Understanding Networking Fundamentals

Understanding Networking Fundamentals
M3100-002
February 2000

M3100-002
February 2000
Copyright Information
Copyright 1999, 2000 Global Knowledge Network, Inc. The following publication, Understanding Networking Fundamentals, was developed by LANWorks, Inc. in cooperation with Global Knowledge Network, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without the prior written permission of the copyright holder. This courseware may contain licensed images from the following sources: Corel Corporation, Corel Gallery; Broderbund Company, ClickArt 200,000; Nova Development Corporation, Art Explosion 125,000. Products and company names are the trademarks, registered trademarks, and service marks of their respective owners. Throughout this manual, Global Knowledge Network has used its best efforts to distinguish proprietary trademarks from descriptive names by following the capitalization styles used by the manufacturer.
Project Team
MATTHEW FEENEY RHONDA HARMON DAVID MANTICA Course Director Director, Content Development/Quality Assurance Product Manager
ART & PRODUCTION SUSANNE GRADY KATHY COINER TRISH FOREST WENDY DENMAN CHERYL HOLMES TERRI BRUNS Design Manager Desktop Publisher Desktop Publisher Desktop Publisher Desktop Publisher Desktop Publisher
EDITORIAL DAVID PRICE MARK ATKINS JOHN RHOADES AMMARAH ABBASI Standards Manager Technical Editor Technical Editor Technical Editor
9000 Regency Parkway Cary, North Carolina 27511 Phone:919-461-8600 Fax:919-461-8646 http://am.globalknowledge.com
Career Track
Internetworking Routers and Switches
Internetworking with TCP/IP
Introduction to WAN Technologies
Network Cabling Systems
Network Security Administration
Troubleshooting TCP/IP Networks
IP Address Management
Virtual Private Networks
Network Management
We invite you to call us at 919-461-8600 for assistance in selecting other courses in this curriculum track to meet your specific career/certification objectives. Understanding Networking Fundamentals is a good starting point for TCP/IP Network Analyst Certification, Web Technician Certification, and Cisco Career Certifications.
Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc.
Course Description
In todays business world, timely information is the key to success. Meeting the challenges of networking local area, wide area, and remote networks requires a firm understanding of data communications standards and emerging LAN/WAN internetworking technologies. This comprehensive course will help you understand networking terminology, technologies, and how data moves in a real-world network environment. Beginning with the basics of data communications, you will learn data packet structure, frames, communication architectures, transmission methods, DCE/DTE interfaces, modulation, and multiplexing. You will build a LAN that demonstrates topologies, components, media access control methods, protocols, bit rates, and bandwidth in the classroom.
Prerequisites
We recommend, but do not require, a basic understanding of networking concepts.
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Welcome!
I am pleased that you have selected Global Knowledge for your training needs. At Global Knowledge we strive to support all of the learning styles required by our students to achieve success as technical professionals. As the worlds largest IT training company, Global Knowledge is a respected and recognized multinational, independent IT education integrator. Whether you choose to learn through instructor-led training, written word, computer-based training, or Web delivery, Global Knowledge is committed to providing you the very best service and quality in each of these categories. For those of you who know Global Knowledge, or those of you who have just found us for the first time, our goal is to be your lifelong competency partner. Thank you again for the opportunity to serve you. We hope that you will think of us first when considering your future educational needs. Warmest regards,
Duncan Anderson President and Chief Executive Officer Global Knowledge Network, Inc.
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Table of Contents
1 Networking Overview
Section Topics ...................................................................................................1-1 Section Objectives .............................................................................................1-2 What Is Computer Networking? .........................................................................1-3 Network Segmentation and Connectivity ...........................................................1-4 The Bandwidth Dilemma ...................................................................................1-5 Network Components ........................................................................................1-6 Network Design Issues ......................................................................................1-7 Network Types ...................................................................................................1-8 LANs ..................................................................................................................1-9 Building Backbone ...........................................................................................1-11 Campus Backbone ..........................................................................................1-13 WANs ..............................................................................................................1-15 MANs ...............................................................................................................1-16 Enterprise Networks ........................................................................................1-17 Networking Applications ..................................................................................1-18 Networking Protocols .......................................................................................1-19 Protocol Overview .....................................................................................1-20 Speed vs. Reliability in a Network ...................................................................1-21 Mainframe Environment ..................................................................................1-22 Transmission Formats .....................................................................................1-23 Asynchronous Character Format ..............................................................1-23 Synchronous Frame Format .....................................................................1-23 Transmission Methods ....................................................................................1-24 Analog Signals ..........................................................................................1-24 Digital Signals ...........................................................................................1-25
2 Standards Organizations and the OSI Model

Section Topics ...................................................................................................2-1 Section Objectives .............................................................................................2-2 Standards Organizations ...................................................................................2-3
Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc. TOC-1
IEEE and ANSI Standards .................................................................................2-5 OSI Model ..........................................................................................................2-6 OSI Network Communication ............................................................................2-7 Layer 1 Physical Layer ..................................................................................2-9 Physical Layer Connectivity Devices ........................................................2-10 Layer 2 Data Link Layer ..............................................................................2-11 IEEE 802.2 LLC ........................................................................................2-12 Layer 3 Network Layer ................................................................................2-13 Layer 4 Transport Layer ..............................................................................2-15 Connection-Oriented Protocols .................................................................2-16 Connectionless Protocols ..........................................................................2-17 Layer 5 Session Layer ................................................................................2-18 Layer 6 Presentation Layer .........................................................................2-19 Layer 7 Application Layer ...........................................................................2-20 Comparing the OSI Model to Real-World Networking .....................................2-21
3 LAN Components
Section Topics ...................................................................................................3-1 Section Objectives .............................................................................................3-2 LAN Overview ....................................................................................................3-3 Main Components of a LAN ..............................................................................3-4 Workstation Requirements ..........................................................................3-5 Local Operating Systems ............................................................................3-6 Networked Applications ...............................................................................3-7 Network Interface Cards .............................................................................3-8 NIC Drivers ..................................................................................................3-9 Network Cabling Systems ...............................................................................3-10 Category 5 UTP Horizontal Cabling ..........................................................3-11 Category 5 UTP Installation ......................................................................3-12 Fiber Optic Cable ......................................................................................3-13 Fiber Optic Backbone Cabling ..................................................................3-14 Connectivity Devices .......................................................................................3-15 Concentrators, Hubs, and Repeaters ........................................................3-15 Bridges ......................................................................................................3-16
TOC-2
Switches ....................................................................................................3-18 Routers ......................................................................................................3-19 Network Operating Systems ............................................................................3-20 Network Documentation ..................................................................................3-21 Protocol Analyzers ...........................................................................................3-22 LAN Baselining ................................................................................................3-23
4 CSMA/CD Overview
Section Topics ...................................................................................................4-1 Section Objectives .............................................................................................4-2 Ethernet Overview .............................................................................................4-3 IEEE 802.3 CSMA/CD Protocol .........................................................................4-4 Ethernet Collision Detection ..............................................................................4-5 Ethernet Frame Formats ...................................................................................4-6 Ethernet II Frame Format ............................................................................4-7 Ethernet II Frame Format Example .............................................................4-9 IEEE 802.3 with 802.2 Frame Format .......................................................4-10 Ethernet Cabling Options ................................................................................4-11 10Base5 Ethernet ............................................................................................4-12 10Base2 Ethernet ............................................................................................4-13 10BaseT Ethernet ............................................................................................4-14 Ethernet Repeaters/Hubs/Concentrators ..................................................4-15 Ethernet Transceivers ...............................................................................4-16 10BaseFL ........................................................................................................4-17 10 Mbps Ethernet Design ................................................................................4-18 The 5-4-3 Rule ..........................................................................................4-18 100 Mbps Ethernet Design ..............................................................................4-19 Fast Ethernet 2-1 Rule ..............................................................................4-19 100BaseTX ...............................................................................................4-20 100BaseT4 ................................................................................................4-21 100BaseFX 100 Mbps Ethernet Building Backbone .............................4-22 Gigabit Ethernet ...............................................................................................4-23 Ethernet Traffic Characteristics .......................................................................4-24 Ethernet Errors ..........................................................................................4-25 10/100 Mbps Ethernet Switching .....................................................................4-26
Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc. TOC-3
5 Network Operating Systems

Section Topics ...................................................................................................5-1 Section Objectives .............................................................................................5-2 NOS Overview ...................................................................................................5-3 The Client/Server Concept ................................................................................5-4 The Dedicated Client/Server Network Environment ....................................5-5 The Peer-to-Peer Client/Server Network Environment ...............................5-6 File Service ........................................................................................................5-7 Print Service ......................................................................................................5-8 Mail Service .......................................................................................................5-9 Communications Service .................................................................................5-10 Database Service ............................................................................................5-11 Directory/Security Services .............................................................................5-12 NOS Protocol Comparison ..............................................................................5-13 Typical UNIX Protocol Structure ...............................................................5-14 Novell NetWare Protocol Structure ...........................................................5-15 Windows NT Protocol Structure ................................................................5-17 AppleShare Protocol Structure ..................................................................5-18 Other NOSs ...............................................................................................5-19
6 TCP/IP Overview
Section Topics ...................................................................................................6-1 Section Objectives .............................................................................................6-2 TCP/IP Overview ...............................................................................................6-3 The TCP/IP Protocol Suite ................................................................................6-4 Network Access Layer .......................................................................................6-5 Internet Layer ....................................................................................................6-6 The IP Version 4 Header .............................................................................6-7 IP Addressing ..............................................................................................6-8 Binary Numbers ..........................................................................................6-9 Subnetting .......................................................................................................6-10 Subnet Mask Overview .............................................................................6-11 Class A Subnetting ....................................................................................6-12
TOC-4
Class B Subnetting ....................................................................................6-13 Class C Subnetting ...................................................................................6-14 Subnet Mask Examples ............................................................................6-15 Subnetting Examples ................................................................................6-17 Variable Length Subnetting .......................................................................6-20 Variable Length Subnet Mask Example ....................................................6-21 Default Gateway Overview ..............................................................................6-22 IP Address Servers ..........................................................................................6-23 The Ping Command .........................................................................................6-24 ARP .................................................................................................................6-25 ARP In Action ............................................................................................6-26 IP Version 6 .....................................................................................................6-28 Host-to-Host Layer ..........................................................................................6-29 TCP/IP Ports .............................................................................................6-30 The TCP Header .......................................................................................6-31 The UDP Header .......................................................................................6-32 Process Layer Applications .........................................................................6-33 FTP and TFTP ..........................................................................................6-34 Telnet ........................................................................................................6-35 E-mail ........................................................................................................6-36 HTTP .........................................................................................................6-37 DNS ...........................................................................................................6-38 BootP ........................................................................................................6-40 SNMP ........................................................................................................6-41
7 Internetworking Overview
Section Topics ...................................................................................................7-1 Section Objectives .............................................................................................7-2 Internetworking Overview ..................................................................................7-3 Network Segmentation ......................................................................................7-4 Networking Equipment ......................................................................................7-5 Physical Segmentation ......................................................................................7-6 Bridging and Switching ......................................................................................7-7 Bridge and Switch Operation ......................................................................7-8
TOC-5
Bridge and Switch Types ............................................................................7-9 Ethernet Switching ....................................................................................7-11 Spanning Tree Algorithm ..........................................................................7-12 Token Ring Switching ...............................................................................7-13 FDDI Switching .........................................................................................7-14 ATM Switching ..........................................................................................7-15 Logical Segmentation ................................................................................7-16 Routing Overview ............................................................................................7-17 Routing IP .................................................................................................7-18 Routing Protocols ......................................................................................7-19 Routing Metrics .........................................................................................7-20 Routing Protocol Operation .......................................................................7-21 RIP ............................................................................................................7-22 RIP Routing Tables ...................................................................................7-23 RIP 1 Message Format .............................................................................7-24 RIP 2 Message Format .............................................................................7-25 OSPF ........................................................................................................7-26 OSPF Messages .......................................................................................7-27 IGRP .........................................................................................................7-28 BGP ...........................................................................................................7-29 Firewalls ..........................................................................................................7-30 Firewall Types ...........................................................................................7-31
8 WAN Components
Section Topics ...................................................................................................8-1 Section Objectives .............................................................................................8-2 WAN Overview ..................................................................................................8-3 Telecommunications Infrastructure ...................................................................8-4 Connection Types PVC and SVC .................................................................8-5 WAN Technologies ............................................................................................8-6 WAN Circuit Switching ................................................................................8-7 WAN Packet Switching ...............................................................................8-8 Wide Area Transmission Rates ...................................................................8-9 WAN Media Types and Physical Interfaces ....................................................8-10
TOC-6
WAN Signaling Specifications ...................................................................8-11 WAN Equipment ..............................................................................................8-12 Modems ....................................................................................................8-13 DSU/CSU ..................................................................................................8-14 Multiplexing ......................................................................................................8-15 Time Division Multiplexing .........................................................................8-16 TDM Hierarchy ..........................................................................................8-17 Multiplexing Example ................................................................................8-18 SONET ............................................................................................................8-19 Overview ...................................................................................................8-19 SONET Specifications ...............................................................................8-20
9 WAN Services
Section Topics ...................................................................................................9-1 Section Objectives .............................................................................................9-2 WAN Access and Services ................................................................................9-3 WAN Service Options .................................................................................9-4 Leased Lines .....................................................................................................9-5 DDS .............................................................................................................9-6 T1 Service ...................................................................................................9-7 Fractional T1 Service ..................................................................................9-8 T3 and Fractional T3 ...................................................................................9-9 Switched Lines ................................................................................................9-10 POTS ........................................................................................................9-11 ISDN Overview ..........................................................................................9-12 ISDN BRI ...................................................................................................9-13 ISDN PRI ...................................................................................................9-14 SMDS ........................................................................................................9-15 DSL ...........................................................................................................9-16 Packet-Switching Networks .............................................................................9-17 X.25 Overview ...........................................................................................9-18 Frame Relay Overview ..............................................................................9-19 Frame Relay Components ........................................................................9-20 Frame Relay Operation .............................................................................9-21
TOC-7
Frame Relay Frame Format ......................................................................9-22 Frame Relay CIR ......................................................................................9-23 ATM ...........................................................................................................9-24 ATM Implementations ...............................................................................9-25 ATM Layers ...............................................................................................9-26 ATM Service Classes ................................................................................9-27 ATM Cell Structure ....................................................................................9-28 ATM Virtual Paths and Channels ..............................................................9-29
10 The Internet
Section Topics .................................................................................................10-1 Section Objectives ...........................................................................................10-2 Internet Overview and Structure ......................................................................10-3 Intranets ...........................................................................................................10-5 Accessing the Internet .....................................................................................10-6 Internet Applications and Tools .......................................................................10-7 The World Wide Web ................................................................................10-8 URL ...........................................................................................................10-9 HTTP .......................................................................................................10-10 Java .........................................................................................................10-11 Networking Resources on the Internet ..........................................................10-12 Future Internet Trends ...................................................................................10-13
Appendix A: Token Passing Protocols

Section Topics .................................................................................................. A-1 Section Objectives ............................................................................................ A-2 Token Passing Protocols Overview .................................................................. A-3 Benefits of Token Passing Protocols ......................................................... A-4 IEEE 802.5 Token Ring .................................................................................... A-5 Token Ring Token Passing Protocol .......................................................... A-6 Token Ring Design and Implementation .................................................... A-7 Token Ring Physical and Logical Design ................................................... A-8 Token Format ............................................................................................. A-9
TOC-8
Token Ring Frame Format ....................................................................... A-10 Token Ring Frame Example .................................................................... A-11 Token Ring Active Monitor ....................................................................... A-13 ANSI X3T9.5 FDDI ......................................................................................... A-14 Campus Backbone Design Example ........................................................ A-15 FDDI Token Passing Protocol .................................................................. A-16 FDDI Dual Ring Topology ........................................................................ A-17 FDDI Token Format ................................................................................. A-18 FDDI Frame Format ................................................................................. A-19 FDDI Frame Decode ................................................................................ A-20 FDDI Port Types ...................................................................................... A-21 FDDI Cabling Options .............................................................................. A-22 Ethernet/Token Ring/FDDI Comparison ......................................................... A-23
Appendix B: Section Review Answers

Section 1: Networking Overview ................................................................ B-2 Section 2: Standards Organizations and the OSI Model ............................ B-2 Section 3: LAN Components ...................................................................... B-3 Section 4: CSMA/CD Overview .................................................................. B-3 Section 5: Network Operating Systems ..................................................... B-4 Section 6: TCP/IP Overview ....................................................................... B-4 Section 7: Internetworking Overview .......................................................... B-5 Section 8: WAN Components .................................................................... B-5 Section 9: WAN Services ........................................................................... B-6 Section 10: The Internet ............................................................................. B-6 Appendix A: Token Passing Protocols ....................................................... B-7
Appendix C: Crossword Puzzle

Networking Fundamentals Crossword Puzzle .................................................. C-2
TOC-9
TOC-10
1
Networking Overview
Section Topics
Network Segmentation and Connectivity The Bandwidth Dilemma Network Components Network Design Issues Network Types Networking Applications Networking Protocols Speed vs. Reliability in a Network Mainframe Environment Transmission Formats Transmission Methods
1-1
Networking Overview
Section Objectives
After completing this section, you will be able to: Define computer networking Identify the key factors that influence how networks are designed List the basic components of a network Identify the various types of networks used today, including LANs, WANs, and MANs Define what a protocol is and what it is used for Describe analog and digital signaling
1-2
Networking Overview
What Is Computer Networking?

IS DN
FDDI TCP/IP AT dem M o M T1 Internet Windows NT Tok CAT 5 UTP en r ing 5 Router X.2 Hub Switc h Fiber optics U Bridge /CS U S D Ethernet Intranet y a l e eR Fram Netware
Figure 1: What Is Computer Networking?
The term computer networking means different things to different people. But to most, it indicates a combination of hardware and software that provides a means for the various computers in an organization to communicate with one another. In todays business world, each computer network is designed to fit the needs of a particular company. No two companies networking needs are exactly the same, and no two computer networks are exactly the same. Each network is continually changing with the addition of new devices, applications, and services. Old technology is being phased out and companies are upgrading at a fast pace. Users and people who support a computer network need to continually adapt to the technologies available in the market and in place at their company. In this class, we will discuss many common components and uses of computer networks. We will explore the various aspects of todays and tomorrows networking environment.
1-3
Networking Overview
Network Segmentation and Connectivity

20 20 20 20 20
200
20 20 20 200-user LAN
(Not a good idea)
Figure 2: Network Segmentation and Connectivity
20 20
Ten 20-user LANs
There are many factors that influence the way that networks are designed. Some of the key factors include: The size of the network The performance of the network (user application requirements) The security of the network The manageability of the network The connectivity requirements The budget for the network
For these and other reasons, we usually segment the networks into clusters of users and attempt to locate their resources as close to home as possible. To illustrate this point, a company with 200 users at its corporate headquarters would not install all users on the same LAN (local area network). This company would more likely segment the network into smaller departmental LANs, which could in turn be connected to one another.
1-4
Networking Overview
The Bandwidth Dilemma
Network
Figure 3: The Bandwidth Dilemma
Important Term
Bandwidth is the data transfer capacity of a communications system.
Computer networks have a finite bandwidth. Just as a water pipe allows a finite amount of water to pass through the pipe, a network allows a finite amount of data to travel through it. Some of the factors that cause bandwidth shortage include: LANs that use a shared media access control protocol, such as Ethernet, token ring, and FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) An increase in user population An increase in application requirements An increase in end-station processing power
A network engineer must keep many factors in mind when designing, installing, upgrading, or troubleshooting a computer network.
1-5
Networking Overview
Network Components
PCs Workstations Servers Printers
End stations
Applications
E-mail File transfer Imaging Video Routers Hubs Switches Frame Relay Ethernet
LAN
MAN WAN
Networks
Figure 4: Basic Network Components
The basic components of networks include: The end stations The applications being run on the end stations The network that will support the traffic between end stations
A network that was designed five years ago to support basic networking applications may have difficulty supporting recently developed high-end applications (e.g., medical imaging and live video teleconferencing). Network designers and managers need to understand and monitor the types and frequency of networked applications.
Real-World Application
For example, a large bank planning to implement a bank-wide document imaging system should take steps to predict the impact of the additional traffic on the existing and new networks. With this information, proper component selection and deployment can be accomplished.
1-6
Networking Overview
Network Design Issues

User requirements Legacy systems
Management goals
Budget considerations
Security concerns
Traffic patterns
Performance issues
Protocols
Figure 5: Network Design Issues
Network design often requires input from many sources. Each organizations network has evolved through the years. Many organizations implement physical segmentation for performance reasons and provide logical segmentation for security and connectivity issues.
Network Design Basics

Physical Connectivity
Physical connectivity for each network device is typically accomplished by using a hub/ concentrator/repeater, cabling, and a NIC (network interface card) in a LAN environment.
Physical Segmentation
Physical segmentation is obtained by using bridges and switches that create separate collision domains in Ethernet and separate rings in token ring. This improves the performance of the network for attached devices by limiting traffic flow based on NIC or MAC (media access control) addresses.
Logical Segmentation
Logical segmentation is obtained using routers installed and configured to create and connect different networks and subnetworks. Traffic can be directed between subnets to meet connectivity and security requirements.
1-7
Networking Overview
Network Types
WAN LAN
Connectivity device Building Backbone User User Hub Administration LAN
Server User Sales LAN
WAN
Router Switch User User Other sites and networks Hub Server Accounting LAN
Figure 6: Basic Network Types
Hub
Server
WAN LAN
User
Computer network connections usually fall into one of the following categories: Network Type
LAN (local area network) Building backbone Campus backbone MAN (metropolitan area network) WAN (wide area network) Enterprise network
Network Characteristics
Connects users in a department, company, or group Connects LANs together within a building Connects building LANs together Connects sites in and around a large city together Connects sites around the country and the world together Connects many, or all of the above, types of networks
Figure 7: Basic Network Types
For all practical purposes, most network connections are forms of LANs or WANs.
1-8 Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc.
Networking Overview
LANs
Typical LAN Components
Category 5 UTP cable system Patch panel Hub/repeater Laptop PC NOS client software
Router or switch NOS server software To building backbone File/application/ print server
Workstation
Printer CD-ROM/WORM
Figure 8: LANs
Important Term
A LAN (local area network) normally connects devices to each other and to resources at a departmental level within an organization.
A LAN generally supports from 10 to 40 users and is often centered around one or more file servers. The LAN uses an NOS (network operating system), which is the software that allows the devices to communicate with each other. A NIC is installed and configured for each device on the LAN. The devices on a LAN are typically connected together using a hub (repeater) and a category 5 UTP (unshielded twisted pair) cabling system. The LAN usually has a connection to the building backbone for access to other departmental LANs, MANs, and WANs.
1-9
Networking Overview
Examples of current LAN standards that provide this connectivity include: 10BaseT Ethernet 100BaseTX Ethernet 16 Mbps token ring 155 Mbps ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) 100 Mbps FDDI Gigabit Ethernet
1-10
Networking Overview
Building Backbone
Cat5 UTP LAN Hub
Users
Building backbone Fiber optic cable system Hub
LAN
Users
LAN Hub
Users
Fiber optic patch panel
Patch cables
Switch
Router
To WAN, MAN, or campus
Figure 9: Building Backbone
Important Term
A building backbone is a network connection that normally carries traffic between departmental LANs and an internetworking device such as a router or switch.
A building backbone can also provide the connectivity to other networks such as campus backbones, MANs, or WANs. A building backbone usually consists of a fiber optic cable system that connects the electronic components (e.g., hubs, switches, bridges, and routers). It is usually a highspeed connection in order to support the high volume of traffic between LANs.
1-11
Networking Overview
Examples of building backbones include: FDDI 16 Mbps token ring 100 Mbps Ethernet Gigabit Ethernet ATM
Fiber optic cable is usually used because it supports greater distances, has immunity to electrical interference, and offers higher bandwidth potential than copper cabling systems.
1-12
Networking Overview
Campus Backbone
Building 1 Fiber optic cable
LANs LANs Router/ switch Router/ switch Router/ switch LANs
Building 2
Building 3
WAN
Router/ switch LANs
In this diagram, the campus backbone contains connections between the routers and switches on a campus.
Building 4
Figure 10: Campus Backbone
Important Term
A campus backbone is a network connection used to carry traffic to and from LANs located in various buildings on a campus.
A campus backbone is designed for sites that have a group of buildings at a single location. Examples of campuses include corporate headquarters, universities, airports, and research parks. A campus backbone is usually made up of multimode and/or single mode fiber optic cable installed between the buildings. The fiber optic cable is used to connect the internetworking devices, such as bridges, routers, and switches. The backbone is high speed in order to carry large volumes of traffic between sites.
1-13
Networking Overview
Examples of campus backbones include: FDDI 16 Mbps token ring 155 Mbps and 622 Mbps ATM 100BaseFX Ethernet Gigabit Ethernet
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Networking Overview
WANs
Router
Router
London Seattle
1st
Service provider WAN
Router
New York
Router
Chicago
Router
Tokyo
Figure 11: WANs
Important Term
WANs (wide area networks) are networks that connect geographically dispersed sites.
A WAN connects different cities, states, or countries. WANs are obtained through a service provider and normally come in the form of a leased line or circuit-switching technology. Often, the WAN connects routers in different locations. Speeds have historically been low to medium (less than 1 Mbps). In recent years, however, speeds of 45 Mbps and more have been implemented by organizations. Examples of WANs include: 56 Kbps circuit ISDN (integrated services digital network) T1 and T3 connections Frame relay X.25 ATM Modems and regular telephone lines
1-15
Networking Overview
MANs
Chicago metropolitan area
LANs
Research building
1st
Service provider MAN

LANs
Manufacturing facility
LAN
Headquarters
Figure 12: MANs (Metropolitan Area Networks)
Important Terms
A MAN (metropolitan area network) is a network designed to carry traffic between locations within a single metropolitan area.
MANs are obtained through a service provider for a fixed monthly fee. The MAN connects routers and switches. The process of obtaining a MAN is similar to that of a WAN, except a MAN stays in one city or metropolitan area. Examples of MANs include: SMDS (Switched Multimegabit Data Service) FDDI ATM
1-16
Networking Overview
Enterprise Networks
Chicago
LANs Router LANs
Seattle
Router
LANs
Corporate WAN
Router
Dallas campus
Router LANs
New York MAN

LANs
Figure 13: Enterprise Network
An enterprise network has many or all of the following components connected in a cohesive and managed fashion. Component
LAN Building backbone Campus backbone MAN WAN
Usage
For each department or group Ties together LANs in a building Connects buildings Ties sites in a city together Connects geographically dispersed locations
Figure 14: Enterprise Network Components
1-17
Networking Overview
Networking Applications
Standard office applications High-end office applications
Network
Device
Manufacturing automation Mainframe connectivity
Multimedia applications
Figure 15: Networking Applications
The applications running on todays computer networks vary greatly from company to company. A network must be designed with the applications in mind. A general categorization of networking applications includes the following: Application
Standard office applications High-end office applications Manufacturing automation Mainframe connectivity Multimedia applications
Examples
E-mail, file transfers, printing Imaging, CAD, software development Process control Personal computer and terminal support Live interactive video
Figure 16: Networking Applications
Different applications affect how well a network performs. Each network has a finite bandwidth or capacity. Thus, network designers and engineers should be aware of the kind and frequency of the traffic traversing the networks.
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Networking Overview
Networking Protocols
T T T T
How much data can I send? How shall I send it? How shall I address it? How will I check for errors?
Network
Figure 17: Networking Protocols
Computer networks use protocols to communicate. These protocols define the procedures that the systems involved in the communications process will use. Many protocols are used today to provide networking capabilities. Often, protocols are combined into a communication architecture or protocol stack.
Important Term
Protocol A set of rules allowing communication between computers for the exchange of information.
Each protocol in the communication architecture provides for a function needed to make the networking possible. Multiple protocols are used so that the job can be broken up into manageable pieces. Each module that implements a protocol can be developed and updated independently of other modules as long as the interface between modules remains constant.
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Networking Overview
Protocol Overview
Protocols used in networks usually fall into one of the following groups:
Protocol Group
LAN
Description
These These protocols protocols define define how how data data traverses traverses LANs. LANs. Issues Issues such such as as frame frame structure, structure, media access, access, and and physical physical requirements requirements are are detailed. detailed. These These protocols protocols define define how how data data moves moves between between distant distant locations. locations. NOS NOS software software provides provides logical logical connections connections and and application support support for for the the user user and and devices. devices. These These protocols protocols assist in in connecting connecting multiple multiple networks and and transporting data data between between these these networks. networks.
Example
Ethernet Ethernet Token Token ring ring FDDI FDDI ATM ATM Frame Frame relay relay X.25 X.25 ATM ATM ISDN ISDN TCP/IP TCP/IP Windows Windows NT Novell Novell NetWare NetWare RIP RIP OSPF OSPF IGRP IGRP
WAN
Networking software software
Routing
Figure 18: Protocol Overview
These protocols collectively supply the details that allow computers around the world to communicate with each other.
1-20
Networking Overview
Speed vs. Reliability in a Network
Speed
Reliability
Figure 19: Speed vs. Reliability in a Network
There are many factors involved in designing a computer network. Some of these factors include: Goals of the network as defined by the management of the organization Security of the data on the network Up-time requirements of the network Response-time requirements for the network Cost of the network and its resources
The main balancing act in networking is finding the right mix of speed and reliability. Often, the performance of a network is slowed down by error checking, encryption, and acknowledgments. However, in many organizations, they are required, and are therefore incorporated into the protocols. Some networking protocols are very reliable and require a significant amount of overhead to provide this level of service. These protocols are referred to as connection-oriented protocols. Other protocols are designed with speed in mind and forego some of the reliability features of the connection-oriented protocols. These quick protocols are referred to as connectionless protocols.
1-21
Networking Overview
Mainframe Environment
1
Mainframe
Mainframe Connectivity Options
Traditional SNA
FEP
(front-end processor)
Router Hubs
Mainframe/ LAN/ gateway Router
Communications controller
Hub Cluster controllers
2
Dumb terminals LAN-attached PC with mainframe emulation software
LANattached PC
Figure 20: Mainframe Environment
There are several different mainframe environments in use today. Connectivity options vary depending on the mainframe vendor, model, and connectivity strategy. Three mainframe connectivity options are shown in Figure 20: Traditional SNA (Systems Network Architecture) environment Software emulation for LAN-attached PCs SNA/LAN peripheral gateway
1-22
Networking Overview
Transmission Formats
Data on computer networks can be sent two ways: One character at a time (asynchronous) In groups of characters (synchronous)
Asynchronous Character Format
Start
1 bit
Character
8 bits
Parity
1 bit
Stop
1 bit
Figure 21: Asynchronous Character Format
Asynchronous character format is a transmission method in which single bytes of data are sent serially onto a network. It is a simple and inexpensive method of sending and receiving data. An implementation example would be a modem connection.
Synchronous Frame Format

