TEACHER

PROFESSIONALISM

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CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION 3

CHAPTER 2: CURRICULUM 11

CHAPTER 3: TEACHING AS A PROFESSION 19

CHAPTER 4: THE TEACHER AND THE WORLD OF EDUCATION 24

CHAPTER 5: THE TEACHER AND PROFESSIONAL SKILLS 30

CHAPTER 6: THE TEACHER AND SELF DEVELOPMENT 39

CHAPTER 7: CHALLENGES OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION 46

CHAPTER 8: DEVELOPMENT OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM IN MALAYSIA

51

CHAPTER 9: EDUCATIONAL OUTCOME 60

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CHAPTER 1: PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
Overview:
In this chapter, we shall cover
• Philosophy of Education
- Basic Concepts of philosophy and education
• Western Philosophy of Education
- traditional
- modern
• Islamic Philosophy of Education
- Concepts of Islamic philosophy
• The National Philosophy of Education
- Factors influencing the formulation of the National Philosophy of Education
- Elements in the National Philosophy of Education
• The Philosophy of Teacher Education
- Goals
- Conceptual Model of Teacher Education
- Teaching Values
• Implications of the national philosophy of education and the philosophy of teacher
education on the role of the teacher as an educator

Key Terms
• Philosophy
• Education
• Realism
• Idealism
• Pragmatism
• Existentialism
• Metaphysics
• Axiology
• Epistemology
• Logic
• Perennialism
• Essensialism
• Progressivism
• Reconstructionism
• National Philosophy of Education

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• Philosophy of teacher education
• Islamic Philosophy of Education

Further Reading
Armstrong,D.G., Henson, K.T. & Savage,T.V. (1995). Education : An Introduction. New
York: Macmillan Publishing Company.
Ozmon,H.A. & Craver, S.M. (1995). Philosophical Foundations of Education. Englewood
Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Teacher Education Division. 1982. The Philosophy of Education (Report of the National
Workshop and Survey), Ministry of Education.
http://www.moe.gov.my
http://cw.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/armstrong3/chapter3/chapter12/deluxe.html
http://www.siu.edueyctr/cdromsup.html
http://www.soe.purdue.edu/fac/georgeoff/phil am ed/essentialism.html
http://www.morehead-st.edu/people/w.willis/fourtheories.html

Suggested Input
1. Philosophy
Philosophy literally means ‘ love for wisdom and has traditionally implied the pursuit
of wisdom.”
It is a comprehensive, holistic and logical investigation on human thoughts in the
field of religion, arts, science and education.
2. Metaphysics
Metaphysics is concerned with the nature of reality. It is defined as beyond the
physical or the material. It deals with questions that go beyond what can be
answered by reference to scientific investigation. It is speculative and focus on
issues as the nature of cause-effect relationships. It relates to teaching in terms of
thoughts about educational goals, the selection of appropriate content and
educational goals, and attitudes towards the general nature of learners. Metaphysics
asks such questions as the following: Is there a body of universal knowledge to be
learned? Who should decide what is to be learned? Are learners basically good and
trustworthy?
3. Epistemology
3.1 Epistemology is concerned with the nature of knowledge. Answers to
epistemological questions provide a rationale for selecting material that is worth
teaching and learning and suggest how information should be taught. Two
basic epistemological questions are:

