

once provided that the instituted heir or his heirs give
security for compliance with the wishes of the testator and
for the return of anything he or they may receive, together
with its fruits and interests, if he or they should disregard
this obligation. (797a)

Art. 883. When without the fault of the heir, an institution

referred to in the preceding article cannot take effect in the
exact manner stated by the testator, it shall be complied
with in a manner most analogous to and in conformity with
his wishes.

If the person interested in the condition should prevent its

fulfillment, without the fault of the heir, the condition shall
be deemed to have been complied with. (798a)

Art. 884. Conditions imposed by the testator upon the heirs

shall be governed by the rules established for conditional
obligations in all matters not provided for by this Section.
(791a)

Art. 885. The designation of the day or time when the effects
of the institution of an heir shall commence or cease shall be
valid.

In both cases, the legal heir shall be considered as called to

the succession until the arrival of the period or its expiration.
But in the first case he shall not enter into possession of the
property until after having given sufficient security, with the
intervention of the instituted heir. (805)

SECTION 5. - Legitime

Art. 886. Legitime is that part of the testator's property

which he cannot dispose of because the law has reserved it
for certain heirs who are, therefore, called compulsory heirs.
(806)
Art. 887. The following are compulsory heirs:

(1) Legitimate children and descendants, with respect to

 their legitimate parents and ascendants; (2) In default
of the foregoing, legitimate parents and ascendants,
with respect to their legitimate children and
descendants; (3) The widow or widower; (4)
Acknowledged natural children, and natural children by
legal fiction; (5) Other illegitimate children referred to
in Article 287.
Compulsory heirs mentioned in Nos. 3, 4, and 5 are not
excluded by those in Nos. 1 and 2; neither do they exclude
one another.
In all cases of illegitimate children, their filiation must be
duly proved.

The father or mother of illegitimate children of the three

classes mentioned, shall inherit from them in the manner
and to the extent established by this Code. (807a)

Art. 888. The legitime of legitimate children and descendants

consists of one-half of the hereditary estate of the father and
of the mother.

The latter may freely dispose of the remaining half, subject

to the rights of illegitimate children and of the surviving
spouse as hereinafter provided. (808a)

Art. 889. The legitime of legitimate parents or ascendants

consists of one-half of the hereditary estates of their
children and descendants.

The children or descendants may freely dispose of the other

half, subject to the rights of illegitimate children and of the
surviving spouse as hereinafter provided. (809a)

Art. 890. The legitime reserved for the legitimate parents

shall be divided between them equally; if one of the parents
should have died, the whole shall pass to the survivor.

If the testator leaves neither father nor mother, but is

survived by ascendants of equal degree of the paternal and
maternal lines, the legitime shall be divided equally between
both lines. If the ascendants should be of different degrees,
it shall pertain entirely to the ones nearest in degree of
either line. (810)

Art. 891. The ascendant who inherits from his descendant

any property which the latter may have acquired by
gratuitous title from another ascendant, or a brother or
sister, is obliged to reserve such property as he may have
acquired by operation of law for the benefit of relatives who
are within the third degree and who belong to the line from
which said property came. (871)

Art. 892. If only one legitimate child or descendant of the

deceased survives, the widow or widower shall be entitled to
one-fourth of the hereditary estate. In case of a legal
separation, the surviving spouse may inherit if it was the
deceased who had given cause for the same.

If there are two or more legitimate children or descendants,

the surviving spouse shall be entitled to a portion equal to
the legitime of each of the legitimate children or
descendants.

In both cases, the legitime of the surviving spouse shall be

taken from the portion that can be freely disposed of by the
testator. (834a)

Art. 893. If the testator leaves no legitimate descendants,

but leaves legitimate ascendants, the surviving spouse shall
have a right to one-fourth of the hereditary estate.

This fourth shall be taken from the free portion of the estate.
(836a)

Art. 894. If the testator leaves illegitimate children, the

surviving spouse shall be entitled to one-third of the
hereditary estate of the deceased and the illegitimate
children to another third. The remaining third shall be at the
free disposal of the testator. (n)

Art. 895. The legitime of each of the acknowledged natural

children and each of the natural children by legal fiction shall
consist of one-half of the legitime of each of the legitimate
children or descendants.

The legitime of an illegitimate child who is neither an

acknowledged natural, nor a natural child by legal fiction,
shall be equal in every case to four-fifths of the legitime of
an acknowledged natural child.

The legitime of the illegitimate children shall be taken from

the portion of the estate at the free disposal of the testator,
provided that in no case shall the total legitime of such
illegitimate children exceed that free portion, and that the
legitime of the surviving spouse must first be fully satisfied.
(840a)

Art. 896. Illegitimate children who may survive with

legitimate parents or ascendants of the deceased shall be
entitled to one-fourth of the hereditary estate to be taken
from the portion at the free disposal of the testator. (841a)

Art. 897. When the widow or widower survives with

legitimate children or descendants, and acknowledged
natural children, or natural children by legal fiction, such
surviving spouse shall be entitled to a portion equal to the
legitime of each of the legitimate children which must be
taken from that part of the estate which the testator can
freely dispose of. (n)

Art. 898. If the widow or widower survives with legitimate

children or descendants, and with illegitimate children other
than acknowledged natural, or natural children by legal
fiction, the share of the surviving spouse shall be the same
as that provided in the preceding article. (n)

Art. 899. When the widow or widower survives with

legitimate parents or ascendants and with illegitimate
children, such surviving spouse shall be entitled to one-
eighth of the hereditary estate of the deceased which must
be taken from the free portion, and the illegitimate children
shall be entitled to one-fourth of the estate which shall be
taken also from the disposable portion. The testator may
freely dispose of the remaining one-eighth of the estate. (n)

Art. 900. If the only survivor is the widow or widower, she or

he shall be entitled to one-half of the hereditary estate of the
deceased spouse, and the testator may freely dispose of the
other half. (837a)

If the marriage between the surviving spouse and the

testator was solemnized in articulo mortis, and the testator
died within three months from the time of the marriage, the
legitime of the surviving spouse as the sole heir shall be one-
third of the hereditary estate, except when they have been
living as husband and wife for more than five years. In the
latter case, the legitime of the surviving spouse shall be that
specified in the preceding paragraph. (n)

Art. 901. When the testator dies leaving illegitimate children

and no other compulsory heirs, such illegitimate children
shall have a right to one-half of the hereditary estate of the
deceased.

The other half shall be at the free disposal of the testator.

(842a)
Art. 902. The rights of illegitimate children set forth in the
preceding articles are transmitted upon their death to their
descendants, whether legitimate or illegitimate. (843a)

Art. 903. The legitime of the parents who have an

illegitimate child, when such child leaves neither legitimate
descendants, nor a surviving spouse, nor illegitimate
children, is one-half of the hereditary estate of such
illegitimate child. If only legitimate or illegitimate children
are left, the parents are not entitled to any legitime
whatsoever. If only the widow or widower survives with
parents of the illegitimate child, the legitime of the parents
is one-fourth of the hereditary estate of the child, and that of
the surviving spouse also one-fourth of the estate. (n)

Art. 904. The testator cannot deprive his compulsory heirs of

their legitime, except in cases expressly specified by law.

Neither can he impose upon the same any burden,

encumbrance, condition, or substitution of any kind
whatsoever. (813a)

Art. 905. Every renunciation or compromise as regards a

future legitime between the person owing it and his
compulsory heirs is void, and the latter may claim the same
upon the death of the former; but they must bring to
collation whatever they may have received by virtue of the
renunciation or compromise. (816)

Art. 906. Any compulsory heir to whom the testator has left
by any title less than the legitime belonging to him may
demand that the same be fully satisfied. (815)

Art. 907. Testamentary dispositions that impair or diminish

the legitime of the compulsory heirs shall be reduced on
petition of the same, insofar as they may be inofficious or
excessive. (817)

Art. 908. To determine the legitime, the value of the property

left at the death of the testator shall be considered,
deducting all debts and charges, which shall not include
those imposed in the will.

To the net value of the hereditary estate, shall be added the

value of all donations by the testator that are subject to
collation, at the time he made them. (818a)

Art. 909. Donations given to children shall be charged to

their legitime.
Donations made to strangers shall be charged to that part of
the estate of which the testator could have disposed by his
last will.

Insofar as they may be inofficious or may exceed the

disposable portion, they shall be reduced according to the
rules established by this Code. (819a)

Art. 910. Donations which an illegitimate child may have

received during the lifetime of his father or mother, shall be
charged to his legitime.

Should they exceed the portion that can be freely disposed of,
they shall be reduced in the manner prescribed by this Code.
(847a)

Art. 911. After the legitime has been determined in

accordance with the three preceding articles, the reduction
shall be made as follows:

(1) Donations shall be respected as long as the legitime

can be covered, reducing or annulling, if necessary, the
devises or legacies made in the will; (2) The reduction
of the devises or legacies shall be pro rata, without any
distinction whatever. If the testator has directed that a
certain devise or legacy be paid in preference to others,
it shall not suffer any reduction until the latter have
been applied in full to the payment of the legitime. (3)
If the devise or legacy consists of a usufruct or life
annuity, whose value may be considered greater than
that of the disposable portion, the compulsory heirs
may choose between complying with the testamentary
provision and delivering to the devisee or legatee the
part of the inheritance of which the testator could
freely dispose. (820a)
Art. 912. If the devise subject to reduction should consist of
real property, which cannot be conveniently divided, it shall
go to the devisee if the reduction does not absorb one-half of
its value; and in a contrary case, to the compulsory heirs;
but the former and the latter shall reimburse each other in
cash for what respectively belongs to them.
The devisee who is entitled to a legitime may retain the
entire property, provided its value does not exceed that of
the disposable portion and of the share pertaining to him as
legitime. (821)

Art. 913. If the heirs or devisees do not choose to avail

themselves of the right granted by the preceding article, any
heir or devisee who did not have such right may exercise it;
should the latter not make use of it, the property shall be
sold at public auction at the instance of any one of the
interested parties. (822)

Art. 914. The testator may devise and bequeath the free
portion as he may deem fit. (n)

SECTION 6. - Disinheritance

Art. 915. A compulsory heir may, in consequence of

disinheritance, be deprived of his legitime, for causes
expressly stated by law. (848a)
Art. 916. Disinheritance can be effected only through a will
wherein the legal cause therefor shall be specified. (849)

Art. 917. The burden of proving the truth of the cause for
disinheritance shall rest upon the other heirs of the testator,
if the disinherited heir should deny it. (850)

Art. 918. Disinheritance without a specification of the cause,

or for a cause the truth of which, if contradicted, is not
proved, or which is not one of those set forth in this Code,
shall annul the institution of heirs insofar as it may prejudice
the person disinherited; but the devises and legacies and
other testamentary dispositions shall be valid to such extent
as will not impair the legitime. (851a)

Art. 919. The following shall be sufficient causes for the

disinheritance of children and descendants, legitimate as
well as illegitimate:

(1) When a child or descendant has been found guilty of an

attempt against the life of the testator, his or her
spouse, descendants, or ascendants; (2) When a child
or descendant has accused the testator of a crime for
which the law prescribes imprisonment for six years or
more, if the accusation has been found groundless; (3)
When a child or descendant has been convicted of
adultery or concubinage with the spouse of the
testator; (4) When a child or descendant by fraud,
violence, intimidation, or undue influence causes the
testator to make a will or to change one already made;
(5) A refusal without justifiable cause to support the
parent or ascendant who disinherits such child or
descendant; (6) Maltreatment of the testator by word
or deed, by the child or descendant; (7) When a child
or descendant leads a dishonorable or disgraceful life;
(8) Conviction of a crime which carries with it the
 penalty of civil interdiction. (756, 853, 674a)
Art. 920. The following shall be sufficient causes for the
disinheritance of parents or ascendants, whether legitimate
or illegitimate:
(1) When the parents have abandoned their children or
induced their daughters to live a corrupt or immoral life,
or attempted against their virtue; (2) When the parent
or ascendant has been convicted of an attempt against
the life of the testator, his or her spouse, descendants,
or ascendants; (3) When the parent or ascendant has
accused the testator of a crime for which the law
prescribes imprisonment for six years or more, if the
accusation has been found to be false; (4) When the
parent or ascendant has been convicted of adultery or
concubinage with the spouse of the testator; (5) When
the parent or ascendant by fraud, violence, intimidation,
or undue influence causes the testator to make a will or
to change one already made; (6) The loss of parental
authority for causes specified in this Code; (7) The
refusal to support the children or descendants without
justifiable cause; (8) An attempt by one of the parents
against the life of the other, unless there has been a
reconciliation between them. (756, 854, 674a)
Art. 921. The following shall be sufficient causes for
disinheriting a spouse:
(1) When the spouse has been convicted of an attempt
against the life of the testator, his or her descendants,
or ascendants; (2) When the spouse has accused the
testator of a crime for which the law prescribes
imprisonment of six years or more, and the accusation
has been found to be false; (3) When the spouse by
fraud, violence, intimidation, or undue influence cause
the testator to make a will or to change one already
made; (4) When the spouse has given cause for legal
separation; (5) When the spouse has given grounds for
the loss of parental authority; (6) Unjustifiable refusal
to support the children or the other spouse. (756, 855,
674a)
Art. 922. A subsequent reconciliation between the offender
and the offended person deprives the latter of the right to
disinherit, and renders ineffectual any disinheritance that
may have been made. (856)
Art. 923. The children and descendants of the person
disinherited shall take his or her place and shall preserve the
rights of compulsory heirs with respect to the legitime; but
the disinherited parent shall not have the usufruct or
administration of the property which constitutes the legitime.
(857)
 SECTION 7. - Legacies and Devises

Art. 924. All things and rights which are within the
commerce of man be bequeathed or devised. (865a)
Art. 925. A testator may charge with legacies and devises
not only his compulsory heirs but also the legatees and
devisees.

The latter shall be liable for the charge only to the extent of
the value of the legacy or the devise received by them. The
compulsory heirs shall not be liable for the charge beyond
the amount of the free portion given them. (858a)

Art. 926. When the testator charges one of the heirs with a
legacy or devise, he alone shall be bound.

Should he not charge anyone in particular, all shall be liable

in the same proportion in which they may inherit. (859)

Art. 927. If two or more heirs take possession of the estate,

they shall be solidarily liable for the loss or destruction of a
thing devised or bequeathed, even though only one of them
should have been negligent. (n)

Art. 928. The heir who is bound to deliver the legacy or

devise shall be liable in case of eviction, if the thing is
indeterminate and is indicated only by its kind. (860)

Art. 929. If the testator, heir, or legatee owns only a part of,
or an interest in the thing bequeathed, the legacy or devise
shall be understood limited to such part or interest, unless
the testator expressly declares that he gives the thing in its
entirety. (864a)

Art. 930. The legacy or devise of a thing belonging to

another person is void, if the testator erroneously believed
that the thing pertained to him. But if the thing bequeathed,
though not belonging to the testator when he made the will,
afterwards becomes his, by whatever title, the disposition
shall take effect. (862a)

Art. 931. If the testator orders that a thing belonging to

another be acquired in order that it be given to a legatee or
devisee, the heir upon whom the obligation is imposed or the
estate must acquire it and give the same to the legatee or
devisee; but if the owner of the thing refuses to alienate the
same, or demands an excessive price therefor, the heir or
the estate shall only be obliged to give the just value of the
thing. (861a)
Art. 932. The legacy or devise of a thing which at the time of
the execution of the will already belonged to the legatee or
devisee shall be ineffective, even though another person
may have some interest therein.

If the testator expressly orders that the thing be freed from

such interest or encumbrance, the legacy or devise shall be
valid to that extent. (866a)

Art. 933. If the thing bequeathed belonged to the legatee or

devisee at the time of the execution of the will, the legacy or
devise shall be without effect, even though it may have
subsequently alienated by him.

If the legatee or devisee acquires it gratuitously after such

time, he can claim nothing by virtue of the legacy or devise;
but if it has been acquired by onerous title he can demand
reimbursement from the heir or the estate. (878a)

Art. 934. If the testator should bequeath or devise

something pledged or mortgaged to secure a recoverable
debt before the execution of the will, the estate is obliged to
pay the debt, unless the contrary intention appears.

The same rule applies when the thing is pledged or

mortgaged after the execution of the will.

Any other charge, perpetual or temporary, with which the

thing bequeathed is burdened, passes with it to the legatee
or devisee. (867a)

Art. 935. The legacy of a credit against a third person or of

the remission or release of a debt of the legatee shall be
effective only as regards that part of the credit or debt
existing at the time of the death of the testator.

In the first case, the estate shall comply with the legacy by
assigning to the legatee all rights of action it may have
against the debtor. In the second case, by giving the legatee
an acquittance, should he request one.

In both cases, the legacy shall comprise all interests on the

credit or debt which may be due the testator at the time of
his death. (870a)

Art. 936. The legacy referred to in the preceding article shall

lapse if the testator, after having made it, should bring an
action against the debtor for the payment of his debt, even if
such payment should not have been effected at the time of
his death.

The legacy to the debtor of the thing pledged by him is

understood to discharge only the right of pledge. (871)

Art. 937. A generic legacy of release or remission of debts

comprises those existing at the time of the execution of the
will, but not subsequent ones. (872)

Art. 938. A legacy or devise made to a creditor shall not be

applied to his credit, unless the testator so expressly
declares.

In the latter case, the creditor shall have the right to collect
the excess, if any, of the credit or of the legacy or devise.
(837a)

Art. 939. If the testator orders the payment of what he

believes he owes but does not in fact owe, the disposition
shall be considered as not written. If as regards a specified
debt more than the amount thereof is ordered paid, the
excess is not due, unless a contrary intention appears.

The foregoing provisions are without prejudice to the

fulfillment of natural obligations. (n)

Art. 940. In alternative legacies or devises, the choice is

presumed to be left to the heir upon whom the obligation to
give the legacy or devise may be imposed, or the executor or
administrator of the estate if no particular heir is so obliged.

If the heir, legatee or devisee, who may have been given the
choice, dies before making it, this right shall pass to the
respective heirs.

Once made, the choice is irrevocable.

In the alternative legacies or devises, except as herein

provided, the provisions of this Code regulating obligations
of the same kind shall be observed, save such modifications
as may appear from the intention expressed by the testator.
(874a)

Art. 941. A legacy of generic personal property shall be valid

even if there be no things of the same kind in the estate.

A devise of indeterminate real property shall be valid only if

there be immovable property of its kind in the estate.

The right of choice shall belong to the executor or

administrator who shall comply with the legacy by the
delivery of a thing which is neither of inferior nor of superior
quality. (875a)

Art. 942. Whenever the testator expressly leaves the right of

choice to the heir, or to the legatee or devisee, the former
may give or the latter may choose whichever he may prefer.
(876a)

Art. 943. If the heir, legatee or devisee cannot make the

choice, in case it has been granted him, his right shall pass
to his heirs; but a choice once made shall be irrevocable.
(877a)

Art. 944. A legacy for education lasts until the legatee is of

age, or beyond the age of majority in order that the legatee
may finish some professional, vocational or general course,
provided he pursues his course diligently.

A legacy for support lasts during the lifetime of the legatee,

if the testator has not otherwise provided.

If the testator has not fixed the amount of such legacies, it

shall be fixed in accordance with the social standing and the
circumstances of the legatee and the value of the estate.

If the testator or during his lifetime used to give the legatee

a certain sum of money or other things by way of support,
the same amount shall be deemed bequeathed, unless it be
markedly disproportionate to the value of the estate. (879a)

Art. 945. If a periodical pension, or a certain annual, monthly,

or weekly amount is bequeathed, the legatee may petition
the court for the first installment upon the death of the
testator, and for the following ones which shall be due at the
beginning of each period; such payment shall not be
returned, even though the legatee should die before the
expiration of the period which has commenced. (880a)

Art. 946. If the thing bequeathed should be subject to a

usufruct, the legatee or devisee shall respect such right until
it is legally extinguished. (868a)

Art. 947. The legatee or devisee acquires a right to the pure

and simple legacies or devises from the death of the testator,
and transmits it to his heirs. (881a)

Art. 948. If the legacy or device is of a specific and

determinate thing pertaining to the testator, the legatee or
devisee acquires the ownership thereof upon the death of
the testator, as well as any growing fruits, or unborn
offspring of animals, or uncollected income; but not the
income which was due and unpaid before the latter's death.

From the moment of the testator's death, the thing

bequeathed shall be at the risk of the legatee or devisee,
who shall, therefore, bear its loss or deterioration, and shall
be benefited by its increase or improvement, without
prejudice to the responsibility of the executor or
administrator. (882a)

Art. 949. If the bequest should not be of a specific and

determinate thing, but is generic or of quantity, its fruits and
interests from the time of the death of the testator shall
pertain to the legatee or devisee if the testator has expressly
so ordered. (884a)

Art. 950. If the estate should not be sufficient to cover all

the legacies or devises, their payment shall be made in the
following order:

(1) Remuneratory legacies or devises; (2) Legacies or

devises declared by the testator to be preferential; (3)
Legacies for support; (4) Legacies for education; (5)
Legacies or devises of a specific, determinate thing
which forms a part of the estate; (6) All others pro rata.
(887a)
Art. 951. The thing bequeathed shall be delivered with all its
accessories and accessories and in the condition in which it
may be upon the death of the testator. (883a)
Art. 952. The heir, charged with a legacy or devise, or the
executor or administrator of the estate, must deliver the
very thing bequeathed if he is able to do so and cannot
discharge this obligation by paying its value.

Legacies of money must be paid in cash, even though the

heir or the estate may not have any.

The expenses necessary for the delivery of the thing

bequeathed shall be for the account of the heir or the estate,
but without prejudice to the legitime. (886a)

Art. 953. The legatee or devisee cannot take possession of

the thing bequeathed upon his own authority, but shall
request its delivery and possession of the heir charged with
the legacy or devise, or of the executor or administrator of
the estate should he be authorized by the court to deliver it.
(885a)
Art. 954. The legatee or devisee cannot accept a part of the
legacy or devise and repudiate the other, if the latter be
onerous.

Should he die before having accepted the legacy or devise,

leaving several heirs, some of the latter may accept and the
others may repudiate the share respectively belonging to
them in the legacy or devise. (889a)

Art. 955. The legatee or devisee of two legacies or devises,

one of which is onerous, cannot renounce the onerous one
and accept the other. If both are onerous or gratuitous, he
shall be free to accept or renounce both, or to renounce
either. But if the testator intended that the two legacies or
devises should be inseparable from each other, the legatee
or devisee must either accept or renounce both.

Any compulsory heir who is at the same time a legatee or

devisee may waive the inheritance and accept the legacy or
devise, or renounce the latter and accept the former, or
waive or accept both. (890a)

Art. 956. If the legatee or devisee cannot or is unwilling to

accept the legacy or devise, or if the legacy or devise for any
reason should become ineffective, it shall be merged into the
mass of the estate, except in cases of substitution and of the
right of accretion. (888a)

Art. 957. The legacy or devise shall be without effect:

(1) If the testator transforms the thing bequeathed in such

a manner that it does not retain either the form or the
denomination it had; (2) If the testator by any title or
for any cause alienates the thing bequeathed or any
part thereof, it being understood that in the latter case
the legacy or devise shall be without effect only with
respect to the part thus alienated. If after the
alienation the thing should again belong to the testator,
even if it be by reason of nullity of the contract, the
legacy or devise shall not thereafter be valid, unless the
reacquisition shall have been effected by virtue of the
exercise of the right of repurchase; (3) If the thing
bequeathed is totally lost during the lifetime of the
testator, or after his death without the heir's fault.
Nevertheless, the person obliged to pay the legacy or
devise shall be liable for eviction if the thing
bequeathed should not have been determinate as to its
kind, in accordance with the provisions of Article 928.
(869a)
Art. 958. A mistake as to the name of the thing bequeathed
or devised, is of no consequence, if it is possible to identify
the thing which the testator intended to bequeath or devise.
(n)
Art. 959. A disposition made in general terms in favor of the
testator's relatives shall be understood to be in favor of
those nearest in degree. (751)

CHAPTER 3
LEGAL OR INTESTATE SUCCESSION

SECTION 1. - General Provisions

Art. 960. Legal or intestate succession takes place:

(1) If a person dies without a will, or with a void will, or
one which has subsequently lost its validity; (2) When
the will does not institute an heir to, or dispose of all
the property belonging to the testator. In such case,
legal succession shall take place only with respect to
the property of which the testator has not disposed;
(3) If the suspensive condition attached to the
institution of heir does not happen or is not fulfilled, or
if the heir dies before the testator, or repudiates the
inheritance, there being no substitution, and no right of
accretion takes place; (4) When the heir instituted is
incapable of succeeding, except in cases provided in
this Code. (912a)
Art. 961. In default of testamentary heirs, the law vests the
inheritance, in accordance with the rules hereinafter set
forth, in the legitimate and illegitimate relatives of the
deceased, in the surviving spouse, and in the State. (913a)
Art. 962. In every inheritance, the relative nearest in degree
excludes the more distant ones, saving the right of
representation when it properly takes place.

Relatives in the same degree shall inherit in equal shares,

subject to the provisions of article 1006 with respect to
relatives of the full and half blood, and of Article 987,
paragraph 2, concerning division between the paternal and
maternal lines. (912a)

SUBSECTION 1. - Relationship

Art. 963. Proximity of relationship is determined by the

number of generations. Each generation forms a degree.
(915)
Art. 964. A series of degrees forms a line, which may be
either direct or collateral.
A direct line is that constituted by the series of degrees
among ascendants and descendants.

A collateral line is that constituted by the series of degrees

among persons who are not ascendants and descendants,
but who come from a common ancestor. (916a)

Art. 965. The direct line is either descending or ascending.

The former unites the head of the family with those who
descend from him.

The latter binds a person with those from whom he descends.

(917)

Art. 966. In the line, as many degrees are counted as there

are generations or persons, excluding the progenitor.

In the direct line, ascent is made to the common ancestor.

Thus, the child is one degree removed from the parent, two
from the grandfather, and three from the great-grandparent.

In the collateral line, ascent is made to the common ancestor

and then descent is made to the person with whom the
computation is to be made. Thus, a person is two degrees
removed from his brother, three from his uncle, who is the
brother of his father, four from his first cousin, and so forth.
(918a)

Art. 967. Full blood relationship is that existing between

persons who have the same father and the same mother.

Half blood relationship is that existing between persons who

have the same father, but not the same mother, or the same
mother, but not the same father. (920a)

Art. 968. If there are several relatives of the same degree,

and one or some of them are unwilling or incapacitated to
succeed, his portion shall accrue to the others of the same
degree, save the right of representation when it should take
place. (922)

Art. 969. If the inheritance should be repudiated by the

nearest relative, should there be one only, or by all the
nearest relatives called by law to succeed, should there be
several, those of the following degree shall inherit in their
own right and cannot represent the person or persons
repudiating the inheritance. (923)

SUBSECTION 2. - Right of Representation

Art. 970. Representation is a right created by fiction of law,
by virtue of which the representative is raised to the place
and the degree of the person represented, and acquires the
rights which the latter would have if he were living or if he
could have inherited. (942a)
Art. 971. The representative is called to the succession by
the law and not by the person represented. The
representative does not succeed the person represented but
the one whom the person represented would have succeeded.
(n)

Art. 972. The right of representation takes place in the direct

descending line, but never in the ascending.

In the collateral line, it takes place only in favor of the

children of brothers or sisters, whether they be of the full or
half blood. (925)

Art. 973. In order that representation may take place, it is

necessary that the representative himself be capable of
succeeding the decedent. (n)

Art. 974. Whenever there is succession by representation,

the division of the estate shall be made per stirpes, in such
manner that the representative or representatives shall not
inherit more than what the person they represent would
inherit, if he were living or could inherit. (926a)

Art. 975. When children of one or more brothers or sisters of

the deceased survive, they shall inherit from the latter by
representation, if they survive with their uncles or aunts. But
if they alone survive, they shall inherit in equal portions.
(927)

Art. 976. A person may represent him whose inheritance he

has renounced. (928a)

Art. 977. Heirs who repudiate their share may not be

represented. (929a)

SECTION 2. - Order of Intestate Succession

SUBSECTION 1. - Descending Direct Line

Art. 978. Succession pertains, in the first place, to the

descending direct line. (930)
Art. 979. Legitimate children and their descendants succeed
the parents and other ascendants, without distinction as to
sex or age, and even if they should come from different
marriages.

An adopted child succeeds to the property of the adopting

parents in the same manner as a legitimate child. (931a)

Art. 980. The children of the deceased shall always inherit

from him in their own right, dividing the inheritance in equal
shares. (932)

Art. 981. Should children of the deceased and descendants of

other children who are dead, survive, the former shall inherit
in their own right, and the latter by right of representation.
(934a)

Art. 982. The grandchildren and other descendants shall

inherit by right of representation, and if any one of them
should have died, leaving several heirs, the portion
pertaining to him shall be divided among the latter in equal
portions. (933)

Art. 983. If illegitimate children survive with legitimate

children, the shares of the former shall be in the proportions
prescribed by Article 895. (n)

Art. 984. In case of the death of an adopted child, leaving no

children or descendants, his parents and relatives by
consanguinity and not by adoption, shall be his legal heirs.
(n)

SUBSECTION 2. - Ascending Direct Line

Art. 985. In default of legitimate children and descendants of

the deceased, his parents and ascendants shall inherit from
him, to the exclusion of collateral relatives. (935a)
Art. 986. The father and mother, if living, shall inherit in
equal shares.

Should one only of them survive, he or she shall succeed to

the entire estate of the child. (936)

Art. 987. In default of the father and mother, the ascendants

nearest in degree shall inherit.

Should there be more than one of equal degree belonging to

the same line they shall divide the inheritance per capita;
should they be of different lines but of equal degree, one-
half shall go to the paternal and the other half to the
maternal ascendants. In each line the division shall be made
per capita. (937)

SUBSECTION 3. - Illegitimate Children

Art. 988. In the absence of legitimate descendants or

ascendants, the illegitimate children shall succeed to the
entire estate of the deceased. (939a)
Art. 989. If, together with illegitimate children, there should
survive descendants of another illegitimate child who is dead,
the former shall succeed in their own right and the latter by
right of representation. (940a)

Art. 990. The hereditary rights granted by the two preceding

articles to illegitimate children shall be transmitted upon
their death to their descendants, who shall inherit by right of
representation from their deceased grandparent. (941a)

Art. 991. If legitimate ascendants are left, the illegitimate

children shall divide the inheritance with them, taking one-
half of the estate, whatever be the number of the ascendants
or of the illegitimate children. (942-841a)

Art. 992. An illegitimate child has no right to inherit ab

intestato from the legitimate children and relatives of his
father or mother; nor shall such children or relatives inherit
in the same manner from the illegitimate child. (943a)

Art. 993. If an illegitimate child should die without issue,

either legitimate or illegitimate, his father or mother shall
succeed to his entire estate; and if the child's filiation is duly
proved as to both parents, who are both living, they shall
inherit from him share and share alike. (944)

Art. 994. In default of the father or mother, an illegitimate

child shall be succeeded by his or her surviving spouse who
shall be entitled to the entire estate.

If the widow or widower should survive with brothers and

sisters, nephews and nieces, she or he shall inherit one-half
of the estate, and the latter the other half. (945a)

SUBSECTION 4. - Surviving Spouse

Art. 995. In the absence of legitimate descendants and

ascendants, and illegitimate children and their descendants,
whether legitimate or illegitimate, the surviving spouse shall
inherit the entire estate, without prejudice to the rights of
brothers and sisters, nephews and nieces, should there be
any, under article 1001. (946a)
Art. 996. If a widow or widower and legitimate children or
descendants are left, the surviving spouse has in the
succession the same share as that of each of the children.
(834a)

Art. 997. When the widow or widower survives with

legitimate parents or ascendants, the surviving spouse shall
be entitled to one-half of the estate, and the legitimate
parents or ascendants to the other half. (836a)

Art. 998. If a widow or widower survives with illegitimate

children, such widow or widower shall be entitled to one-half
of the inheritance, and the illegitimate children or their
descendants, whether legitimate or illegitimate, to the other
half. (n)

Art. 999. When the widow or widower survives with

legitimate children or their descendants and illegitimate
children or their descendants, whether legitimate or
illegitimate, such widow or widower shall be entitled to the
same share as that of a legitimate child. (n)

Art. 1000. If legitimate ascendants, the surviving spouse,

and illegitimate children are left, the ascendants shall be
entitled to one-half of the inheritance, and the other half
shall be divided between the surviving spouse and the
illegitimate children so that such widow or widower shall
have one-fourth of the estate, and the illegitimate children
the other fourth. (841a)

Art. 1001. Should brothers and sisters or their children

survive with the widow or widower, the latter shall be
entitled to one-half of the inheritance and the brothers and
sisters or their children to the other half. (953, 837a)

Art. 1002. In case of a legal separation, if the surviving

spouse gave cause for the separation, he or she shall not
have any of the rights granted in the preceding articles. (n)

SUBSECTION 5. - Collateral Relatives

Art. 1003. If there are no descendants, ascendants,

illegitimate children, or a surviving spouse, the collateral
relatives shall succeed to the entire estate of the deceased in
accordance with the following articles. (946a)
Art. 1004. Should the only survivors be brothers and sisters
of the full blood, they shall inherit in equal shares. (947)

Art. 1005. Should brothers and sisters survive together with

nephews and nieces, who are the children of the
descendant's brothers and sisters of the full blood, the
former shall inherit per capita, and the latter per stirpes.
(948)

Art. 1006. Should brother and sisters of the full blood

survive together with brothers and sisters of the half blood,
the former shall be entitled to a share double that of the
latter. (949)

Art. 1007. In case brothers and sisters of the half blood,

some on the father's and some on the mother's side, are the
only survivors, all shall inherit in equal shares without
distinction as to the origin of the property. (950)

Art. 1008. Children of brothers and sisters of the half blood

shall succeed per capita or per stirpes, in accordance with
the rules laid down for the brothers and sisters of the full
blood. (915)

Art. 1009. Should there be neither brothers nor sisters nor

children of brothers or sisters, the other collateral relatives
shall succeed to the estate.

The latter shall succeed without distinction of lines or

preference among them by reason of relationship by the
whole blood. (954a)

Art. 1010. The right to inherit ab intestato shall not extend

beyond the fifth degree of relationship in the collateral line.
(955a)

SUBSECTION 6. - The State

Art. 1011. In default of persons entitled to succeed in

accordance with the provisions of the preceding Sections,
the State shall inherit the whole estate. (956a)
Art. 1012. In order that the State may take possession of the
property mentioned in the preceding article, the pertinent
provisions of the Rules of Court must be observed. (958a)

Art. 1013. After the payment of debts and charges, the

personal property shall be assigned to the municipality or
city where the deceased last resided in the Philippines, and
the real estate to the municipalities or cities, respectively, in
which the same is situated.

If the deceased never resided in the Philippines, the whole

estate shall be assigned to the respective municipalities or
cities where the same is located.

Such estate shall be for the benefit of public schools, and

public charitable institutions and centers, in such
municipalities or cities. The court shall distribute the estate
as the respective needs of each beneficiary may warrant.

The court, at the instance of an interested party, or on its

own motion, may order the establishment of a permanent
trust, so that only the income from the property shall be
used. (956a)

Art. 1014. If a person legally entitled to the estate of the

deceased appears and files a claim thereto with the court
within five years from the date the property was delivered to
the State, such person shall be entitled to the possession of
the same, or if sold the municipality or city shall be
accountable to him for such part of the proceeds as may not
have been lawfully spent. (n)

CHAPTER 4
PROVISIONS COMMON TO TESTATE AND INTESTATE
SUCCESSIONS

SECTION 1. - Right of Accretion

Art. 1015. Accretion is a right by virtue of which, when two

or more persons are called to the same inheritance, devise or
legacy, the part assigned to the one who renounces or
cannot receive his share, or who died before the testator, is
added or incorporated to that of his co-heirs, co-devisees, or
co-legatees. (n)
Art. 1016. In order that the right of accretion may take place
in a testamentary succession, it shall be necessary:

(1) That two or more persons be called to the same

inheritance, or to the same portion thereof, pro
indiviso; and (2) That one of the persons thus called die
before the testator, or renounce the inheritance, or be
incapacitated to receive it. (928a)
Art. 1017. The words "one-half for each" or "in equal shares"
or any others which, though designating an aliquot part, do
not identify it by such description as shall make each heir
the exclusive owner of determinate property, shall not
exclude the right of accretion.
In case of money or fungible goods, if the share of each heir
is not earmarked, there shall be a right of accretion. (983a)
Art. 1018. In legal succession the share of the person who
repudiates the inheritance shall always accrue to his co-heirs.
(981)

Art. 1019. The heirs to whom the portion goes by the right of
accretion take it in the same proportion that they inherit. (n)

Art. 1020. The heirs to whom the inheritance accrues shall

succeed to all the rights and obligations which the heir who
renounced or could not receive it would have had. (984)

Art. 1021. Among the compulsory heirs the right of accretion

shall take place only when the free portion is left to two or
more of them, or to any one of them and to a stranger.

Should the part repudiated be the legitime, the other co-

heirs shall succeed to it in their own right, and not by the
right of accretion. (985)

Art. 1022. In testamentary succession, when the right of

accretion does not take place, the vacant portion of the
instituted heirs, if no substitute has been designated, shall
pass to the legal heirs of the testator, who shall receive it
with the same charges and obligations. (986)

Art. 1023. Accretion shall also take place among devisees,

legatees and usufructuaries under the same conditions
established for heirs. (987a)

SECTION 2. - Capacity to Succeed by Will of by Intestacy

Art. 1024. Persons not incapacitated by law may succeed by

will or ab intestato.
The provisions relating to incapacity by will are equally
applicable to intestate succession. (744, 914)

Art. 1025. In order to be capacitated to inherit, the heir,

devisee or legatee must be living at the moment the
succession opens, except in case of representation, when it
is proper.

A child already conceived at the time of the death of the

decedent is capable of succeeding provided it be born later
under the conditions prescribed in article 41. (n)

Art. 1026. A testamentary disposition may be made to the

State, provinces, municipal corporations, private
corporations, organizations, or associations for religious,
scientific, cultural, educational, or charitable purposes.
All other corporations or entities may succeed under a will,
unless there is a provision to the contrary in their charter or
the laws of their creation, and always subject to the same.
(746a)

Art. 1027. The following are incapable of succeeding:

(1) The priest who heard the confession of the testator

during his last illness, or the minister of the gospel who
extended spiritual aid to him during the same period;
(2) The relatives of such priest or minister of the
gospel within the fourth degree, the church, order,
chapter, community, organization, or institution to
which such priest or minister may belong; (3) A
guardian with respect to testamentary dispositions
given by a ward in his favor before the final accounts of
the guardianship have been approved, even if the
testator should die after the approval thereof;
nevertheless, any provision made by the ward in favor
of the guardian when the latter is his ascendant,
descendant, brother, sister, or spouse, shall be valid;
(4) Any attesting witness to the execution of a will, the
spouse, parents, or children, or any one claiming under
such witness, spouse, parents, or children; (5) Any
physician, surgeon, nurse, health officer or druggist
who took care of the testator during his last illness;
(6) Individuals, associations and corporations not
permitted by law to inherit. (745, 752, 753, 754a)
Art. 1028. The prohibitions mentioned in article 739,
concerning donations inter vivos shall apply to testamentary
provisions. (n)
Art. 1029. Should the testator dispose of the whole or part of
his property for prayers and pious works for the benefit of
his soul, in general terms and without specifying its
application, the executor, with the court's approval shall
deliver one-half thereof or its proceeds to the church or
denomination to which the testator may belong, to be used
for such prayers and pious works, and the other half to the
State, for the purposes mentioned in Article 1013. (747a)

Art. 1030. Testamentary provisions in favor of the poor in

general, without designation of particular persons or of any
community, shall be deemed limited to the poor living in the
domicile of the testator at the time of his death, unless it
should clearly appear that his intention was otherwise.

The designation of the persons who are to be considered as

poor and the distribution of the property shall be made by
the person appointed by the testator for the purpose; in
default of such person, by the executor, and should there be
no executor, by the justice of the peace, the mayor, and the
municipal treasurer, who shall decide by a majority of votes
all questions that may arise. In all these cases, the approval
of the Court of First Instance shall be necessary.

The preceding paragraph shall apply when the testator has

disposed of his property in favor of the poor of a definite
locality. (749a)

Art. 1031. A testamentary provision in favor of a disqualified

person, even though made under the guise of an onerous
contract, or made through an intermediary, shall be void.
(755)

Art. 1032. The following are incapable of succeeding by

reason of unworthiness:

(1) Parents who have abandoned their children or induced

their daughters to lead a corrupt or immoral life, or
attempted against their virtue; (2) Any person who has
been convicted of an attempt against the life of the
testator, his or her spouse, descendants, or
ascendants; (3) Any person who has accused the
testator of a crime for which the law prescribes
imprisonment for six years or more, if the accusation
has been found groundless; (4) Any heir of full age
who, having knowledge of the violent death of the
testator, should fail to report it to an officer of the law
within a month, unless the authorities have already
taken action; this prohibition shall not apply to cases
wherein, according to law, there is no obligation to
make an accusation; (5) Any person convicted of
adultery or concubinage with the spouse of the
testator; (6) Any person who by fraud, violence,
intimidation, or undue influence should cause the
testator to make a will or to change one already made;
(7) Any person who by the same means prevents
another from making a will, or from revoking one
already made, or who supplants, conceals, or alters the
latter's will; (8) Any person who falsifies or forges a
supposed will of the decedent. (756, 673, 674a)
Art. 1033. The cause of unworthiness shall be without effect
if the testator had knowledge thereof at the time he made
the will, or if, having known of them subsequently, he should
condone them in writing. (757a)
Art. 1034. In order to judge the capacity of the heir, devisee
or legatee, his qualification at the time of the death of the
decedent shall be the criterion.

In cases falling under Nos. 2, 3, or 5 of Article 1032, it shall

be necessary to wait until final judgment is rendered, and in
the case falling under No. 4, the expiration of the month
allowed for the report.

If the institution, devise or legacy should be conditional, the

time of the compliance with the condition shall also be
considered. (758a)

Art. 1035. If the person excluded from the inheritance by

reason of incapacity should be a child or descendant of the
decedent and should have children or descendants, the latter
shall acquire his right to the legitime.

The person so excluded shall not enjoy the usufruct and

administration of the property thus inherited by his children.
(761a)

Art. 1036. Alienations of hereditary property, and acts of

administration performed by the excluded heir, before the
judicial order of exclusion, are valid as to the third persons
who acted in good faith; but the co-heirs shall have a right to
recover damages from the disqualified heir. (n)

Art. 1037. The unworthy heir who is excluded from the

succession has a right to demand indemnity or any expenses
incurred in the preservation of the hereditary property, and
to enforce such credits as he may have against the estate.
(n)

Art. 1038. Any person incapable of succession, who,

disregarding the prohibition stated in the preceding articles,
entered into the possession of the hereditary property, shall
be obliged to return it together it its accessions.

He shall be liable for all the fruits and rents he may have
received, or could have received through the exercise of due
diligence. (760a)

Art. 1039. Capacity to succeed is governed by the law of the

nation of the decedent. (n)

Art. 1040. The action for a declaration of incapacity and for

the recovery of the inheritance, devise or legacy shall be
brought within five years from the time the disqualified
person took possession thereof. It may be brought by any
one who may have an interest in the succession. (762a)

SECTION 3. - Acceptance and Repudiation of the Inheritance

Art. 1041. The acceptance or repudiation of the inheritance

is an act which is purely voluntary and free. (988)
Art. 1042. The effects of the acceptance or repudiation shall
always retroact to the moment of the death of the decedent.
(989)

Art. 1043. No person may accept or repudiate an inheritance

unless he is certain of the death of the person from whom he
is to inherit, and of his right to the inheritance. (991)

Art. 1044. Any person having the free disposal of his

property may accept or repudiate an inheritance.

Any inheritance left to minors or incapacitated persons may

be accepted by their parents or guardians. Parents or
guardians may repudiate the inheritance left to their wards
only by judicial authorization.

The right to accept an inheritance left to the poor shall

belong to the persons designated by the testator to
determine the beneficiaries and distribute the property, or in
their default, to those mentioned in Article 1030. (992a)

Art. 1045. The lawful representatives of corporations,

associations, institutions and entities qualified to acquire
property may accept any inheritance left to the latter, but in
order to repudiate it, the approval of the court shall be
necessary. (993a)

Art. 1046. Public official establishments can neither accept

nor repudiate an inheritance without the approval of the
government. (994)

Art. 1047. A married woman of age may repudiate an

inheritance without the consent of her husband. (995a)

Art. 1048. Deaf-mutes who can read and write may accept or
repudiate the inheritance personally or through an agent.
Should they not be able to read and write, the inheritance
shall be accepted by their guardians. These guardians may
repudiate the same with judicial approval. (996a)

Art. 1049. Acceptance may be express or tacit.

An express acceptance must be made in a public or private

document.

A tacit acceptance is one resulting from acts by which the

intention to accept is necessarily implied, or which one
would have no right to do except in the capacity of an heir.

Acts of mere preservation or provisional administration do

not imply an acceptance of the inheritance if, through such
acts, the title or capacity of an heir has not been assumed.
(999a)

Art. 1050. An inheritance is deemed accepted:

(1) If the heirs sells, donates, or assigns his right to a

stranger, or to his co-heirs, or to any of them; (2) If the
heir renounces the same, even though gratuitously, for
the benefit of one or more of his co-heirs; (3) If he
renounces it for a price in favor of all his co-heirs
indiscriminately; but if this renunciation should be
gratuitous, and the co-heirs in whose favor it is made
are those upon whom the portion renounced should
devolve by virtue of accretion, the inheritance shall not
be deemed as accepted. (1000)
Art. 1051. The repudiation of an inheritance shall be made in
a public or authentic instrument, or by petition presented to
the court having jurisdiction over the testamentary or
intestate proceedings. (1008)
Art. 1052. If the heir repudiates the inheritance to the
prejudice of his own creditors, the latter may petition the
court to authorize them to accept it in the name of the heir.

The acceptance shall benefit the creditors only to an extent

sufficient to cover the amount of their credits. The excess,
should there be any, shall in no case pertain to the
renouncer, but shall be adjudicated to the persons to whom,
in accordance with the rules established in this Code, it may
belong. (1001)

Art. 1053. If the heir should die without having accepted or

repudiated the inheritance his right shall be transmitted to
his heirs. (1006)

Art. 1054. Should there be several heirs called to the

inheritance, some of them may accept and the others may
repudiate it. (1007a)

Art. 1055. If a person, who is called to the same inheritance

as an heir by will and ab intestato, repudiates the
inheritance in his capacity as a testamentary heir, he is
understood to have repudiated it in both capacities.

Should he repudiate it as an intestate heir, without

knowledge of his being a testamentary heir, he may still
accept it in the latter capacity. (1009)

Art. 1056. The acceptance or repudiation of an inheritance,

once made, is irrevocable, and cannot be impugned, except
when it was made through any of the causes that vitiate
consent, or when an unknown will appears. (997)

Art. 1057. Within thirty days after the court has issued an
order for the distribution of the estate in accordance with
the Rules of Court, the heirs, devisees and legatees shall
signify to the court having jurisdiction whether they accept
or repudiate the inheritance.

If they do not do so within that time, they are deemed to

have accepted the inheritance. (n)

SECTION 4. - Executors and Administrators

Art. 1058. All matters relating to the appointment, powers

and duties of executors and administrators and concerning
the administration of estates of deceased persons shall be
governed by the Rules of Court. (n)
Art. 1059. If the assets of the estate of a decedent which can
be applied to the payment of debts are not sufficient for that
purpose, the provisions of Articles 2239 to 2251 on
Preference of Credits shall be observed, provided that the
expenses referred to in Article 2244, No. 8, shall be those
involved in the administration of the decedent's estate. (n)

Art. 1060. A corporation or association authorized to conduct

the business of a trust company in the Philippines may be
appointed as an executor, administrator, guardian of an
estate, or trustee, in like manner as an individual; but it shall
not be appointed guardian of the person of a ward. (n)

SECTION 5. - Collation

Art. 1061. Every compulsory heir, who succeeds with other

compulsory heirs, must bring into the mass of the estate any
property or right which he may have received from the
decedent, during the lifetime of the latter, by way of
donation, or any other gratuitous title, in order that it may
be computed in the determination of the legitime of each
heir, and in the account of the partition. (1035a)
Art. 1062. Collation shall not take place among compulsory
heirs if the donor should have so expressly provided, or if
the donee should repudiate the inheritance, unless the
donation should be reduced as inofficious. (1036)

Art. 1063. Property left by will is not deemed subject to

collation, if the testator has not otherwise provided, but the
legitime shall in any case remain unimpaired. (1037)

Art. 1064. When the grandchildren, who survive with their

uncles, aunts, or cousins, inherit from their grandparents in
representation of their father or mother, they shall bring to
collation all that their parents, if alive, would have been
obliged to bring, even though such grandchildren have not
inherited the property.