Control field
Source address Destination address
Data field
Variable size (large amount of data)
Error Checking
Figure 22: Synchronous Character Format
Synchronous frame format is a transmission method in which large portions of data are sent on a network. This is called frame transmission. The frame usually contains addressing, a variable-sized data field, and error checking. An implementation example would be an Ethernet LAN.
1-23
Networking Overview
Transmission Methods
Analog Signals
Period (frequency) Amplitude Time Phase change
Wave propagation direction

Figure 23: Analog Signals
Analog signals move down wires as electromagnetic waves. The speed of these waves indicates the frequency, stated in hertz. When the telephone was invented in 1876, it used analog signals to carry voice traffic. A problem with analog transmission is that, as the signals travel over a wire, they get weaker and pick up electrical noise from power lines and other sources. The weakened signals need to be amplified, but the amplifier is unable to tell good electrical energy from bad. Therefore, the noise is repeated as well. Today, most of the public telephone network is digital. However, analog services, such as POTS (plain old telephone service), are still common. Abbreviation
Hz kHz MHz GHz
Name
Hertz Kilohertz Megahertz Gigahertz
Description
Complete wave cycles per second Thousands of complete wave cycles per second Millions of complete wave cycles per second Billions of complete wave cycles per second
Figure 24: Analog Frequency Measurements
1-24
Networking Overview
Digital Signals
1 1 1 1
0
Figure 25: Digital Signals
Digital transmission is signal transmission over wires, fiber optics, or through the air where a digital encoding technique is used to transmit binary bits (1s and 0s) through the medium. The benefit of this technique is that, as the signal passes through devices (e.g., repeaters, routers, switches), the digital signal is sampled and retransmitted as a full, clean, new signal. Examples of digital encoding schemes include Manchester Encoding for Ethernet and AMI (alternate mark inversion) in T1 lines. Digital signaling has the following advantages over analog signaling: Higher speeds Fewer errors Clearer voice quality Name
Kilobits Megabits Gigabits Terabits
Abbreviation
Kbps Mbps Gbps Tbps
Description
Thousands of bits per second Millions of bits per second Billions of bits per second Trillions of bits per second
Figure 26: Digital Frequency Measurements
1-25
Networking Overview
Knowledge Checkpoint
Section Review
1.
Networks are physically and logically segmented in order to achieve performance and security goals. a. True b. False
2.
This network type is used to connect users in a department, group, or company.
3.
Networking applications used on a network, such as e-mail and imaging, have no impact on how the network should be designed. a. True b. False
4.
This network type is used to connect distant locations and is obtained through a service provider.
1-26
2
Standards Organizations and the OSI Model
Section Topics
Standards Organizations IEEE and ANSI Standards OSI Model OSI Network Communication OSI Layers Comparing the OSI Model to Real-World Networking
2-1
Section Objectives
After completing this section, you will be able to: Recognize the relevant network standards used in todays networks Identify each layer of the OSI model Describe how the OSI model is used today for comparison and educational purposes
2-2
Standards Organizations
ISO
ITU IEEE ANSI EIA/TIA
IAB
IETF IRTF
Vendor Forums ATM Frame relay Other

Figure 27: Standards Organizations
These organizations influence and add to the networking specifications available today. Acronym
ANSI EIA IAB IEEE IETF IRTF ISO ITU TIA
Name of Organization
American National Standards Institute Electronic Industries Association Internet Architecture Board Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Internet Engineering Task Force Internet Research Task Force International Organization for Standardization International Telecommunication Union, formerly CCITT (International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee) Telecommunications Industry Association
Figure 28: Standards Organizations
2-3
Note
Networking standards can be obtained from Global Engineering Documents:
1-800-854-7179 (U.S. orders) 303-397-7956 (international orders)
2-4
IEEE and ANSI Standards

IEEE and ANSI normally work on local and metropolitan area committees and subcommittees, including those shown in the tables below.
IEEE
Committee
802
Subcommittee
802.1 802.2 802.3 802.3u 802.3z 802.4 802.5 802.6 802.7 802.8 802.9 802.10 802.11 802.12 802.14
Subtask
High-level interface LLC sublayer CSMA/CD (Ethernet) networks 100 Mbps Ethernet Gigabit Ethernet Token bus networks (ARCnet) Token ring networks Metropolitan area networks (DQDB) Broadband technical advisory group Fiber optic technical advisory group Integrated voice and data LAN working group LAN security working group Wireless networking Demand priority access methods (100VG AnyLAN) Cable modems
Figure 29: IEEE Committees and Subcommittees
ANSI
Committee
X3
Subcommittee
X3T9.5
Subtask
FDDI standards
Figure 30: ANSI Committees and Subcommittees
2-5
OSI Model
Layer Name Function
User networking applications and interface to the network Encoding language used in transmission Job management tracking Data tracking as it moves through a network Network addressing and packet transmission on the network Frame transmission across a physical link (LAN or WAN) Transmission method of bits on the network
Figure 31: OSI Model
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data link Physical
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model was created by the ISO as a basis for communication systems. The seven layers of the model are set up so that each layer works independently of another and allows a modular change of protocols. This model is a foundation for comparing protocols; however, most protocols deviate from the rules set up by the OSI model. The OSI model is normally used for educational and comparative purposes with respect to products and technologies commercially available in todays networks.
2-6
OSI Network Communication
OSI layers
Sender Host A H7 D H6 H7 D H5 H6 H7 D H4 H5 H6 H7 D H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 D
Packet or datagram
Host B
Receiver
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Application protocol Presentation protocol Session protocol Transport protocol Network protocol Data link protocol Physical protocol
Interconnecting media T D H7 H6 H5 H4 H3 H2
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
H7 D H6 H7 D H5 H6 H7 D H4 H5 H6 H7 D H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 D
Packet or datagram
H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 D T
Frame
H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 D T
Frame
H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 D T
Frame
D = Data H = Header T = Trailer
H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 D T
Frame
Figure 32: OSI Network Communication
Each layer implements a specific communications function. Each layer should be independent of all others. This independence provides for modular development and later enhancements or upgrades. Characteristics of network communications include: A header, created by each layer, implements the function for that layer.
Important Term
PDU (protocol data unit) The combination of header and data
2-7
The PDU created by one layer is passed as data to the PDU created by the next layer below. For example, the layer 3 PDU would contain H4 through H7, plus the data, plus H3 information. The target device of the network communication processes data from the bottom of the OSI model up. The header is stripped off before being sent up to the next level.
2-8
Layer 1 Physical Layer

Cat5 UTP
NIC Wall jack Device
Patch panel Hub/repeater

Figure 33: Physical Layer
The physical layer of the OSI model defines connector and interface specifications, as well as the medium (cable) requirements. Electrical, mechanical, functional, and procedural specifications are provided. Components of the physical layer include: Cabling system components Connector design and pin assignments Hub/repeater/concentrator specifications Wireless system components
In a LAN (local area network) environment, category 5 UTP cable is generally used for the physical layer in individual device connections. Fiber optic cabling is often used for the physical layer in backbone connections. For example, fiber optics would typically be installed when connecting a hub on the twentieth floor of a building to a switch located in the first-floor data center.
2-9
Physical Layer Connectivity Devices

10BaseT Ethernet hub 10BaseT Ethernet hub
Fiber optics
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
Figure 34: Physical Layer Connectivity Devices
Characteristics
Connectivity devices are used to connect devices on a LAN. Examples include 10BaseT hub and token ring MAU (multistation access unit). The hub samples the incoming bit stream and repeats a good signal to the other devices connected to the hub. Ethernet, token ring, and FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) hubs operate differently. An Ethernet hub logically connects users into a bus (as shown in Figure 34.) Token ring and FDDI hubs logically connect stations into a ring. The hub does not look at data to see what the destination is. It only looks at bits as they come into the hub. For this reason, it is classified as a layer 1 component.
Connectivity devices, such as a 10BaseT hub, provide a convenient means to connect devices to a LAN. Prior cabling systems, such as 10Base2 Ethernet, used coax cabling connected in a physical bus topology. This method was plagued by network downtime and difficulty in moving users.
2-10
Layer 2 Data Link Layer

10BaseT hub
Ethernet switch
BRIDGE
10BaseT hub
NIC G
NIC
e Fr
to
H
am
E
Hub
am Fr e
to
NIC
E
NIC I J
Hub
NIC K
Hub
NIC A
NIC B
NIC C
NIC D
NIC E
NIC F
AK = MAC address of NIC T MAC addresses are typically 6 bytes long. T 02 60 8c 42 19 7a is an example of a NIC MAC address.
Figure 35: Data Link Layer
LAN networking components that operate at the data link layer include bridges, switches, and NICs (network interface cards). The data link layer accomplishes the following functions: Builds and sends frames (containing the NOS (network operating system) information plus user data) out to a network Destination and source MAC (media access control) address fields (NIC addresses) Error detection fields Synchronization field A field which specifies the network layer protocol being implemented
On the sender side, the NIC passes the frame to the physical layer, which transmits the data to a physical link. On the receiver side, the NIC processes bits from the physical layer and processes the message based on its contents.
Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc. 2-11
IEEE 802.2 LLC

OSI layers
7 6 5 4 3 2
Network protocols
UNIX Novell Windows NT
7 6 5 4 3 2
Network protocols
UNIX Novell Windows NT
Logical link control Media access control

Ethernet/token ring/FDDI
Logical link control Media access control

Ethernet/token ring/FDDI
Physical
1 Interconnecting media
Physical
Figure 36: IEEE 802.2 LLC
Important Term
LLC (logical link control) is the IEEE 802.2 standard on how networks such as Ethernet or token ring process information to and from networking protocols.
LLC is a sublayer of the data link layer and serves as an interface between a variety of MAC techniques and the upper-layer protocols. Its functionality is designed to be independent of the MAC protocol used. The LLC packet is used in IEEE 802.3 CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Detection), IEEE 802.5 token ring, and ANSI FDDI frames to provide: Support to connection-oriented and connectionless services SSAP (source service access point) The address of the entity in the source station that originated the communication DSAP (destination service access point) The address of the entity in the destination station that is to receive the communication
When LLC is used, it is contained in the first part of the data field of the frame.
2-12
Layer 3 Network Layer

Subnet
172.20.12.0
ket Pa c
Subnet Router
172.20.13.0
Subnet
172.20.11.0
net Sub 0.18.0

.2 172
172 bnet .20. 17.0
Su
Hub
172 bnet .20. 19.0 ket Pa c net Sub 0.20.0 .2 172
Su
Subnet
172.20.14.0
Hub
Subnet
172.20.15.0
.17
.24
.57
Subnet
172.20.10.0
Subnets created by applying 255.255.255.0 mask to a class B network address.
.11
.94
.73
Subnet
172.20.16.0
Figure 37: Network Layer
The network layer provides the details so that data can be routed between devices in an environment with multiple networks, subnets, or both. Networking components that operate at the network layer include routers and the software used by the routers. The network layer typically provides the following information: Source and destination network addressing Subnet information Source and destination node addresses SAP (service access point) describing layer 4 service (connection-oriented or connectionless)
2-13
In network layer addressing, the IP (Internet Protocol) address indicates to the routers connecting multiple networks which user on which subnet at a specific company the data is intended for. For example, in Figure 37, the IP address 172.20.10.17 at the company JBI, Inc. may mean the following:
Up to 254 subnets possible (1254)
172 . 20 . 10 . 17
Internet-unique (JBI, Inc.)
z Host address for the subnet z Up to 254 hosts possible (1254)

Figure 38: Network Layer (cont.)
2-14
Layer 4 Transport Layer

Data Acknowledgment
Network
Data Acknowledgment
Figure 39: Transport Layer
The transport layer provides end-to-end integrity between two devices communicating through the network. The transport layer provides two types of basic services to an upper-layer protocol: Connection-oriented services provide feedback about the status data as it travels through networks, for example, TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) in the TCP/IP stack. Connectionless (datagram) service does not provide feedback from the receiver about the data, for example, UDP (User Datagram Protocol) in the TCP/IP stack. Data tracking Connection flow control Sequencing of data Error checking Application addressing and identification
The transport layer may support:
In a connection-oriented system, each packet of data is assigned a unique sequence number and an associated acknowledgment number to track data as it travels through a network. If data is lost or damaged, it is requested to be resent by a device.
2-15
Connection-Oriented Protocols
Setup req
spon Setup re se
uest
Data
dgement Acknowle
Connecti on clear
ponse Clear res
Figure 40: Connection-Oriented Protocols
Connection-oriented protocols are designed to provide a high degree of reliability for traffic as it moves on the network. Characteristics of connection-oriented protocols include: A connection process (handshake) occurs between two stations before the transmission of data. Connections are also referred to as sessions, virtual circuits, or logical connections. Most connection-oriented protocols require some form of acknowledgment routine as data is transmitted. Protocols using acknowledgment routines provide a high degree of network reliability. Connection-oriented protocols often provide error detection and error recovery routines. When data is found to be in error, the sending side is requested to retransmit it. Or, if the sending side has not received an acknowledgment, it will retransmit the data after a specified period of time. When a connection is no longer needed by end users, a defined handshake drops or takes down the connection.
TCP is an example of a connection-oriented protocol in the TCP/IP stack.
2-16
Connectionless Protocols
Data Data Data Data
Figure 41: Connectionless Protocols
Connectionless protocols do not provide the same high degree of reliability as connectionoriented protocols. However, connectionless protocols do offer a significant advantage in terms of speed of the transmission. Characteristics of connectionless protocols include: Connectionless protocols simply send data with a source and destination address appended. No setup handshake is done to determine if the destination is available. Connectionless protocols usually do not support error recovery or acknowledgment routines, and would therefore be known as unreliable transmission services. Connectionless protocols are often used because of efficiency and because the data does not justify the extra overhead required by connection-oriented protocols.
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is an example of a connectionless protocol in the TCP/IP protocol stack.
2-17
Layer 5 Session Layer

Client software (NOS)
n Service
request Server software (NOS)
o Service
response
Figure 42: Session Layer
Session layer protocols provide the logical connection entities at the application layer. These applications include file transfer protocols and sending e-mail.
Examples of session layer functionality include the establishment, management, and termination of connections between applications. If a large graphic needs to be broken up in order to send the data out onto the network, the information to put the data back together again would be provided.
Session layer characteristics include: Virtual connection between application entities Synchronization of data flow for recovery purposes Creation of dialog units and activity units Connection parameter negotiation Partitioning services into functional groups
2-18
Layer 6 Presentation Layer

Type
Images Video Data
Options
JPEG, PICT, GIF MPEG, MIDI ASCII, EBCIDIC, encrypted
Network
Figure 43: Presentation Layer
The presentation layer specifies how end-user applications should format the data. This layer provides for translation between local representations of data and the representation of data that will be used for transfer between end-systems. The results of encryption, compression, and virtual terminals are examples of this translation service. Examples of presentation layer functionality include: Encryption and decryption of data Compression algorithms Character sets, including ASCII and EBCIDIC Formatting information
2-19
Layer 7 Application Layer

Networking Applications
File transfer E-mail Printing

PC Applications
Database Word processing Spreadsheets

Figure 44: Application Layer
User application processes require application layer service elements to access the networking environment. There are two types of service elements: CASEs (common application service elements) Generally are useful to a variety of application processes SASEs (specific application service elements) Satisfy particular needs of application processes
CASE examples include: Association control that establishes, maintains, and terminates connections with a peer application entity Commitment, concurrence, and recovery that ensures the integrity of distributed transactions
SASE examples include: SASE

FTP SNMP Telnet SMTP
Description
File Transfer Protocol Simple Network Management Protocol Virtual terminal protocol Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
Protocol Stack
TCP/IP TCP/IP TCP/IP TCP/IP
Figure 45: SASE Examples
2-20
Comparing the OSI Model to Real-World Networking

A
OSI Layers
B
XYZ XYZ
Process or Application
FTP FTP Telnet SMTP
OSI Layers
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
SMTP
Process or Application
Telnet
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Host-to-Host
UDP TCP
TCP/IP
TCP/IP
Host-to-Host
TCP UDP
Internet Protocol
IP
Internet Protocol
IP
Network access Ethernet

Ethernet frame DA SA Type IP TCP FTP CRC Packet
Network access Ethernet
Figure 46: Comparing the OSI Model to Real World Networking
Figure 46 shows how the OSI model is used when learning about and comparing protocols. Notice how some layers functionalities have been combined. In this example, device B is transferring a file which is located on device A. Using the TCP/IP protocol suite, the application FTP is used. FTP is a connection-oriented file transfer and uses TCP to track the transaction. IP is used to find the correct device on the proper subnet at the correct organization as the data moves through routers on the network. The TCP/IP information and the file will be delivered utilizing an Ethernet LAN.
2-21
Section Review
1. 2.
IEEE ________ is the standard for CSMA/CD networks. Which layer of the OSI model is used by routers? a. Layer 1 b. Layer 2 c. Layer 3 d. Layer 7
3.
In which layer of the OSI model does a hub operate? a. Layer 1 b. Layer 2 c. Layer 3 d. Layer 4
4. 5.
An Ethernet switch operates using _____________ addresses. Connection-oriented protocols are used because of the reliability of features offered for data travelling through networks. a. True b. False
2-22
3
LAN Components
Section Topics
LAN Overview Main Components of a LAN Network Cabling Systems Connectivity Devices Network Operating Systems Network Documentation Protocol Analyzers LAN Baselining
3-1
LAN Components
Section Objectives
After completing this section, you will be able to: Name the main components of a LAN Explain what a NIC (network interface card) does Explain how Category 5 UTP cabling is used in todays LANs Explain why a fiber optic backbone is often installed in buildings Identify connectivity devices Explain what a network operating system does Describe the aspects of the network that should be documented State how network administrators troubleshoot and baseline a network
3-2
LAN Components
LAN Overview
Users Connectivity
Software
LAN
Hardware
Applications
Resources
Figure 47: LAN Overview
Most organizations now rely heavily on their LANs for the exchange of information. A LAN allows independent devices in a relatively small location to communicate with each other at high data rates. LANs consist of carefully selected groups of components (hardware and software), which are configured for the specific requirements of the organization. A LAN is generally limited to the size of a department or an organization and typically contains around twenty devices. LANs usually contain resources such as servers, printers, and connections to other networks through internetworking devices such as switches and routers.
3-3
LAN Components
Main Components of a LAN

9 1
Servers
Printer
Workstation
7 Cabling
system
2 Local OS 3 NIC 4 Drivers 5 NOS 6 Applications 11 Connection to other LANs 8 LAN hub 12 Internetworking 10
Other users devices Connection to other LANs

Figure 48: Main Components of a LAN
The main components of a LAN include: Ref Component

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Workstation Local operating system NICs (network interface cards) NIC drivers NOS (network operating system) Network applications Cabling system Servers
Examples
Laptop or desktop computers MS-DOS, Windows, UNIX, Linux Ethernet, token ring, FDDI, ATM Software for NIC Novell Netware, Windows NT, UNIX File transfer, e-mail, video, imaging Category 5 UTP, fiber optic, coaxial File, print, application, communication Peers Backbone connection to internetworking device Bridge, router, switch, gateway Documentation, protocol analyzers, network baselines
Figure 49: Examples of LAN Components
Connectivity devices (hubs, repeaters, concentrators) 10BaseT repeater, token ring MAU
10 Other users 11 Connection to other LANs 12 Internetworking devices 13 Network management
3-4
LAN Components
Workstation Requirements
Connected to a LAN
Local OS NIC Drivers NOS Applications

Figure 50: Workstation Requirements
Devices attached to LANs have evolved through the years. The first generation personal computers (compared to todays computers) were very slow and did not contain much memory. The following features are usually contained within todays LAN-attached workstations: 8 MB or more of RAM (64 MB or 128 MB preferred) 1 GB or more of hard drive space An expansion slot for a NIC to be installed (or it is built into the device) NIC drivers installed and configured for the network environment A local operating system such as Windows 3.11, Windows 95, Windows 98, UNIX, or Linux A NOS, such as UNIX TCP/IP, Novell NetWare, or Microsoft Windows NT Other hardware, such as a monitor, keyboard, and mouse Networking applications, such as Web browsers, terminal emulators, or e-mail clients
3-5
LAN Components
Local Operating Systems

UNIX
Windows 95
Macintosh
MS-DOS/Windows 3.11
Figure 51: Local Operating Systems
Important Term
Local operating systems allow a personal computer user to access files, print to a local printer, and have and use several drives on the computer.
Some examples of local operating systems include: MS-DOS PC-DOS UNIX Macintosh OS/2 Windows 3.11 Windows 95 Windows 98 Linux
3-6
LAN Components
Networked Applications
Word processing
Dear Mr. Feeney: It has been a pleasure working with you. Sincerely,
Spreadsheets
Overall Overall Instr Instr Manual Manual Visuals Visuals
1 DQ DQF F\ : :L LOO LD PV
Sr. Desktop Publisher Global Knowledge
Video
Global Knowledge
4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
Graphics
Presentations
LAN Overview
E-mail
LAN
Imaging
Databases
Figure 52: Networked Applications
Networked applications are why computer networks exist. Networks should be designed from the applications down; that is, the design of the network should meet the requirements of the users and their applications. Computer applications allow a user to create and manipulate data in many formats, including text, graphics, and statistical data. After data is created, it can be stored in a variety of locations so that it may be shared with others on the networks. All applications that run on networks do not have the same traffic impact. For example, a network that carries images (document and medical) would need to be designed differently than a network used for e-mail and printer sharing.
3-7
LAN Components
Network Interface Cards

NIC
02 60 8c 39 f1 2a
6 bytes (48 bits)
MAC (media access control) address

Figure 53: Network Interface Cards
Characteristics of NICs (network interface cards) include the following: The NIC builds, sends, accepts, and processes frames to and from a PC and a LAN. Each device connected to a LAN needs a NIC installed. A NIC is usually installed as a daughter board into the computer, although some computer vendors build the NIC into the motherboard during manufacturing. Each NIC has a unique MAC address, which is typically burned into the card at manufacturing. The NIC needs to be of the same type as the LAN (e.g., 10BaseT or token ring) to operate. NICs vary in speed, complexity, manageability, and cost. The NIC requires drivers to operate.
On a confusing note, the NIC address may also be called a physical, hardware, node, Ethernet, or LAN address.
3-8
LAN Components
NIC Drivers
NIC
NOS
NIC Driver
Figure 54: NIC Drivers
Important Term
NIC drivers are software programs that provide a standard interface between the NOS and the NIC.
The NIC driver manages a specific NIC type and interfaces between the computers operating system and the NIC. These software drivers enable NICs to support multiple operating systems. Examples of common NIC drivers include: NDIS (Network Driver Interface Specification) Developed by Microsoft and 3COM, it uses the protocol.ini file as the primary configuration file. Developed by Novell and Apple, it uses the net.cfg file as the primary configuration file. These drivers were developed by academic and research facilities as a collection of shareware packet drivers. ASI was developed by IBM for token ring LANs.
3-9
ODI (Open Data Link Interface) -
Clarkson Drivers -
ASI (Adapter Support Interface) -
LAN Components
Network Cabling Systems

Category 5 UTP to the desktop Hubs
5th 4th floor 5th floor
Vertical
Horizontal
3rd floor
2nd floor
Fiber optic backbone

1st floor
Switch or router
Figure 55: Network Cabling Systems
The standardization of cabling systems simplified the job of installing and maintaining network cabling. Prior to this scheme, each network devised its own specifications for the cabling system. The problem was that they were incompatible with each other. Today, because of the ANSI/TIA/EIA Telecommunication Wiring Standard 568, network cabling can be installed to a generic specification that all current and future (next five to seven years) network technologies will use. The building wiring standard is basically broken down into two categories: Horizontal wiring (user connectivity) Cabling used to connect individual users and devices. Category 5 UTP (unshielded twisted pair) cable is installed in the majority of networks today. Vertical cabling (backbone) Cabling used to connect networking devices (e.g., hubs) located through the building back to a internetworking device (e.g., switch or router). Fiber optic cable is normally used.
3-10
LAN Components
Category 5 UTP Horizontal Cabling

Cat 5 UTP cable (4 pairs) Station cable
Patch cable Cat 5 wall jack PC with NIC installed
LAN hub
Cat 5 patch panel

Figure 56: Category 5 UTP Horizontal Cabling
UTP (unshielded twisted pair) cables are categorized based on their ability to carry various frequencies. The categories include: UTP Level/Category
1 2 3 4 5
Usage
Voice, low-speed data Low-speed LAN, 4 Mbps token ring 10BaseT Ethernet, 100BaseT4, 100VG AnyLAN 16 Mbps token ring 100 BaseTX, ATM, TP-PMD
Speeds Supported
1 MHz 4 MHz 10 MHz 20 MHz 100 MHz
Figure 57: UTP Cable Categories
Note
Standards for categories 5e, 6, and 7 are being developed for the next generation of networks.
UTP cable should be certified after installation by using the proper test equipment. This ensures a smooth-running cabling system for todays networks, such as 100BaseTX and ATM, and future networks.
3-11
LAN Components
Category 5 UTP Installation

Back view of the patch panels with the UTP cable punched down
Front view of a telecommunications closet rack containing hubs, patch panels, and patch cables
Figure 58: Category 5 UTP Installation
The cable from the TC (telecommunications closet) to each workstation is typically called the horizontal cabling. The horizontal cabling in most of todays buildings is dominated by the use of category 5 UTP.
Characteristics of a Category 5 UTP Cabling System

This type of system supports todays LANs, as well as tomorrows high-speed networks. The category 5 UTP cable consists of four pairs. Category 5 termination components (patch panels and wall jacks) are required. Category 5 installation techniques are required. RJ45 connectors are used for easy connections. Two termination locations are usedone in the TC and one in the end-user location. Distances of 100 meters are supported for cabling runs. Certification testing parameters are monitored. This is a well-documented cabling system.
Category 5 UTP is installed from each users desk back to a TC. The cable is terminated at each end.
LAN Components
Fiber Optic Cable

Single Mode Fiber Optic Cable
Laser
WAN and campus
Multimode Fiber Optic Cable
Core
Cladding
Outside Jacket
LED
LAN, building backbone, and campus
Figure 59: Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber optic cabling is pervasive within the telecommunications infrastructure and for an organizations building and campus backbone connections. There are two main types of fiber optic cable used in todays networks: Cable Type
Single mode fiber optic Multimode fiber optic
Size
8/125 micron (core/cladding diameter) 62.5/125 micron (core/cladding diameter)
Typical Usage
WANs and campus environments LANs and campus environments
Figure 60: Fiber Optic Cable Types
Note
For comparison, the average human hair is 80 microns in diameter.
The advantages of using fiber optic cable include: Long distances between repeaters supported: Multimode 2,000 meters and uses LED light sources Single mode Up to 200 miles and uses laser light sources
High bandwidth capabilities More secure communication media than copper or wireless
3-13
LAN Components
Fiber Optic Backbone Cabling
20th floor
Fiber patch cable Hub/switch
Fiber Optic Cable Specifications (example)
TC (telecommunications closet) Fiber patch panels Fiber patch cable

