Prescriptive grammar

A prescriptive grammar is a set of rules about language based on how people think language should be used. In a prescriptive grammar there is right and wrong language. It can be compared with a descriptive grammar, which is a set of rules based on how language is actually used. Example A prescriptive grammar would reject He goes...', meaning He said', as incorrect language. In the classroom At higher levels it is useful to raise learner awareness of differences between prescriptive grammars and use of language. This can be done in an inductive approach, with learners identifying examples of language that doesn't follow rules from authentic listening or written texts. They can then produce their own mini' descriptive grammars. Prepositionup

Descriptive grammar
FacebookTwitterEmail A descriptive grammar is a set of rules about language based on how it is actually used. In a descriptive grammar there is no right or wrong language. It can be compared with a prescriptive grammar, which is a set of rules based on how people think language should be used. Example A descriptive grammar might include He goes...', meaning He said'. In the classroom Learners can be encouraged to move away from a prescriptive approach to grammar by using a guided discovery, or inductive, approach, in which they look for examples of variations in use in authentic texts. These examples can be compared to prescriptive rules in order to decide if they are useful or not.

Descriptive grammar records the errors people make without comment. Prescriptive grammar corrects the errors. Thus descriptive grammar records that many people sloppily say "It's me," while prescriptive grammar reminds us that well-spoken people properly say "It is I."
BSTRACT: Grammatical description varies. Grammars can be descriptive, prescriptive or pedagogic. Speech therapists predominantly use a descriptive grammar but will adopt elements of pedagogic grammars when teaching clients.

Different theories of language typically result in different grammatical descriptions, using the concepts that underpin the particular theory. Broadly, there are three types of grammatical description (Hewings, 2005:13-14).

Descriptive grammar
This type of description attempts to simply describe the language people use, without making judgements about its correctness. Traditional, structural grammars that attempt to describe language in terms of parts of speech, such as the word classes of verbs,nouns, adverbs, and so on, fall into this category. Similarly, so-called functional grammars that focus on how words combine to make meanings, and how they fulfil different functions within an utterance, are also defined as descriptive grammars.

Prescriptive grammar
These sorts of description exist to tell people how they should speak in any particular context, rather than how they do speak in reality. Unlike descriptive grammars, prescriptive grammars do entertain notions of correctness. For example, they would typically prescribe that the plural and singular forms of the so-called 2nd person pronoun (you) are the same, e.g. I give it to you (singular), Id like to thank you all for coming today (plural). However, in the Tees Valley area of the UK where I live, it is not uncommon for this pronoun to have an -s appended to it: rather like one would add an -s to cat to change it into the plural form of cats. This leads to utterances such as Id like to thank yous all for coming today. This would be criticised by a prescriptive grammarian on the grounds that it incorrectly over generalises the rule for creating plurals. A descriptive grammarian, however, would simply record this instance as an example of 2nd person plural pronoun use in the Tees Valley: he or she would be unconcerned about notions of correctness.

Pedagogic grammar
These grammars are generally used to teach a language to non-native speakers of that language. They subscribe in part to a prescriptive grammar in that they assume some sort of definition of a so-called Standard English (or Standard German, Standard French, Standard Welsh, and so on). However, practitioners also tend to use a lot of real world, contextualised practice examples when teaching the grammar. As such, they make use of aspects of both descriptive and prescriptive grammars. category descriptive grammar explanation describes the language we use without making judgments about correctness traditional grammar: focuses on parts of speech functional grammar: focuses on the function words fulfill in utterances stipulates how you should speak rather than how you do speak designed to assist second-language learners, adopts aspects of both descriptive and prescriptive grammars Table 1. Categories of Grammatical Description

prescriptive grammar pedagogic grammar

So which grammars right, like?

In the same way that there is no one right method for transcribing speech or for transcribing conversation, so there is no one right type of grammatical description. Each serves a different purpose and each may be suitable in different situations. For example, school authorities often prescribe how children and young people should say things in certain situations. This is often driven by the belief that if school-leavers are to function successfully in the world of work they need to be able to communicate in standard ways. It is claimed that these so-called right ways of speaking are necessary if they are to be understood and to be effective workers. Interestingly, these prescriptions of how people ought to speak are typically framed in relation to a written grammar. That is to say, there appears to be an assumption that we should speak in the same way that we should write. The written language appears to be taken as the benchmark that defines the proper way of speaking. However, research from the latter part of the twentieth century onwards, using large collections of audio-recorded data of people speaking in both formal and informal contexts, has revealed a remarkably sophisticated grammar of spoken language that differs from the grammar of written language (Carter, 2004). As speech therapists are concerned with enabling people with communication difficulties to function optimally within their environment(s), they do not typically adopt a prescriptive grammar. This can, however, lead to tensions between school authorities and health services. Teachers may be under a contractual obligation to teach a prescriptive grammar according to a declared curriculum, whereas speech therapists typically seek the best means of enabling clients to communicate whether these accord with a schools prescription or not. A simple example from the UK relates to how to teach a child to say the speech sound that appears at the start of words such as think, three and thin. According to Standard British English, this should be the voiceless dental fricative // (see Consonants for an explanation). However, in the East End of London this speech sound is commonly realized with the voiceless labio-dental fricative /f/, i.e. fink, free and fin. Arguably, therefore, the /f/ is the standard for the East End. What then should the speech therapist do? Which is the right standard to adopt? As speech therapists are attempting to fit people to their environment(s) it seems more likely to me that, in order to avoid such things as social stigma or even bullying, that the so-called non-standard /f/ would be taught. Generally, therefore, speech therapists do not concern themselves with purely prescriptive grammars. They are concerned with describing exactly how a person speaks and uses language and whether or not this leads to effective communication. In reality, however, because speech therapists intervene either through direct or indirect teaching methods to help clients alter their patterns of communication, aspects of pedagogic grammars are frequently incorporated. So you think you know grammar? All well and good, but which type of grammar do you know? Linguists are quick to remind us that there are different varieties of grammar--that is, different ways of describing and analyzing the structures and functions of language. One basic distinction worth making is that between descriptive grammar and prescriptive grammar (also called usage). Both are concerned with rules--but in different ways. Specialists in descriptive grammar examine the rules or patterns that underlie our use of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. In contrast, prescriptive grammarians (such as most editors and teachers) try to enforce rules about what they believe to be the correct uses of language. But that's just the beginning. Consider these ten varieties of grammar--and take your pick. 1. Comparative Grammar The analysis and comparison of the grammatical structures of related languages. Contemporary work in comparative grammar is concerned with "a faculty of language that provides an explanatory basis for how a human being can acquire a first language . . .. In this way, the theory of grammar is a theory of human language and hence establishes the relationship among all languages." (R. Freidin,Principles and Parameters in Comparative Grammar. MIT Press, 1991)

2.