They shall also bring to collation all that they may have
received from the decedent during his lifetime, unless the
testator has provided otherwise, in which case his wishes
must be respected, if the legitime of the co-heirs is not
prejudiced. (1038)

Art. 1065. Parents are not obliged to bring to collation in the

inheritance of their ascendants any property which may have
been donated by the latter to their children. (1039)

Art. 1066. Neither shall donations to the spouse of the child

be brought to collation; but if they have been given by the
parent to the spouses jointly, the child shall be obliged to
bring to collation one-half of the thing donated. (1040)

Art. 1067. Expenses for support, education, medical

attendance, even in extraordinary illness, apprenticeship,
ordinary equipment, or customary gifts are not subject to
collation. (1041)

Art. 1068. Expenses incurred by the parents in giving their

children a professional, vocational or other career shall not
be brought to collation unless the parents so provide, or
unless they impair the legitime; but when their collation is
required, the sum which the child would have spent if he had
lived in the house and company of his parents shall be
deducted therefrom. (1042a)

Art. 1069. Any sums paid by a parent in satisfaction of the

debts of his children, election expenses, fines, and similar
expenses shall be brought to collation. (1043a)

Art. 1070. Wedding gifts by parents and ascendants

consisting of jewelry, clothing, and outfit, shall not be
reduced as inofficious except insofar as they may exceed
one-tenth of the sum which is disposable by will. (1044)

Art. 1071. The same things donated are not to be brought to

collation and partition, but only their value at the time of the
donation, even though their just value may not then have
been assessed.

Their subsequent increase or deterioration and even their

total loss or destruction, be it accidental or culpable, shall be
for the benefit or account and risk of the donee. (1045a)

Art. 1072. In the collation of a donation made by both

parents, one-half shall be brought to the inheritance of the
father, and the other half, to that of the mother. That given
by one alone shall be brought to collation in his or her
inheritance. (1046a)

Art. 1073. The donee's share of the estate shall be reduced

by an amount equal to that already received by him; and his
co-heirs shall receive an equivalent, as much as possible, in
property of the same nature, class and quality. (1047)

Art. 1074. Should the provisions of the preceding article be

impracticable, if the property donated was immovable, the
co-heirs shall be entitled to receive its equivalent in cash or
securities, at the rate of quotation; and should there be
neither cash or marketable securities in the estate, so much
of the other property as may be necessary shall be sold at
public auction.

If the property donated was movable, the co-heirs shall only

have a right to select an equivalent of other personal
property of the inheritance at its just price. (1048)

Art. 1075. The fruits and interest of the property subject to

collation shall not pertain to the estate except from the day
on which the succession is opened.

For the purpose of ascertaining their amount, the fruits and

interest of the property of the estate of the same kind and
quality as that subject to collation shall be made the
standard of assessment. (1049)

Art. 1076. The co-heirs are bound to reimburse to the donee

the necessary expenses which he has incurred for the
preservation of the property donated to him, though they
may not have augmented its value.
The donee who collates in kind an immovable which has
been given to him must be reimbursed by his co-heirs for the
improvements which have increased the value of the
property, and which exist at the time the partition if effected.

As to works made on the estate for the mere pleasure of the

donee, no reimbursement is due him for them; he has,
however, the right to remove them, if he can do so without
injuring the estate. (n)

Art. 1077. Should any question arise among the co-heirs

upon the obligation to bring to collation or as to the things
which are subject to collation, the distribution of the estate
shall not be interrupted for this reason, provided adequate
security is given. (1050)

SECTION 6. - Partition and Distribution of the Estate

SUBSECTION 1. - Partition

Art. 1078. Where there are two or more heirs, the whole
estate of the decedent is, before its partition, owned in
common by such heirs, subject to the payment of debts of
the deceased. (n)
Art. 1079. Partition, in general, is the separation, division
and assignment of a thing held in common among those to
whom it may belong. The thing itself may be divided, or its
value. (n)

Art. 1080. Should a person make partition of his estate by an

act inter vivos, or by will, such partition shall be respected,
insofar as it does not prejudice the legitime of the
compulsory heirs.

A parent who, in the interest of his or her family, desires to

keep any agricultural, industrial, or manufacturing
enterprise intact, may avail himself of the right granted him
in this article, by ordering that the legitime of the other
children to whom the property is not assigned, be paid in
cash. (1056a)

Art. 1081. A person may, by an act inter vivos or mortis

causa, intrust the mere power to make the partition after his
death to any person who is not one of the co-heirs.

The provisions of this and of the preceding article shall be

observed even should there be among the co-heirs a minor
or a person subject to guardianship; but the mandatary, in
such case, shall make an inventory of the property of the
estate, after notifying the co-heirs, the creditors, and the
legatees or devisees. (1057a)

Art. 1082. Every act which is intended to put an end to

indivision among co-heirs and legatees or devisees is
deemed to be a partition, although it should purport to be a
sale, and exchange, a compromise, or any other transaction.
(n)

Art. 1083. Every co-heir has a right to demand the division of

the estate unless the testator should have expressly
forbidden its partition, in which case the period of indivision
shall not exceed twenty years as provided in article 494. This
power of the testator to prohibit division applies to the
legitime.

Even though forbidden by the testator, the co-ownership

terminates when any of the causes for which partnership is
dissolved takes place, or when the court finds for compelling
reasons that division should be ordered, upon petition of one
of the co-heirs. (1051a)

Art. 1084. Voluntary heirs upon whom some condition has

been imposed cannot demand a partition until the condition
has been fulfilled; but the other co-heirs may demand it by
giving sufficient security for the rights which the former may
have in case the condition should be complied with, and until
it is known that the condition has not been fulfilled or can
never be complied with, the partition shall be understood to
be provisional. (1054a)

Art. 1085. In the partition of the estate, equality shall be

observed as far as possible, dividing the property into lots,
or assigning to each of the co-heirs things of the same
nature, quality and kind. (1061)

Art. 1086. Should a thing be indivisible, or would be much

impaired by its being divided, it may be adjudicated to one of
the heirs, provided he shall pay the others the excess in cash.

Nevertheless, if any of the heirs should demand that the

thing be sold at public auction and that strangers be allowed
to bid, this must be done. (1062)

Art. 1087. In the partition the co-heirs shall reimburse one

another for the income and fruits which each one of them
may have received from any property of the estate, for any
useful and necessary expenses made upon such property,
and for any damage thereto through malice or neglect. (1063)
Art. 1088. Should any of the heirs sell his hereditary rights to
a stranger before the partition, any or all of the co-heirs may
be subrogated to the rights of the purchaser by reimbursing
him for the price of the sale, provided they do so within the
period of one month from the time they were notified in
writing of the sale by the vendor. (1067a)

Art. 1089. The titles of acquisition or ownership of each

property shall be delivered to the co-heir to whom said
property has been adjudicated. (1065a)

Art. 1090. When the title comprises two or more pieces of

land which have been assigned to two or more co-heirs, or
when it covers one piece of land which has been divided
between two or more co-heirs, the title shall be delivered to
the one having the largest interest, and authentic copies of
the title shall be furnished to the other co-heirs at the
expense of the estate. If the interest of each co-heir should
be the same, the oldest shall have the title. (1066a)

SUBSECTION 2. - Effects of Partition

Art. 1091. A partition legally made confers upon each heir

the exclusive ownership of the property adjudicated to him.
(1068)
Art. 1092. After the partition has been made, the co-heirs
shall be reciprocally bound to warrant the title to, and the
quality of, each property adjudicated. (1069a)

Art. 1093. The reciprocal obligation of warranty referred to

in the preceding article shall be proportionate to the
respective hereditary shares of the co-heirs, but if any one of
them should be insolvent, the other co-heirs shall be liable
for his part in the same proportion, deducting the part
corresponding to the one who should be indemnified.

Those who pay for the insolvent heir shall have a right of
action against him for reimbursement, should his financial
condition improve. (1071)

Art. 1094. An action to enforce the warranty among heirs

must be brought within ten years from the date the right of
action accrues. (n)

Art. 1095. If a credit should be assigned as collectible, the

co-heirs shall not be liable for the subsequent insolvency of
the debtor of the estate, but only for his insolvency at the
time the partition is made.
The warranty of the solvency of the debtor can only be
enforced during the five years following the partition.

Co-heirs do not warrant bad debts, if so known to, and

accepted by, the distributee. But if such debts are not
assigned to a co-heir, and should be collected, in whole or in
part, the amount collected shall be distributed
proportionately among the heirs. (1072a)

Art. 1096. The obligation of warranty among co-heirs shall

cease in the following cases:

(1) When the testator himself has made the partition,

unless it appears, or it may be reasonably presumed,
that his intention was otherwise, but the legitime shall
always remain unimpaired; (2) When it has been so
expressly stipulated in the agreement of partition,
unless there has been bad faith; (3) When the eviction
is due to a cause subsequent to the partition, or has
been caused by the fault of the distributee of the
property. (1070a)
SUBSECTION 3. - Rescission and Nullity of Partition

Art. 1097. A partition may be rescinded or annulled for the

same causes as contracts. (1073a)
Art. 1098. A partition, judicial or extra-judicial, may also be
rescinded on account of lesion, when any one of the co-heirs
received things whose value is less, by at least one-fourth,
than the share to which he is entitled, considering the value
of the things at the time they were adjudicated. (1074a)

Art. 1099. The partition made by the testator cannot be

impugned on the ground of lesion, except when the legitime
of the compulsory heirs is thereby prejudiced, or when it
appears or may reasonably be presumed, that the intention
of the testator was otherwise. (1075)

Art. 1100. The action for rescission on account of lesion shall

prescribe after four years from the time the partition was
made. (1076)

Art. 1101. The heir who is sued shall have the option of
indemnifying the plaintiff for the loss, or consenting to a new
partition.

Indemnity may be made by payment in cash or by the

delivery of a thing of the same kind and quality as that
awarded to the plaintiff.
If a new partition is made, it shall affect neither those who
have not been prejudiced nor those have not received more
than their just share. (1077a)

Art. 1102. An heir who has alienated the whole or a

considerable part of the real property adjudicated to him
cannot maintain an action for rescission on the ground of
lesion, but he shall have a right to be indemnified in cash.
(1078a)

Art. 1103. The omission of one or more objects or securities

of the inheritance shall not cause the rescission of the
partition on the ground of lesion, but the partition shall be
completed by the distribution of the objects or securities
which have been omitted. (1079a)

Art. 1104. A partition made with preterition of any of the

compulsory heirs shall not be rescinded, unless it be proved
that there was bad faith or fraud on the part of the other
persons interested; but the latter shall be proportionately
obliged to pay to the person omitted the share which
belongs to him. (1080)

Art. 1105. A partition which includes a person believed to be

an heir, but who is not, shall be void only with respect to
such person. (1081a)

Title V. - PRESCRIPTION

CHAPTER 1
GENERAL PROVISIONS

Art. 1106. By prescription, one acquires ownership and other

real rights through the lapse of time in the manner and
under the conditions laid down by law.
In the same way, rights and conditions are lost by
prescription. (1930a)

Art. 1107. Persons who are capable of acquiring property or

rights by the other legal modes may acquire the same by
means of prescription.

Minors and other incapacitated persons may acquire

property or rights by prescription, either personally or
through their parents, guardians or legal representatives.
(1931a)

Art. 1108. Prescription, both acquisitive and extinctive, runs

against:
 (1) Minors and other incapacitated persons who have
parents, guardians or other legal representatives; (2)
Absentees who have administrators, either appointed
by them before their disappearance, or appointed by
the courts; (3) Persons living abroad, who have
managers or administrators; (4) Juridical persons,
except the State and its subdivisions. Persons who are
disqualified from administering their property have a
right to claim damages from their legal representatives
whose negligence has been the cause of prescription.
(1932a)
Art. 1109. Prescription does not run between husband and
wife, even though there be a separation of property agreed
upon in the marriage settlements or by judicial decree.
Neither does prescription run between parents and children,
during the minority or insanity of the latter, and between
guardian and ward during the continuance of the
guardianship. (n)

Art. 1110. Prescription, acquisitive and extinctive, runs in

favor of, or against a married woman. (n)

Art. 1111. Prescription obtained by a co-proprietor or a co-

owner shall benefit the others. (1933)

Art. 1112. Persons with capacity to alienate property may

renounce prescription already obtained, but not the right to
prescribe in the future.

Prescription is deemed to have been tacitly renounced when

the renunciation results from acts which imply the
abandonment of the right acquired. (1935)

Art. 1113. All things which are within the commerce of men
are susceptible of prescription, unless otherwise provided.
Property of the State or any of its subdivisions not
patrimonial in character shall not be the object of
prescription. (1936a)

Art. 1114. Creditors and all other persons interested in

making the prescription effective may avail themselves
thereof notwithstanding the express or tacit renunciation by
the debtor or proprietor. (1937)

Art. 1115. The provisions of the present Title are understood

to be without prejudice to what in this Code or in special
laws is established with respect to specific cases of
prescription. (1938)
Art. 1116. Prescription already running before the effectivity
of this Code shall be governed by laws previously in force;
but if since the time this Code took effect the entire period
herein required for prescription should elapse, the present
Code shall be applicable, even though by the former laws a
longer period might be required. (1939)

CHAPTER 2
PRESCRIPTION OF OWNERSHIP AND OTHER REAL RIGHTS

Art. 1117. Acquisitive prescription of dominion and other

real rights may be ordinary or extraordinary.
Ordinary acquisitive prescription requires possession of
things in good faith and with just title for the time fixed by
law. (1940a)

Art. 1118. Possession has to be in the concept of an owner,

public, peaceful and uninterrupted. (1941)

Art. 1119. Acts of possessory character executed in virtue of

license or by mere tolerance of the owner shall not be
available for the purposes of possession. (1942)

Art. 1120. Possession is interrupted for the purposes of

prescription, naturally or civilly. (1943)

Art. 1121. Possession is naturally interrupted when through

any cause it should cease for more than one year.

The old possession is not revived if a new possession should

be exercised by the same adverse claimant. (1944a)

Art. 1122. If the natural interruption is for only one year or

less, the time elapsed shall be counted in favor of the
prescription. (n)

Art. 1123. Civil interruption is produced by judicial summons

to the possessor. (1945a)

Art. 1124. Judicial summons shall be deemed not to have

been issued and shall not give rise to interruption:

(1) If it should be void for lack of legal solemnities; (2) If

the plaintiff should desist from the complaint or should
allow the proceedings to lapse; (3) If the possessor
should be absolved from the complaint. In all these
cases, the period of the interruption shall be counted
for the prescription. (1946a)
Art. 1125. Any express or tacit recognition which the
possessor may make of the owner's right also interrupts
possession. (1948)
Art. 1126. Against a title recorded in the Registry of Property,
ordinary prescription of ownership or real rights shall not
take place to the prejudice of a third person, except in virtue
of another title also recorded; and the time shall begin to run
from the recording of the latter.

As to lands registered under the Land Registration Act, the

provisions of that special law shall govern. (1949a)

Art. 1127. The good faith of the possessor consists in the

reasonable belief that the person from whom he received the
thing was the owner thereof, and could transmit his
ownership. (1950a)

Art. 1128. The conditions of good faith required for

possession in Articles 526, 527, 528, and 529 of this Code
are likewise necessary for the determination of good faith in
the prescription of ownership and other real rights. (1951)

Art. 1129. For the purposes of prescription, there is just title

when the adverse claimant came into possession of the
property through one of the modes recognized by law for the
acquisition of ownership or other real rights, but the grantor
was not the owner or could not transmit any right. (n)

Art. 1130. The title for prescription must be true and valid.
(1953)

Art. 1131. For the purposes of prescription, just title must be

proved; it is never presumed. (1954a)

Art. 1132. The ownership of movables prescribes through

uninterrupted possession for four years in good faith.

The ownership of personal property also prescribes through

uninterrupted possession for eight years, without need of
any other condition.

With regard to the right of the owner to recover personal

property lost or of which he has been illegally deprived, as
well as with respect to movables acquired in a public sale,
fair, or market, or from a merchant's store the provisions of
Articles 559 and 1505 of this Code shall be observed. (1955a)

Art. 1133. Movables possessed through a crime can never be

acquired through prescription by the offender. (1956a)
Art. 1134. Ownership and other real rights over immovable
property are acquired by ordinary prescription through
possession of ten years. (1957a)

Art. 1135. In case the adverse claimant possesses by

mistake an area greater, or less than that expressed in his
title, prescription shall be based on the possession. (n)

Art. 1136. Possession in wartime, when the civil courts are

not open, shall not be counted in favor of the adverse
claimant.

Art. 1137. Ownership and other real rights over immovables

also prescribe through uninterrupted adverse possession
thereof for thirty years, without need of title or of good faith.
(1959a)

Art. 1138. In the computation of time necessary for

prescription the following rules shall be observed:

(1) The present possessor may complete the period

necessary for prescription by tacking his possession to
that of his grantor or predecessor in interest; (2) It is
presumed that the present possessor who was also the
possessor at a previous time, has continued to be in
possession during the intervening time, unless there is
proof to the contrary; (3) The first day shall be
excluded and the last day included. (1960a)
CHAPTER 3
PRESCRIPTION OF ACTIONS

Art. 1139. Actions prescribe by the mere lapse of time fixed

by law. (1961)
Art. 1140. Actions to recover movables shall prescribe eight
years from the time the possession thereof is lost, unless the
possessor has acquired the ownership by prescription for a
less period, according to Articles 1132, and without
prejudice to the provisions of Articles 559, 1505, and 1133.
(1962a)

Art. 1141. Real actions over immovables prescribe after

thirty years.

This provision is without prejudice to what is established for

the acquisition of ownership and other real rights by
prescription. (1963)

Art. 1142. A mortgage action prescribes after ten years.

(1964a)
Art. 1143. The following rights, among others specified
elsewhere in this Code, are not extinguished by prescription:

(1) To demand a right of way, regulated in Article 649; (2)

To bring an action to abate a public or private nuisance.
(n)
Art. 1144. The following actions must be brought within ten
years from the time the right of action accrues:
(1) Upon a written contract; (2) Upon an obligation created
by law; (3) Upon a judgment. (n)
Art. 1145. The following actions must be commenced within
six years:
(1) Upon an oral contract; (2) Upon a quasi-contract. (n)
Art. 1146. The following actions must be instituted within
four years:
(1) Upon an injury to the rights of the plaintiff; (2) Upon a
quasi-delict;
However, when the action arises from or out of any act,
activity, or conduct of any public officer involving the
exercise of powers or authority arising from Martial Law
including the arrest, detention and/or trial of the plaintiff,
the same must be brought within one (1) year. (As amended by
PD No. 1755, Dec. 24, 1980.)
Art. 1147. The following actions must be filed within one
year:

(1) For forcible entry and detainer; (2) For defamation. (n)
Art. 1148. The limitations of action mentioned in Articles
1140 to 1142, and 1144 to 1147 are without prejudice to
those specified in other parts of this Code, in the Code of
Commerce, and in special laws. (n)
Art. 1149. All other actions whose periods are not fixed in
this Code or in other laws must be brought within five years
from the time the right of action accrues. (n)

Art. 1150. The time for prescription for all kinds of actions,
when there is no special provision which ordains otherwise,
shall be counted from the day they may be brought. (1969)

Art. 1151. The time for the prescription of actions which

have for their object the enforcement of obligations to pay
principal with interest or annuity runs from the last payment
of the annuity or of the interest. (1970a)

Art. 1152. The period for prescription of actions to demand

the fulfillment of obligation declared by a judgment
commences from the time the judgment became final. (1971)

Art. 1153. The period for prescription of actions to demand

accounting runs from the day the persons who should render
the same cease in their functions.

The period for the action arising from the result of the
accounting runs from the date when said result was
recognized by agreement of the interested parties. (1972)

Art. 1154. The period during which the obligee was

prevented by a fortuitous event from enforcing his right is
not reckoned against him. (n)

Art. 1155. The prescription of actions is interrupted when

they are filed before the court, when there is a written
extrajudicial demand by the creditors, and when there is any
written acknowledgment of the debt by the debtor. (1973a)

BOOK IV

OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

Title. I. - OBLIGATIONS

CHAPTER 1
GENERAL PROVISIONS

Art. 1156. An obligation is a juridical necessity to give, to do

or not to do. (n)
Art. 1157. Obligations arise from:

(1) Law; (2) Contracts; (3) Quasi-contracts; (4) Acts or

omissions punished by law; and (5) Quasi-delicts.
(1089a)
Art. 1158. Obligations derived from law are not presumed.
Only those expressly determined in this Code or in special
laws are demandable, and shall be regulated by the precepts
of the law which establishes them; and as to what has not
been foreseen, by the provisions of this Book. (1090)
Art. 1159. Obligations arising from contracts have the force
of law between the contracting parties and should be
complied with in good faith. (1091a)

Art. 1160. Obligations derived from quasi-contracts shall be

subject to the provisions of Chapter 1, Title XVII, of this
Book. (n)

Art. 1161. Civil obligations arising from criminal offenses

shall be governed by the penal laws, subject to the
provisions of Article 2177, and of the pertinent provisions of
Chapter 2, Preliminary Title, on Human Relations, and of
Title XVIII of this Book, regulating damages. (1092a)

Art. 1162. Obligations derived from quasi-delicts shall be

governed by the provisions of Chapter 2, Title XVII of this
Book, and by special laws. (1093a)

CHAPTER 2
NATURE AND EFFECT OF OBLIGATIONS

Art. 1163. Every person obliged to give something is also

obliged to take care of it with the proper diligence of a good
father of a family, unless the law or the stipulation of the
parties requires another standard of care. (1094a)
Art. 1164. The creditor has a right to the fruits of the thing
from the time the obligation to deliver it arises. However, he
shall acquire no real right over it until the same has been
delivered to him. (1095)

Art. 1165. When what is to be delivered is a determinate

thing, the creditor, in addition to the right granted him by
Article 1170, may compel the debtor to make the delivery.

If the thing is indeterminate or generic, he may ask that the

obligation be complied with at the expense of the debtor.

If the obligor delays, or has promised to deliver the same

thing to two or more persons who do not have the same
interest, he shall be responsible for any fortuitous event
until he has effected the delivery. (1096)

Art. 1166. The obligation to give a determinate thing

includes that of delivering all its accessions and accessories,
even though they may not have been mentioned. (1097a)

Art. 1167. If a person obliged to do something fails to do it,

the same shall be executed at his cost.

This same rule shall be observed if he does it in

contravention of the tenor of the obligation. Furthermore, it
may be decreed that what has been poorly done be undone.
(1098)

Art. 1168. When the obligation consists in not doing, and the
obligor does what has been forbidden him, it shall also be
undone at his expense. (1099a)

Art. 1169. Those obliged to deliver or to do something incur

in delay from the time the obligee judicially or extrajudicially
demands from them the fulfillment of their obligation.

However, the demand by the creditor shall not be necessary

in order that delay may exist:

(1) When the obligation or the law expressly so declare; or

(2) When from the nature and the circumstances of the
obligation it appears that the designation of the time
when the thing is to be delivered or the service is to be
rendered was a controlling motive for the
establishment of the contract; or (3) When demand
would be useless, as when the obligor has rendered it
beyond his power to perform.
In reciprocal obligations, neither party incurs in delay if the
other does not comply or is not ready to comply in a proper
manner with what is incumbent upon him. From the moment
one of the parties fulfills his obligation, delay by the other
begins. (1100a)
Art. 1170. Those who in the performance of their obligations
are guilty of fraud, negligence, or delay, and those who in
any manner contravene the tenor thereof, are liable for
damages. (1101)

Art. 1171. Responsibility arising from fraud is demandable in

all obligations. Any waiver of an action for future fraud is
void. (1102a)

Art. 1172. Responsibility arising from negligence in the

performance of every kind of obligation is also demandable,
but such liability may be regulated by the courts, according
to the circumstances. (1103)

Art. 1173. The fault or negligence of the obligor consists in

the omission of that diligence which is required by the
nature of the obligation and corresponds with the
circumstances of the persons, of the time and of the place.
When negligence shows bad faith, the provisions of Articles
1171 and 2201, paragraph 2, shall apply.
If the law or contract does not state the diligence which is to
be observed in the performance, that which is expected of a
good father of a family shall be required. (1104a)

Art. 1174. Except in cases expressly specified by the law, or

when it is otherwise declared by stipulation, or when the
nature of the obligation requires the assumption of risk, no
person shall be responsible for those events which could not
be foreseen, or which, though foreseen, were inevitable.
(1105a)

Art. 1175. Usurious transactions shall be governed by special

laws. (n)

Art. 1176. The receipt of the principal by the creditor without

reservation with respect to the interest, shall give rise to the
presumption that said interest has been paid.

The receipt of a later installment of a debt without

reservation as to prior installments, shall likewise raise the
presumption that such installments have been paid. (1110a)

Art. 1177. The creditors, after having pursued the property

in possession of the debtor to satisfy their claims, may
exercise all the rights and bring all the actions of the latter
for the same purpose, save those which are inherent in his
person; they may also impugn the acts which the debtor may
have done to defraud them. (1111)

Art. 1178. Subject to the laws, all rights acquired in virtue of

an obligation are transmissible, if there has been no
stipulation to the contrary. (1112)

CHAPTER 3
DIFFERENT KINDS OF OBLIGATIONS

SECTION 1. - Pure and Conditional Obligations

Art. 1179. Every obligation whose performance does not

depend upon a future or uncertain event, or upon a past
event unknown to the parties, is demandable at once.
Every obligation which contains a resolutory condition shall
also be demandable, without prejudice to the effects of the
happening of the event. (1113)

Art. 1180. When the debtor binds himself to pay when his
means permit him to do so, the obligation shall be deemed to
be one with a period, subject to the provisions of Article
1197. (n)
Art. 1181. In conditional obligations, the acquisition of rights,
as well as the extinguishment or loss of those already
acquired, shall depend upon the happening of the event
which constitutes the condition. (1114)

Art. 1182. When the fulfillment of the condition depends

upon the sole will of the debtor, the conditional obligation
shall be void. If it depends upon chance or upon the will of a
third person, the obligation shall take effect in conformity
with the provisions of this Code. (1115)

Art. 1183. Impossible conditions, those contrary to good

customs or public policy and those prohibited by law shall
annul the obligation which depends upon them. If the
obligation is divisible, that part thereof which is not affected
by the impossible or unlawful condition shall be valid.

The condition not to do an impossible thing shall be

considered as not having been agreed upon. (1116a)

Art. 1184. The condition that some event happen at a

determinate time shall extinguish the obligation as soon as
the time expires or if it has become indubitable that the
event will not take place. (1117)

Art. 1185. The condition that some event will not happen at
a determinate time shall render the obligation effective from
the moment the time indicated has elapsed, or if it has
become evident that the event cannot occur.

If no time has been fixed, the condition shall be deemed

fulfilled at such time as may have probably been
contemplated, bearing in mind the nature of the obligation.
(1118)

Art. 1186. The condition shall be deemed fulfilled when the

obligor voluntarily prevents its fulfillment. (1119)

Art. 1187. The effects of a conditional obligation to give,

once the condition has been fulfilled, shall retroact to the
day of the constitution of the obligation. Nevertheless, when
the obligation imposes reciprocal prestations upon the
parties, the fruits and interests during the pendency of the
condition shall be deemed to have been mutually
compensated. If the obligation is unilateral, the debtor shall
appropriate the fruits and interests received, unless from the
nature and circumstances of the obligation it should be
inferred that the intention of the person constituting the
same was different.
In obligations to do and not to do, the courts shall determine,
in each case, the retroactive effect of the condition that has
been complied with. (1120)

Art. 1188. The creditor may, before the fulfillment of the

condition, bring the appropriate actions for the preservation
of his right.

The debtor may recover what during the same time he has
paid by mistake in case of a suspensive condition. (1121a)

Art. 1189. When the conditions have been imposed with the
intention of suspending the efficacy of an obligation to give,
the following rules shall be observed in case of the
improvement, loss or deterioration of the thing during the
pendency of the condition:

(1) If the thing is lost without the fault of the debtor, the
obligation shall be extinguished; (2) If the thing is lost
through the fault of the debtor, he shall be obliged to
pay damages; it is understood that the thing is lost
when it perishes, or goes out of commerce, or
disappears in such a way that its existence is unknown
or it cannot be recovered; (3) When the thing
deteriorates without the fault of the debtor, the
impairment is to be borne by the creditor; (4) If it
deteriorates through the fault of the debtor, the
creditor may choose between the rescission of the
obligation and its fulfillment, with indemnity for
damages in either case; (5) If the thing is improved by
its nature, or by time, the improvement shall inure to
the benefit of the creditor; (6) If it is improved at the
expense of the debtor, he shall have no other right than
that granted to the usufructuary. (1122)
Art. 1190. When the conditions have for their purpose the
extinguishment of an obligation to give, the parties, upon
the fulfillment of said conditions, shall return to each other
what they have received.
In case of the loss, deterioration or improvement of the
thing, the provisions which, with respect to the debtor, are
laid down in the preceding article shall be applied to the
party who is bound to return.

As for the obligations to do and not to do, the provisions of

the second paragraph of Article 1187 shall be observed as
regards the effect of the extinguishment of the obligation.
(1123)
Art. 1191. The power to rescind obligations is implied in
reciprocal ones, in case one of the obligors should not
comply with what is incumbent upon him.

The injured party may choose between the fulfillment and

the rescission of the obligation, with the payment of
damages in either case. He may also seek rescission, even
after he has chosen fulfillment, if the latter should become
impossible.

The court shall decree the rescission claimed, unless there

be just cause authorizing the fixing of a period.

This is understood to be without prejudice to the rights of

third persons who have acquired the thing, in accordance
with Articles 1385 and 1388 and the Mortgage Law. (1124)

Art. 1192. In case both parties have committed a breach of

the obligation, the liability of the first infractor shall be
equitably tempered by the courts. If it cannot be determined
which of the parties first violated the contract, the same
shall be deemed extinguished, and each shall bear his own
damages. (n)

SECTION 2. - Obligations with a Period

Art. 1193. Obligations for whose fulfillment a day certain has

been fixed, shall be demandable only when that day comes.
Obligations with a resolutory period take effect at once, but
terminate upon arrival of the day certain.

A day certain is understood to be that which must

necessarily come, although it may not be known when.

If the uncertainty consists in whether the day will come or

not, the obligation is conditional, and it shall be regulated by
the rules of the preceding Section. (1125a)

Art. 1194. In case of loss, deterioration or improvement of

the thing before the arrival of the day certain, the rules in
Article 1189 shall be observed. (n)

Art. 1195. Anything paid or delivered before the arrival of

the period, the obligor being unaware of the period or
believing that the obligation has become due and
demandable, may be recovered, with the fruits and interests.
(1126a)

Art. 1196. Whenever in an obligation a period is designated,

it is presumed to have been established for the benefit of
both the creditor and the debtor, unless from the tenor of
the same or other circumstances it should appear that the
period has been established in favor of one or of the other.
(1127)

Art. 1197. If the obligation does not fix a period, but from its
nature and the circumstances it can be inferred that a period
was intended, the courts may fix the duration thereof.

The courts shall also fix the duration of the period when it
depends upon the will of the debtor.

In every case, the courts shall determine such period as may

under the circumstances have been probably contemplated
by the parties. Once fixed by the courts, the period cannot be
changed by them. (1128a)

Art. 1198. The debtor shall lose every right to make use of
the period:

(1) When after the obligation has been contracted, he

becomes insolvent, unless he gives a guaranty or security for
the debt;

(2) When he does not furnish to the creditor the guaranties

or securities which he has promised;

(3) When by his own acts he has impaired said guaranties or

securities after their establishment, and when through a
fortuitous event they disappear, unless he immediately gives
new ones equally satisfactory;

(4) When the debtor violates any undertaking, in

consideration of which the creditor agreed to the period;

(5) When the debtor attempts to abscond. (1129a)

SECTION 3. - Alternative Obligations

Art. 1199. A person alternatively bound by different

prestations shall completely perform one of them.
The creditor cannot be compelled to receive part of one and
part of the other undertaking. (1131)

Art. 1200. The right of choice belongs to the debtor, unless it

has been expressly granted to the creditor.

The debtor shall have no right to choose those prestations

which are impossible, unlawful or which could not have been
the object of the obligation. (1132)

Art. 1201. The choice shall produce no effect except from the
time it has been communicated. (1133)

Art. 1202. The debtor shall lose the right of choice when
among the prestations whereby he is alternatively bound,
only one is practicable. (1134)

Art. 1203. If through the creditor's acts the debtor cannot

make a choice according to the terms of the obligation, the
latter may rescind the contract with damages. (n)

Art. 1204. The creditor shall have a right to indemnity for

damages when, through the fault of the debtor, all the things
which are alternatively the object of the obligation have
been lost, or the compliance of the obligation has become
impossible.

The indemnity shall be fixed taking as a basis the value of

the last thing which disappeared, or that of the service which
last became impossible.

Damages other than the value of the last thing or service

may also be awarded. (1135a)

Art. 1205. When the choice has been expressly given to the
creditor, the obligation shall cease to be alternative from the
day when the selection has been communicated to the
debtor.

Until then the responsibility of the debtor shall be governed

by the following rules:

(1) If one of the things is lost through a fortuitous event,

he shall perform the obligation by delivering that which
the creditor should choose from among the remainder,
or that which remains if only one subsists; (2) If the
loss of one of the things occurs through the fault of the
debtor, the creditor may claim any of those subsisting,
or the price of that which, through the fault of the
former, has disappeared, with a right to damages; (3)
If all the things are lost through the fault of the debtor,
the choice by the creditor shall fall upon the price of
any one of them, also with indemnity for damages.
The same rules shall be applied to obligations to do or not to
do in case one, some or all of the prestations should become
impossible. (1136a)
Art. 1206. When only one prestation has been agreed upon,
but the obligor may render another in substitution, the
obligation is called facultative.

The loss or deterioration of the thing intended as a

substitute, through the negligence of the obligor, does not
render him liable. But once the substitution has been made,
the obligor is liable for the loss of the substitute on account
of his delay, negligence or fraud. (n)

SECTION 4. - Joint and Solidary Obligations

Art. 1207. The concurrence of two or more creditors or of

two or more debtors in one and the same obligation does not
imply that each one of the former has a right to demand, or
that each one of the latter is bound to render, entire
compliance with the prestation. There is a solidary liability
only when the obligation expressly so states, or when the
law or the nature of the obligation requires solidarity.
(1137a)
Art. 1208. If from the law, or the nature or the wording of
the obligations to which the preceding article refers the
contrary does not appear, the credit or debt shall be
presumed to be divided into as many shares as there are
creditors or debtors, the credits or debts being considered
distinct from one another, subject to the Rules of Court
governing the multiplicity of suits. (1138a)

Art. 1209. If the division is impossible, the right of the

creditors may be prejudiced only by their collective acts, and
the debt can be enforced only by proceeding against all the
debtors. If one of the latter should be insolvent, the others
shall not be liable for his share. (1139)

Art. 1210. The indivisibility of an obligation does not

necessarily give rise to solidarity. Nor does solidarity of itself
imply indivisibility. (n)

Art. 1211. Solidarity may exist although the creditors and

the debtors may not be bound in the same manner and by
the same periods and conditions. (1140)

Art. 1212. Each one of the solidary creditors may do

whatever may be useful to the others, but not anything
which may be prejudicial to the latter. (1141a)

Art. 1213. A solidary creditor cannot assign his rights

without the consent of the others. (n)
Art. 1214. The debtor may pay any one of the solidary
creditors; but if any demand, judicial or extrajudicial, has
been made by one of them, payment should be made to him.
(1142a)

Art. 1215. Novation, compensation, confusion or remission of

the debt, made by any of the solidary creditors or with any of
the solidary debtors, shall extinguish the obligation, without
prejudice to the provisions of Article 1219.

The creditor who may have executed any of these acts, as

well as he who collects the debt, shall be liable to the others
for the share in the obligation corresponding to them. (1143)

Art. 1216. The creditor may proceed against any one of the
solidary debtors or some or all of them simultaneously. The
demand made against one of them shall not be an obstacle
to those which may subsequently be directed against the
others, so long as the debt has not been fully collected.
(1144a)

Art. 1217. Payment made by one of the solidary debtors

extinguishes the obligation. If two or more solidary debtors
offer to pay, the creditor may choose which offer to accept.

He who made the payment may claim from his co-debtors

only the share which corresponds to each, with the interest
for the payment already made. If the payment is made
before the debt is due, no interest for the intervening period
may be demanded.

When one of the solidary debtors cannot, because of his

insolvency, reimburse his share to the debtor paying the
obligation, such share shall be borne by all his co-debtors, in
proportion to the debt of each. (1145a)

Art. 1218. Payment by a solidary debtor shall not entitle him

to reimbursement from his co-debtors if such payment is
made after the obligation has prescribed or become illegal.
(n)

Art. 1219. The remission made by the creditor of the share

which affects one of the solidary debtors does not release
the latter from his responsibility towards the co-debtors, in
case the debt had been totally paid by anyone of them before
the remission was effected. (1146a)

Art. 1220. The remission of the whole obligation, obtained by

one of the solidary debtors, does not entitle him to
reimbursement from his co-debtors. (n)

Art. 1221. If the thing has been lost or if the prestation has
become impossible without the fault of the solidary debtors,
the obligation shall be extinguished.

If there was fault on the part of any one of them, all shall be
responsible to the creditor, for the price and the payment of
damages and interest, without prejudice to their action
against the guilty or negligent debtor.

If through a fortuitous event, the thing is lost or the

performance has become impossible after one of the solidary
debtors has incurred in delay through the judicial or
extrajudicial demand upon him by the creditor, the
provisions of the preceding paragraph shall apply. (1147a)

Art. 1222. A solidary debtor may, in actions filed by the

creditor, avail himself of all defenses which are derived from
the nature of the obligation and of those which are personal
to him, or pertain to his own share. With respect to those
which personally belong to the others, he may avail himself
thereof only as regards that part of the debt for which the
latter are responsible. (1148a)

SECTION 5. - Divisible and Indivisible Obligations

Art. 1223. The divisibility or indivisibility of the things that

are the object of obligations in which there is only one
debtor and only one creditor does not alter or modify the
provisions of Chapter 2 of this Title. (1149)
Art. 1224. A joint indivisible obligation gives rise to
indemnity for damages from the time anyone of the debtors
does not comply with his undertaking. The debtors who may
have been ready to fulfill their promises shall not contribute
to the indemnity beyond the corresponding portion of the
price of the thing or of the value of the service in which the
obligation consists. (1150)

Art. 1225. For the purposes of the preceding articles,

obligations to give definite things and those which are not
susceptible of partial performance shall be deemed to be
indivisible.

When the obligation has for its object the execution of a

certain number of days of work, the accomplishment of work
by metrical units, or analogous things which by their nature
are susceptible of partial performance, it shall be divisible.
However, even though the object or service may be
physically divisible, an obligation is indivisible if so provided
by law or intended by the parties.

In obligations not to do, divisibility or indivisibility shall be

determined by the character of the prestation in each
particular case. (1151a)

SECTION 6. - Obligations with a Penal Clause

Art. 1226. In obligations with a penal clause, the penalty

shall substitute the indemnity for damages and the payment
of interests in case of noncompliance, if there is no
stipulation to the contrary. Nevertheless, damages shall be
paid if the obligor refuses to pay the penalty or is guilty of
fraud in the fulfillment of the obligation.
The penalty may be enforced only when it is demandable in
accordance with the provisions of this Code. (1152a)

Art. 1227. The debtor cannot exempt himself from the

performance of the obligation by paying the penalty, save in
the case where this right has been expressly reserved for
him. Neither can the creditor demand the fulfillment of the
obligation and the satisfaction of the penalty at the same
time, unless this right has been clearly granted him.
However, if after the creditor has decided to require the
fulfillment of the obligation, the performance thereof should
become impossible without his fault, the penalty may be
enforced. (1153a)

Art. 1228. Proof of actual damages suffered by the creditor is

not necessary in order that the penalty may be demanded.
(n)

Art. 1229. The judge shall equitably reduce the penalty when
the principal obligation has been partly or irregularly
complied with by the debtor. Even if there has been no
performance, the penalty may also be reduced by the courts
if it is iniquitous or unconscionable. (1154a)

Art. 1230. The nullity of the penal clause does not carry with
it that of the principal obligation.

The nullity of the principal obligation carries with it that of

the penal clause. (1155)

CHAPTER 4
EXTINGUISHMENT OF OBLIGATIONS
 GENERAL PROVISIONS

Art. 1231. Obligations are extinguished:

(1) By payment or performance: (2) By the loss of the
thing due: (3) By the condonation or remission of the
debt; (4) By the confusion or merger of the rights of
creditor and debtor; (5) By compensation; (6) By
novation.
Other causes of extinguishment of obligations, such as
annulment, rescission, fulfillment of a resolutory condition,
and prescription, are governed elsewhere in this Code.
(1156a)

SECTION 1. - Payment or Performance

Art. 1232. Payment means not only the delivery of money

but also the performance, in any other manner, of an
obligation. (n)
Art. 1233. A debt shall not be understood to have been paid
unless the thing or service in which the obligation consists
has been completely delivered or rendered, as the case may
be. (1157)

Art. 1234. If the obligation has been substantially performed

in good faith, the obligor may recover as though there had
been a strict and complete fulfillment, less damages suffered
by the obligee. (n)

Art. 1235. When the obligee accepts the performance,

knowing its incompleteness or irregularity, and without
expressing any protest or objection, the obligation is deemed
fully complied with. (n)

Art. 1236. The creditor is not bound to accept payment or

performance by a third person who has no interest in the
fulfillment of the obligation, unless there is a stipulation to
the contrary.

Whoever pays for another may demand from the debtor what
he has paid, except that if he paid without the knowledge or
against the will of the debtor, he can recover only insofar as
the payment has been beneficial to the debtor. (1158a)

Art. 1237. Whoever pays on behalf of the debtor without the

knowledge or against the will of the latter, cannot compel
the creditor to subrogate him in his rights, such as those
arising from a mortgage, guaranty, or penalty. (1159a)
Art. 1238. Payment made by a third person who does not
intend to be reimbursed by the debtor is deemed to be a
donation, which requires the debtor's consent. But the
payment is in any case valid as to the creditor who has
accepted it. (n)

Art. 1239. In obligations to give, payment made by one who

does not have the free disposal of the thing due and capacity
to alienate it shall not be valid, without prejudice to the
provisions of Article 1427 under the Title on "Natural
Obligations." (1160a)

Art. 1240. Payment shall be made to the person in whose

favor the obligation has been constituted, or his successor in
interest, or any person authorized to receive it. (1162a)

Art. 1241. Payment to a person who is incapacitated to

administer his property shall be valid if he has kept the thing
delivered, or insofar as the payment has been beneficial to
him.

Payment made to a third person shall also be valid insofar as

it has redounded to the benefit of the creditor. Such benefit
to the creditor need not be proved in the following cases:

(1) If after the payment, the third person acquires the

creditor's rights; (2) If the creditor ratifies the payment
to the third person; (3) If by the creditor's conduct,
the debtor has been led to believe that the third person
had authority to receive the payment. (1163a) Art.
1242. Payment made in good faith to any person in
possession of the credit shall release the debtor.
(1164)
Art. 1243. Payment made to the creditor by the debtor after
the latter has been judicially ordered to retain the debt shall
not be valid. (1165)
Art. 1244. The debtor of a thing cannot compel the creditor
to receive a different one, although the latter may be of the
same value as, or more valuable than that which is due.

In obligations to do or not to do, an act or forbearance

cannot be substituted by another act or forbearance against
the obligee's will. (1166a)

Art. 1245. Dation in payment, whereby property is alienated

to the creditor in satisfaction of a debt in money, shall be
governed by the law of sales. (n)

Art. 1246. When the obligation consists in the delivery of an

indeterminate or generic thing, whose quality and
circumstances have not been stated, the creditor cannot
demand a thing of superior quality. Neither can the debtor
deliver a thing of inferior quality. The purpose of the
obligation and other circumstances shall be taken into
consideration. (1167a)

Art. 1247. Unless it is otherwise stipulated, the extrajudicial

expenses required by the payment shall be for the account of
the debtor. With regard to judicial costs, the Rules of Court
shall govern. (1168a)

Art. 1248. Unless there is an express stipulation to that

effect, the creditor cannot be compelled partially to receive
the prestations in which the obligation consists. Neither may
the debtor be required to make partial payments.

However, when the debt is in part liquidated and in part

unliquidated, the creditor may demand and the debtor may
effect the payment of the former without waiting for the
liquidation of the latter. (1169a)

Art. 1249. The payment of debts in money shall be made in

the currency stipulated, and if it is not possible to deliver
such currency, then in the currency which is legal tender in
the Philippines.

The delivery of promissory notes payable to order, or bills of

exchange or other mercantile documents shall produce the
effect of payment only when they have been cashed, or when
through the fault of the creditor they have been impaired.

In the meantime, the action derived from the original

obligation shall be held in the abeyance. (1170)

Art. 1250. In case an extraordinary inflation or deflation of

the currency stipulated should supervene, the value of the
currency at the time of the establishment of the obligation
shall be the basis of payment, unless there is an agreement
to the contrary. (n)

Art. 1251. Payment shall be made in the place designated in

the obligation.

There being no express stipulation and if the undertaking is

to deliver a determinate thing, the payment shall be made
wherever the thing might be at the moment the obligation
was constituted.
In any other case the place of payment shall be the domicile
of the debtor.

If the debtor changes his domicile in bad faith or after he has

incurred in delay, the additional expenses shall be borne by
him.

These provisions are without prejudice to venue under the

Rules of Court. (1171a)

SUBSECTION 1. - Application of Payments

Art. 1252. He who has various debts of the same kind in

favor of one and the same creditor, may declare at the time
of making the payment, to which of them the same must be
applied. Unless the parties so stipulate, or when the
application of payment is made by the party for whose
benefit the term has been constituted, application shall not
be made as to debts which are not yet due.
If the debtor accepts from the creditor a receipt in which an
application of the payment is made, the former cannot
complain of the same, unless there is a cause for invalidating
the contract. (1172a)

Art. 1253. If the debt produces interest, payment of the

principal shall not be deemed to have been made until the
interests have been covered. (1173)

Art. 1254. When the payment cannot be applied in

accordance with the preceding rules, or if application can not
be inferred from other circumstances, the debt which is most
onerous to the debtor, among those due, shall be deemed to
have been satisfied.

If the debts due are of the same nature and burden, the
payment shall be applied to all of them proportionately.
(1174a)

SUBSECTION 2. - Payment by Cession

Art. 1255. The debtor may cede or assign his property to his
creditors in payment of his debts. This cession, unless there
is stipulation to the contrary, shall only release the debtor
from responsibility for the net proceeds of the thing assigned.
The agreements which, on the effect of the cession, are
made between the debtor and his creditors shall be governed
by special laws. (1175a)

SUBSECTION 3. - Tender of Payment and Consignation

Art. 1256. If the creditor to whom tender of payment has
been made refuses without just cause to accept it, the
debtor shall be released from responsibility by the
consignation of the thing or sum due.
Consignation alone shall produce the same effect in the
following cases:

(1) When the creditor is absent or unknown, or does not

appear at the place of payment; (2) When he is
incapacitated to receive the payment at the time it is
due; (3) When, without just cause, he refuses to give a
receipt; (4) When two or more persons claim the same
right to collect; (5) When the title of the obligation has
been lost. (1176a)
Art. 1257. In order that the consignation of the thing due
may release the obligor, it must first be announced to the
persons interested in the fulfillment of the obligation.
The consignation shall be ineffectual if it is not made strictly
in consonance with the provisions which regulate payment.
(1177)

Art. 1258. Consignation shall be made by depositing the

things due at the disposal of judicial authority, before whom
the tender of payment shall be proved, in a proper case, and
the announcement of the consignation in other cases.