Router/ switch
T 12 strands T Multimode T 62.5/125 micron T Tight buffer T Riser rated
1st floor ER (equipment room)
Figure 61: Fiber Optic Vertical Cabling
Typical building fiber optic backbones include the following: A fiber cable is installed from the equipment room to each telecommunications closet in the facility. Tight buffer, riser-rated cable is usually installed inside of a building (to meet building code regulations). Loose tube cable is usually installed outdoors (to perform in harsh climates). Most LANs require two or four strands for operation (per connection). Typical strand counts for the fiber include 6, 12, 24, and 48 strands.
By home running each closet back to one location, changes in the network configuration can be easily accomplished. Most organizations contract the installation of a fiber optic cabling system to a company that installs and tests the cabling system, then use staff to connect the networks with patch cables.
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LAN Components
Connectivity Devices
Concentrators, Hubs, and Repeaters
Large chassis-style hub that supports multiple network topologies, as well as internetworking capabilities
Figure 62: Concentrators, Hubs, and Repeaters
Important Terms
Concentrators, hubs, and repeaters generally mean the same thing and refer to the electronics used to connect the nodes together on a LAN.
The complexity, manageability, and number of users supported out of each of these devices continues to change. These hubs are available in a variety of sizes and features from a number of vendors. For example, hubs can be purchased as: Small stand-alone (4 to 24 ports) Medium-sized flexible configuration (up to 60 ports) Large chassis design (up to 360 ports) Typically described as concentrators The types of LANs supported The number of different LANs supported in the hub Support for network management, such as SNMP Requires additional hardware and software to be installed and configured Internetworking capabilities, such as switching and routing (supported by some vendors) Requires the proper hub backplane, additional modules, and proper configuration
Hubs also vary regarding:
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LAN Components
Bridges
Ethernet bridge 10BaseT hub
1
BRIDGE
10BaseT hub
Port 1
Port 2
B C
A B C
D E F
E D
Figure 63: Bridges
Lookup Table
Important Term
A bridge is an internetworking device used to connect networks at the data link layer (OSI layer 2).
A bridge learns the MAC address of stations connected to its ports by examining frames and placing the source MAC address of each frame in the lookup table for that port. A bridge performs one of the following functions with a frame: The bridge filters frames by examining the destination MAC address field (if the frame is intended for a device on the same port that the frame came from). The bridge forwards frames based on the destination MAC address (if the frame is intended for a device on a port other than the one that the frame entered on). The bridge forwards broadcast frames (FF FF FF FF FF FF) out each port.
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LAN Components
Bridge Advantages
Connects various topologies (Ethernet, token ring, WAN) Easy to install Higher layer protocol independent (TCP/IP, Novell, Windows NT)
Bridge Disadvantages
Does not make intelligent forwarding decisions Can be connected into loops and create broadcast storms Can cause significant latency or delay in network traffic
3-17
LAN Components
Switches
10 Mbps Ethernet collision domain
Administration LAN

Engineering LAN
Ethernet switch
Graphics LAN Server Server Router
Sales LAN
100 Mbps Ethernet collision domains

Figure 64: Switches
Important Term
A switch is an internetworking device used to connect networks at the data link layer.
A switch is an intelligent internetworking device, in the sense that it uses its lookup tables to see a frames intended destination and then makes a smart forwarding decision. It is often referred to as a fast, smart bridge. A switch can be cut-through or store-and-forward design. Todays switches can support 10, 100, and 1,000 Mbps segments. A switch can speed up a sluggish Ethernet network by reducing latency through other internetworking devices, such as bridges and routers. A switch is easy to install (just plug it in). Multiple frames can pass through the switch at the same time (as shown in Figure 64), as long as they are destined for different ports.
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LAN Components
Routers
A large router can connect many networks and support multiple protocols and interfaces.
Figure 65: Routers
Important Term
A router is an internetworking device used to connect networks together at the network layer (OSI layer 3).
Routers transmit protocols such as IP and IPX traffic through connected networks. The routers use routing protocols such as RIP and OSPF to learn about connecting routers and networks and existing paths. Routers vary in size and configuration options. Some of the factors to consider when selecting a router include: Support for multiple routing protocols Support for various LAN and WAN interfaces Ease of configuration Ease of management Number of subnets (ports needed)
Note
The Internet is a network that consists of many networks connected with routers.
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LAN Components
Network Operating Systems
Client NOS
Server
NOS NOS Client
Figure 66: Network Operating System
Important Term
A NOS (network operating system) is software that allows computers to communicate over a network.
Resources such as files, applications, and printers can be shared among many computers using a NOS. Some available NOS products on the market include: Novell NetWare Microsoft Windows NT Server Microsoft Windows for Workgroups Microsoft Windows 9x Banyan VINES AppleShare Microsoft LAN Manager IBM LAN Server UNIX Macintosh System 7 Artisoft LANtastic Compaq OpenVMS Sun NFS
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LAN Components
Network Documentation
Router
Hub
Hub
Hub Switch User Profile
Hub
T Device specs T MAC address T IP info T Cabling info T NOS info T Groups T Security info
Figure 67: Network Documentation
Network documentation is critical to operate a smooth-running network. This documentation should include: Maps of the network User profile Device location Device specifications (e.g., type, processor, memory, NIC) Media access control address IP addressing information Cable run information (e.g., run number, patch panel port) Hub information (e.g., port, segment) Networking software Groups belonged to Security equivalences
Configuration specifications (e.g., router, user, server)
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LAN Components
Protocol Analyzers
To other LANs
Hub Server
Switch
User
User
User
User
Protocol analyzer
Figure 68: Protocol Analyzers
A protocol analyzer is a tool typically used by networking professionals to troubleshoot and baseline networks. Protocol analyzers are used at various strategic points in a network. Locations, such as the input and output ports on routers, firewalls, and servers, can verify component operation. LANs, such as Ethernet, and WANs, such as Frame Relay, may have devices connected to them to perform a variety of maintenance and troubleshooting duties. Segment utilization, frame capture, and decoding are common activities done with protocol analyzers. Periodic maintenance duties include monitoring for usage, errors, and protocol distribution.
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LAN Components
LAN Baselining
Network utilization Top talkers
Error rates
Trend information
Protocol distribution
Application requirements
Figure 69: LAN Baselining
Baselining a network is a process where networking professionals monitor a network to learn about the characteristics of the network traffic. This information is vital when designing, planning, and troubleshooting networks. Baselining is typically done using one of two platforms:
Protocol Analyzer Platform

To use this, the network professional attaches a protocol analyzer to a network to obtain statistics about the traffic on the network. These statistics can include network utilization, errors, protocols, and identifying the top talkers on a network. This information is then compared to prior baselines to assist in design and planning.
SNMP Management System

SNMP is the network management protocol of TCP/IP that allows a management station access to agents in the field (e.g., hubs, switches, routers, servers, devices) for monitoring purposes. Depending on the system, tools such as packet capture and decode, traffic statistics, RMON, and protocol distribution can be obtained. Some SNMP management software examples include HP OpenView and Solstice SunNet Manager.
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LAN Components
Section Review
1.
The media access control address of a NIC is how many bytes long?
2.
What kind of cabling system do most LAN installations use for desktop connections?
3.
Which type of fiber optic cable is often installed as a building backbone for todays networks?
4.
Ethernet switches are often used to connect several Ethernet networks using media access control addresses. a. True b. False
5.
A protocol analyzer is a device attached to a network to help provide troubleshooting and baseline duties. a. True b. False
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4
CSMA/CD Overview
Section Topics
IEEE 802.3 CSMA/CD Protocol Ethernet Collision Detection Ethernet Frame Formats Ethernet Cabling Options 10 Mbps Ethernet Design 100 Mbps Ethernet Design Gigabit Ethernet Ethernet Traffic Characteristics 10/100 Mbps Ethernet Switching
4-1
CSMA/CD Overview
Section Objectives
After completing this section, you will be able to: Explain the topology options for Ethernet Explain how the CSMA/CD protocol works Decode Ethernet frames as displayed by a protocol analyzer Define Ethernet design specifications Explain 100 Mbps Ethernet operation, options, and design specifications
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CSMA/CD Overview
Ethernet Overview
Speed
10 10 Mbps Mbps
Topology
10Base5 10Base5 10Base2 10Base2 10BaseT 10BaseT 10BaseFL 10BaseFL
Topology
Thicknet Thicknet RG6 RG6 Thinnet Thinnet RG58 RG58 Cat3 Cat3 UTP UTP or or better better Multimode Multimode fiber fiber optic optic Cat5 Cat5 UTP UTP or or better better Cat3 Cat3 UTP UTP or or better better Multimode Multimode fiber fiber optic optic Multimode Multimode and and single single mode mode fiber fiber optic optic
Frame Formats
Ethernet II IEEE 802.3
IEEE 802.3 with 802.2
100 100 Mbps Mbps
100BaseTX 100BaseTX 100BaseT4 100BaseT4 100BaseFX 100BaseFX
IEEE 802.3 with SNAP

Figure 70: Ethernet Overview
1,000 1,000 Mbps Mbps
Gigabit Gigabit
Ethernet (CSMA/CD) History

Ethernet originated from a project by DIX (Digital, Intel, and Xerox). Ethernet ran its first protocol, XNX, on 10Base5 thicknet cabling. The name 10Base5 means: 10 Mbps, baseband signaling, 500 meters for the segment. Ethernet is the most popular LAN standard in the world and connects approximately 80 percent of LAN (local area network) devices. The IEEE 802.3 CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) committee now forms and administers the standards that we call Ethernet.
Note
Generally speaking, the terms Ethernet and CSMA/CD can be used interchangeably.
Many Ethernet specifications have developed over the years, covering topics such as: Cabling system options Speed upgrades Frame structure variations
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CSMA/CD Overview
IEEE 802.3 CSMA/CD Protocol

1
Busy network Idle network Ethernet hub
If device C has a frame to send, it must first listen to the network to see if it is being used. If not, it may send one frame. If the network is busy, it must try again later.
B C D Ethernet devices
Frame transmission
When device C senses that the network is idle, it sends one frame. The hub then retransmits the frame to all other devices on the collision domain.
F A B C D Ethernet devices
Figure 71: IEEE 802.3 CSMA/CD Protocol
CSMA/CD Protocol Operation

A user initiates a networking task (e.g., logs on to a server) by performing a function (e.g., clicking on the icon to load the appropriate NOS software). The redirector of the NOS (network operating system) informs the NIC (network interface card) that data needs to be sent out onto the network. If the network is sensed idle, transmit one frame. If the network is sensed busy, continue to listen until the network is sensed idle, then transmit one frame. If two stations transmit at the same time, a collision occurs, thus destroying each frame. If a collision is detected during transmission, the hub transmits a signal to notify the other stations that there has been a collision. If transmitting during a collision, wait a random amount of time, then attempt retransmission (go to step 1). This is considered a contention-based MAC (media access control) system. Whether a device has one frame to send or many, it must follow these rules.
CSMA/CD Overview
Ethernet Collision Detection

Ethernet hub
F A B C
F D
Figure 72: Ethernet Collision Detection
Ethernet devices
Collision Detection Overview

If two devices (A and D, as shown in Figure 72) detect that the network is idle and each sends a frame at the same time, a collision will occur. This collision requires each device to transmit the frame again. For proper operation of a CSMA/CD network, this collision needs to be detected by the two devices (A and D), before they are finished with the transmission of the frame. This requires adherence to the IEEE design and installation specifications. Each device (A and D) detects that the collision occurred during the transmission. A and D then attempt to retransmit the frame by following the steps on the previous page.
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CSMA/CD Overview
Ethernet Frame Formats

How should I configure the NIC for frame format?
Figure 73: Ethernet Frame Formats
Through the years, four different Ethernet frame formats have surfaced. The network environment dictates the formats chosen for configuration. The NICs on the network need to be consistently configured for proper operation. These format variations are independent of the cabling system used and speed installed (10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, and Gigabit). Format
Ethernet II
Description
The original frame format used by DIX Includes a 2-byte type field to indicate higher-layer protocol carried inside the frame The first generation of the IEEE standards committee Often referred to as raw IEEE 802.3 frame Novell was the only software vendor to use this format The 2-byte type field in Ethernet II format was replaced by the length field
IEEE 802.3
IEEE 802.3 with 802.2 LLC (logical link control) IEEE 802.3 with SNAP (Subnetwork Access Protocol)
Provides support for IEEE 802.2 LLC Similar to IEEE 802.3, but provides backwards compatibility for 802.2 to Ethernet II formats and protocols
Figure 74: Ethernet Frame Formats
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CSMA/CD Overview
Ethernet II Frame Format

MAC address MAC address 06 00 or of sending of target greater machine machine NOS information plus data Error checking
Destination address
6 bytes
Source address
6 bytes
Type
2 bytes
Data
46-1500 bytes
Frame check sequence

(CRC) 4 bytes
Indicates type of higher layer protocol or NOS. For example, 08 00 would indicate that this Ethernet II frame is carrying IP traffic.
02
60 8C 39 1F 82 Hexadecimal characters
0000 0010
Binary equivalent
Figure 75: Ethernet II Frame Format
The original frame structure, which dates back to the mid 1970s, was used by the inventors of Ethernet and is known as the Ethernet II frame structure. Since its introduction, there have been three variations introduced by the IEEE 802.3 standards committees. Figure 75 shows the original frame structure derived by the DIX group.
Note
The MAC (media access control) address, shown in Figure 75, is sometimes called the: NIC address Physical address Ethernet address Hardware address Node address
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CSMA/CD Overview
The destination address is the MAC address of the device that the frame is intended for. The source address is the MAC address of the device that sent the frame. The type field indicates the type of higher-layer protocol, such as TCP/IP or Novell. The data field contains NOS information plus data. The frame check sequence is used to detect errors during transmission.
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CSMA/CD Overview
Ethernet II Frame Format Example
File Edit Traffic Filters Display Statistics Configure Help [ ] [ ] #9 Receive time: 36.551 <0.000> packet length:110 received length:110 Ethernet: <00c01b00c3f9 > * > type: Novell<0x8137. IPX: xsum: 0xffff len: 96 tc <hops>: 0 packet type: 0 dst: 00000000/ * socket: SAP<452> src: 00000000/00c01b00c3f9 socket: 4010 SAP: operation: general response<2> type: unknown servers<f503> name: ARG-NT-351-1-SQL net: deaddead node: 000000000001/843e hops: 1
0000 0010 0020 0030 0040 0050 0060
ff 00 00 41 00 00 de
ff 60 00 52 00 00 ad
ff 00 00 47 00 00 de
ff 00 00 2d 00 00 ad
ff 00 00 4e 00 00 00
ff 00 c0 54 00 00 00
00 00 1b 2d 00 00 00
c0 00 00 33 00 00 00
1b ff c3 35 00 00 00
00 ff f9 31 00 00 01
C3 ff 40 2d 00 00 84
F9 ff 10 31 00 00 3e
81 ff 00 2d 00 00 00
37 ff 02 53 00 00 01
ff 04 f5 51 00 00
ff 52 03 4c 00 00
7 R J ARG-NT-351-1-SQL
? for help
Mode: EXAMINE 18:39:19
Ethernet Destination address frame in of frame hexadecimal (MAC address)
Source address of frame (MAC address)
Indicates type of higher-layer protocol contained in the frame
Figure 76: Ethernet II Frame Format Example
Figure 76 shows an example of an Ethernet II frame as interpreted by a protocol analyzer.
Details from Example Frame

Field Name
Destination Address Source Address Type
Hexadecimal Notation
FF FF FF FF FF FF 00 C0 1B 00 C3 F9 81 37
Indicates
Broadcast frame NIC address of the sending machine Novell traffic
Figure 77: Details from Example Frame
Other Frame Details

Protocol SAP (Service Advertising Protocol) on IPX (Internet Packet Exchange) over Ethernet II Function Broadcasting services of a Windows NT server for performing SQL (structured query language) database service
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CSMA/CD Overview
IEEE 802.3 with 802.2 Frame Format

00 00 NOS through and the Data field 05 DC Error checking
Destination address
6 bytes
Source address
6 bytes
Length
2 bytes
Data
461,500 bytes
Frame check sequence

(CRC) 4 bytes
DSAP and SSAP Indicates the length of data field 02 60 8C 4A 71 3C Hexadecimal characters 0000 0010 Binary equivalent
Figure 78: IEEE 802.3 with 802.2 Frame Format
The IEEE 802.2 LLC standard is designed to provide a common interface between a layer 2 protocol, such as Ethernet or token ring, and a layer 3 protocol, such as IP (Internet Protocol) or IPX. In Figure 78, notice the difference between the thirteenth and fourteenth bytes of the frame in comparison to the Ethernet II format. In this case, a length field indicates the length of the data field. Inside the data field are the DSAP (destination service access point) and the SSAP (source service access point), which indicate the logical source and destination of the message. Although this format is similar to Ethernet II, it is incompatible with it.
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CSMA/CD Overview
Ethernet Cabling Options

Ethernet Name
10Base5 10Base2 10BaseT 10BaseFL 100BaseTX 100BaseT4 100BaseFX Multimode fiber optic
Cable Specifications
50-ohm, thick coaxial (thicknet) 50-ohm, RG-58 A/U (thinnet) Cat3 UTP (or better) Multimode fiber optic Cat5 UTP Cat3 UTP (or better) Depends on design: Multiple fiber connections One fiber connection Switch-to-switch half duplex Switch-to-switch full duplex
Distance Supported
500 meters 185 meters 100 meters 2,000 meters 100 meters 100 meters 136 meters 160 meters 412 meters 2,000 meters for each segment Depends Depends Depends
Topology
Bus Bus Star Star Star Star Star Star Star Star Star Star Star
Gigabit Ethernet
Single mode fiber optic Multimode fiber optic Category 5, 5e, 6, and 7 UTP
Figure 79: Ethernet Cabling Options
Note
Different cabling distances are allowed based on the type of connections used for the various Ethernet topologies available today.
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CSMA/CD Overview
10Base5 Ethernet
Workstation
NIC
DB-15 connector Tap 50-ohm
AUI cable
MAU 50-ohm
Terminator
50-ohm thicknet coaxial cable
Grounding
Figure 80: 10Base5 Ethernet
10Base5 (thicknet) was the original Ethernet cabling specification and is configured in a bus topology. 10Base5 has been replaced in most installations in favor of 10BaseT, due to difficulty with LAN failures and problems in troubleshooting.
Characteristics of 10Base5 Cabling

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10Base5 uses a large coaxial cable. Stations are attached to the cable using a vampire tap. A transceiver or MAU (medium attachment unit) is mounted on the vampire tap. An AUI (attachment unit interface) cable runs from the transceiver to the station of the LAN. Coaxial cable is installed in a physical bus topology, with each end terminated with a 50-ohm terminator. One end should be grounded. 10Base5 can have up to 100 stations tapped into a cable that may be up to 500 meters long. One break in the cabling system causes total LAN failure.
CSMA/CD Overview
10Base2 Ethernet
Workstation
NIC
50-ohm 50ohm Terminator 50-ohm coaxial cable BNC T-connector Grounding

Figure 81: 10Base2 Ethernet
10Base2 Ethernet (thinnet) is a low-cost solution that uses an easy-to-use coaxial cable to connect stations. 10Base2 was a popular choice in the 1980s for Ethernet cabling and is still a viable option for small LANs.
Characteristics of 10Base2 Cabling

10Base2 uses RG58 cable. BNC connectors and BNC T-connectors are used. Cabling is configured in bus topology. Each end of the cable is terminated with a 50-ohm terminator to match the impedance of the cable. A repeater is not required, although one can be used to extend distances. Up to 30 stations can be attached. Cabling cannot exceed 185 meters (607 feet) in total length for the segment.
Disadvantages
A single cable fault causes total LAN failure. Troubleshooting can be difficult. It can be difficult to document.
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CSMA/CD Overview
10BaseT Ethernet
Category 35 UTP cable 10BaseT NIC NIC
10BaseT hub
Station cable
Patch cable
Patch panel Wall jack
Figure 82: 10BaseT Ethernet
10BaseT Ethernet is the most popular of the Ethernet cabling options. Since its introduction in 1987, it has gained wide acceptance throughout the LAN community.
Characteristics of 10BaseT Cabling

UTP (unshielded twisted pair) cabling (Category 3 or higher) is installed. A hub and NIC are used to connect devices. 10BaseT has a 100-meter distance limitation. RJ-45 connectors are used on the hubs and NICs. Pins 1, 2, 3 and 6 are used on the RJ-45 connectors. If one cable breaks, only that connection is affected. Patch panels and wall jacks are used to facilitate moves, additions, or changes.
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CSMA/CD Overview
Ethernet Repeaters/Hubs/Concentrators
Large hub with several 10BaseT, 10BaseFL, and 100BaseFX boards installed
Figure 83: Ethernet Repeaters/Hubs/Concentrators
Ethernet hubs are used to connect users with UTP cable to 10BaseT and 100BaseT networks. A hub can also be used to extend the physical distances by containing fiber optic ports.
Characteristics
Hubs connect devices using various media options. The hub receives the bit stream from the transmitting device. Hubs examine the incoming bit stream, resynchronize each bit, and flood the bit stream to the other ports on the collision domain at 100 percent strength. Hubs are available in various sizes, ports supported, and topologies.
Some hubs can be configured to segment users into several collision domains on the same hubs. The hub shown in Figure 83 can support twelve 10 Mbps collision domains and twelve 100 Mbps collision domains.
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CSMA/CD Overview
Ethernet Transceivers
Transceiver
Figure 84: Ethernet Transceivers
Ethernet transceivers are used to provide connections that mix different physical topologies. Figure 84 shows a transceiver connecting a 10BaseT cable to an AUI cable or port.
Characteristics
Transceivers connect various Ethernet cabling topologies. Transceivers do not act as repeaters or signal amplifiers. Vendor specifications for connecting stations using a transceiver must be followed. Other popular transceiver implementations include fiber optic to AUI. The reason for this is that many routers have AUI ports. Transceivers normally need to have SQE (Signal Quality Error or heartbeat) turned off in non-DEC LANs.
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CSMA/CD Overview
10BaseFL
T R
Fiber optic cable
T R
T = Transmit port R = Receive port

Figure 85: 10BaseFL
10BaseFL (fiber link) is the Ethernet standard for using fiber optic cabling. 10BaseFL can be used to connect end users or as a backbone connection. 10BaseFL has the following characteristics: Uses duplex connections (two strands of fiber) Uses 62.5 /125 micron multimode fiber optic cable Supports distances of 2,000 meters Requires fiber optic electronic components at each end Connects the transmit port of one device to the receive port of the other component on both ends
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CSMA/CD Overview
10 Mbps Ethernet Design

1
Hub 1 User A Hub 4 User B
10BaseT connections
2
Hub 2 User D
4
Hub 3
User C
Maximum extent of a single collision domain

Figure 86: 10 Mbps Design
The 5-4-3 Rule

Ethernet hubs may be connected to each other to extend distances or add ports by following the IEEE 802.3 5-4-3 rule, which states: In a worst-case scenario, within a single collision domain, you may extend the network to include five Ethernet segments, which pass through four hubs between two stations. Of the five segments, up to three of the segments may be populated with users. This design limitation is required for the CSMA/CD protocol to operate properly. It takes into account the minimum frame size, velocity of propagation of signals on a given cabling system, and hub delay incurred, so that collisions that occur on the network are sensed. The data will then be re-sent. A bridge/router/switch/gateway connection separates collision domains, thus restarting the 5-4-3 rule.
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CSMA/CD Overview
100 Mbps Ethernet Design

User 100 Mbps Ethernet hub
100 Mbps connections
100 Mbps Ethernet hub
Ethernet switch
User
Figure 87: 100Mbps Ethernet Design Considerations
Fast Ethernet 2-1 Rule

100 Mbps Ethernet installations do not have the same design rules as 10 Mbps Ethernet. 10 Mbps Ethernet allows several connections between hubs within the same collision domain. 100 Mbps Ethernet does not allow this flexibility. Essentially, the hub must be connected to an internetworking device, such as a switch or router (thus, the name, the 2-1 Rule). The reason for this change is the timing requirement for the detection of a collision within a domain. Since the signaling speed has been increased by a factor of 10 from 10 Mbps Ethernet, based on the same frame size, cable propagation, and hub delay, the design change is mandated. There are three 100 Mbps Ethernet standards: 100BaseTX (Category 5 UTP) 100BaseT4 (Category 3 UTP) 100BaseFX (fiber optic cable)
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CSMA/CD Overview
100BaseTX
Cat5 UTP cable installation
NIC
Wall jack 100BaseTX hub
100BaseTX NIC
Patch panel
Figure 88: 100BaseTX
In the last few years, it has become common for bandwidth-hungry LANs to upgrade 10BaseT Ethernet LANs to 100BaseTX. Characteristics of 100BaseTX include: Uses same media access control as 10 Mbps Ethernet Uses same frame structures as 10 Mbps Ethernet Requires a hub port and NIC, both of which must be 100BaseTX compliant Can operate in full duplex mode in certain situations (i.e., from a switch to a server) Requires Category 5 UTP installation, and has a 100-meter distance limitation
Devices that have high bandwidth requirements, including engineering and imaging networks, are prime candidates for 100BaseTX upgrades.
Caution
Design rules have changed from 10 Mbps Ethernet. In 100 Mbps Ethernet, the hub should be connected to a switch or router for interconnection to other LANs. Do not connect hubs unless using a vendor proprietary cascading configuration.
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CSMA/CD Overview
100BaseT4
Cat3 UTP cable installation
NIC
Wall jack 100BaseT4 hub
100BaseT4 NIC
Patch panel
Figure 89: 100BaseT4
Another standard for running 100 Mbps Ethernet has been devised to allow installations that do not comply with Category 5 UTP cabling specifications. This standard, 100BaseT4, will operate using a Category 3 UTP installation or better. However, there are some significant differences with the signaling: Uses all four pairs of cabling systems Operates using quartet signaling, allowing 100 Mbps transmission to overcome cabling problems such as NEXT (near-end crosstalk) Requires 100BaseT4 hub port and NIC to operate Has low market share (compared to 100BaseTX) Would be used primarily in situations where replacement of Category 3 UTP would be very costly
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CSMA/CD Overview
100BaseFX 100 Mbps Ethernet Building Backbone

100 Mbps Ethernet switch
2 strands of multimode fiber optic cable
100BaseFX port
100BaseFX port
Connections to 100BaseTX users

Figure 90: 100BaseFX 100 Mbps Ethernet Building Backbone
Characteristics
100BaseFX is often used to connect 100BaseTX LANs to a switch or router. 100BaseFX uses a duplex fiber optic connection (multimode fiber optic cable) and supports a variety of distances based on circumstances. 100BaseFX usually uses SC connectors. The hub in Figure 90 would need to be a Class I Fast Ethernet repeater (supports multiple physical media100BaseTX and 100BaseFX).
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CSMA/CD Overview
Gigabit Ethernet
Gigabit switch
Connections to other switches/ routers 1 Gbps
Gigabit switch
Connections to other switches/ routers
100 Mbps switch

100 Mbps 100 Mbps
100 Mbps switch
Server
Server
Server
Server
Figure 91: Gigabit Ethernet
The latest implementation of Ethernet is Gigabit Ethernet.
Characteristics
The IEEE 802.3z working group is preparing the standards for implementation. Early deployments of Gigabit Ethernet will be used to connect 100 Mbps and Gigabit Ethernet switches. The Gigabit Ethernet connection provides a fat pipe for backbone connectivity. Servers are also connected via Gigabit Ethernet. Gigabit Ethernet will initially be installed using fiber optic cable and have distance limitations of 550 meters on multimode cable and 3 km on single mode cable. UTP cable will be used in the future.
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CSMA/CD Overview
Ethernet Traffic Characteristics