Generative Grammar The rules determining the structure and interpretation of sentences that speakers accept as belonging to the language. "Simply put, a generative grammar is a theory of competence: a model of the psychological system of unconscious knowledge that underlies a speaker's ability to produce and interpret utterances in a language." (F. Parker and K. Riley, Linguistics for Non-Linguists. Allyn and Bacon, 1994)

3.

Mental Grammar The generative grammar stored in the brain that allows a speaker to produce language that other speakers can understand. "All humans are born with the capacity for constructing a Mental Grammar, given linguistic experience; this capacity for language is called the Language Faculty (Chomsky, 1965). A grammar formulated by a linguist is an idealized description of this Mental Grammar." (P. W. Culicover and A. Nowak, Dynamical Grammar: Foundations of Syntax II. Oxford Univ. Press, 2003)

4.

Pedagogical Grammar Grammatical analysis and instruction designed for second-language students. "Pedagogical grammar is a slippery concept. The term is commonly used to denote (1) pedagogical process--the explicit treatment of elements of the target language systems as (part of) language teaching methodology; (2) pedagogical content--reference sources of one kind or another that present information about the target language system; and (3) combinations of process and content." (D. Little, "Words and Their Properties: Arguments for a Lexical Approach to Pedagogical Grammar." Perspectives on Pedagogical Grammar, ed. by T. Odlin. Cambridge Univ. Press, 1994)

5.

Performance Grammar A description of the syntax of English as it is actually used by speakers in dialogues. "[P]erformance grammar . . . centers attention on language production; it is my belief that the problem of production must be dealt with before problems of reception and comprehension can properly be investigated." (John Carroll, "Promoting Language Skills." Perspectives on School Learning: Selected Writings of John B. Carroll, ed. by L. W. Anderson. Erlbaum, 1985)

6.

Reference Grammar A description of the grammar of a language, with explanations of the principles governing the construction of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. Examples of contemporary reference grammars in English include A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, by Randolph Quirk et al. (1985), the Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English(1999), and The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language (2002).

7.

Theoretical Grammar The study of the essential components of any human language. "Theoretical grammar or syntax is concerned with making completely explicit the formalisms of grammar, and in providing scientific arguments or explanations in favour of one account of grammar rather than another, in terms of a general theory of human language." (A. Renouf and A. Kehoe, The Changing Face of Corpus Linguistics. Rodopi, 2003)

8.

Traditional Grammar The collection of prescriptive rules and concepts about the structure of the language. "We say that traditional grammar is prescriptive because it focuses on the distinction between what some people do with language and what they ought to do with it, according to a pre-established standard. . . . The chief goal of traditional grammar, therefore, is perpetuating a historical model of what supposedly constitutes proper language." (J. D. Williams, The Teacher's Grammar Book. Routledge, 2005)

9.

Transformational Grammar A theory of grammar that accounts for the constructions of a language by linguistic transformations and phrase structures. "In transformational grammar, the term 'rule' is used not for a precept set down by an external authority but for a principle that is unconsciously yet regularly followed in the production and interpretation of sentences. A rule is a direction for forming a sentence or a part of a sentence, which has been internalized by the native speaker." (D. Bornstein, An Introduction to Transformational Grammar. Univ. Press of America, 1984)

10. Universal Grammar The system of categories, operations, and principles shared by all human languages and considered to be innate. "Taken together, the linguistic principles of Universal Grammar constitute a theory of the organization of the initial state of the mind/brain of the language learner--that is, a theory of the human faculty for language." (S. Crain and R. Thornton, Investigations in Universal Grammar. MIT Press, 2000)

Accuracy vs Fluency

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Firstly, what do we mean by accuracy and fluency? Activities which focus on accuracy try to get students to say something correctly (correct grammar, correct word form). Activities which focus on fluency try to get students to communicate successfully, even if they make some mistakes. Both are equally important for language learning and language use. Accuracy certainly helps students communicate, and they may need a high level of accuracy to pass exams. Fluency activities are important because they allow students to express their ideas and communicate in a meaningful and enjoyable context. Most accuracy activities focus on mistakes. The teacher can correct students mistakes or she can ask the children to correct some errors that she has written on the board. During fluency work, however, the teacher should only correct selectively and respond to the meaning of what a child has said, rather than the form. For example, if a child says, I ping-pong yesterday, you can say, Oh, you played ping-pong? Thats nice. Children need a balance of fluency and accuracy activities to learn effectively. Try to plan your lessons to include both types, and think about which type will help students achieve the aim of the lesson. You can try accuracy activities after teaching new language, and after the children are comfortable, move to fluencyfocussed activities. But this is not the only way to do it you can start with fluency activities and then move on to work on accuracy. What is the difference between accuracy and fluency? Accuracy is the ability to use language correctly, without making mistakes with grammar or vocabulary. Fluency focuses more on communicating effectively and allows for mistakes as long as communication has been successful. The accuracy versus fluency debate is one which all language learners will have had at some point, and one on which your view will change as your language skills develop. Personally, I strive for fluency as I believe that the odd mistake doesnt matter as long as Im understood, however Ive met language learners who have been extremely focused on achieving accuracy before even considering fluency.