The consignation having been made, the interested parties

shall also be notified thereof. (1178)

Art. 1259. The expenses of consignation, when properly

made, shall be charged against the creditor. (1178)

Art. 1260. Once the consignation has been duly made, the
debtor may ask the judge to order the cancellation of the
obligation.

Before the creditor has accepted the consignation, or before

a judicial declaration that the consignation has been
properly made, the debtor may withdraw the thing or the
sum deposited, allowing the obligation to remain in force.
(1180)

Art. 1261. If, the consignation having been made, the

creditor should authorize the debtor to withdraw the same,
he shall lose every preference which he may have over the
thing. The co-debtors, guarantors and sureties shall be
released. (1181a)
 SECTION 2. - Loss of the Thing Due

Art. 1262. An obligation which consists in the delivery of a

determinate thing shall be extinguished if it should be lost or
destroyed without the fault of the debtor, and before he has
incurred in delay.
When by law or stipulation, the obligor is liable even for
fortuitous events, the loss of the thing does not extinguish
the obligation, and he shall be responsible for damages. The
same rule applies when the nature of the obligation requires
the assumption of risk. (1182a)

Art. 1263. In an obligation to deliver a generic thing, the loss

or destruction of anything of the same kind does not
extinguish the obligation. (n)

Art. 1264. The courts shall determine whether, under the

circumstances, the partial loss of the object of the obligation
is so important as to extinguish the obligation. (n)

Art. 1265. Whenever the thing is lost in the possession of the

debtor, it shall be presumed that the loss was due to his
fault, unless there is proof to the contrary, and without
prejudice to the provisions of article 1165. This presumption
does not apply in case of earthquake, flood, storm, or other
natural calamity. (1183a)

Art. 1266. The debtor in obligations to do shall also be

released when the prestation becomes legally or physically
impossible without the fault of the obligor. (1184a)

Art. 1267. When the service has become so difficult as to be

manifestly beyond the contemplation of the parties, the
obligor may also be released therefrom, in whole or in part.
(n)

Art. 1268. When the debt of a thing certain and determinate

proceeds from a criminal offense, the debtor shall not be
exempted from the payment of its price, whatever may be
the cause for the loss, unless the thing having been offered
by him to the person who should receive it, the latter refused
without justification to accept it. (1185)

Art. 1269. The obligation having been extinguished by the

loss of the thing, the creditor shall have all the rights of
action which the debtor may have against third persons by
reason of the loss. (1186)

SECTION 3. - Condonation or Remission of the Debt

Art. 1270. Condonation or remission is essentially gratuitous,
and requires the acceptance by the obligor. It may be made
expressly or impliedly.
One and the other kind shall be subject to the rules which
govern inofficious donations. Express condonation shall,
furthermore, comply with the forms of donation. (1187)

Art. 1271. The delivery of a private document evidencing a

credit, made voluntarily by the creditor to the debtor, implies
the renunciation of the action which the former had against
the latter.

If in order to nullify this waiver it should be claimed to be

inofficious, the debtor and his heirs may uphold it by proving
that the delivery of the document was made in virtue of
payment of the debt. (1188)

Art. 1272. Whenever the private document in which the debt

appears is found in the possession of the debtor, it shall be
presumed that the creditor delivered it voluntarily, unless
the contrary is proved. (1189)

Art. 1273. The renunciation of the principal debt shall

extinguish the accessory obligations; but the waiver of the
latter shall leave the former in force. (1190)

Art. 1274. It is presumed that the accessory obligation of

pledge has been remitted when the thing pledged, after its
delivery to the creditor, is found in the possession of the
debtor, or of a third person who owns the thing. (1191a)

SECTION 4. - Confusion or Merger of Rights

Art. 1275. The obligation is extinguished from the time the

characters of creditor and debtor are merged in the same
person. (1192a)
Art. 1276. Merger which takes place in the person of the
principal debtor or creditor benefits the guarantors.
Confusion which takes place in the person of any of the
latter does not extinguish the obligation. (1193)

Art. 1277. Confusion does not extinguish a joint obligation

except as regards the share corresponding to the creditor or
debtor in whom the two characters concur. (1194)

SECTION 5. - Compensation

Art. 1278. Compensation shall take place when two persons,

in their own right, are creditors and debtors of each other.
(1195)
Art. 1279. In order that compensation may be proper, it is
necessary:

(1) That each one of the obligors be bound principally, and

that he be at the same time a principal creditor of the
other; (2) That both debts consist in a sum of money,
or if the things due are consumable, they be of the
same kind, and also of the same quality if the latter has
been stated; (3) That the two debts be due; (4) That
they be liquidated and demandable; (5) That over
neither of them there be any retention or controversy,
commenced by third persons and communicated in due
time to the debtor. (1196)
Art. 1280. Notwithstanding the provisions of the preceding
article, the guarantor may set up compensation as regards
what the creditor may owe the principal debtor. (1197)
Art. 1281. Compensation may be total or partial. When the
two debts are of the same amount, there is a total
compensation. (n)

Art. 1282. The parties may agree upon the compensation of

debts which are not yet due. (n)

Art. 1283. If one of the parties to a suit over an obligation

has a claim for damages against the other, the former may
set it off by proving his right to said damages and the
amount thereof. (n)

Art. 1284. When one or both debts are rescissible or voidable,

they may be compensated against each other before they are
judicially rescinded or avoided. (n)

Art. 1285. The debtor who has consented to the assignment

of rights made by a creditor in favor of a third person, cannot
set up against the assignee the compensation which would
pertain to him against the assignor, unless the assignor was
notified by the debtor at the time he gave his consent, that
he reserved his right to the compensation.

If the creditor communicated the cession to him but the

debtor did not consent thereto, the latter may set up the
compensation of debts previous to the cession, but not of
subsequent ones.

If the assignment is made without the knowledge of the

debtor, he may set up the compensation of all credits prior to
the same and also later ones until he had knowledge of the
assignment. (1198a)

Art. 1286. Compensation takes place by operation of law,

even though the debts may be payable at different places,
but there shall be an indemnity for expenses of exchange or
transportation to the place of payment. (1199a)

Art. 1287. Compensation shall not be proper when one of the

debts arises from a depositum or from the obligations of a
depositary or of a bailee in commodatum.

Neither can compensation be set up against a creditor who

has a claim for support due by gratuitous title, without
prejudice to the provisions of paragraph 2 of Article 301.
(1200a)

Art. 1288. Neither shall there be compensation if one of the

debts consists in civil liability arising from a penal offense.
(n)

Art. 1289. If a person should have against him several debts

which are susceptible of compensation, the rules on the
application of payments shall apply to the order of the
compensation. (1201)

Art. 1290. When all the requisites mentioned in Article 1279

are present, compensation takes effect by operation of law,
and extinguishes both debts to the concurrent amount, even
though the creditors and debtors are not aware of the
compensation. (1202a)

SECTION 6. - Novation

Art. 1291. Obligations may be modified by:

(1) Changing their object or principal conditions; (2)
Substituting the person of the debtor; (3) Subrogating
a third person in the rights of the creditor. (1203)
Art. 1292. In order that an obligation may be extinguished
by another which substitute the same, it is imperative that it
be so declared in unequivocal terms, or that the old and the
new obligations be on every point incompatible with each
other. (1204)
Art. 1293. Novation which consists in substituting a new
debtor in the place of the original one, may be made even
without the knowledge or against the will of the latter, but
not without the consent of the creditor. Payment by the new
debtor gives him the rights mentioned in Articles 1236 and
1237. (1205a)
Art. 1294. If the substitution is without the knowledge or
against the will of the debtor, the new debtor's insolvency or
non-fulfillment of the obligations shall not give rise to any
liability on the part of the original debtor. (n)

Art. 1295. The insolvency of the new debtor, who has been
proposed by the original debtor and accepted by the creditor,
shall not revive the action of the latter against the original
obligor, except when said insolvency was already existing
and of public knowledge, or known to the debtor, when the
delegated his debt. (1206a)

Art. 1296. When the principal obligation is extinguished in

consequence of a novation, accessory obligations may
subsist only insofar as they may benefit third persons who
did not give their consent. (1207)

Art. 1297. If the new obligation is void, the original one shall
subsist, unless the parties intended that the former relation
should be extinguished in any event. (n)

Art. 1298. The novation is void if the original obligation was

void, except when annulment may be claimed only by the
debtor or when ratification validates acts which are voidable.
(1208a)

Art. 1299. If the original obligation was subject to a

suspensive or resolutory condition, the new obligation shall
be under the same condition, unless it is otherwise
stipulated. (n)

Art. 1300. Subrogation of a third person in the rights of the

creditor is either legal or conventional. The former is not
presumed, except in cases expressly mentioned in this Code;
the latter must be clearly established in order that it may
take effect. (1209a)

Art. 1301. Conventional subrogation of a third person

requires the consent of the original parties and of the third
person. (n)

Art. 1302. It is presumed that there is legal subrogation:

(1) When a creditor pays another creditor who is preferred,

even without the debtor's knowledge; (2) When a third
person, not interested in the obligation, pays with the
express or tacit approval of the debtor; (3) When, even
without the knowledge of the debtor, a person
interested in the fulfillment of the obligation pays,
 without prejudice to the effects of confusion as to the
latter's share. (1210a)
Art. 1303. Subrogation transfers to the persons subrogated
the credit with all the rights thereto appertaining, either
against the debtor or against third person, be they
guarantors or possessors of mortgages, subject to
stipulation in a conventional subrogation. (1212a)
Art. 1304. A creditor, to whom partial payment has been
made, may exercise his right for the remainder, and he shall
be preferred to the person who has been subrogated in his
place in virtue of the partial payment of the same credit.
(1213)

Title II. - CONTRACTS

CHAPTER 1
GENERAL PROVISIONS

Art. 1305. A contract is a meeting of minds between two

persons whereby one binds himself, with respect to the
other, to give something or to render some service. (1254a)
Art. 1306. The contracting parties may establish such
stipulations, clauses, terms and conditions as they may
deem convenient, provided they are not contrary to law,
morals, good customs, public order, or public policy. (1255a)

Art. 1307. Innominate contracts shall be regulated by the

stipulations of the parties, by the provisions of Titles I and II
of this Book, by the rules governing the most analogous
nominate contracts, and by the customs of the place. (n)

Art. 1308. The contract must bind both contracting parties;

its validity or compliance cannot be left to the will of one of
them. (1256a)

Art. 1309. The determination of the performance may be left

to a third person, whose decision shall not be binding until it
has been made known to both contracting parties. (n)

Art. 1310. The determination shall not be obligatory if it is

evidently inequitable. In such case, the courts shall decide
what is equitable under the circumstances. (n)

Art. 1311. Contracts take effect only between the parties,

their assigns and heirs, except in case where the rights and
obligations arising from the contract are not transmissible by
their nature, or by stipulation or by provision of law. The heir
is not liable beyond the value of the property he received
from the decedent.

If a contract should contain some stipulation in favor of a

third person, he may demand its fulfillment provided he
communicated his acceptance to the obligor before its
revocation. A mere incidental benefit or interest of a person
is not sufficient. The contracting parties must have clearly
and deliberately conferred a favor upon a third person.
(1257a)

Art. 1312. In contracts creating real rights, third persons

who come into possession of the object of the contract are
bound thereby, subject to the provisions of the Mortgage
Law and the Land Registration Laws. (n)

Art. 1313. Creditors are protected in cases of contracts

intended to defraud them. (n)

Art. 1314. Any third person who induces another to violate

his contract shall be liable for damages to the other
contracting party. (n)

Art. 1315. Contracts are perfected by mere consent, and

from that moment the parties are bound not only to the
fulfillment of what has been expressly stipulated but also to
all the consequences which, according to their nature, may
be in keeping with good faith, usage and law. (1258)

Art. 1316. Real contracts, such as deposit, pledge and

Commodatum, are not perfected until the delivery of the
object of the obligation. (n)

Art. 1317. No one may contract in the name of another

without being authorized by the latter, or unless he has by
law a right to represent him.

A contract entered into in the name of another by one who

has no authority or legal representation, or who has acted
beyond his powers, shall be unenforceable, unless it is
ratified, expressly or impliedly, by the person on whose
behalf it has been executed, before it is revoked by the other
contracting party. (1259a)

CHAPTER 2
ESSENTIAL REQUISITES OF CONTRACTS

GENERAL PROVISIONS

Art. 1318. There is no contract unless the following

requisites concur:
(1) Consent of the contracting parties; (2) Object certain
which is the subject matter of the contract; (3) Cause
of the obligation which is established. (1261)
SECTION 1. - Consent

Art. 1319. Consent is manifested by the meeting of the offer

and the acceptance upon the thing and the cause which are
to constitute the contract. The offer must be certain and the
acceptance absolute. A qualified acceptance constitutes a
counter-offer.
Acceptance made by letter or telegram does not bind the
offerer except from the time it came to his knowledge. The
contract, in such a case, is presumed to have been entered
into in the place where the offer was made. (1262a)

Art. 1320. An acceptance may be express or implied. (n)

Art. 1321. The person making the offer may fix the time,
place, and manner of acceptance, all of which must be
complied with. (n)

Art. 1322. An offer made through an agent is accepted from

the time acceptance is communicated to him. (n)

Art. 1323. An offer becomes ineffective upon the death, civil

interdiction, insanity, or insolvency of either party before
acceptance is conveyed. (n)

Art. 1324. When the offerer has allowed the offeree a certain
period to accept, the offer may be withdrawn at any time
before acceptance by communicating such withdrawal,
except when the option is founded upon a consideration, as
something paid or promised. (n)

Art. 1325. Unless it appears otherwise, business

advertisements of things for sale are not definite offers, but
mere invitations to make an offer. (n)

Art. 1326. Advertisements for bidders are simply invitations

to make proposals, and the advertiser is not bound to accept
the highest or lowest bidder, unless the contrary appears.
(n)

Art. 1327. The following cannot give consent to a contract:

(1) Unemancipated minors; (2) Insane or demented

persons, and deaf-mutes who do not know how to write.
(1263a)
Art. 1328. Contracts entered into during a lucid interval are
valid. Contracts agreed to in a state of drunkenness or
during a hypnotic spell are voidable. (n)
Art. 1329. The incapacity declared in Article 1327 is subject
to the modifications determined by law, and is understood to
be without prejudice to special disqualifications established
in the laws. (1264)

Art. 1330. A contract where consent is given through

mistake, violence, intimidation, undue influence, or fraud is
voidable. (1265a)

Art. 1331. In order that mistake may invalidate consent, it

should refer to the substance of the thing which is the object
of the contract, or to those conditions which have principally
moved one or both parties to enter into the contract.

Mistake as to the identity or qualifications of one of the

parties will vitiate consent only when such identity or
qualifications have been the principal cause of the contract.

A simple mistake of account shall give rise to its correction.

(1266a)

Art. 1332. When one of the parties is unable to read, or if the

contract is in a language not understood by him, and mistake
or fraud is alleged, the person enforcing the contract must
show that the terms thereof have been fully explained to the
former. (n)

Art. 1333. There is no mistake if the party alleging it knew

the doubt, contingency or risk affecting the object of the
contract. (n)

Art. 1334. Mutual error as to the legal effect of an agreement

when the real purpose of the parties is frustrated, may
vitiate consent. (n)

Art. 1335. There is violence when in order to wrest consent,

serious or irresistible force is employed.

There is intimidation when one of the contracting parties is

compelled by a reasonable and well-grounded fear of an
imminent and grave evil upon his person or property, or
upon the person or property of his spouse, descendants or
ascendants, to give his consent.

To determine the degree of intimidation, the age, sex and

condition of the person shall be borne in mind.
A threat to enforce one's claim through competent authority,
if the claim is just or legal, does not vitiate consent. (1267a)

Art. 1336. Violence or intimidation shall annul the obligation,

although it may have been employed by a third person who
did not take part in the contract. (1268)

Art. 1337. There is undue influence when a person takes

improper advantage of his power over the will of another,
depriving the latter of a reasonable freedom of choice. The
following circumstances shall be considered: the confidential,
family, spiritual and other relations between the parties, or
the fact that the person alleged to have been unduly
influenced was suffering from mental weakness, or was
ignorant or in financial distress. (n)

Art. 1338. There is fraud when, through insidious words or

machinations of one of the contracting parties, the other is
induced to enter into a contract which, without them, he
would not have agreed to. (1269)

Art. 1339. Failure to disclose facts, when there is a duty to

reveal them, as when the parties are bound by confidential
relations, constitutes fraud. (n)

Art. 1340. The usual exaggerations in trade, when the other

party had an opportunity to know the facts, are not in
themselves fraudulent. (n)

Art. 1341. A mere expression of an opinion does not signify

fraud, unless made by an expert and the other party has
relied on the former's special knowledge. (n)

Art. 1342. Misrepresentation by a third person does not

vitiate consent, unless such misrepresentation has created
substantial mistake and the same is mutual. (n)

Art. 1343. Misrepresentation made in good faith is not

fraudulent but may constitute error. (n)

Art. 1344. In order that fraud may make a contract voidable,

it should be serious and should not have been employed by
both contracting parties.

Incidental fraud only obliges the person employing it to pay

damages. (1270)

Art. 1345. Simulation of a contract may be absolute or

relative. The former takes place when the parties do not
intend to be bound at all; the latter, when the parties conceal
their true agreement. (n)

Art. 1346. An absolutely simulated or fictitious contract is

void. A relative simulation, when it does not prejudice a third
person and is not intended for any purpose contrary to law,
morals, good customs, public order or public policy binds the
parties to their real agreement. (n)

SECTION 2. - Object of Contracts

Art. 1347. All things which are not outside the commerce of
men, including future things, may be the object of a contract.
All rights which are not intransmissible may also be the
object of contracts.
No contract may be entered into upon future inheritance
except in cases expressly authorized by law.

All services which are not contrary to law, morals, good

customs, public order or public policy may likewise be the
object of a contract. (1271a)

Art. 1348. Impossible things or services cannot be the object

of contracts. (1272)

Art. 1349. The object of every contract must be determinate

as to its kind. The fact that the quantity is not determinate
shall not be an obstacle to the existence of the contract,
provided it is possible to determine the same, without the
need of a new contract between the parties. (1273)

SECTION 3. - Cause of Contracts

Art. 1350. In onerous contracts the cause is understood to

be, for each contracting party, the prestation or promise of a
thing or service by the other; in remuneratory ones, the
service or benefit which is remunerated; and in contracts of
pure beneficence, the mere liberality of the benefactor.
(1274)
Art. 1351. The particular motives of the parties in entering
into a contract are different from the cause thereof. (n)

Art. 1352. Contracts without cause, or with unlawful cause,

produce no effect whatever. The cause is unlawful if it is
contrary to law, morals, good customs, public order or public
policy. (1275a)

Art. 1353. The statement of a false cause in contracts shall

render them void, if it should not be proved that they were
founded upon another cause which is true and lawful. (1276)

Art. 1354. Although the cause is not stated in the contract, it

is presumed that it exists and is lawful, unless the debtor
proves the contrary. (1277)

Art. 1355. Except in cases specified by law, lesion or

inadequacy of cause shall not invalidate a contract, unless
there has been fraud, mistake or undue influence. (n)

CHAPTER 3
FORM OF CONTRACTS

Art. 1356. Contracts shall be obligatory, in whatever form

they may have been entered into, provided all the essential
requisites for their validity are present. However, when the
law requires that a contract be in some form in order that it
may be valid or enforceable, or that a contract be proved in a
certain way, that requirement is absolute and indispensable.
In such cases, the right of the parties stated in the following
article cannot be exercised. (1278a)
Art. 1357. If the law requires a document or other special
form, as in the acts and contracts enumerated in the
following article, the contracting parties may compel each
other to observe that form, once the contract has been
perfected. This right may be exercised simultaneously with
the action upon the contract. (1279a)

Art. 1358. The following must appear in a public document:

(1) Acts and contracts which have for their object the
creation, transmission, modification or extinguishment
of real rights over immovable property; sales of real
property or of an interest therein a governed by Articles
1403, No. 2, and 1405; (2) The cession, repudiation or
renunciation of hereditary rights or of those of the
conjugal partnership of gains; (3) The power to
administer property, or any other power which has for
its object an act appearing or which should appear in a
public document, or should prejudice a third person;
(4) The cession of actions or rights proceeding from an
act appearing in a public document.
All other contracts where the amount involved exceeds five
hundred pesos must appear in writing, even a private one.
But sales of goods, chattels or things in action are governed
by Articles, 1403, No. 2 and 1405. (1280a)

CHAPTER 4
 REFORMATION OF INSTRUMENTS (n)

Art. 1359. When, there having been a meeting of the minds

of the parties to a contract, their true intention is not
expressed in the instrument purporting to embody the
agreement, by reason of mistake, fraud, inequitable conduct
or accident, one of the parties may ask for the reformation of
the instrument to the end that such true intention may be
expressed.
If mistake, fraud, inequitable conduct, or accident has
prevented a meeting of the minds of the parties, the proper
remedy is not reformation of the instrument but annulment
of the contract.

Art. 1360. The principles of the general law on the

reformation of instruments are hereby adopted insofar as
they are not in conflict with the provisions of this Code.

Art. 1361. When a mutual mistake of the parties causes the

failure of the instrument to disclose their real agreement,
said instrument may be reformed.

Art. 1362. If one party was mistaken and the other acted
fraudulently or inequitably in such a way that the instrument
does not show their true intention, the former may ask for
the reformation of the instrument.

Art. 1363. When one party was mistaken and the other knew
or believed that the instrument did not state their real
agreement, but concealed that fact from the former, the
instrument may be reformed.

Art. 1364. When through the ignorance, lack of skill,

negligence or bad faith on the part of the person drafting the
instrument or of the clerk or typist, the instrument does not
express the true intention of the parties, the courts may
order that the instrument be reformed.

Art. 1365. If two parties agree upon the mortgage or pledge

of real or personal property, but the instrument states that
the property is sold absolutely or with a right of repurchase,
reformation of the instrument is proper.

Art. 1366. There shall be no reformation in the following

cases:

(1) Simple donations inter vivos wherein no condition is

imposed; (2) Wills; (3) When the real agreement is
void.
Art. 1367. When one of the parties has brought an action to
enforce the instrument, he cannot subsequently ask for its
reformation.
Art. 1368. Reformation may be ordered at the instance of
either party or his successors in interest, if the mistake was
mutual; otherwise, upon petition of the injured party, or his
heirs and assigns.

Art. 1369. The procedure for the reformation of instrument

shall be governed by rules of court to be promulgated by the
Supreme Court.

CHAPTER 5
INTERPRETATION OF CONTRACTS

Art. 1370. If the terms of a contract are clear and leave no

doubt upon the intention of the contracting parties, the
literal meaning of its stipulations shall control.
If the words appear to be contrary to the evident intention of
the parties, the latter shall prevail over the former. (1281)

Art. 1371. In order to judge the intention of the contracting

parties, their contemporaneous and subsequent acts shall be
principally considered. (1282)

Art. 1372. However general the terms of a contract may be,

they shall not be understood to comprehend things that are
distinct and cases that are different from those upon which
the parties intended to agree. (1283)

Art. 1373. If some stipulation of any contract should admit of

several meanings, it shall be understood as bearing that
import which is most adequate to render it effectual. (1284)

Art. 1374. The various stipulations of a contract shall be

interpreted together, attributing to the doubtful ones that
sense which may result from all of them taken jointly.
(1285)

Art. 1375. Words which may have different significations

shall be understood in that which is most in keeping with the
nature and object of the contract. (1286)

Art. 1376. The usage or custom of the place shall be borne in

mind in the interpretation of the ambiguities of a contract,
and shall fill the omission of stipulations which are ordinarily
established. (1287)

Art. 1377. The interpretation of obscure words or

stipulations in a contract shall not favor the party who
caused the obscurity. (1288)

Art. 1378. When it is absolutely impossible to settle doubts

by the rules established in the preceding articles, and the
doubts refer to incidental circumstances of a gratuitous
contract, the least transmission of rights and interests shall
prevail. If the contract is onerous, the doubt shall be settled
in favor of the greatest reciprocity of interests.

If the doubts are cast upon the principal object of the

contract in such a way that it cannot be known what may
have been the intention or will of the parties, the contract
shall be null and void. (1289)

Art. 1379. The principles of interpretation stated in Rule 123

of the Rules of Court shall likewise be observed in the
construction of contracts. (n)

CHAPTER 6
RESCISSIBLE CONTRACTS

Art. 1380. Contracts validly agreed upon may be rescinded in

the cases established by law. (1290)
Art. 1381. The following contracts are rescissible:

(1) Those which are entered into by guardians whenever

the wards whom they represent suffer lesion by more
than one-fourth of the value of the things which are the
object thereof; (2) Those agreed upon in
representation of absentees, if the latter suffer the
lesion stated in the preceding number; (3) Those
undertaken in fraud of creditors when the latter cannot
in any other manner collect the claims due them; (4)
Those which refer to things under litigation if they have
been entered into by the defendant without the
knowledge and approval of the litigants or of
competent judicial authority; (5) All other contracts
specially declared by law to be subject to rescission.
(1291a)
Art. 1382. Payments made in a state of insolvency for
obligations to whose fulfillment the debtor could not be
compelled at the time they were effected, are also rescissible.
(1292)
Art. 1383. The action for rescission is subsidiary; it cannot be
instituted except when the party suffering damage has no
other legal means to obtain reparation for the same. (1294)
Art. 1384. Rescission shall be only to the extent necessary to
cover the damages caused. (n)

Art. 1385. Rescission creates the obligation to return the

things which were the object of the contract, together with
their fruits, and the price with its interest; consequently, it
can be carried out only when he who demands rescission can
return whatever he may be obliged to restore.

Neither shall rescission take place when the things which are
the object of the contract are legally in the possession of
third persons who did not act in bad faith.

In this case, indemnity for damages may be demanded from

the person causing the loss. (1295)

Art. 1386. Rescission referred to in Nos. 1 and 2 of Article

1381 shall not take place with respect to contracts approved
by the courts. (1296a)

Art. 1387. All contracts by virtue of which the debtor

alienates property by gratuitous title are presumed to have
been entered into in fraud of creditors, when the donor did
not reserve sufficient property to pay all debts contracted
before the donation.

Alienations by onerous title are also presumed fraudulent

when made by persons against whom some judgment has
been issued. The decision or attachment need not refer to
the property alienated, and need not have been obtained by
the party seeking the rescission.

In addition to these presumptions, the design to defraud

creditors may be proved in any other manner recognized by
the law of evidence. (1297a)

Art. 1388. Whoever acquires in bad faith the things alienated

in fraud of creditors, shall indemnify the latter for damages
suffered by them on account of the alienation, whenever,
due to any cause, it should be impossible for him to return
them.

If there are two or more alienations, the first acquirer shall

be liable first, and so on successively. (1298a)

Art. 1389. The action to claim rescission must be commenced

within four years.

For persons under guardianship and for absentees, the

period of four years shall not begin until the termination of
the former's incapacity, or until the domicile of the latter is
known. (1299)

CHAPTER 7
VOIDABLE CONTRACTS

Art. 1390. The following contracts are voidable or annullable,

even though there may have been no damage to the
contracting parties:
(1) Those where one of the parties is incapable of giving
consent to a contract; (2) Those where the consent is
vitiated by mistake, violence, intimidation, undue
influence or fraud.
These contracts are binding, unless they are annulled by a
proper action in court. They are susceptible of ratification.
(n)
Art. 1391. The action for annulment shall be brought within
four years.

This period shall begin:

In cases of intimidation, violence or undue influence, from

the time the defect of the consent ceases. In case of
mistake or fraud, from the time of the discovery of the
same.
And when the action refers to contracts entered into by
minors or other incapacitated persons, from the time the
guardianship ceases. (1301a)
Art. 1392. Ratification extinguishes the action to annul a
voidable contract. (1309a)

Art. 1393. Ratification may be effected expressly or tacitly. It

is understood that there is a tacit ratification if, with
knowledge of the reason which renders the contract voidable
and such reason having ceased, the person who has a right
to invoke it should execute an act which necessarily implies
an intention to waive his right. (1311a)

Art. 1394. Ratification may be effected by the guardian of

the incapacitated person. (n)

Art. 1395. Ratification does not require the conformity of the

contracting party who has no right to bring the action for
annulment. (1312)

Art. 1396. Ratification cleanses the contract from all its

defects from the moment it was constituted. (1313)
Art. 1397. The action for the annulment of contracts may be
instituted by all who are thereby obliged principally or
subsidiarily. However, persons who are capable cannot
allege the incapacity of those with whom they contracted;
nor can those who exerted intimidation, violence, or undue
influence, or employed fraud, or caused mistake base their
action upon these flaws of the contract. (1302a)

Art. 1398. An obligation having been annulled, the

contracting parties shall restore to each other the things
which have been the subject matter of the contract, with
their fruits, and the price with its interest, except in cases
provided by law.

In obligations to render service, the value thereof shall be

the basis for damages. (1303a)

Art. 1399. When the defect of the contract consists in the

incapacity of one of the parties, the incapacitated person is
not obliged to make any restitution except insofar as he has
been benefited by the thing or price received by him. (1304)

Art. 1400. Whenever the person obliged by the decree of

annulment to return the thing can not do so because it has
been lost through his fault, he shall return the fruits received
and the value of the thing at the time of the loss, with
interest from the same date. (1307a)

Art. 1401. The action for annulment of contracts shall be

extinguished when the thing which is the object thereof is
lost through the fraud or fault of the person who has a right
to institute the proceedings.

If the right of action is based upon the incapacity of any one

of the contracting parties, the loss of the thing shall not be
an obstacle to the success of the action, unless said loss took
place through the fraud or fault of the plaintiff. (1314a)

Art. 1402. As long as one of the contracting parties does not

restore what in virtue of the decree of annulment he is
bound to return, the other cannot be compelled to comply
with what is incumbent upon him. (1308)

CHAPTER 8
UNENFORCEABLE CONTRACTS (n)

Art. 1403. The following contracts are unenforceable, unless

they are ratified:
(1) Those entered into in the name of another person by
 one who has been given no authority or legal
representation, or who has acted beyond his powers;
(2) Those that do not comply with the Statute of Frauds
as set forth in this number. In the following cases an
agreement hereafter made shall be unenforceable by
action, unless the same, or some note or memorandum,
thereof, be in writing, and subscribed by the party
charged, or by his agent; evidence, therefore, of the
agreement cannot be received without the writing, or a
secondary evidence of its contents:
(a) An agreement that by its terms is not to be
performed within a year from the making thereof;
(b) A special promise to answer for the debt,
default, or miscarriage of another; (c) An
agreement made in consideration of marriage,
other than a mutual promise to marry; (d) An
agreement for the sale of goods, chattels or things
in action, at a price not less than five hundred
pesos, unless the buyer accept and receive part of
such goods and chattels, or the evidences, or
some of them, of such things in action or pay at
the time some part of the purchase money; but
when a sale is made by auction and entry is made
by the auctioneer in his sales book, at the time of
the sale, of the amount and kind of property sold,
terms of sale, price, names of the purchasers and
person on whose account the sale is made, it is a
sufficient memorandum; (e) An agreement of the
leasing for a longer period than one year, or for
the sale of real property or of an interest therein;
(f) A representation as to the credit of a third
person.
(3) Those where both parties are incapable of giving
consent to a contract.
Art. 1404. Unauthorized contracts are governed by Article
1317 and the principles of agency in Title X of this Book.
Art. 1405. Contracts infringing the Statute of Frauds,
referred to in No. 2 of Article 1403, are ratified by the failure
to object to the presentation of oral evidence to prove the
same, or by the acceptance of benefit under them.

Art. 1406. When a contract is enforceable under the Statute

of Frauds, and a public document is necessary for its
registration in the Registry of Deeds, the parties may avail
themselves of the right under Article 1357.

Art. 1407. In a contract where both parties are incapable of

giving consent, express or implied ratification by the parent,
or guardian, as the case may be, of one of the contracting
parties shall give the contract the same effect as if only one
of them were incapacitated.

If ratification is made by the parents or guardians, as the

case may be, of both contracting parties, the contract shall
be validated from the inception.

Art. 1408. Unenforceable contracts cannot be assailed by

third persons.

CHAPTER 9
VOID AND INEXISTENT CONTRACTS

Art. 1409. The following contracts are inexistent and void

from the beginning:
(1) Those whose cause, object or purpose is contrary to
law, morals, good customs, public order or public
policy; (2) Those which are absolutely simulated or
fictitious; (3) Those whose cause or object did not
exist at the time of the transaction; (4) Those whose
object is outside the commerce of men; (5) Those
which contemplate an impossible service; (6) Those
where the intention of the parties relative to the
principal object of the contract cannot be ascertained;
(7) Those expressly prohibited or declared void by law.
These contracts cannot be ratified. Neither can the right to
set up the defense of illegality be waived.
Art. 1410. The action or defense for the declaration of the
inexistence of a contract does not prescribe.

Art. 1411. When the nullity proceeds from the illegality of

the cause or object of the contract, and the act constitutes a
criminal offense, both parties being in pari delicto, they shall
have no action against each other, and both shall be
prosecuted. Moreover, the provisions of the Penal Code
relative to the disposal of effects or instruments of a crime
shall be applicable to the things or the price of the contract.

This rule shall be applicable when only one of the parties is

guilty; but the innocent one may claim what he has given,
and shall not be bound to comply with his promise. (1305)

Art. 1412. If the act in which the unlawful or forbidden cause

consists does not constitute a criminal offense, the following
rules shall be observed:

(1) When the fault is on the part of both contracting

parties, neither may recover what he has given by
 virtue of the contract, or demand the performance of
the other's undertaking; (2) When only one of the
contracting parties is at fault, he cannot recover what
he has given by reason of the contract, or ask for the
fulfillment of what has been promised him. The other,
who is not at fault, may demand the return of what he
has given without any obligation to comply his promise.
(1306)
Art. 1413. Interest paid in excess of the interest allowed by
the usury laws may be recovered by the debtor, with interest
thereon from the date of the payment.
Art. 1414. When money is paid or property delivered for an
illegal purpose, the contract may be repudiated by one of the
parties before the purpose has been accomplished, or before
any damage has been caused to a third person. In such case,
the courts may, if the public interest will thus be subserved,
allow the party repudiating the contract to recover the
money or property.

Art. 1415. Where one of the parties to an illegal contract is

incapable of giving consent, the courts may, if the interest of
justice so demands allow recovery of money or property
delivered by the incapacitated person.

Art. 1416. When the agreement is not illegal per se but is

merely prohibited, and the prohibition by the law is
designated for the protection of the plaintiff, he may, if
public policy is thereby enhanced, recover what he has paid
or delivered.

Art. 1417. When the price of any article or commodity is

determined by statute, or by authority of law, any person
paying any amount in excess of the maximum price allowed
may recover such excess.

Art. 1418. When the law fixes, or authorizes the fixing of the
maximum number of hours of labor, and a contract is
entered into whereby a laborer undertakes to work longer
than the maximum thus fixed, he may demand additional
compensation for service rendered beyond the time limit.

Art. 1419. When the law sets, or authorizes the setting of a

minimum wage for laborers, and a contract is agreed upon
by which a laborer accepts a lower wage, he shall be entitled
to recover the deficiency.

Art. 1420. In case of a divisible contract, if the illegal terms

can be separated from the legal ones, the latter may be
enforced.

Art. 1421. The defense of illegality of contract is not

available to third persons whose interests are not directly
affected.

Art. 1422. A contract which is the direct result of a previous

illegal contract, is also void and inexistent.

Title III. - NATURAL OBLIGATIONS

Art. 1423. Obligations are civil or natural. Civil obligations

give a right of action to compel their performance. Natural
obligations, not being based on positive law but on equity
and natural law, do not grant a right of action to enforce
their performance, but after voluntary fulfillment by the
obligor, they authorize the retention of what has been
delivered or rendered by reason thereof. Some natural
obligations are set forth in the following articles.
Art. 1424. When a right to sue upon a civil obligation has
lapsed by extinctive prescription, the obligor who voluntarily
performs the contract cannot recover what he has delivered
or the value of the service he has rendered.

Art. 1425. When without the knowledge or against the will of

the debtor, a third person pays a debt which the obligor is
not legally bound to pay because the action thereon has
prescribed, but the debtor later voluntarily reimburses the
third person, the obligor cannot recover what he has paid.

Art. 1426. When a minor between eighteen and twenty-one

years of age who has entered into a contract without the
consent of the parent or guardian, after the annulment of the
contract voluntarily returns the whole thing or price received,
notwithstanding the fact the he has not been benefited
thereby, there is no right to demand the thing or price thus
returned.

Art. 1427. When a minor between eighteen and twenty-one

years of age, who has entered into a contract without the
consent of the parent or guardian, voluntarily pays a sum of
money or delivers a fungible thing in fulfillment of the
obligation, there shall be no right to recover the same from
the obligee who has spent or consumed it in good faith.
(1160A)

Art. 1428. When, after an action to enforce a civil obligation

has failed the defendant voluntarily performs the obligation,
he cannot demand the return of what he has delivered or the
payment of the value of the service he has rendered.

Art. 1429. When a testate or intestate heir voluntarily pays a

debt of the decedent exceeding the value of the property
which he received by will or by the law of intestacy from the
estate of the deceased, the payment is valid and cannot be
rescinded by the payer.

Art. 1430. When a will is declared void because it has not

been executed in accordance with the formalities required by
law, but one of the intestate heirs, after the settlement of
the debts of the deceased, pays a legacy in compliance with
a clause in the defective will, the payment is effective and
irrevocable.

Title IV. - ESTOPPEL (n)

Art. 1431. Through estoppel an admission or representation

is rendered conclusive upon the person making it, and
cannot be denied or disproved as against the person relying
thereon.
Art. 1432. The principles of estoppel are hereby adopted
insofar as they are not in conflict with the provisions of this
Code, the Code of Commerce, the Rules of Court and special
laws.

Art. 1433. Estoppel may be in pais or by deed.

Art. 1434. When a person who is not the owner of a thing

sells or alienates and delivers it, and later the seller or
grantor acquires title thereto, such title passes by operation
of law to the buyer or grantee.

Art. 1435. If a person in representation of another sells or

alienates a thing, the former cannot subsequently set up his
own title as against the buyer or grantee.

Art. 1436. A lessee or a bailee is estopped from asserting

title to the thing leased or received, as against the lessor or
bailor.

Art. 1437. When in a contract between third persons

concerning immovable property, one of them is misled by a
person with respect to the ownership or real right over the
real estate, the latter is precluded from asserting his legal
title or interest therein, provided all these requisites are
present:

(1) There must be fraudulent representation or wrongful

 concealment of facts known to the party estopped; (2)
The party precluded must intend that the other should
act upon the facts as misrepresented; (3) The party
misled must have been unaware of the true facts; and
(4) The party defrauded must have acted in
accordance with the misrepresentation.
Art. 1438. One who has allowed another to assume apparent
ownership of personal property for the purpose of making
any transfer of it, cannot, if he received the sum for which a
pledge has been constituted, set up his own title to defeat
the pledge of the property, made by the other to a pledgee
who received the same in good faith and for value.
Art. 1439. Estoppel is effective only as between the parties
thereto or their successors in interest.

Title V. - TRUSTS (n)

CHAPTER 1
GENERAL PROVISIONS

Art. 1440. A person who establishes a trust is called the

trustor; one in whom confidence is reposed as regards
property for the benefit of another person is known as the
trustee; and the person for whose benefit the trust has been
created is referred to as the beneficiary.
Art. 1441. Trusts are either express or implied. Express
trusts are created by the intention of the trustor or of the
parties. Implied trusts come into being by operation of law.

Art. 1442. The principles of the general law of trusts, insofar

as they are not in conflict with this Code, the Code of
Commerce, the Rules of Court and special laws are hereby
adopted.

CHAPTER 2
EXPRESS TRUSTS

Art. 1443. No express trusts concerning an immovable or any

interest therein may be proved by parol evidence.
Art. 1444. No particular words are required for the creation
of an express trust, it being sufficient that a trust is clearly
intended.

Art. 1445. No trust shall fail because the trustee appointed

declines the designation, unless the contrary should appear
in the instrument constituting the trust.

Art. 1446. Acceptance by the beneficiary is necessary.

Nevertheless, if the trust imposes no onerous condition upon
the beneficiary, his acceptance shall be presumed, if there is
no proof to the contrary.

CHAPTER 3
IMPLIED TRUSTS

Art. 1447. The enumeration of the following cases of implied

trust does not exclude others established by the general law
of trust, but the limitation laid down in Article 1442 shall be
applicable.
Art. 1448. There is an implied trust when property is sold,
and the legal estate is granted to one party but the price is
paid by another for the purpose of having the beneficial
interest of the property. The former is the trustee, while the
latter is the beneficiary. However, if the person to whom the
title is conveyed is a child, legitimate or illegitimate, of the
one paying the price of the sale, no trust is implied by law, it
being disputably presumed that there is a gift in favor of the
child.

Art. 1449. There is also an implied trust when a donation is

made to a person but it appears that although the legal
estate is transmitted to the donee, he nevertheless is either
to have no beneficial interest or only a part thereof.

Art. 1450. If the price of a sale of property is loaned or paid

by one person for the benefit of another and the conveyance
is made to the lender or payor to secure the payment of the
debt, a trust arises by operation of law in favor of the person
to whom the money is loaned or for whom its is paid. The
latter may redeem the property and compel a conveyance
thereof to him.

Art. 1451. When land passes by succession to any person

and he causes the legal title to be put in the name of another,
a trust is established by implication of law for the benefit of
the true owner.

Art. 1452. If two or more persons agree to purchase

property and by common consent the legal title is taken in
the name of one of them for the benefit of all, a trust is
created by force of law in favor of the others in proportion to
the interest of each.

Art. 1453. When property is conveyed to a person in reliance

upon his declared intention to hold it for, or transfer it to
another or the grantor, there is an implied trust in favor of
the person whose benefit is contemplated.

Art. 1454. If an absolute conveyance of property is made in

order to secure the performance of an obligation of the
grantor toward the grantee, a trust by virtue of law is
established. If the fulfillment of the obligation is offered by
the grantor when it becomes due, he may demand the
reconveyance of the property to him.

Art. 1455. When any trustee, guardian or other person

holding a fiduciary relationship uses trust funds for the
purchase of property and causes the conveyance to be made
to him or to a third person, a trust is established by
operation of law in favor of the person to whom the funds
belong.

Art. 1456. If property is acquired through mistake or fraud,

the person obtaining it is, by force of law, considered a
trustee of an implied trust for the benefit of the person from
whom the property comes.

Art. 1457. An implied trust may be proved by oral evidence.

Title VI. - SALES

CHAPTER 1
NATURE AND FORM OF THE CONTRACT

Art. 1458. By the contract of sale one of the contracting

parties obligates himself to transfer the ownership and to
deliver a determinate thing, and the other to pay therefor a
price certain in money or its equivalent.
A contract of sale may be absolute or conditional. (1445a)

Art. 1459. The thing must be licit and the vendor must have
a right to transfer the ownership thereof at the time it is
delivered. (n)

Art. 1460. A thing is determinate when it is particularly

designated or physical segregated from all other of the same
class.

The requisite that a thing be determinate is satisfied if at the

time the contract is entered into, the thing is capable of
being made determinate without the necessity of a new or
further agreement between the parties. (n)

Art. 1461. Things having a potential existence may be the

object of the contract of sale.

The efficacy of the sale of a mere hope or expectancy is

deemed subject to the condition that the thing will come into
existence.

The sale of a vain hope or expectancy is void. (n)

Art. 1462. The goods which form the subject of a contract of

sale may be either existing goods, owned or possessed by
the seller, or goods to be manufactured, raised, or acquired
by the seller after the perfection of the contract of sale, in
this Title called "future goods."

There may be a contract of sale of goods, whose acquisition

by the seller depends upon a contingency which may or may
not happen. (n)

Art. 1463. The sole owner of a thing may sell an undivided

interest therein. (n)

Art. 1464. In the case of fungible goods, there may be a sale

of an undivided share of a specific mass, though the seller
purports to sell and the buyer to buy a definite number,
weight or measure of the goods in the mass, and though the
number, weight or measure of the goods in the mass is
undetermined. By such a sale the buyer becomes owner in
common of such a share of the mass as the number, weight
or measure bought bears to the number, weight or measure
of the mass. If the mass contains less than the number,
weight or measure bought, the buyer becomes the owner of
the whole mass and the seller is bound to make good the
deficiency from goods of the same kind and quality, unless a
contrary intent appears. (n)

Art. 1465. Things subject to a resolutory condition may be

the object of the contract of sale. (n)

Art. 1466. In construing a contract containing provisions

characteristic of both the contract of sale and of the contract
of agency to sell, the essential clauses of the whole
instrument shall be considered. (n)

Art. 1467. A contract for the delivery at a certain price of an

article which the vendor in the ordinary course of his
business manufactures or procures for the general market,
whether the same is on hand at the time or not, is a contract
of sale, but if the goods are to be manufactured specially for
the customer and upon his special order, and not for the
general market, it is a contract for a piece of work. (n)

Art. 1468. If the consideration of the contract consists partly

in money, and partly in another thing, the transaction shall
be characterized by the manifest intention of the parties. If
such intention does not clearly appear, it shall be considered
a barter if the value of the thing given as a part of the
consideration exceeds the amount of the money or its
equivalent; otherwise, it is a sale. (1446a)

Art. 1469. In order that the price may be considered certain,

it shall be sufficient that it be so with reference to another
thing certain, or that the determination thereof be left to the
judgment of a special person or persons.

Should such person or persons be unable or unwilling to fix

it, the contract shall be inefficacious, unless the parties
subsequently agree upon the price.

If the third person or persons acted in bad faith or by

mistake, the courts may fix the price.

Where such third person or persons are prevented from

fixing the price or terms by fault of the seller or the buyer,
the party not in fault may have such remedies against the
party in fault as are allowed the seller or the buyer, as the
case may be. (1447a)

Art. 1470. Gross inadequacy of price does not affect a

contract of sale, except as it may indicate a defect in the
consent, or that the parties really intended a donation or
some other act or contract. (n)

Art. 1471. If the price is simulated, the sale is void, but the
act may be shown to have been in reality a donation, or
some other act or contract. (n)

Art. 1472. The price of securities, grain, liquids, and other

things shall also be considered certain, when the price fixed
is that which the thing sold would have on a definite day, or
in a particular exchange or market, or when an amount is
fixed above or below the price on such day, or in such
exchange or market, provided said amount be certain.
(1448)

Art. 1473. The fixing of the price can never be left to the
discretion of one of the contracting parties. However, if the
price fixed by one of the parties is accepted by the other, the
sale is perfected. (1449a)
Art. 1474. Where the price cannot be determined in
accordance with the preceding articles, or in any other
manner, the contract is inefficacious. However, if the thing
or any part thereof has been delivered to and appropriated
by the buyer he must pay a reasonable price therefor. What
is a reasonable price is a question of fact dependent on the
circumstances of each particular case. (n)

Art. 1475. The contract of sale is perfected at the moment

there is a meeting of minds upon the thing which is the
object of the contract and upon the price.

From that moment, the parties may reciprocally demand

performance, subject to the provisions of the law governing
the form of contracts. (1450a)

Art. 1476. In the case of a sale by auction:

(1) Where goods are put up for sale by auction in lots, each
lot is the subject of a separate contract of sale. (2) A
sale by auction is perfected when the auctioneer
announces its perfection by the fall of the hammer, or
in other customary manner. Until such announcement
is made, any bidder may retract his bid; and the
auctioneer may withdraw the goods from the sale
unless the auction has been announced to be without
reserve. (3) A right to bid may be reserved expressly
by or on behalf of the seller, unless otherwise provided
by law or by stipulation. (4) Where notice has not been
given that a sale by auction is subject to a right to bid
on behalf of the seller, it shall not be lawful for the
seller to bid himself or to employ or induce any person
to bid at such sale on his behalf or for the auctioneer,
to employ or induce any person to bid at such sale on
behalf of the seller or knowingly to take any bid from
the seller or any person employed by him. Any sale
contravening this rule may be treated as fraudulent by
the buyer. (n)
Art. 1477. The ownership of the thing sold shall be
transferred to the vendee upon the actual or constructive
delivery thereof. (n)
Art. 1478. The parties may stipulate that ownership in the
thing shall not pass to the purchaser until he has fully paid
the price. (n)

Art. 1479. A promise to buy and sell a determinate thing for

a price certain is reciprocally demandable.
An accepted unilateral promise to buy or to sell a
determinate thing for a price certain is binding upon the
promissor if the promise is supported by a consideration
distinct from the price. (1451a)

Art. 1480. Any injury to or benefit from the thing sold, after
the contract has been perfected, from the moment of the
perfection of the contract to the time of delivery, shall be
governed by Articles 1163 to 1165, and 1262.