Probability of collision or busy signal during transmission within a collision domain
High
Medium
OK
Trouble ahead
DANGER ZONE
Low 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Average utilization 80 90 100
Figure 92: Ethernet Traffic Characteristics
Ethernet was originally designed to handle standard office automation applications. As new bandwidth-intensive applications emerge, some LANs are beginning to perform sluggishly. Characteristics of Ethernet traffic include: Works best at low-to-medium utilization (0 to 10 percent average utilization) Has poor response times at high data rates (15 to 35 percent average utilization) Is not guaranteed to operate properly with usage of above 35 percent Could have trouble with bandwidth-intensive applications
Because of these and other limitations, networking professionals attempt to limit the number of users per collision domain. Using protocol analyzers and other SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) systems, a networking professional can obtain information such as the average utilization.
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CSMA/CD Overview
Ethernet Errors
Ethernet Errors
Collisions Collisions Runt Runt frames frames Jabber Jabber frames frames CRC CRC Late Late collisions collisions
Description
Two Two or or more more stations stations transmit transmit at at the the same same time time Illegally Illegally short short frames frames (less (less than than 64 64 bytes) bytes) Illegally Illegally long long frames frames (greater (greater than than 1,518 1,518 bytes) bytes) Error Error caused caused by by noise noise on on cable cable or or NIC NIC Collisions Collisions not not detected detected within within 51.2 51.2 microseconds microseconds (on (on a 10 10 Mbps Mbps Ethernet Ethernet LAN) LAN)
Figure 93: Ethernet Errors
Figure 93 shows some of the common errors that can occur on Ethernet LANs. Normally, a protocol analyzer or SNMP system is needed to obtain this information.
4-25
CSMA/CD Overview
10/100 Mbps Ethernet Switching

10/100 Mbps Ethernet switch

10 Mbps
Other LANs
Router
100 Mbps full duplex 100 Mbps full duplex
WAN
Server
Server
Figure 94: 10/100 Mbps Ethernet Switching
Ethernet switches are being deployed in many companies. The main reasons for this include: The Ethernet switch (cut-through design) reduces latency between networks. Some of the switches can support both 10 Mbps and 100 Mbps Ethernet segments. Most Ethernet switches can be configured for full-duplex operation for server and single device connections.
4-26
CSMA/CD Overview
Section Review
1.
List three 10 Mbps Ethernet cabling topologies.
2.
The CSMA/CD protocol is a contention-based method. a. True b. False
3. 4.
The MAC address in Ethernet is ___________ bytes long. The 5-4-3 rule defines the extent of a single Ethernet collision domain. a. True b. False
5.
100BaseTX is the most common form of Fast Ethernet installed to connect end devices. a. True b. False
4-27
4-28
5
Section Topics
NOS Overview The Client/Server Concept File Service Print Service Mail Service Communications Service Database Service Directory/Security Services NOS Protocol Comparison
5-1
Section Objectives
After completing this section, you will be able to: List common services offered by a network operating system Explain the difference between peer-to-peer and dedicated client/server network operating systems List various NOS (network operating system) vendors and products currently available
5-2
NOS Overview
User User User User User
Hub
Communications server Print server
Database server File server Printer Mail server
To WAN, other LANs and servers

Figure 95: NOS Overview
The NOS (network operating system) is software that makes LAN (local area network) and WAN (wide area network) communication easy to use and easy to administer. A NOS allows users to interface with the LAN transparently. A NOS commonly offers the following services: File service Print service Mail service Communications service Database service Directory and security services
The NOS determines if data is intended for the users machine or if it needs to be redirected out onto the network by NOS client software. The NOS implements client software for the user, allowing access to servers on the network.
5-3
The Client/Server Concept

Client
Hub
Server
Figure 96: The Client/Server Concept
The client/server method specifies how two pieces of software can communicate over a network. Since this involves the higher layers of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model, it is possible for the client and server to be on opposite ends of a large internetwork, such as the Internet. For clarity, we often show client computers and server computers, but since these clients and servers are software, several client software modules or several server software modules, or both, may be active in a single computer. Client software initiates requests from servers. Servers respond and attempt to satisfy the requests. The server might then act as a client to request services from additional servers.
Multiple servers involved in satisfying a single request are known as distributed services.
5-4
The Dedicated Client/Server Network Environment

Client Client Client Client Client
Hub
Printer Dedicated mail server
Dedicated file server
Dedicated print server

Figure 97: Client/Server Network Environment
A dedicated client/server network environment is one that has the following characteristics: Servers are loaded with dedicated server software. Servers are configured for specific needs. User accounts and privileges are configured on the servers. Client software is installed and configured on the user machines. The primary purpose of the server operating system is to service requests from client workstations. Clients do not service other clients. There is heavy use of cache memory on the server to speed user data access.
Examples of dedicated client/server network environments include NetWare, Windows NT Server, and IBM LAN Server.
5-5
The Peer-to-Peer Client/Server Network Environment

Client/ server Client/ server Client/ server
Hub
Client/ server Client/ server
Client/ server
Figure 98: Peer-to-Peer Network Environment
A peer-to-peer NOS is one in which all workstations share their resources, such as hard drives and printers, with all the other workstations on the network. Thus, the peer-to-peer operating system splits its time between servicing the workstation on which it is loaded and servicing requests from other workstations. Peer-to-peer networks should be small because: The operating system is not optimized to handle multiple simultaneous requests efficiently in its server role. The end-user clients performance would be impaired otherwise. Issues such as security, data backups, and data ownership may be compromised in a large peer-to-peer network.
Examples of peer-to-peer client/server network environments include Microsoft Workgroups, Macintosh file sharing, and some versions of UNIX.
5-6
File Service
File request
Client
Copy of file provided
File server
Figure 99: File Service
File service allows users to access and manipulate distant disk resources as if they were local to their machine. Characteristics of file service include: Servers are loaded with the files, accounts and rights for users or groups of users. The server provides a shareable virtual disk for users. File mapping schemes are implemented to provide the virtualness of the filesfiles are made to look like the users native file system. Security systems are installed and configured to provide the needed protection for the files. Redirector or shell software located on users machines transparently activates the file service client software.
For example, editing a shared spreadsheet file stored on a server involves file service.
5-7
Print Service
Print server Color inkjet printer Hub Print server
Laser printer
Client Client
Client
Figure 100: Print Service
Print service allows users to send jobs to virtual printers on the network. Print servers can be set up in a variety of manners based on the network requirements. Characteristics of print service include: Print service connects a printer to a print server, which is in turn connected to the network. Documents are printed to the print server which places the job into a queue. Many users can share many printers on the network. Redirector software allows users to print to local printers as well.
5-8
Mail Service
Client B Client A Client C Client D Client E
Client C e-mail
Hub To other networks and mail servers
Client E e-mail E-mail server
Figure 101: Mail Service
Mail service allows you to send and receive mail at any time (you dont have to be at your computer). Most mail service operates as follows: Mail servers are set up containing the names and location of users. The servers receive and forward mail to the server closest to the intended end user. The mail is then stored until the user checks the mail with mail client software. Some systems require a mail gateway to translate between formats (i.e., different vendor products). Some systems encrypt the messages, while others do not.
5-9
Communications Service
Internal routing between networks performed by NOS
NIC NIC
Server
Ethernet engineering LAN Token ring accounting LAN
Figure 102: Communications Service
Most NOS products offer communications services to perform one or more of the following functions: Service
Routing Gateway Remote access
Function
Routes data based on layer 3 (network) addressing Converts between dissimilar networking or applications protocols Provides an interface to dial-in users with technologies like POTS (plain old telephone service) and ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
Figure 103: Communications Services
Usually, the communications service is transparent to the end users.
5-10
Database Service
Client
n SQL query
SQL server
Client
o SQL
Client
response
Figure 104: Database Service
Many network operating systems provide database services. Most of these databases are relational databases accessed by SQL (structured query language). Characteristics of database service include: Client software generates queries to the database server in SQL. The server processes the SQL query, returning answers rather than raw data. Object-oriented Hypertext Hierarchal Network model
Other types of database servers include:
Most NOS database services invoke security and reliability schemes.
For example, using a search engine on the Internet generates a database query.
5-11
Directory/Security Services
Client
Directory server
Hub
Hub
Router
Client
Directory server
Figure 105: Directory/Security Services
Many NOS products provide directory services. A directory service provides the following functions: It organizes all resources into a structured listing, including possibly thousands of users and servers. It organizes and enforces security across the entire directory structure. Users can log in to the network, rather than accessing individual servers. Directory services are distributed across the enterprise automatically.
For example, NetWare Directory Service can be used to control access to resources in an ITU-T X.500-like hierarchy.
5-12
NOS Protocol Comparison

UNIX NetWare NetWare application TCP/IP Applications AppleTalk stack Windows NT Server Windows NT application Other applications AppleShare AppleShare application AppleShare file service SMB AppleTalk stack ATFP ATSP TCP or UDP IP TP UNIX application
OSI
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
TCP or UDP IP NFS, TCP/IP, proprietary applications
NCP
AppleTalk stack
NetBIOS NetBEUI TCP or UDP IP SPX
TCP or UDP IP
SPX
IPX
IPX
DDP
Figure 106: NOS Protocol Comparison
Figure 106 shows a comparison between several network operating systems and their relationship to the OSI Model. Notice how each stack contains support for TCP/IP.
Note
The OSI Model to specific product comparison may show discrepencies in protocols, especially layers 3, 4, and 5.
5-13
Typical UNIX Protocol Structure

OSI
UNIX applications RPC, SNMP, BOOTP, NIS, DNS UDP IP
DoD
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
TCP FTP SMTP Telnet RIP
NFS
Processes, applications
Host-to-host Internet
Network access
Figure 107: Typical UNIX Protocol Structure
Common implementations of UNIX, such as Sun Solaris, SCO UNIX, IBM AIX, and Linux have protocol structures similar to Figure 107. They often have proprietary elements, but usually include the following applications protocols: Applications Protocol
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) Telnet RIP (Routing Information Protocol) RPC (Remote Procedure Call) SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) BOOTP NIS (Network Information Service) DNS (Domain Name Service) NFS (Network File System)
Usage
File transfer Internet e-mail Remote terminal access Basic routing information Application building Centralized network management system Server image booting Service locator Domain name locator Standard file service
Figure 108: Applications Protocols
5-14
Novell NetWare Protocol Structure

OSI
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
TCP or UDP IP IPX NFS RIP SAP NCP
NDS
AppleShare
AppleTalk stack SPX DDP
Figure 109: Novell NetWare Protocol Structure
Figure 109 shows the Novell protocol suite and its relationship to the OSI layers. This diagram highlights the fact that many architectural characteristics of protocol stacks exactly match those of the OSI reference model, but some do not. For example, it is typical that there is a one-to-one correspondence in the physical, data link, and network layers. However, at higher layers, different protocols often combine functions of the application, presentation, session, and transport layers. The proprietary NCP (NetWare Core Protocol) is a good example of this.
Note
Modern versions of NetWare allow the use of IPX (Internet Packet Exchange) or IP (Internet Protocol) as Layer 3 protocols.
5-15
AppleTalk protocols are provided to allow seamless access by Macintosh users, while NFS protocols allow access by UNIX users. Aside from print, file, mail, and routing services, NetWare provides the highly sophisticated NetWare directory services, allowing an enterprise-scale distributed security and control system. NCP is used to implement file, print, and security services. SAP (Service Advertising Protocol) is used to find network services.
5-16
Windows NT Protocol Structure

OSI
7
SMB
AppleShare Other applications AppleTalk stack
6 5 4 3 2 1
NetBIOS TCP or UDP IP SPX NetBEUI IPX
DDP
Figure 110: Windows NT Protocol Structure
Microsoft Windows NT is designed to use TCP/IP, IPX/SPX, or NetBEUI as its transports protocols. NetBEUI (NetBIOS Extended User Interface), the LAN manager protocol, was designed only for a local network, and hence includes no routable address. It is still common in workgroup applications. NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System) is a name-based transport system, developed by IBM, and widely used in the industry. SMB (server message block) is a protocol to implement the Microsoft file service. Windows NT Server organizes users and services into multiple domains for security and access.
5-17
AppleShare Protocol Structure

OSI OSI
AppleShare file server AppleShare AppleShare server fileprint server AppleS print s
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
7 6
AppleTalk Data Stream 5 Protocol Routing Table Maintenance 4 Protocol Zone AppleTalk Information Data Stream Protocol Protocol
AppleTalk AppleTalk PostScript Filing Protocol Filing Protocol AppleTalk Zone Session Information Protocol Protocol
PostS
AppleTalk Printer Access Printer A Session Protocol Proto Protocol AppleTalk Name Binding Transaction Protocol Protocol Name B Proto
AppleTalk Routing Table AppleTalk AppleTalk Transaction Maintenance Echo Protocol Echo Protocol Protocol Protocol
TCP or UDP Datagram Delivery Protocol (DDP) Datagram Delivery Protocol (DDP) IP 3
TCP or IP
2 1
TokenTalk Link Access Protocol TokenTalk hardware
EtherTalk TokenTalk Link Access Link Access Protocol Protocol EtherTalk TokenTalk hardware hardware
LocalTalk EtherTalk Link Access Link Access Protocol Protocol LocalTalk EtherTalk hardware hardware
LocalTalk Link Access Protocol LocalTalk hardware
Figure 111: AppleShare Protocol Structure
AppleShare is the Apple Corporations full-featured operating system. The included protocol stack is called AppleTalk. It is designed to handle Ethernet, token ring, or its own access technique known as LocalTalk. AppleTalk has a friendly user interface with good file transfer, e-mail, record sharing, and security components built in. AppleShare is not only usable on a Macintosh OS platform, but can be hosted on IBM AIX, NetWare, or Windows NT.
5-18
Other NOSs
Other network operating systems include: Compaq OpenVMS (formerly Digital) Incorporating DECnet, OSI, and TCP/IP Based on OS/2 Based on UNIX IBM LAN Server Banyan VINES Artisoft LANtastic Netscape server products
5-19
Section Review
1.
List three common services offered by a NOS.
2.
Peer-to-peer NOSs are used to set up dedicated servers and clients on a network. a. True b. False
3.
TCP/IP support is offered by most NOS products. a. True b. False
5-20
6
TCP/IP Overview
Section Topics
TCP/IP Overview The TCP/IP Protocol Suite Network Access Layer Internet Layer Subnetting Default Gateway Overview IP Version 6 Host-to-Host Layer Process Layer Applications
6-1
TCP/IP Overview
Section Objectives
After completing this section, you will be able to: Explain the components of the TCP/IP protocol stack Describe IP addressing and subnetting Explain the role of TCP in a transmission Use TCP/IP applications such as FTP and Telnet Use pings to test reachability on a network
6-2
TCP/IP Overview
TCP/IP Overview
TCP/IP
Figure 112: TCP/IP Overview
TCP/IP is a communications protocol that provides many different networking services. TCP/IP roots trace back to the U.S. Governments ARPA (Advanced Research Projects Agency) as early as 1969. The TCP/IP Internet protocol suite is formed from two standards: the TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and the IP (Internet Protocol), as adopted by the DoD (U.S. Department of Defense) in 1982. TCP/IP is the foundation of the Internet as we know it today. These protocols are continually changing and evolving to support the needs of the user community. TCP/IP contains many user applications, including services for: Electronic mail (SMTP) Remote login (Telnet) File transfer (FTP)
The organization responsible for TCP/IP standards is the IAB (Internet Architecture Board). The IAB consists of two main groups: The IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force) The IRTF (Internet Research Task Force)
6-3
TCP/IP Overview
The TCP/IP Protocol Suite

OSI TCP/IP Layers
7
Process layer
6 5
Host-to-host layer
4 3 2 1
Internet layer
Network access layer

Figure 113: The TCP/IP Protocol Suite
The TCP/IP protocol suite consists of four layers: Network access layer Provides physical delivery of IP packets via frames or cells Internet layer Contains the information so that data can be routed through an IP network Host-to-host layer Services the process layer and Internet layer to handle reliability and session aspects of the transmission Process layer Application support
TCP/IP is the dominant communications protocol used today. It provides the common denominator to allow many different types of devices to communicate over a network and support a wide variety of applications.
6-4
TCP/IP Overview
Network Access Layer

OSI TCP/IP Protocols TCP/IP Layers
7
FTP SMTP Telnet HTTP DNS SNMP TFTP BootP
Process layer
6 5
TCP
Connection-oriented
UDP
Connectionless-oriented
4 3 2 1
IP
Host-to-host layer
Internet layer
LAN/WAN
Ethernet, token ring, ATM, Frame Relay, FDDI, other
Figure 114: Network Access Layer
TCP/IP relies on a physical network to deliver its packets. This network could be a LAN, a MAN, or a WAN. The network access layer has the following characteristics: It processes data down from the TCP/IP stack to build and send frames or cells out to the network. It sends the frames or cells over the physical network, one bit at a time. It processes data up to the TCP/IP stack on the receiver side.
Examples include Ethernet, ATM, and Frame Relay.
6-5
TCP/IP Overview
Internet Layer
7
Process layer
6 5
TCP
Connection-oriented
UDP
4
IP
Host-to-host layer
3 2 1
ICMP
ARP
RARP
EGP
OSPF
Internet layer
LAN/WAN
Ethernet, token ring, ATM, frame relay, FDDI, other

Figure 115: Internet Layer
The Internet layer handles several jobs in the networking process. Network addressing, routing information, data fragmentation, and reassembly are the main functions performed in the Internet layer with TCP/IP. The information contained in the IP header is used to route data through networks. Acronym
IP ICMP ARP RARP OSPF EGP
Protocol
Internet Protocol Internet Control Message Protocol Address Resolution Protocol Reverse Address Resolution Protocol Open Shortest Path First Exterior Gateway Protocol
Description
Addressing, fragmentation, routing Troubleshooting tool (ping) Hardware addressing determination Software configuration delivery Routing protocol Routing protocol
Figure 116: Internet Layer
6-6
TCP/IP Overview
The IP Version 4 Header

4 bits 4 bits 3 bits 5 bits 2 bytes 2 bytes 2 bytes 1 1 byte byte 2 bytes 4 bytes 4 bytes
IP header length
Type of service
Fragmentation
Total IP length
Precedence
Time to live
Datagram ID number
IP header checksum
IP version
Source IP address
Figure 117: The IP Version 4 Header
IP Header Fields
Header
IP version IP header length Precedence Type of service Total IP length Datagram ID number Fragmentation
Description
The version of IP that created the header (current version is 4) The IP header length as a number of 32-bit data words The IP routers in the network sense the importance of the data (000 = routine, 001 = priority) Bits used to describe routing service requested by each datagram (The bits include delay, throughput, reliability, and cost.) The total length of the datagram, including IP header and all data behind it The unique ID number of each datagram sent by the host The IP process of dividing a data package, which is too large for the network that will be transmitting the information (The bits in the field are used to chop up the data and then put it back together.) The number of seconds that the datagram can live, before it must be delivered or discarded The ID of the higher layer protocol (e.g., TCP ID = 6, UDP ID = 17) Error checking in the IP header The 32-bit Internet address of the transmitting host The 32-bit Internet address of the target host
Figure 118: IP Header Fields
Time to live Protocol IP header checksum Source IP address Target IP address
Target IP address 6-7
Protocol
TCP/IP Overview
IP Addressing
1126 Network size
Class A
Huge
128191 0255
Class B
H
0255
Big
192223 0255
Class C
Small
N = Network portion of the address (Internet unique) H = Host portion of the address Figure 119: IP Addressing
IP addressing is in a dotted decimal notation format. The address is four decimal numbers separated by decimal points. Each decimal number is one byte in length. The decimal numbers are in the range 0255. IP addresses consist of two parts:
6-8
The network portion Internet administered (cannot be modified) The host portion Locally administered (can be modified) Addresses are assigned to one of three classes: A, B, or C. Class D is reserved for multicast addresses. Class E is reserved for experimentation. Address 127.0.0.0 is used for IP loopback testing. Class A 10.0.0.0 Class B 172.16.0.0 through 172.31.0.0 Class C 192.168.0.0 through 192.168.255.0
Address assignment characteristics include:
Addresses reserved for private addresses are:
TCP/IP Overview
Binary Numbers
IP address #.#.#.#
8 bits xxxxxxxx
x 128
x 64
x 32
x 16
x 8
x 4
x 2
x 1
Figure 120: Binary Numbers
Computers encode data using a binary numbering system of 1s and 0s. The computer that sends a data packet places its own IP address in the source address portion of the packet. It does this by using the proper sequence of 1s and 0s. The xs shown below indicate a bit in the 32-bit address. xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx.xxxxxxxx Binary digits are either a 1 or 0. Keeping this in mind, look at the options for using the bits. Counting from right to left, each time that you add a bit, you have doubled the number of possible combinations. For example, the IP address 128.10.2.30 would have a 32-bit address of: 10000000 00001010 00000010 00011110
Binary Equations
1. What is the binary equivalent for the address 135.87.171.18?
2.
What is the binary equivalent for the number 255.255.255.255?
6-9
TCP/IP Overview
Subnetting
172.20.2.0 Subnet mask 255.255.255.0
Network
Subnet
172.20.1.0 Subnet mask 255.255.255.0
Subnet
Subnet
172.20.3.0 Subnet mask 255.255.255.0
Router
Subnet
172.20.5.0 Subnet mask 255.255.255.0
Subnet
172.20.4.0 Subnet mask 255.255.255.0
Figure 121: Subnetting
Important Term
A subnet is a network that is a portion of a larger network, connected by routers.
An organization normally creates subnets for a combination of reasons: High traffic volume with many devices (performance problems) Sensitive data (security issues) Connectivity issues (sites in different floors, buildings, cities, states, or countries) Connecting dissimilar media protocols (Ethernet, token ring, FDDI, Frame Relay)
Subnetting is accomplished by applying a subnet mask based on the specific needs of the networking environment. The subnet mask identifies which bits are used to indicate the different portions of the address: network, subnet, and host. Routers cannot make routing decisions until the address is qualified by extending the mask field.
TCP/IP Overview
Subnet Mask Overview

172.20.1.45 172.20.1.17 172.20.3.9 172.20.3.14
Subnet 172.20.1.x Subnet Subnet

Packet
Subnet 172.20.3.x
Subnet
Subnet
Destination IP address 172.20.2.28 Source IP address 172.20.1.45 Subnet mask 255.255.255.0
Subnet Subnet
C
172.20.2.28
Subnet 172.20.2.x
Figure 122: Subnet Mask Overview
172.20.2.80
Creating subnets can be a tricky task, because it requires knowledge of the current networking environment and future networking requirements. Characteristics of a subnet mask include: The subnet mask is a separate TCP/IP parameter configured to meet the needs of a specific environment. The mask is constructed by placing a 1 in any bit that is part of the network or subnetwork portion of the address. The mask tells the network devices which part of the IP address indicates what, if any, subnets were created. This is based on the address classification: Class A, B, or C. The mask indicates how many of the host bits have been used for subnetting. The mask needs to be configured on all hosts on the network for proper operation. Additionally, the IP address and default gateway need to be configured for proper operation. It must also be noted that when constructing a subnet mask, the planner should not use the bits that are all 0s or all 1s for either the subnet-significant portion or the host-significant portion.
TCP/IP Overview
Class A Subnetting
T Which bits are used for subnetting?

255.
N
Answer
Internet-unique portion
Look at the subnet mask that has been applied.

Figure 123: Class A Subnetting
If no subnets are introduced, the result is one network with 16,777,214 available host addresses and a subnet mask of 255.0.0.0.
Subnet Mask Options Class A Address

Subnets
2 6 14 30 62 126 254 510 1,022 2,046 4,094 8,190 16,382 32,766 65,536 131,070 262,142 524,286 1,048,574 2,097,150 4,194,302
Hosts
4,194,302 2,097,150 1,048,574 524,286 262,142 131,070 65,536 32,766 16,382 8,190 4,094 2,046 1,022 510 254 126 62 30 14 6 2
Class A Mask
255.192.0.0 255.224.0.0 255.240.0.0 255.248.0.0 255.252.0.0 255.254.0.0 255.255.0.0 255.255.128.0 255.255.192.0 255.255.224.0 255.255.240.0 255.255.248.0 255.255.252.0 255.255.254.0 255.255.255.0 255.255.255.128 255.255.255.192 255.255.255.224 255.255.255.240 255.255.255.248 255.255.255.252
Subnet Bits
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
Figure 124: Subnet Mask Options Class A Address
6-12
TCP/IP Overview
Class B Subnetting
Which bits are used for subnetting?

255. 255.
N
Answer

Figure 125: Class B Subnetting
If no subnets are introduced, the result is one network with 65,536 available host addresses and a subnet mask of 255.255.0.0.
Subnet Mask Options Class B Address

Subnets
2 6 14 30 62 126 254 510 1,022 2,046 4,094 8,190 16,382
Hosts
16,382 8,190 4,094 2,046 1,022 510 254 126 62 30 14 6 2
Class B Mask
255.255.192.0 255.255.224.0 255.255.240.0 255.255.248.0 255.255.252.0 255.255.254.0 255.255.255.0 255.255.255.128 255.255.255.192 255.255.255.224 255.255.255.240 255.255.255.248 255.255.255.252
Subnet Bits
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Figure 126: Subnet Mask Options Class B Address
6-13
TCP/IP Overview
Class C Subnetting
Which bits are used for subnetting?