Your preference for accuracy or fluency largely depends on your learning environment. If youre learning a language in school or university it is likely that accuracy will be of the upmost importance, as you will need it to pass exams or to move up to the next level. In educational environments, there is a focus on both written and spoken language skills, not to mention listening and reading, meaning that there is nowhere to hide when it comes to making mistakes! If however you are learning a language in a more natural setting, such as living in the native country, then fluency will most likely be higher up in your agenda. In such a situation, spoken language skills will be the ones you use most and successful communication will be your main aim. Whats the use in kicking yourself because you cant find the right verb formation when you can use the few words you know and be understood? Does accuracy lead to fluency or fluency lead to accuracy? Some would argue that if you focus on accuracy early on, then you will build enough confidence to speak both fluently and accurately, therefore leading to stronger language skills. On the other hand, how can you improve if not by learning from your mistakes? If you can get past the initial embarrassment of making mistakes, youll find that you are more capable of

chatting away in another language than you thought you were. Mistakes will be made, but your friends will pick up on these mistakes and teach you the correct way of speaking.

Accuracy and Fluency

A classroom activity may aim either at accuracy or fluency, a distinction first made by Brumfit (1984). An accuracy-oriented activity such as pattern drills is usually used in the teaching of a new target item; A fluency-oriented activity such as extensive reading and information gap aims to develop the students' spontaneous communications skills in using what they have already learned. The following table summarizes the differences between the two types of activities. Be aware that it is not always possible or appropriate to classify classroom activities using this dichotomy and the differences summarized below may not always apply. An activity may be largely accuracy-oriented but also has some features of a fluency activity at the same time. "It is now very clear that fluency and accuracy are both important goals to pursue in CLT." (Brown, 2001, p. 268)
Accuracy Activities Fluency Activities

Purpose: the primary purpose is to help students achieve accurate perception and production of a target item which can be a sound, a word, or a sentence structure. Material: the texts are usually composed of separate ("discrete") items: sentences or words; texts may be used in any mode (skill), regardless of how they are used in real life (dialogues may be written, written texts used for listening); the target items are usually practiced out of context or situation; Activities: students' attention is focused on a particular target item; their output is usually predictable; their performance is assessed on how few language mistakes are made; students' errors are corrected; tasks

Purpose: the primary purpose is to help students practice language in listening, speaking, reading, and/or writing activities to so develop fluency in using the language in spontaneous communication. Material: the texts are usually whole pieces of discourses: conversation, stories, etc.; texts are usually used as they would be in real life: dialogues are spoken, articles and written stories are read; an effort is made to use authentic material from real life.

Activities: students' attention is focused on communicating information and expressing ideas; their output may not always be predictable; their performance is assessed

do not usually simulate real-life situations.

on how well ideas are expressed or understood; students' errors are not corrected unless it interferes with communication; tasks often simulate reallife situations.

Teaching Grammar Aims of the unit: 1. What is the role of grammar in language learning? 2. What are the major types of grammar presentation methods? 3. What are the major types of grammar practice activities? I. The importance of grammar English grammar is the core of English language. Without grammar English language cannot be well constructed. There is naturally Chinese grammar in the minds of Chinese students, and it's not easy to take in the grammar of a foreign language. But this difficulty must be overcome. If you cannot solve this difficulty, the foreign language you write, though it may be understandable, will be Chinese style English. II. The role of Grammar 1. How grammar is currently taught Task 1 Read the statements on page 103 about grammar in English learning and decide if you agree with them or not. Agree/ The Assumptions about grammar in language learning disagree 1 Students need to be given detailed grammar rules if they are to learn a foreign language successfully 2 Children do not need to learn grammar rules when they acquire their first languages, so they do not need them either when learning a foreign language. 3 If students get enough chance to practice using a foreign language, they do not need to learn grammar. 4 Making students aware of grammatical information is one of the teaching objectives, allowing students opportunities for suing the language is just as important.

Grammar should be taught to help students analyse difficult structures in texts. 6 Teaching and learning grammar should focus on practice rather than the study of grammar itself. 7 Grammar should be taught and practiced in context. 8 Knowing grammar is not enough for real communication. 9 An inadequate knowledge of grammar would severely constrain ones capacity for effective communication. 10 Grammar is always the most boring bit of language learning.

/ /

In China grammar is taught in a traditionally teacher-centred way. Obviously there is too much teacher dominance and too little student involvement in such a class. Often preparing such a grammar lesson means collecting all the concerned rules or ideas on a topic from various books together with copied examples, and teaching grammar simply means reading aloud to the class what has been prepared beforehand. Students are supposed to take notes for the final assessment. For many years Chinese teachers of English have followed the traditional way of teaching grammar as the following three steps: learn about the grammar rules, study a few examples, do some written grammar exercises. 2.What is the place of Grammar in English teaching? Grammar is not a separate `subject', nor is it even a separate division of English work. Language teaching theory has tended to emphasize on the rapid development of automatic speech habits, and the need to discourage students from thinking consciously about the underlying grammatical rules. Advocates of the `Oral Method', the Audio-lingual method' and the Natural Approach in their more extreme forms have assumed that language learning is an inductive rather than a deductive process, and that the most effective method of teaching is to provide plenty of oral and written practice, so that students learn to use the language spontaneously() without the need for overt()grammatical analysis. IV. Grammar presentation methods There are different ways of presenting grammar in the classroom. Among them, three are most frequently sued and discussed: deductive method inductive method guided discovery method.