This rule shall apply to the sale of fungible things, made

independently and for a single price, or without
consideration of their weight, number, or measure.

Should fungible things be sold for a price fixed according to

weight, number, or measure, the risk shall not be imputed to
the vendee until they have been weighed, counted, or
measured and delivered, unless the latter has incurred in
delay. (1452a)

Art. 1481. In the contract of sale of goods by description or

by sample, the contract may be rescinded if the bulk of the
goods delivered do not correspond with the description or
the sample, and if the contract be by sample as well as
description, it is not sufficient that the bulk of goods
correspond with the sample if they do not also correspond
with the description.

The buyer shall have a reasonable opportunity of comparing

the bulk with the description or the sample. (n)

Art. 1482. Whenever earnest money is given in a contract of

sale, it shall be considered as part of the price and as proof
of the perfection of the contract. (1454a)

Art. 1483. Subject to the provisions of the Statute of Frauds

and of any other applicable statute, a contract of sale may be
made in writing, or by word of mouth, or partly in writing
and partly by word of mouth, or may be inferred from the
conduct of the parties. (n)

Art. 1484. In a contract of sale of personal property the price

of which is payable in installments, the vendor may exercise
any of the following remedies:

(1) Exact fulfillment of the obligation, should the vendee

fail to pay; (2) Cancel the sale, should the vendee's
failure to pay cover two or more installments; (3)
Foreclose the chattel mortgage on the thing sold, if one
 has been constituted, should the vendee's failure to pay
cover two or more installments. In this case, he shall
have no further action against the purchaser to recover
any unpaid balance of the price. Any agreement to the
contrary shall be void. (1454-A-a)
Art. 1485. The preceding article shall be applied to contracts
purporting to be leases of personal property with option to
buy, when the lessor has deprived the lessee of the
possession or enjoyment of the thing. (1454-A-a)
Art. 1486. In the case referred to in two preceding articles, a
stipulation that the installments or rents paid shall not be
returned to the vendee or lessee shall be valid insofar as the
same may not be unconscionable under the circumstances.
(n)

Art. 1487. The expenses for the execution and registration of

the sale shall be borne by the vendor, unless there is a
stipulation to the contrary. (1455a)

Art. 1488. The expropriation of property for public use is

governed by special laws. (1456)

CHAPTER 2
CAPACITY TO BUY OR SELL

Art. 1489. All persons who are authorized in this Code to

obligate themselves, may enter into a contract of sale,
saving the modifications contained in the following articles.
Where necessaries are those sold and delivered to a minor or
other person without capacity to act, he must pay a
reasonable price therefor. Necessaries are those referred to
in Article 290. (1457a)

Art. 1490. The husband and the wife cannot sell property to
each other, except:

(1) When a separation of property was agreed upon in the

marriage settlements; or (2) When there has been a
judicial separation or property under Article 191.
(1458a)
Art. 1491. The following persons cannot acquire by purchase,
even at a public or judicial auction, either in person or
through the mediation of another:
(1) The guardian, the property of the person or persons
who may be under his guardianship; (2) Agents, the
property whose administration or sale may have been
entrusted to them, unless the consent of the principal
has been given; (3) Executors and administrators, the
 property of the estate under administration; (4) Public
officers and employees, the property of the State or of
any subdivision thereof, or of any government-owned
or controlled corporation, or institution, the
administration of which has been intrusted to them;
this provision shall apply to judges and government
experts who, in any manner whatsoever, take part in
the sale; (5) Justices, judges, prosecuting attorneys,
clerks of superior and inferior courts, and other officers
and employees connected with the administration of
justice, the property and rights in litigation or levied
upon an execution before the court within whose
jurisdiction or territory they exercise their respective
functions; this prohibition includes the act of acquiring
by assignment and shall apply to lawyers, with respect
to the property and rights which may be the object of
any litigation in which they may take part by virtue of
their profession. (6) Any others specially disqualified
by law. (1459a)
Art. 1492. The prohibitions in the two preceding articles are
applicable to sales in legal redemption, compromises and
renunciations. (n)

CHAPTER 3
EFFECTS OF THE CONTRACT
WHEN THE THING SOLD HAS BEEN LOST

Art. 1493. If at the time the contract of sale is perfected, the

thing which is the object of the contract has been entirely
lost, the contract shall be without any effect.
But if the thing should have been lost in part only, the
vendee may choose between withdrawing from the contract
and demanding the remaining part, paying its price in
proportion to the total sum agreed upon. (1460a)

Art. 1494. Where the parties purport a sale of specific goods,

and the goods without the knowledge of the seller have
perished in part or have wholly or in a material part so
deteriorated in quality as to be substantially changed in
character, the buyer may at his option treat the sale:

(1) As avoided; or (2) As valid in all of the existing goods

or in so much thereof as have not deteriorated, and as
binding the buyer to pay the agreed price for the goods
in which the ownership will pass, if the sale was
divisible. (n)

CHAPTER 4
 OBLIGATIONS OF THE VENDOR

SECTION 1. - General Provisions

Art. 1495. The vendor is bound to transfer the ownership of

and deliver, as well as warrant the thing which is the object
of the sale. (1461a)
Art. 1496. The ownership of the thing sold is acquired by the
vendee from the moment it is delivered to him in any of the
ways specified in Articles 1497 to 1501, or in any other
manner signifying an agreement that the possession is
transferred from the vendor to the vendee. (n)

SECTION 2. - Delivery of the Thing Sold

Art. 1497. The thing sold shall be understood as delivered,

when it is placed in the control and possession of the vendee.
(1462a)
Art. 1498. When the sale is made through a public
instrument, the execution thereof shall be equivalent to the
delivery of the thing which is the object of the contract, if
from the deed the contrary does not appear or cannot clearly
be inferred.

With regard to movable property, its delivery may also be

made by the delivery of the keys of the place or depository
where it is stored or kept. (1463a)

Art. 1499. The delivery of movable property may likewise be

made by the mere consent or agreement of the contracting
parties, if the thing sold cannot be transferred to the
possession of the vendee at the time of the sale, or if the
latter already had it in his possession for any other reason.
(1463a)

Art. 1500. There may also be tradition constitutum

possessorium. (n)

Art. 1501. With respect to incorporeal property, the

provisions of the first paragraph of article 1498 shall govern.
In any other case wherein said provisions are not applicable,
the placing of the titles of ownership in the possession of the
vendee or the use by the vendee of his rights, with the
vendor's consent, shall be understood as a delivery. (1464)

Art. 1502. When goods are delivered to the buyer "on sale or
return" to give the buyer an option to return the goods
instead of paying the price, the ownership passes to the
buyer of delivery, but he may revest the ownership in the
seller by returning or tendering the goods within the time
fixed in the contract, or, if no time has been fixed, within a
reasonable time. (n)

When goods are delivered to the buyer on approval or on

trial or on satisfaction, or other similar terms, the ownership
therein passes to the buyer:

(1) When he signifies his approval or acceptance to the

seller or does any other act adopting the transaction;
(2) If he does not signify his approval or acceptance to
the seller, but retains the goods without giving notice
of rejection, then if a time has been fixed for the return
of the goods, on the expiration of such time, and, if no
time has been fixed, on the expiration of a reasonable
time. What is a reasonable time is a question of fact.
(n)
Art. 1503. When there is a contract of sale of specific goods,
the seller may, by the terms of the contract, reserve the
right of possession or ownership in the goods until certain
conditions have been fulfilled. The right of possession or
ownership may be thus reserved notwithstanding the
delivery of the goods to the buyer or to a carrier or other
bailee for the purpose of transmission to the buyer.
Where goods are shipped, and by the bill of lading the goods
are deliverable to the seller or his agent, or to the order of
the seller or of his agent, the seller thereby reserves the
ownership in the goods. But, if except for the form of the bill
of lading, the ownership would have passed to the buyer on
shipment of the goods, the seller's property in the goods
shall be deemed to be only for the purpose of securing
performance by the buyer of his obligations under the
contract.

Where goods are shipped, and by the bill of lading the goods
are deliverable to order of the buyer or of his agent, but
possession of the bill of lading is retained by the seller or his
agent, the seller thereby reserves a right to the possession
of the goods as against the buyer.

Where the seller of goods draws on the buyer for the price
and transmits the bill of exchange and bill of lading together
to the buyer to secure acceptance or payment of the bill of
exchange, the buyer is bound to return the bill of lading if he
does not honor the bill of exchange, and if he wrongfully
retains the bill of lading he acquires no added right thereby.
If, however, the bill of lading provides that the goods are
deliverable to the buyer or to the order of the buyer, or is
indorsed in blank, or to the buyer by the consignee named
therein, one who purchases in good faith, for value, the bill
of lading, or goods from the buyer will obtain the ownership
in the goods, although the bill of exchange has not been
honored, provided that such purchaser has received delivery
of the bill of lading indorsed by the consignee named therein,
or of the goods, without notice of the facts making the
transfer wrongful. (n)

Art. 1504. Unless otherwise agreed, the goods remain at the

seller's risk until the ownership therein is transferred to the
buyer, but when the ownership therein is transferred to the
buyer the goods are at the buyer's risk whether actual
delivery has been made or not, except that:

(1) Where delivery of the goods has been made to the

buyer or to a bailee for the buyer, in pursuance of the
contract and the ownership in the goods has been
retained by the seller merely to secure performance by
the buyer of his obligations under the contract, the
goods are at the buyer's risk from the time of such
delivery; (2) Where actual delivery has been delayed
through the fault of either the buyer or seller the goods
are at the risk of the party in fault. (n)
Art. 1505. Subject to the provisions of this Title, where
goods are sold by a person who is not the owner thereof, and
who does not sell them under authority or with the consent
of the owner, the buyer acquires no better title to the goods
than the seller had, unless the owner of the goods is by his
conduct precluded from denying the seller's authority to sell.
Nothing in this Title, however, shall affect:

(1) The provisions of any factors' act, recording laws, or

any other provision of law enabling the apparent owner
of goods to dispose of them as if he were the true
owner thereof; (2) The validity of any contract of sale
under statutory power of sale or under the order of a
court of competent jurisdiction; (3) Purchases made in
a merchant's store, or in fairs, or markets, in
accordance with the Code of Commerce and special
laws. (n)
Art. 1506. Where the seller of goods has a voidable title
thereto, but his title has not been avoided at the time of the
sale, the buyer acquires a good title to the goods, provided
he buys them in good faith, for value, and without notice of
the seller's defect of title. (n)
Art. 1507. A document of title in which it is stated that the
goods referred to therein will be delivered to the bearer, or
to the order of any person named in such document is a
negotiable document of title. (n)

Art. 1508. A negotiable document of title may be negotiated

by delivery:

(1) Where by the terms of the document the carrier,

warehouseman or other bailee issuing the same
undertakes to deliver the goods to the bearer; or (2)
Where by the terms of the document the carrier,
warehouseman or other bailee issuing the same
undertakes to deliver the goods to the order of a
specified person, and such person or a subsequent
endorsee of the document has indorsed it in blank or to
the bearer.
Where by the terms of a negotiable document of title the
goods are deliverable to bearer or where a negotiable
document of title has been indorsed in blank or to bearer,
any holder may indorse the same to himself or to any
specified person, and in such case the document shall
thereafter be negotiated only by the endorsement of such
endorsee. (n)
Art. 1509. A negotiable document of title may be negotiated
by the endorsement of the person to whose order the goods
are by the terms of the document deliverable. Such
endorsement may be in blank, to bearer or to a specified
person. If indorsed to a specified person, it may be again
negotiated by the endorsement of such person in blank, to
bearer or to another specified person. Subsequent
negotiations may be made in like manner. (n)

Art. 1510. If a document of title which contains an

undertaking by a carrier, warehouseman or other bailee to
deliver the goods to bearer, to a specified person or order of
a specified person or which contains words of like import,
has placed upon it the words "not negotiable," "non-
negotiable" or the like, such document may nevertheless be
negotiated by the holder and is a negotiable document of
title within the meaning of this Title. But nothing in this Title
contained shall be construed as limiting or defining the
effect upon the obligations of the carrier, warehouseman, or
other bailee issuing a document of title or placing thereon
the words "not negotiable," "non-negotiable," or the like.
(n)

Art. 1511. A document of title which is not in such form that

it can be negotiated by delivery may be transferred by the
holder by delivery to a purchaser or donee. A non-negotiable
document cannot be negotiated and the endorsement of such
a document gives the transferee no additional right. (n)

Art. 1512. A negotiable document of title may be negotiated:

(1) By the owner therefor; or (2) By any person to whom

the possession or custody of the document has been
entrusted by the owner, if, by the terms of the
document the bailee issuing the document undertakes
to deliver the goods to the order of the person to whom
the possession or custody of the document has been
entrusted, or if at the time of such entrusting the
document is in such form that it may be negotiated by
delivery. (n)
Art. 1513. A person to whom a negotiable document of title
has been duly negotiated acquires thereby:
(1) Such title to the goods as the person negotiating the
document to him had or had ability to convey to a
purchaser in good faith for value and also such title to
the goods as the person to whose order the goods were
to be delivered by the terms of the document had or
had ability to convey to a purchaser in good faith for
value; and (2) The direct obligation of the bailee
issuing the document to hold possession of the goods
for him according to the terms of the document as fully
as if such bailee had contracted directly with him. (n)
Art. 1514. A person to whom a document of title has been
transferred, but not negotiated, acquires thereby, as against
the transferor, the title to the goods, subject to the terms of
any agreement with the transferor.
If the document is non-negotiable, such person also acquires
the right to notify the bailee who issued the document of the
transfer thereof, and thereby to acquire the direct obligation
of such bailee to hold possession of the goods for him
according to the terms of the document.

Prior to the notification to such bailee by the transferor or

transferee of a non-negotiable document of title, the title of
the transferee to the goods and the right to acquire the
obligation of such bailee may be defeated by the levy of an
attachment of execution upon the goods by a creditor of the
transferor, or by a notification to such bailee by the
transferor or a subsequent purchaser from the transfer of a
subsequent sale of the goods by the transferor. (n)

Art. 1515. Where a negotiable document of title is

transferred for value by delivery, and the endorsement of the
transferor is essential for negotiation, the transferee
acquires a right against the transferor to compel him to
endorse the document unless a contrary intention appears.
The negotiation shall take effect as of the time when the
endorsement is actually made. (n)

Art. 1516. A person who for value negotiates or transfers a

document of title by endorsement or delivery, including one
who assigns for value a claim secured by a document of title
unless a contrary intention appears, warrants:

(1) That the document is genuine; (2) That he has a legal

right to negotiate or transfer it; (3) That he has
knowledge of no fact which would impair the validity or
worth of the document; and (4) That he has a right to
transfer the title to the goods and that the goods are
merchantable or fit for a particular purpose, whenever
such warranties would have been implied if the
contract of the parties had been to transfer without a
document of title the goods represented thereby. (n)
Art. 1517. The endorsement of a document of title shall not
make the endorser liable for any failure on the part of the
bailee who issued the document or previous endorsers
thereof to fulfill their respective obligations. (n)
Art. 1518. The validity of the negotiation of a negotiable
document of title is not impaired by the fact that the
negotiation was a breach of duty on the part of the person
making the negotiation, or by the fact that the owner of the
document was deprived of the possession of the same by
loss, theft, fraud, accident, mistake, duress, or conversion, if
the person to whom the document was negotiated or a
person to whom the document was subsequently negotiated
paid value therefor in good faith without notice of the breach
of duty, or loss, theft, fraud, accident, mistake, duress or
conversion. (n)

Art. 1519. If goods are delivered to a bailee by the owner or

by a person whose act in conveying the title to them to a
purchaser in good faith for value would bind the owner and a
negotiable document of title is issued for them they cannot
thereafter, while in possession of such bailee, be attached by
garnishment or otherwise or be levied under an execution
unless the document be first surrendered to the bailee or its
negotiation enjoined. The bailee shall in no case be
compelled to deliver up the actual possession of the goods
until the document is surrendered to him or impounded by
the court. (n)
Art. 1520. A creditor whose debtor is the owner of a
negotiable document of title shall be entitled to such aid
from courts of appropriate jurisdiction by injunction and
otherwise in attaching such document or in satisfying the
claim by means thereof as is allowed at law or in equity in
regard to property which cannot readily be attached or
levied upon by ordinary legal process. (n)

Art. 1521. Whether it is for the buyer to take possession of

the goods or of the seller to send them to the buyer is a
question depending in each case on the contract, express or
implied, between the parties. Apart from any such contract,
express or implied, or usage of trade to the contrary, the
place of delivery is the seller's place of business if he has
one, and if not his residence; but in case of a contract of sale
of specific goods, which to the knowledge of the parties
when the contract or the sale was made were in some other
place, then that place is the place of delivery.

Where by a contract of sale the seller is bound to send the

goods to the buyer, but no time for sending them is fixed,
the seller is bound to send them within a reasonable time.

Where the goods at the time of sale are in the possession of

a third person, the seller has not fulfilled his obligation to
deliver to the buyer unless and until such third person
acknowledges to the buyer that he holds the goods on the
buyer's behalf.

Demand or tender of delivery may be treated as ineffectual

unless made at a reasonable hour. What is a reasonable hour
is a question of fact.

Unless otherwise agreed, the expenses of and incidental to

putting the goods into a deliverable state must be borne by
the seller. (n)

Art. 1522. Where the seller delivers to the buyer a quantity

of goods less than he contracted to sell, the buyer may reject
them, but if the buyer accepts or retains the goods so
delivered, knowing that the seller is not going to perform the
contract in full, he must pay for them at the contract rate. If,
however, the buyer has used or disposed of the goods
delivered before he knows that the seller is not going to
perform his contract in full, the buyer shall not be liable for
more than the fair value to him of the goods so received.

Where the seller delivers to the buyer a quantity of goods

larger than he contracted to sell, the buyer may accept the
goods included in the contract and reject the rest. If the
buyer accepts the whole of the goods so delivered he must
pay for them at the contract rate.

Where the seller delivers to the buyer the goods he

contracted to sell mixed with goods of a different description
not included in the contract, the buyer may accept the goods
which are in accordance with the contract and reject the rest.

In the preceding two paragraphs, if the subject matter is

indivisible, the buyer may reject the whole of the goods.

The provisions of this article are subject to any usage of

trade, special agreement, or course of dealing between the
parties. (n)

Art. 1523. Where, in pursuance of a contract of sale, the

seller is authorized or required to send the goods to the
buyer, delivery of the goods to a carrier, whether named by
the buyer or not, for the purpose of transmission to the
buyer is deemed to be a delivery of the goods to the buyer,
except in the case provided for in Article 1503, first, second
and third paragraphs, or unless a contrary intent appears.

Unless otherwise authorized by the buyer, the seller must

make such contract with the carrier on behalf of the buyer as
may be reasonable, having regard to the nature of the goods
and the other circumstances of the case. If the seller omit so
to do, and the goods are lost or damaged in course of transit,
the buyer may decline to treat the delivery to the carrier as a
delivery to himself, or may hold the seller responsible in
damages.

Unless otherwise agreed, where goods are sent by the seller

to the buyer under circumstances in which the seller knows
or ought to know that it is usual to insure, the seller must
give such notice to the buyer as may enable him to insure
them during their transit, and, if the seller fails to do so, the
goods shall be deemed to be at his risk during such transit.
(n)

Art. 1524. The vendor shall not be bound to deliver the thing
sold, if the vendee has not paid him the price, or if no period
for the payment has been fixed in the contract. (1466)

Art. 1525. The seller of goods is deemed to be an unpaid

seller within the meaning of this Title:

(1) When the whole of the price has not been paid or
 tendered; (2) When a bill of exchange or other
negotiable instrument has been received as conditional
payment, and the condition on which it was received
has been broken by reason of the dishonor of the
instrument, the insolvency of the buyer, or otherwise.
In Articles 1525 to 1535 the term "seller" includes an agent
of the seller to whom the bill of lading has been indorsed, or
a consignor or agent who has himself paid, or is directly
responsible for the price, or any other person who is in the
position of a seller. (n)
Art. 1526. Subject to the provisions of this Title,
notwithstanding that the ownership in the goods may have
passed to the buyer, the unpaid seller of goods, as such, has:

(1) A lien on the goods or right to retain them for the price
while he is in possession of them; (2) In case of the
insolvency of the buyer, a right of stopping the goods in
transitu after he has parted with the possession of
them; (3) A right of resale as limited by this Title; (4)
A right to rescind the sale as likewise limited by this
Title.
Where the ownership in the goods has not passed to the
buyer, the unpaid seller has, in addition to his other
remedies a right of withholding delivery similar to and
coextensive with his rights of lien and stoppage in transitu
where the ownership has passed to the buyer. (n)
Art. 1527. Subject to the provisions of this Title, the unpaid
seller of goods who is in possession of them is entitled to
retain possession of them until payment or tender of the
price in the following cases, namely:

(1) Where the goods have been sold without any

stipulation as to credit; (2) Where the goods have been
sold on credit, but the term of credit has expired; (3)
Where the buyer becomes insolvent.
The seller may exercise his right of lien notwithstanding that
he is in possession of the goods as agent or bailee for the
buyer. (n)
Art. 1528. Where an unpaid seller has made part delivery of
the goods, he may exercise his right of lien on the remainder,
unless such part delivery has been made under such
circumstances as to show an intent to waive the lien or right
of retention. (n)

Art. 1529. The unpaid seller of goods loses his lien thereon:

(1) When he delivers the goods to a carrier or other bailee

for the purpose of transmission to the buyer without
 reserving the ownership in the goods or the right to the
possession thereof; (2) When the buyer or his agent
lawfully obtains possession of the goods; (3) By
waiver thereof.
The unpaid seller of goods, having a lien thereon, does not
lose his lien by reason only that he has obtained judgment or
decree for the price of the goods. (n)
Art. 1530. Subject to the provisions of this Title, when the
buyer of goods is or becomes insolvent, the unpaid seller
who has parted with the possession of the goods has the
right of stopping them in transitu, that is to say, he may
resume possession of the goods at any time while they are in
transit, and he will then become entitled to the same rights
in regard to the goods as he would have had if he had never
parted with the possession. (n)

Art. 1531. Goods are in transit within the meaning of the

preceding article:

(1) From the time when they are delivered to a carrier by

land, water, or air, or other bailee for the purpose of
transmission to the buyer, until the buyer, or his agent
in that behalf, takes delivery of them from such carrier
or other bailee; (2) If the goods are rejected by the
buyer, and the carrier or other bailee continues in
possession of them, even if the seller has refused to
receive them back.
Goods are no longer in transit within the meaning of the
preceding article:
(1) If the buyer, or his agent in that behalf, obtains
delivery of the goods before their arrival at the
appointed destination; (2) If, after the arrival of the
goods at the appointed destination, the carrier or other
bailee acknowledges to the buyer or his agent that he
holds the goods on his behalf and continues in
possession of them as bailee for the buyer or his agent;
and it is immaterial that further destination for the
goods may have been indicated by the buyer; (3) If the
carrier or other bailee wrongfully refuses to deliver the
goods to the buyer or his agent in that behalf.
If the goods are delivered to a ship, freight train, truck, or
airplane chartered by the buyer, it is a question depending
on the circumstances of the particular case, whether they
are in the possession of the carrier as such or as agent of the
buyer.
If part delivery of the goods has been made to the buyer, or
his agent in that behalf, the remainder of the goods may be
stopped in transitu, unless such part delivery has been under
such circumstances as to show an agreement with the buyer
to give up possession of the whole of the goods. (n)

Art. 1532. The unpaid seller may exercise his right of

stoppage in transitu either by obtaining actual possession of
the goods or by giving notice of his claim to the carrier or
other bailee in whose possession the goods are. Such notice
may be given either to the person in actual possession of the
goods or to his principal. In the latter case the notice, to be
effectual, must be given at such time and under such
circumstances that the principal, by the exercise of
reasonable diligence, may prevent a delivery to the buyer.

When notice of stoppage in transitu is given by the seller to

the carrier, or other bailee in possession of the goods, he
must redeliver the goods to, or according to the directions of,
the seller. The expenses of such delivery must be borne by
the seller. If, however, a negotiable document of title
representing the goods has been issued by the carrier or
other bailee, he shall not obliged to deliver or justified in
delivering the goods to the seller unless such document is
first surrendered for cancellation. (n)

Art. 1533. Where the goods are of perishable nature, or

where the seller expressly reserves the right of resale in
case the buyer should make default, or where the buyer has
been in default in the payment of the price for an
unreasonable time, an unpaid seller having a right of lien or
having stopped the goods in transitu may resell the goods.
He shall not thereafter be liable to the original buyer upon
the contract of sale or for any profit made by such resale,
but may recover from the buyer damages for any loss
occasioned by the breach of the contract of sale.

Where a resale is made, as authorized in this article, the

buyer acquires a good title as against the original buyer.

It is not essential to the validity of resale that notice of an

intention to resell the goods be given by the seller to the
original buyer. But where the right to resell is not based on
the perishable nature of the goods or upon an express
provision of the contract of sale, the giving or failure to give
such notice shall be relevant in any issue involving the
question whether the buyer had been in default for an
unreasonable time before the resale was made.

It is not essential to the validity of a resale that notice of the

time and place of such resale should be given by the seller to
the original buyer.

The seller is bound to exercise reasonable care and

judgment in making a resale, and subject to this requirement
may make a resale either by public or private sale. He cannot,
however, directly or indirectly buy the goods. (n)

Art. 1534. An unpaid seller having the right of lien or having

stopped the goods in transitu, may rescind the transfer of
title and resume the ownership in the goods, where he
expressly reserved the right to do so in case the buyer
should make default, or where the buyer has been in default
in the payment of the price for an unreasonable time. The
seller shall not thereafter be liable to the buyer upon the
contract of sale, but may recover from the buyer damages
for any loss occasioned by the breach of the contract.

The transfer of title shall not be held to have been rescinded

by an unpaid seller until he has manifested by notice to the
buyer or by some other overt act an intention to rescind. It is
not necessary that such overt act should be communicated
to the buyer, but the giving or failure to give notice to the
buyer of the intention to rescind shall be relevant in any
issue involving the question whether the buyer had been in
default for an unreasonable time before the right of
rescission was asserted. (n)

Art. 1535. Subject to the provisions of this Title, the unpaid

seller's right of lien or stoppage in transitu is not affected by
any sale, or other disposition of the goods which the buyer
may have made, unless the seller has assented thereto.

If, however, a negotiable document of title has been issued

for goods, no seller's lien or right of stoppage in transitu
shall defeat the right of any purchaser for value in good faith
to whom such document has been negotiated, whether such
negotiation be prior or subsequent to the notification to the
carrier, or other bailee who issued such document, of the
seller's claim to a lien or right of stoppage in transitu. (n)

Art. 1536. The vendor is not bound to deliver the thing sold
in case the vendee should lose the right to make use of the
terms as provided in Article 1198. (1467a)

Art. 1537. The vendor is bound to deliver the thing sold and
its accessions and accessories in the condition in which they
were upon the perfection of the contract.

All the fruits shall pertain to the vendee from the day on
which the contract was perfected. (1468a)

Art. 1538. In case of loss, deterioration or improvement of

the thing before its delivery, the rules in Article 1189 shall
be observed, the vendor being considered the debtor. (n)

Art. 1539. The obligation to deliver the thing sold includes

that of placing in the control of the vendee all that is
mentioned in the contract, in conformity with the following
rules:

If the sale of real estate should be made with a statement of

its area, at the rate of a certain price for a unit of measure or
number, the vendor shall be obliged to deliver to the vendee,
if the latter should demand it, all that may have been stated
in the contract; but, should this be not possible, the vendee
may choose between a proportional reduction of the price
and the rescission of the contract, provided that, in the latter
case, the lack in the area be not less than one-tenth of that
stated.

The same shall be done, even when the area is the same, if
any part of the immovable is not of the quality specified in
the contract.

The rescission, in this case, shall only take place at the will
of the vendee, when the inferior value of the thing sold
exceeds one-tenth of the price agreed upon.

Nevertheless, if the vendee would not have bought the

immovable had he known of its smaller area of inferior
quality, he may rescind the sale. (1469a)

Art. 1540. If, in the case of the preceding article, there is a

greater area or number in the immovable than that stated in
the contract, the vendee may accept the area included in the
contract and reject the rest. If he accepts the whole area, he
must pay for the same at the contract rate. (1470a)

Art. 1541. The provisions of the two preceding articles shall

apply to judicial sales. (n)

Art. 1542. In the sale of real estate, made for a lump sum
and not at the rate of a certain sum for a unit of measure or
number, there shall be no increase or decrease of the price,
although there be a greater or less area or number than that
stated in the contract.

The same rule shall be applied when two or more

immovables as sold for a single price; but if, besides
mentioning the boundaries, which is indispensable in every
conveyance of real estate, its area or number should be
designated in the contract, the vendor shall be bound to
deliver all that is included within said boundaries, even when
it exceeds the area or number specified in the contract; and,
should he not be able to do so, he shall suffer a reduction in
the price, in proportion to what is lacking in the area or
number, unless the contract is rescinded because the vendee
does not accede to the failure to deliver what has been
stipulated. (1471)

Art. 1543. The actions arising from Articles 1539 and 1542
shall prescribe in six months, counted from the day of
delivery. (1472a)

Art. 1544. If the same thing should have been sold to

different vendees, the ownership shall be transferred to the
person who may have first taken possession thereof in good
faith, if it should be movable property.

Should it be immovable property, the ownership shall belong

to the person acquiring it who in good faith first recorded it
in the Registry of Property.

Should there be no inscription, the ownership shall pertain to

the person who in good faith was first in the possession; and,
in the absence thereof, to the person who presents the
oldest title, provided there is good faith. (1473)

SECTION 3. - Conditions and Warranties

Art. 1545. Where the obligation of either party to a contract

of sale is subject to any condition which is not performed,
such party may refuse to proceed with the contract or he
may waive performance of the condition. If the other party
has promised that the condition should happen or be
performed, such first mentioned party may also treat the
nonperformance of the condition as a breach of warranty.
Where the ownership in the thing has not passed, the buyer
may treat the fulfillment by the seller of his obligation to
deliver the same as described and as warranted expressly or
by implication in the contract of sale as a condition of the
obligation of the buyer to perform his promise to accept and
pay for the thing. (n)

Art. 1546. Any affirmation of fact or any promise by the

seller relating to the thing is an express warranty if the
natural tendency of such affirmation or promise is to induce
the buyer to purchase the same, and if the buyer purchase
the thing relying thereon. No affirmation of the value of the
thing, nor any statement purporting to be a statement of the
seller's opinion only, shall be construed as a warranty,
unless the seller made such affirmation or statement as an
expert and it was relied upon by the buyer. (n)

Art. 1547. In a contract of sale, unless a contrary intention

appears, there is:

(1) An implied warranty on the part of the seller that he

has a right to sell the thing at the time when the
ownership is to pass, and that the buyer shall from that
time have and enjoy the legal and peaceful possession
of the thing; (2) An implied warranty that the thing
shall be free from any hidden faults or defects, or any
charge or encumbrance not declared or known to the
buyer.
This Article shall not, however, be held to render liable a
sheriff, auctioneer, mortgagee, pledgee, or other person
professing to sell by virtue of authority in fact or law, for the
sale of a thing in which a third person has a legal or
equitable interest. (n)

SUBSECTION 1. - Warranty in Case of Eviction

Art. 1548. Eviction shall take place whenever by a final

judgment based on a right prior to the sale or an act
imputable to the vendor, the vendee is deprived of the whole
or of a part of the thing purchased.
The vendor shall answer for the eviction even though
nothing has been said in the contract on the subject.

The contracting parties, however, may increase, diminish, or

suppress this legal obligation of the vendor. (1475a)

Art. 1549. The vendee need not appeal from the decision in
order that the vendor may become liable for eviction. (n)

Art. 1550. When adverse possession had been commenced

before the sale but the prescriptive period is completed after
the transfer, the vendor shall not be liable for eviction. (n)

Art. 1551. If the property is sold for nonpayment of taxes

due and not made known to the vendee before the sale, the
vendor is liable for eviction. (n)

Art. 1552. The judgment debtor is also responsible for

eviction in judicial sales, unless it is otherwise decreed in the
judgment. (n)

Art. 1553. Any stipulation exempting the vendor from the

obligation to answer for eviction shall be void, if he acted in
bad faith. (1476)

Art. 1554. If the vendee has renounced the right to warranty

in case of eviction, and eviction should take place, the
vendor shall only pay the value which the thing sold had at
the time of the eviction. Should the vendee have made the
waiver with knowledge of the risks of eviction and assumed
its consequences, the vendor shall not be liable. (1477)

Art. 1555. When the warranty has been agreed upon or

nothing has been stipulated on this point, in case eviction
occurs, the vendee shall have the right to demand of the
vendor:

(1) The return of the value which the thing sold had at the
time of the eviction, be it greater or less than the price
of the sale; (2) The income or fruits, if he has been
ordered to deliver them to the party who won the suit
against him; (3) The costs of the suit which caused the
eviction, and, in a proper case, those of the suit
brought against the vendor for the warranty; (4) The
expenses of the contract, if the vendee has paid them;
(5) The damages and interests, and ornamental
expenses, if the sale was made in bad faith. (1478)
Art. 1556. Should the vendee lose, by reason of the eviction,
a part of the thing sold of such importance, in relation to the
whole, that he would not have bought it without said part,
he may demand the rescission of the contract; but with the
obligation to return the thing without other encumbrances
that those which it had when he acquired it.
He may exercise this right of action, instead of enforcing the
vendor's liability for eviction.

The same rule shall be observed when two or more things

have been jointly sold for a lump sum, or for a separate price
for each of them, if it should clearly appear that the vendee
would not have purchased one without the other. (1479a)

Art. 1557. The warranty cannot be enforced until a final

judgment has been rendered, whereby the vendee loses the
thing acquired or a part thereof. (1480)

Art. 1558. The vendor shall not be obliged to make good the
proper warranty, unless he is summoned in the suit for
eviction at the instance of the vendee. (1481a)

Art. 1559. The defendant vendee shall ask, within the time
fixed in the Rules of Court for answering the complaint, that
the vendor be made a co-defendant. (1482a)

Art. 1560. If the immovable sold should be encumbered with

any non-apparent burden or servitude, not mentioned in the
agreement, of such a nature that it must be presumed that
the vendee would not have acquired it had he been aware
thereof, he may ask for the rescission of the contract, unless
he should prefer the appropriate indemnity. Neither right can
be exercised if the non-apparent burden or servitude is
recorded in the Registry of Property, unless there is an
express warranty that the thing is free from all burdens and
encumbrances.

Within one year, to be computed from the execution of the

deed, the vendee may bring the action for rescission, or sue
for damages.

One year having elapsed, he may only bring an action for

damages within an equal period, to be counted from the date
on which he discovered the burden or servitude. (1483a)

SUBSECTION 2. - Warranty Against Hidden Defects

of or Encumbrances Upon the Thing Sold

Art. 1561. The vendor shall be responsible for warranty

against the hidden defects which the thing sold may have,
should they render it unfit for the use for which it is intended,
or should they diminish its fitness for such use to such an
extent that, had the vendee been aware thereof, he would
not have acquired it or would have given a lower price for it;
but said vendor shall not be answerable for patent defects or
those which may be visible, or for those which are not visible
if the vendee is an expert who, by reason of his trade or
profession, should have known them. (1484a)
Art. 1562. In a sale of goods, there is an implied warranty or
condition as to the quality or fitness of the goods, as follows:

(1) Where the buyer, expressly or by implication, makes

known to the seller the particular purpose for which the
goods are acquired, and it appears that the buyer relies
on the seller's skill or judgment (whether he be the
grower or manufacturer or not), there is an implied
warranty that the goods shall be reasonably fit for such
purpose; (2) Where the goods are brought by
 description from a seller who deals in goods of that
description (whether he be the grower or manufacturer
or not), there is an implied warranty that the goods
shall be of merchantable quality. (n)
Art. 1563. In the case of contract of sale of a specified article
under its patent or other trade name, there is no warranty as
to its fitness for any particular purpose, unless there is a
stipulation to the contrary. (n)
Art. 1564. An implied warranty or condition as to the quality
or fitness for a particular purpose may be annexed by the
usage of trade. (n)

Art. 1565. In the case of a contract of sale by sample, if the

seller is a dealer in goods of that kind, there is an implied
warranty that the goods shall be free from any defect
rendering them unmerchantable which would not be
apparent on reasonable examination of the sample. (n)

Art. 1566. The vendor is responsible to the vendee for any

hidden faults or defects in the thing sold, even though he
was not aware thereof.

This provision shall not apply if the contrary has been

stipulated, and the vendor was not aware of the hidden
faults or defects in the thing sold. (1485)

Art. 1567. In the cases of Articles 1561, 1562, 1564, 1565

and 1566, the vendee may elect between withdrawing from
the contract and demanding a proportionate reduction of the
price, with damages in either case. (1486a)

Art. 1568. If the thing sold should be lost in consequence of

the hidden faults, and the vendor was aware of them, he
shall bear the loss, and shall be obliged to return the price
and refund the expenses of the contract, with damages. If he
was not aware of them, he shall only return the price and
interest thereon, and reimburse the expenses of the contract
which the vendee might have paid. (1487a)

Art. 1569. If the thing sold had any hidden fault at the time
of the sale, and should thereafter be lost by a fortuitous
event or through the fault of the vendee, the latter may
demand of the vendor the price which he paid, less the value
which the thing had when it was lost.

If the vendor acted in bad faith, he shall pay damages to the

vendee. (1488a)

Art. 1570. The preceding articles of this Subsection shall be

applicable to judicial sales, except that the judgment debtor
shall not be liable for damages. (1489a)

Art. 1571. Actions arising from the provisions of the

preceding ten articles shall be barred after six months, from
the delivery of the thing sold. (1490)

Art. 1572. If two or more animals are sold together, whether

for a lump sum or for a separate price for each of them, the
redhibitory defect of one shall only give rise to its redhibition,
and not that of the others; unless it should appear that the
vendee would not have purchased the sound animal or
animals without the defective one.

The latter case shall be presumed when a team, yoke pair, or

set is bought, even if a separate price has been fixed for
each one of the animals composing the same. (1491)

Art. 1573. The provisions of the preceding article with

respect to the sale of animals shall in like manner be
applicable to the sale of other things. (1492)

Art. 1574. There is no warranty against hidden defects of

animals sold at fairs or at public auctions, or of live stock
sold as condemned. (1493a)

Art. 1575. The sale of animals suffering from contagious

diseases shall be void.

A contract of sale of animals shall also be void if the use or

service for which they are acquired has been stated in the
contract, and they are found to be unfit therefor. (1494a)

Art. 1576. If the hidden defect of animals, even in case a

professional inspection has been made, should be of such a
nature that expert knowledge is not sufficient to discover it,
the defect shall be considered as redhibitory.

But if the veterinarian, through ignorance or bad faith should

fail to discover or disclose it, he shall be liable for damages.
(1495)

Art. 1577. The redhibitory action, based on the faults or

defects of animals, must be brought within forty days from
the date of their delivery to the vendee.

This action can only be exercised with respect to faults and

defects which are determined by law or by local customs.
(1496a)
Art. 1578. If the animal should die within three days after its
purchase, the vendor shall be liable if the disease which
cause the death existed at the time of the contract. (1497a)

Art. 1579. If the sale be rescinded, the animal shall be

returned in the condition in which it was sold and delivered,
the vendee being answerable for any injury due to his
negligence, and not arising from the redhibitory fault or
defect. (1498)

Art. 1580. In the sale of animals with redhibitory defects, the

vendee shall also enjoy the right mentioned in article 1567;
but he must make use thereof within the same period which
has been fixed for the exercise of the redhibitory action.
(1499)

Art. 1581. The form of sale of large cattle shall be governed

by special laws. (n)

CHAPTER 5
OBLIGATIONS OF THE VENDEE

Art. 1582. The vendee is bound to accept delivery and to pay

the price of the thing sold at the time and place stipulated in
the contract.
If the time and place should not have been stipulated, the
payment must be made at the time and place of the delivery
of the thing sold. (1500a)

Art. 1583. Unless otherwise agreed, the buyer of goods is

not bound to accept delivery thereof by installments.

Where there is a contract of sale of goods to be delivered by

stated installments, which are to be separately paid for, and
the seller makes defective deliveries in respect of one or
more instalments, or the buyer neglects or refuses without
just cause to take delivery of or pay for one more
instalments, it depends in each case on the terms of the
contract and the circumstances of the case, whether the
breach of contract is so material as to justify the injured
party in refusing to proceed further and suing for damages
for breach of the entire contract, or whether the breach is
severable, giving rise to a claim for compensation but not to
a right to treat the whole contract as broken. (n)

Art. 1584. Where goods are delivered to the buyer, which he

has not previously examined, he is not deemed to have
accepted them unless and until he has had a reasonable
opportunity of examining them for the purpose of
ascertaining whether they are in conformity with the
contract if there is no stipulation to the contrary.

Unless otherwise agreed, when the seller tenders delivery of

goods to the buyer, he is bound, on request, to afford the
buyer a reasonable opportunity of examining the goods for
the purpose of ascertaining whether they are in conformity
with the contract.

Where goods are delivered to a carrier by the seller, in

accordance with an order from or agreement with the buyer,
upon the terms that the goods shall not be delivered by the
carrier to the buyer until he has paid the price, whether such
terms are indicated by marking the goods with the words
"collect on delivery," or otherwise, the buyer is not entitled
to examine the goods before the payment of the price, in the
absence of agreement or usage of trade permitting such
examination. (n)

Art. 1585. The buyer is deemed to have accepted the goods

when he intimates to the seller that he has accepted them,
or when the goods have been delivered to him, and he does
any act in relation to them which is inconsistent with the
ownership of the seller, or when, after the lapse of a
reasonable time, he retains the goods without intimating to
the seller that he has rejected them. (n)

Art. 1586. In the absence of express or implied agreement of

the parties, acceptance of the goods by the buyer shall not
discharge the seller from liability in damages or other legal
remedy for breach of any promise or warranty in the
contract of sale. But, if, after acceptance of the goods, the
buyer fails to give notice to the seller of the breach in any
promise of warranty within a reasonable time after the buyer
knows, or ought to know of such breach, the seller shall not
be liable therefor. (n)

Art. 1587. Unless otherwise agreed, where goods are

delivered to the buyer, and he refuses to accept them,
having the right so to do, he is not bound to return them to
the seller, but it is sufficient if he notifies the seller that he
refuses to accept them. If he voluntarily constitutes himself
a depositary thereof, he shall be liable as such. (n)

Art. 1588. If there is no stipulation as specified in the first

paragraph of article 1523, when the buyer's refusal to accept
the goods is without just cause, the title thereto passes to
him from the moment they are placed at his disposal. (n)
Art. 1589. The vendee shall owe interest for the period
between the delivery of the thing and the payment of the
price, in the following three cases:

(1) Should it have been so stipulated; (2) Should the thing

sold and delivered produce fruits or income; (3)
Should he be in default, from the time of judicial or
extrajudicial demand for the payment of the price.
(1501a)
Art. 1590. Should the vendee be disturbed in the possession
or ownership of the thing acquired, or should he have
reasonable grounds to fear such disturbance, by a
vindicatory action or a foreclosure of mortgage, he may
suspend the payment of the price until the vendor has
caused the disturbance or danger to cease, unless the latter
gives security for the return of the price in a proper case, or
it has been stipulated that, notwithstanding any such
contingency, the vendee shall be bound to make the
payment. A mere act of trespass shall not authorize the
suspension of the payment of the price. (1502a)
Art. 1591. Should the vendor have reasonable grounds to
fear the loss of immovable property sold and its price, he
may immediately sue for the rescission of the sale.

Should such ground not exist, the provisions of Article 1191

shall be observed. (1503)

Art. 1592. In the sale of immovable property, even though it

may have been stipulated that upon failure to pay the price
at the time agreed upon the rescission of the contract shall
of right take place, the vendee may pay, even after the
expiration of the period, as long as no demand for rescission
of the contract has been made upon him either judicially or
by a notarial act. After the demand, the court may not grant
him a new term. (1504a)

Art. 1593. With respect to movable property, the rescission

of the sale shall of right take place in the interest of the
vendor, if the vendee, upon the expiration of the period fixed
for the delivery of the thing, should not have appeared to
receive it, or, having appeared, he should not have tendered
the price at the same time, unless a longer period has been
stipulated for its payment. (1505)

CHAPTER 6
ACTIONS FOR BREACH OF CONTRACT OF SALE OF GOODS

Art. 1594. Actions for breach of the contract of sale of goods

shall be governed particularly by the provisions of this
Chapter, and as to matters not specifically provided for
herein, by other applicable provisions of this Title. (n)
Art. 1595. Where, under a contract of sale, the ownership of
the goods has passed to the buyer and he wrongfully
neglects or refuses to pay for the goods according to the
terms of the contract of sale, the seller may maintain an
action against him for the price of the goods.

Where, under a contract of sale, the price is payable on a

certain day, irrespective of delivery or of transfer of title and
the buyer wrongfully neglects or refuses to pay such price,
the seller may maintain an action for the price although the
ownership in the goods has not passed. But it shall be a
defense to such an action that the seller at any time before
the judgment in such action has manifested an inability to
perform the contract of sale on his part or an intention not to
perform it.

Although the ownership in the goods has not passed, if they

cannot readily be resold for a reasonable price, and if the
provisions of article 1596, fourth paragraph, are not
applicable, the seller may offer to deliver the goods to the
buyer, and, if the buyer refuses to receive them, may notify
the buyer that the goods are thereafter held by the seller as
bailee for the buyer. Thereafter the seller may treat the
goods as the buyer's and may maintain an action for the
price. (n)

Art. 1596. Where the buyer wrongfully neglects or refuses to

accept and pay for the goods, the seller may maintain an
action against him for damages for nonacceptance.

The measure of damages is the estimated loss directly and

naturally resulting in the ordinary course of events from the
buyer's breach of contract.

Where there is an available market for the goods in question,

the measure of damages is, in the absence of special
circumstances showing proximate damage of a different
amount, the difference between the contract price and the
market or current price at the time or times when the goods
ought to have been accepted, or, if no time was fixed for
acceptance, then at the time of the refusal to accept.