255. 255. 255.
N
Answer

Figure 127: Class C Subnetting
If no subnets are introduced, the result is one network with 254 available host addresses and a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0.
Subnet Mask Options Class C Address

Subnets
2 6 14 30 62
Hosts
62 30 14 6 2
Class C Mask
255.255.255.192 255.255.255.224 255.255.255.240 255.255.255.248 255.255.255.252
Subnet Bits
2 3 4 5 6
Figure 128: Subnet Mask Options Class C Address
6-14
TCP/IP Overview
Subnet Mask Examples

Example 1: Class A Subnet Mask Configuration and Meaning
IP Address Subnet Mask Mask Bit Representation Bit Meaning N = Network S = Subnet 10.104.92.72 255.255.255.0 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 NNNNNNNN.SSSSSSSS.SSSSSSSS.HHHHHHHH H = Host
Figure 129: Class A Subnet Mask Example
Because this is a Class A address, the first 8 bits are the Internet-unique part of the address. The network administrator has chosen the mask of 255.255.255.0, indicating that the next 16 bits are to be used to create up to 65,536 subnets with up to 254 available hosts (interfaces) on each subnet.
Example 2: Class B Subnet Mask Configuration and Meaning

IP Address Subnet Mask Mask Bit Representation Bit Meaning N = Network S = Subnet 172.25.12.45 255.255.255.0 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.SSSSSSSS.HHHHHHHH H = Host
Figure 130: Class B Subnet Mask Example
Because this is a Class B address, the first 16 bits are the Internet-unique part of the address. The network administrator has chosen the mask of 255.255.255.0, indicating that the next 8 bits are to be used to create up to 254 subnets with up to 254 available hosts (interfaces) on each subnet.
6-15
TCP/IP Overview
Example 3: Class C Subnet Mask Configuration and Meaning

IP Address Subnet Mask Mask Bit Representation Bit Meaning N = Network S = Subnet 192.168.40.23 255.255.255.0 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH H = Host
Figure 131: Class C Subnet Mask Example
Because this is a Class C address, the first 24 bits are the Internet-unique part of the address. The network administrator has chosen the mask of 255.255.255.0, indicating that none of the bits have been used to create subnets. The result is one network with up to 254 available host (interface) addresses.
6-16
TCP/IP Overview
Subnetting Examples
Class A Address Subnetting Example
Subnet 1
254
through
Subnet 65,536
254
z 10.0.0.0 z Subnet mask z 65,536 Subnets

with 254 host addresses 255.255.255.0
Figure 132: Class A Address Subnetting Example
The network shown in Figure 132 has the following characteristics: Class A network (for example, 10.0.0.0) Mask of 255.255.255.0 used based on the specific environments requirements 65,536 subnets created by using this mask 254 possible host addresses available, using this mask for each subnet 16 bits used for subnetting with this mask The subnets would be:
10.0.1.0 10.0.2.0 10.0.3.0 ... 10.255.254.0
Subnet number
1 2 3 ... 65,536
The available host addresses would be:

10.0.1.1 through 10.0.1.254 10.0.2.1 through 10.0.2.254 10.0.3.1 through 10.0.3.254 ... 10.255.254.1 through 10.255.254.254
Figure 133: Class A Subnetting Chart
6-17
TCP/IP Overview
Class B Address Subnetting Example

Subnet 1
254
through
Subnet 254
254
z 172.20.0.0 z Subnet mask z 254 Subnets

255.255.255.0 with 254 host addresses
Figure 134: Class B Address Subnetting Example
The network shown in Figure 134 has the following characteristics: Class B network (for example, 172.20.0.0) Mask of 255.255.255.0 used based on the specific environments requirements 254 subnets created by using this mask 254 possible host addresses available, using this mask for each subnet 8 bits used for subnetting with this mask The subnets would be:
172.20.1.0 172.20.2.0 172.20.3.0 ... 172.20.254.0
Subnet number
1 2 3 ... 254

172.20.1.1 through 172.20.1.254 172.20.2.1 through 172.20.2.254 172.20.3.1 through 172.20.3.254 ... 172.20.254.1 through 172.20.254.254
Figure 135: Class B Subnetting Chart
6-18
TCP/IP Overview
Class C Address Subnetting Example

Subnet 1
30
through
Subnet 6
30
z 192.192.14.0 z Subnet mask

255.255.255.224 z 6 Subnets with 30 host addresses
Figure 136: Class C Address Subnetting Example
The network shown in Figure 136 has the following characteristics: Class C network (for example, 192.192.14.0) Mask of 255.255.255.224 used based on the specific environments requirements 6 subnets created by using this mask 30 possible host addresses available, using this mask for each subnet 3 bits used for subnetting with this mask The subnets would be:
192.192.14.32 192.192.14.64 192.192.14.96 192.192.14.128 192.192.14.160 192.192.14.192
Subnet number
1 2 3 4 5 6

192.192.14.33 through 192.192.14.62 192.192.14.65 through 192.192.14.94 192.192.14.97 through 192.192.14.126 192.192.14.129 through 192.192.14.158 192.192.14.161 through 192.192.14.190 192.192.14.192 through 192.192.14.222
Figure 137: Class C Subnetting Chart
6-19
TCP/IP Overview
Variable Length Subnetting

Small subnet Small subnet
Large subnet
Small subnet Small subnet
Large subnet
Figure 138: Variable Length Subnetting
In certain environments where conventional subnetting does not meet the network requirements, network designers deploy variable length subnetting. This is done by configuring the subnets with different subnet mask values to meet the needs of the organization. Variable length subnetting has the following characteristics: It is usually done because all of the subnets do not contain the same number of hosts. It requires a routing protocol, such as OSPF or RIP-2, which transmits the subnet mask when exchanging routing tables. Variable length subnetting can make the network more complicated and more difficult to troubleshoot than traditional subnetting schemes.
6-20
TCP/IP Overview
Variable Length Subnet Mask Example

Network = 172.20.0.0 Step 1
Use the subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 to yield 254 subnets with 254 hosts per subnet. 172.20.1.0
Step 2
Use the subnet mask of 255.255.255.240 to yield 14 subnets with 14 hosts per subnet. 172.20.1.16 172.20.1.32 172.20.1.48

254 Subnets
172.20.2.0 172.20.3.0

14 Subnets
172.20.254.0
172.20.1.224
Figure 139: Variable Length Subnet Mask Example
In step 1 in Figure 139, the Class B address of 172.20.0.0 has been subnetted using the subnet mask of 255.255.255.0, creating 254 subnets with 254 available host addresses for each subnet. In step 2, the first of the 254 subnets (172.20.1.0) has been subnetted again using the subnet mask of 255.255.255.240, creating 14 subnets with 14 available host addresses on the subnets.
Note
This can only be done when using a routing protocol, such as RIP 2 or OSPF, which transmits the subnet mask when sending out router updates.
6-21
TCP/IP Overview
Default Gateway Overview

Router
Router port 1 configuration IP: 172.20.1.1 SM: 255.255.255.0 Router port 2 configuration IP: 172.20.2.1 SM: 255.255.255.0
1 Ports
Subnet
172.20.1.0 Hub
Subnet
172.20.2.0 Hub
IP: 172.20.1.14 SM: 255.255.255.0 DG: 172.20.1.1
IP: 172.20.1.80 SM: 255.255.255.0 DG: 172.20.1.1
IP: 172.20.2.43 SM: 255.255.255.0 DG: 172.20.2.1
IP: 172.20.2.13 SM: 255.255.255.0 DG: 172.20.2.1
SM Subnet mask DG Default gateway
Figure 140: Default Gateway Overview
The default gateway is a configuration parameter in IP addressing that indicates the IP address of the router port where the subnet is connected. The term gateway can be confusing. Generally speaking, the terms gateway and router can be used interchangeably. Other information about the default gateway includes: The router port belongs to the subnet that it is configured for and connected to (assuming that it is configured properly). When a user on a subnet wants to send data to another subnet, it actually sends it to its default gateway for delivery.
6-22
TCP/IP Overview
IP Address Servers
to WAN
LAN
Switch Hubs
LAN
LAN
DHCP server
Figure 141: DHCP
Serving of IP addresses can be done using DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) or IPCP (Internet Protocol Control Protocol) servers. These are useful tools for network managers for several reasons, including: DHCP server can automatically assign IP addresses from a pool. The server can help centralize network administration. The server potentially allows a larger group of users to share the available addresses that an organization might have. Each device on the network must be configured properly. The device seeks out the server for an IP address that it can use when a user wishes to explore the Internet.
IPCP or PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) is used by many Internet users as they go through their ISP (Internet service provider). The ISP assigns a valid IP address to a customer as it logs in to the system. The assignment of the IP address usually has a time limit for the use (lease) of the valid address.
6-23
TCP/IP Overview
The Ping Command

Can I ping that device?
n Echo request
Network
o Echo reply
Source host Destination host
Figure 142: The Ping Command
TCP/IP provides a way for users and managers of networks to test the reachability of hosts on the network.
Important Term
A ping is an ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) message that is often used to test the network and devices attached to it.
A ping is accomplished by an echo request and an echo reply in the following manner: A user types in the ping command and the IP address of the station being tested. An ICMP message, the echo request message, is sent from the source host. This echo request message travels through the network to reach the destination (if the network is configured properly and the message reaches the destination). The destination host then responds to the echo request and sends out an echo reply to the original station. If successful, the original station receives a reply message along with other information, such as the amount of time for return or the route taken through the network. Features such as trace route indicate the IP addresses of the router interfaces that the ping traversed.
6-24
TCP/IP Overview
ARP
Hey, C, whats your MAC address? I need to send you a message. Ethernet hub
Figure 143: ARP
The purpose of the ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) implementation is to assist in determining the media access control address of a device, given its IP address.
Characteristics of ARP
Each station maintains an ARP table of IP addresses versus media access control addresses. If the physical address of the destination station is not in the table, an ARP request message is broadcast as an IP datagram. If a device recognizes the IP address as its own, it returns an ARP reply message containing its media access control address to the original sender. This media access control address is then put in the ARP cache and used to send IP datagrams to that station.
6-25
TCP/IP Overview
ARP In Action
Ethernet hub
ARP request
Router
MAC: 02 60 8c 39 70 01 IP: 172.20.10.2
MAC: 02 60 8c 39 70 02 IP: 172.20.10.3
MAC: 02 60 8c 39 70 03 IP: 172.20.10.4
MAC: 02 60 8c 39 70 04 IP: 172.20.10.5
Figure 144: ARP In Action
Figure 144 shows the process that occurs when device A pings device C for the first time: The user of device A pings device C. Device As TCP/IP stack scans the ARP cache (list of IP addresses and associated MAC addresses). If no entry for 172.20.10.4 exists, device As TCP/IP stack creates an ARP request. This ARP request, represented by Frame 1, is sent out as an Ethernet broadcast and is processed by each device that receives it.
6-26
TCP/IP Overview
ARP and Ping Frame Decodes

Destination Source Type Data
ARP request CRC 172.20.10.2 to 172.20.10.4
n ARP
ARP
request
ff ff ff ff ff ff
02 60 8c 39 70 01 08 06
Ethernet header
o ARP
reply
02 60 8c 39 70 01 02 60 8c 39 70 03 08 06
ARP reply CRC 172.20.10.4 to 172.20.10.2
p Echo
Ping request
02 60 8c 39 70 03 02 60 8c 39 70 01 08 00
ICMP echo request CRC 172.20.10.2 to 172.20.10.4
q Echo
reply
02 60 8c 39 70 01 02 60 8c 39 70 03 08 00
ICMP echo reply CRC 172.20.10.4 to 172.20.10.2
Figure 145: ARP Frame Decoder
Frame 2 is the ARP reply (device C is providing its MAC address to device A). Now that device A knows device Cs MAC address, it can start the ping. Frame 3, the echo request, is sent out to the network from device A. Device C replies with Frame 4, the echo reply, completing the ping.
6-27
TCP/IP Overview
IP Version 6
4 bytes 4 bytes 3 bytes 2 bytes 1 byte 1 byte 16 bytes 16 bytes
Version Priority
Flow label
Length Next
Hop Source Target limit
Figure 146: IP Version 6 Header
The next generation of IP is called IP version 6. It will introduce many new features to provide additional functions, including: 128-bit addresses (instead of 32 bits as in Version 4) An encryption extension for better security Improved quality of service A simplified header format Autoconfiguration support Authentication extension Option encoding Extended option headers Multicast scope field
It is not clear when IP version 6 will be implemented on a wide scale.
6-28
TCP/IP Overview
Host-to-Host Layer
7
Process layer
6 5 4 3 2 1
IP
TCP
Connection-oriented
UDP
Host-to-host layer
Internet layer
LAN/WAN
Ethernet, token ring, ATM, frame relay, FDDI, other

Figure 147: Host-to-Host Layer
The host-to-host layer is tied directly to the process layer above and to the Internet layer below. There are two ways to handle the host-to-host responsibilities: Option 1 TCP Reliable transfer with information including sequence numbers, acknowledgment numbers, and error checking (connection-oriented protocol) Option 2 UDP Unreliable data transfer with little or no procedures for verifying that data reached the target safely (connectionless protocol)
TCP and UDP Comparison

TCP
Connection-oriented Uses acknowledgments Supports authenticity (passwords) Reliable, but slow due to acknowledgments
UDP
Connectionless-oriented Does not use acknowledgments Does not support authenticity Quick, but not reliable
Figure 148: TCP and UDP Comparison
6-29
TCP/IP Overview
TCP/IP Ports
Well-known port User
FTP Port 21 Application: FTP Port 21
Server
IP: 172.20.11.47 Port 1401
IP: 172.20.18.33
Random port
Network
User User
IP: 172.20.43.101 Port 1402
User
IP: 172.20.71.19 Port 1403
IP: 172.20.101.17 Port 1404

Figure 149: TCP/IP Ports
TCP/IP applications use UDP and TCP to access the network. In doing so, the users applications must be identified. This is done by using logical port numbers to identify the application and the user. Well-known ports are numbers which identify the application and have a value between 1 and 1,023. Examples of well-known ports include: Application
Telnet SMTP FTP TFTP HTTP
Port Number
Port 23 Port 24 Port 21 Port 69 Port 80
Figure 150: Well-Known Ports
Random ports have values between 1,025 and 65,535 and are assigned to users to allow the application to match the data to the correct session at both ends of the conversation. This is required, for example, on a multi-user system to sort out sessions from numerous users on a server. The term sockets refers to the pairing of the IP address and the port numbers being used by the host systems API (application program interface).
TCP/IP Overview
The TCP Header

2 bytes 2 bytes 4 bytes 4 bytes 4 bits 4 bits 1 byte 2 2 bytes bytes 2 bytes
Sender window size
TCP header length
Acknowledgment sequence number
Source sequence number
TCP source port
TCP target port
TCP checksum
Session flags
Figure 151: The TCP Header
TCP Header Fields

Header
TCP source port TCP target port Source sequence number Acknowledgment sequence number TCP header length Reserved Session flags Sender window size TCP checksum Urgent data
Description
Random port of the source that is used to match data with user (1,025 through 65,534) Request to talk with well-known target port (TCP/IP application) (e.g., 21 for FTP, 23 for Telnet) Number generated by sender used by the destination device to acknowledge receipt of data (The number indicates the first byte of the TCP segment being sent, and acts like a mile marker on a road.) Number that shows the value of the next byte expected from the host at the other end of the session (number sent back to acknowledge the receipt of a specific piece of data) Size of the current TCP header in 32-bit words Reserved for future use Bits used to indicate urgent pointer, valid acknowledgment, push request, reset session, synchronize sequence number, and final data The amount of receive buffer that the sender has available for storage of TCP data Error check for TCP header and data it carries Pointer used to inform target device of urgent data
Figure 152: TCP Header Fields
Urgent data
Reserved
6-31
TCP/IP Overview
The UDP Header

2 bytes 2 bytes 2 bytes 2 bytes
UDP source port
UDP target port
Message length
Checksum
Figure 153: The UDP Header
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is designed to operate with very little overhead in an attempt to achieve quick transport of network traffic. But with this increase in speed, there is the possibility that the traffic could be lost. Characteristics of UDP include: UDP does not have the acknowledgments and sequence number used by TCP. UDP does not have a process like TCP to close out the session. UDP messages are often called datagrams. Some of the TCP/IP processes that utilize UDP include: SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) RIP (Routing Information Protocol) TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol) BootP (Bootstrap Protocol)
UDP Header Fields

Header Field
UDP source port UDP target port Message length Checksum
Description
Provided so the target can return message to the sender (random port) Identifies the application to receive the data at the target host (well-known port) Reports the length in octets of the total message, including the UDP header Provided as an optional field that checks for errors on the UDP header and the data it carries
Figure 154: UDP Header Fields
6-32
TCP/IP Overview
Process Layer Applications
Telnet
Port 23
BootP
Port 67 Server Port 68 Client
FTP
Port 20 Port 21
SMTP
Port 25
TFTP
Port 69
SNMP
Port 161
HTTP
Port 80
DNS
Port 53
Figure 155: Process Layer Applications
The process layer is the TCP/IP application or function being accomplished on the network. For example, sending e-mail and browsing the WWW (World Wide Web) are processes on the network. Some applications are designed with a high degree of network reliability (e.g., FTP), while others are designed to be quicker but less reliable (e.g., TFTP). Process Name
FTP Telnet SMTP HTTP DNS BootP TFTP SNMP File Transfer Protocol TELephone NETwork Simple Mail Transfer Protocols HyperText Transfer Protocol Domain Name System Bootstrap Protocol Trivial File Transfer Protocol
Description
Connection-oriented file transfer Remote access application E-mail standard for Internet Protocol interpreted by WWW browsers Translates names and IP addresses Automated configuration of devices through the network Connectionless file transfer
Simple Network Management Protocol Network management application

Figure 156: Process Layer Applications
6-33
TCP/IP Overview
FTP and TFTP

File XYZ
FTP server
Data
FTP client
I need file XYZ

OSI
OSI
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Process Host-tohost Internet Network access
7 FTP
Networking application
FTP
Process Host-tohost Internet Network access
6 5 4 3 2 1
TCP IP LAN/ WAN
Reliability and session info Message recipient (company, subnet, and user) Physical delivery of packet
Ethernet frame
DA SA Type IP TCP FTP CRC
TCP IP LAN/ WAN
Packet Figure 157: FTP and TFTP
Important Terms
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) and TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol) are applications that provide computers with the ability to access files on different devices.
Characteristics of FTP include:

6-34
FTP is among the most frequently used TCP/IP applications and utilizes TCP (connection-oriented) for host-to-host reliability. It allows format specification such as ASCII or EBCDIC. It allows authentication control through the use of login names and passwords. It allows anonymous or guest users to access files. TFTP is less sophisticated than FTP and utilizes UDP (connectionless). It is limited to simple file transfers. It does not provide authentication. It can be integrated with e-mail.
Characteristics of TFTP include:
TCP/IP Overview
Telnet
I want to configure that router.
Telnet session
Configuration parameters
Router
Network
Figure 158: Telnet
Important Term
Telnet is a remote access application that allows users the ability to log into other host computers.
Characteristics of Telnet
Telnet allows a user at one site to establish a TCP connection with another host. It passes the keystrokes from the users keyboard directly to the remote computer. It carries output from the remote device back to the users screen. It is used in various networks to access a remote host such as a mainframe computer. It is used by networking professionals to accomplish tasks such as configuring a router at a remote location. Telnet gets its name from the term telephone network. It was one of the most common applications of the early Internet.
6-35
TCP/IP Overview
E-mail
You have mail.
Network
Figure 159: E-mail
E-mail is a widely-used TCP/IP application service. It offers users the ability to quickly send and receive messages from around the world. Additionally, the recipient of the message does not have to be connected to the network when the message is sent, but only when the message is retrieved. The messages are spooled to a server. It is then available when the user checks the mail. E-mail is a staple of many office environments. There are two major e-mail applications in TCP/IP: SMTP MIME
SMTP
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is the TCP/IP standard for e-mail. It is simple and straightforward and consists of readable ASCII text messages.
MIME
MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) allows the transmission of non-ASCII data through e-mail. It allows data to be encoded in ASCII and then transmitted in a standard e-mail message.
6-36
TCP/IP Overview
HTTP
I want to see the Global Knowledge home page. Web browser
Global Knowledge Web server
Request HTTP TCP IP Network access
Response HTTP TCP IP
Internet
Network access
Figure 160: HTTP
Important Term
HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) is the protocol which allows users on the WWW to access Web servers.
Characteristics of HTTP
The HTTP model uses a request/response protocol to obtain desired information. The client software, known as the user agent, sends a request, and the server sends a response. Web browsers such as Netscape Navigator or Microsoft Internet Explorer are examples of client software. HTTP connections are called stateless connections, as they do not stay open waiting for multiple requests and responses. Secure HTTP allows financial transactions to occur in a protected manner.
6-37
TCP/IP Overview
DNS
.org
root
other
.edu
.web
.com
.gov
.mil .net
globalknowledge.com
.int
WhiteHouse.gov
Figure 161: DNS
Important Term
DNS (Domain Name System) is a database used by TCP/IP applications to translate names and IP addresses.
The DNS database is distributed in the sense that no single domain name server knows all the names and IP addresses on the Internet. DNS uses a server tree to tie all the information together at the core or root. Essentially, DNS works as follows: The resolver checks the local host file, and then it contacts the local domain name server and continues to contact domain name servers until it locates the correct IP address. For example, the server could convert the name globalknowledge.com to 208.146.111.28.
6-38
TCP/IP Overview
Top-Level Domain Overview

As described on the previous page, DNS is organized into a tree. At the top of this tree are the three-letter organizational or top-level domains. Organizations fall under one of the top-level domains or the two-character country domains.
Organizational Domains
Domain Name
.com .gov .edu .mil .org .net .int
Description
Commercial organizations Nonmilitary government organizations Educational institutions U.S. Military Nonprofit organizations Networks International organizations
Figure 162: Organizational Domains
Additional top-level domains were created in 1997, including .web for WWW entities.
Country Domains
Two-character country domains have been assigned, which include: Domain
uk at fr
Country Name
United Kingdom Australia France
Figure 163: Country Domains
6-39
TCP/IP Overview
BootP
Router I want to connect to the network, but I need configuration information Ill ask my BootP server.
Response
n Request
Diskless workstation Ethernet hub
Router
BootP server
Figure 164: BootP
Important Term
BootP (Bootstrap Protocol) is a protocol that allows a device such as a diskless workstation to obtain TCP/IP configuration information (e.g., IP addresses, default gateways, filenames and paths, and the BootP servers address).
BootP is an alternative to the RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol) and has some advantages over it, including the ability to reach out beyond a router.
BootP Operation Summary

BootP sends its messages in UDP headers enclosed in IP datagrams. A device (e.g., a diskless workstation) sends out a BootP request (to one BootP server or any BootP server). A BootP server answers with a BootP response that contains the desired configuration information.
BootP is able to provide IP addresses, default router addresses, and the path and filename of bootstrap files.
6-40
TCP/IP Overview
SNMP
Users Managed hubs SNMP manager Managed hubs Users
SNMP agents
HP OpenView
SNMP agents
WAN link Servers Servers
Router
Router SNMP agents
New York
London
Figure 165: SNMP
Important Term
SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) is a protocol for managing networks using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
Networks may have components from different vendors and still be managed from a single platform. This is typically accomplished by using the TCP/IP application SNMP. The SNMP manager is a device on the network that has the SNMP management software loaded onto it, and is used to configure, monitor, and troubleshoot the network. Agents are the devices that can be managed by the SNMP manager and include routers, hubs, NICs, servers, and other components of internetworks. The SNMP manager can find out information about the components in the internetwork in two ways: It can query the devices about their status on an ongoing basis. The agents can be configured to report back to the SNMP manager when certain conditions or thresholds have been reached.
A fair amount of knowledge (and money) is required to set up and operate such a system on a large scale. However, because of the benefits of SNMP, most large companies have attained some level of network management using it, despite the high cost.
TCP/IP Overview
Section Review
1.
The TCP/IP protocol stack contains how many layers? a. Four b. Three c. Five d. Seven
2.
The IP address, 172.29.74.101, is a Class ________ address. a. A b. B c. C d. D
3.
The address 10.43.79.101, with a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0, means that ________ bits are used to create subnets. a. 0 b. 8 c. 16 d. 24
4.
TCP is a connection-oriented protocol. a. True b. False
5.
UDP is a file transfer application in TCP/IP. a. True b. False
6-42
7
Internetworking Overview
Section Topics
Network Segmentation Networking Equipment Physical Segmentation Bridging and Switching Routing Overview Firewalls
7-1
Section Objectives
After completing this section, you will be able to: Explain how to obtain physical segmentation in a network using a bridge or a switch Describe how logical segmentation is obtained using routers List various types of firewalls used in networking today
7-2
New York
Hub Users Hub Users Hub Users Users Users Hub Users Hub
London
Hub
Switch Router
Servers
Servers
WAN
Switch
Router Figure 166: Internetworking Overview
Important Terms
Internetworking describes the practice of linking various types of networks, whether they are at the same location or dispersed around the world.
Some of the reasons for internetworking and the issues surrounding them include: Issue
Performance Local connectivity Security Remote connectivity
Benefit
Improves traffic flow by segmenting users Connects various topologies (10BaseT, 100BaseT, token ring, etc.) Provides secure environments using router and firewall configurations Connects distant sites using WAN services
Figure 167: Internetworking Issues
In this section, we will look at physical and logical segmentation of networks.

Network Segmentation
Administration
Executive
Accounting
Sales
Internet
Legal Support
Engineering
Manufacturing
Figure 168: Network Segmentation
Usually, an organization is physically and logically segmented to meet performance and security requirements.
Physical segmentation is accomplished through devices like bridges and switches. This segmentation is normally done to increase the bandwidth available to devices by creating smaller collision domains in Ethernet, providing better performance to users.
Logical segmentation is performed to achieve several network goals and requirements, including: Security requirements Performance requirements Manageability needs
Logical networks are created by using routers.
7-4
Networking Equipment
User Server Hub Server
User
Hub
Hub OSI layer 1
Switch OSI layer 2
Network
BRIDGE
Router OSI layer 3
Bridge OSI layer 2

Hub
Hub
Figure 169: Networking Equipment
Networking equipment usually falls into one of the following categories: OSI Layer
1 2
Category
Repeater, hub, concentrator, MAU Bridge
Description
A connectivity device used to physically attach users to the network An internetworking device that connects two or more networks using MAC (media access control) addressing An internetworking device that: Connects two or more networks using MAC addressing Reduces latency introduced by a bridge by processing frames immediately (cut-through) Makes an intelligent forwarding decision An internetworking device that connects two or more networks using network layer addressing (i.e., an IP address)
Figure 170: Internetworking Equipment Categories
Switch
Router
7-5
16 Mbps token ring Bridge Router 4 Mbps token ring
10/100 Ethernet switch
User
10/100 Ethernet switch
BRIDGE
10BaseT hub 10BaseT hub 100BaseT hub
100BaseT hub
Users Users Server Server Users
User
User
Users
User
Figure 171: Physical Segmentation
Physical segmentation is usually done at the departmental LAN (local area network) or user level of a network to enhance the performance of a networks connected devices. By creating smaller collision domains in Ethernet, or smaller token rings, this physical segmentation can help traffic congestion problems. Typical steps for performing physical segmentation include: Step 1 Analyze traffic patterns, utilization, applications, protocols, and top talkers on the network using a protocol analyzer or SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) system. Step 2 Determine how each physical segment will be created using hubs, bridges, and switches based on user traffic. Step 3 Create workgroups using hubs connecting 5 to 25 users. The hub typically connects to a port on a switch or a bridge. Step 4 Connect individual power users and servers to switch ports. Step 5 Connect switches and bridges as appropriate. Step 6 Connect a switch port to a router (typically).
This procedure forms one logical network with many physical networks connected together (as shown in Figure 171).
Bridging and Switching

Before Physical Segmentation After Physical Segmentation
Hub
BRIDGE
Bridge or switch
Hub
Hub
Hub
75
1 25 26 50 51 75
Collision domain Collision domain Collision domain Collision domain
Figure 172: Bridging and Switching
Why segment a network with a bridge or switch? The bridge was the first internetworking device, introduced in the 1980s. Bridges were installed to either improve performance on a LAN or to connect sites. For example, an Ethernet bridge helped performance by creating several different collision domains. If a device transmitted data to another device on the same collision domain, the bridge stopped the traffic from going to another collision domain based on MAC addressing information contained in the frames. However, if a device needed to transmit data to another collision domain, the bridge recognized this, based on the MAC addressing in the frame, and sent it to the other collision domains. Switches operate similarly to a bridge, but increase throughput by using modifications to bridge operation that help the switch make a smarter and faster forwarding decision.
7-7
Bridge and Switch Operation

LAN
Bridge/switch Decides what to do with a frame from destination address

BRIDGE
Learns about stations from source address Data Ethernet frame CRC
LAN
Destination address
Source address
02 60 8c 29 1a 48
Figure 173: Bridge and Switch Operation
Bridges and switches operate in the following manner: Bridges and switches learn MAC addresses of stations by examining source addresses of frames. These MAC addresses are then placed in tables, based on the port they are connected to. Bridges and switches filter traffic based on destination MAC addresses contained in frames and consulting the bridge table. If the bridge or switch recognizes that the destination MAC address is off the same port as the one the frame entered on, the frame is filtered or not forwarded out any other ports. Bridges and switches forward traffic based on destination MAC addresses contained in frames and by consulting the bridge table. If the bridge or switch does not recognize the destination MAC address on the incoming port, it makes a forwarding decision.
Other Characteristics

7-8
MAC addresses are used in frames to create separate physical segments within an organization. Bridges and switches are normally easy to install. They are higher-layer protocol independent.
Bridge and Switch Types

Switch
Hub C F I B E H A D G J K L C
SWITCH
Router L K
Server Hub Hub D E F G H I

Figure 174: Bridge and Switch Types
Server
There are three variations to MAC layer internetworking devices:
Store-and-Forward Bridge
A store-and-forward bridge processes each incoming frame and examines the MAC addressing fields. It then consults its look-up tables to make a forwarding or filtering decision. The problem in this type of bridging is that once the bridge decides that the frame is not destined for a local device, it forwards the frame out of all the other ports. This is considered a dumb forwarding decision.
Store-and-Forward Switch
A store-and-forward switch works similarly to a store-and-forward bridge. The store-andforward switch has the advantage over a bridge in that it checks its other port look-up tables when forwarding a frame and only sends the frame out the proper port. This greatly benefits performance, because each of the other collision domains is now free to be used. This is considered a smart forwarding decision.
7-9
Cut-Through Switch
A cut-through switch works like a store-and-forward switch, with the exception that it makes a fast forwarding decision. As an Ethernet frame comes in, the switch examines the MAC destination address (the first 48 bits in the frame) and makes a smart forwarding decision at that point. The switch will begin to forward the frame immediately without waiting for the whole frame to be processed. This type of switching can significantly increase the performance of the network by limiting the latency or delay in the internetworking device.
7-10
Ethernet Switching
Switch Look-Up Table
Port 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 MAC (H) (A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) (G) (I) (J)
J Router
100BaseTX full duplex
Connections to other routers
Switch 7 1 6
H Server
100BaseTX full duplex
I Server
2 3 4 5
10BaseT hub 10BaseT hub
10BaseT hub
10BaseT hub
A represents the 6-byte MAC address of the NIC.
Figure 175: Ethernet Switches
A layer 2 switch has the following characteristics: Operates like a smart bridge Uses data link layer addressing (MAC) Is independent of higher-layer protocols (TCP/IP, Novell) Achieves network segmentation with reduced latency in internetworking devices (compared to a bridge or router) Provides high throughput between devices Supports 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, and 1000 Mbps (Gigabit) connections Uses vendor-proprietary algorithms Operates in cut-through or store-and-forward mode Can be configured for full-duplex or half-duplex operation on 100 Mbps Ethernet if connected to a single device and not a hub Provides an instant collapsed backbone design
Some organizations are now installing Ethernet switches in place of hubs for device connectivity, providing each device with its own collision domain.
Spanning Tree Algorithm

Before STA
Root
LANs
After STA
B1
F F
F
LANs
LANs
B2
B1
F F
LANs
B2
F
F
Blocked STA route
F F
B4
LANs
F F
B3
LANs LANs
B4
Blocked STA route
B3
LANs
A broadcast message floods the network because of the loop and creates a broadcast storm.
B Bridge/switch
After implementing and configuring STA, the network no longer contains loops, eliminating the storm.
Figure 176: Spanning Tree Algorithm
STA (Spanning Tree Algorithm) is a layer 2 bridging protocol that allows devices, such as switches and bridges, to be physically connected into a loop, without suffering from frequent broadcast storms. These broadcast storms exist based on bridge forwarding requirements to forward layer 2 (MAC) broadcasts (FF FF FF FF FF FF) and can render the backbone network useless.
STA Implementation Process