1. Deductive method: The deductive method relies on reasoning, analyzing and comparing. Its teaching procedure is: teachers example on the board teachers explanation of the rules (in students native language) students practice application of the rules. Advantages: good for selected and motivate students save time to explain complex rules increase students confidence in examination Disadvantages: grammar is taught isolatedly little attention is paid to meaning the practice is often mechanical 2. Inductive method In the inductive method, the teacher provides learners with authentic language data and induces the learners to realize grammar rules without any form of explicit (clear) explanation. Students will become evident to the grammar rules if they are given enough appropriate examples. Its teaching procedure is: authentic language presentation(give grammar examples) let students observe, analyse, compare examples help students induct grammar rules more examples. Advantages: inspire students thinking activities motivate students learning interests grammar is taught in context. Disadvantages: the presentation of grammar is more complex and time consumption grammar is not taught directly some rules can not be induced easily It is believed the inductive method is more effective in that students discover the grammar rules themselves while engaged in language use. This is especially true with grammatical regularities which are easily perceived, understood and applied. 3. The guided discovery method Similar to the inductive method the students are induced to discover rules by themselves (similar) the process of the discovery is carefully guided and assisted by the teacher and the rules are then elicited and taught explicitly.(different)

Implicit and explicit knowledge Implicit knowledge refers to knowledge that unconsciously exists in our mind, which we can make use of automatically without making any effort. Explicit knowledge refers to our conscious knowledge about the language. We can talk about it, analyse it and apply it in conscious ways. Learning and acquiring (second language acquisition theory) Example on page 105 Task 3 (work in groups of 4. How would you present the structure have/has been doing. 10 minutes preparation and then demonstrate) 4. The synthesis approaches to grammatical pedagogy Pennington emphasized that grammar teaching should be collocational, constructive, contextual and contrastive Collocational: grammar should be built on collocational relations between individual lexical items and their subcategories. Constructive: ones knowledge of grammar is built bit by bit, which closely model the way language is learned and used. Contextual: Elements and structures are taught in relation to their context. Syntactic and lexical choices are explicitly related to pragmatic ones, and to social and cultural contexts. Contrastive: grammar involves drawing the learners attention to contrast the differences between the target language and other language. V. Grammar practice According to Ur successful practice should consists of the following factors: Pre-learning; Volume and repetition: Success-orientation. Heterogeneity () Teacher assistance Interest 1. Mechanical practice: Mechanical practice involves activities that are aimed at form accuracy. By doing mechanical practice, the students pay repeated attention to a key element in a structure. The form of practice: Substitution and transformation drills 2. Meaningful practice: In meaningful practice the focus is on the production, comprehension or exchange of meaning though the students keep an eye on the way newly learned structures are used in the process. 3.Using prompts for practice

The prompts can be pictures, mimes, tables, charts or key words, etc. Using picture prompts. Using mimes or gestures as prompts Using key phrases or key words as prompts.
rammar As Dubin and Olshtain point out, the syllabus could equally well be organised around the grammar items, and this has the advantage that: the linguistic inventory has traditionally been organised in a certain sequence so it fits everyone's cultural expectations. Like reciting the alphabet, it seems natural and basic. (Dubin and Olshtain 1986: 110). Communicative syllabuses have tended to avoid this type of organisation, and until recently, to downplay the role of grammar overall. This may, however, cause problems for both teachers and learners. In discussing the introduction of a new course in Arab schools, Widdowson (1986) comments that the use of a communicative approach: ... deprives the learners in this case of the explicit grammatical directions which previously controlled and guided their progress and requires them to find their own way. This has led to some degree of disorientation. (1986:42) The quotations at the beginning of this paper indicate that teachers too can feel disoriented by the change from a grammatical syllabus to one in which they must 'find their own way'. In the early days of communicative teaching, grammar tended to be neglected. The belief was that learners would 'pick up' grammar through participating in authentic communicative activities. A number of writers are now expressing concern about this view: It turns out that learners do not very readily infer knowledge of the language system from their communicative activities. The grammar, which they must obviously acquire somehow as a necessary resource for use, proves elusive. So quite often the situation arises where learners acquire a fairly patchy and imperfect repertoire of performance which is not supported by an underlying competence. (Widdowson 1990: 161) A similar warning is given by Batstone:

Unless we can fashion classroom interaction and language use very carefully, opportunities for language use will turn out to be opportunities for language abuse, with every chance that grammar will be avoided wherever possible, leading to the proceduralization of a language system which is seriously degenerate. (Batstone 1994:46) Batstone draws a distinction between 'process teaching' and 'process activity'. Process teaching involves activities which are careful-y designed to ensure that learners use and extend their linguistic resources, whereas process activity is the "unregulated production of language" with no clear purpose or guidance (Batstone 1994:78). While communicative teaching rejects the traditional focus on form alone, with no regard for meaning, focusing on meaning alone, with no regard for form, may be equally unsatisfactory: ... when students are required to communicate to do a task, but have not been provided with adequate linguistic means for the purpose, they develop communication strategies which over time result in a pidgin. (Johnson 1996: 134) The Malaysian teachers surveyed by Pillay (1995) and Mohd Asraf (1996) who expressed dissatisfaction with the use of 'grammar in context' were, we feel, probably reacting against this kind of unfocussed activity. The solution, however, is not a return to the sterility of grammar in isolation, but a reconsideration of how grammar can be effectively taught and learnt in context. Johnson (1996) compares language learning with the learning of other skills, such as driving a car. Learner drivers may be able to change gear, for instance, only in favourable conditions, with plenty of time to think about what they are doing. The operation requires their full attention, and they may be unable to cope with anything else while they are engaged in it. With time, however, the actions involved become automatic, and a qualified driver can change gear at greater speed and in more challenging conditions. With experience, a driver becomes able to change gear almost without thinking about it, while engaged in other activities such as chatting, rolling down the window and finding the change for a toll booth. The skill of changing gear has been automise (or proceduralised). This pattern is found in the learning of many skills. Actions which at first require full attention gradually become automatic, freeing a person to give their attention to other activities. Automisation of a skill requires both time, and practice under a range of increasingly complex conditions. The teaching of grammar, however, often fails to meet these requirements. Learners are frequently given a short period of practice in which they focus on one particular grammar point, usually with ample time to think about their answers. But the practice tends to stop there. \When they are required to participate in