If, while labor or expense of material amount is necessary

on the part of the seller to enable him to fulfill his
obligations under the contract of sale, the buyer repudiates
the contract or notifies the seller to proceed no further
therewith, the buyer shall be liable to the seller for labor
performed or expenses made before receiving notice of the
buyer's repudiation or countermand. The profit the seller
would have made if the contract or the sale had been fully
performed shall be considered in awarding the damages. (n)

Art. 1597. Where the goods have not been delivered to the
buyer, and the buyer has repudiated the contract of sale, or
has manifested his inability to perform his obligations
thereunder, or has committed a breach thereof, the seller
may totally rescind the contract of sale by giving notice of
his election so to do to the buyer. (n)

Art. 1598. Where the seller has broken a contract to deliver

specific or ascertained goods, a court may, on the application
of the buyer, direct that the contract shall be performed
specifically, without giving the seller the option of retaining
the goods on payment of damages. The judgment or decree
may be unconditional, or upon such terms and conditions as
to damages, payment of the price and otherwise, as the
court may deem just. (n)

Art. 1599. Where there is a breach of warranty by the seller,

the buyer may, at his election:

(1) Accept or keep the goods and set up against the seller,
the breach of warranty by way of recoupment in
diminution or extinction of the price; (2) Accept or keep
the goods and maintain an action against the seller for
damages for the breach of warranty; (3) Refuse to
accept the goods, and maintain an action against the
seller for damages for the breach of warranty; (4)
Rescind the contract of sale and refuse to receive the
goods or if the goods have already been received,
return them or offer to return them to the seller and
recover the price or any part thereof which has been
paid. When the buyer has claimed and been granted
a remedy in anyone of these ways, no other remedy can
thereafter be granted, without prejudice to the
provisions of the second paragraph of Article 1191.
Where the goods have been delivered to the buyer, he
cannot rescind the sale if he knew of the breach of
warranty when he accepted the goods without protest,
or if he fails to notify the seller within a reasonable
time of the election to rescind, or if he fails to return or
to offer to return the goods to the seller in substantially
as good condition as they were in at the time the
 ownership was transferred to the buyer. But if
deterioration or injury of the goods is due to the breach
or warranty, such deterioration or injury shall not
prevent the buyer from returning or offering to return
the goods to the seller and rescinding the sale. Where
the buyer is entitled to rescind the sale and elects to do
so, he shall cease to be liable for the price upon
returning or offering to return the goods. If the price or
any part thereof has already been paid, the seller shall
be liable to repay so much thereof as has been paid,
concurrently with the return of the goods, or
immediately after an offer to return the goods in
exchange for repayment of the price. Where the buyer
is entitled to rescind the sale and elects to do so, if the
seller refuses to accept an offer of the buyer to return
the goods, the buyer shall thereafter be deemed to hold
the goods as bailee for the seller, but subject to a lien
to secure payment of any portion of the price which has
been paid, and with the remedies for the enforcement
of such lien allowed to an unpaid seller by Article 1526.
(5) In the case of breach of warranty of quality, such
loss, in the absence of special circumstances showing
proximate damage of a greater amount, is the
difference between the value of the goods at the time
of delivery to the buyer and the value they would have
had if they had answered to the warranty. (n)

CHAPTER 7
EXTINGUISHMENT OF SALE

Art. 1600. Sales are extinguished by the same causes as all

other obligations, by those stated in the preceding articles of
this Title, and by conventional or legal redemption. (1506)

SECTION 1. - Conventional Redemption

Art. 1601. Conventional redemption shall take place when

the vendor reserves the right to repurchase the thing sold,
with the obligation to comply with the provisions of Article
1616 and other stipulations which may have been agreed
upon. (1507)
Art. 1602. The contract shall be presumed to be an equitable
mortgage, in any of the following cases:

(1) When the price of a sale with right to repurchase is

unusually inadequate; (2) When the vendor remains in
possession as lessee or otherwise; (3) When upon or
after the expiration of the right to repurchase another
 instrument extending the period of redemption or
granting a new period is executed; (4) When the
purchaser retains for himself a part of the purchase
price; (5) When the vendor binds himself to pay the
taxes on the thing sold; (6) In any other case where it
may be fairly inferred that the real intention of the
parties is that the transaction shall secure the payment
of a debt or the performance of any other obligation.
In any of the foregoing cases, any money, fruits, or other
benefit to be received by the vendee as rent or otherwise
shall be considered as interest which shall be subject to the
usury laws. (n)
Art. 1603. In case of doubt, a contract purporting to be a
sale with right to repurchase shall be construed as an
equitable mortgage. (n)

Art. 1604. The provisions of Article 1602 shall also apply to a

contract purporting to be an absolute sale. (n)

Art. 1605. In the cases referred to in Articles 1602 and 1604,

the apparent vendor may ask for the reformation of the
instrument. (n)

Art. 1606. The right referred to in Article 1601, in the

absence of an express agreement, shall last four years from
the date of the contract.

Should there be an agreement, the period cannot exceed ten

years.

However, the vendor may still exercise the right to

repurchase within thirty days from the time final judgment
was rendered in a civil action on the basis that the contract
was a true sale with right to repurchase. (1508a)

Art. 1607. In case of real property, the consolidation of

ownership in the vendee by virtue of the failure of the
vendor to comply with the provisions of article 1616 shall
not be recorded in the Registry of Property without a judicial
order, after the vendor has been duly heard. (n)

Art. 1608. The vendor may bring his action against every
possessor whose right is derived from the vendee, even if in
the second contract no mention should have been made of
the right to repurchase, without prejudice to the provisions
of the Mortgage Law and the Land Registration Law with
respect to third persons. (1510)

Art. 1609. The vendee is subrogated to the vendor's rights

and actions. (1511)

Art. 1610. The creditors of the vendor cannot make use of

the right of redemption against the vendee, until after they
have exhausted the property of the vendor. (1512)

Art. 1611. In a sale with a right to repurchase, the vendee of

a part of an undivided immovable who acquires the whole
thereof in the case of article 498, may compel the vendor to
redeem the whole property, if the latter wishes to make use
of the right of redemption. (1513)

Art. 1612. If several persons, jointly and in the same

contract, should sell an undivided immovable with a right of
repurchase, none of them may exercise this right for more
than his respective share.

The same rule shall apply if the person who sold an

immovable alone has left several heirs, in which case each of
the latter may only redeem the part which he may have
acquired. (1514)

Art. 1613. In the case of the preceding article, the vendee

may demand of all the vendors or co-heirs that they come to
an agreement upon the purchase of the whole thing sold;
and should they fail to do so, the vendee cannot be
compelled to consent to a partial redemption. (1515)

Art. 1614. Each one of the co-owners of an undivided

immovable who may have sold his share separately, may
independently exercise the right of repurchase as regards
his own share, and the vendee cannot compel him to redeem
the whole property. (1516)

Art. 1615. If the vendee should leave several heirs, the

action for redemption cannot be brought against each of
them except for his own share, whether the thing be
undivided, or it has been partitioned among them.

But if the inheritance has been divided, and the thing sold
has been awarded to one of the heirs, the action for
redemption may be instituted against him for the whole.
(1517)

Art. 1616. The vendor cannot avail himself of the right of

repurchase without returning to the vendee the price of the
sale, and in addition:

(1) The expenses of the contract, and any other legitimate

 payments made by reason of the sale; (2) The
necessary and useful expenses made on the thing sold.
(1518)
Art. 1617. If at the time of the execution of the sale there
should be on the land, visible or growing fruits, there shall
be no reimbursement for or prorating of those existing at the
time of redemption, if no indemnity was paid by the
purchaser when the sale was executed.
Should there have been no fruits at the time of the sale and
some exist at the time of redemption, they shall be prorated
between the redemptioner and the vendee, giving the latter
the part corresponding to the time he possessed the land in
the last year, counted from the anniversary of the date of the
sale. (1519a)

Art. 1618. The vendor who recovers the thing sold shall
receive it free from all charges or mortgages constituted by
the vendee, but he shall respect the leases which the latter
may have executed in good faith, and in accordance with the
custom of the place where the land is situated. (1520)

SECTION 2. - Legal Redemption

Art. 1619. Legal redemption is the right to be subrogated,

upon the same terms and conditions stipulated in the
contract, in the place of one who acquires a thing by
purchase or dation in payment, or by any other transaction
whereby ownership is transmitted by onerous title. (1521a)
Art. 1620. A co-owner of a thing may exercise the right of
redemption in case the shares of all the other co-owners or
of any of them, are sold to a third person. If the price of the
alienation is grossly excessive, the redemptioner shall pay
only a reasonable one.

Should two or more co-owners desire to exercise the right of

redemption, they may only do so in proportion to the share
they may respectively have in the thing owned in common.
(1522a)

Art. 1621. The owners of adjoining lands shall also have the
right of redemption when a piece of rural land, the area of
which does not exceed one hectare, is alienated, unless the
grantee does not own any rural land.

This right is not applicable to adjacent lands which are

separated by brooks, drains, ravines, roads and other
apparent servitudes for the benefit of other estates.
If two or more adjoining owners desire to exercise the right
of redemption at the same time, the owner of the adjoining
land of smaller area shall be preferred; and should both
lands have the same area, the one who first requested the
redemption. (1523a)

Art. 1622. Whenever a piece of urban land which is so small

and so situated that a major portion thereof cannot be used
for any practical purpose within a reasonable time, having
been bought merely for speculation, is about to be re-sold,
the owner of any adjoining land has a right of pre-emption at
a reasonable price.

If the re-sale has been perfected, the owner of the adjoining

land shall have a right of redemption, also at a reasonable
price.

When two or more owners of adjoining lands wish to

exercise the right of

pre-emption or redemption, the owner whose intended use

of the land in question appears best justified shall be
preferred. (n)

Art. 1623. The right of legal pre-emption or redemption shall

not be exercised except within thirty days from the notice in
writing by the prospective vendor, or by the vendor, as the
case may be. The deed of sale shall not be recorded in the
Registry of Property, unless accompanied by an affidavit of
the vendor that he has given written notice thereof to all
possible redemptioners.

The right of redemption of co-owners excludes that of

adjoining owners. (1524a)

CHAPTER 8
ASSIGNMENT OF CREDITS AND OTHER INCORPOREAL
RIGHTS

Art. 1624. An assignment of creditors and other incorporeal

rights shall be perfected in accordance with the provisions of
Article 1475. (n)
Art. 1625. An assignment of a credit, right or action shall
produce no effect as against third person, unless it appears
in a public instrument, or the instrument is recorded in the
Registry of Property in case the assignment involves real
property. (1526)

Art. 1626. The debtor who, before having knowledge of the

assignment, pays his creditor shall be released from the
obligation. (1527)

Art. 1627. The assignment of a credit includes all the

accessory rights, such as a guaranty, mortgage, pledge or
preference. (1528)

Art. 1628. The vendor in good faith shall be responsible for

the existence and legality of the credit at the time of the sale,
unless it should have been sold as doubtful; but not for the
solvency of the debtor, unless it has been so expressly
stipulated or unless the insolvency was prior to the sale and
of common knowledge.

Even in these cases he shall only be liable for the price

received and for the expenses specified in No. 1 of Article
1616.

The vendor in bad faith shall always be answerable for the

payment of all expenses, and for damages. (1529)

Art. 1629. In case the assignor in good faith should have

made himself responsible for the solvency of the debtor, and
the contracting parties should not have agreed upon the
duration of the liability, it shall last for one year only, from
the time of the assignment if the period had already expired.

If the credit should be payable within a term or period which

has not yet expired, the liability shall cease one year after
the maturity. (1530a)

Art. 1630. One who sells an inheritance without enumerating

the things of which it is composed, shall only be answerable
for his character as an heir. (1531)

Art. 1631. One who sells for a lump sum the whole of certain
rights, rents, or products, shall comply by answering for the
legitimacy of the whole in general; but he shall not be
obliged to warrant each of the various parts of which it may
be composed, except in the case of eviction from the whole
or the part of greater value. (1532a)

Art. 1632. Should the vendor have profited by some of the

fruits or received anything from the inheritance sold, he shall
pay the vendee thereof, if the contrary has not been
stipulated. (1533)

Art. 1633. The vendee shall, on his part, reimburse the

vendor for all that the latter may have paid for the debts of
and charges on the estate and satisfy the credits he may
have against the same, unless there is an agreement to the
contrary. (1534)

Art. 1634. When a credit or other incorporeal right in

litigation is sold, the debtor shall have a right to extinguish it
by reimbursing the assignee for the price the latter paid
therefor, the judicial costs incurred by him, and the interest
on the price from the day on which the same was paid.

A credit or other incorporeal right shall be considered in

litigation from the time the complaint concerning the same is
answered.

The debtor may exercise his right within thirty days from the
date the assignee demands payment from him. (1535)

Art. 1635. From the provisions of the preceding article shall

be excepted the assignments or sales made:

(1) To a co-heir or co-owner of the right assigned; (2) To a

creditor in payment of his credit; (3) To the possessor
of a tenement or piece of land which is subject to the
right in litigation assigned. (1536)
CHAPTER 9
GENERAL PROVISIONS

Art. 1636. In the preceding articles in this Title governing

the sale of goods, unless the context or subject matter
otherwise requires:
(1) "Document of title to goods" includes any bill of lading,
dock warrant, "quedan," or warehouse receipt or order
for the delivery of goods, or any other document used
in the ordinary course of business in the sale or
transfer of goods, as proof of the possession or control
of the goods, or authorizing or purporting to authorize
the possessor of the document to transfer or receive,
either by endorsement or by delivery, goods
represented by such document. "Goods" includes all
chattels personal but not things in action or money of
legal tender in the Philippines. The term includes
growing fruits or crops. "Order" relating to documents
of title means an order by endorsement on the
documents. "Quality of goods" includes their state or
condition. "Specific goods" means goods identified and
agreed upon at the time a contract of sale is made. An
antecedent or pre-existing claim, whether for money or
not, constitutes "value" where goods or documents of
 title are taken either in satisfaction thereof or as
security therefor. (2) A person is insolvent within the
meaning of this Title who either has ceased to pay his
debts in the ordinary course of business or cannot pay
his debts as they become due, whether insolvency
proceedings have been commenced or not. (3) Goods
are in a "deliverable state" within the meaning of this
Title when they are in such a state that the buyer would,
under the contract, be bound to take delivery of them.
(n)
Art. 1637. The provisions of this Title are subject to the rules
laid down by the Mortgage Law and the Land Registration
Law with regard to immovable property. (1537a)

Title VII. - BARTER OR EXCHANGE

Art. 1638. By the contract of barter or exchange one of the

parties binds himself to give one thing in consideration of
the other's promise to give another thing. (1538a)
Art. 1639. If one of the contracting parties, having received
the thing promised him in barter, should prove that it did not
belong to the person who gave it, he cannot be compelled to
deliver that which he offered in exchange, but he shall be
entitled to damages. (1539a)

Art. 1640. One who loses by eviction the thing received in

barter may recover that which he gave in exchange with a
right to damages, or he may only demand an indemnity for
damages. However, he can only make use of the right to
recover the thing which he has delivered while the same
remains in the possession of the other party, and without
prejudice to the rights acquired in good faith in the
meantime by a third person. (1540a)

Art. 1641. As to all matters not specifically provided for in

this Title, barter shall be governed by the provisions of the
preceding Title relating to sales. (1541a)

Title VIII. - LEASE

CHAPTER 1
GENERAL PROVISIONS

Art. 1642. The contract of lease may be of things, or of work

and service. (1542)
Art. 1643. In the lease of things, one of the parties binds
himself to give to another the enjoyment or use of a thing for
a price certain, and for a period which may be definite or
indefinite. However, no lease for more than ninety-nine
years shall be valid. (1543a)

Art. 1644. In the lease of work or service, one of the parties

binds himself to execute a piece of work or to render to the
other some service for a price certain, but the relation of
principal and agent does not exist between them. (1544a)

Art. 1645. Consumable goods cannot be the subject matter

of a contract of lease, except when they are merely to be
exhibited or when they are accessory to an industrial
establishment. (1545a)

CHAPTER 2
LEASE OF RURAL AND URBAN LANDS

SECTION 1. - General Provisions

Art. 1646. The persons disqualified to buy referred to in

Articles 1490 and 1491, are also disqualified to become
lessees of the things mentioned therein. (n)
Art. 1647. If a lease is to be recorded in the Registry of
Property, the following persons cannot constitute the same
without proper authority: the husband with respect to the
wife's paraphernal real estate, the father or guardian as to
the property of the minor or ward, and the manager without
special power. (1548a)

Art. 1648. Every lease of real estate may be recorded in the

Registry of Property. Unless a lease is recorded, it shall not
be binding upon third persons. (1549a)

Art. 1649. The lessee cannot assign the lease without the
consent of the lessor, unless there is a stipulation to the
contrary. (n)

Art. 1650. When in the contract of lease of things there is no

express prohibition, the lessee may sublet the thing leased,
in whole or in part, without prejudice to his responsibility for
the performance of the contract toward the lessor. (1550)

Art. 1651. Without prejudice to his obligation toward the

sublessor, the sublessee is bound to the lessor for all acts
which refer to the use and preservation of the thing leased in
the manner stipulated between the lessor and the lessee.
(1551)

Art. 1652. The sublessee is subsidiarily liable to the lessor

for any rent due from the lessee. However, the sublessee
shall not be responsible beyond the amount of rent due from
him, in accordance with the terms of the sublease, at the
time of the extrajudicial demand by the lessor.

Payments of rent in advance by the sublessee shall be

deemed not to have been made, so far as the lessor's claim
is concerned, unless said payments were effected in virtue of
the custom of the place. (1552a)

Art. 1653. The provisions governing warranty, contained in

the Title on Sales, shall be applicable to the contract of lease.

In the cases where the return of the price is required,

reduction shall be made in proportion to the time during
which the lessee enjoyed the thing. (1553)

SECTION 2. - Rights and Obligations of the Lessor and the

Lessee
Art. 1654. The lessor is obliged:

(1) To deliver the thing which is the object of the contract

in such a condition as to render it fit for the use
intended; (2) To make on the same during the lease all
the necessary repairs in order to keep it suitable for the
use to which it has been devoted, unless there is a
stipulation to the contrary; (3) To maintain the lessee
in the peaceful and adequate enjoyment of the lease for
the entire duration of the contract. (1554a)
Art. 1655. If the thing leased is totally destroyed by a
fortuitous event, the lease is extinguished. If the destruction
is partial, the lessee may choose between a proportional
reduction of the rent and a rescission of the lease. (n)
Art. 1656. The lessor of a business or industrial
establishment may continue engaging in the same business
or industry to which the lessee devotes the thing leased,
unless there is a stipulation to the contrary. (n)

Art. 1657. The lessee is obliged:

(1) To pay the price of the lease according to the terms

stipulated; (2) To use the thing leased as a diligent
father of a family, devoting it to the use stipulated; and
in the absence of stipulation, to that which may be
inferred from the nature of the thing leased, according
to the custom of the place; (3) To pay expenses for the
deed of lease. (1555)
Art. 1658. The lessee may suspend the payment of the rent
in case the lessor fails to make the necessary repairs or to
maintain the lessee in peaceful and adequate enjoyment of
the property leased. (n)
Art. 1659. If the lessor or the lessee should not comply with
the obligations set forth in Articles 1654 and 1657, the
aggrieved party may ask for the rescission of the contract
and indemnification for damages, or only the latter, allowing
the contract to remain in force. (1556)

Art. 1660. If a dwelling place or any other building intended

for human habitation is in such a condition that its use
brings imminent and serious danger to life or health, the
lessee may terminate the lease at once by notifying the
lessor, even if at the time the contract was perfected the
former knew of the dangerous condition or waived the right
to rescind the lease on account of this condition. (n)

Art. 1661. The lessor cannot alter the form of the thing
leased in such a way as to impair the use to which the thing
is devoted under the terms of the lease. (1557a)

Art. 1662. If during the lease it should become necessary to

make some urgent repairs upon the thing leased, which
cannot be deferred until the termination of the lease, the
lessee is obliged to tolerate the work, although it may be
very annoying to him, and although during the same, he may
be deprived of a part of the premises.

If the repairs last more than forty days the rent shall be
reduced in proportion to the time - including the first forty
days - and the part of the property of which the lessee has
been deprived.

When the work is of such a nature that the portion which the
lessee and his family need for their dwelling becomes
uninhabitable, he may rescind the contract if the main
purpose of the lease is to provide a dwelling place for the
lessee. (1558a)

Art. 1663. The lessee is obliged to bring to the knowledge of

the proprietor, within the shortest possible time, every
usurpation or untoward act which any third person may have
committed or may be openly preparing to carry out upon the
thing leased.

He is also obliged to advise the owner, with the same

urgency, of the need of all repairs included in No. 2 of Article
1654.

In both cases the lessee shall be liable for the damages

which, through his negligence, may be suffered by the
proprietor.

If the lessor fails to make urgent repairs, the lessee, in order

to avoid an imminent danger, may order the repairs at the
lessor's cost. (1559a)

Art. 1664. The lessor is not obliged to answer for a mere act
of trespass which a third person may cause on the use of the
thing leased; but the lessee shall have a direct action against
the intruder.

There is a mere act of trespass when the third person claims

no right whatever. (1560a)

Art. 1665. The lessee shall return the thing leased, upon the
termination of the lease, as he received it, save what has
been lost or impaired by the lapse of time, or by ordinary
wear and tear, or from an inevitable cause. (1561a)

Art. 1666. In the absence of a statement concerning the

condition of the thing at the time the lease was constituted,
the law presumes that the lessee received it in good
condition, unless there is proof to the contrary. (1562)

Art. 1667. The lessee is responsible for the deterioration or

loss of the thing leased, unless he proves that it took place
without his fault. This burden of proof on the lessee does not
apply when the destruction is due to earthquake, flood,
storm or other natural calamity. (1563a)

Art. 1668. The lessee is liable for any deterioration caused by

members of his household and by guests and visitors.
(1564a)

Art. 1669. If the lease was made for a determinate time, it

ceases upon the day fixed, without the need of a demand.
(1565)

Art. 1670. If at the end of the contract the lessee should

continue enjoying the thing leased for fifteen days with the
acquiescence of the lessor, and unless a notice to the
contrary by either party has previously been given, it is
understood that there is an implied new lease, not for the
period of the original contract, but for the time established in
Articles 1682 and 1687. The other terms of the original
contract shall be revived. (1566a)

Art. 1671. If the lessee continues enjoying the thing after

the expiration of the contract, over the lessor's objection,
the former shall be subject to the responsibilities of a
possessor in bad faith. (n)

Art. 1672. In case of an implied new lease, the obligations

contracted by a third person for the security of the principal
contract shall cease with respect to the new lease. (1567)

Art. 1673. The lessor may judicially eject the lessee for any
of the following causes:

(1) When the period agreed upon, or that which is fixed for
the duration of leases under Articles 1682 and 1687,
has expired; (2) Lack of payment of the price
stipulated; (3) Violation of any of the conditions
agreed upon in the contract; (4) When the lessee
devotes the thing leased to any use or service not
stipulated which causes the deterioration thereof; or if
he does not observe the requirement in No. 2 of Article
1657, as regards the use thereof.
The ejectment of tenants of agricultural lands is governed by
special laws. (1569a)
Art. 1674. In ejectment cases where an appeal is taken the
remedy granted in Article 539, second paragraph, shall also
apply, if the higher court is satisfied that the lessee's appeal
is frivolous or dilatory, or that the lessor's appeal is prima
facie meritorious. The period of ten days referred to in said
article shall be counted from the time the appeal is perfected.
(n)

Art. 1675. Except in cases stated in Article 1673, the lessee

shall have a right to make use of the periods established in
Articles 1682 and 1687. (1570)

Art. 1676. The purchaser of a piece of land which is under a

lease that is not recorded in the Registry of Property may
terminate the lease, save when there is a stipulation to the
contrary in the contract of sale, or when the purchaser
knows of the existence of the lease.

If the buyer makes use of this right, the lessee may demand
that he be allowed to gather the fruits of the harvest which
corresponds to the current agricultural year and that the
vendor indemnify him for damages suffered.

If the sale is fictitious, for the purpose of extinguishing the

lease, the supposed vendee cannot make use of the right
granted in the first paragraph of this article. The sale is
presumed to be fictitious if at the time the supposed vendee
demands the termination of the lease, the sale is not
recorded in the Registry of Property. (1571a)

Art. 1677. The purchaser in a sale with the right of

redemption cannot make use of the power to eject the lessee
until the end of the period for the redemption. (1572)

Art. 1678. If the lessee makes, in good faith, useful

improvements which are suitable to the use for which the
lease is intended, without altering the form or substance of
the property leased, the lessor upon the termination of the
lease shall pay the lessee one-half of the value of the
improvements at that time. Should the lessor refuse to
reimburse said amount, the lessee may remove the
improvements, even though the principal thing may suffer
damage thereby. He shall not, however, cause any more
impairment upon the property leased than is necessary.

With regard to ornamental expenses, the lessee shall not be

entitled to any reimbursement, but he may remove the
ornamental objects, provided no damage is caused to the
principal thing, and the lessor does not choose to retain
them by paying their value at the time the lease is
extinguished. (n)

Art. 1679. If nothing has been stipulated concerning the

place and the time for the payment of the lease, the
provisions or Article 1251 shall be observed as regards the
place; and with respect to the time, the custom of the place
shall be followed. (1574)

SECTION 3. - Special Provisions for Leases of Rural Lands

Art. 1680. The lessee shall have no right to a reduction of the

rent on account of the sterility of the land leased, or by
reason of the loss of fruits due to ordinary fortuitous events;
but he shall have such right in case of the loss of more than
one-half of the fruits through extraordinary and unforeseen
fortuitous events, save always when there is a specific
stipulation to the contrary.
Extraordinary fortuitous events are understood to be: fire,
war, pestilence, unusual flood, locusts, earthquake, or others
which are uncommon, and which the contracting parties
could not have reasonably foreseen. (1575)

Art. 1681. Neither does the lessee have any right to a

reduction of the rent if the fruits are lost after they have
been separated from their stalk, root or trunk. (1576)

Art. 1682. The lease of a piece of rural land, when its

duration has not been fixed, is understood to have been for
all the time necessary for the gathering of the fruits which
the whole estate leased may yield in one year, or which it
may yield once, although two or more years have to elapse
for the purpose. (1577a)

Art. 1683. The outgoing lessee shall allow the incoming

lessee or the lessor the use of the premises and other means
necessary for the preparatory labor for the following year;
and, reciprocally, the incoming lessee or the lessor is under
obligation to permit the outgoing lessee to do whatever may
be necessary for the gathering or harvesting and utilization
of the fruits, all in accordance with the custom of the place.
(1578a)

Art. 1684. Land tenancy on shares shall be governed by

special laws, the stipulations of the parties, the provisions
on partnership and by the customs of the place. (1579a)

Art. 1685. The tenant on shares cannot be ejected except in

cases specified by law. (n)

SECTION 4. - Special Provisions of the Lease of Urban Lands

Art. 1686. In default of a special stipulation, the custom of
the place shall be observed with regard to the kind of repairs
on urban property for which the lessor shall be liable. In
case of doubt it is understood that the repairs are chargeable
against him. (1580a)

Art. 1687. If the period for the lease has not been fixed, it is
understood to be from year to year, if the rent agreed upon
is annual; from month to month, if it is monthly; from week
to week, if the rent is weekly; and from day to day, if the
rent is to be paid daily. However, even though a monthly
rent is paid, and no period for the lease has been set, the
courts may fix a longer term for the lease after the lessee
has occupied the premises for over one year. If the rent is
weekly, the courts may likewise determine a longer period
after the lessee has been in possession for over six months.
In case of daily rent, the courts may also fix a longer period
after the lessee has stayed in the place for over one month.
(1581a)

Art. 1688. When the lessor of a house, or part thereof, used

as a dwelling for a family, or when the lessor of a store, or
industrial establishment, also leases the furniture, the lease
of the latter shall be deemed to be for the duration of the
lease of the premises. (1582)
 CHAPTER 3
WORK AND LABOR

SECTION 1. - Household Service (n)

Art. 1689. Household service shall always be reasonably

compensated. Any stipulation that household service is
without compensation shall be void. Such compensation
shall be in addition to the house helper's lodging, food, and
medical attendance.
Art. 1690. The head of the family shall furnish, free of charge,
to the house helper, suitable and sanitary quarters as well as
adequate food and medical attendance.

Art. 1691. If the house helper is under the age of eighteen

years, the head of the family shall give an opportunity to the
house helper for at least elementary education. The cost of
such education shall be a part of the house helper's
compensation, unless there is a stipulation to the contrary.

Art. 1692. No contract for household service shall last for

more than two years. However, such contract may be
renewed from year to year.

Art. 1693. The house helper's clothes shall be subject to

stipulation. However, any contract for household service
shall be void if thereby the house helper cannot afford to
acquire suitable clothing.

Art. 1694. The head of the family shall treat the house helper
in a just and humane manner. In no case shall physical
violence be used upon the house helper.

Art. 1695. House helper shall not be required to work more

than ten hours a day. Every house helper shall be allowed
four days' vacation each month, with pay.

Art. 1696. In case of death of the house helper, the head of

the family shall bear the funeral expenses if the house helper
has no relatives in the place where the head of the family
lives, with sufficient means therefor.

Art. 1697. If the period for household service is fixed neither

the head of the family nor the house helper may terminate
the contract before the expiration of the term, except for a
just cause. If the house helper is unjustly dismissed, he shall
be paid the compensation already earned plus that for fifteen
days by way of indemnity. If the house helper leaves without
justifiable reason, he shall forfeit any salary due him and
unpaid, for not exceeding fifteen days.

Art. 1698. If the duration of the household service is not

determined either by stipulation or by the nature of the
service, the head of the family or the house helper may give
notice to put an end to the service relation, according to the
following rules:

(1) If the compensation is paid by the day, notice may be

given on any day that the service shall end at the close
of the following day; (2) If the compensation is paid by
the week, notice may be given, at the latest on the first
business day of the week, that the service shall be
terminated at the end of the seventh day from the
beginning of the week; (3) If the compensation is paid
by the month, notice may be given, at the latest, on the
fifth day of the month, that the service shall cease at
the end of the month.
Art. 1699. Upon the extinguishment of the service relation,
the house helper may demand from the head of the family a
written statement on the nature and duration of the service
and the efficiency and conduct of the house helper.

SECTION 2. - Contract of Labor (n)

Art. 1700. The relations between capital and labor are not
merely contractual. They are so impressed with public
interest that labor contracts must yield to the common good.
Therefore, such contracts are subject to the special laws on
labor unions, collective bargaining, strikes and lockouts,
closed shop, wages, working conditions, hours of labor and
similar subjects.
Art. 1701. Neither capital nor labor shall act oppressively
against the other, or impair the interest or convenience of
the public.

Art. 1702. In case of doubt, all labor legislation and all labor
contracts shall be construed in favor of the safety and decent
living for the laborer.

Art. 1703. No contract which practically amounts to

involuntary servitude, under any guise whatsoever, shall be
valid.

Art. 1704. In collective bargaining, the labor union or

members of the board or committee signing the contract
shall be liable for non-fulfillment thereof.
Art. 1705. The laborer's wages shall be paid in legal currency.

Art. 1706. Withholding of the wages, except for a debt due,

shall not be made by the employer.

Art. 1707. The laborer's wages shall be a lien on the goods

manufactured or the work done.

Art. 1708. The laborer's wages shall not be subject to

execution or attachment, except for debts incurred for food,
shelter, clothing and medical attendance.

Art. 1709. The employer shall neither seize nor retain any
tool or other articles belonging to the laborer.

Art. 1710. Dismissal of laborers shall be subject to the

supervision of the Government, under special laws.

Art. 1711. Owners of enterprises and other employers are

obliged to pay compensation for the death of or injuries to
their laborers, workmen, mechanics or other employees,
even though the event may have been purely accidental or
entirely due to a fortuitous cause, if the death or personal
injury arose out of and in the course of the employment. The
employer is also liable for compensation if the employee
contracts any illness or disease caused by such employment
or as the result of the nature of the employment. If the
mishap was due to the employee's own notorious negligence,
or voluntary act, or drunkenness, the employer shall not be
liable for compensation. When the employee's lack of due
care contributed to his death or injury, the compensation
shall be equitably reduced.

Art. 1712. If the death or injury is due to the negligence of a

fellow worker, the latter and the employer shall be solidarily
liable for compensation. If a fellow worker's intentional
malicious act is the only cause of the death or injury, the
employer shall not be answerable, unless it should be shown
that the latter did not exercise due diligence in the selection
or supervision of the plaintiff's fellow worker.

SECTION 3. - Contract for a Piece of Work

Art. 1713. By the contract for a piece of work the contractor

binds himself to execute a piece of work for the employer, in
consideration of a certain price or compensation. The
contractor may either employ only his labor or skill, or also
furnish the material. (1588a)
Art. 1714. If the contractor agrees to produce the work from
material furnished by him, he shall deliver the thing
produced to the employer and transfer dominion over the
thing. This contract shall be governed by the following
articles as well as by the pertinent provisions on warranty of
title and against hidden defects and the payment of price in
a contract of sale. (n)

Art. 1715. The contract shall execute the work in such a

manner that it has the qualities agreed upon and has no
defects which destroy or lessen its value or fitness for its
ordinary or stipulated use. Should the work be not of such
quality, the employer may require that the contractor
remove the defect or execute another work. If the contract
fails or refuses to comply with this obligation, the employer
may have the defect removed or another work executed, at
the contractor's cost. (n)

Art. 1716. An agreement waiving or limiting the contractor's

liability for any defect in the work is void if the contractor
acted fraudulently. (n)

Art. 1717. If the contractor bound himself to furnish the

material, he shall suffer the loss if the work should be
destroyed before its delivery, save when there has been
delay in receiving it. (1589)

Art. 1718. The contractor who has undertaken to put only his
work or skill, cannot claim any compensation if the work
should be destroyed before its delivery, unless there has
been delay in receiving it, or if the destruction was caused
by the poor quality of the material, provided this fact was
communicated in due time to the owner. If the material is
lost through a fortuitous event, the contract is extinguished.
(1590a)

Art. 1719. Acceptance of the work by the employer relieves

the contractor of liability for any defect in the work, unless:

(1) The defect is hidden and the employer is not, by his

special knowledge, expected to recognize the same; or
(2) The employer expressly reserves his rights against
the contractor by reason of the defect. (n)
Art. 1720. The price or compensation shall be paid at the
time and place of delivery of the work, unless there is a
stipulation to the contrary. If the work is to be delivered
partially, the price or compensation for each part having
been fixed, the sum shall be paid at the time and place of
delivery, in the absence if stipulation. (n)
Art. 1721. If, in the execution of the work, an act of the
employer is required, and he incurs in delay or fails to
perform the act, the contractor is entitled to a reasonable
compensation.

The amount of the compensation is computed, on the one

hand, by the duration of the delay and the amount of the
compensation stipulated, and on the other hand, by what the
contractor has saved in expenses by reason of the delay or is
able to earn by a different employment of his time and
industry. (n)

Art. 1722. If the work cannot be completed on account of a

defect in the material furnished by the employer, or because
of orders from the employer, without any fault on the part of
the contractor, the latter has a right to an equitable part of
the compensation proportionally to the work done, and
reimbursement for proper expenses made. (n)

Art. 1723. The engineer or architect who drew up the plans

and specifications for a building is liable for damages if
within fifteen years from the completion of the structure, the
same should collapse by reason of a defect in those plans
and specifications, or due to the defects in the ground. The
contractor is likewise responsible for the damages if the
edifice falls, within the same period, on account of defects in
the construction or the use of materials of inferior quality
furnished by him, or due to any violation of the terms of the
contract. If the engineer or architect supervises the
construction, he shall be solidarily liable with the contractor.

Acceptance of the building, after completion, does not imply

waiver of any of the cause of action by reason of any defect
mentioned in the preceding paragraph.

The action must be brought within ten years following the

collapse of the building. (n)

Art. 1724. The contractor who undertakes to build a

structure or any other work for a stipulated price, in
conformity with plans and specifications agreed upon with
the land-owner, can neither withdraw from the contract nor
demand an increase in the price on account of the higher
cost of labor or materials, save when there has been a
change in the plans and specifications, provided:

(1) Such change has been authorized by the proprietor in

writing; and (2) The additional price to be paid to the
contractor has been determined in writing by both
 parties. (1593a)
Art. 1725. The owner may withdraw at will from the
construction of the work, although it may have been
commenced, indemnifying the contractor for all the latter's
expenses, work, and the usefulness which the owner may
obtain therefrom, and damages. (1594a)
Art. 1726. When a piece of work has been entrusted to a
person by reason of his personal qualifications, the contract
is rescinded upon his death.

In this case the proprietor shall pay the heirs of the

contractor in proportion to the price agreed upon, the value
of the part of the work done, and of the materials prepared,
provided the latter yield him some benefit.

The same rule shall apply if the contractor cannot finish the
work due to circumstances beyond his control. (1595)

Art. 1727. The contractor is responsible for the work done by

persons employed by him. (1596)

Art. 1728. The contractor is liable for all the claims of

laborers and others employed by him, and of third persons
for death or physical injuries during the construction. (n)

Art. 1729. Those who put their labor upon or furnish

materials for a piece of work undertaken by the contractor
have an action against the owner up to the amount owing
from the latter to the contractor at the time the claim is
made. However, the following shall not prejudice the
laborers, employees and furnishers of materials:

(1) Payments made by the owner to the contractor before

they are due; (2) Renunciation by the contractor of any
amount due him from the owner.
This article is subject to the provisions of special laws.
(1597a)
Art. 1730. If it is agreed that the work shall be accomplished
to the satisfaction of the proprietor, it is understood that in
case of disagreement the question shall be subject to expert
judgment.

If the work is subject to the approval of a third person, his

decision shall be final, except in case of fraud or manifest
error. (1598a)

Art. 1731. He who has executed work upon a movable has a

right to retain it by way of pledge until he is paid. (1600)
 SECTION 4. - Common Carriers (n)

SUBSECTION 1. - General Provisions

Art. 1732. Common carriers are persons, corporations, firms

or associations engaged in the business of carrying or
transporting passengers or goods or both, by land, water, or
air, for compensation, offering their services to the public.
Art. 1733. Common carriers, from the nature of their
business and for reasons of public policy, are bound to
observe extraordinary diligence in the vigilance over the
goods and for the safety of the passengers transported by
them, according to all the circumstances of each case.

Such extraordinary diligence in the vigilance over the goods

is further expressed in Articles 1734, 1735, and 1745, Nos. 5,
6, and 7, while the extraordinary diligence for the safety of
the passengers is further set forth in Articles 1755 and 1756.

SUBSECTION 2. - Vigilance Over Goods

Art. 1734. Common carriers are responsible for the loss,

destruction, or deterioration of the goods, unless the same is
due to any of the following causes only:
(1) Flood, storm, earthquake, lightning, or other natural
disaster or calamity; (2) Act of the public enemy in war,
whether international or civil; (3) Act of omission of
the shipper or owner of the goods; (4) The character of
the goods or defects in the packing or in the containers;
(5) Order or act of competent public authority.
Art. 1735. In all cases other than those mentioned in Nos. 1,
2, 3, 4, and 5 of the preceding article, if the goods are lost,
destroyed or deteriorated, common carriers are presumed to
have been at fault or to have acted negligently, unless they
prove that they observed extraordinary diligence as required
in Article 1733.
Art. 1736. The extraordinary responsibility of the common
carrier lasts from the time the goods are unconditionally
placed in the possession of, and received by the carrier for
transportation until the same are delivered, actually or
constructively, by the carrier to the consignee, or to the
person who has a right to receive them, without prejudice to
the provisions of Article 1738.

Art. 1737. The common carrier's duty to observe

extraordinary diligence over the goods remains in full force
and effect even when they are temporarily unloaded or
stored in transit, unless the shipper or owner has made use
of the right of stoppage in transitu.

Art. 1738. The extraordinary liability of the common carrier

continues to be operative even during the time the goods are
stored in a warehouse of the carrier at the place of
destination, until the consignee has been advised of the
arrival of the goods and has had reasonable opportunity
thereafter to remove them or otherwise dispose of them.

Art. 1739. In order that the common carrier may be

exempted from responsibility, the natural disaster must have
been the proximate and only cause of the loss. However, the
common carrier must exercise due diligence to prevent or
minimize loss before, during and after the occurrence of
flood, storm or other natural disaster in order that the
common carrier may be exempted from liability for the loss,
destruction, or deterioration of the goods. The same duty is
incumbent upon the common carrier in case of an act of the
public enemy referred to in Article 1734, No. 2.

Art. 1740. If the common carrier negligently incurs in delay

in transporting the goods, a natural disaster shall not free
such carrier from responsibility.

Art. 1741. If the shipper or owner merely contributed to the

loss, destruction or deterioration of the goods, the proximate
cause thereof being the negligence of the common carrier,
the latter shall be liable in damages, which however, shall be
equitably reduced.

Art. 1742. Even if the loss, destruction, or deterioration of

the goods should be caused by the character of the goods, or
the faulty nature of the packing or of the containers, the
common carrier must exercise due diligence to forestall or
lessen the loss.

Art. 1743. If through the order of public authority the goods

are seized or destroyed, the common carrier is not
responsible, provided said public authority had power to
issue the order.

Art. 1744. A stipulation between the common carrier and the

shipper or owner limiting the liability of the former for the
loss, destruction, or deterioration of the goods to a degree
less than extraordinary diligence shall be valid, provided it
be:

(1) In writing, signed by the shipper or owner; (2)

 Supported by a valuable consideration other than the
service rendered by the common carrier; and (3)
Reasonable, just and not contrary to public policy.
Art. 1745. Any of the following or similar stipulations shall
be considered unreasonable, unjust and contrary to public
policy:
(1) That the goods are transported at the risk of the owner
or shipper; (2) That the common carrier will not be
liable for any loss, destruction, or deterioration of the
goods; (3) That the common carrier need not observe
any diligence in the custody of the goods; (4) That the
common carrier shall exercise a degree of diligence less
than that of a good father of a family, or of a man of
ordinary prudence in the vigilance over the movables
transported; (5) That the common carrier shall not be
responsible for the acts or omission of his or its
employees; (6) That the common carrier's liability for
acts committed by thieves, or of robbers who do not act
with grave or irresistible threat, violence or force, is
dispensed with or diminished; (7) That the common
carrier is not responsible for the loss, destruction, or
deterioration of goods on account of the defective
condition of the car, vehicle, ship, airplane or other
equipment used in the contract of carriage.
Art. 1746. An agreement limiting the common carrier's
liability may be annulled by the shipper or owner if the
common carrier refused to carry the goods unless the former
agreed to such stipulation.
Art. 1747. If the common carrier, without just cause, delays
the transportation of the goods or changes the stipulated or
usual route, the contract limiting the common carrier's
liability cannot be availed of in case of the loss, destruction,
or deterioration of the goods.

Art. 1748. An agreement limiting the common carrier's

liability for delay on account of strikes or riots is valid.

Art. 1749. A stipulation that the common carrier's liability is

limited to the value of the goods appearing in the bill of
lading, unless the shipper or owner declares a greater value,
is binding.

Art. 1750. A contract fixing the sum that may be recovered.

by the owner or shipper for the loss, destruction, or
deterioration of the goods is valid, if it is reasonable and just
under the circumstances, and has been fairly and freely
agreed upon.
Art. 1751. The fact that the common carrier has no
competitor along the line or route, or a part thereof, to which
the contract refers shall be taken into consideration on the
question of whether or not a stipulation limiting the common
carrier's liability is reasonable, just and in consonance with
public policy.

Art. 1752. Even when there is an agreement limiting the

liability of the common carrier in the vigilance over the
goods, the common carrier is disputably presumed to have
been negligent in case of their loss, destruction or
deterioration.

Art. 1753. The law of the country to which the goods are to
be transported shall govern the liability of the common
carrier for their loss, destruction or deterioration.

Art. 1754. The provisions of Articles 1733 to 1753 shall apply

to the passenger's baggage which is not in his personal
custody or in that of his employee. As to other baggage, the
rules in Articles 1998 and 2000 to 2003 concerning the
responsibility of hotel-keepers shall be applicable.

SUBSECTION 3. - Safety of Passengers

Art. 1755. A common carrier is bound to carry the

passengers safely as far as human care and foresight can
provide, using the utmost diligence of very cautious persons,
with a due regard for all the circumstances.
Art. 1756. In case of death of or injuries to passengers,
common carriers are presumed to have been at fault or to
have acted negligently, unless they prove that they observed
extraordinary diligence as prescribed in Articles 1733 and
1755.

Art. 1757. The responsibility of a common carrier for the

safety of passengers as required in Articles 1733 and 1755
cannot be dispensed with or lessened by stipulation, by the
posting of notices, by statements on tickets, or otherwise.

Art. 1758. When a passenger is carried gratuitously, a

stipulation limiting the common carrier's liability for
negligence is valid, but not for wilful acts or gross
negligence.

The reduction of fare does not justify any limitation of the

common carrier's liability.

Art. 1759. Common carriers are liable for the death of or

injuries to passengers through the negligence or wilful acts
of the former's employees, although such employees may
have acted beyond the scope of their authority or in violation
of the orders of the common carriers.

This liability of the common carriers does not cease upon

proof that they exercised all the diligence of a good father of
a family in the selection and supervision of their employees.

Art. 1760. The common carrier's responsibility prescribed in

the preceding article cannot be eliminated or limited by
stipulation, by the posting of notices, by statements on the
tickets or otherwise.

Art. 1761. The passenger must observe the diligence of a

good father of a family to avoid injury to himself.

Art. 1762. The contributory negligence of the passenger does

not bar recovery of damages for his death or injuries, if the
proximate cause thereof is the negligence of the common
carrier, but the amount of damages shall be equitably
reduced.

Art. 1763. A common carrier is responsible for injuries

suffered by a passenger on account of the wilful acts or
negligence of other passengers or of strangers, if the
common carrier's employees through the exercise of the
diligence of a good father of a family could have prevented
or stopped the act or omission.

SUBSECTION 4. - Common Provisions

Art. 1764. Damages in cases comprised in this Section shall

be awarded in accordance with Title XVIII of this Book,
concerning Damages. Article 2206 shall also apply to the
death of a passenger caused by the breach of contract by a
common carrier.
Art. 1765. The Public Service Commission may, on its own
motion or on petition of any interested party, after due
hearing, cancel the certificate of public convenience granted
to any common carrier that repeatedly fails to comply with
his or its duty to observe extraordinary diligence as
prescribed in this Section.

Art. 1766. In all matters not regulated by this Code, the

rights and obligations of common carriers shall be governed
by the Code of Commerce and by special laws.

Title IX. - PARTNERSHIP

 CHAPTER 1
GENERAL PROVISIONS

Art. 1767. By the contract of partnership two or more

persons bind themselves to contribute money, property, or
industry to a common fund, with the intention of dividing the
profits among themselves.
Two or more persons may also form a partnership for the
exercise of a profession. (1665a)

Art. 1768. The partnership has a judicial personality

separate and distinct from that of each of the partners, even
in case of failure to comply with the requirements of Article
1772, first paragraph. (n)

Art. 1769. In determining whether a partnership exists,

these rules shall apply:

(1) Except as provided by Article 1825, persons who are

not partners as to each other are not partners as to
third persons; (2) Co-ownership or co-possession does
not of itself establish a partnership, whether such-co-
owners or co-possessors do or do not share any profits
made by the use of the property; (3) The sharing of
gross returns does not of itself establish a partnership,
whether or not the persons sharing them have a joint
or common right or interest in any property from which
the returns are derived; (4) The receipt by a person of
a share of the profits of a business is prima facie
evidence that he is a partner in the business, but no
such inference shall be drawn if such profits were
received in payment:
(a) As a debt by installments or otherwise; (b) As
wages of an employee or rent to a landlord; (c)
As an annuity to a widow or representative of a
deceased partner; (d) As interest on a loan,
though the amount of payment vary with the
profits of the business; (e) As the consideration
for the sale of a goodwill of a business or other
property by installments or otherwise. (n)
Art. 1770. A partnership must have a lawful object or
purpose, and must be established for the common benefit or
interest of the partners.
When an unlawful partnership is dissolved by a judicial
decree, the profits shall be confiscated in favor of the State,
without prejudice to the provisions of the Penal Code
governing the confiscation of the instruments and effects of
a crime. (1666a)

Art. 1771. A partnership may be constituted in any form,

except where immovable property or real rights are
contributed thereto, in which case a public instrument shall
be necessary. (1667a)

Art. 1772. Every contract of partnership having a capital of

three thousand pesos or more, in money or property, shall
appear in a public instrument, which must be recorded in the
Office of the Securities and Exchange Commission.

Failure to comply with the requirements of the preceding

paragraph shall not affect the liability of the partnership and
the members thereof to third persons. (n)

Art. 1773. A contract of partnership is void, whenever

immovable property is contributed thereto, if an inventory of
said property is not made, signed by the parties, and
attached to the public instrument. (1668a)

Art. 1774. Any immovable property or an interest therein

may be acquired in the partnership name. Title so acquired
can be conveyed only in the partnership name. (n)

Art. 1775. Associations and societies, whose articles are kept

secret among the members, and wherein any one of the
members may contract in his own name with third persons,
shall have no juridical personality, and shall be governed by
the provisions relating to co-ownership. (1669)

Art. 1776. As to its object, a partnership is either universal

or particular. As regards the liability of the partners, a
partnership may be general or limited. (1671a)

Art. 1777. A universal partnership may refer to all the

present property or to all the profits. (1672)

Art. 1778. A partnership of all present property is that in

which the partners contribute all the property which actually
belongs to them to a common fund, with the intention of
dividing the same among themselves, as well as all the
profits which they may acquire therewith. (1673)

Art. 1779. In a universal partnership of all present property,

the property which belongs to each of the partners at the
time of the constitution of the partnership, becomes the
common property of all the partners, as well as all the profits
which they may acquire therewith.
A stipulation for the common enjoyment of any other profits
may also be made; but the property which the partners may
acquire subsequently by inheritance, legacy, or donation
cannot be included in such stipulation, except the fruits
thereof. (1674a)

Art. 1780. A universal partnership of profits comprises all

that the partners may acquire by their industry or work
during the existence of the partnership.