1. 2. 3. 4. Select the root bridge for the network based on bridge ID numbers. Each bridge examines paths back to the root. Each bridge chooses the best path back to the root and then disables other bridge-to-bridge ports that cause loops. When bridges or links are added or lost, the STA will converge to re-evaluate path selection.
7-12
Token Ring Switching

4/16 Mbps token ring switch
16 Mbps token ring LAN
4 Mbps token ring LAN
4 Mbps token ring LAN Server
Router 16 Mbps Server

Figure 177: Token Ring Switching
Network managers and designers are using token ring switches for the same reasons that they use Ethernet switches. A token ring switch has the following features: Can be used to connect to 4 Mbps and 16 Mbps token ring LANs Reduces latency in the internetworking device, compared to a router Is higher-layer protocol independent Usually connects to a router for WAN (wide area network) and campus connections
7-13
FDDI Switching
100 Mbps FDDI switch 100 Mbps FDDI LAN
100 Mbps FDDI LAN
100 Mbps FDDI MAN To other LANS
100 Mbps FDDI campus backbone
Router To WAN
FDDI-attached servers
Figure 178: FDDI Switching
FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) switching has the following characteristics: It connects FDDI LANs, servers, and routers in a large organization. It operates with features similar to token ring and Ethernet switches (low latency). It connects to a router for WAN connections.
7-14
ATM Switching
155 Mbps User 622Mbps User User User User User User User User User User User User User User User User User 622 Mbps 155 Mbps
Wide range of speeds from T1 to OC-192
WAN and campus connections ATM switches ATM switches

Figure 179: ATM Switching
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) is a cell-switching technology, which provides many advantages over legacy networks.
Characteristics of ATM Switching

ATM switching can be installed anywhere in the network (LAN, WAN, MAN (metropolitan area network), campus, building backbone). It offers very high data rates. It provides reduced latency and high efficiency, compared to shared networks such as Ethernet and token ring. A virtual path A virtual channel identifier Information about the data it is carrying so that time-sensitive traffic, such as voice and live video, is handled accordingly
Each ATM cell contains:
Current heavy users of ATM include hospitals transmitting medical images, such as X-rays and MRIs.
Subnet
172.20.4.0 255.255.255.0
Router
100BaseT hub
Subnet
172.20.1.0 255.255.255.0
Subnet
172.20.3.0 255.255.255.0
Switch
10BaseT hub
N WA
i ect nn co
on
Subnet
172.20.5.0 255.255.255.0
Router
Bridge
BRIDGE
100BaseT hub
100BaseT hub
16 Mbps Token ring LAN 4 Mbps Token ring LAN Servers 100BaseT
Subnet
172.20.2.0 255.255.255.0
Figure 180: Logical Segmentation
Logical segmentation is generally accomplished using routers, although in some situations, servers and gateways are used. Logical networks are created for the following reasons: Reason
Performance Security Manageability Connectivity
Result
Improves performance by limiting broadcast domains Obtains security capability by configuring lists of users that may enter each subnet Offers ease in managing several smaller subnets, rather than one large network Connects distant sites using a WAN service
Figure 181: Logical Segmentation Creation
In Figure 180, five logical subnets have been created. These subnets are bound by routers and require proper addressing and configuration for operation.
Routing Overview
Router
Subnet Subnet Subnet
Subnet Subnet Subnet Subnet Subnet
Subnet
Subnet
Subnet
Subnet
Subnet
Subnet
Figure 182: Routing Overview
Characteristics of routers include: Routers transport routable protocols, such as IP (Internet Protocol), through networks. Routers use routing protocols (e.g., RIP [Routing Information Protocol] and OSPF [Open Shortest Path First]) to exchange route tables and to communicate with each other. The route table is used to select the path for the packets. Networks are logically connected by routers to achieve performance, security, and traffic-flow goals. Routers are often used to connect distant sites using WANs. The Internet is connected by many routers.
7-17
Routing IP
IP IP IP
IP Routing Protocols RIP EIGRP OSPF BGP IGRP EGP IS-IS

Figure 183: Routing IP
IP is the dominant protocol routed in networks today. The Internet is based on IP, and many organizations have implemented IP on a widespread basis. Characteristics of IP routing include: IP routing uses the IP Internet addressing system and IP datagrams (packets). A routing protocol such as RIP or OSPF must be used to route these IP datagrams. The routers, using routing protocols, discover other networks and determine the best paths to those networks for the IP datagrams. IP is now used for a wide variety of applications, including voice and video services. Other protocols such as IPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange), VINES (Virtual Networking System), AppleTalk, and XNS (Xerox Network System) are also routed through networks.
7-18
Routing Protocols
Routing Protocol
RIP OSPF IGRP EIGRP BGP EGP IS-IS Routing Information Protocol (RIP2 is the new standard) Open Shortest Path First (OSPF2 is the new standard) Interior Gateway Routing Protocol Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol Border Gateway Protocol (BGP4 is the new standard) Exterior Gateway Protocol Intermediate System to Intermediate System
Function
Distance vector algorithm based on hop counts, or number of routers between two nodes Link state algorithm that uses several variables to select best path, including speed and reliability Proprietary Cisco distance vector algorithm that provides load balancing features Proprietary Cisco link state algorithm (can be easier to install than OSPF) Link state algorithm designed for large networks Distance vector algorithm designed for large networks Link state algorithm from OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
Figure 184: Routing Protocols
The routing protocol is the code configured and running on routers. Functions of routing protocols include: Discovering routers on the network and the networks attached to those routers Exchanging route tables to synchronize the network Using the route table to make path selection Finding out about new routers as they enter the network Determining when routers have left the network (i.e., when the router or link is down)
7-19
Routing Metrics
Hop count metric Bandwidth metric Arbitrary path cost designation metric Reliability metric Delay metric Load or utilization metric
Figure 185: Routing Metrics
Routing metrics have the following characteristics: The routing metric contains the criteria for determining the best path to reach a target network. The routing metric constitutes the routing policy used by the routers in the network. Routing metrics are normally link state, distance vector, or hybrid in architecture. The metric is the calculation done by the router to determine the path used to transmit the data. Some metrics are simple (hop count) calculations. Other metrics are rather complicated and use a combination of factors, such as link speed and network congestion, to determine the path for the datagram.
7-20
Routing Protocol Operation

It depends on the routing protocol. Routers T1 line
LAN A
Whats the best data path from LAN A to LAN B?
T1 line 56 Kbps line
T1 line
14.4 Kbps modem connection
56 Kbps line
T1 line
LAN B
Figure 186: Routing Protocol Operation
Some routing protocols are simple, while others are extremely sophisticated. Routing protocols are generally classified as follows:
Distance Vector Routing Protocols

These protocols (e.g., RIP and IGRP) use a hop count or similar calculation to determine the best path. Essentially, they pick the path with the fewest routers among its options.
Link State Routing Protocols

These protocols (e.g., OSPF and EIGRP) base paths on several factors, such as the speed and reliability of the link. These protocols are considerably more sophisticated than distance vector protocols. Under the right circumstances, link state routing protocols can provide better performance for traffic moving through the networks.
Hybrid Routing Protocols

These protocols can use a combination of distance vector and link state criteria for path selection and are rather sophisticated.
7-21
RIP
Subnet
100 Mbps 172.20.14.0 100 Mbps
Subnet
172.20.11.0
Subnet
172.20.17.0
1 Subnet
172.20.12.0
Subnet
172.20.13.0
Subnet
172.20.16.0
3 Subnet
172.20.18.0
Subnet
17 Sub 2. n 2 e
172.20.15.0
56
0. t 20 .0 Kb ps
S .20 2
17
t ne 9.0 b . u 1
0 10
s bp M
4 Subnet
172.20.21.0
Subnet
172.20.22.0
Figure 187: RIP
In Figure 187, a user on subnet 172.20.11.0 needs to reach a host on subnet 172.20.22.0. Using RIP, Router 1 routes the traffic down the 172.20.20.0 subnet to reach the target. The selection of the path is based solely on the smaller number of router hops.
Characteristics of RIP
RIP is a common routing protocol used in TCP/IP networks. RIP uses a distance vector algorithm. RIP uses a hop count metric to determine the path. It selects the path with the fewest number of routers, not the speed of link or other factors. Broadcasts on the network are used to exchange information between routers. RIP routers typically transmit updates between each other every 30 seconds. RIP is relatively easy to implement.
Problems with RIP

7-22
Hop count limits (16 routers is the maximum) Unreliable transport of messages (UDP [User Datagram Protocol]) Slower paths chosen if the network design contains flaws (as shown above)
RIP Routing Tables

Where do I send it? Seattle
172.20.6.0 1 IP datagram 172.20.7.0 Destination IP address 172.20.3.39 Data 172.20.3.0 4 2 3 172.20.1.0 WAN 172.20.5.0 172.20.4.0
Chicago
172.20.2.0 WAN
London
Seattle Routing Table
T MA
CH
Destination 172.20.1.0 172.20.2.0 172.20.3.0 172.20.4.0 172.20.5.0 172.20.6.0 172.20.7.0
Mask 255.255.255.0 255.255.255.0 255.255.255.0 255.255.255.0 255.255.255.0 255.255.255.0 255.255.255.0
Protocol RIP RIP RIP RIP Local Local Local
Age 15 15 20 15 20 40 30
Cost 1 2 3 2 0 0 0
Next Hop Address 172.20.1.1 172.20.1.1 172.20.1.1 172.20.1.1 172.20.5.1 172.20.6.1 172.20.7.1
Figure 188: RIP Routing Tables
Routers using IP routing protocols exchange information with each other on the best paths to reach networks. This information is kept on a routing table in each router. The router then uses the routing table to forward IP packets to the correct network. The forwarding decision is made one hop (router) at a time until the IP datagram is forwarded out to a local interface. Note that the routers in Figure 188 would need to be properly configured. For example, the router in Seattle would be configured with the following IP addresses: Port
1 2 3 4
Address
172.20.6.1 172.20.5.1 172.20.1.1 172.20.7.1
Figure 189: Routing Table Example
7-23
RIP 1 Message Format

8 bits 8 bits 16 bits 16 bits 16 bits 32 bits 32 bits 32 bits 32 bits
Address family identifier
IP address
Command
Version
RIP version 1
Figure 190: RIP 1 Message Format
Note
In Figure 190, X indicates a value of 0 in fields reserved for future use.
Field
Command Version Address family identifier IP address Metric
Description
Request code = 1; response code = 2 Set to 1 Normally set to 2 (for IP); ignores any other value IP address of the target device Route updates for path selection
Figure 191: RIP 1 Fields
7-24
Metric
RIP 2 Message Format

Address family identifier
Subnet mask
IP address
Command
Route tag
Next hop
Routing domain
Version
RIP version 2
Figure 192: RIP 2 Message Format
Note
The unused fields in RIP 1 are now used to add additional features in RIP 2.
Field
Command Version Routing domain Address family identifier Route tag IP address Subnet mask Next hop Metric
Description
Request code = 1; response code = 2 Set to 2 Used with next hop field; allows multiple autonomous systems to share the same wire Normally set to 2 (for IP); ignores any other value Used to flag external routes; used by other routing protocols (BGP, EGP) IP address of the target device Enables variable length subnetting Used with routing domain field to identify the next router IP address Route updates for path selection
Figure 193: RIP 2 Fields
Metric
7-25
OSPF
Area border router
56 Kbps
T1 56 Kbps T1
Internal routers
56 Kbps
Boundary router
T1 T1
56 Kbps
T1 56 Kbps T1
T1
Backbone router
Internal routers
56 Kbps
Area border router

Figure 194: OSPF
The OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) routing protocol has the following characteristics: Uses a link state algorithm for path selection Uses a sophisticated metric, which can be based on speed, reliability, and delay, to select best paths through networks Is designed for large IP networks as an interior routing protocol Limits the amount of traffic for broadcasts by using a designated router Supports variable length subnetting Uses three protocols to learn about the network, to exchange route tables, and to send periodic updates used for route selection: OSPF Hello Protocol OSPF Exchange Protocol OSPF Flooding Protocol
7-26
OSPF Messages
Authentication
OSPF Common Header
Hello Protocol
Exchange Protocol
Flooding Protocol
Figure 195: OSPF Messages
There are three subprotocols of OSPF that use a common header: Hello Protocol Checks links and elects a designated router Exchange Protocol Uses database description packets to exchange routing databases Flooding Protocol Sends out advertisements about links when a change in the network occurs
OSPF common header fields include: Field

Version Type Packet length Route ID Area ID Checksum Autype Authentication Authentication
Description
Version number of OSPF (currently version 2) OSPF packet type (Hello, Exchange, Flooding) Number of bytes in the packet IP address selected for identifying the router Identification number for the area (the IP network number is often used) Checksum on OSPF packet Authentication algorithm Network passwords Network passwords
Figure 196: OSPF Common Header Fields
Authentication
Checksun
Router ID
Version
Area ID
Autype
Packet length
Type
7-27
IGRP
Network Network
Network
IP
Network
IP
IP
IGRP-configured routers
Network
Network
Network
Figure 197: IGRP
IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) has the following characteristics: It was developed by Cisco (proprietary routing protocol). It uses a distance vector algorithm with multiple variables (bandwidth, delay, utilization, and reliability) to determine the best paths between networks. It has a low amount of overhead for updates. It sends router updates every 90 seconds or when changes occur in the network. IGRP is good for both small and large networks.
7-28
BGP
Autonomous System 1 Autonomous System 2
BGP
Figure 198: BGP
BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) has the following characteristics: It is used to connect autonomous systems. It exchanges information between routers about known networks inside the autonomous systems (i.e., announced reachability of networks). BGP uses TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) as a reliable transport mechanism. BGP is used as a replacement for EGP (Exterior Gateway Protocol).
7-29
Firewalls
10.0.0.0
Firewall
The public Internet
Intranet
n Address translation o Security

Figure 199: Firewalls
Important Terms
A firewall in a network is a system that provides advanced security functionality to a network.
Characteristics of a firewall are: A firewall is a collection of components (hardware, software, or both) placed at the edges of a network. All traffic going into the network must pass through the firewall. All traffic going out of the network must pass through the firewall. Only authorized traffic will be allowed to pass through the firewall. IP address translation is often accomplished using a firewall, typically translating an intranet addressing system to a valid Internet addressing system.
7-30
Firewall Types
SMLI
SOCKS server Proxy server
Packet filter
Figure 200: Firewall Types
Packet Filters
Routers are used to filter out traffic based on source and destination IP addresses. Packet filters can be bypassed with IP spoofing tools, and the network can easily be broken into by savvy hackers.
Proxy Servers
A proxy server is situated between the Internet and the organizations router. This server communicates with the Internet on behalf of the networks resources, and the real IP addresses remain hidden. The proxy server may also be configured to inspect the higher layers to determine if the traffic may pass.
SOCKS Server
Software is added to an individual application for secure communication through a firewall. Once the application has been SOCKed, users can gain access to the Internet.
SMLI
SMLI (stateful multilayer inspection) examines each packet for known states of friendly data. The entire packet of data can be inspected, and data that does not meet criteria for passage is denied.
7-31
Section Review
1.
An Ethernet switch performs logical segmentation. a. True b. False
2.
Ethernet switches use MAC addresses to separate networks. a. True b. False
3.
Routers connect networks together. a. True b. False
4.
RIP is a simple distance vector hop-count routing protocol. a. True b. False
5.
A router can be configured as a packet filter. a. True b. False
7-32
8
WAN Components
Section Topics
WAN Overview Telecommunications Infrastructure Connection Types PVC and SVC WAN Technologies WAN Media Types and Physical Interfaces WAN Equipment Multiplexing SONET
8-1
WAN Components
Section Objectives
After completing this section, you will be able to: Describe how WANs (wide area networks) are obtained and used Explain the difference between a circuit-switching service and a packetswitching service List components used to implement WANs Describe how SONET (Synchronous Optical Network) is used in WAN services
8-2
WAN Components
WAN Overview
London Paris Tokyo
New York
WAN
Chicago
Sydney Hong Kong
Toronto
Figure 201: Wide Area Networking
Wide area networking is considerably different from local area networking. In WANs (wide area networks), businesses rely on service providers to connect their remote locations. These locations could be in different cities, states, or countries. Characteristics of WANs include: Two or more sites are linked using a WAN service. WAN services generally come in two varieties: Dedicated circuit services Packet or cell-switching services
From a computer networking perspective, the routers and switches in the different locations are linked
Caution
WAN service costs can be significant. Carefully analyze your organizations needs before obtaining a specific service.
8-3
WAN Components
Telecommunications Infrastructure
LEC LEC LEC LEC
LEC
IXC
IXC
LEC
LEC
LEC
IXC
LEC
IXC
LEC
LEC
IXC
LEC
IXC
LEC
LEC
Figure 202: Telecommunications Infrastructure
The telecommunications industry has changed greatly through the years. The transition from copper-based media to fiber optics and wireless technologies brought many benefits to users and providers alike. Additionally, a transformation from analog signaling to digital signaling provided vast improvements in quality of services as well as new highbandwidth services. Other factors which influenced todays telecommunications climate were regulatory and legislative acts. The telecommunications infrastructure has two types of service providers: IXC (interexchange carriers) are the long-distance service providers which connect locations around the state, country, or world. LEC (local exchange carriers) provide local dial-tone service and a variety of wide-area services within their authorized territories.
8-4
WAN Components
Connection Types PVC and SVC

New York
S S S S
Los Angeles
S S S S
S S S S S
Switch Physical path Virtual path
The virtual path is Los Angeles to New York. The physical path is the cabling and switching systems which physically deliver the signals.
Figure 203: Connection Types PVC and SVC
A physical path and a virtual path are used to describe a circuit connection. The physical path is the transmission media (i.e., fiber, copper) used to transmit the signals. This path may change due to congestion or component failures. The virtual path or connection describes the two end points of the circuit, not the physical path in between. There are two types of virtual connections: PVC (permanent virtual circuit) This is a dedicated or leased-line connection established by the carrier. It is always up and connected, and pricing is typically set at a fixed monthly rate. SVC (switched virtual circuit) This is a non-dedicated connection, similar to a telephone call. Messages initiate the call and set up a connection between the two points for the duration of the transmission. When the call is completed, the connection is terminated. Pricing is typically on a per-use basis.
8-5
WAN Components
WAN Technologies
Circuit-Switching Networks
POTS 56 Kbps T1 T3 ISDN SONET
Figure 204: WAN Technologies
Packet-Switching Networks
Frame relay ATM X.25 SMDS
There are several WAN options available today. Most options are chosen based on cost and the organizations requirements. The different WAN technologies are broken into two main categories: Circuit switching Dedicated physical circuit into carrier network Packet switching Public carrier packet-switching network, includes cells and frames
Some WAN types, such as ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) and ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network), use a combination of technologies.
Depending on your organizations WAN needs, a circuit-switching technology, such as a T1 line, or a packet-switching network, like frame relay, might be the best fit. A careful analysis of the expected traffic usually points to one technology over the other, based on price and service needs.
8-6
WAN Components
WAN Circuit Switching

Switch 1 Switch 2
Switch 3
Switch 4
Figure 205: WAN Circuit Switching
Characteristics of circuit switching include: Either a switched line (regular phone service) or a dedicated leased line is used. Carrier networks provide transparent connections for customers. Analog as well as digital services are offered. T1 T3 ISDN DDS (Digital Data Service) Switched 56 Kbps
Examples of WAN circuit-switching networks include:
8-7
WAN Components
WAN Packet Switching

Router
LAN
Service provider packet-switching network

et ck Pa
LAN LAN
Packet
et ck Pa
LAN
et ck Pa
LAN
Switch Router
Figure 206: WAN Packet Switching
Characteristics of WAN packet switching include: A connection to the service provider network is present. Packet switching technologies are used to save money by sharing a physical network with many customers. Carrier switches direct traffic to the next destination. Packet switching provides the potential of multiple paths to improve reliability. Examples of WAN packet-switching networks include: ATM (cells) Frame relay (frames) X.25 (packets)
8-8
WAN Components
Wide Area Transmission Rates

OC-192 9.953 Gbps OC-48 2.488 Gbps OC-12 622 Mbps ATM OC-3 155 Mbps DS-3 44.736 Mbps DS1, PRI 1.544 Mbps BRI 128 Kbps DS-0 64 Kbps Up to 56 Kbps Dial-up
Figure 207: Wide Area Transmission Rates
T3 T1 Frac T1 Frame relay
ISDN
X.25
Figure 207 shows a wide variety of transmission rates that may be obtained for WANs. Not all services and transmission rates are available from every carrier at all locations.
8-9
WAN Components
WAN Media Types and Physical Interfaces

Copper
Fiber optics
Wireless
Figure 208: WAN Media Types and Physical Interfaces
There are three types of media used to transmit data on WANs: Copper (twisted-pair and coaxial) Fiber optic cable Wireless systems, such as microwave
There are four categories of general specifications defined for physical layer interfaces: Category
Mechanical Functional Electrical Procedural
Purpose
Defines the physical shape and look of the connectors (e.g., D-shaped) Designates a function for each pin or circuitalso defines the role of DTE (data terminal equipment) and DCE (data communications equipment) interfaces Defines the legal voltage ranges for bipolar shifting, the maximum capacitance limitations for cable lengths, and the grounding techniques used on the interface Defines circuit signaling between DTE and DCE
Figure 209: Physical Layer Interfaces
8-10
WAN Components
WAN Signaling Specifications

EIA/TIA-232-E Cable and Connectors
R 2.69 2.59
1 2 3
39.09 mm 38.84
2.62 2.46
47.17 mm 46.91
. .. . ..
13
8.48 8.23
25
8.03 7.77
14 15 16
10 typical
10 typical
to DTE
to DCE
Figure 210: WAN Signaling Specifications
Some common signaling specifications include: EIA/TIA-232-E EIA-530-A EIA/TIA-449/422/423 ITU-T V.35 ITU-T V.24/V.28 ITU-T X.21bis
Issues such as transmission speeds, cabling specifications, hardware protocols, and connector specifications are detailed in the standards.
8-11
WAN Components
WAN Equipment
LANS
Carrier network DTE DCE
T Router T Bridge T Computer
T DSU/CSU T Modem
Figure 211: WAN Equipment DCE and DTE
WAN signaling specifications have evolved through the years to reflect advances in technologies. These specifications define the electrical signaling between DCE and DTE.
DCE Examples
Modems DSU/CSU (data service unit/channel service unit)
DTE Examples
Routers Bridges Computers Printers
Details such as the transmit and receive signal designation, grounding, and other specifications can be determined based on the relationship between the DTE and the DCE.
8-12
WAN Components
Modems
DTE
Digital Analog
POTS Modem DCE

Standard analog phone line
Figure 212: Modems
Important Term
A modem (modulator/demodulator) is a DCE used to convert a computers digital transmission so that it can be sent out on an analog telephone line.
Modems are often classified as either two-wire (dial-up) or four-wire (dedicated). The largest growth in modem technology in recent years has been with dial-up modems. Modem vendors have tried to find ways to provide the fastest speeds possible for a price that personal computer owners can afford.
Dial-Up Modem Specifications

Name
V.32 V.32 bis V.34 V.35 V.42 V.42 bis V.90
Characteristics
Full duplex, 9,600 bps, dial-up over two wires, no error correction Full duplex, 14.4 Kbps, dial-up over two wires, error correction added Automatic adjustable speed range between 33.6 Kbps and 2,400 bps 56 Kbps and longer cable lengths LAPM (Link Access Procedure for Modems) protocol to do error correction in hardware 4:1 data compression and speeds up to 28,800 bps 56 Kbps standard
Figure 213: Dial-Up Modem Specifications
8-13
WAN Components
DSU/CSU
LANS
Toronto
DSU/CSU
Router
T1 line LANS Provider network
WAN
T1 line
New York
DSU/CSU
Figure 214: DSU/CSU
Important Term
DSU/CSU (data service unit/channel service unit) is the digital interface device, usually one device, originally two, that provides the physical connection to a carrier network.
DSU/CSU Characteristics
Often, the DSU/CSU is the DCE connecting a DTE (generally a router) to a carrier network. The CSU functionality provides signal regeneration and a mechanism for the carrier to test the line up to that point.
8-14
WAN Components
Multiplexing
1 2 3 Input channels 4 5 6
Figure 215: Multiplexing
Output channels
Mux
Important Term
A mux (multiplexer) is designed to combine data from multiple low capacity input channels onto a single high capacity output channel.
The primary benefit of multiplexing is that it saves money by reducing the number of transmission lines required. It is also useful because one input channel does not always keep the output channel busy. Common multiplexing techniques used in todays WANs include: TDM (time division multiplexing) Statistical multiplexing Frequency division multiplexing
Multiplexing is the basis for contemporary and future integration of data, voice, and video information.
8-15
WAN Components
Time Division Multiplexing

1 64 Kbps 2 64 Kbps 3 64 Kbps 4 64 Kbps 5 64 Kbps 64 Kbps 1 64 Kbps 2 64 Kbps 3
Mux
T1 line
Capacity = 1.544 Mbps
Mux
64 Kbps 4 64 Kbps 5

24 64 Kbps

64 Kbps 24
Input channels
Composite channel
Output channels
Figure 216: TDM (Time Division Multiplexing)
In TDM, each input channel is given a time slot during which the multiplexer receives data from that channel. Data is serialized over the composite channel, one input channel at a time. At the receiver, each input channel is directed to the appropriate output channel. TDM is most commonly used in digital networks. The system shown in Figure 216 is the DS1 (Digital Signal-1) transmission system. The multiplexers are called digital channel banks when all inputs have the same data rates. The T1 line can use twisted pair and has a capacity of 1.544 Mbps.
8-16
WAN Components
TDM Hierarchy
North American and International TDM Carrier Standards
North American Digital Signal Number DS1 (T1) DS2 (T2) DS3 (T3) DS4 (T4) Number of Voice Channels 24 96 672 4,032 Data Rate (Mbps) 1.544 6.312 44.736 274.176 1 2 3 4 5 E Level Number International Number of Voice Channels 30 120 480 1,920 7,680 Data Rate (Mbps) 2.048 8.448 34.368 139.264 565.148
Figure 217: TDM Hierarchy
Figure 217 shows the North American and the International TDM hierarchy. The North American hierarchy was developed by AT&T; the International one was developed under the auspices of the ITU. A regular analog telephone line, often called a DS0 channel, has a transmission speed of 64 Kbps. It is based on a system which samples 8 bits 8,000 times per second to yield adequate capacity to carry voice transmission. In the early 1960s, the need for developing multiplexing techniques became apparent. Multiplexing takes many separate signals and combines them on a single high-speed circuit for transmission. It then demultiplexes the signals on the other side.
8-17
WAN Components
Multiplexing Example
B T1 Router
LAN
T3 T3
C T3
LEC
T3
LEC
T3 T3 T3 To IXC
T1
LAN
Example 1 Example 2
Router
Figure 218: Multiplexing Example
The examples in Figure 218 show how multiplexing can be used. In the first example, a company has two sites, A and B. A T1 line is used to connect the routers in the locations. Notice that the T1 line is multiplexed with other services into a T3 for transmission. In the second example, C makes a regular telephone call to D. The one phone call is multiplexed with other calls and data for transmission.
8-18
WAN Components
SONET
LEC LEC
OC-48
SONET
IXC
SONET Long distance service providers

(AT&T, Sprint, MCI, etc.)
O C -4 8
IXC
SONET
LEC
LEC
SO
ET
LEC
SONET
SO N ET
92 -1 C
IXC
LEC
Figure 219: SONET
Overview
Various levels of SONET (Synchronous Optical Network) are implemented in the telecommunications infrastructure to provide physical transmission for services including regular telephone calls, T1, T3, frame relay, and ATM. These SONET connections are owned and operated by the IXC (interexchange carriers). These carriers lease portions of their capacity to each other. The SONET multiplexers are responsible for managing the enormously complex transmission system. LEC (local exchange carriers) and CLEC (competitive local exchange carriers) are also adding SONET to their infrastructure.
8-19
WAN Components
SONET Specifications
Frame relay Frame relay ATM T1 T3 POTS ISDN ATM
SONET OC-192
T1 T3 POTS ISDN
Figure 220: SONET Specifications
SONET Designation
STS-1 STS-3 STS-9 STS-12 STS-18 STS-24 STS-36 STS-48 STS-96 STS-192
ITU-T Designation
STM-1 STM-3 STM-4 STM-6 STM-8 STM-12 STM-16 STM-32 STM-64
Data Rate (Mbps)

51.84 155.52 466.56 622.08 933.12 1,244.16 1,866.24 2,488.32 4,976.64 9,953.28
Payload Rate (Mbps)