a communicative activity which involves thinking about what to say, using a range of different grammar and vocabulary, and responding at speed. The learners' grammar seems to fall to pieces. This is not surprising. We might as well expect a learner driver, after ten minutes of practice on a quiet suburban street, to cope with speeding rush hour traffic on a highway in a rainstorm. One advantage, then, of integrating grammar with skills activity is that in this way it becomes possible to facilitate automisation. The grammar is recycled in various different activities, providing time for it to be reinforced. At first the learners' attention may be focused on a particular language point, but gradually the tasks should demand more and more in terms of speed, flexibility and complexity. The learners still need to use the language point, but are being forced to cope with other demands as well. Activities should involve what Johnson (1996) calls "form defocus", in which the learners' attention is deflected away from the form itself, as they meet the challenge of responding to other aspects of the task. Well-designed communicative activities can thus provide the conditions for automisation to take place. This will only happen, however, if the activities are designed in such a way that the use of the grammatical item arises naturally from the communicative demands inherent in them. If learners are able to carry out the activity successfully without using the grammatical item, then it is likely that they will do so, and there will be no development of their grammatical system. A first requirement, then, is that the grammatical item should occur naturally as part of the activity, reflecting real life use. This however, may not be enough, as learners may find alternative ways to achieve communication. Ideally, as Loschky and Bley-Vroman (1993) argue, the activity should be designed so that it cannot be carried out successfully without using the grammatical item. Although in some cases it may prove impossible to meet this requirement, it is still advisable to aim for it in designing materials for grammar practice.

4.3 Integrated skills One of the main advantages of integrating skills is that it reflects the way that language is used in real life, and therefore makes it easier to develop in learners the ability to cope with real-life operating conditions. As we have seen, this is an essential part of automisation. We need to distinguish, then, between 'artificial' and 'authentic' integration. Byrne draws attention to a common form of integration in which material presented through one skill is reinforced through activities involving one or more other skills. As he comments, this approach does not "integrate language skills in such a way that the contexts for practising and using all the four skills are established naturally" (Byrne 1981: 108). There are many examples in the textbooks where there

is no natural progression from one skills section to the next, the only link between them being that they focus on the same topic. To achieve authentic integration, activities need to reflect the way that communication takes place in real life, thus establishing a genuine purpose for each activity. As McDonough and Shaw argue, integrating skills makes it possible for learners to "gain a deeper understanding of how communication works in the foreign language as well as becoming more motivated when they see the value of performing meaningful tasks and activities in the classroom" (1993:202). We also need to distinguish between what Selinker and Tomlin (1986) call 'parallel' and 'serial' integration. Parallel integration occurs when an activity involves two or more skills simultaneously. For example, in real life we might take part in a telephone conversation while taking down a message (speaking, listening and writing), or we might read a recipe and note the ingredients needed (reading and writing). Serial integration occurs when one activity develops out of another, each involving different skills. For example, after reading an advertisement for a product, we might write a letter placing an order; on receiving the goods, we might then have to phone the company to make a complaint; with luck, we might perhaps receive a refund and a letter of apology! The key point here is that activities do not follow each other at random, but are linked naturally together. The outcome of one activity provides the impetus for the succeeding activity. The use of serial integration provides task continuity, through which "activities are sequenced, not only according to their complexity ..., but also by the logic of themes and learning pathways" (Nunan 1989:1 19). The 'logic of themes' brings us back to the role of the topic in contributing to the coherence of a teaching unit. The topic should not be regarded as subject matter to be mastered for its own sake, but neither is it merely a decorative frill. Rather, it should be the cement which holds together a carefully structured sequence of activities.

Planning a teaching unit

The preceding discussion suggests several criteria that need to be considered in the design of a teaching unit:

Task continuity: Activities should build one upon another to provide purpose and coherence. Authenticity: Texts and activities should reflect the way that language is used in real life.

Language focus: The unit should provide opportunities to identify and practise language patterns. Progression: Activities should place gradually increasing demands on learners so as to encourage automisation.

An integrated teaching unit will involve the interweaving of several different components, including the topic and situation around which the activities are built, the written and spoken texts which learners must process as part of the activities, and the language forms andfunctions involved in understanding and producing those texts. To create a genuinely integrated series of activities, all these components must fit naturally together, reflecting the way that language is used in real life.

The starting point for materials design can potentially be any of these components, but whichever we choose, the next steps involve considering how the other components can be matched to it. For example, if we start by deciding on the topic 'child abuse', then we need to ask:

In what real-life situation would people talk, read or write about child abuse? What sort of texts would be involved in this situation (eg. Letters, interviews, newspaper articles, radio talks)? What would be the most important language functions required (eg. complaining, describing, reporting, recommending)? What would be the most important language forms involved?

Similarly, if we start by deciding to focus on the grammatical item relative clauses, then we need to ask:

For what functions do we use relative clauses in real life (eg. identifying, defining, classifying) ? In what situation would we need to use this function? What sort of texts would be involved? What are the possible topics that might be involved?

Achieving a good match between these components is probably the greatest challenge in designing integrated materials, and requires considerable time and effort. When the pieces fit together, it becomes possible to create activities that are interesting, realistic and motivating, and which provide opportunities for students to extend both their grammatical ability and their language skifis in meaningful contexts. For the classroom teacher, the extent to which this can be achieved unaided is probably limited, because of pressures on their time. Syllabuses and textbooks, however, could make the task easier by presenting a clearer picture of the potential interrelationships between topics, skills and grammar, thus showing how topics can be used, not as the main teaching point of a unit, but as the carrier for language content.

No.17 questions

Meaningful & meaningless drills

I'm sure that most teachers get their students to repeat examples of the new language introduced i.e. a repetition drill. It is certainly useful as students need to get their mouths round the new language & practise the pronunciation. But what might they actually be saying? Look at this exchange: T: 'I get up at seven o'clock.' - everybody! Stds chorally: 'I get up at seven o'clock.' But do they all get up at seven o'clock? I doubt it. This is an example of a 'meaningless drill'. Here's a question & answer drill to practise 'Do you like...?' The teacher is giving prompts & the students are asking questions across the class - open pairs. T: 'visiting London' Std 1: 'Do you like visiting London?' T:'Say 'yes'' Std 2: 'Yes, I do.' Maybe student 2 has never been out of the country let alone abroad to London. Another 'meaningless drill'. So how about making it more 'meaningful' - the students give examples & give answers truthfully. In the first example let the student say what time they get up & in the second provide the negative so the student can choose. It can be tricky to organise but clearly the more 'meaningful' the utterence, the more interesting, motivating,

personalised, memorable ..... meaningful it all is.