Movable or immovable property which each of the partners

may possess at the time of the celebration of the contract
shall continue to pertain exclusively to each, only the
usufruct passing to the partnership. (1675)

Art. 1781. Articles of universal partnership, entered into

without specification of its nature, only constitute a
universal partnership of profits. (1676)

Art. 1782. Persons who are prohibited from giving each

other any donation or advantage cannot enter into universal
partnership. (1677)

Art. 1783. A particular partnership has for its object

determinate things, their use or fruits, or specific
undertaking, or the exercise of a profession or vocation.
(1678)

CHAPTER 2
OBLIGATIONS OF THE PARTNERS

SECTION 1. - Obligations of the Partners Among Themselves

Art. 1784. A partnership begins from the moment of the

execution of the contract, unless it is otherwise stipulated.
(1679)
Art. 1785. When a partnership for a fixed term or particular
undertaking is continued after the termination of such term
or particular undertaking without any express agreement,
the rights and duties of the partners remain the same as
they were at such termination, so far as is consistent with a
partnership at will.

A continuation of the business by the partners or such of

them as habitually acted therein during the term, without
any settlement or liquidation of the partnership affairs, is
prima facie evidence of a continuation of the partnership. (n)

Art. 1786. Every partner is a debtor of the partnership for

whatever he may have promised to contribute thereto.

He shall also be bound for warranty in case of eviction with

regard to specific and determinate things which he may have
contributed to the partnership, in the same cases and in the
same manner as the vendor is bound with respect to the
vendee. He shall also be liable for the fruits thereof from the
time they should have been delivered, without the need of
any demand. (1681a)

Art. 1787. When the capital or a part thereof which a partner

is bound to contribute consists of goods, their appraisal must
be made in the manner prescribed in the contract of
partnership, and in the absence of stipulation, it shall be
made by experts chosen by the partners, and according to
current prices, the subsequent changes thereof being for
account of the partnership. (n)

Art. 1788. A partner who has undertaken to contribute a sum

of money and fails to do so becomes a debtor for the interest
and damages from the time he should have complied with
his obligation.

The same rule applies to any amount he may have taken

from the partnership coffers, and his liability shall begin
from the time he converted the amount to his own use.
(1682)

Art. 1789. An industrial partner cannot engage in business

for himself, unless the partnership expressly permits him to
do so; and if he should do so, the capitalist partners may
either exclude him from the firm or avail themselves of the
benefits which he may have obtained in violation of this
provision, with a right to damages in either case. (n)

Art. 1790. Unless there is a stipulation to the contrary, the

partners shall contribute equal shares to the capital of the
partnership. (n)

Art. 1791. If there is no agreement to the contrary, in case of

an imminent loss of the business of the partnership, any
partner who refuses to contribute an additional share to the
capital, except an industrial partner, to save the venture,
shall he obliged to sell his interest to the other partners. (n)

Art. 1792. If a partner authorized to manage collects a

demandable sum which was owed to him in his own name,
from a person who owed the partnership another sum also
demandable, the sum thus collected shall be applied to the
two credits in proportion to their amounts, even though he
may have given a receipt for his own credit only; but should
he have given it for the account of the partnership credit, the
amount shall be fully applied to the latter.

The provisions of this article are understood to be without

prejudice to the right granted to the other debtor by Article
1252, but only if the personal credit of the partner should be
more onerous to him. (1684)

Art. 1793. A partner who has received, in whole or in part,

his share of a partnership credit, when the other partners
have not collected theirs, shall be obliged, if the debtor
should thereafter become insolvent, to bring to the
partnership capital what he received even though he may
have given receipt for his share only. (1685a)

Art. 1794. Every partner is responsible to the partnership for

damages suffered by it through his fault, and he cannot
compensate them with the profits and benefits which he may
have earned for the partnership by his industry. However,
the courts may equitably lessen this responsibility if through
the partner's extraordinary efforts in other activities of the
partnership, unusual profits have been realized. (1686a)

Art. 1795. The risk of specific and determinate things, which

are not fungible, contributed to the partnership so that only
their use and fruits may be for the common benefit, shall be
borne by the partner who owns them.

If the things contribute are fungible, or cannot be kept

without deteriorating, or if they were contributed to be sold,
the risk shall be borne by the partnership. In the absence of
stipulation, the risk of the things brought and appraised in
the inventory, shall also be borne by the partnership, and in
such case the claim shall be limited to the value at which
they were appraised. (1687)

Art. 1796. The partnership shall be responsible to every

partner for the amounts he may have disbursed on behalf of
the partnership and for the corresponding interest, from the
time the expense are made; it shall also answer to each
partner for the obligations he may have contracted in good
faith in the interest of the partnership business, and for risks
in consequence of its management. (1688a)

Art. 1797. The losses and profits shall be distributed in

conformity with the agreement. If only the share of each
partner in the profits has been agreed upon, the share of
each in the losses shall be in the same proportion.

In the absence of stipulation, the share of each partner in

the profits and losses shall be in proportion to what he may
have contributed, but the industrial partner shall not be
liable for the losses. As for the profits, the industrial partner
shall receive such share as may be just and equitable under
the circumstances. If besides his services he has contributed
capital, he shall also receive a share in the profits in
proportion to his capital. (1689a)

Art. 1798. If the partners have agreed to intrust to a third

person the designation of the share of each one in the profits
and losses, such designation may be impugned only when it
is manifestly inequitable. In no case may a partner who has
begun to execute the decision of the third person, or who
has not impugned the same within a period of three months
from the time he had knowledge thereof, complain of such
decision.

The designation of losses and profits cannot be intrusted to

one of the partners. (1690)

Art. 1799. A stipulation which excludes one or more partners

from any share in the profits or losses is void. (1691)

Art. 1800. The partner who has been appointed manager in

the articles of partnership may execute all acts of
administration despite the opposition of his partners, unless
he should act in bad faith; and his power is irrevocable
without just or lawful cause. The vote of the partners
representing the controlling interest shall be necessary for
such revocation of power.

A power granted after the partnership has been constituted

may be revoked at any time. (1692a)

Art. 1801. If two or more partners have been intrusted with

the management of the partnership without specification of
their respective duties, or without a stipulation that one of
them shall not act without the consent of all the others, each
one may separately execute all acts of administration, but if
any of them should oppose the acts of the others, the
decision of the majority shall prevail. In case of a tie, the
matter shall be decided by the partners owning the
controlling interest. (1693a)

Art. 1802. In case it should have been stipulated that none

of the managing partners shall act without the consent of
the others, the concurrence of all shall be necessary for the
validity of the acts, and the absence or disability of any one
of them cannot be alleged, unless there is imminent danger
of grave or irreparable injury to the partnership. (1694)

Art. 1803. When the manner of management has not been

agreed upon, the following rules shall be observed:

(1) All the partners shall be considered agents and

whatever any one of them may do alone shall bind the
partnership, without prejudice to the provisions of
Article 1801. (2) None of the partners may, without the
consent of the others, make any important alteration in
the immovable property of the partnership, even if it
may be useful to the partnership. But if the refusal of
consent by the other partners is manifestly prejudicial
to the interest of the partnership, the court's
intervention may be sought. (1695a)
Art. 1804. Every partner may associate another person with
him in his share, but the associate shall not be admitted into
the partnership without the consent of all the other partners,
even if the partner having an associate should be a manager.
(1696)
Art. 1805. The partnership books shall be kept, subject to
any agreement between the partners, at the principal place
of business of the partnership, and every partner shall at any
reasonable hour have access to and may inspect and copy
any of them. (n)

Art. 1806. Partners shall render on demand true and full

information of all things affecting the partnership to any
partner or the legal representative of any deceased partner
or of any partner under legal disability. (n)

Art. 1807. Every partner must account to the partnership for

any benefit, and hold as trustee for it any profits derived by
him without the consent of the other partners from any
transaction connected with the formation, conduct, or
liquidation of the partnership or from any use by him of its
property. (n)

Art. 1808. The capitalist partners cannot engage for their

own account in any operation which is of the kind of
business in which the partnership is engaged, unless there is
a stipulation to the contrary.

Any capitalist partner violating this prohibition shall bring to

the common funds any profits accruing to him from his
transactions, and shall personally bear all the losses. (n)

Art. 1809. Any partner shall have the right to a formal

account as to partnership affairs:

(1) If he is wrongfully excluded from the partnership

business or possession of its property by his co-
partners; (2) If the right exists under the terms of any
agreement; (3) As provided by article 1807; (4)
Whenever other circumstances render it just and
reasonable. (n)
SECTION 2. - Property Rights of a Partner

Art. 1810. The property rights of a partner are:

(1) His rights in specific partnership property; (2) His
interest in the partnership; and (3) His right to
participate in the management. (n)
Art. 1811. A partner is co-owner with his partners of specific
partnership property.
The incidents of this co-ownership are such that:

(1) A partner, subject to the provisions of this Title and to

any agreement between the partners, has an equal
right with his partners to possess specific partnership
property for partnership purposes; but he has no right
to possess such property for any other purpose without
the consent of his partners; (2) A partner's right in
specific partnership property is not assignable except
in connection with the assignment of rights of all the
partners in the same property; (3) A partner's right in
specific partnership property is not subject to
attachment or execution, except on a claim against the
partnership. When partnership property is attached for
a partnership debt the partners, or any of them, or the
representatives of a deceased partner, cannot claim
any right under the homestead or exemption laws; (4)
A partner's right in specific partnership property is not
subject to legal support under Article 291. (n)
Art. 1812. A partner's interest in the partnership is his share
of the profits and surplus. (n)
Art. 1813. A conveyance by a partner of his whole interest in
the partnership does not of itself dissolve the partnership, or,
as against the other partners in the absence of agreement,
entitle the assignee, during the continuance of the
partnership, to interfere in the management or
administration of the partnership business or affairs, or to
require any information or account of partnership
transactions, or to inspect the partnership books; but it
merely entitles the assignee to receive in accordance with
his contract the profits to which the assigning partner would
otherwise be entitled. However, in case of fraud in the
management of the partnership, the assignee may avail
himself of the usual remedies.

In case of a dissolution of the partnership, the assignee is

entitled to receive his assignor's interest and may require an
account from the date only of the last account agreed to by
all the partners. (n)

Art. 1814. Without prejudice to the preferred rights of

partnership creditors under Article 1827, on due application
to a competent court by any judgment creditor of a partner,
the court which entered the judgment, or any other court,
may charge the interest of the debtor partner with payment
of the unsatisfied amount of such judgment debt with
interest thereon; and may then or later appoint a receiver of
his share of the profits, and of any other money due or to fall
due to him in respect of the partnership, and make all other
orders, directions, accounts and inquiries which the debtor
partner might have made, or which the circumstances of the
case may require.

The interest charged may be redeemed at any time before

foreclosure, or in case of a sale being directed by the court,
may be purchased without thereby causing a dissolution:

(1) With separate property, by any one or more of the

partners; or (2) With partnership property, by any one
or more of the partners with the consent of all the
partners whose interests are not so charged or sold.
Nothing in this Title shall be held to deprive a partner of his
right, if any, under the exemption laws, as regards his
interest in the partnership. (n)

SECTION 3. - Obligations of the Partners

With Regard to Third Persons

Art. 1815. Every partnership shall operate under a firm name,

which may or may not include the name of one or more of
the partners.
Those who, not being members of the partnership, include
their names in the firm name, shall be subject to the liability
of a partner. (n)

Art. 1816. All partners, including industrial ones, shall be

liable pro rata with all their property and after all the
partnership assets have been exhausted, for the contracts
which may be entered into in the name and for the account
of the partnership, under its signature and by a person
authorized to act for the partnership. However, any partner
may enter into a separate obligation to perform a
partnership contract. (n)

Art. 1817. Any stipulation against the liability laid down in

the preceding article shall be void, except as among the
partners. (n)

Art. 1818. Every partner is an agent of the partnership for

the purpose of its business, and the act of every partner,
including the execution in the partnership name of any
instrument, for apparently carrying on in the usual way the
business of the partnership of which he is a member binds
the partnership, unless the partner so acting has in fact no
authority to act for the partnership in the particular matter,
and the person with whom he is dealing has knowledge of
the fact that he has no such authority.

An act of a partner which is not apparently for the carrying

on of business of the partnership in the usual way does not
bind the partnership unless authorized by the other partners.

Except when authorized by the other partners or unless they

have abandoned the business, one or more but less than all
the partners have no authority to:

(1) Assign the partnership property in trust for creditors or

on the assignee's promise to pay the debts of the
partnership; (2) Dispose of the good-will of the
business; (3) Do any other act which would make it
impossible to carry on the ordinary business of a
partnership; (4) Confess a judgment; (5) Enter into a
compromise concerning a partnership claim or liability;
(6) Submit a partnership claim or liability to
arbitration; (7) Renounce a claim of the partnership.
No act of a partner in contravention of a restriction on
authority shall bind the partnership to persons having
knowledge of the restriction. (n)
Art. 1819. Where title to real property is in the partnership
name, any partner may convey title to such property by a
conveyance executed in the partnership name; but the
partnership may recover such property unless the partner's
act binds the partnership under the provisions of the first
paragraph of article 1818, or unless such property has been
conveyed by the grantee or a person claiming through such
grantee to a holder for value without knowledge that the
partner, in making the conveyance, has exceeded his
authority.

Where title to real property is in the name of the partnership,

a conveyance executed by a partner, in his own name,
passes the equitable interest of the partnership, provided
the act is one within the authority of the partner under the
provisions of the first paragraph of Article 1818.

Where title to real property is in the name of one or more but

not all the partners, and the record does not disclose the
right of the partnership, the partners in whose name the title
stands may convey title to such property, but the
partnership may recover such property if the partners' act
does not bind the partnership under the provisions of the
first paragraph of Article 1818, unless the purchaser or his
assignee, is a holder for value, without knowledge.

Where the title to real property is in the name of one or more

or all the partners, or in a third person in trust for the
partnership, a conveyance executed by a partner in the
partnership name, or in his own name, passes the equitable
interest of the partnership, provided the act is one within the
authority of the partner under the provisions of the first
paragraph of Article 1818.

Where the title to real property is in the name of all the

partners a conveyance executed by all the partners passes
all their rights in such property. (n)

Art. 1820. An admission or representation made by any

partner concerning partnership affairs within the scope of
his authority in accordance with this Title is evidence against
the partnership. (n)

Art. 1821. Notice to any partner of any matter relating to

partnership affairs, and the knowledge of the partner acting
in the particular matter, acquired while a partner or then
present to his mind, and the knowledge of any other partner
who reasonably could and should have communicated it to
the acting partner, operate as notice to or knowledge of the
partnership, except in the case of fraud on the partnership,
committed by or with the consent of that partner. (n)

Art. 1822. Where, by any wrongful act or omission of any

partner acting in the ordinary course of the business of the
partnership or with the authority of co-partners, loss or
injury is caused to any person, not being a partner in the
partnership, or any penalty is incurred, the partnership is
liable therefor to the same extent as the partner so acting or
omitting to act. (n)

Art. 1823. The partnership is bound to make good the loss:

(1) Where one partner acting within the scope of his

apparent authority receives money or property of a
third person and misapplies it; and (2) Where the
partnership in the course of its business receives
money or property of a third person and the money or
property so received is misapplied by any partner while
it is in the custody of the partnership. (n)
Art. 1824. All partners are liable solidarily with the
partnership for everything chargeable to the partnership
under Articles 1822 and 1823. (n)
Art. 1825. When a person, by words spoken or written or by
conduct, represents himself, or consents to another
representing him to anyone, as a partner in an existing
partnership or with one or more persons not actual partners,
he is liable to any such persons to whom such representation
has been made, who has, on the faith of such representation,
given credit to the actual or apparent partnership, and if he
has made such representation or consented to its being
made in a public manner he is liable to such person, whether
the representation has or has not been made or
communicated to such person so giving credit by or with the
knowledge of the apparent partner making the
representation or consenting to its being made:

(1) When a partnership liability results, he is liable as

though he were an actual member of the partnership;
(2) When no partnership liability results, he is liable
pro rata with the other persons, if any, so consenting to
the contract or representation as to incur liability,
otherwise separately.
When a person has been thus represented to be a partner in
an existing partnership, or with one or more persons not
actual partners, he is an agent of the persons consenting to
such representation to bind them to the same extent and in
the same manner as though he were a partner in fact, with
respect to persons who rely upon the representation. When
all the members of the existing partnership consent to the
representation, a partnership act or obligation results; but in
all other cases it is the joint act or obligation of the person
acting and the persons consenting to the representation. (n)
Art. 1826. A person admitted as a partner into an existing
partnership is liable for all the obligations of the partnership
arising before his admission as though he had been a partner
when such obligations were incurred, except that this
liability shall be satisfied only out of partnership property,
unless there is a stipulation to the contrary. (n)

Art. 1827. The creditors of the partnership shall be preferred

to those of each partner as regards the partnership property.
Without prejudice to this right, the private creditors of each
partner may ask the attachment and public sale of the share
of the latter in the partnership assets. (n)

CHAPTER 3
DISSOLUTION AND WINDING UP

Art. 1828. The dissolution of a partnership is the change in

the relation of the partners caused by any partner ceasing to
be associated in the carrying on as distinguished from the
winding up of the business. (n)
Art. 1829. On dissolution the partnership is not terminated,
but continues until the winding up of partnership affairs is
completed. (n)

Art. 1830. Dissolution is caused:

(1) Without violation of the agreement between the

partners:
(a) By the termination of the definite term or
particular undertaking specified in the agreement;
(b) By the express will of any partner, who must
act in good faith, when no definite term or
particular is specified; (c) By the express will of
all the partners who have not assigned their
interests or suffered them to be charged for their
separate debts, either before or after the
termination of any specified term or particular
undertaking; (d) By the expulsion of any partner
from the business bona fide in accordance with
such a power conferred by the agreement
between the partners;
(2) In contravention of the agreement between the
partners, where the circumstances do not permit a
dissolution under any other provision of this article, by
the express will of any partner at any time; (3) By any
event which makes it unlawful for the business of the
partnership to be carried on or for the members to
carry it on in partnership; (4) When a specific thing
which a partner had promised to contribute to the
partnership, perishes before the delivery; in any case
 by the loss of the thing, when the partner who
contributed it having reserved the ownership thereof,
has only transferred to the partnership the use or
enjoyment of the same; but the partnership shall not be
dissolved by the loss of the thing when it occurs after
the partnership has acquired the ownership thereof;
(5) By the death of any partner; (6) By the insolvency
of any partner or of the partnership; (7) By the civil
interdiction of any partner; (8) By decree of court
under the following article. (1700a and 1701a)
Art. 1831. On application by or for a partner the court shall
decree a dissolution whenever:
(1) A partner has been declared insane in any judicial
proceeding or is shown to be of unsound mind; (2) A
partner becomes in any other way incapable of
performing his part of the partnership contract; (3) A
partner has been guilty of such conduct as tends to
affect prejudicially the carrying on of the business; (4)
A partner wilfully or persistently commits a breach of
the partnership agreement, or otherwise so conducts
himself in matters relating to the partnership business
that it is not reasonably practicable to carry on the
business in partnership with him; (5) The business of
the partnership can only be carried on at a loss; (6)
Other circumstances render a dissolution equitable.
On the application of the purchaser of a partner's interest
under Article 1813 or 1814:
(1) After the termination of the specified term or particular
undertaking; (2) At any time if the partnership was a
partnership at will when the interest was assigned or
when the charging order was issued. (n)
Art. 1832. Except so far as may be necessary to wind up
partnership affairs or to complete transactions begun but not
then finished, dissolution terminates all authority of any
partner to act for the partnership:
(1) With respect to the partners:
(a) When the dissolution is not by the act, insolvency
or death of a partner; or (b) When the dissolution
is by such act, insolvency or death of a partner, in
cases where article 1833 so requires;
(2) With respect to persons not partners, as declared in
article 1834. (n)
Art. 1833. Where the dissolution is caused by the act, death
or insolvency of a partner, each partner is liable to his co-
partners for his share of any liability created by any partner
acting for the partnership as if the partnership had not been
dissolved unless:
 (1) The dissolution being by act of any partner, the partner
acting for the partnership had knowledge of the
dissolution; or (2) The dissolution being by the death or
insolvency of a partner, the partner acting for the
partnership had knowledge or notice of the death or
insolvency.
Art. 1834. After dissolution, a partner can bind the
partnership, except as provided in the third paragraph of this
article:
(1) By any act appropriate for winding up partnership
affairs or completing transactions unfinished at
dissolution; (2) By any transaction which would bind
the partnership if dissolution had not taken place,
provided the other party to the transaction:
(a) Had extended credit to the partnership prior to
dissolution and had no knowledge or notice of the
dissolution; or (b) Though he had not so extended
credit, had nevertheless known of the partnership
prior to dissolution, and, having no knowledge or
notice of dissolution, the fact of dissolution had
not been advertised in a newspaper of general
circulation in the place (or in each place if more
than one) at which the partnership business was
regularly carried on.
The liability of a partner under the first paragraph, No. 2,
shall be satisfied out of partnership assets alone when such
partner had been prior to dissolution:
(1) Unknown as a partner to the person with whom the
contract is made; and (2) So far unknown and inactive
in partnership affairs that the business reputation of
the partnership could not be said to have been in any
degree due to his connection with it.
The partnership is in no case bound by any act of a partner
after dissolution:
(1) Where the partnership is dissolved because it is
unlawful to carry on the business, unless the act is
appropriate for winding up partnership affairs; or (2)
Where the partner has become insolvent; or (3) Where
the partner has no authority to wind up partnership
affairs; except by a transaction with one who:
(a) Had extended credit to the partnership prior to
dissolution and had no knowledge or notice of his
want of authority; or (b) Had not extended credit
to the partnership prior to dissolution, and, having
no knowledge or notice of his want of authority,
the fact of his want of authority has not been
advertised in the manner provided for advertising
 the fact of dissolution in the first paragraph, No. 2
(b).
Nothing in this article shall affect the liability under Article
1825 of any person who, after dissolution, represents
himself or consents to another representing him as a partner
in a partnership engaged in carrying business. (n)
Art. 1835. The dissolution of the partnership does not of
itself discharge the existing liability of any partner.

A partner is discharged from any existing liability upon

dissolution of the partnership by an agreement to that effect
between himself, the partnership creditor and the person or
partnership continuing the business; and such agreement
may be inferred from the course of dealing between the
creditor having knowledge of the dissolution and the person
or partnership continuing the business.

The individual property of a deceased partner shall be liable

for all obligations of the partnership incurred while he was a
partner, but subject to the prior payment of his separate
debts. (n)

Art. 1836. Unless otherwise agreed, the partners who have

not wrongfully dissolved the partnership or the legal
representative of the last surviving partner, not insolvent,
has the right to wind up the partnership affairs, provided,
however, that any partner, his legal representative or his
assignee, upon cause shown, may obtain winding up by the
court. (n)

Art. 1837. When dissolution is caused in any way, except in

contravention of the partnership agreement, each partner,
as against his co-partners and all persons claiming through
them in respect of their interests in the partnership, unless
otherwise agreed, may have the partnership property
applied to discharge its liabilities, and the surplus applied to
pay in cash the net amount owing to the respective partners.
But if dissolution is caused by expulsion of a partner, bona
fide under the partnership agreement and if the expelled
partner is discharged from all partnership liabilities, either
by payment or agreement under the second paragraph of
Article 1835, he shall receive in cash only the net amount
due him from the partnership.

When dissolution is caused in contravention of the

partnership agreement the rights of the partners shall be as
follows:
 (1) Each partner who has not caused dissolution
wrongfully shall have:

(a) All the rights specified in the first paragraph of

this article, and (b) The right, as against each
partner who has caused the dissolution wrongfully,
to damages breach of the agreement.
(2) The partners who have not caused the dissolution
wrongfully, if they all desire to continue the business in
the same name either by themselves or jointly with
others, may do so, during the agreed term for the
partnership and for that purpose may possess the
partnership property, provided they secure the
payment by bond approved by the court, or pay any
partner who has caused the dissolution wrongfully, the
value of his interest in the partnership at the
dissolution, less any damages recoverable under the
second paragraph, No. 1 (b) of this article, and in like
manner indemnify him against all present or future
partnership liabilities. (3) A partner who has caused
the dissolution wrongfully shall have:
(a) If the business is not continued under the
provisions of the second paragraph, No. 2, all the
rights of a partner under the first paragraph,
subject to liability for damages in the second
paragraph, No. 1 (b), of this article. (b) If the
business is continued under the second paragraph,
No. 2, of this article, the right as against his co-
partners and all claiming through them in respect
of their interests in the partnership, to have the
value of his interest in the partnership, less any
damage caused to his co-partners by the
dissolution, ascertained and paid to him in cash,
or the payment secured by a bond approved by
the court, and to be released from all existing
liabilities of the partnership; but in ascertaining
the value of the partner's interest the value of the
good-will of the business shall not be considered.
(n)
Art. 1838. Where a partnership contract is rescinded on the
ground of the fraud or misrepresentation of one of the
parties thereto, the party entitled to rescind is, without
prejudice to any other right, entitled:
(1) To a lien on, or right of retention of, the surplus of the
partnership property after satisfying the partnership
liabilities to third persons for any sum of money paid by
him for the purchase of an interest in the partnership
 and for any capital or advances contributed by him; (2)
To stand, after all liabilities to third persons have been
satisfied, in the place of the creditors of the partnership
for any payments made by him in respect of the
partnership liabilities; and (3) To be indemnified by
the person guilty of the fraud or making the
representation against all debts and liabilities of the
partnership. (n)
Art. 1839. In settling accounts between the partners after
dissolution, the following rules shall be observed, subject to
any agreement to the contrary:
(1) The assets of the partnership are:

(a) The partnership property, (b) The contributions of

the partners necessary for the payment of all the
liabilities specified in No. 2.
(2) The liabilities of the partnership shall rank in order of
payment, as follows:

(a) Those owing to creditors other than partners, (b)

Those owing to partners other than for capital and
profits, (c) Those owing to partners in respect of
capital, (d) Those owing to partners in respect of
profits.
(3) The assets shall be applied in the order of their
declaration in No. 1 of this article to the satisfaction of
the liabilities. (4) The partners shall contribute, as
provided by article 1797, the amount necessary to
satisfy the liabilities. (5) An assignee for the benefit of
creditors or any person appointed by the court shall
have the right to enforce the contributions specified in
the preceding number. (6) Any partner or his legal
representative shall have the right to enforce the
contributions specified in No. 4, to the extent of the
amount which he has paid in excess of his share of the
liability. (7) The individual property of a deceased
partner shall be liable for the contributions specified in
No. 4. (8) When partnership property and the
individual properties of the partners are in possession
of a court for distribution, partnership creditors shall
have priority on partnership property and separate
creditors on individual property, saving the rights of
lien or secured creditors. (9) Where a partner has
become insolvent or his estate is insolvent, the claims
against his separate property shall rank in the following
order:
(a) Those owing to separate creditors; (b) Those
 owing to partnership creditors; (c) Those owing
to partners by way of contribution. (n)
Art. 1840. In the following cases creditors of the dissolved
partnership are also creditors of the person or partnership
continuing the business:
(1) When any new partner is admitted into an existing
partnership, or when any partner retires and assigns
(or the representative of the deceased partner assigns)
his rights in partnership property to two or more of the
partners, or to one or more of the partners and one or
more third persons, if the business is continued without
liquidation of the partnership affairs; (2) When all but
one partner retire and assign (or the representative of
a deceased partner assigns) their rights in partnership
property to the remaining partner, who continues the
business without liquidation of partnership affairs,
either alone or with others; (3) When any partner
retires or dies and the business of the dissolved
partnership is continued as set forth in Nos. 1 and 2 of
this article, with the consent of the retired partners or
the representative of the deceased partner, but without
any assignment of his right in partnership property;
(4) When all the partners or their representatives
assign their rights in partnership property to one or
more third persons who promise to pay the debts and
who continue the business of the dissolved partnership;
(5) When any partner wrongfully causes a dissolution
and the remaining partners continue the business
under the provisions of article 1837, second paragraph,
No. 2, either alone or with others, and without
liquidation of the partnership affairs; (6) When a
partner is expelled and the remaining partners continue
the business either alone or with others without
liquidation of the partnership affairs.
The liability of a third person becoming a partner in the
partnership continuing the business, under this article, to
the creditors of the dissolved partnership shall be satisfied
out of the partnership property only, unless there is a
stipulation to the contrary.
When the business of a partnership after dissolution is
continued under any conditions set forth in this article the
creditors of the dissolved partnership, as against the
separate creditors of the retiring or deceased partner or the
representative of the deceased partner, have a prior right to
any claim of the retired partner or the representative of the
deceased partner against the person or partnership
continuing the business, on account of the retired or
deceased partner's interest in the dissolved partnership or
on account of any consideration promised for such interest
or for his right in partnership property.

Nothing in this article shall be held to modify any right of

creditors to set aside any assignment on the ground of fraud.

The use by the person or partnership continuing the business

of the partnership name, or the name of a deceased partner
as part thereof, shall not of itself make the individual
property of the deceased partner liable for any debts
contracted by such person or partnership. (n)

Art. 1841. When any partner retires or dies, and the business
is continued under any of the conditions set forth in the
preceding article, or in Article 1837, second paragraph, No. 2,
without any settlement of accounts as between him or his
estate and the person or partnership continuing the business,
unless otherwise agreed, he or his legal representative as
against such person or partnership may have the value of his
interest at the date of dissolution ascertained, and shall
receive as an ordinary creditor an amount equal to the value
of his interest in the dissolved partnership with interest, or,
at his option or at the option of his legal representative, in
lieu of interest, the profits attributable to the use of his right
in the property of the dissolved partnership; provided that
the creditors of the dissolved partnership as against the
separate creditors, or the representative of the retired or
deceased partner, shall have priority on any claim arising
under this article, as provided Article 1840, third paragraph.
(n)

Art. 1842. The right to an account of his interest shall accrue

to any partner, or his legal representative as against the
winding up partners or the surviving partners or the person
or partnership continuing the business, at the date of
dissolution, in the absence of any agreement to the contrary.
(n)

CHAPTER 4
LIMITED PARTNERSHIP (n)

Art. 1843. A limited partnership is one formed by two or

more persons under the provisions of the following article,
having as members one or more general partners and one or
more limited partners. The limited partners as such shall not
be bound by the obligations of the partnership.
Art. 1844. Two or more persons desiring to form a limited
partnership shall:

(1) Sign and swear to a certificate, which shall state -

(a) The name of the partnership, adding thereto the

word "Limited"; (b) The character of the business;
(c) The location of the principal place of business;
(d) The name and place of residence of each
member, general and limited partners being
respectively designated; (e) The term for which
the partnership is to exist; (f) The amount of cash
and a description of and the agreed value of the
other property contributed by each limited
partner; (g) The additional contributions, if any,
to be made by each limited partner and the times
at which or events on the happening of which they
shall be made; (h) The time, if agreed upon,
when the contribution of each limited partner is to
be returned; (i) The share of the profits or the
other compensation by way of income which each
limited partner shall receive by reason of his
contribution; (j) The right, if given, of a limited
partner to substitute an assignee as contributor in
his place, and the terms and conditions of the
substitution; (k) The right, if given, of the
partners to admit additional limited partners; (l)
The right, if given, of one or more of the limited
partners to priority over other limited partners, as
to contributions or as to compensation by way of
income, and the nature of such priority; (m) The
right, if given, of the remaining general partner or
partners to continue the business on the death,
retirement, civil interdiction, insanity or
insolvency of a general partner; and (n) The right,
if given, of a limited partner to demand and
receive property other than cash in return for his
contribution.
(2) File for record the certificate in the Office of the
Securities and Exchange Commission.
A limited partnership is formed if there has been substantial
compliance in good faith with the foregoing requirements.
Art. 1845. The contributions of a limited partner may be cash
or property, but not services.

Art. 1846. The surname of a limited partner shall not appear

in the partnership name unless:

(1) It is also the surname of a general partner, or (2) Prior

 to the time when the limited partner became such, the
business has been carried on under a name in which his
surname appeared.
A limited partner whose surname appears in a partnership
name contrary to the provisions of the first paragraph is
liable as a general partner to partnership creditors who
extend credit to the partnership without actual knowledge
that he is not a general partner.
Art. 1847. If the certificate contains a false statement, one
who suffers loss by reliance on such statement may hold
liable any party to the certificate who knew the statement to
be false:

(1) At the time he signed the certificate, or (2)

Subsequently, but within a sufficient time before the
statement was relied upon to enable him to cancel or
amend the certificate, or to file a petition for its
cancellation or amendment as provided in Article 1865.
Art. 1848. A limited partner shall not become liable as a
general partner unless, in addition to the exercise of his
rights and powers as a limited partner, he takes part in the
control of the business.
Art. 1849. After the formation of a lifted partnership,
additional limited partners may be admitted upon filing an
amendment to the original certificate in accordance with the
requirements of Article 1865.

Art. 1850. A general partner shall have all the rights and
powers and be subject to all the restrictions and liabilities of
a partner in a partnership without limited partners. However,
without the written consent or ratification of the specific act
by all the limited partners, a general partner or all of the
general partners have no authority to:

(1) Do any act in contravention of the certificate; (2) Do

any act which would make it impossible to carry on the
ordinary business of the partnership; (3) Confess a
judgment against the partnership; (4) Possess
partnership property, or assign their rights in specific
partnership property, for other than a partnership
purpose; (5) Admit a person as a general partner; (6)
Admit a person as a limited partner, unless the right so
to do is given in the certificate; (7) Continue the
business with partnership property on the death,
retirement, insanity, civil interdiction or insolvency of a
general partner, unless the right so to do is given in the
certificate.
Art. 1851. A limited partner shall have the same rights as a
general partner to:
(1) Have the partnership books kept at the principal place
of business of the partnership, and at a reasonable
hour to inspect and copy any of them; (2) Have on
demand true and full information of all things affecting
the partnership, and a formal account of partnership
affairs whenever circumstances render it just and
reasonable; and (3) Have dissolution and winding up
by decree of court.
A limited partner shall have the right to receive a share of
the profits or other compensation by way of income, and to
the return of his contribution as provided in Articles 1856
and 1857.
Art. 1852. Without prejudice to the provisions of Article 1848,
a person who has contributed to the capital of a business
conducted by a person or partnership erroneously believing
that he has become a limited partner in a limited partnership,
is not, by reason of his exercise of the rights of a limited
partner, a general partner with the person or in the
partnership carrying on the business, or bound by the
obligations of such person or partnership, provided that on
ascertaining the mistake he promptly renounces his interest
in the profits of the business, or other compensation by way
of income.

Art. 1853. A person may be a general partner and a limited

partner in the same partnership at the same time, provided
that this fact shall be stated in the certificate provided for in
Article 1844.

A person who is a general, and also at the same time a

limited partner, shall have all the rights and powers and be
subject to all the restrictions of a general partner; except
that, in respect to his contribution, he shall have the rights
against the other members which he would have had if he
were not also a general partner.

Art. 1854. A limited partner also may loan money to and

transact other business with the partnership, and, unless he
is also a general partner, receive on account of resulting
claims against the partnership, with general creditors, a pro
rata share of the assets. No limited partner shall in respect
to any such claim:

(1) Receive or hold as collateral security and partnership

property, or (2) Receive from a general partner or the
partnership any payment, conveyance, or release from
liability if at the time the assets of the partnership are
 not sufficient to discharge partnership liabilities to
persons not claiming as general or limited partners.
The receiving of collateral security, or payment, conveyance,
or release in violation of the foregoing provisions is a fraud
on the creditors of the partnership.
Art. 1855. Where there are several limited partners the
members may agree that one or more of the limited partners
shall have a priority over other limited partners as to the
return of their contributions, as to their compensation by
way of income, or as to any other matter. If such an
agreement is made it shall be stated in the certificate, and in
the absence of such a statement all the limited partners shall
stand upon equal footing.

Art. 1856. A limited partner may receive from the

partnership the share of the profits or the compensation by
way of income stipulated for in the certificate; provided that
after such payment is made, whether from property of the
partnership or that of a general partner, the partnership
assets are in excess of all liabilities of the partnership except
liabilities to limited partners on account of their
contributions and to general partners.

Art. 1857. A limited partner shall not receive from a general

partner or out of partnership property any part of his
contributions until:

(1) All liabilities of the partnership, except liabilities to

general partners and to limited partners on account of
their contributions, have been paid or there remains
property of the partnership sufficient to pay them; (2)
The consent of all members is had, unless the return of
the contribution may be rightfully demanded under the
provisions of the second paragraph; and (3) The
certificate is cancelled or so amended as to set forth
the withdrawal or reduction.
Subject to the provisions of the first paragraph, a limited
partner may rightfully demand the return of his contribution:
(1) On the dissolution of a partnership; or (2) When the
date specified in the certificate for its return has
arrived, or (3) After he has six months' notice in
writing to all other members, if no time is specified in
the certificate, either for the return of the contribution
or for the dissolution of the partnership.
In the absence of any statement in the certificate to the
contrary or the consent of all members, a limited partner,
irrespective of the nature of his contribution, has only the
right to demand and receive cash in return for his
contribution.
A limited partner may have the partnership dissolved and its
affairs wound up when:

(1) He rightfully but unsuccessfully demands the return of

his contribution, or (2) The other liabilities of the
partnership have not been paid, or the partnership
property is insufficient for their payment as required by
the first paragraph, No. 1, and the limited partner
would otherwise be entitled to the return of his
contribution.
Art. 1858. A limited partner is liable to the partnership:
(1) For the difference between his contribution as actually
made and that stated in the certificate as having been
made; and (2) For any unpaid contribution which he
agreed in the certificate to make in the future at the
time and on the conditions stated in the certificate.
A limited partner holds as trustee for the partnership:
(1) Specific property stated in the certificate as contributed
by him, but which was not contributed or which has
been wrongfully returned, and (2) Money or other
property wrongfully paid or conveyed to him on
account of his contribution.
The liabilities of a limited partner as set forth in this article
can be waived or compromised only by the consent of all
members; but a waiver or compromise shall not affect the
right of a creditor of a partnership who extended credit or
whose claim arose after the filing and before a cancellation
or amendment of the certificate, to enforce such liabilities.
When a contributor has rightfully received the return in
whole or in part of the capital of his contribution, he is
nevertheless liable to the partnership for any sum, not in
excess of such return with interest, necessary to discharge
its liabilities to all creditors who extended credit or whose
claims arose before such return.

Art. 1859. A limited partner's interest is assignable.

A substituted limited partner is a person admitted to all the

rights of a limited partner who has died or has assigned his
interest in a partnership.

An assignee, who does not become a substituted limited

partner, has no right to require any information or account
of the partnership transactions or to inspect the partnership
books; he is only entitled to receive the share of the profits
or other compensation by way of income, or the return of his
contribution, to which his assignor would otherwise be
entitled.

An assignee shall have the right to become a substituted

limited partner if all the members consent thereto or if the
assignor, being thereunto empowered by the certificate,
gives the assignee that right.

An assignee becomes a substituted limited partner when the

certificate is appropriately amended in accordance with
Article 1865.

The substituted limited partner has all the rights and powers,
and is subject to all the restrictions and liabilities of his
assignor, except those liabilities of which he was ignorant at
the time he became a limited partner and which could not be
ascertained from the certificate.

The substitution of the assignee as a limited partner does

not release the assignor from liability to the partnership
under Articles 1847 and 1848.

Art. 1860. The retirement, death, insolvency, insanity or civil

interdiction of a general partner dissolves the partnership,
unless the business is continued by the remaining general
partners:

(1) Under a right so to do stated in the certificate, or (2)

With the consent of all members.
Art. 1861. On the death of a limited partner his executor or
administrator shall have all the rights of a limited partner for
the purpose of setting his estate, and such power as the
deceased had to constitute his assignee a substituted limited
partner.
The estate of a deceased limited partner shall be liable for all
his liabilities as a limited partner.

Art. 1862. On due application to a court of competent

jurisdiction by any creditor of a limited partner, the court
may charge the interest of the indebted limited partner with
payment of the unsatisfied amount of such claim, and may
appoint a receiver, and make all other orders, directions and
inquiries which the circumstances of the case may require.

The interest may be redeemed with the separate property of

any general partner, but may not be redeemed with
partnership property.

The remedies conferred by the first paragraph shall not be

deemed exclusive of others which may exist.
Nothing in this Chapter shall be held to deprive a limited
partner of his statutory exemption.

Art. 1863. In setting accounts after dissolution the liabilities

of the partnership shall be entitled to payment in the
following order:

(1) Those to creditors, in the order of priority as provided

by law, except those to limited partners on account of
their contributions, and to general partners; (2) Those
to limited partners in respect to their share of the
profits and other compensation by way of income on
their contributions; (3) Those to limited partners in
respect to the capital of their contributions; (4) Those
to general partners other than for capital and profits;
(5) Those to general partners in respect to profits; (6)
Those to general partners in respect to capital.
Subject to any statement in the certificate or to subsequent
agreement, limited partners share in the partnership assets
in respect to their claims for capital, and in respect to their
claims for profits or for compensation by way of income on
their contribution respectively, in proportion to the
respective amounts of such claims.
Art. 1864. The certificate shall be cancelled when the
partnership is dissolved or all limited partners cease to be
such.

A certificate shall be amended when:

(1) There is a change in the name of the partnership or in

the amount or character of the contribution of any
limited partner; (2) A person is substituted as a limited
partner; (3) An additional limited partner is admitted;
(4) A person is admitted as a general partner; (5) A
general partner retires, dies, becomes insolvent or
insane, or is sentenced to civil interdiction and the
business is continued under Article 1860; (6) There is
a change in the character of the business of the
partnership; (7) There is a false or erroneous
statement in the certificate; (8) There is a change in
the time as stated in the certificate for the dissolution
of the partnership or for the return of a contribution;
(9) A time is fixed for the dissolution of the
partnership, or the return of a contribution, no time
having been specified in the certificate, or (10) The
members desire to make a change in any other
statement in the certificate in order that it shall
accurately represent the agreement among them.
Art. 1865. The writing to amend a certificate shall:
(1) Conform to the requirements of Article 1844 as far as
necessary to set forth clearly the change in the
certificate which it is desired to make; and (2) Be
signed and sworn to by all members, and an
amendment substituting a limited partner or adding a
limited or general partner shall be signed also by the
member to be substituted or added, and when a limited
partner is to be substituted, the amendment shall also
be signed by the assigning limited partner.
The writing to cancel a certificate shall be signed by all
members.
A person desiring the cancellation or amendment of a
certificate, if any person designated in the first and second
paragraphs as a person who must execute the writing
refuses to do so, may petition the court to order a
cancellation or amendment thereof.

If the court finds that the petitioner has a right to have the
writing executed by a person who refuses to do so, it shall
order the Office of the Securities and Exchange Commission
where the certificate is recorded, to record the cancellation
or amendment of the certificate; and when the certificate is
to be amended, the court shall also cause to be filed for
record in said office a certified copy of its decree setting
forth the amendment.

A certificate is amended or cancelled when there is filed for

record in the Office of the Securities and Exchange
Commission, where the certificate is recorded:

(1) A writing in accordance with the provisions of the first

or second paragraph, or (2) A certified copy of the
order of the court in accordance with the provisions of
the fourth paragraph; (3) After the certificate is duly
amended in accordance with this article, the amended
certified shall thereafter be for all purposes the
certificate provided for in this Chapter.
Art. 1866. A contributor, unless he is a general partner, is
not a proper party to proceedings by or against a partnership,
except where the object is to enforce a limited partner's
right against or liability to the partnership.
Art. 1867. A limited partnership formed under the law prior
to the effectivity of this Code, may become a limited
partnership under this Chapter by complying with the
provisions of Article 1844, provided the certificate sets forth:

(1) The amount of the original contribution of each limited

 partner, and the time when the contribution was made;
and (2) That the property of the partnership exceeds
the amount sufficient to discharge its liabilities to
persons not claiming as general or limited partners by
an amount greater than the sum of the contributions of
its limited partners.
A limited partnership formed under the law prior to the
effectivity of this Code, until or unless it becomes a limited
partnership under this Chapter, shall continue to be
governed by the provisions of the old law.

Title X. - AGENCY

CHAPTER 1
NATURE, FORM AND KINDS OF AGENCY

Art. 1868. By the contract of agency a person binds himself

to render some service or to do something in representation
or on behalf of another, with the consent or authority of the
latter. (1709a)
Art. 1869. Agency may be express, or implied from the acts
of the principal, from his silence or lack of action, or his
failure to repudiate the agency, knowing that another person
is acting on his behalf without authority.

Agency may be oral, unless the law requires a specific form.

(1710a)

Art. 1870. Acceptance by the agent may also be express, or

implied from his acts which carry out the agency, or from his
silence or inaction according to the circumstances. (n)

Art. 1871. Between persons who are present, the acceptance

of the agency may also be implied if the principal delivers his
power of attorney to the agent and the latter receives it
without any objection. (n)

Art. 1872. Between persons who are absent, the acceptance

of the agency cannot be implied from the silence of the agent,
except:

(1) When the principal transmits his power of attorney to

the agent, who receives it without any objection; (2)
When the principal entrusts to him by letter or
telegram a power of attorney with respect to the
business in which he is habitually engaged as an agent,
and he did not reply to the letter or telegram. (n)
Art. 1873. If a person specially informs another or states by
public advertisement that he has given a power of attorney
to a third person, the latter thereby becomes a duly
authorized agent, in the former case with respect to the
person who received the special information, and in the
latter case with regard to any person.
The power shall continue to be in full force until the notice is
rescinded in the same manner in which it was given. (n)

Art. 1874. When a sale of a piece of land or any interest

therein is through an agent, the authority of the latter shall
be in writing; otherwise, the sale shall be void. (n)

Art. 1875. Agency is presumed to be for a compensation,

unless there is proof to the contrary. (n)

Art. 1876. An agency is either general or special.

The former comprises all the business of the principal. The

latter, one or more specific transactions. (1712)

Art. 1877. An agency couched in general terms comprises

only acts of administration, even if the principal should state
that he withholds no power or that the agent may execute
such acts as he may consider appropriate, or even though
the agency should authorize a general and unlimited
management. (n)

Art. 1878. Special powers of attorney are necessary in the

following cases:

(1) To make such payments as are not usually considered

as acts of administration; (2) To effect novations which
put an end to obligations already in existence at the
time the agency was constituted; (3) To compromise,
to submit questions to arbitration, to renounce the
right to appeal from a judgment, to waive objections to
the venue of an action or to abandon a prescription
already acquired; (4) To waive any obligation
gratuitously; (5) To enter into any contract by which
the ownership of an immovable is transmitted or
acquired either gratuitously or for a valuable
consideration; (6) To make gifts, except customary
ones for charity or those made to employees in the
business managed by the agent; (7) To loan or borrow
money, unless the latter act be urgent and
indispensable for the preservation of the things which
are under administration; (8) To lease any real
property to another person for more than one year; (9)
To bind the principal to render some service without
 compensation; (10) To bind the principal in a contract
of partnership; (11) To obligate the principal as a
guarantor or surety; (12) To create or convey real
rights over immovable property; (13) To accept or
repudiate an inheritance; (14) To ratify or recognize
obligations contracted before the agency; (15) Any
other act of strict dominion. (n)
Art. 1879. A special power to sell excludes the power to
mortgage; and a special power to mortgage does not include
the power to sell. (n)
Art. 1880. A special power to compromise does not authorize
submission to arbitration. (1713a)

Art. 1881. The agent must act within the scope of his
authority. He may do such acts as may be conducive to the
accomplishment of the purpose of the agency. (1714a)

Art. 1882. The limits of the agent's authority shall not be

considered exceeded should it have been performed in a
manner more advantageous to the principal than that
specified by him. (1715)

Art. 1883. If an agent acts in his own name, the principal has
no right of action against the persons with whom the agent
has contracted; neither have such persons against the
principal.

In such case the agent is the one directly bound in favor of

the person with whom he has contracted, as if the
transaction were his own, except when the contract involves
things belonging to the principal.