50.112 150.336 451.008 601.344 902.016 1,202.688 1,804.032 2,405.376 4,810.752 9,621.504
*STS also known as OC (optical carrier) level

Figure 221: SONET/ITU Signal Hierarchy
SONET provides high-speed communications over optical fiber using a consistent multiplexing scheme. Characteristics of SONET include: SONET is based on increments of 51.84 Mbps. IXCs are connected with various levels of SONET. SONET is the technology which delivers the services obtained from providers.
8-20
WAN Components
Section Review
1.
WANs are typically obtained through a service provider. a. True b. False
2.
Frame relay is an example of a circuit-switching network. a. True b. False
3.
A modem is used to connect a computer to an analog circuit. a. True b. False
4.
SONET is the underlying technology which provides the transmission of many services over great distances. a. True b. False
8-21
8-22
9
WAN Services
Section Topics
WAN Access and Services Leased Lines Switched Lines Packet-Switching Networks
9-1
WAN Services
Section Objectives
After completing this section, you will be able to: Identify the differences between circuit-switching networks and packetswitching networks Explain the operation of dedicated circuits, such as T1 lines Describe the use of ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) in todays WANs (wide area networks) Compare and contrast X.25 and frame relay
9-2
WAN Services
WAN Access and Services

LAN Location
Access
WAN Services
Figure 222: WAN Access and Services
A WAN (wide area network) can be seen as two entities: Access Physical connection to WAN service providers Services Various analog and digital WAN network types provided by carrier switches
Access (Speeds)
9,600 bps 56/64 Kbps POTS DDS T1 Fractional T1 T1 T3 SONET
' '
' '
Services
' '
T3 Fractional T3 X.25 ISDN BRI ISDN PRI Frame relay ATM
'
' ' '
' ' ' '
' ' '
'
Figure 223: WAN Access and Services
These services are either analog or digital. Some are circuit-switched, while others are packet-switched.
WAN Services
WAN Service Options

Circuit-Switching Networks
Switched Lines
T POTS T Switched 56 T ISDN BRI T ISDN PRI T SMDS T DSL T X.25 T Frame relay T ATM
Leased Lines T DDS
T Fractional T1 T T1 T Fractional T3 T T3
Which WAN service is right for me?
NOTE: ATM and ISDN can use a combination of circuit and packet switching
Figure 224: WAN Service Options
There are many options when selecting a WAN service. Factors to consider include: Availability of different speeds Type of connection (dedicated or switched) Price of the services Security of the data Availability of service Scalability for growth considerations
9-4
WAN Services
Leased Lines
To LANs
Toronto
Router
T1 line service provider

1.544 Mbps
To LANs
New York
Router
Figure 225: Leased Lines
A lease line, often referred to as a dedicated line, is a service consisting of a dedicated, permanent circuit between locations. Typically, a flat monthly rate with no additional usage charges is paid by subscribers. Leased-Line Service
DDS (Digital Data Service) Fractional T1 T1 Fractional T3 T3
Description
2,400 bps to 56 Kbps digital service Dedicated portion of T1 service, usually offered from 128 Kbps to 736 Kbps 1.544 Mbps dedicated service, equivalent to 24 DS0 channels Dedicated service ranging from 3.088 Mbps up to T3 speeds at 1.544 Mbps intervals Dedicated service equivalent to 28 T1 lines
Figure 226: Lease-Line Services
9-5
WAN Services
DDS
Dallas
56 Kbps DDS service
9,600 bps
Mux
DSU/ CSU
Service Provider
DSU/ CSU
Mux
Terminals
9,600 bps
Mainframe
Atlanta
Figure 227: DDS
DDS (Digital Data Service), started in 1973, was one of the first digital services tariffed by the telephone companies. It was later renamed Dataphone Digital Service by AT&T. Both voice and data transmission are serviced. Transmission speeds between 2.4 Kbps and 56 Kbps are available. DDS requires the use of a DSU/CSU (data service unit/channel service unit). DSU/CSUs perform the following functions: The DSU converts the standard DTE (V.35 or EIA 232) signal into the required AMI (alternate mark inversion) signal outbound and vice versa inbound. The CSU performs signal shaping to minimize bandwidth requirements, loopback testing, and general protection of the telephone company circuit.
9-6
WAN Services
T1 Service
To LANs
Portland
T1 line
1.544 Mbps
Router DSU/ CSU Service provider DSU/ CSU PBX
PBX To LANs
Minneapolis
Router
Figure 228: T1 Service
T1 service has the following characteristics: Dedicated circuit between two locations Consists of 24 DS0 channels to yield 1.544 Mbps of usable bandwidth (A DS0 channel is a 64 Kbps standard telephone service.) Priced on a monthly flat rate, not on usage Runs voice, video, and data run over the same T1 line Uses time division multiplexing Requires a DSU/CSU for connection Uses V.35 or EIA-530 for the physical interface
9-7
WAN Services
Fractional T1 Service
DS0 DS0
384 Kbps
DS0 DS0
DS0 DS0 DS0
DSU/ CSU
Service provider
DSU/ CSU
DS0 DS0 DS0
DS0
Equivalent to 1/4 T1 line in this example
DS0
Figure 229: Fractional T1 Service
Service providers may offer different speeds by using portions of T1 lines, known as fractional T1 service. The most common speeds are 384 Kbps (1/4 T1 line) and 768 Kbps (1/2 T1 line). Characteristics of fractional T1 include: Same pricing format as regular T1 lines Dedicated circuit in network Not always available
9-8
WAN Services
T3 and Fractional T3
1 2 1 2 DS0 channels 3 T1 lines 3

24
DS1 mux (T1)

28
DS3 mux (T3)
44.736 Mbps
Figure 230: T3 and Fractional T3
A T3 line has the following characteristics: Equivalent to 28 T1 lines Operates at 44.736 Mbps Capable of supporting 672 DS0 channels Often used for voice, data, and video Pricing structure similar to T1
Fractional T3 can also be obtained. Increments of T1s may be available from service providers at discounted rates.
9-9
WAN Services
Switched Lines
ISDN
Modem
Modem
ISDN
Figure 231: Switched Lines
Switched lines service is similar to a telephone service. When the line is needed, a circuit is set up for the duration of the session. When the session is over, the circuit is now free for another customer. Switched Line Service
POTS (plain old telephone service) Switched 56 ISDN BRI (Basic Rate Interface) ISDN PRI (Primary Rate Interface) SMDS (Switched Multimegabit Data Services) DSL (digital subscriber line)
Description
DS0 channel supporting modem standards to 56 Kbps 56 Kbps service often used as a backup for a service such as a T1 line Two 64 Kbps bearer channels and one 16 Kbps signaling channel (All signaling is digital.) Twenty-three 64 Kbps bearer channels and one 64 Kbps signaling channel (All signaling is digital.) MAN service for connecting LANs in a single metropolitan area New modem technology capable of speeds ranging from 160 Kbps up to 52 Mbps
Figure 232: Switched Line Services
9-10
WAN Services
POTS
POTS
Modem Modem
Figure 233: POTS
Many homes and businesses still use POTS, voice-grade analog telephone service, for connecting to the Internet and other locations using modems. Modem speeds usually range from 9,600 bps to 56 Kbps.
Advantages
Wide availability Relatively inexpensive modem equipment Free local dial-up service
Disadvantages
Low data speeds from a lack of analog bandwidth High bit error rate for data transmission Possibly expensive, depending on distance and the amount of data to be transmitted
9-11
WAN Services
ISDN Overview
ISDN service provider
TA
TA
All-digital transmission
TA Terminal adapter
Figure 234: ISDN Overview
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) is a completely digital end-to-end connection, offering many features, including caller ID and three-way calling. ISDN is available in two basic formats: BRI (Basic Rate Interface) Typically used by small businesses and residences, and as a backup router connection for other services such as frame relay PRI (Primary Rate Interface) Typically a business service, often used to link PBXs (private branch exchanges) B (bearer) channels 64 Kbps digital channels used to carry user traffic (voice, data, and video) D (data) channels Used for signalling control by carrier and customer equipment
There are two basic channel types in ISDN:
9-12
WAN Services
ISDN BRI
64 Kbps bearer channels
ISDN BRI
16 Kbps D channel
Figure 235: ISDN BRI
ISDN BRI has the following characteristics: The concept is similar to POTS, except all digital signaling is used. It consists of two B channels and one D channel. B channels are used for voice, data, video, and fax services. The D channel is used for signalling by the service provider and user equipment.
ISDN BRI can use normal telephone wiring at most locations (including residential).
Note
The two-wire connection must be conditioned by the service provider. Additional equipment is needed if the customer is greater than 18,000 wire feet from the telephone switch.
ISDN BRI uses a terminal adapter for the customer to interface into the network. It serves residential and small business customers, and is also used as a backup to other services such as T1 lines.
9-13
WAN Services
ISDN PRI
23 B channels
ISDN PRI
1 D channel
Figure 236: ISDN PRI
Characteristics of ISDN PRI include the following: ISDN PRI consists of 23 B channels and one D channel. ISDN PRI is generally a business service. It is often used to connect to an organizations PBX equipment.
9-14
WAN Services
SMDS
To LANs To LANs
Router
Router
SMDS MAN
To LANs
Router
Router
To LANs
Figure 237: SMDS
SMDS (Switched Multimegabit Data Service) is a service intended for the interconnection of LANs (local area networks) at high data rates up to T3 speeds. It is typically used as a MAN (metropolitan area network) service, but can be used in a WAN. Characteristics of SMDS include: The upper layers in an end system create the SMDS L3-PDU which carries the information used by the SMDS network to establish connectivity. The SIP (SMDS Interface Protocol) uses the DQDB (Distributed Queue Dual Bus) protocol to access the SMDS network. SMDS uses a telephone number address format. SMDS does not currently have a large market share.
9-15
WAN Services
DSL
Name
IDSL (Internet digital subscriber line) HDSL (high-data-rate digital subscriber line) SDSL (symmetric digital subscriber line) ADSL (asymmetric digital subscriber line) VDSL (very-high-data-rate digital subscriber line)
Data Rate
160 Kbps 1.544 Mbps 2.048 Mbps 1.544 Mbps 2.048 Mbps 1.5 to 9 Mbps 16 to 640 Kbps 13 to 52 Mbps 1.5 to 2.3 Mbps
Mode
Duplex Duplex Duplex Duplex Duplex Down Up Down Up
Overview
ISDN voice and data service (1 pair) 18,000 ft 24 AWG T1 Service Feeder (2 pair) T1 Service Feeder (3 pair) 12,000 ft 24 AWG HDSL plus premises access for symmetrical devices (1 pair) 10,000 ft 24 AWG Internet access, video, LAN access, interactive multimedia (1 pair) 9,00018,000 ft 24 AWG ADSL plus HDTV (1 pair) 1,0004,500 ft 24 AWG (future support)
Figure 238: DSL Options
DSL (digital subscriber line) is a technology for transmitting digital information at higher speeds on existing telephone lines. Characteristics of DSL include: DSL is a modem technology. A line would require two DSL modems (one at each end). The xDSL terminology refers to the various DSL technologies (current and future). Asymmetric means downstream speeds are higher than upstream speeds (user side).
9-16
WAN Services
London
Switch Router LAN P LAN Router LAN LAN
Denver
Switch P Switch P P P P P
Houston
LAN LAN
Switch P Packet
Router
Service provider network

Figure 239: Packet-Switching Networks
Packet, frame, and cell-switching networks have the following characteristics: A service provider supplies access to the public switching network. Data packets are switched through the network at the discretion of the switches. Bandwidth is available on demand.
Packet-switching networks include the following: Network

X.25 Frame relay
Description
Connection-oriented packet-switching network Speeds up to 56 Kbps Frame-switching virtual-circuit network Streamlined version of X.25 Up to T3 speeds supported High-speed cell-switching network Speeds range from T1 (1.544 Mbps) to SONET levels
Figure 240: Description of Packet-Switching Networks
ATM
9-17
WAN Services
X.25 Overview
Mainframe Terminal
Switch
New York
Switch
Switch
London
Chicago
Paris
Switch
X.25 Network
Figure 241: X.25 Overview
X.25 has the following characteristics: X.25 is a packet-switching network, designed to work anywhere in the world via PSTN (public switched telephone network). It is designed to operate over unreliable analog telephone lines accurately (pays a speed penalty for this feature). X.25 uses error detection and retransmission policies. It is a connection-oriented service, with support up to OSI layer 3. Analog and digital transmission are supported. X.25 can be set up as either an SVC (switched virtual circuit) or a PVC (permanent virtual circuit). Speeds up to 56 Kbps are supported. It is extensively used worldwide.
9-18
WAN Services
Frame Relay Overview

Ethernet LAN Ethernet LAN Ethernet LAN
Boston
Switch Switch Router
Ethernet LAN
Token ring LAN
Token ring LAN
Denver Dallas
Frame relay network
Atlanta
Switch
Token ring LAN
Ethernet LAN
Switch
Ethernet LAN
Token ring LAN
Ethernet LAN
Ethernet LAN
Figure 242: Frame Relay Overview
Frame relay has the following characteristics: Frame relay implements ISDN fast packet service. It is a virtual circuit-switched network. (The majority of implementations are PVCs.) Frame relay is a simple network that allows devices to communicate transparently, and is often described as a streamlined version of X.25. It is a connectionless layer 2 protocol. Variable-length frames are supported. Frame relay offers a wide range of access speeds (56 Kbps to 44.736 Mbps).
9-19
WAN Services
Frame Relay Components

DSU/ CSU PBX Access line FRAD DSU/ CSU DCE Frame relay network DCE Frame relay switches DSU/ CSU Router
Figure 243: Frame Relay Components
PBX
DTEs
DCE
DCE
DSU/ CSU
FRAD Router PBX
Frame relay components include: Component

DCE DTE DSU/CSU Access line
Description
Frame relay switch Router, bridge, PBX, hosts Data service unit/channel service unit Leased line to provider, ranging from 56 Kbps to 44.736 Mbps
Figure 244: Frame Relay Components
Note
DTEs may already have an interface which supports frame relay. Equipment without a frame relay interface may access the network using a FRAD (frame relay access device).
9-20
WAN Services
Frame Relay Operation

LANs
D
LANs DLCI 222 DLCI 406
Frame relay network B C

DLCI 136 DLCI 705 LANs LANs
Figure 245: Frame Relay Operation
Characteristics of frame relay operation include: The access line to the frame relay network needs to be established. A DLCI (data link connection identifier), which is given by the service provider, needs to be configured at each location. Each interface on each frame relay switch has a routing table used to forward frames through the network. A CIR (committed information rate) is used for pricing purposes. This CIR is a minimum transmission rate and is distance-insensitive. If a user exceeds their CIR, the data can be flagged as eligible for discard by the network. The CIR is an averaged number.
9-21
WAN Services
Frame Relay Frame Format

Flag Address Data
(up to 8 Kbps)
FCS
Flag
Upper DLCI C/R

6 bits 1 bit
EAO Lower DLCI FECN BECN DE

1 bit 4 bits 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit
EA1
1 bit
DLCI C/R FECN BECN DE EA
Data link connection identifier Command/response Forward explicit congestion notification Backward explicit congestion notification Discard eligibility Address extension
Figure 246: Frame Relay Frame Format
The frame relay frame format has the following fields: Field
Flag Address FCS Flag
Description
Indicates the beginning of a frame Contains DLCIs, DE and congestion information, among others Indicates the frame checksum for validity checking Indicates the end of the frame
Figure 247: Frame Relay Frame Format Fields
9-22
WAN Services
Frame Relay CIR

56 Discard eligible 32 16 0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 Kbps Kbps Kbps Kbps Kbps Kbps Kbps
CIR
Committed data
One second Committed data Discard eligible

Figure 248: Frame Relay CIR
The frame relay CIR (committed information rate) has the following characteristics: An agreed-upon committed rate which the frame relay service provider has guaranteed for a customer (The CIR is an averaged number.) Rates ranging from 0 Mbps to 1.544 Mbps (Some providers offers services up to T3 speeds.) Higher prices for a higher CIR Discarded data when traffic is busy (varies between carriers) Flat-rate pricing
9-23
WAN Services
ATM
Data
Imaging
ATM network
Voice
Data
Video
Voice
Figure 249: ATM
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) has the following characteristics: It is one of the broadband ISDN services. ATM is a cell switching-based physical layer protocol. It is designed to use SONET fiber-based facilities. ATM operates at various speeds, ranging from T1 to SONET levels. It is used in WANs, MANs, and LANs. It supports high bandwidth data needs, such as medical imaging. It supports time-sensitive applications, such as live video and voice. ATM provides bandwidth on demand. It uses fixed-length 53-byte cells.
9-24
WAN Services
ATM Implementations
Chicago
ATM service provider network
155 Mbps
622 Mbps
New York
ATM switch
ATM switches
622 Mbps 155 Mbps
ATM switch
ATM switches
Figure 250: ATM Implementations
ATM can be deployed at many points on a network, and at a variety of speeds. These include: ATM Implementation
WAN MAN Campus backbone Building backbone LAN
Description
Obtained through service provider at speeds from T1 (1.544 Mbps) to OC-48 (2.488 Gbps) Obtained through service provider at speeds from T1 (1.544 Mbps) to OC-48 (2.488 Gbps) Is a private connection ranging from OC-3 (155 Mbps) up to OC-48 (2.488 Gbps) Uses building fiber optic backbone typically at speeds from OC-3 (155 Mbps) to OC-12 (622 Mbps) Uses Category 5 cabling system and generally operates at 155 Mbps
Figure 251: ATM Implementations
9-25
WAN Services
ATM Layers
A ATM device ATM device B
OSI
OSI
7 6 5 4 3 Layer 2 protocol
(i.e., Ethernet, frame relay)
7 6 OSI layers 37 OSI layers 37 5 4 3 Layer 2 protocol

(i.e., Ethernet, frame relay)
CS
Convergence sublayer
SAR
Segmentation & reassembly
AAL (ATM adaption layer)
CS
Convergence sublayer
SAR
Segmentation & reassembly
ATM layer 1 Physical layer ATM network
ATM layer Physical layer 1
Figure 252: ATM Layers
ATM layers have the following characteristics: ATM Layer

Physical layer ATM layer SAR (segmentation and reassembly) CS (convergence sublayer)
Description
Transmission protocols used over the physical media (typically uses levels of SONET) Manages the transmission over a link between two nodes Portion of AAL (ATM adaption layer) which divides the data stream into cells on the sender side, reassembling the cells into an understandable format for the application on the receiver side Portion of the AAL which specifies the type of application being carried in the cell (The application requirements are placed into four services classes.)
Figure 253: ATM Layers
9-26
WAN Services
ATM Service Classes

C C A C C C A C C C A C C A A C A A
ATM switches examine each cell to determine the class of service it contains. Class A service cell get top priority through the switch.
A Class A service ATM cell C Class C service ATM cell

Figure 254: ATM Service Classes
ATM service classes include: ATM Service Class

Class A
Description
Supports AAL1 Used for constant bit-rate traffic, such as video and voice Connection-oriented and constant bit rate Supports AAL2 Used for variable bit rate applications, such as packet video Connection-oriented Supports AAL3 and AAL4 Used for conventional frame and packet services, such as TCP/IP, Ethernet, and Frame Relay Connection-oriented protocol which is not sensitive to delay, but is sensitive to cell loss Supports AAL5 Used to support SMDS Same as Class C, except connectionless
Figure 255: Description of ATM Service Classes
Class B
Class C
Class D
9-27
WAN Services
ATM Cell Structure

ATM cells GFC Header
5 octets
VPI VCI VCI

(9 octets)
CELL CELL
VPI
VCI
HEC
Information
48 octets
ATM cell
Path header
Payload type CLP
SONET frame
Figure 256: ATM Cell Structure
ATM cells include the following fields: Field

GFC (generic flow control) VPI (virtual path identifier) VCI (virtual channel identifier) PTI (payload type identifier) CLP (cell loss priority) HEC (header error control) Information
Comments
Local significance only 1 byte provides up to 255 VPs per physical port 2 bytes provides up to 65,536 VCs per VP Identifies cell payload as either user data or ATM management data Identifies cell as being discard-eligible or not Detects and corrects cell header errors Payload of 48 bytes of data
Figure 257: ATM Cells Fields
9-28
WAN Services
ATM Virtual Paths and Channels

Virtual Path 5 User B
User A
Virtual Path 1
ATM network switch
VC-4
VC-2
VC-3
VC-1
VC-4
VC-2
User C
Multiple virtual
VC-4
VC-2
channels can share the same virtual path.
Virtual Path 10
Figure 258: ATM Virtual Paths and Channels
ATM virtual paths and channels contain the following parameters: Parameter
VPL (virtual path link) VP (virtual path) VPC (virtual path connection) VPI (virtual path identifier) VCC (virtual channel connection) VCI (virtual channel identifier) VCL (virtual channel link)
Description
A link between two nodes that is shared by a number of VCs (virtual channels) Identical end points A concatenation of VPLs The identifier of a VPL A concatenation of VCLs The ID of a VCL Link between two nodes that is a part of the VCC
Figure 259: ATM VP and VC Parameters
9-29
WAN Services
Section Review
1.
List two leased line options.
2.
T1 line capacity is equal to ______ DS0 channels. a. 1 b. 12 c. 24 d. 28
3.
ISDN BRI has which of the following characteristics? a. 1 DS0 line b. 2 B channels and 1 D channel c. 24 B channels
4.
ATM can operate at a variety of speeds. a. True b. False
9-30
10
The Internet
Section Topics
Internet Overview and Structure Intranets Accessing the Internet Internet Applications and Tools Networking Resources on the Internet Future Internet Trends
10-1
The Internet
Section Objectives
After completing this section, you will be able to: Explain the structure of the Internet Describe an intranet List common Internet applications Explain how the URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is used
10-2
The Internet
Internet Overview and Structure

NSP
MCI, Sprint, ANS, IBM, etc.
Countries worldwide
NAP
San Jose MAE West
NAP
San Francisco PacBell
NAP
Dallas MAE South
NAP
Chicago Ameritech
NAP
New York/NJ Sprint
NAP
Virginia MAE East
ISP
ISP
ISP
ISP
ISP
Users
Users
Users
Users
Users
Users
Figure 260: Internet Overview and Structure
The Internet is used by millions of people across the world to communicate business and personal information. The Internet has grown at a tremendous rate in the last several years. That growth rate seems likely to continue.
History of the Internet

The Internet is based on work done by the U.S. government started in 1969 at ARPA (Advanced Research Projects Agency). ARPANET was formed in the late 1970s and connected sites around the United States using the TCP/IP protocol suite. The NSF (National Science Foundation) funded a high-speed backbone called NSFNET with T1 and T3 links from the mid-1980s to April 30, 1995.
10-3
The Internet
NAPs (national access points or network access points) are regional facilities that are now used to carry traffic through different parts of the United States. Three of the NAPs are sanctioned by the InterNIC (Internet Network Information Center), and three of them are owned by MFS (Metropolitan Fiber System). They are located in Texas, Virginia, and California. NSPs (national service providers) connect the NAPs within the United States, typically using T3 links. They also currently connect to 61 other countries. ISPs (Internet service providers) provide local commercial service within an area, state, or across the country.
10-4
The Internet
Intranets
Internet
Firewall
Company A Intranet
Figure 261: Intranets
Important Term
An intranet is a private network.
Intranets are used by many companies to provide internal communication between employees and resources. Intranets are normally used for security reasons or connectivity requirements. Intranets are based on the TCP/IP protocol suite. They typically use an internal IP (Internet Protocol) addressing system, which itself uses a private Class A address (such as 10.0.0.0) or Class B address (such as 172.25.0.0). A company intranet is often connected to the public Internet through a firewall, which usually provides the following functions: Converts the intranet IP addressing system to a valid public Internet addressing system Provides security functionality by filtering based on addressing and protocols of incoming and outgoing traffic
10-5
The Internet
Accessing the Internet

Modem ISDN 56 Kbps line T1 line T3 line Frame relay X.25
Internet
ATM DSL Cable modem

Figure 262: Accessing the Internet
The way you access the Internet and the speeds at which you do so usually depend on where you are and how much you are willing to pay for the services. Most home users use a regular phone line and a modem for connection to the Internet. Many companies now have dedicated connections to the Internet ranging in speeds from 56 Kbps to T3 speeds. All services are not always offered in all areas. TCP/IP is the communications protocol that must be used regardless of the method of physical access to the Internet.
Access Methods
Access Method
Modem access ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) Dedicated connection Public packet-switching network ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) Cable modem DSL (digital subscriber line)
Comments
Regular analog phone line and a modem Service at various speeds 56 Kbps to T3 connection Frame relay and X.25 service Speeds from T1 to T3 Up to 10 Mbps speeds from provider Slow dial-up speeds, but fast downstream transmission
Figure 263: Internet Access Methods
10-6
The Internet
Internet Applications and Tools
E-mail (SMTP)
SNMP
login
NNTP
Telnet
FTP
IRC
WWW (HTTP)
Figure 264: Internet Applications and Tools
Internet Applications
Application
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) FTP (File Transfer Protocol) IRC (Internet Relay Chat) Telnet SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) NNTP (Network News Transfer Protocol)
Comments
WWW server-based applications allowing clients (browsers) to access data, images, video, and sound E-mail system providing worldwide communication Protocol providing a method of moving files around the Internet Programs allowing groups of users to interactively communicate Application allowing remote login capability Protocol allowing network management through the Internet Protocol which makes Usernet possible
Figure 265: Internet Applications
10-7
The Internet
The World Wide Web
Popular Web Browsers

Netscape Communicator Microsoft Internet Explorer
Figure 266: The World Wide Web
The WWW has fueled tremendous growth in the Internet in recent years.
Important Terms
The WWW is a server-based application that allows clients or browsers to access Web services.
Characteristics
The WWW uses HTML (Hypertext Markup Language), which contains links to other data. Browsers such as Netscape Communicator and Microsoft Internet Explorer are common user applications for accessing data. Mosaic was the first graphical Web browser available.
10-8
The Internet
URL
Path name Server name
http://am.globalknowledge.com/netfunds.html
Service type File name
Figure 267: URL
Important Term
URL (uniform resource locator) is the system for identifying documents on Internet Web servers.
The URL system allows millions of pieces of information to be organized and located quickly. There are six components defined within the URL system. Three of these parts are required, and three are optional.
Components
Component
Service type System/server name Path name Port Last file name Database search request details
Required or Optional
Required Required Required Optional Optional Optional
Details
HTTP, Telnet, FTP Domain name File location Port information for the client # or ? in the URL
Figure 268: Parts of the URL
10-9
The Internet
HTTP
HTTP browser
HTTP server
HTTP TCP IP Network
HTTP TCP IP
n Request o Response
Network
Figure 269: HTTP
Important Terms
HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) allows Web servers and Web browsers to communicate with one another.
Characteristics
The HTTP model uses a request/response protocol. The client (browser) sends the server (Web server) a request, and the server responds to the request. Proxy servers may assist in transactions by translating requests/responses to proper formats. Each request from a client opens a new TCP connection at the Web server. After the TCP session is open, the requests can be processed.
10-10
The Internet
Java
java
onClick = "functionName ( ) ; " onClick = "JavaScript statements; "
Figure 270: Java
Java is a programming language that can be used on a variety of computer platforms.
Characteristics
Java is an object-oriented language. Security features are used to help protect against code tampering. It has many automated features. The language is designed to write smaller applications or applets. Java was developed by Sun Microsystems. It uses a write once, read by all philosophy (not constrained to a single operating system).
10-11
The Internet
Networking Resources on the Internet

Networking Forums
Site
IEEE ITU ANSI Gigabit Ethernet ATM Forum ADSL Forum Frame Relay Forum North American ISDN Users Group Internet Architecture Board Internet Assigned Numbers Authority Internet Society World Wide Web Consortium Internet Engineering Task Force ISO (International Organization for Standardization)
Address
http://www.ieee.org http://www.itu.ch http://www.ansi.org http://www.gigabitethernet.org http://www.atmforum.com http://www.adsl.com/ http://www.frforum.com http://www.niuf.nist.gov/misc.niuf.html http://www.iab.org http://www.iana.org http://www.isoc.org http://www.w3.org http://www.ietf.org http://www.iso.ch
Figure 271: Networking Forums
10-12
The Internet
Future Internet Trends