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Quick-thinking group roleplay

You need a situation where there are a group of people & a degree of conflict between the people. 'Conflict' is a great ingredient of roleplay. The group could be workers, a parents' association, a housing association, a group of friends, etc. The idea is that you explain the situation & the students start talking when you stop - there's no time for preparation, it's fairly spontaneous & provides oral fluency practice. This is the situation I use on training courses: 'You all work for me at the OK School of English. I'm having economic difficulties & need to make one teacher redundant. As I'm a fairly democratic chap I've decided to let you decide who should go. I cannot have any part-time teachers & it is clear you all want to stay on for one reason or another; you might have seven children to feed, an elderly relative to look after, etc. I'll come back later for your decision. Thank you.' Clearly this has to be done in a fun, light-hearted way so that it does not become personal. The maximum number in the groups would be six to give all a chance to speak & argue their case. In the situation above there is conflict but this is not a necessary condition of the roleplay. It does make it interesting though. While the activity is going on, take notes for linguistic feedback afterwards. There's no reason why this spontaneity cannot be used in a pairwork roleplay - you give the situation & they begin straightaway. This roleplay contrasts with Tip 4 that looks at promoting specific language use in freer speaking activities.
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Shadow Reading
This activity can be used with an audio or video tape - the latter is better as the students can see the lip movements & there are the paralinguistics - the body language - to view. Choose a short part of the text, eg. 8-10 lines of the dialogue, & give the script out for the students to read & listen at the same time. At this stage they could analyse the script & mark the sense groups - words which are said together between pauses. Play it again but this time the students talk along with it in exactly the same way as the speakers, taking on their accents. If it is a dialogue, you could have each speaker being imitated by different halves of the class. Play the tape a few times & as the students become more confident & accurate, slowly turn the volume down so that you can't hear the original, only the students. So in effect they are dubbing the text. Tape the students' version & use it for a comparison with the original & an analysis of different phonological aspects. Your students will be trying really hard to sound as natural as the speakers on the tape, gaining confidence as they realise how good they sound & the ensuing discussions can be very productive. Needless to say, it's a lot of fun. A variation of this is to actually re-dub a small part of a film that has already been dubbed into a different language. The students translate the section into English & then, with the video, dub over it. And if you have the original in English to compare....

Making Drills Meaningful

Spratt suggests that you can make drills meaningful by using pictures to provide meaning or by giving students choices in their replies to cues. Allowing students choice means they have to think before they comment. Choice can mean allowing students to add something personal to their responses as in the example below. Use the truth principlestudents must respond with a true statement about themselves. Even with this principle in mind, it is important to remember that drills are materials for providing controlled practice. A meaningful drill is designed to exert enough control over students production to minimize errors but also to provide no more control than is necessary. Here is an example of a meaningful drill to practice the modal could. It is meaningful because responses are unpredictable and give students choices. Teacher: Im bored. Student 1: You could read a book. Student 2: You could go to a movie. Student 3: You could call a friend. Student 4: You could clean up your room! Here is an example of a meaningful drill that demands a personal response. Teacher: I get tired of doing the same thing every day. Ive always wanted to be a pilot. Student 1: How exciting! Id rather be a stunt person in the movies. Student 2: Thats too exciting for me. Id rather be a movie star. Student 3: Not me. Id rather be a famous writer. Here are some additional tips from Doff, Clark, and others for developing drills. Base your drill on your objectives. Whether you are using mechanical or meaningful drills, it is important that your drills are relevant to your learners realm of experience and knowl edge of the world. Include opportunities for students to accurately use the target form or expression in your drill. Ensure that the target for the practice is central and that you develop the drill in a way that students must say it correctly. The structures being practiced should reflect authentic use. Although it is sometimes necessary to isolate and simplify language in order to focus on a

Drills, Dialogues, and Role Plays 5

particular point, older textbooks sometimes included drills and dialogues that taught students to respond in unnatural ways in an attempt to provide practice of a particular structure. These kinds of exercises result in students that sound like textbooks when they speak English. Whatever type of drill you develop, limit the vocabulary to common words that dont distract students from making the statements or the substitutions. Develop the drill in a way that you can check students progress and understanding as they participate in it. Limit your drill to between 15 and 20 sentences.

Presenting Drills
When presenting drills, provide students with a written example on a handout or on the board or as a transparency. Model the drill with another student, or have two students model the drill for the rest of the class. If you are conducting the drill, observe student responses carefully to assess learning. If students are working in pairs or groups, circulate and observe, assisting where necessary. Be sure to end the drill before it becomes tedious. You can do a follow-up, especially to meaningful drills, by having each student write up the drill as a dialogue. Drills are often presented with the teacher at the front of the class and the students responding. You can add variety by tossing a ball or beanbag to the student who is to respond. This keeps everyone alert because they cannot anticipate who will be called on next. In a question-answer drill format, the student who receives

the ball responds to you and then asks a question of the next student who is to receive the ball. Chain drills also add variety. Rather than having all the students repeat the same thing, have students sit in a circle or semicircle. Then have one student ask the next student a question to which he or she responds as in this example of a class of five students. If you have a large class, you can have several circles of up to ten students doing this activity while you circulate. Note that you start by modeling what is expected. Teacher: My name is Mary, and I like eating. What about you? Student 1: My name is Earnest, and I like reading. What about you? Student 2: My name is Anatoli, and I like camping. What about you? Student 3: My name is Marina, and I like singing. What about you? Student 4: My name is Martin, and I like swimming. What about you? Student 5: My name is Svetlana, and I like dating! What about you? For more advanced students, this model can be used: Teacher: My name is Ruth, and Ive always wanted to be a gypsy. What have you always wanted to do? Student 1: My name is XingXing, and Ive always wanted to be a rock star. What have you always wanted to do? Student 2: My name is Chinghua, and Ive wanted to be a snowboard champion. What have you always wanted to do?

