Special Pricing Practices
Special Pricing Practices
Special Pricing Practices
Introduction Examine pricing decisions made in specific situations. Imperfectly Competitive Markets
Keat/Young
Cartel Arrangements
Monopoly profits are the largest profits available in an industry. A cartel arrangement occurs when the firms in an industry cooperate and act together as y were a monopoly. p y if they Cartel arrangements may be tacit or formal Illegal in the U.S.
Sherman Antitrust Act, 1890
OPEC
2003 Prentice Hall Business Publishing Managerial Economics, 4/e Keat/Young
Cartel Arrangements
In order to maximize profits, the cartel as a whole should behave as a monopolist. monopolist To accomplish this, the cartel determines the output q marginal g revenue with the marginal g which equates cost of the cartel as a whole. The marginal revenue is determined in the usual way (Ch t 9) (Chapter The marginal cost of the cartel as a whole is the horizontal summation of the members members marginal cost curves. , consider a cartel formed by y two firms. To illustrate, The situation is shown in the next graph.
2003 Prentice Hall Business Publishing Managerial Economics, 4/e Keat/Young
Cartel Arrangements
MCT is the horizontal sum of MC1 and MC2 QT is found at the intersection of MRT and MCT Price is found from the demand curve at QT This is the price that maximizes total industry profits.
Managerial Economics, 4/e Keat/Young
Cartel Arrangements
In order to determine how much each firm should produce, draw a horizontal line back from the MRT/MCT intersection. Where this line intersects each individual firms MC determines that firms output, Q1 and Q2. Note that the firms may produce different outputs. The key point is that the marginal cost of the last unit produced is equated across both firms.
Managerial Economics, 4/e Keat/Young
Cartel Arrangements
P Profits fit for f each h firm fi are shown h in i blue. bl We W assume that th t each firm earns profits only from its own sales. Firms may y earn different levels of profit. p Combined profits are maximized. Incentive for firms to cheat on agreement. Cartels are unstable.
2003 Prentice Hall Business Publishing Managerial Economics, 4/e Keat/Young
Weigh the benefits of collusion (increased profits) against these additional costs.
2003 Prentice Hall Business Publishing Managerial Economics, 4/e Keat/Young
Price Leadership
DT is the demand curve facing the entire industry. industry MCR is the summation of the g cost curves of all of marginal the follower firms. You can think of MCR as a supply curve for these firms firms. In choosing its price, the dominant firm has to consider the amount supplied by the follower firms.
Keat/Young
Price Leadership
For any y price p chosen by y the dominant firm, some of the market demand will be satisfied by b the follower follo er firms. The residual is left for the dominant firm. The demand curve facing the dominant firm is found b subtracting by bt ti MCR from f DT. This residual demand curve cu ve is s labeled abe ed DD.
2003 Prentice Hall Business Publishing Managerial Economics, 4/e Keat/Young
Price Leadership
To determine price, the dominant firm equates its marginal cost with the marginal revenue from its residual demand curve. The dominant firm sells A units and the rest of the d demand d (QT A) i is supplied by the follower firms firms.
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Follower Supply
Follower Supply
Keat/Young
Keat/Young
Assume the firm operates p in two markets, , A and B. The demand in market A is less elastic than the demand in market B. The entire market faced by the firm is described by the sum of the demand and marginal revenue curves curves. This is illustrated in the graph at the far right.
Managerial Economics, 4/e Keat/Young
The firm finds the total amount to produce by equating the marginal revenue and marginal cost in the market as a whole. This is labeled as QT. If the h firm fi were forced f d to charge h a uniform if price, i it i would ld find fi d the h price i by b examining the aggregate demand DT at the output level QT. This is represented by point C in the graph. However the firm can increase its profits by charging a different price in However, each market.
Managerial Economics, 4/e Keat/Young
In order to find the optimum price to charge in each market, draw a horizontal line back from the MRT/MCT intersection. Where this horizontal line intersects each submarkets MR curve determines the amount that should be sold in each market; QA and QB. These quantities are then used to determine the price in each market using the demand curves DA and DB.
Managerial Economics, 4/e Keat/Young
Price Discrimination
Are tying arrangements a form of price discrimination?
A tying arrangement exists when a buyer of one product is obligated to also by a related product from the same supplier. Illegal Ill l in i some cases. One explanation: firms with market power in one market will use tying y g arrangements g to extend monopoly p yp power into other markets. Other explanations of tying
Quality control Efficiencies in distribution Evasion of price controls
2003 Prentice Hall Business Publishing Managerial Economics, 4/e Keat/Young
Keat/Young
Nonmarginal Pricing
Incremental Pricing and Costing Analysis
Similar to marginal analysis Incremental analysis deals with changes in total revenue and total cost resulting from a decision to change prices, introduce a new product, di discontinue ti an existing i ti product, d t improve i a product, or acquire additional capital equipment. q p Only the revenues and costs that will change due to the decision are considered.
2003 Prentice Hall Business Publishing Managerial Economics, 4/e Keat/Young
Multiproduct Pricing More often than not, not firms produce multiple products that may be related either on the demand side or on the cost side.
Keat/Young
Transfer Pricing
Modern companies p are subdivided into several groups or divisions. Each of these divisions may be charged with a profit objective. bj i As the product moves through these divisions on the way to the consumer it is sold sold or transferred from one division to another at a transfer price. each c division d v s o is s allowed owed to o choose c oose its s own ow transfer se If e price without any coordination, the final price of the product to consumers may not maximize profits for th firm the fi as a whole. h l
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Transfer Pricing
Firms must pay special attention toward designing a transfer pricing mechanism that is geared toward maximizing g g total company p y profit. Design g of the optimal p transfer pricing p g mechanism is complicated by the fact that
each division may be able to sell its product in external markets as well as internally. each division may be able to procure inputs from external markets as well as internally. internally
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Transfer Pricing E Examples amples Assume that a firm has two divisions
Division C manufactures components Division A assembles the components into a final product and sells it.
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Transfer Pricing
The firm firms s total marginal cost is found by y vertically y summing g the marginal costs from the two divisions. divisions Production should g occur where marginal revenue equals the firms total marginal cost Point B. cost. B
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Transfer Pricing
The final price is determined from the demand curve at this quantity. The optimal transfer price i is i given i by b division Cs marginal cost at the optimal p output level. Thus, the optimal transfer f price i is i PC.
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Transfer Pricing
Division C produces at the point where MCC intersects DC ( l MRC since (also i competitive market). QC The transfer price should reflect the competitive price PC.
2003 Prentice Hall Business Publishing Managerial Economics, 4/e Keat/Young
Transfer Pricing
Division As total marginal cost becomes MC=MCA + PC. Optimal production of f the h firms fi final fi l output is found by equating MC with MR in the market for the final p product. Qt
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Penetration Pricing
Selling at a low price in order to obtain market share
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Psychological P h l i l Pricing Pi i
Demand for a product may be quite inelastic over a certain t i range but b t will ill become b rather th elastic l ti at t one specific higher or lower price.
2003 Prentice Hall Business Publishing Managerial Economics, 4/e Keat/Young