The provisions of this article shall be understood to be

without prejudice to the actions between the principal and
agent. (1717)

CHAPTER 2
OBLIGATIONS OF THE AGENT

Art. 1884. The agent is bound by his acceptance to carry out

the agency, and is liable for the damages which, through his
non-performance, the principal may suffer.
He must also finish the business already begun on the death
of the principal, should delay entail any danger. (1718)

Art. 1885. In case a person declines an agency, he is bound

to observe the diligence of a good father of a family in the
custody and preservation of the goods forwarded to him by
the owner until the latter should appoint an agent or take
charge of the goods. (n)

Art. 1886. Should there be a stipulation that the agent shall

advance the necessary funds, he shall be bound to do so
except when the principal is insolvent. (n)

Art. 1887. In the execution of the agency, the agent shall act
in accordance with the instructions of the principal.

In default thereof, he shall do all that a good father of a

family would do, as required by the nature of the business.
(1719)

Art. 1888. An agent shall not carry out an agency if its

execution would manifestly result in loss or damage to the
principal. (n)

Art. 1889. The agent shall be liable for damages if, there
being a conflict between his interests and those of the
principal, he should prefer his own. (n)

Art. 1890. If the agent has been empowered to borrow

money, he may himself be the lender at the current rate of
interest. If he has been authorized to lend money at interest,
he cannot borrow it without the consent of the principal. (n)

Art. 1891. Every agent is bound to render an account of his

transactions and to deliver to the principal whatever he may
have received by virtue of the agency, even though it may
not be owing to the principal.

Every stipulation exempting the agent from the obligation to

render an account shall be void. (1720a)

Art. 1892. The agent may appoint a substitute if the principal

has not prohibited him from doing so; but he shall be
responsible for the acts of the substitute:

(1) When he was not given the power to appoint one; (2)
When he was given such power, but without
designating the person, and the person appointed was
notoriously incompetent or insolvent.
All acts of the substitute appointed against the prohibition of
the principal shall be void. (1721)
Art. 1893. In the cases mentioned in Nos. 1 and 2 of the
preceding article, the principal may furthermore bring an
action against the substitute with respect to the obligations
which the latter has contracted under the substitution.
(1722a)
Art. 1894. The responsibility of two or more agents, even
though they have been appointed simultaneously, is not
solidary, if solidarity has not been expressly stipulated.
(1723)

Art. 1895. If solidarity has been agreed upon, each of the

agents is responsible for the non-fulfillment of agency, and
for the fault or negligence of his fellows agents, except in
the latter case when the fellow agents acted beyond the
scope of their authority. (n)

Art. 1896. The agent owes interest on the sums he has

applied to his own use from the day on which he did so, and
on those which he still owes after the extinguishment of the
agency. (1724a)

Art. 1897. The agent who acts as such is not personally liable
to the party with whom he contracts, unless he expressly
binds himself or exceeds the limits of his authority without
giving such party sufficient notice of his powers. (1725)

Art. 1898. If the agent contracts in the name of the principal,

exceeding the scope of his authority, and the principal does
not ratify the contract, it shall be void if the party with whom
the agent contracted is aware of the limits of the powers
granted by the principal. In this case, however, the agent is
liable if he undertook to secure the principal's ratification.
(n)

Art. 1899. If a duly authorized agent acts in accordance with

the orders of the principal, the latter cannot set up the
ignorance of the agent as to circumstances whereof he
himself was, or ought to have been, aware. (n)

Art. 1900. So far as third persons are concerned, an act is

deemed to have been performed within the scope of the
agent's authority, if such act is within the terms of the power
of attorney, as written, even if the agent has in fact
exceeded the limits of his authority according to an
understanding between the principal and the agent. (n)

Art. 1901. A third person cannot set up the fact that the
agent has exceeded his powers, if the principal has ratified,
or has signified his willingness to ratify the agent's acts. (n)

Art. 1902. A third person with whom the agent wishes to

contract on behalf of the principal may require the
presentation of the power of attorney, or the instructions as
regards the agency. Private or secret orders and instructions
of the principal do not prejudice third persons who have
relied upon the power of attorney or instructions shown
them. (n)

Art. 1903. The commission agent shall be responsible for the

goods received by him in the terms and conditions and as
described in the consignment, unless upon receiving them he
should make a written statement of the damage and
deterioration suffered by the same. (n)

Art. 1904. The commission agent who handles goods of the

same kind and mark, which belong to different owners, shall
distinguish them by countermarks, and designate the
merchandise respectively belonging to each principal. (n)

Art. 1905. The commission agent cannot, without the

express or implied consent of the principal, sell on credit.
Should he do so, the principal may demand from him
payment in cash, but the commission agent shall be entitled
to any interest or benefit, which may result from such sale.
(n)

Art. 1906. Should the commission agent, with authority of

the principal, sell on credit, he shall so inform the principal,
with a statement of the names of the buyers. Should he fail
to do so, the sale shall be deemed to have been made for
cash insofar as the principal is concerned. (n)

Art. 1907. Should the commission agent receive on a sale, in

addition to the ordinary commission, another called a
guarantee commission, he shall bear the risk of collection
and shall pay the principal the proceeds of the sale on the
same terms agreed upon with the purchaser. (n)

Art. 1908. The commission agent who does not collect the
credits of his principal at the time when they become due
and demandable shall be liable for damages, unless he
proves that he exercised due diligence for that purpose. (n)

Art. 1909. The agent is responsible not only for fraud, but
also for negligence, which shall be judged with more or less
rigor by the courts, according to whether the agency was or
was not for a compensation. (1726)

CHAPTER 3
OBLIGATIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL

Art. 1910. The principal must comply with all the obligations
which the agent may have contracted within the scope of his
authority.
As for any obligation wherein the agent has exceeded his
power, the principal is not bound except when he ratifies it
expressly or tacitly. (1727)

Art. 1911. Even when the agent has exceeded his authority,
the principal is solidarily liable with the agent if the former
allowed the latter to act as though he had full powers. (n)

Art. 1912. The principal must advance to the agent, should

the latter so request, the sums necessary for the execution
of the agency.

Should the agent have advanced them, the principal must

reimburse him therefor, even if the business or undertaking
was not successful, provided the agent is free from all fault.

The reimbursement shall include interest on the sums

advanced, from the day on which the advance was made.
(1728)

Art. 1913. The principal must also indemnify the agent for all
the damages which the execution of the agency may have
caused the latter, without fault or negligence on his part.
(1729)

Art. 1914. The agent may retain in pledge the things which
are the object of the agency until the principal effects the
reimbursement and pays the indemnity set forth in the two
preceding articles. (1730)

Art. 1915. If two or more persons have appointed an agent

for a common transaction or undertaking, they shall be
solidarily liable to the agent for all the consequences of the
agency. (1731)

Art. 1916. When two persons contract with regard to the

same thing, one of them with the agent and the other with
the principal, and the two contracts are incompatible with
each other, that of prior date shall be preferred, without
prejudice to the provisions of Article 1544. (n)

Art. 1917. In the case referred to in the preceding article, if

the agent has acted in good faith, the principal shall be liable
in damages to the third person whose contract must be
rejected. If the agent acted in bad faith, he alone shall be
responsible. (n)

Art. 1918. The principal is not liable for the expenses

incurred by the agent in the following cases:

(1) If the agent acted in contravention of the principal's

instructions, unless the latter should wish to avail
himself of the benefits derived from the contract; (2)
When the expenses were due to the fault of the agent;
(3) When the agent incurred them with knowledge
that an unfavorable result would ensue, if the principal
was not aware thereof; (4) When it was stipulated that
the expenses would be borne by the agent, or that the
latter would be allowed only a certain sum. (n)

CHAPTER 4
MODES OF EXTINGUISHMENT OF AGENCY

Art. 1919. Agency is extinguished:

(1) By its revocation; (2) By the withdrawal of the agent;
(3) By the death, civil interdiction, insanity or
insolvency of the principal or of the agent; (4) By the
dissolution of the firm or corporation which entrusted
or accepted the agency; (5) By the accomplishment of
the object or purpose of the agency; (6) By the
expiration of the period for which the agency was
constituted. (1732a)
Art. 1920. The principal may revoke the agency at will, and
compel the agent to return the document evidencing the
agency. Such revocation may be express or implied. (1733a)
Art. 1921. If the agency has been entrusted for the purpose
of contracting with specified persons, its revocation shall not
prejudice the latter if they were not given notice thereof.
(1734)

Art. 1922. If the agent had general powers, revocation of the

agency does not prejudice third persons who acted in good
faith and without knowledge of the revocation. Notice of the
revocation in a newspaper of general circulation is a
sufficient warning to third persons. (n)

Art. 1923. The appointment of a new agent for the same

business or transaction revokes the previous agency from
the day on which notice thereof was given to the former
agent, without prejudice to the provisions of the two
preceding articles. (1735a)

Art. 1924. The agency is revoked if the principal directly

manages the business entrusted to the agent, dealing
directly with third persons. (n)
Art. 1925. When two or more principals have granted a
power of attorney for a common transaction, any one of
them may revoke the same without the consent of the others.
(n)

Art. 1926. A general power of attorney is revoked by a

special one granted to another agent, as regards the special
matter involved in the latter. (n)

Art. 1927. An agency cannot be revoked if a bilateral

contract depends upon it, or if it is the means of fulfilling an
obligation already contracted, or if a partner is appointed
manager of a partnership in the contract of partnership and
his removal from the management is unjustifiable. (n)

Art. 1928. The agent may withdraw from the agency by

giving due notice to the principal. If the latter should suffer
any damage by reason of the withdrawal, the agent must
indemnify him therefor, unless the agent should base his
withdrawal upon the impossibility of continuing the
performance of the agency without grave detriment to
himself. (1736a)

Art. 1929. The agent, even if he should withdraw from the

agency for a valid reason, must continue to act until the
principal has had reasonable opportunity to take the
necessary steps to meet the situation. (1737a)

Art. 1930. The agency shall remain in full force and effect
even after the death of the principal, if it has been
constituted in the common interest of the latter and of the
agent, or in the interest of a third person who has accepted
the stipulation in his favor. (n)

Art. 1931. Anything done by the agent, without knowledge of

the death of the principal or of any other cause which
extinguishes the agency, is valid and shall be fully effective
with respect to third persons who may have contracted with
him in good faith. (1738)

Art. 1932. If the agent dies, his heirs must notify the
principal thereof, and in the meantime adopt such measures
as the circumstances may demand in the interest of the
latter. (1739)

Title XI. - LOAN

GENERAL PROVISIONS
Art. 1933. By the contract of loan, one of the parties delivers
to another, either something not consumable so that the
latter may use the same for a certain time and return it, in
which case the contract is called a commodatum; or money
or other consumable thing, upon the condition that the same
amount of the same kind and quality shall be paid, in which
case the contract is simply called a loan or mutuum.
Commodatum is essentially gratuitous.

Simple loan may be gratuitous or with a stipulation to pay

interest.

In commodatum the bailor retains the ownership of the thing

loaned, while in simple loan, ownership passes to the
borrower. (1740a)

Art. 1934. An accepted promise to deliver something by way

of commodatum or simple loan is binding upon parties, but
the commodatum or simple loan itself shall not be perfected
until the delivery of the object of the contract. (n)

CHAPTER 1
COMMODATUM

SECTION 1 - Nature of Commodatum

Art. 1935. The bailee in commodatum acquires the used of

the thing loaned but not its fruits; if any compensation is to
be paid by him who acquires the use, the contract ceases to
be a commodatum. (1941a)
Art. 1936. Consumable goods may be the subject of
commodatum if the purpose of the contract is not the
consumption of the object, as when it is merely for
exhibition. (n)

Art. 1937. Movable or immovable property may be the object

of commodatum. (n)

Art. 1938. The bailor in commodatum need not be the owner

of the thing loaned. (n)

Art. 1939. Commodatum is purely personal in character.

Consequently:

(1) The death of either the bailor or the bailee extinguishes

the contract; (2) The bailee can neither lend nor lease
the object of the contract to a third person. However,
the members of the bailee's household may make use
of the thing loaned, unless there is a stipulation to the
 contrary, or unless the nature of the thing forbids such
use. (n)
Art. 1940. A stipulation that the bailee may make use of the
fruits of the thing loaned is valid. (n)

SECTION 2. - Obligations of the Bailee

Art. 1941. The bailee is obliged to pay for the ordinary

expenses for the use and preservation of the thing loaned.
(1743a)
Art. 1942. The bailee is liable for the loss of the thing, even if
it should be through a fortuitous event:

(1) If he devotes the thing to any purpose different from

that for which it has been loaned; (2) If he keeps it
longer than the period stipulated, or after the
accomplishment of the use for which the commodatum
has been constituted; (3) If the thing loaned has been
delivered with appraisal of its value, unless there is a
stipulation exemption the bailee from responsibility in
case of a fortuitous event; (4) If he lends or leases the
thing to a third person, who is not a member of his
household; (5) If, being able to save either the thing
borrowed or his own thing, he chose to save the latter.
(1744a and 1745)
Art. 1943. The bailee does not answer for the deterioration
of the thing loaned due only to the use thereof and without
his fault. (1746)
Art. 1944. The bailee cannot retain the thing loaned on the
ground that the bailor owes him something, even though it
may be by reason of expenses. However, the bailee has a
right of retention for damages mentioned in Article 1951.
(1747a)

Art. 1945. When there are two or more bailees to whom a

thing is loaned in the same contract, they are liable solidarily.
(1748a)

SECTION 3. - Obligations of the Bailor

Art. 1946. The bailor cannot demand the return of the thing
loaned till after the expiration of the period stipulated, or
after the accomplishment of the use for which the
commodatum has been constituted. However, if in the
meantime, he should have urgent need of the thing, he may
demand its return or temporary use.
In case of temporary use by the bailor, the contract of
commodatum is suspended while the thing is in the
possession of the bailor. (1749a)

Art. 1947. The bailor may demand the thing at will, and the
contractual relation is called a precarium, in the following
cases:

(1) If neither the duration of the contract nor the use to

which the thing loaned should be devoted, has been
stipulated; or (2) If the use of the thing is merely
tolerated by the owner. (1750a)
Art. 1948. The bailor may demand the immediate return of
the thing if the bailee commits any act of ingratitude
specified in Article 765. (n)
Art. 1949. The bailor shall refund the extraordinary expenses
during the contract for the preservation of the thing loaned,
provided the bailee brings the same to the knowledge of the
bailor before incurring them, except when they are so urgent
that the reply to the notification cannot be awaited without
danger.

If the extraordinary expenses arise on the occasion of the

actual use of the thing by the bailee, even though he acted
without fault, they shall be borne equally by both the bailor
and the bailee, unless there is a stipulation to the contrary.
(1751a)

Art. 1950. If, for the purpose of making use of the thing, the
bailee incurs expenses other than those referred to in
Articles 1941 and 1949, he is not entitled to reimbursement.
(n)

Art. 1951. The bailor who, knowing the flaws of the thing
loaned, does not advise the bailee of the same, shall be liable
to the latter for the damages which he may suffer by reason
thereof. (1752)

Art. 1952. The bailor cannot exempt himself from the

payment of expenses or damages by abandoning the thing to
the bailee. (n)

CHAPTER 2
SIMPLE LOAN OR MUTUUM

Art. 1953. A person who receives a loan of money or any

other fungible thing acquires the ownership thereof, and is
bound to pay to the creditor an equal amount of the same
kind and quality. (1753a)
Art. 1954. A contract whereby one person transfers the
ownership of non-fungible things to another with the
obligation on the part of the latter to give things of the same
kind, quantity, and quality shall be considered a barter. (n)

Art. 1955. The obligation of a person who borrows money

shall be governed by the provisions of Articles 1249 and
1250 of this Code.

If what was loaned is a fungible thing other than money, the

debtor owes another thing of the same kind, quantity and
quality, even if it should change in value. In case it is
impossible to deliver the same kind, its value at the time of
the perfection of the loan shall be paid. (1754a)

Art. 1956. No interest shall be due unless it has been

expressly stipulated in writing. (1755a)

Art. 1957. Contracts and stipulations, under any cloak or

device whatever, intended to circumvent the laws against
usury shall be void. The borrower may recover in accordance
with the laws on usury. (n)

Art. 1958. In the determination of the interest, if it is

payable in kind, its value shall be appraised at the current
price of the products or goods at the time and place of
payment. (n)

Art. 1959. Without prejudice to the provisions of Article 2212,

interest due and unpaid shall not earn interest. However, the
contracting parties may by stipulation capitalize the interest
due and unpaid, which as added principal, shall earn new
interest. (n)

Art. 1960. If the borrower pays interest when there has been
no stipulation therefor, the provisions of this Code
concerning solutio indebiti, or natural obligations, shall be
applied, as the case may be. (n)

Art. 1961. Usurious contracts shall be governed by the Usury

Law and other special laws, so far as they are not
inconsistent with this Code. (n)

Title XII. - DEPOSIT

CHAPTER 1
DEPOSIT IN GENERAL AND ITS DIFFERENT KINDS

Art. 1962. A deposit is constituted from the moment a person

receives a thing belonging to another, with the obligation of
safely keeping it and of returning the same. If the
safekeeping of the thing delivered is not the principal
purpose of the contract, there is no deposit but some other
contract. (1758a)
Art. 1963. An agreement to constitute a deposit is binding,
but the deposit itself is not perfected until the delivery of the
thing. (n)

Art. 1964. A deposit may be constituted judicially or

extrajudicially. (1759)

Art. 1965. A deposit is a gratuitous contract, except when

there is an agreement to the contrary, or unless the
depositary is engaged in the business of storing goods.
(1760a)

Art. 1966. Only movable things may be the object of a

deposit. (1761)

Art. 1967. An extrajudicial deposit is either voluntary or

necessary. (1762)

CHAPTER 2
VOLUNTARY DEPOSIT

SECTION 1. - General Provisions

Art. 1968. A voluntary deposit is that wherein the delivery is

made by the will of the depositor. A deposit may also be
made by two or more persons each of whom believes himself
entitled to the thing deposited with a third person, who shall
deliver it in a proper case to the one to whom it belongs.
(1763)
Art. 1969. A contract of deposit may be entered into orally or
in writing. (n)

Art. 1970. If a person having capacity to contract accepts a

deposit made by one who is incapacitated, the former shall
be subject to all the obligations of a depositary, and may be
compelled to return the thing by the guardian, or
administrator, of the person who made the deposit, or by the
latter himself if he should acquire capacity. (1764)

Art. 1971. If the deposit has been made by a capacitated

person with another who is not, the depositor shall only
have an action to recover the thing deposited while it is still
in the possession of the depositary, or to compel the latter to
pay him the amount by which he may have enriched or
benefited himself with the thing or its price. However, if a
third person who acquired the thing acted in bad faith, the
depositor may bring an action against him for its recovery.
(1765a)

SECTION 2. - Obligations of the Depositary

Art. 1972. The depositary is obliged to keep the thing safely

and to return it, when required, to the depositor, or to his
heirs and successors, or to the person who may have been
designated in the contract. His responsibility, with regard to
the safekeeping and the loss of the thing, shall be governed
by the provisions of Title I of this Book.
If the deposit is gratuitous, this fact shall be taken into
account in determining the degree of care that the
depositary must observe. (1766a)

Art. 1973. Unless there is a stipulation to the contrary, the

depositary cannot deposit the thing with a third person. If
deposit with a third person is allowed, the depositary is
liable for the loss if he deposited the thing with a person
who is manifestly careless or unfit. The depositary is
responsible for the negligence of his employees. (n)

Art. 1974. The depositary may change the way of the deposit
if under the circumstances he may reasonably presume that
the depositor would consent to the change if he knew of the
facts of the situation. However, before the depositary may
make such change, he shall notify the depositor thereof and
wait for his decision, unless delay would cause danger. (n)

Art. 1975. The depositary holding certificates, bonds,

securities or instruments which earn interest shall be bound
to collect the latter when it becomes due, and to take such
steps as may be necessary in order that the securities may
preserve their value and the rights corresponding to them
according to law.

The above provision shall not apply to contracts for the rent
of safety deposit boxes. (n)

Art. 1976. Unless there is a stipulation to the contrary, the

depositary may commingle grain or other articles of the
same kind and quality, in which case the various depositors
shall own or have a proportionate interest in the mass. (n)

Art. 1977. The depositary cannot make use of the thing

deposited without the express permission of the depositor.

Otherwise, he shall be liable for damages.

However, when the preservation of the thing deposited
requires its use, it must be used but only for that purpose.
(1767a)

Art. 1978. When the depositary has permission to use the

thing deposited, the contract loses the concept of a deposit
and becomes a loan or commodatum, except where
safekeeping is still the principal purpose of the contract.

The permission shall not be presumed, and its existence

must be proved. (1768a)

Art. 1979. The depositary is liable for the loss of the thing
through a fortuitous event:

(1) If it is so stipulated; (2) If he uses the thing without

the depositor's permission; (3) If he delays its return;
(4) If he allows others to use it, even though he
himself may have been authorized to use the same. (n)
Art. 1980. Fixed, savings, and current deposits of money in
banks and similar institutions shall be governed by the
provisions concerning simple loan. (n)
Art. 1981. When the thing deposited is delivered closed and
sealed, the depositary must return it in the same condition,
and he shall be liable for damages should the seal or lock be
broken through his fault.

Fault on the part of the depositary is presumed, unless there

is proof to the contrary.

As regards the value of the thing deposited, the statement of

the depositor shall be accepted, when the forcible opening is
imputable to the depositary, should there be no proof to the
contrary. However, the courts may pass upon the credibility
of the depositor with respect to the value claimed by him.

When the seal or lock is broken, with or without the

depositary's fault, he shall keep the secret of the deposit.
(1769a)

Art. 1982. When it becomes necessary to open a locked box

or receptacle, the depositary is presumed authorized to do
so, if the key has been delivered to him; or when the
instructions of the depositor as regards the deposit cannot
be executed without opening the box or receptacle. (n)

Art. 1983. The thing deposited shall be returned with all its
products, accessories and accessions.
Should the deposit consist of money, the provisions relative
to agents in article 1896 shall be applied to the depositary.
(1770)

Art. 1984. The depositary cannot demand that the depositor

prove his ownership of the thing deposited.

Nevertheless, should he discover that the thing has been

stolen and who its true owner is, he must advise the latter of
the deposit.

If the owner, in spite of such information, does not claim it

within the period of one month, the depositary shall be
relieved of all responsibility by returning the thing deposited
to the depositor.

If the depositary has reasonable grounds to believe that the

thing has not been lawfully acquired by the depositor, the
former may return the same. (1771a)

Art. 1985. When there are two or more depositors, if they

are not solidary, and the thing admits of division, each one
cannot demand more than his share.

When there is solidarity or the thing does not admit of

division, the provisions of Articles 1212 and 1214 shall
govern. However, if there is a stipulation that the thing
should be returned to one of the depositors, the depositary
shall return it only to the person designated. (1772a)

Art. 1986. If the depositor should lose his capacity to

contract after having made the deposit, the thing cannot be
returned except to the persons who may have the
administration of his property and rights. (1773)

Art. 1987. If at the time the deposit was made a place was
designated for the return of the thing, the depositary must
take the thing deposited to such place; but the expenses for
transportation shall be borne by the depositor.

If no place has been designated for the return, it shall be

made where the thing deposited may be, even if it should not
be the same place where the deposit was made, provided
that there was no malice on the part of the depositary.
(1774)

Art. 1988. The thing deposited must be returned to the

depositor upon demand, even though a specified period or
time for such return may have been fixed.
This provision shall not apply when the thing is judicially
attached while in the depositary's possession, or should he
have been notified of the opposition of a third person to the
return or the removal of the thing deposited. In these cases,
the depositary must immediately inform the depositor of the
attachment or opposition. (1775)

Art. 1989. Unless the deposit is for a valuable consideration,

the depositary who may have justifiable reasons for not
keeping the thing deposited may, even before the time
designated, return it to the depositor; and if the latter should
refuse to receive it, the depositary may secure its
consignation from the court. (1776a)

Art. 1990. If the depositary by force majeure or government

order loses the thing and receives money or another thing in
its place, he shall deliver the sum or other thing to the
depositor. (1777a)

Art. 1991. The depositor's heir who in good faith may have
sold the thing which he did not know was deposited, shall
only be bound to return the price he may have received or to
assign his right of action against the buyer in case the price
has not been paid him. (1778)

SECTION 3. - Obligations of the Depositor

Art. 1992. If the deposit is gratuitous, the depositor is

obliged to reimburse the depositary for the expenses he may
have incurred for the preservation of the thing deposited.
(1779a)
Art. 1993. The depositor shall reimburse the depositary for
any loss arising from the character of the thing deposited,
unless at the time of the constitution of the deposit the
former was not aware of, or was not expected to know the
dangerous character of the thing, or unless he notified the
depositary of the same, or the latter was aware of it without
advice from the depositor. (n)

Art. 1994. The depositary may retain the thing in pledge until
the full payment of what may be due him by reason of the
deposit. (1780)

Art. 1995. A deposit its extinguished:

(1) Upon the loss or destruction of the thing deposited; (2)

In case of a gratuitous deposit, upon the death of either
the depositor or the depositary. (n)
CHAPTER 3
 NECESSARY DEPOSIT

Art. 1996. A deposit is necessary:

(1) When it is made in compliance with a legal obligation;
(2) When it takes place on the occasion of any calamity,
such as fire, storm, flood, pillage, shipwreck, or other
similar events. (1781a)
Art. 1997. The deposit referred to in No. 1 of the preceding
article shall be governed by the provisions of the law
establishing it, and in case of its deficiency, by the rules on
voluntary deposit.
The deposit mentioned in No. 2 of the preceding article shall
be regulated by the provisions concerning voluntary deposit
and by Article 2168. (1782)

Art. 1998. The deposit of effects made by the travellers in

hotels or inns shall also be regarded as necessary. The
keepers of hotels or inns shall be responsible for them as
depositaries, provided that notice was given to them, or to
their employees, of the effects brought by the guests and
that, on the part of the latter, they take the precautions
which said hotel-keepers or their substitutes advised relative
to the care and vigilance of their effects. (1783)

Art. 1999. The hotel-keeper is liable for the vehicles, animals

and articles which have been introduced or placed in the
annexes of the hotel. (n)

Art. 2000. The responsibility referred to in the two preceding

articles shall include the loss of, or injury to the personal
property of the guests caused by the servants or employees
of the keepers of hotels or inns as well as strangers; but not
that which may proceed from any force majeure. The fact
that travellers are constrained to rely on the vigilance of the
keeper of the hotels or inns shall be considered in
determining the degree of care required of him. (1784a)

Art. 2001. The act of a thief or robber, who has entered the
hotel is not deemed force majeure, unless it is done with the
use of arms or through an irresistible force. (n)

Art. 2002. The hotel-keeper is not liable for compensation if

the loss is due to the acts of the guest, his family, servants
or visitors, or if the loss arises from the character of the
things brought into the hotel. (n)

Art. 2003. The hotel-keeper cannot free himself from

responsibility by posting notices to the effect that he is not
liable for the articles brought by the guest. Any stipulation
between the hotel-keeper and the guest whereby the
responsibility of the former as set forth in articles 1998 to
2001 is suppressed or diminished shall be void. (n)

Art. 2004. The hotel-keeper has a right to retain the things

brought into the hotel by the guest, as a security for credits
on account of lodging, and supplies usually furnished to
hotel guests. (n)

CHAPTER 4
SEQUESTRATION OR JUDICIAL DEPOSIT

Art. 2005. A judicial deposit or sequestration takes place

when an attachment or seizure of property in litigation is
ordered. (1785)
Art. 2006. Movable as well as immovable property may be
the object of sequestration. (1786)

Art. 2007. The depositary of property or objects

sequestrated cannot be relieved of his responsibility until the
controversy which gave rise thereto has come to an end,
unless the court so orders. (1787a)

Art. 2008. The depositary of property sequestrated is bound

to comply, with respect to the same, with all the obligations
of a good father of a family. (1788)

Art. 2009. As to matters not provided for in this Code,

judicial sequestration shall be governed by the Rules of
Court. (1789)

Title XIII. - ALEATORY CONTRACTS

GENERAL PROVISIONS

Art. 2010. By an aleatory contract, one of the parties or both

reciprocally bind themselves to give or to do something in
consideration of what the other shall give or do upon the
happening of an event which is uncertain, or which is to
occur at an indeterminate time. (1790)

CHAPTER 1
INSURANCE

Art. 2011. The contract of insurance is governed by special

laws. Matters not expressly provided for in such special laws
shall be regulated by this Code. (n)
Art. 2012. Any person who is forbidden from receiving any
donation under Article 739 cannot be named beneficiary of a
life insurance policy by the person who cannot make any
donation to him, according to said article. (n)

CHAPTER 2
GAMBLING

Art. 2013. A game of chance is that which depends more on

chance or hazard than or skill or ability. For the purposes of
the following articles, in case of doubt a game is deemed to
be one of chance. (n)
Art. 2014. No action can be maintained by the winner for the
collection of what he has won in a game of chance. But any
loser in a game of chance may recover his loss from the
winner, with legal interest from the time he paid the amount
lost, and subsidiarily from the operator or manager of the
gambling house. (1799a)

Art. 2015. If cheating or deceit is committed by the winner,

he, and subsidiarily the operator or manager of the gambling
house, shall pay by way of exemplary damages, not less than
the equivalent of the sum lost, in addition to the latter
amount. If both the winner and the loser have perpetrated
fraud, no action for recovery can be brought by either. (n)

Art. 2016. If the loser refuses or neglects to bring an action

to recover what has been lost, his or her creditors, spouse,
descendants or other persons entitled to be supported by the
loser may institute the action. The sum thereby obtained
shall be applied to the creditors' claims, or to the support of
the spouse or relatives, as the case may be. (n)

Art. 2017. The provisions of Article 2014 and 2016 apply

when two or more persons bet in a game of chance, although
they take no active part in the game itself. (1799a)

Art. 2018. If a contract which purports to be for the delivery

of goods, securities or shares of stock is entered into with
the intention that the difference between the price stipulated
and the exchange or market price at the time of the
pretended delivery shall be paid by the loser to the winner,
the transaction is null and void. The loser may recover what
he has paid. (n)

Art. 2019. Betting on the result of sports, athletic

competitions, or games of skill may be prohibited by local
ordinances. (n)
Art. 2020. The loser in any game which is not one of chance,
when there is no local ordinance which prohibits betting
therein, is under obligation to pay his loss, unless the
amount thereof is excessive under the circumstances. In the
latter case, the court shall reduce the loss to the proper sum.
(1801a)

CHAPTER 3
LIFE ANNUITY

Art. 2021. The aleatory contract of life annuity binds the

debtor to pay an annual pension or income during the life of
one or more determinate persons in consideration of a
capital consisting of money or other property, whose
ownership is transferred to him at once with the burden of
the income. (1802a)
Art. 2022. The annuity may be constituted upon the life of
the person who gives the capital, upon that of a third person,
or upon the lives of various persons, all of whom must be
living at the time the annuity is established.

It may also be constituted in favor of the person or persons

upon whose life or lives the contract is entered into, or in
favor of another or other persons. (1803)

Art. 2023. Life annuity shall be void if constituted upon the

life of a person who was already dead at the time the
contract was entered into, or who was at that time suffering
from an illness which caused his death within twenty days
following said date. (1804)

Art. 2024. The lack of payment of the income due does not
authorize the recipient of the life annuity to demand the
reimbursement of the capital or to retake possession of the
property alienated, unless there is a stipulation to the
contrary; he shall have only a right judicially to claim the
payment of the income in arrears and to require a security
for the future income, unless there is a stipulation to the
contrary. (1805a)

Art. 2025. The income corresponding to the year in which the

person enjoying it dies shall be paid in proportion to the
days during which he lived; if the income should be paid by
installments in advance, the whole amount of the installment
which began to run during his life shall be paid. (1806)

Art. 2026. He who constitutes an annuity by gratuitous title

upon his property, may provide at the time the annuity is
established that the same shall not be subject to execution
or attachment on account of the obligations of the recipient
of the annuity. If the annuity was constituted in fraud of
creditors, the latter may ask for the execution or attachment
of the property. (1807a)

Art. 2027. No annuity shall be claimed without first proving

the existence of the person upon whose life the annuity is
constituted. (1808)

Title XIV. - COMPROMISES AND ARBITRATIONS

CHAPTER 1
COMPROMISES

Art. 2028. A compromise is a contract whereby the parties,

by making reciprocal concessions, avoid a litigation or put an
end to one already commenced. (1809a)
Art. 2029. The court shall endeavor to persuade the litigants
in a civil case to agree upon some fair compromise. (n)

Art. 2030. Every civil action or proceeding shall be

suspended:

(1) If willingness to discuss a possible compromise is

expressed by one or both parties; or (2) If it appears
that one of the parties, before the commencement of
the action or proceeding, offered to discuss a possible
compromise but the other party refused the offer.
The duration and terms of the suspension of the civil action
or proceeding and similar matters shall be governed by such
provisions of the rules of court as the Supreme Court shall
promulgate. Said rules of court shall likewise provide for the
appointment and duties of amicable compounders. (n)
Art. 2031. The courts may mitigate the damages to be paid
by the losing party who has shown a sincere desire for a
compromise. (n)

Art. 2032. The court's approval is necessary in compromises

entered into by guardians, parents, absentee's
representatives, and administrators or executors of
decedent's estates. (1810a)

Art. 2033. Juridical persons may compromise only in the

form and with the requisites which may be necessary to
alienate their property. (1812a)

Art. 2034. There may be a compromise upon the civil liability

arising from an offense; but such compromise shall not
extinguish the public action for the imposition of the legal
penalty. (1813)

Art. 2035. No compromise upon the following questions shall

be valid:

(1) The civil status of persons; (2) The validity of a

marriage or a legal separation; (3) Any ground for
legal separation; (4) Future support; (5) The
jurisdiction of courts; (6) Future legitime. (1814a)
Art. 2036. A compromise comprises only those objects which
are definitely stated therein, or which by necessary
implication from its terms should be deemed to have been
included in the same.
A general renunciation of rights is understood to refer only
to those that are connected with the dispute which was the
subject of the compromise. (1815)

Art. 2037. A compromise has upon the parties the effect and
authority of res judicata; but there shall be no execution
except in compliance with a judicial compromise. (1816)

Art. 2038. A compromise in which there is mistake, fraud,

violence, intimidation, undue influence, or falsity of
documents, is subject to the provisions of Article 1330 of
this Code.

However, one of parties cannot set up a mistake of fact as

against the other if the latter, by virtue of the compromise,
has withdrawn from a litigation already commenced.
(1817a)

Art. 2039. When the parties compromise generally on all

differences which they might have with each other, the
discovery of documents referring to one or more but not to
all of the questions settled shall not itself be a cause for
annulment or rescission of the compromise, unless said
documents have been concealed by one of the parties.

But the compromise may be annulled or rescinded if it refers

only to one thing to which one of the parties has no right, as
shown by the newly-discovered documents. (n)

Art. 2040. If after a litigation has been decided by a final

judgment, a compromise should be agreed upon, either or
both parties being unaware of the existence of the final
judgment, the compromise may be rescinded.

Ignorance of a judgment which may be revoked or set aside

is not a valid ground for attacking a compromise. (1819a)

Art. 2041. If one of the parties fails or refuses to abide by

the compromise, the other party may either enforce the
compromise or regard it as rescinded and insist upon his
original demand. (n)

CHAPTER 2
ARBITRATIONS

Art. 2042. The same persons who may enter into a

compromise may submit their controversies to one or more
arbitrators for decision. (1820a)
Art. 2043. The provisions of the preceding Chapter upon
compromises shall also be applicable to arbitrations.
(1821a)

Art. 2044. Any stipulation that the arbitrators' award or

decision shall be final, is valid, without prejudice to Articles
2038, 2039, and 2040. (n)

Art. 2045. Any clause giving one of the parties power to

choose more arbitrators than the other is void and of no
effect. (n)

Art. 2046. The appointment of arbitrators and the procedure

for arbitration shall be governed by the provisions of such
rules of court as the Supreme Court shall promulgate. (n)

Title XV. - GUARANTY

CHAPTER 1
NATURE AND EXTENT OF GUARANTY

Art. 2047. By guaranty a person, called the guarantor, binds

himself to the creditor to fulfill the obligation of the principal
debtor in case the latter should fail to do so.
If a person binds himself solidarily with the principal debtor,
the provisions of Section 4, Chapter 3, Title I of this Book
shall be observed. In such case the contract is called a
suretyship. (1822a)

Art. 2048. A guaranty is gratuitous, unless there is a

stipulation to the contrary. (n)

Art. 2049. A married woman may guarantee an obligation

without the husband's consent, but shall not thereby bind
the conjugal partnership, except in cases provided by law.
(n)
Art. 2050. If a guaranty is entered into without the
knowledge or consent, or against the will of the principal
debtor, the provisions of Articles 1236 and 1237 shall apply.
(n)

Art. 2051. A guaranty may be conventional, legal or judicial,

gratuitous, or by onerous title.

It may also be constituted, not only in favor of the principal

debtor, but also in favor of the other guarantor, with the
latter's consent, or without his knowledge, or even over his
objection. (1823)

Art. 2052. A guaranty cannot exist without a valid obligation.

Nevertheless, a guaranty may be constituted to guarantee

the performance of a voidable or an unenforceable contract.
It may also guarantee a natural obligation. (1824a)

Art. 2053. A guaranty may also be given as security for

future debts, the amount of which is not yet known; there
can be no claim against the guarantor until the debt is
liquidated. A conditional obligation may also be secured.
(1825a)

Art. 2054. A guarantor may bind himself for less, but not for
more than the principal debtor, both as regards the amount
and the onerous nature of the conditions.

Should he have bound himself for more, his obligations shall

be reduced to the limits of that of the debtor. (1826)

Art. 2055. A guaranty is not presumed; it must be express

and cannot extend to more than what is stipulated therein.

If it be simple or indefinite, it shall compromise not only the

principal obligation, but also all its accessories, including the
judicial costs, provided with respect to the latter, that the
guarantor shall only be liable for those costs incurred after
he has been judicially required to pay. (1827a)

Art. 2056. One who is obliged to furnish a guarantor shall

present a person who possesses integrity, capacity to bind
himself, and sufficient property to answer for the obligation
which he guarantees. The guarantor shall be subject to the
jurisdiction of the court of the place where this obligation is
to be complied with. (1828a)

Art. 2057. If the guarantor should be convicted in first

instance of a crime involving dishonesty or should become
insolvent, the creditor may demand another who has all the
qualifications required in the preceding article. The case is
excepted where the creditor has required and stipulated that
a specified person should be the guarantor. (1829a)

CHAPTER 2
EFFECTS OF GUARANTY

SECTION 1. - Effects of Guaranty

Between the Guarantor and the Creditor

Art. 2058. The guarantor cannot be compelled to pay the

creditor unless the latter has exhausted all the property of
the debtor, and has resorted to all the legal remedies against
the debtor. (1830a)
Art. 2059. The excussion shall not take place:

(1) If the guarantor has expressly renounced it; (2) If he

has bound himself solidarily with the debtor; (3) In
case of insolvency of the debtor; (4) When he has
absconded, or cannot be sued within the Philippines
unless he has left a manager or representative; (5) If
it may be presumed that an execution on the property
of the principal debtor would not result in the
satisfaction of the obligation. (1831a)
Art. 2060. In order that the guarantor may make use of the
benefit of exclusion, he must set it up against the creditor
upon the latter's demand for payment from him, and point
out to the creditor available property of the debtor within
Philippine territory, sufficient to cover the amount of the
debt. (1832)
Art. 2061. The guarantor having fulfilled all the conditions
required in the preceding article, the creditor who is
negligent in exhausting the property pointed out shall suffer
the loss, to the extent of said property, for the insolvency of
the debtor resulting from such negligence. (1833a)

Art. 2062. In every action by the creditor, which must be

against the principal debtor alone, except in the cases
mentioned in Article 2059, the former shall ask the court to
notify the guarantor of the action. The guarantor may appear
so that he may, if he so desire, set up such defenses as are
granted him by law. The benefit of excussion mentioned in
Article 2058 shall always be unimpaired, even if judgment
should be rendered against the principal debtor and the
guarantor in case of appearance by the latter. (1834a)
Art. 2063. A compromise between the creditor and the
principal debtor benefits the guarantor but does not
prejudice him. That which is entered into between the
guarantor and the creditor benefits but does not prejudice
the principal debtor. (1835a)

Art. 2064. The guarantor of a guarantor shall enjoy the

benefit of excussion, both with respect to the guarantor and
to the principal debtor. (1836)

Art. 2065. Should there be several guarantors of only one

debtor and for the same debt, the obligation to answer for
the same is divided among all. The creditor cannot claim
from the guarantors except the shares which they are
respectively bound to pay, unless solidarity has been
expressly stipulated.

The benefit of division against the co-guarantors ceases in

the same cases and for the same reasons as the benefit of
excussion against the principal debtor. (1837)

SECTION 2. - Effects of Guaranty

Between the Debtor and the Guarantor

Art. 2066. The guarantor who pays for a debtor must be

indemnified by the latter.
The indemnity comprises:

(1) The total amount of the debt; (2) The legal interests
thereon from the time the payment was made known to
the debtor, even though it did not earn interest for the
creditor; (3) The expenses incurred by the guarantor
after having notified the debtor that payment had been
demanded of him; (4) Damages, if they are due.
(1838a)
Art. 2067. The guarantor who pays is subrogated by virtue
thereof to all the rights which the creditor had against the
debtor.
If the guarantor has compromised with the creditor, he
cannot demand of the debtor more than what he has really
paid. (1839)

Art. 2068. If the guarantor should pay without notifying the

debtor, the latter may enforce against him all the defenses
which he could have set up against the creditor at the time
the payment was made. (1840)

Art. 2069. If the debt was for a period and the guarantor
paid it before it became due, he cannot demand
reimbursement of the debtor until the expiration of the
period unless the payment has been ratified by the debtor.
(1841a)

Art. 2070. If the guarantor has paid without notifying the

debtor, and the latter not being aware of the payment,
repeats the payment, the former has no remedy whatever
against the debtor, but only against the creditor.
Nevertheless, in case of a gratuitous guaranty, if the
guarantor was prevented by a fortuitous event from advising
the debtor of the payment, and the creditor becomes
insolvent, the debtor shall reimburse the guarantor for the
amount paid. (1842a)

Art. 2071. The guarantor, even before having paid, may

proceed against the principal debtor:

(1) When he is sued for the payment; (2) In case of

insolvency of the principal debtor; (3) When the debtor
has bound himself to relieve him from the guaranty
within a specified period, and this period has expired;
(4) When the debt has become demandable, by reason
of the expiration of the period for payment; (5) After
the lapse of ten years, when the principal obligation
has no fixed period for its maturity, unless it be of such
nature that it cannot be extinguished except within a
period longer than ten years; (6) If there are
reasonable grounds to fear that the principal debtor
intends to abscond; (7) If the principal debtor is in
imminent danger of becoming insolvent.
In all these cases, the action of the guarantor is to obtain
release from the guaranty, or to demand a security that shall
protect him from any proceedings by the creditor and from
the danger of insolvency of the debtor. (1834a)
Art. 2072. If one, at the request of another, becomes a
guarantor for the debt of a third person who is not present,
the guarantor who satisfies the debt may sue either the
person so requesting or the debtor for reimbursement. (n)

SECTION 3. - Effects of Guaranty as Between Co-Guarantors

Art. 2073. When there are two or more guarantors of the

same debtor and for the same debt, the one among them
who has paid may demand of each of the others the share
which is proportionally owing from him.
If any of the guarantors should be insolvent, his share shall
be borne by the others, including the payer, in the same
proportion.
The provisions of this article shall not be applicable, unless
the payment has been made by virtue of a judicial demand or
unless the principal debtor is insolvent. (1844a)

Art. 2074. In the case of the preceding article, the co-

guarantors may set up against the one who paid, the same
defenses which would have pertained to the principal debtor
against the creditor, and which are not purely personal to
the debtor. (1845)

Art. 2075. A sub-guarantor, in case of the insolvency of the

guarantor for whom he bound himself, is responsible to the
co-guarantors in the same terms as the guarantor. (1846)

CHAPTER 3
EXTINGUISHMENT OF GUARANTY

Art. 2076. The obligation of the guarantor is extinguished at

the same time as that of the debtor, and for the same causes
as all other obligations. (1847)
Art. 2077. If the creditor voluntarily accepts immovable or
other property in payment of the debt, even if he should
afterwards lose the same through eviction, the guarantor is
released. (1849)

Art. 2078. A release made by the creditor in favor of one of

the guarantors, without the consent of the others, benefits
all to the extent of the share of the guarantor to whom it has
been granted. (1850)

Art. 2079. An extension granted to the debtor by the creditor

without the consent of the guarantor extinguishes the
guaranty. The mere failure on the part of the creditor to
demand payment after the debt has become due does not of
itself constitute any extention of time referred to herein.
(1851a)

Art. 2080. The guarantors, even though they be solidary, are

released from their obligation whenever by some act of the
creditor they cannot be subrogated to the rights, mortgages,
and preference of the latter. (1852)

Art. 2081. The guarantor may set up against the creditor all
the defenses which pertain to the principal debtor and are
inherent in the debt; but not those that are personal to the
debtor. (1853)

CHAPTER 4
LEGAL AND JUDICIAL BONDS
Art. 2082. The bondsman who is to be offered in virtue of a
provision of law or of a judicial order shall have the
qualifications prescribed in Article 2056 and in special laws.
(1854a)
Art. 2083. If the person bound to give a bond in the cases of
the preceding article, should not be able to do so, a pledge or
mortgage considered sufficient to cover his obligation shall
be admitted in lieu thereof. (1855)

Art. 2084. A judicial bondsman cannot demand the

exhaustion of the property of the principal debtor.

A sub-surety in the same case, cannot demand the

exhaustion of the property of the debtor of the surety.

Title XVI. - PLEDGE, MORTGAGE AND ANTICHRESIS

CHAPTER 1
PROVISIONS COMMON TO PLEDGE AND MORTGAGE

Art. 2085. The following requisites are essential to the

contracts of pledge and mortgage:
(1) That they be constituted to secure the fulfillment of a
principal obligation; (2) That the pledgor or mortgagor
be the absolute owner of the thing pledged or
mortgaged; (3) That the persons constituting the
pledge or mortgage have the free disposal of their
property, and in the absence thereof, that they be
legally authorized for the purpose.
Third persons who are not parties to the principal obligation
may secure the latter by pledging or mortgaging their own
property. (1857)
Art. 2086. The provisions of Article 2052 are applicable to a
pledge or mortgage. (n)

Art. 2087. It is also of the essence of these contracts that

when the principal obligation becomes due, the things in
which the pledge or mortgage consists may be alienated for
the payment to the creditor. (1858)

Art. 2088. The creditor cannot appropriate the things given

by way of pledge or mortgage, or dispose of them. Any
stipulation to the contrary is null and void. (1859a)

Art. 2089. A pledge or mortgage is indivisible, even though

the debt may be divided among the successors in interest of
the debtor or of the creditor.
Therefore, the debtor's heir who has paid a part of the debt
cannot ask for the proportionate extinguishment of the
pledge or mortgage as long as the debt is not completely
satisfied.

Neither can the creditor's heir who received his share of the
debt return the pledge or cancel the mortgage, to the
prejudice of the other heirs who have not been paid.

From these provisions is expected the case in which, there

being several things given in mortgage or pledge, each one
of them guarantees only a determinate portion of the credit.