6 Tools and Tips for Using ELT MaterialsWeb Only

And, for extra challenge, try this: Teacher: My name is Ruth, and Ive always wanted to be a gypsy. How about you? Student 1: Your name is Ruth, and youve always wanted to be a gypsy. My name is XingXing, and Ive always wanted to be a rock star. Student 2: Your name is Ruth, and youve always wanted to be a gypsy. Her name is XingXing, and shes always wanted to be a rock star. My name is Chinghua, and Ive always wanted to be a snowboard champion. Student 3: Your name is Ruth, and youve always wanted to be a gypsy. Her name is XingXing, and shes always wanted to be a rock star. Her name is Chinghua, and shes always wanted to be a snowboard champion. My name is Xiaohui, and Ive always wanted to be a concert pianist. This drill ends with you repeating the aspirations of the entire class. Obviously, you shouldnt try this with groups larger than about fifteen students. The next section deals with dialogues.
Scott Thornbury gives us some tips and ideas for grammar activities that dont require any photocopying.
Sentence star 1. Ask learners to each draw five-pointed star on a piece of paper. Tell them to write on the tip of the first point can, on the second point like, on the third point have, on the fourth point used to and on the fifth point going to. (You can vary the words according to the level of the class, the syllabus, etc. You can also write the names of grammar structures, such as present simple, present perfect, second conditional, if you prefer). Then ask them, individually, to write a true sentence about themselves using each of the five words on their star. You should give at least one example, such as I can speak a little Portuguese. In pairs or small groups they take turns to read each other their sentences. The others in the group have to ask at least five questions about each of the sentences (e.g. Where did you learn Portuguese? How well can you speak it? Can you write it? etc). In a final, open class, stage, people can report on interesting things they have learned about their classmates. If you want to focus on any particular structure, such as can, ask the class to give you some of their sentences with can and write these on the board, so that the word can is aligned in one column. This way you can highlight the grammar of can using the learners own sent ences. True/false sentences

2. 3. 4.

1.

Dictate about five or more sentences to the class: at least some of the sentences will contain the grammar structure you are targeting (e.g. present perfect). For example: - Every summer I go somewhere different. - Last year I went to Peru. - I have never been to Brazil. - I havent been to Colombia, either. - Id like to go to Guatemala. etc.

2. 3. 4.

5.

Tell the class that some of these sentences are true, some false. Ask them to work in pairs to try and guess which are which. Let them tell you their guesses, and ask them their reasons. If they havent guessed correctly, tell them the answers. Then ask them to do the same thing working individually and using the sentences you have dictated as a model. In other words, they write some true and false sentences about themselves, and then take turns to guess which sentences are true or false in pairs or small groups. As in Activity 1, you can then elicit on to the board some of their example sentences in, say, the present perfect, and use these as a basis for a grammar focus. (A fuller description of this activity, using phrasal verbs, can be found in my book Uncovering Grammar on page 79). One of us/some of us

1.

Write the following sentence starters on the board - One of us can - Two of us can - Three of us can - All of us can - None of us can Put the learners into groups of four, and ask them to generate as many true sentences about their group as possible in, say, ten minutes, using these sentences starters. Go round the class, checking that the learners are on task, and helping with vocabulary problems. After the time limit is up, ask a spokesperson from each class to tell you some of their sentences, and use these as a basis of an open class question-and-answer stage. For example, Spokesperson: One of us can play the guitar. Teacher: Oh really, let me guess who that could be? Mario, is it you? etc. Again, these sentences can be used as a the basis for a grammar review. Of course, you can change the target structure. For example (for the present perfect): - One of us has - Two of us have - Three of us have - All of us have - None of us has

1. 2. 3. 4.

5.

In this case, you will need to tell them that it is the present perfect you want here not, for example, have got. (Thanks to Mario Rinvolucri for this brilliant activity).

Sentence completions 1. This is similar to the last activity, in that learners work together to complete sentences using a specific structure. Write on the board, for example: - Successful students - Unsuccessful students Ask learners, working in pairs or small groups, to write as many completions to these sentences as they can in a time limit. The idea is that they will have to use at least some of the time the present simple. If, though, you wanted to practise used to you could use sentence starters such as: - In the old days, people - Our grandparents When the time is up, or when the groups have generated sufficient sentences, ask them to read them out, and invite the class to discuss them, e.g. by saying whether they agree or not. Use the sentences to focus on aspects of the grammar structures you want to target. (Thanks to Penny Ur for this idea). I went to market This is a well-known childrens memory game, but it can be adapted for grammar practice. In the traditional game, one person starts by saying I went to market and I bought a pineapple (for example). The next person has to repeat what the first person said, and then add one new item: I went to market and I bought a pineapple, and a dozen eggs and so on, round the class. Players who cant remember an item are out and the game continues until there is one winner. As it stands, the game is good practice of vocabulary, plus two past tense verbs. But you can increase the grammar practice by slightly modifying the formula. For example (to practise past simple):

1.

1.

I went to London and I saw the Queen. I went to London and I saw the Queen, and I read The Times. I went to London and I saw the Queen, and I read The Times, and I climbed Big Ben. etc. (You can make it a rule that players are not allowed to use a verb that has already been used). Other structures you can practise like this are: Going to (e.g. making New Year resolutions: This year Im going to learn drive, and Im going to grow my hair etc.); Present perfect My poor uncle has never flown in a plane, and hes never drunk champagne etc. Second conditional If I was a millionaire, Id and Id etc. In fact, any structure can be adapted to this game: use your ingenuity!

Introduction
Many teachers are confused on how to teach grammar. The form-focused instruction of the audio-lingual method produced students that knew a lot about a language but could not apply what they knew to spontaneous speech. Conversely, the lack of grammar instruction in the Communicative Approach has often produced students who communicate well but lack grammatical competency. Is it possible to teach grammar in a way that will help students develop grammatical competency, even in spontaneous speech? This article explores a possible answer to this dilemma, the theory of noticing, and its application to the classroom.