Tokyo London
New York
Figure 272: Future Internet Trends
It is hard to predict the future of the Internet. One thing does seem clear, however: change and growth will continue. Some future Internet trends may include the following: Live video conferences become common. Voice over IP through the Internet becomes common. The population of telecommuters grows. Internet commerce grows. Education is enhanced. Entertainment choices (e.g., sports, movies) expand.
10-13
The Internet
Section Review
1.
What does URL stand for?
2.
An intranet is set up similar to the Internet, except it is private to the organization. a. True b. False
3.
HTTP uses a request/response protocol. a. True b. False
4.
Java is a proprietary language that runs on only one platform. a. True b. False
10-14
A
Section Topics
Token Passing Protocols Overview IEEE 802.5 Token Ring ANSI X3T9.5 FDDI Ethernet/Token Ring/FDDI Comparison
A-1
Appendix A
Section Objectives
After completing this section, you will be able to: Identify the benefits of the token passing protocol Explain token ring operation Explain FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) operation Differentiate Ethernet, token ring, and FDDI operation
A-2
Appendix A
Token Passing Protocols Overview
Token
A token passing protocol is similar to a relay raceeach runner must wait for the baton to be passed to complete his leg of the race.
Figure 273: Token Passing Protocols
Token passing protocols take a different approach to sharing access to the network than Ethernet does. In Ethernet, there is no guarantee when a station will transmit a frame, and each station is required to compete to send a frame. In token ring and FDDI, which use the token passing approach, each station sends frames in a predetermined order, guaranteeing access to the network. Token ring and FDDI are generally considered more complex LAN (local area network) protocols than Ethernet, and therefore have historically been more expensive and difficult to implement. Thus, the market share is not as great as that of Ethernet. A token passing protocol is similar to a relay race where each runner must wait for the baton to be passed to him or her to complete that leg of the race. The token circulates across the network, and each device must wait for the token to arrive at its location before it can send data on the network.
A-3
Appendix A
Benefits of Token Passing Protocols
Support for time-sensitive applications such as voice and video
Devices equipped with video capabilities

Figure 274: Benefits of Token Passing Protocols
Benefits of token passing protocols include the following: Access to the network is guaranteed. Built-in management of the ring is provided. Priority schemes can be deployed on devices. Timers are used to ensure proper operation. Unlike Ethernet, no collisions occur, which increases the efficiency of the network. Time-sensitive applications can be supported. A high degree of reliability for the LAN can be provided (backup cabling paths).
Note
These features, however, come with a penalty. Typically, there are higher component costs (e.g., hub, NIC [network interface card]) in token ring LANS compared to Ethernet LANs.
A-4
Appendix A
IEEE 802.5 Token Ring
T
Station 1
Station 4 Router
Station 2
T Token
Station 3
Figure 275: IEEE 802.5 Token Ring
Important Term
Token ring is a deterministic LAN technology that uses the token passing protocol for its media access control.
Token ring is a LAN technology with several features designed to make it more predictable than Ethernet.
Characteristics
Token ring operates at 4 Mbps or 16 Mbps. However, speeds on the same ring must not be mixed. New 100 Mbps token ring networks are being deployed. Each device is physically star wired back to a hub or MAU (multistation access unit). The hub or MAU logically connects the stations to form a ring. A priority scheme for stations may be configured. Access to the ring is guaranteed. Built-in network management is provided.
A-5
Appendix A
Token Ring Token Passing Protocol

Station 2 has a frame to send.
T
Station 1
Station 4 Router Frame T
Station 2
T Token Frame Station 3
The station must wait for the token to arrive before it can transmit the frame out to the token ring network.
Figure 276: Token Ring Token Passing Protocol
Token passing is a MAC (media access control) protocol which is referred to as deterministic, because each device is guaranteed access to the network. However, the device must wait its turn in order to transmit. The token ring token-passing protocol operates in the following manner: 1. 2. Once a station detects a token, it uses it to construct a frame that it then transmits onto the ring. When a receiving station detects a frame with its address as the destination address, it copies the frame. It does not remove the frame from the ring. Instead, the receiving station flips the recognized address and frame-copied bits in the frame status field and sends the modified frame back out to the network. When the frame arrives back at the sending station, it examines and removes the frame from the ring after determining if the frame was accurately received by the destination device. The source station then transmits a new token for use by other devices on the ring.
3.
4.
A-6
Appendix A
Token Ring Design and Implementation

MAUs or hubs User
RI RO
User Users connected to lobe ports Server Token ring NIC installed in each device
Fiber optic cables are typically used to form the main ring by connecting the ring in and ring out ports on the MAUs or hubs.
User
RI RO
User
RI RO
Router
Connections to other LANs and/or WANs
Figure 277: Token Ring Design and Implementation
MAU is the term used by IBM for the component in the TC (telecommunications closet) used to connect the devices in a token ring LAN. In most LANs today, the token ring electronics have evolved to include active retiming of the signals and network management features. These components are commonly referred to as hubs. Depending on the lobe and main ring cabling used, the lengths of these cables, and the electronics manufacturers, the maximum number of stations supported will vary from 72 to 250 on a single ring. Typically, a backup path exists on the main ring cabling, which allows the ring to stay intact with a cable fault.
A-7
Appendix A
Token Ring Physical and Logical Design

Physical Design Star
MAU or hub
Logical Design Ring
1 4 3 4 3 2
Figure 278: Token Ring Physical and Logical Design
When designing and troubleshooting a token ring LAN, you should have a clear picture of the physical and logical design of the network. A token ring LAN is usually installed in the following manner: Category 5 UTP (or IBM Type 1 cable) is installed from the TC to each users desk. In the TC, the cabling is connected to a hub or MAU. The MAU or hub connects the users logically to form a ring. Each station participating in the ring has an upstream neighbor and a downstream neighbor. Neighbors may change throughout the day, as users enter and leave the network.
A-8
Appendix A
Token Format
Token
1 byte 1 byte 1 byte
SD (Starting delimiter)
AC (Access control) ppptmrrr

8 bits
ED (Ending delimiter)
p t m r
Priority bits Token bit Monitor bit Reservation bits

Figure 279: Token Format
How Does a Station Use a Token?

The SD (starting delimiter) is used to identify the beginning of a transmission and for synchronization purposes. The AC (access control) field is used as follows: Each station has an assigned priority, ranging from 0 to 7, corresponding to the three ppp bits in the field. To use a token, a station must wait until it detects a token with a priority less than, or equal to its own. This token can then be used by the station to send a single frame. If the token bit is set to 0 in the AC field, it is part of a token frame. If set to 1, then it is part of a data frame. The monitor bit is set to 0 by the transmitting station. This bit is then flipped to 1 when received by the active monitor station. If the active monitor sees the frame again with the monitor bit still set to 1, the frame is removed from the ring. This only occurs in an error situation, when the sender of the frame does not remove the frame it sent out. This prevents frames from circulating endlessly on the ring. The three reservation bits reserve a token on the next pass to the senders priority. The ED (ending delimiter) indicates the end of the frame.
A-9
The AC field bits are defined as follows:
Appendix A
Token Ring Frame Format

1 byte 1 byte 1 byte 6 bytes 6 bytes 6 bytes 04,500 bytes 4 bytes 1 byte 1 byte
SD
Frame Access Destination Source control control address address

ff zz zzzz
Route info
Data IP TCP
FCS
ED
Frame status
acrracrr
ff
00 = MAC ring data 01 = LLC user data
a c r
zzzzzz Types of MAC frames (i.e., Active Monitor present or Beacon frames, etc.)
0 = Address not recognized 1 = Address recognized 0 = Frame not copied 1 = Frame copied 1 = Reserved bits
Figure 280: Token Ring Frame Format
The token ring frame format has the following characteristics: The AC field has the same pattern as in the token format, except the token bit is now set to 1, indicating that it is a frame and not a token. The frame control field specifies the type of data in the data field. The destination address is the 6-byte MAC address of the target device. The source address is the 6-byte MAC address of the device that sent the frame. The route info field is an optional field. It is used when source routing is configured in the network to connect multiple token ring LANs. In this situation, it specifies a route to be taken by a frame between the source and the destination when bridges and rings are to be traversed. The data field contains the NOS (network operating system) information, plus the actual data. Generally, the data field is between 0 and 4,500 bytes. However, in some situations, the device may be configured to make the data field as large as 18 KB. The FCS (frame check sequence) is the mechanism used to detect if an error occurred during transmission. The FS (frame status) field is used to indicate to the transmitter if the frame was copied by the intended destination. The SD and ED are used in the same way as described in the token format.

A-10
Appendix A
Token Ring Frame Example
SUMMARY M 1 2 3 4 5
Delta T 0.020 6.906 0.011 6.916
DST Broadcast Broadcast Broadcast Broadcast Broadcast
SRC Nestar000001 APPC #2 Nestar000001 APPC #2 Nestar000001
MAC MAC MAC MAC MAC
Active Monitor Present Standby Monitor Present Active Monitor Present Standby Monitor Present Active Monitor Present
DETAIL DLC: ----- DLC Header ----DLC: DLC: Frame 3 arrived at 17:18:12.276 ; frame size is 32 <0020 hex> bytes. DLC: AC: Frame priority 0, Reservation priority 0, Monitor count 0 DLC: FC: MAC frame, PCF attention code: Active monitor present Frame 3 of 186 HEX EBCDIC
0000 0010
10 05 20 1c 73 11 20 48 00 21 27 00 00 01 00 12 01 29 00 06 41 01 00 00 10 20 04 33 07 10 00 10
Frame 3 of 186
T.{.............
...............
Access control
1 byte
Frame control
1 byte
Destination address
6 bytes
Source address
6 bytes
Figure 281: Token Ring Frame Example
Figure 281 shows an example of a token ring frame as interpreted by a protocol analyzer.
Frame Details
Data Type
Access control field Frame control field Destination address Source address
Data
10 05 20 1C 73 11 20 48 00 21 27 00 00 01
Indicates
Indicates that this is a frame with no priority MAC ring data active monitor present frame Destination NIC (MAC address) Source NIC (MAC address)
Figure 282: Token Ring Frame Details
A-11
Appendix A
Note
To determine the details of the access control and frame control fields shown here, it is necessary to convert the hexadecimal characters 10 and 05 to binary, and then use the bit definitions provided in the token and frame formats in this section.
A-12
Appendix A
Token Ring Active Monitor

Standby monitor
Standby monitor
Standby monitor
Standby monitor
Active monitor (Highest MAC address)
Standby monitor
Figure 283: Token Ring Active Monitor
The active monitor is responsible for many ring management activities. It is nominated through a procedure called the claim process, and is either the first station turned on, or the station with the highest-value MAC address.
The Active Monitor

Sends out the first token Insures there is only one token on the ring at any time Prevents frames from circulating endlessly by flagging the data when it first passes Checks for presence of other active monitors
Standby Monitor
A standby monitor takes over the role of the active monitor if the active monitor fails or leaves the network.
A-13
Appendix A
ANSI X3T9.5 FDDI

100 Mbps rings
1st
Primary ring Secondary ring

Figure 284: ANSI X3T9.5 FDDI
Important Term
FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) is a high-speed LAN technology, which can be deployed in several different scenarios.
FDDI deployments include: Serving as a campus backbone Operating as a building backbone Connecting devices in an FDDI LAN Connecting mainframes Combining any of the options listed above
The most common implementation of FDDI is as a campus or building backbone, connecting Ethernet and token ring LANs via bridges, routers, or both. FDDI uses a token passing protocol similar to that of token ring.
A-14
Appendix A
Campus Backbone Design Example

Ethernet switch Token ring LAN Server Ethernet hubs
Users Server Ethernet hubs
FDDI rings
Mainframe Ethernet hubs Token ring LAN
Ethernet hubs
Figure 285: Campus Backbone Design Example
Characteristics of FDDI design include: 100 Mbps transmission Up to 500 network attachments Dual ring topology (primary and secondary rings) for redundancy Large extent of 200 km (total path lengths) Built-in network management SMT (Station Management)
Three cabling options can be used. Cabling Option

Multimode fiber optic cable (MMF-PMD) Category 5 UTP cable (TP-PMD)
Comments
The most common option PMD (physical medium dependent) indicates physical layer specifications
Figure 286: FDDI Cabling Options
Single mode fiber optic cable (SMF-PMD) Often used in MANs (metropolitan area networks)
A-15
Appendix A
FDDI Token Passing Protocol
n Device 1 has data to
Ethernet LAN
Ethernet LAN
send. It must wait until the token arrives.
o It may then send as

F
I
T
I
Ethernet LAN
many frames as it can until its timer expires.
F F
Ethernet LAN
7,0(
Primary ring
4
Secondary ring
Ethernet LAN
2
I I
T Token F Frame I Idle symbol

Ethernet LAN
p At this point, it must

Ethernet LAN
stop sending frames and issue a token.
Figure 287: FDDI Token Passing Protocol
The FDDI token passing MAC has the following characteristics: FDDI deploys several timers, including the TTRT (target token rotation time), which is a time agreed on by all of the devices on the network in which the token will make a complete round-trip of the ring. FDDI allows a station to send multiple frames based on each devices percentage of the TTRT. For example, if there are four stations on the ring, each device would be granted 25 percent of the TTRT to send data. When the token arrives, the device sends frames until this time expires. It then stops sending frames and issues a token for the next device along the ring. Collectively, the stations reach the required token rotation time. FDDI allows a station to use other stations unused time on the ring, if available. The TTRT is between 4 ms and 165 ms (.004 seconds and .165 seconds). FDDI frames may carry various priority levels. When the rings are operating properly, all network traffic is travelling on the primary ring. The secondary ring remains in a stand-by mode, waiting for a fault to occur in cabling or components, so that it can supply a backup path.
A-16
Appendix A
FDDI Dual Ring Topology

n Cable failure occurs
between device 4 and device 1. Device 1
p The secondary ring

wraps to the primary ring at device 1.
Primary ring
Device 4
Secondary ring
Device 2
o The primary ring wraps

to the secondary ring at device 4.
Device 3
Figure 288: FDDI Dual Ring Topology
FDDI dual ring operation has the following characteristics: The two rings are used to provide redundancy in case of a device failure or a cable fault. In normal operation, the token and frames travel only on the primary ring in a single direction. The secondary ring transmits idle signals in the opposite direction. This network is referred to as being in the through state. If a cable segment or device becomes disabled, the primary ring wraps back around onto the secondary ring. The diagram in Figure 288 illustrates this function. This is considered a wrap condition.
A-17
Appendix A
FDDI Token Format

2 sym 2 sym 2 sym
SD (Start delimiter)
Frame control
ED (End delimiter)
C L F F
Z Z Z Z
C L FF ZZZZ sym
Class bit Address length bit Format bits Control bits Data symbol = 4 bits
Figure 289: FDDI Token Format
The FDDI token format has the following characteristics: FDDI uses coded symbols (instead of hexadecimal characters as with Ethernet or token ring), shown as sym in Figure 289. The token frame has FF bits and ZZZZ bits set to 0. When a station wishing to transmit sees these settings, it captures the token and begins transmitting if the C and L bits are set appropriately. The FDDI protocol uses restricted and nonrestricted tokens: C/L = 1/1 Restricted token C/L = 0/1 Nonrestricted token
This provides a level of priority for stations to be set.
A-18
Appendix A
FDDI Frame Format

16 sym 2 sym 2 sym 4/12 sym 4/12 sym 09,000 sym 8 sym
Preamble
SD
Frame Destination Source control address address
Data IP TCP
FCS
ED
Frame status
Error Address Frame detect recog copied

1 sym 1 sym 1 sym Figure 290: FDDI Frame Format
The FDDI frame format has the following characteristics: The preamble is for synchronization purposes. The SD indicates the beginning of the frame. The frame control field indicates the type of frame. For example, it may indicate a ring management frame or user data. The destination address is the MAC address of the NIC that the frame is intended for. The source address is the MAC address of the NIC that has transmitted the frame. The data field contains the NOS information, plus the data. The FCS is used to check for errors during transmission. The ED indicates the end of the frame. The FS field is used to assist the sender of the frame in recognizing if the intended receiver copied the frame properly. It also has an error-detection bit that isolates where the error was first recognized, which is helpful in troubleshooting FDDI networks.
A-19
Appendix A
FDDI Frame Decode

************************************************************************* ***** Measurement: FDDI Stack Decode ***** ***** Print Type: Current frame 406 ***** ***** Open Views: Detailed Data ***** ***** Display Mode: Viewing All frames ***** ***** Print Date: 10/29/98 ***** ***** Print Time: 11:39:28 ***** ************************************************************************* Frame: 406 Time: Oct [email protected]:55.7681450 Length: 21 ***** DETAILED FORMAT ***** FDDI Protocol note -> Preamble >= 255 symbol pairs Frame Control C3 (Hex) Class bit 1...-.... Synchronous Address Length bit .1..-.... 48 bit address Format bits ..00-.... MAC frame Control bits ....-0011 Claim frame Destination Address 0002E40014D6 Individual, universal Source Address 0002E40014D6 Individual, universal Target Rotation Time 164.99968 ms. Error Detected Reset No errors detected Address Recognized Reset Address not recognized Frame Copied Reset Frame not copied Frame check sequence 99-F3-AA-F4 > Preamble sysbol pairs 255 > Control Indicators 3 ***** DATA FORMAT ***** C3 00-02-E4-00-14-D6 00-02-E4-00-14-D6 FF-E0-87-60
Figure 291: FDDI Frame Decode
Figure 291 is an example of an FDDI frame, captured and displayed by an FDDI protocol analyzer. The frame is a claim frame. This is where a station is sending a frame to itself around the ring to initialize the ring, establish timer criteria, and find out about other devices on the ring. Notice that the preamble, SD, and ED are filtered out by the analyzer for the display.
A-20
Appendix A
FDDI Port Types

A B
Primary ring Secondary ring
S NIC S
Figure 292: FDDI Port Types
Port Type
A B M S
Function
Primary ring in/secondary ring out Secondary ring in/primary ring out Primary ring in/primary ring out Primary ring in/primary ring out
Use
Backbone Backbone Concentrator NIC card
Figure 293: FDDI Port Types
The FDDI port types and functionality provide the redundancy of the dual ring topology. Basically, for the backbone connections, A ports plug into B ports to form the dual rings. Individual connections do not normally connect to both rings, because a user turning his or her device off would cause the network to wrap.
A-21
Appendix A
FDDI Cabling Options
MMF-PMD
(2,000 m)
SMF-PMD
(58 km)
TP-PMD (100 m)
There are three different FDDI cabling specifications: Cabling Option

Multimode fiber optic cable (MMF-PMD) Single mode fiber optic cable (SMF-PMD) Category 5 UTP (TP-PMD) sometimes referred to as CDDI
Distance Supported
2,000 m between stations
Typical Use
Campus and building backbone
Up to 58 km between stations, Campus backbone and MAN depending on laser specs 100 meters Connects end users to FDDI hub with UTP
The most commonly installed FDDI cabling specification is the multimode fiber optic cabling standard.
A-22
Appendix A
Ethernet/Token Ring/FDDI Comparison

Category
Standards Cost 100 Mbps support Can operate on UTP cable Contention MAC Deterministic MAC Multivendor support Data field in bytes Priority mechanism Built-in network management Send multiple frames Installed base
Ethernet
Yes Low Yes Yes Yes No Yes 461,500 No No No High
Token Ring
Yes Medium No Yes No Yes Yes 017,800 Yes Yes No Medium
FDDI
Yes High Yes Yes No Yes Yes 04,500 Yes Yes Yes Low
Figure 296: Ethernet/Token Ring/FDDI Comparison
Figure 296 briefly summarizes and compares Ethernet, token ring, and FDDI.
A-23
Appendix A
Section Review
1.
Token ring devices of 4 Mbps and 16 Mbps may operate on the same ring. a. True b. False
2.
Token ring uses a token passing protocol. a. True b. False
3.
Token passing may support time-sensitive applications. a. True b. False
4.
FDDI uses a dual ring topology. a. True b. False
5.
In normal FDDI operation, the data and token travel on the primary ring. a. True b. False
A-24
B
Appendix B: Section Review Answers
B-1
Appendix B
Section 1: Networking Overview

1. Networks are often physically and logically segmented in order to achieve performance and security goals. a. 2. True
This type of network connects users in a department, group, or company. LAN
3.
Networking applications used on a network, such as E-mail and imaging, have no impact on how the network should be designed. b. False
4.
This network type is used to connect distant locations and is obtained through a service provider. WAN
Section 2: Standards Organizations and the OSI Model

1. 2. IEEE 802.3 is the standard for Ethernet networks. Which layer of the OSI model is used by routers? c. 3. Layer 3
Which layer of the OSI model does a hub operate? a. Layer 1
4.
An Ethernet switch operates using _________________ addresses. MAC (media access control)
5.
Connection-oriented protocols are used because of the reliability of features offered for data travelling through networks. a. True
B-2
Appendix B
Section 3: LAN Components

1. The media access control address of a NIC is ________ bytes long. Six 2. What kind of cabling system do most LAN installations use for desktop connections? Category 5 UTP 3. Which type of fiber optic cable is often installed as a building backbone for todays networks? Multimode 4. Ethernet switches are often used to connect several Ethernet networks using media access control addresses. a. 5. True
A protocol analyzer is a device attached to a network to help provide troubleshooting and baseline duties. a. True
Section 4: CSMA/CD Overview

1. List three 10Mbps Ethernet cabling topologies. 10BaseT 10Base2 10BaseFL 2. The CSMA/CD protocol is a contention-based method. a. 3. True
The media access control address in Ethernet is ________ bytes long. Six
4.
The 5-4-3 rule defines the extent of a single Ethernet collision domain. a. True
5.
100BaseTX is the most common form of Fast Ethernet installed to connect end devices. a. True
B-3
Appendix B
Section 5: Network Operating Systems

1. List three common services offered by a NOS. File service Print service E-mail service 2. Peer-to-peer NOSs are used to set up dedicated servers and clients on a network. b. 3. False
TCP/IP support is offered by most NOS products. a. True
Section 6: TCP/IP Overview

1. The TCP/IP protocol stack contains how many layers? a. 2. 4
The IP address, 172.29.74.101, is a Class ______ address. b. B
3.
The address 10.43.79.101, with a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0, means that ______ bits are used to create subnets. c. 16
4.
TCP is a connection-oriented protocol. a. True
5.
UDP is a file transfer application in TCP/IP. b. False
B-4
Appendix B
Section 7: Internetworking Overview

1. An Ethernet switch performs logical segmentation. b. 2. False
Ethernet switches use MAC addresses to separate networks. a. True
3.
Routers connect networks together. a. True
4.
RIP is a simple distance vector hop-count routing protocol. a. True
5.
A router can be configured as a packet filter. a. True
Section 8: WAN Components

1. WANs are typically obtained through a service provider. a. 2. True
Frame relay is an example of a circuit-switching network. b. False
3.
A modem is used to connect a computer to an analog circuit. a. True
4.
SONET is the underlying technology which provides the transmission of many service over great distances. b. False
B-5
Appendix B
Section 9: WAN Services

1. List two leased line options. DDS T1 T3 2. T1 line capacity is equal to _______ DS-0 channels. c. 3. 24
ISDN BRI has which of the following characteristics? b. 2 B channels and 1 D channel
4.
ATM can operate at a variety of speeds. a. True
Section 10: The Internet

1. What does URL stand for? Uniform Resource Locator 2. An intranet is set up similar to the Internet, except it is private to the organization. a. 3. True
HTTP uses a request/response protocol. a. True
4.
Java is a proprietary language which will only run under one platform. b. False
B-6
Appendix B

1. 4 Mbps and 16 Mbps token ring devices may operate on the same ring. b. 2. False
Token ring uses a token passing protocol. a. True
3.
Token passing may support time-sensitive applications. a. True
4.
FDDI uses a dual-ring topology. a. True
5.
In normal FDDI operation, the data and token travel on the primary ring. a. True
B-7
B-8
C
Appendix C: Crossword Puzzle
C-1
Appendix C
Networking Fundamentals Crossword Puzzle

1 8 9 9 10 12 2 10 3 11 8 11
12
13
14
13 16 5 6
14
15
15
16
18 7 18 20 19
17
17
19
21 22 23 24
C-2
Appendix C
Across
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. TCP is a ______________-oriented protocol. A ______________ analyzer is used to capture and decode traffic on networks. __ __ __ __ is a LAN technology often used as a campus or building backbone. Well-known and random ______________ are fields used in TCP/IP headers to identify the networked application and the specific user for a piece of data. __ __ __ is a file transfer application. An Ethernet ______________ is often used to connect separate collision domains because of the desirable performance enhancements it offers. __ __ __ __ is an all-digital WAN service which is typically offered in BRI and PRI forms. The TCP/IP application ______________ is a remote access program which allows users to log into a remote device. CSMA/CD is also known as ______________.
10. A ______________ is a physical layer connectivity device. It may also be called a repeater or concentrator. 11. __ __ __ __ is a sophisticated link state routing protocol. 12. _________ _________ is a popular switching WAN service. 13. The __ __ __ model is a seven-layer model used to learn about and compare network components. 14. A __ __ __ , or Network Operating System, is software used by networked devices to form logical connections and to provide various services such a file and print service. 15. ______________ signaling is a transmission method which uses variations of the signal amplitude, frequency, and phase to carry data. 16. ______________ signaling is a transmission method which uses on and off states to carry 1s and 0s. 17. The ______________ layer is the sixth layer of the OSI model and covers details such as the formatting of the data and encryption. 18. A __ __ __ is a network type which connects distant sites together.
Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc. C-3
Appendix C
19. _________ _________ is a LAN technology which uses a token passing access method. 20. __ __ __ is a common distance vector routing protocol. 21. A four-letter word for cable is ______________. 22. The ______________ layer is the seventh layer of the OSI model and provides processes used on networks. 23. _________ _________ are also called dedicated circuits and are WAN services obtained through service providers (examples include T1 and DDS). 24. The ______________ mask is a parameter configured in IP networks to create separate networks.
Down
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. ___________ __ UTP cable is installed in most organizations for desktop connectivity. A __ __ __ __ is a TCP/IP troubleshooting tool used to test the reachability of devices. _________ _________ cable is often installed to provide connectivity in building backbones and campus installations. The ______________ layer is the first layer of the OSI model and provides the details for transmitting information over a medium. A ______________ is a transmission unit sent out by devices on an Ethernet or token ring LAN and contains fields such as 6-byte source and destination media access control addresses. Logical ______________ is accomplished by using routers. A __ __ __ is a company which users may go through to obtain access to the Internet. Firewalls are often used to provide additional ______________ for a network. A ______________ is used to logically connect networks at layer 3 of the OSI model.
6. 7. 8. 9.
10. A __ __ __ , or adapter card, is installed in network-attached devices. 11. __ __ __/__ __ is the common communications protocol used in most organizations and is the foundation for Internet communications. 12. Most LANs today are installed in a physical star ______________.
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Appendix C
13. __ __ __ is a cell-switching technology that can be deployed as a WAN or a LAN. 14. A __ __ __ is a network type which is normally departmental in nature (examples include 10BaseT and token ring). 15. The ______________ layer is the fifth layer of the OSI model. 16. __ __ __ __ is a feature which allows a server to automate the assignment of IP addresses on an as-needed basis for a session. 17. A CRC is a type of ______________ found when transmitting data on networks such as Ethernet and frame relay. 18. 10.14.41.56 is a __________ __ IP address. 19. The ______________ is a powerful collection of networks which reaches around the world and is based on TCP/IP.
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Appendix C
CONNEC T I ON S A TELNET E THERNE T C C E O N U P T G HUB FDD I R I PROTOCO L T I C I OSP F I P R E B T N O Y F RAMERE L A Y G L 5 T R A OS I M O NOS POR T S G P D E H Y FTP SW I T C H S Y R E I C S S A N A L OG C P D I G I TAL M M O C C E E PRE S EN T A T I ON L I SDN R L N WA N S TOK ENR I NG T S R I P A O E S T R WI RE A P P L I CA T I ON N O LEASEDL I NES SUBNET T
C-6

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Understanding Networking Fundamentals

Understanding Networking Fundamentals

Internetworking Routers and Switches

Internetworking with TCP/IP

Introduction to WAN Technologies

Network Cabling Systems

Network Security Administration

Troubleshooting TCP/IP Networks

Virtual Private Networks

Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc.

Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc.

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Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc.

Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc.

2 Standards Organizations and the OSI Model

Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc.

5 Network Operating Systems

Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc.

Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc.

Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc.

Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc.

Appendix A: Token Passing Protocols

Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc.

Appendix B: Section Review Answers

Appendix C: Crossword Puzzle

Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc.

Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc.

Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc.

Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc.

What Is Computer Networking?

Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc.

Network Segmentation and Connectivity

Ten 20-user LANs

Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc.

The Bandwidth Dilemma

Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc.

Figure 4: Basic Network Components

Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc.

Network Design Issues

Network Design Basics

Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc.

Server User Sales LAN

Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc.

Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc.

Building backbone Fiber optic cable system Hub

Fiber optic patch panel

To WAN, MAN, or campus

Figure 9: Building Backbone

Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc.

Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc.

Router/ switch LANs

Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc.

Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc.

Service provider WAN

Understanding Networking Fundamentals Global Knowledge Network, Inc.