The debtor, in this case, shall have a right to the

extinguishment of the pledge or mortgage as the portion of
the debt for which each thing is specially answerable is
satisfied. (1860)

Art. 2090. The indivisibility of a pledge or mortgage is not

affected by the fact that the debtors are not solidarily liable.
(n)

Art. 2091. The contract of pledge or mortgage may secure all

kinds of obligations, be they pure or subject to a suspensive
or resolutory condition. (1861)

Art. 2092. A promise to constitute a pledge or mortgage

gives rise only to a personal action between the contracting
parties, without prejudice to the criminal responsibility
incurred by him who defrauds another, by offering in pledge
or mortgage as unencumbered, things which he knew were
subject to some burden, or by misrepresenting himself to be
the owner of the same. (1862)

CHAPTER 2
PLEDGE

Art. 2093. In addition to the requisites prescribed in Article

2085, it is necessary, in order to constitute the contract of
pledge, that the thing pledged be placed in the possession of
the creditor, or of a third person by common agreement.
(1863)
Art. 2094. All movables which are within commerce may be
pledged, provided they are susceptible of possession. (1864)

Art. 2095. Incorporeal rights, evidenced by negotiable

instruments, bills of lading, shares of stock, bonds,
warehouse receipts and similar documents may also be
pledged. The instrument proving the right pledged shall be
delivered to the creditor, and if negotiable, must be indorsed.
(n)

Art. 2096. A pledge shall not take effect against third

persons if a description of the thing pledged and the date of
the pledge do not appear in a public instrument. (1865a)

Art. 2097. With the consent of the pledgee, the thing pledged
may be alienated by the pledgor or owner, subject to the
pledge. The ownership of the thing pledged is transmitted to
the vendee or transferee as soon as the pledgee consents to
the alienation, but the latter shall continue in possession. (n)

Art. 2098. The contract of pledge gives a right to the creditor

to retain the thing in his possession or in that of a third
person to whom it has been delivered, until the debt is paid.
(1866a)

Art. 2099. The creditor shall take care of the thing pledged
with the diligence of a good father of a family; he has a right
to the reimbursement of the expenses made for its
preservation, and is liable for its loss or deterioration, in
conformity with the provisions of this Code. (1867)

Art. 2100. The pledgee cannot deposit the thing pledged with
a third person, unless there is a stipulation authorizing him
to do so.

The pledgee is responsible for the acts of his agents or

employees with respect to the thing pledged. (n)

Art. 2101. The pledgor has the same responsibility as a

bailor in commodatum in the case under Article 1951. (n)

Art. 2102. If the pledge earns or produces fruits, income,

dividends, or interests, the creditor shall compensate what
he receives with those which are owing him; but if none are
owing him, or insofar as the amount may exceed that which
is due, he shall apply it to the principal. Unless there is a
stipulation to the contrary, the pledge shall extend to the
interest and earnings of the right pledged.

In case of a pledge of animals, their offspring shall pertain to

the pledgor or owner of animals pledged, but shall be
subject to the pledge, if there is no stipulation to the
contrary. (1868a)

Art. 2103. Unless the thing pledged is expropriated, the

debtor continues to be the owner thereof.
Nevertheless, the creditor may bring the actions which
pertain to the owner of the thing pledged in order to recover
it from, or defend it against a third person. (1869)

Art. 2104. The creditor cannot use the thing pledged, without
the authority of the owner, and if he should do so, or should
misuse the thing in any other way, the owner may ask that it
be judicially or extrajudicially deposited. When the
preservation of the thing pledged requires its use, it must be
used by the creditor but only for that purpose. (1870a)

Art. 2105. The debtor cannot ask for the return of the thing
pledged against the will of the creditor, unless and until he
has paid the debt and its interest, with expenses in a proper
case. (1871)

Art. 2106. If through the negligence or wilful act of the

pledgee, the thing pledged is in danger of being lost or
impaired, the pledgor may require that it be deposited with a
third person. (n)

Art. 2107. If there are reasonable grounds to fear the

destruction or impairment of the thing pledged, without the
fault of the pledgee, the pledgor may demand the return of
the thing, upon offering another thing in pledge, provided
the latter is of the same kind as the former and not of
inferior quality, and without prejudice to the right of the
pledgee under the provisions of the following article.

The pledgee is bound to advise the pledgor, without delay, of

any danger to the thing pledged. (n)

Art. 2108. If, without the fault of the pledgee, there is

danger of destruction, impairment, or diminution in value of
the thing pledged, he may cause the same to be sold at a
public sale. The proceeds of the auction shall be a security
for the principal obligation in the same manner as the thing
originally pledged. (n)

Art. 2109. If the creditor is deceived on the substance or

quality of the thing pledged, he may either claim another
thing in its stead, or demand immediate payment of the
principal obligation. (n)

Art. 2110. If the thing pledged is returned by the pledgee to

the pledgor or owner, the pledge is extinguished. Any
stipulation to the contrary shall be void.

If subsequent to the perfection of the pledge, the thing is in

the possession of the pledgor or owner, there is a prima
facie presumption that the same has been returned by the
pledgee. This same presumption exists if the thing pledged is
in the possession of a third person who has received it from
the pledgor or owner after the constitution of the pledge. (n)

Art. 2111. A statement in writing by the pledgee that he

renounces or abandons the pledge is sufficient to extinguish
the pledge. For this purpose, neither the acceptance by the
pledgor or owner, nor the return of the thing pledged is
necessary, the pledgee becoming a depositary. (n)

Art. 2112. The creditor to whom the credit has not been
satisfied in due time, may proceed before a Notary Public to
the sale of the thing pledged. This sale shall be made at a
public auction, and with notification to the debtor and the
owner of the thing pledged in a proper case, stating the
amount for which the public sale is to be held. If at the first
auction the thing is not sold, a second one with the same
formalities shall be held; and if at the second auction there is
no sale either, the creditor may appropriate the thing
pledged. In this case he shall be obliged to give an
acquittance for his entire claim. (1872a)

Art. 2113. At the public auction, the pledgor or owner may

bid. He shall, moreover, have a better right if he should offer
the same terms as the highest bidder.

The pledgee may also bid, but his offer shall not be valid if
he is the only bidder. (n)

Art. 2114. All bids at the public auction shall offer to pay the
purchase price at once. If any other bid is accepted, the
pledgee is deemed to have been received the purchase price,
as far as the pledgor or owner is concerned. (n)

Art. 2115. The sale of the thing pledged shall extinguish the
principal obligation, whether or not the proceeds of the sale
are equal to the amount of the principal obligation, interest
and expenses in a proper case. If the price of the sale is
more than said amount, the debtor shall not be entitled to
the excess, unless it is otherwise agreed. If the price of the
sale is less, neither shall the creditor be entitled to recover
the deficiency, notwithstanding any stipulation to the
contrary. (n)

Art. 2116. After the public auction, the pledgee shall

promptly advise the pledgor or owner of the result thereof.
(n)
Art. 2117. Any third person who has any right in or to the
thing pledged may satisfy the principal obligation as soon as
the latter becomes due and demandable.(n)

Art. 2118. If a credit which has been pledged becomes due

before it is redeemed, the pledgee may collect and receive
the amount due. He shall apply the same to the payment of
his claim, and deliver the surplus, should there be any, to the
pledgor. (n)

Art. 2119. If two or more things are pledged, the pledgee

may choose which he will cause to be sold, unless there is a
stipulation to the contrary. He may demand the sale of only
as many of the things as are necessary for the payment of
the debt. (n)

Art. 2120. If a third party secures an obligation by pledging

his own movable property under the provisions of Article
2085 he shall have the same rights as a guarantor under
Articles 2066 to 2070, and Articles 2077 to 2081. He is not
prejudiced by any waiver of defense by the principal obligor.
(n)

Art. 2121. Pledges created by operation of law, such as those

referred to in Articles 546, 1731, and 1994, are governed by
the foregoing articles on the possession, care and sale of the
thing as well as on the termination of the pledge. However,
after payment of the debt and expenses, the remainder of
the price of the sale shall be delivered to the obligor. (n)

Art. 2122. A thing under a pledge by operation of law may be

sold only after demand of the amount for which the thing is
retained. The public auction shall take place within one
month after such demand. If, without just grounds, the
creditor does not cause the public sale to be held within such
period, the debtor may require the return of the thing. (n)

Art. 2123. With regard to pawnshops and other

establishments, which are engaged in making loans secured
by pledges, the special laws and regulations concerning
them shall be observed, and subsidiarily, the provisions of
this Title. (1873a)

CHAPTER 3
MORTGAGE

Art. 2124. Only the following property may be the object of a

contract of mortgage:
(1) Immovables; (2) Alienable real rights in accordance
 with the laws, imposed upon immovables.
Nevertheless, movables may be the object of a chattel
mortgage. (1874a)
Art. 2125. In addition to the requisites stated in Article 2085,
it is indispensable, in order that a mortgage may be validly
constituted, that the document in which it appears be
recorded in the Registry of Property. If the instrument is not
recorded, the mortgage is nevertheless binding between the
parties.

The persons in whose favor the law establishes a mortgage

have no other right than to demand the execution and the
recording of the document in which the mortgage is
formalized. (1875a)

Art. 2126. The mortgage directly and immediately subjects

the property upon which it is imposed, whoever the
possessor may be, to the fulfillment of the obligation for
whose security it was constituted. (1876)

Art. 2127. The mortgage extends to the natural accessions,

to the improvements, growing fruits, and the rents or income
not yet received when the obligation becomes due, and to
the amount of the indemnity granted or owing to the
proprietor from the insurers of the property mortgaged, or in
virtue of expropriation for public use, with the declarations,
amplifications and limitations established by law, whether
the estate remains in the possession of the mortgagor, or it
passes into the hands of a third person. (1877)

Art. 2128. The mortgage credit may be alienated or assigned

to a third person, in whole or in part, with the formalities
required by law. (1878)

Art. 2129. The creditor may claim from a third person in

possession of the mortgaged property, the payment of the
part of the credit secured by the property which said third
person possesses, in the terms and with the formalities
which the law establishes. (1879)

Art. 2130. A stipulation forbidding the owner from alienating

the immovable mortgaged shall be void. (n)

Art. 2131. The form, extent and consequences of a mortgage,

both as to its constitution, modification and extinguishment,
and as to other matters not included in this Chapter, shall be
governed by the provisions of the Mortgage Law and of the
Land Registration Law. (1880a)
 CHAPTER 4
ANTICHRESIS

Art. 2132. By the contract of antichresis the creditor acquires

the right to receive the fruits of an immovable of his debtor,
with the obligation to apply them to the payment of the
interest, if owing, and thereafter to the principal of his credit.
(1881)
Art. 2133. The actual market value of the fruits at the time of
the application thereof to the interest and principal shall be
the measure of such application. (n)

Art. 2134. The amount of the principal and of the interest

shall be specified in writing; otherwise, the contract of
antichresis shall be void. (n)

Art. 2135. The creditor, unless there is a stipulation to the

contrary, is obliged to pay the taxes and charges upon the
estate.

He is also bound to bear the expenses necessary for its

preservation and repair.

The sums spent for the purposes stated in this article shall
be deducted from the fruits. (1882)

Art. 2136. The debtor cannot reacquire the enjoyment of the

immovable without first having totally paid what he owes
the creditor.

But the latter, in order to exempt himself from the

obligations imposed upon him by the preceding article, may
always compel the debtor to enter again upon the enjoyment
of the property, except when there is a stipulation to the
contrary. (1883)

Art. 2137. The creditor does not acquire the ownership of the
real estate for non-payment of the debt within the period
agreed upon.

Every stipulation to the contrary shall be void. But the

creditor may petition the court for the payment of the debt
or the sale of the real property. In this case, the Rules of
Court on the foreclosure of mortgages shall apply. (1884a)

Art. 2138. The contracting parties may stipulate that the

interest upon the debt be compensated with the fruits of the
property which is the object of the antichresis, provided that
if the value of the fruits should exceed the amount of
interest allowed by the laws against usury, the excess shall
be applied to the principal. (1885a)

Art. 2139. The last paragraph of Article 2085, and Articles

2089 to 2091 are applicable to this contract. (1886a)

CHAPTER 5
CHATTEL MORTGAGE

Art. 2140. By a chattel mortgage, personal property is

recorded in the Chattel Mortgage Register as a security for
the performance of an obligation. If the movable, instead of
being recorded, is delivered to the creditor or a third person,
the contract is a pledge and not a chattel mortgage. (n)
Art. 2141. The provisions of this Code on pledge, insofar as
they are not in conflict with the Chattel Mortgage Law shall
be applicable to chattel mortgages. (n)

Title XVII. - EXTRA-CONTRACTUAL OBLIGATIONS

CHAPTER 1
QUASI-CONTRACTS

Art. 2142. Certain lawful, voluntary and unilateral acts give

rise to the juridical relation of quasi-contract to the end that
no one shall be unjustly enriched or benefited at the expense
of another. (n)
Art. 2143. The provisions for quasi-contracts in this Chapter
do not exclude other quasi-contracts which may come within
the purview of the preceding article. (n)

SECTION 1. - Negotiorum Gestio

Art. 2144. Whoever voluntarily takes charge of the agency or

management of the business or property of another, without
any power from the latter, is obliged to continue the same
until the termination of the affair and its incidents, or to
require the person concerned to substitute him, if the owner
is in a position to do so. This juridical relation does not arise
in either of these instances:
(1) When the property or business is not neglected or
abandoned; (2) If in fact the manager has been tacitly
authorized by the owner.
In the first case, the provisions of Articles 1317, 1403, No. 1,
and 1404 regarding unauthorized contracts shall govern.
In the second case, the rules on agency in Title X of this
Book shall be applicable. (1888a)
Art. 2145. The officious manager shall perform his duties
with all the diligence of a good father of a family, and pay
the damages which through his fault or negligence may be
suffered by the owner of the property or business under
management.

The courts may, however, increase or moderate the

indemnity according to the circumstances of each case.
(1889a)

Art. 2146. If the officious manager delegates to another

person all or some of his duties, he shall be liable for the
acts of the delegate, without prejudice to the direct
obligation of the latter toward the owner of the business.

The responsibility of two or more officious managers shall be

solidary, unless the management was assumed to save the
thing or business from imminent danger. (1890a)

Art. 2147. The officious manager shall be liable for any

fortuitous event:

(1) If he undertakes risky operations which the owner was

not accustomed to embark upon; (2) If he has
preferred his own interest to that of the owner; (3) If
he fails to return the property or business after demand
by the owner; (4) If he assumed the management in
bad faith. (1891a)
Art. 2148. Except when the management was assumed to
save property or business from imminent danger, the
officious manager shall be liable for fortuitous events:
(1) If he is manifestly unfit to carry on the management;
(2) If by his intervention he prevented a more
competent person from taking up the management. (n)
Art. 2149. The ratification of the management by the owner
of the business produces the effects of an express agency,
even if the business may not have been successful. (1892a)
Art. 2150. Although the officious management may not have
been expressly ratified, the owner of the property or
business who enjoys the advantages of the same shall be
liable for obligations incurred in his interest, and shall
reimburse the officious manager for the necessary and
useful expenses and for the damages which the latter may
have suffered in the performance of his duties.

The same obligation shall be incumbent upon him when the

management had for its purpose the prevention of an
imminent and manifest loss, although no benefit may have
been derived. (1893)

Art. 2151. Even though the owner did not derive any benefit
and there has been no imminent and manifest danger to the
property or business, the owner is liable as under the first
paragraph of the preceding article, provided:

(1) The officious manager has acted in good faith, and (2)
The property or business is intact, ready to be returned
to the owner. (n)
Art. 2152. The officious manager is personally liable for
contracts which he has entered into with third persons, even
though he acted in the name of the owner, and there shall be
no right of action between the owner and third persons.
These provisions shall not apply:
(1) If the owner has expressly or tacitly ratified the
management, or (2) When the contract refers to things
pertaining to the owner of the business. (n)
Art. 2153. The management is extinguished:
(1) When the owner repudiates it or puts an end thereto;
(2) When the officious manager withdraws from the
management, subject to the provisions of Article 2144;
(3) By the death, civil interdiction, insanity or
insolvency of the owner or the officious manager. (n)

SECTION 2. - Solutio Indebiti

Art. 2154. If something is received when there is no right to

demand it, and it was unduly delivered through mistake, the
obligation to return it arises. (1895)
Art. 2155. Payment by reason of a mistake in the
construction or application of a doubtful or difficult question
of law may come within the scope of the preceding article.
(n)

Art. 2156. If the payer was in doubt whether the debt was
due, he may recover if he proves that it was not due. (n)

Art. 2157. The responsibility of two or more payees, when

there has been payment of what is not due, is solidary. (n)

Art. 2158. When the property delivered or money paid

belongs to a third person, the payee shall comply with the
provisions of article 1984. (n)

Art. 2159. Whoever in bad faith accepts an undue payment,

shall pay legal interest if a sum of money is involved, or shall
be liable for fruits received or which should have been
received if the thing produces fruits.

He shall furthermore be answerable for any loss or

impairment of the thing from any cause, and for damages to
the person who delivered the thing, until it is recovered.
(1896a)

Art. 2160. He who in good faith accepts an undue payment of

a thing certain and determinate shall only be responsible for
the impairment or loss of the same or its accessories and
accessions insofar as he has thereby been benefited. If he
has alienated it, he shall return the price or assign the action
to collect the sum. (1897)

Art. 2161. As regards the reimbursement for improvements

and expenses incurred by him who unduly received the thing,
the provisions of Title V of Book II shall govern. (1898)

Art. 2162. He shall be exempt from the obligation to restore

who, believing in good faith that the payment was being
made of a legitimate and subsisting claim, destroyed the
document, or allowed the action to prescribe, or gave up the
pledges, or cancelled the guaranties for his right. He who
paid unduly may proceed only against the true debtor or the
guarantors with regard to whom the action is still effective.
(1899)

Art. 2163. It is presumed that there was a mistake in the

payment if something which had never been due or had
already been paid was delivered; but he from whom the
return is claimed may prove that the delivery was made out
of liberality or for any other just cause. (1901)

SECTION 3. - Other Quasi-Contracts

Art. 2164. When, without the knowledge of the person

obliged to give support, it is given by a stranger, the latter
shall have a right to claim the same from the former, unless
it appears that he gave it out of piety and without intention
of being repaid. (1894a)
Art. 2165. When funeral expenses are borne by a third
person, without the knowledge of those relatives who were
obliged to give support to the deceased, said relatives shall
reimburse the third person, should the latter claim
reimbursement. (1894a)

Art. 2166. When the person obliged to support an orphan, or

an insane or other indigent person unjustly refuses to give
support to the latter, any third person may furnish support
to the needy individual, with right of reimbursement from
the person obliged to give support. The provisions of this
article apply when the father or mother of a child under
eighteen years of age unjustly refuses to support him.

Art. 2167. When through an accident or other cause a person

is injured or becomes seriously ill, and he is treated or
helped while he is not in a condition to give consent to a
contract, he shall be liable to pay for the services of the
physician or other person aiding him, unless the service has
been rendered out of pure generosity.

Art. 2168. When during a fire, flood, storm, or other calamity,

property is saved from destruction by another person
without the knowledge of the owner, the latter is bound to
pay the former just compensation.

Art. 2169. When the government, upon the failure of any

person to comply with health or safety regulations
concerning property, undertakes to do the necessary work,
even over his objection, he shall be liable to pay the
expenses.

Art. 2170. When by accident or other fortuitous event,

movables separately pertaining to two or more persons are
commingled or confused, the rules on co-ownership shall be
applicable.

Art. 2171. The rights and obligations of the finder of lost

personal property shall be governed by Articles 719 and 720.

Art. 2172. The right of every possessor in good faith to

reimbursement for necessary and useful expenses is
governed by Article 546.

Art. 2173. When a third person, without the knowledge of

the debtor, pays the debt, the rights of the former are
governed by Articles 1236 and 1237.

Art. 2174. When in a small community a nationality of the

inhabitants of age decide upon a measure for protection
against lawlessness, fire, flood, storm or other calamity, any
one who objects to the plan and refuses to contribute to the
expenses but is benefited by the project as executed shall be
liable to pay his share of said expenses.

Art. 2175. Any person who is constrained to pay the taxes of

another shall be entitled to reimbursement from the latter.
 CHAPTER 2
QUASI-DELICTS

Art. 2176. Whoever by act or omission causes damage to

another, there being fault or negligence, is obliged to pay for
the damage done. Such fault or negligence, if there is no pre-
existing contractual relation between the parties, is called a
quasi-delict and is governed by the provisions of this Chapter.
(1902a)
Art. 2177. Responsibility for fault or negligence under the
preceding article is entirely separate and distinct from the
civil liability arising from negligence under the Penal Code.
But the plaintiff cannot recover damages twice for the same
act or omission of the defendant. (n)

Art. 2178. The provisions of Articles 1172 to 1174 are also

applicable to a quasi-delict. (n)

Art. 2179. When the plaintiff's own negligence was the

immediate and proximate cause of his injury, he cannot
recover damages. But if his negligence was only contributory,
the immediate and proximate cause of the injury being the
defendant's lack of due care, the plaintiff may recover
damages, but the courts shall mitigate the damages to be
awarded. (n)

Art. 2180. The obligation imposed by Article 2176 is

demandable not only for one's own acts or omissions, but
also for those of persons for whom one is responsible.

The father and, in case of his death or incapacity, the mother,

are responsible for the damages caused by the minor
children who live in their company.

Guardians are liable for damages caused by the minors or

incapacitated persons who are under their authority and live
in their company.

The owners and managers of an establishment or enterprise

are likewise responsible for damages caused by their
employees in the service of the branches in which the latter
are employed or on the occasion of their functions.

Employers shall be liable for the damages caused by their

employees and household helpers acting within the scope of
their assigned tasks, even though the former are not
engaged in any business or industry.

The State is responsible in like manner when it acts through

a special agent; but not when the damage has been caused
by the official to whom the task done properly pertains, in
which case what is provided in Article 2176 shall be
applicable.

Lastly, teachers or heads of establishments of arts and

trades shall be liable for damages caused by their pupils and
students or apprentices, so long as they remain in their
custody.

The responsibility treated of in this article shall cease when

the persons herein mentioned prove that they observed all
the diligence of a good father of a family to prevent damage.
(1903a)

Art. 2181. Whoever pays for the damage caused by his

dependents or employees may recover from the latter what
he has paid or delivered in satisfaction of the claim. (1904)

Art. 2182. If the minor or insane person causing damage has

no parents or guardian, the minor or insane person shall be
answerable with his own property in an action against him
where a guardian ad litem shall be appointed. (n)

Art. 2183. The possessor of an animal or whoever may make

use of the same is responsible for the damage which it may
cause, although it may escape or be lost. This responsibility
shall cease only in case the damage should come from force
majeure or from the fault of the person who has suffered
damage. (1905)

Art. 2184. In motor vehicle mishaps, the owner is solidarily

liable with his driver, if the former, who was in the vehicle,
could have, by the use of the due diligence, prevented the
misfortune. It is disputably presumed that a driver was
negligent, if he had been found guilty or reckless driving or
violating traffic regulations at least twice within the next
preceding two months.

If the owner was not in the motor vehicle, the provisions of

Article 2180 are applicable. (n)

Art. 2185. Unless there is proof to the contrary, it is

presumed that a person driving a motor vehicle has been
negligent if at the time of the mishap, he was violating any
traffic regulation. (n)

Art. 2186. Every owner of a motor vehicle shall file with the
proper government office a bond executed by a government-
controlled corporation or office, to answer for damages to
third persons. The amount of the bond and other terms shall
be fixed by the competent public official. (n)

Art. 2187. Manufacturers and processors of foodstuffs,

drinks, toilet articles and similar goods shall be liable for
death or injuries caused by any noxious or harmful
substances used, although no contractual relation exists
between them and the consumers. (n)

Art. 2188. There is prima facie presumption of negligence on

the part of the defendant if the death or injury results from
his possession of dangerous weapons or substances, such as
firearms and poison, except when the possession or use
thereof is indispensable in his occupation or business. (n)

Art. 2189. Provinces, cities and municipalities shall be liable

for damages for the death of, or injuries suffered by, any
person by reason of the defective condition of roads, streets,
bridges, public buildings, and other public works under their
control or supervision. (n)

Art. 2190. The proprietor of a building or structure is

responsible for the damages resulting from its total or
partial collapse, if it should be due to the lack of necessary
repairs. (1907)

Art. 2191. Proprietors shall also be responsible for damages

caused:

(1) By the explosion of machinery which has not been

taken care of with due diligence, and the inflammation
of explosive substances which have not been kept in a
safe and adequate place; (2) By excessive smoke,
which may be harmful to persons or property; (3) By
the falling of trees situated at or near highways or
lanes, if not caused by force majeure; (4) By
emanations from tubes, canals, sewers or deposits of
infectious matter, constructed without precautions
suitable to the place. (1908)
Art. 2192. If damage referred to in the two preceding
articles should be the result of any defect in the construction
mentioned in Article 1723, the third person suffering
damages may proceed only against the engineer or architect
or contractor in accordance with said article, within the
period therein fixed. (1909)
Art. 2193. The head of a family that lives in a building or a
part thereof, is responsible for damages caused by things
thrown or falling from the same. (1910)

Art. 2194. The responsibility of two or more persons who are

liable for quasi-delict is solidary. (n)

Title XVIII. - DAMAGES

CHAPTER 1
GENERAL PROVISIONS

Art. 2195. The provisions of this Title shall be respectively

applicable to all obligations mentioned in Article 1157.
Art. 2196. The rules under this Title are without prejudice to
special provisions on damages formulated elsewhere in this
Code. Compensation for workmen and other employees in
case of death, injury or illness is regulated by special laws.
Rules governing damages laid down in other laws shall be
observed insofar as they are not in conflict with this Code.

Art. 2197. Damages may be:

(1) Actual or compensatory; (2) Moral; (3) Nominal; (4)

Temperate or moderate; (5) Liquidated; or (6)
Exemplary or corrective.
Art. 2198. The principles of the general law on damages are
hereby adopted insofar as they are not inconsistent with this
Code.

CHAPTER 2
ACTUAL OR COMPENSATORY DAMAGES

Art. 2199. Except as provided by law or by stipulation, one is

entitled to an adequate compensation only for such
pecuniary loss suffered by him as he has duly proved. Such
compensation is referred to as actual or compensatory
damages.
Art. 2200. Indemnification for damages shall comprehend
not only the value of the loss suffered, but also that of the
profits which the obligee failed to obtain. (1106)

Art. 2201. In contracts and quasi-contracts, the damages for

which the obligor who acted in good faith is liable shall be
those that are the natural and probable consequences of the
breach of the obligation, and which the parties have
foreseen or could have reasonably foreseen at the time the
obligation was constituted.

In case of fraud, bad faith, malice or wanton attitude, the

obligor shall be responsible for all damages which may be
reasonably attributed to the non-performance of the
obligation. (1107a)

Art. 2202. In crimes and quasi-delicts, the defendant shall be

liable for all damages which are the natural and probable
consequences of the act or omission complained of. It is not
necessary that such damages have been foreseen or could
have reasonably been foreseen by the defendant.

Art. 2203. The party suffering loss or injury must exercise

the diligence of a good father of a family to minimize the
damages resulting from the act or omission in question.

Art. 2204. In crimes, the damages to be adjudicated may be

respectively increased or lessened according to the
aggravating or mitigating circumstances.

Art. 2205. Damages may be recovered:

(1) For loss or impairment of earning capacity in cases of

temporary or permanent personal injury; (2) For injury
to the plaintiff's business standing or commercial credit.
Art. 2206. The amount of damages for death caused by a
crime or quasi-delict shall be at least three thousand pesos,
even though there may have been mitigating circumstances.
In addition:
(1) The defendant shall be liable for the loss of the earning
capacity of the deceased, and the indemnity shall be
paid to the heirs of the latter; such indemnity shall in
every case be assessed and awarded by the court,
unless the deceased on account of permanent physical
disability not caused by the defendant, had no earning
capacity at the time of his death; (2) If the deceased
was obliged to give support according to the provisions
of Article 291, the recipient who is not an heir called to
the decedent's inheritance by the law of testate or
intestate succession, may demand support from the
person causing the death, for a period not exceeding
five years, the exact duration to be fixed by the court;
(3) The spouse, legitimate and illegitimate
descendants and ascendants of the deceased may
demand moral damages for mental anguish by reason
of the death of the deceased.
Art. 2207. If the plaintiff's property has been insured, and he
has received indemnity from the insurance company for the
injury or loss arising out of the wrong or breach of contract
complained of, the insurance company shall be subrogated
to the rights of the insured against the wrongdoer or the
person who has violated the contract. If the amount paid by
the insurance company does not fully cover the injury or loss,
the aggrieved party shall be entitled to recover the
deficiency from the person causing the loss or injury.
Art. 2208. In the absence of stipulation, attorney's fees and
expenses of litigation, other than judicial costs, cannot be
recovered, except:

(1) When exemplary damages are awarded; (2) When the

defendant's act or omission has compelled the plaintiff
to litigate with third persons or to incur expenses to
protect his interest; (3) In criminal cases of malicious
prosecution against the plaintiff; (4) In case of a
clearly unfounded civil action or proceeding against the
plaintiff; (5) Where the defendant acted in gross and
evident bad faith in refusing to satisfy the plaintiff's
plainly valid, just and demandable claim; (6) In actions
for legal support; (7) In actions for the recovery of
wages of household helpers, laborers and skilled
workers; (8) In actions for indemnity under workmen's
compensation and employer's liability laws; (9) In a
separate civil action to recover civil liability arising
from a crime; (10) When at least double judicial costs
are awarded; (11) In any other case where the court
deems it just and equitable that attorney's fees and
expenses of litigation should be recovered.
In all cases, the attorney's fees and expenses of litigation
must be reasonable.
Art. 2209. If the obligation consists in the payment of a sum
of money, and the debtor incurs in delay, the indemnity for
damages, there being no stipulation to the contrary, shall be
the payment of the interest agreed upon, and in the absence
of stipulation, the legal interest, which is six per cent per
annum. (1108)

Art. 2210. Interest may, in the discretion of the court, be

allowed upon damages awarded for breach of contract.

Art. 2211. In crimes and quasi-delicts, interest as a part of

the damages may, in a proper case, be adjudicated in the
discretion of the court.

Art. 2212. Interest due shall earn legal interest from the
time it is judicially demanded, although the obligation may
be silent upon this point. (1109a)

Art. 2213. Interest cannot be recovered upon unliquidated

claims or damages, except when the demand can be
established with reasonably certainty.

Art. 2214. In quasi-delicts, the contributory negligence of

the plaintiff shall reduce the damages that he may recover.

Art. 2215. In contracts, quasi-contracts, and quasi-delicts,

the court may equitably mitigate the damages under
circumstances other than the case referred to in the
preceding article, as in the following instances:

(1) That the plaintiff himself has contravened the terms of

the contract; (2) That the plaintiff has derived some
benefit as a result of the contract; (3) In cases where
exemplary damages are to be awarded, that the
defendant acted upon the advice of counsel; (4) That
the loss would have resulted in any event; (5) That
since the filing of the action, the defendant has done
his best to lessen the plaintiff's loss or injury.

CHAPTER 3
OTHER KINDS OF DAMAGES

Art. 2216. No proof of pecuniary loss is necessary in order

that moral, nominal, temperate, liquidated or exemplary
damages, may be adjudicated. The assessment of such
damages, except liquidated ones, is left to the discretion of
the court, according to the circumstances of each case.

SECTION 1. - Moral Damages

Art. 2217. Moral damages include physical suffering, mental

anguish, fright, serious anxiety, besmirched reputation,
wounded feelings, moral shock, social humiliation, and
similar injury. Though incapable of pecuniary computation,
moral damages may be recovered if they are the proximate
result of the defendant's wrongful act for omission.
Art. 2218. In the adjudication of moral damages, the
sentimental value of property, real or personal, may be
considered.

Art. 2219. Moral damages may be recovered in the following

and analogous cases:

(1) A criminal offense resulting in physical injuries; (2)

Quasi-delicts causing physical injuries; (3) Seduction,
abduction, rape, or other lascivious acts; (4) Adultery
or concubinage; (5) Illegal or arbitrary detention or
 arrest; (6) Illegal search; (7) Libel, slander or any
other form of defamation; (8) Malicious prosecution;
(9) Acts mentioned in Article 309; (10) Acts and
actions referred to in Articles 21, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32,
34, and 35.
The parents of the female seduced, abducted, raped, or
abused, referred to in No. 3 of this article, may also recover
moral damages.
The spouse, descendants, ascendants, and brothers and
sisters may bring the action mentioned in No. 9 of this article,
in the order named.

Art. 2220. Willful injury to property may be a legal ground

for awarding moral damages if the court should find that,
under the circumstances, such damages are justly due. The
same rule applies to breaches of contract where the
defendant acted fraudulently or in bad faith.

SECTION 2. - Nominal Damages

Art. 2221. Nominal damages are adjudicated in order that a

right of the plaintiff, which has been violated or invaded by
the defendant, may be vindicated or recognized, and not for
the purpose of indemnifying the plaintiff for any loss
suffered by him.
Art. 2222. The court may award nominal damages in every
obligation arising from any source enumerated in Article
1157, or in every case where any property right has been
invaded.

Art. 2223. The adjudication of nominal damages shall

preclude further contest upon the right involved and all
accessory questions, as between the parties to the suit, or
their respective heirs and assigns.

SECTION 3. - Temperate or Moderate Damages

Art. 2224. Temperate or moderate damages, which are more

than nominal but less than compensatory damages, may be
recovered when the court finds that some pecuniary loss has
been suffered but its amount can not, from the nature of the
case, be provided with certainty.
Art. 2225. Temperate damages must be reasonable under
the circumstances.

SECTION 4. - Liquidated Damages

Art. 2226. Liquidated damages are those agreed upon by the

parties to a contract, to be paid in case of breach thereof.
Art. 2227. Liquidated damages, whether intended as an
indemnity or a penalty, shall be equitably reduced if they are
iniquitous or unconscionable.

Art. 2228. When the breach of the contract committed by the

defendant is not the one contemplated by the parties in
agreeing upon the liquidated damages, the law shall
determine the measure of damages, and not the stipulation.

SECTION 5. - Exemplary or Corrective Damages

Art. 2229. Exemplary or corrective damages are imposed, by

way of example or correction for the public good, in addition
to the moral, temperate, liquidated or compensatory
damages.
Art. 2230. In criminal offenses, exemplary damages as a part
of the civil liability may be imposed when the crime was
committed with one or more aggravating circumstances.
Such damages are separate and distinct from fines and shall
be paid to the offended party.

Art. 2231. In quasi-delicts, exemplary damages may be

granted if the defendant acted with gross negligence.

Art. 2232. In contracts and quasi-contracts, the court may

award exemplary damages if the defendant acted in a
wanton, fraudulent, reckless, oppressive, or malevolent
manner.

Art. 2233. Exemplary damages cannot be recovered as a

matter of right; the court will decide whether or not they
should be adjudicated.

Art. 2234. While the amount of the exemplary damages need

not be proved, the plaintiff must show that he is entitled to
moral, temperate or compensatory damages before the court
may consider the question of whether or not exemplary
damages should be awarded. In case liquidated damages
have been agreed upon, although no proof of loss is
necessary in order that such liquidated damages may be
recovered, nevertheless, before the court may consider the
question of granting exemplary in addition to the liquidated
damages, the plaintiff must show that he would be entitled
to moral, temperate or compensatory damages were it not
for the stipulation for liquidated damages.

Art. 2235. A stipulation whereby exemplary damages are

renounced in advance shall be null and void.

Title XIX. - CONCURRENCE AND PREFERENCE

OF CREDITS

CHAPTER 1
GENERAL PROVISIONS

Art. 2236. The debtor is liable with all his property, present
and future, for the fulfillment of his obligations, subject to
the exemptions provided by law. (1911a)
Art. 2237. Insolvency shall be governed by special laws
insofar as they are not inconsistent with this Code. (n)

Art. 2238. So long as the conjugal partnership or absolute

community subsists, its property shall not be among the
assets to be taken possession of by the assignee for the
payment of the insolvent debtor's obligations, except insofar
as the latter have redounded to the benefit of the family. If it
is the husband who is insolvent, the administration of the
conjugal partnership of absolute community may, by order of
the court, be transferred to the wife or to a third person
other than the assignee. (n)

Art. 2239. If there is property, other than that mentioned in

the preceding article, owned by two or more persons, one of
whom is the insolvent debtor, his undivided share or interest
therein shall be among the assets to be taken possession of
by the assignee for the payment of the insolvent debtor's
obligations. (n)

Art. 2240. Property held by the insolvent debtor as a trustee

of an express or implied trust, shall be excluded from the
insolvency proceedings. (n)

CHAPTER 2
CLASSIFICATION OF CREDITS

Art. 2241. With reference to specific movable property of the

debtor, the following claims or liens shall be preferred:
(1) Duties, taxes and fees due thereon to the State or any
subdivision thereof; (2) Claims arising from
misappropriation, breach of trust, or malfeasance by
public officials committed in the performance of their
duties, on the movables, money or securities obtained
by them; (3) Claims for the unpaid price of movables
sold, on said movables, so long as they are in the
possession of the debtor, up to the value of the same;
 and if the movable has been resold by the debtor and
the price is still unpaid, the lien may be enforced on the
price; this right is not lost by the immobilization of the
thing by destination, provided it has not lost its form,
substance and identity; neither is the right lost by the
sale of the thing together with other property for a
lump sum, when the price thereof can be determined
proportionally; (4) Credits guaranteed with a pledge so
long as the things pledged are in the hands of the
creditor, or those guaranteed by a chattel mortgage,
upon the things pledged or mortgaged, up to the value
thereof; (5) Credits for the making, repair, safekeeping
or preservation of personal property, on the movable
thus made, repaired, kept or possessed; (6) Claims for
laborers' wages, on the goods manufactured or the
work done; (7) For expenses of salvage, upon the
goods salvaged; (8) Credits between the landlord and
the tenant, arising from the contract of tenancy on
shares, on the share of each in the fruits or harvest;
(9) Credits for transportation, upon the goods carried,
for the price of the contract and incidental expenses,
until their delivery and for thirty days thereafter; (10)
Credits for lodging and supplies usually furnished to
travellers by hotel keepers, on the movables belonging
to the guest as long as such movables are in the hotel,
but not for money loaned to the guests; (11) Credits
for seeds and expenses for cultivation and harvest
advanced to the debtor, upon the fruits harvested;
(12) Credits for rent for one year, upon the personal
property of the lessee existing on the immovable leased
and on the fruits of the same, but not on money or
instruments of credit; (13) Claims in favor of the
depositor if the depositary has wrongfully sold the
thing deposited, upon the price of the sale. In the
foregoing cases, if the movables to which the lien or
preference attaches have been wrongfully taken, the
creditor may demand them from any possessor, within
thirty days from the unlawful seizure. (1922a)
Art. 2242. With reference to specific immovable property and
real rights of the debtor, the following claims, mortgages
and liens shall be preferred, and shall constitute an
encumbrance on the immovable or real right:
(1) Taxes due upon the land or building; (2) For the unpaid
price of real property sold, upon the immovable sold;
(3) Claims of laborers, masons, mechanics and other
workmen, as well as of architects, engineers and
contractors, engaged in the construction,
 reconstruction or repair of buildings, canals or other
works, upon said buildings, canals or other works; (4)
Claims of furnishers of materials used in the
construction, reconstruction, or repair of buildings,
canals or other works, upon said buildings, canals or
other works; (5) Mortgage credits recorded in the
Registry of Property, upon the real estate mortgaged;
(6) Expenses for the preservation or improvement of
real property when the law authorizes reimbursement,
upon the immovable preserved or improved; (7)
Credits annotated in the Registry of Property, in virtue
of a judicial order, by attachments or executions, upon
the property affected, and only as to later credits; (8)
Claims of co-heirs for warranty in the partition of an
immovable among them, upon the real property thus
divided; (9) Claims of donors or real property for
pecuniary charges or other conditions imposed upon
the donee, upon the immovable donated; (10) Credits
of insurers, upon the property insured, for the
insurance premium for two years. (1923a)
Art. 2243. The claims or credits enumerated in the two
preceding articles shall be considered as mortgages or
pledges of real or personal property, or liens within the
purview of legal provisions governing insolvency. Taxes
mentioned in No. 1, Article 2241, and No. 1, Article 2242,
shall first be satisfied. (n)
Art. 2244. With reference to other property, real and
personal, of the debtor, the following claims or credits shall
be preferred in the order named:

(1) Proper funeral expenses for the debtor, or children

under his or her parental authority who have no
property of their own, when approved by the court; (2)
Credits for services rendered the insolvent by
employees, laborers, or household helpers for one year
preceding the commencement of the proceedings in
insolvency; (3) Expenses during the last illness of the
debtor or of his or her spouse and children under his or
her parental authority, if they have no property of their
own; (4) Compensation due the laborers or their
dependents under laws providing for indemnity for
damages in cases of labor accident, or illness resulting
from the nature of the employment; (5) Credits and
advancements made to the debtor for support of
himself or herself, and family, during the last year
preceding the insolvency; (6) Support during the
insolvency proceedings, and for three months
thereafter; (7) Fines and civil indemnification arising
 from a criminal offense; (8) Legal expenses, and
expenses incurred in the administration of the
insolvent's estate for the common interest of the
creditors, when properly authorized and approved by
the court; (9) Taxes and assessments due the national
government, other than those mentioned in Articles
2241, No. 1, and 2242, No. 1; (10) Taxes and
assessments due any province, other than those
referred to in Articles 2241, No. 1, and 2242, No. 1;
(11) Taxes and assessments due any city or
municipality, other than those indicated in Articles
2241, No. 1, and 2242, No. 1; (12) Damages for death
or personal injuries caused by a quasi-delict; (13) Gifts
due to public and private institutions of charity or
beneficence; (14) Credits which, without special
privilege, appear in (a) a public instrument; or (b) in a
final judgment, if they have been the subject of
litigation. These credits shall have preference among
themselves in the order of priority of the dates of the
instruments and of the judgments, respectively.
(1924a)
Art. 2245. Credits of any other kind or class, or by any other
right or title not comprised in the four preceding articles,
shall enjoy no preference. (1925)

CHAPTER 3
ORDER OF PREFERENCE OF CREDITS

Art. 2246. Those credits which enjoy preference with respect

to specific movables, exclude all others to the extent of the
value of the personal property to which the preference refers.
Art. 2247. If there are two or more credits with respect to
the same specific movable property, they shall be satisfied
pro rata, after the payment of duties, taxes and fees due the
State or any subdivision thereof. (1926a)

Art. 2248. Those credits which enjoy preference in relation

to specific real property or real rights, exclude all others to
the extent of the value of the immovable or real right to
which the preference refers.

Art. 2249. If there are two or more credits with respect to

the same specific real property or real rights, they shall be
satisfied pro rata, after the payment of the taxes and
assessments upon the immovable property or real right.
(1927a)

Art. 2250. The excess, if any, after the payment of the

credits which enjoy preference with respect to specific
property, real or personal, shall be added to the free
property which the debtor may have, for the payment of the
other credits. (1928a)

Art. 2251. Those credits which do not enjoy any preference

with respect to specific property, and those which enjoy
preference, as to the amount not paid, shall be satisfied
according to the following rules:

(1) In the order established in Article 2244;

(2) Common credits referred to in Article 2245 shall be paid

pro rata regardless of dates. (1929a)

TRANSITIONAL PROVISIONS

Art. 2252. Changes made and new provisions and rules laid
down by this Code which may prejudice or impair vested or
acquired rights in accordance with the old legislation shall
have no retroactive effect.
For the determination of the applicable law in cases which
are not specified elsewhere in this Code, the following
articles shall be observed: (Pars. 1 and 2, Transitional
Provisions).

Art. 2253. The Civil Code of 1889 and other previous laws
shall govern rights originating, under said laws, from acts
done or events which took place under their regime, even
though this Code may regulate them in a different manner,
or may not recognize them. But if a right should be declared
for the first time in this Code, it shall be effective at once,
even though the act or event which gives rise thereto may
have been done or may have occurred under prior legislation,
provided said new right does not prejudice or impair any
vested or acquired right, of the same origin. (Rule 1)

Art. 2254. No vested or acquired right can arise from acts or

omissions which are against the law or which infringe upon
the rights of others. (n)

Art. 2255. The former laws shall regulate acts and contracts
with a condition or period, which were executed or entered
into before the effectivity of this Code, even though the
condition or period may still be pending at the time this body
of laws goes into effect. (n)

Art. 2256. Acts and contracts under the regime of the old
laws, if they are valid in accordance therewith, shall
continue to be fully operative as provided in the same, with
the limitations established in these rules. But the revocation
or modification of these acts and contracts after the
beginning of the effectivity of this Code, shall be subject to
the provisions of this new body of laws. (Rule 2a)

Art. 2257. Provisions of this Code which attach a civil

sanction or penalty or a deprivation of rights to acts or
omissions which were not penalized by the former laws, are
not applicable to those who, when said laws were in force,
may have executed the act or incurred in the omission
forbidden or condemned by this Code.

If the fault is also punished by the previous legislation, the

less severe sanction shall be applied.

If a continuous or repeated act or omission was commenced

before the beginning of the effectivity of this Code, and the
same subsists or is maintained or repeated after this body of
laws has become operative, the sanction or penalty
prescribed in this Code shall be applied, even though the
previous laws may not have provided any sanction or penalty
therefor. (Rule 3a)

Art. 2258. Actions and rights which came into being but were
not exercised before the effectivity of this Code, shall remain
in full force in conformity with the old legislation; but their
exercise, duration and the procedure to enforce them shall
be regulated by this Code and by the Rules of Court. If the
exercise of the right or of the action was commenced under
the old laws, but is pending on the date this Code takes
effect, and the procedure was different from that established
in this new body of laws, the parties concerned may choose
which method or course to pursue. (Rule 4)

Art. 2259. The capacity of a married woman to execute acts

and contracts is governed by this Code, even if her marriage
was celebrated under the former laws. (n)

Art. 2260. The voluntary recognition of a natural child shall

take place according to this Code, even if the child was born
before the effectivity of this body of laws. (n)

Art. 2261. The exemption prescribed in Article 302 shall also

be applicable to any support, pension or gratuity already
existing or granted before this Code becomes effective. (n)

Art. 2262. Guardians of the property of minors, appointed by

the courts before this Code goes into effect, shall continue to
act as such, notwithstanding the provisions of Article 320.
(n)

Art. 2263. Rights to the inheritance of a person who died,

with or without a will, before the effectivity of this Code,
shall be governed by the Civil Code of 1889, by other
previous laws, and by the Rules of Court. The inheritance of
those who, with or without a will, die after the beginning of
the effectivity of this Code, shall be adjudicated and
distributed in accordance with this new body of laws and by
the Rules of Court; but the testamentary provisions shall be
carried out insofar as they may be permitted by this Code.
Therefore, legitimes, betterments, legacies and bequests
shall be respected; however, their amount shall be reduced if
in no other manner can every compulsory heir be given his
full share according to this Code. (Rule 12a)

Art. 2264. The status and rights of natural children by legal

fiction referred to in article 89 and illegitimate children
mentioned in Article 287, shall also be acquired by children
born before the effectivity of this Code. (n)

Art. 2265. The right of retention of real or personal property

arising after this Code becomes effective, includes those
things which came into the creditor's possession before said
date. (n)

Art. 2266. The following shall have not only prospective but
also retroactive effect:

(1) Article 315, whereby a descendant cannot be compelled,

in a criminal case, to testify against his parents and
ascendants; (2) Articles 101 and 88, providing against
collusion in cases of legal separation and annulment of
marriage; (3) Articles 283, 284, and 289, concerning
the proof of illegitimate filiation; (4) Article 838,
authorizing the probate of a will on petition of the
testator himself; (5) Articles 1359 to 1369, relative to
the reformation of instruments; (6) Articles 476 to 481,
regulating actions to quiet title; (7) Articles 2029 to
2031, which are designed to promote compromise. (n)
Art. 2267. The following provisions shall apply not only to
future cases but also to those pending on the date this Code
becomes effective:
(1) Article 29, Relative to criminal prosecutions wherein
the accused is acquitted on the ground that his guilt
has not been proved beyond reasonable doubt; (2)
Article 33, concerning cases of defamation, fraud, and
 physical injuries. (n)
Art. 2268. Suits between members of the same family which
are pending at the time this Code goes into effect shall be
suspended, under such terms as the court may determine, in
order that compromise may be earnestly sought, or, in case
of legal separation proceedings, for the purpose of effecting,
if possible, a reconciliation. (n)
Art. 2269. The principles upon which the preceding
transitional provisions are based shall, by analogy, be
applied to cases not specifically regulated by them. (Rule
13a)

REPEALING CLAUSE

Art. 2270. The following laws and regulations are hereby

repealed:
(1) Those parts and provisions of the Civil Code of 1889
which are in force on the date when this new Civil Code
becomes effective: (2) The provisions of the Code of
Commerce governing sales, partnership, agency, loan,
deposit and guaranty; (3) The provisions of the Code
of Civil Procedure on prescription as far as inconsistent
with this Code; and (4) All laws, Acts, parts of Acts,
rules of court, executive orders, and administrative
regulations which are inconsistent with this Code. (n)

Approved, June 18, 1949.