Why Noticing?
The theoretical basis for noticing centers around the relationship between explicit and implicit knowledge. Explicit knowledge is conscious knowledge of grammar rules learned through formal classroom instruction. For example, Li knows every rule about subject-verb agreement but makes frequent mistakes in natural speech. This knowledge is only available to him when he has time to think about the rules and then apply them (i.e. a grammar exercise or a writing assignment). In contrast, implicit knowledge is unconscious, internalized knowledge of a language that is available for spontaneous speech. For example, Jim speaks English with near perfect use of the basic rules of subject-verb agreement. This is despite the fact that he may have no idea what subject-verb agreement is or what the rules are. The question is can explicit grammar knowledge (Li's knowledge) become implicit knowledge (Jim's knowledge)? There are two basic answers to the question. The first is the non-interface position proposed by Krashen. In his view, explicit knowledge can never become implicit knowledge because these two types of knowledge are located in different parts of the brain. Li could keep studying grammatical rules for the rest of his life and never speak like Jim. On the other hand, the interface position claims that explicit knowledge can have some impact on implicit knowledge. The interface position is divided into two views, the strong and the weak position. The strong interface position holds explicit knowledge becomes internalized through practice, like the acquisition of other skills. The weak interface position, however, agrees with Krashen that explicit learning does not become implicit knowledge, but that it can aid or foster the acquisition of implicit knowledge (Brook). Proponents of this position acknowledge that there

are simply too many linguistic rules for any learner, native speaker or not, to learn them all consciously. Thus, a strong interface is unlikely. Nevertheless, recent data suggests that students who have explicit grammar instruction as part of their study achieve a higher level of grammatical accuracy than those who do not (Ellis, 2002, p19). This suggests a weak-interface between explicit and implicit knowledge. Noticing is based on this position.

What is Noticing?
Noticing is basically the idea that if learners pay attention to the form and meaning of certain language structures in input, this will contribute to the internalization of the rule (Batstone, 1996). Ellis expounds on this idea: ". . . we don't actually try to influence the construction of the complex network [implicit knowledge] . . . because really learners can only do it themselves. We cannot implant rules into that network. Learners extract from the available information around them the regularities that form into their knowledge system. If this is the case, all that we can do is make them aware of some of these patterns . . . under the assumption that if you have an awareness of them, then ultimately your pattern detector might function a bit more efficiently" (Ryan, 2001, p2). In addition, learners acquiring language through a natural approach often experience fossilization, certain errors do not get better despite a significant amount of experience with the target language. Perhaps once learners develop communicative sufficiency they do not make progress in accuracy. Noticing helps rectify this by helping learners "notice the gap." They recognize that the language features noticed are different from their current language. Remember, according to this theory, the primary nature of explicit knowledge is to develop awareness of rather than production of target forms. Hence, teachers ought not to grade students on accurate use of these forms in spontaneous speech. Hopefully, this awareness will help learners notice target forms in future input and facilitate the eventual acquisition of these forms as implicit knowledge (Ellis, 2002, p 29).

How Do Teachers Help Students Notice?

How can we as teachers help students notice target forms? Cross (2002) summarizes factors that draw attention to certain features in input: Explicit instruction -- instruction explaining and drawing attention to a particular form. Frequency -- the regular occurrence of a certain structure in input. Perceptual Salience -- highlighting or underlining to draw attention to a certain structure. Task Demands -- constructing a task that requires learners to notice a structure in order to complete it. Also, Rod Ellis outlines five teaching activities to develop grammatical knowledge of a problematic feature (Ellis 2002, pp. 30-31):

1. Listening to Comprehend: Students listen to comprehend a text that has been structured to contain several examples of the target form. 2. Listening to notice: Students listen to the same text again, but are given a gap-fill exercise. The target form is missing and the students simply fill it in exactly as they hear it to help them notice the form. 3. Understanding the grammar point: With help from the teacher, the students analyze the data and "discover" the rule. 4. Checking: Students are given a written text containing errors and are asked to correct them. 5. Trying it: Students apply their knowledge in a production activity. Ellis warns that this is not designed to develop implicit knowledge, but simply to develop awareness of grammar, which -- when supplemented with other forms of input and communicative tasks -- may aid in the eventual acquisition of implicit knowledge.

Conclusion
In conclusion, explicit grammar knowledge can foster the acquisition of implicit knowledge through noticing. Teachers can draw students' attention to certain language features of input through explicit instruction, increasing the frequency and perceptual salience of the structure, and/or designing tasks that require the students to notice a structure to complete it.
THE SIMILARITY AND DIFFERENCESBETWEEN KBSR AND KSSR 2. SIMILARITY Acquiring basic skill in every student Inculcation of moral values Involving role of teachers and students Student still need to take UPSR examination. Compulsory subject are the same Bahasa Melayu, English, mathematics and science. 3. DIFFERENCES KSSR KURIKULUM ASPECTS KBSR KURIKULUMSTANDARD SEKOLAH BERSEPADU SEKOLAH RENDAH RENDAH2011 Introduce On 1993 -2010 (subsequently reviewed in 2003 for PPSMI)1 and 2 Year 1 6 (currently 3 6)Curriculum written Curriculum Written Curriculum writtenbased on based oncontent and learning learning outcomesstandardsNational examination Examination/ National examination(UPSR) + Assessment (UPSR)school-based onlyassessment 4. KSSR ASPECTS KBSRBased on 6 areas: Curriculum Design Based on 3 areas:Communication Communication Spiritual, Attitude and Man and hisValues environment Humanitarian Self-development of Physical

and the individualAestheticalDevelopment Science andTechnologyCurriculum Standard Curriculum Materials Study syllabusdocumentsModular Design of the Linear Curriculum4M (Reading, Writing, Focus 3M (Reading, WritingCounting and Reasoning) and Counting) 5. KSSR ASPECTS KBSRThe elements of Elements (added Elements of Analyticalcreativity and value) and creative thinkingInnovation, skillsentrepreneurial,information technologyandcommunicationLevel I (Year 1, 2 & 3) Organisation of the Level I (Year 1, 2 & 3) Basic Core Modules, Curriculum Core, compulsory andThematic Core Modules additional subjectsand Elective Modules Level II (Year 4, 5 & 6)Level II (Year 4, 5 & 6) Core , Compulsory and Core and Elective Additional subjectsSubjects