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 What constitutes knowledge?
Is knowledge fixed or changing?
3.2 Another basic epistemological question centers on what might be described as
ways of knowing and the reliability of methods of knowing. Basically the issue is
one of whether knowledge comes from revelation, from authority, from intuition,
from the senses or from reason or experimentation.
3.3 Teachers’ approaches to teaching content to learners says a good deal about
their own answers to basic epistemological questions. For example, a teacher
who insists that learners master specific facts and principles that others have
discovered operates on the assumption that there is such a thing as true
knowledge. Other teachers who are more interested in teaching the processes
of problem-solving, imply that there is no ultimate “truth” and that it makes
better sense for youngsters to learn some skills that will be useful to them in
arriving at answers that are situational –specific.
4. Axiology
4.1 Axiology focuses on questions about what “ought to be”. It deals with the nature
of values and relates to the teaching of moral values and character development.
The topics of morality, ethics and aesthetics fall into this philosophical category.
Some questions associated with axiology are :
How should life be lived?
What is the nature of existence?
Does life have any meaning?
What is moral and immoral?
What is beauty?
4.2 Another important axiological question of a different kind concerns the nature of
‘right’ conduct. How should a person behave? What is moral behaviour? How do
individuals know when they are doing the right thing? Some argue that there are
universal principles or guidelines that can be followed. Some reject the idea but
contend that appropriateness of behaviour is situation-specific.
5. Logic
5.1 Logic is the science of exact thought and it deals with the relationships among
ideas and with the procedures used to differentiate between valid and fallacious
thinking. Logic can help you to communicate more effectively by encouraging a
careful, systematic arrangement of the thoughts. It can assist you as you work to
evaluate the consistency of learners’ reasoning. It also contributes to your ability
to assess the reliability of the new information you encounter.

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 5.2 There are two basic types of logic- deductive and inductive logic. Deductive logic
begins with a a general conclusion and then elucidates this conclusion by citing
examples and particulars that logically flow from it. Inductive logic begins with
particulars then reasoning focuses on these particulars and proceeds to a
general conclusion that explains them.
6. Realism
6.1 Realism stresses on objective knowledge and values. The essential doctrines of
realism hold that (1) there is a world of real existence that human beings have
not made or constructed; (2)this real existence can be known by the human
mind; and (3) such knowledge is the only reliable guide to human conduct both
individual and social.
6.2 Reality is objective and is composed of matter and form. It is fixed based on
natural law. Knowing consists of sensation and abstraction. Values are absolute
and eternal, based on nature’s laws.
6.3 The realist stresses a curricular consisting of organized, separate subject matter,
content and knowledge that classifies objects. The most general and abstract
subjects are at the top of the curricular hierarchy and gives particular and
transitory subjects at a lower order of priority. Logic and lessons that exercise
the mind and that cultivate rational thought are stressed. Concepts and systems
that can be organized into subjects such as ethical, political and economic
thought are included in the curriculum. The three R’s are also necessary in a
person’s basic education.
6.4 Realist views subject matter experts as the source of authority and reality and
truth emanate from both science and art.
7. Idealism
7.1 Reality is spiritual or mental and unchanging. Knowing is the rethinking of latent
ideas and values are absolute, eternal and universal.
7.2 Idealists stressed on the importance of mind over matter. Ideas are the only true
reality. They do not reject matter, but hold that the material world is characterized
by change, instability and uncertainty while ideas are enduring.
7.3 Idealists conceive of people as thinking beings, having minds capable of seeking
truth through reasoning and of obtaining truth by revelation.
7.4 It is concerned with the student as one who has enormous potential for growth,
both morally and cognitively.
7.5 Curriculum is hierarchical and it constitutes the cultural heritage of mankind; it is
based on learned disciplines, illustrated by the liberal arts curriculum. The most
general subjects are philosophy and theology; mathematics is important with

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 history and literature being sources of moral and cultural models. Natural and
physical sciences are lower down the hierarchy while language is an important
subject for communication and facilitates conception of thought.
8. Pragmatism
8.1 Reality is the interaction of an individual with the environment or
experienceand it is also changing. Knowing results from experiencing and the
use of scientific method. Values are situational or relative.
8.2 It is based on change, process and relativity. It construes knowledge as a
process in which reality is constantly changing. Learning occurs as the person
engages in problem solving.
8.3 Pragmatists believe that nothing can be viewed intelligently except in relation
to a pattern. The whole affects the parts and the parts and the whole are all
relative. Teaching is more exploratory and what is needed is a method for
dealing with change and scientific investigation in a intelligent manner.
8.4 Dewey viewed education as a process for improving the human condition.
The curriculum is for based on the child’s experiences and interests and
prepares him or her life’s affairs and for the future. The subject is
interdisplinary ; the stress is on problem-solving.
8.5 Pragmatists consider teaching and learning to be a process of reconstructing
experience according to the scientific method. Learning takes place in an
active way as learners solve problems.
9. Existentialism
9.1 Reality is subjective, with existence preceding essence. Knowing to make
personal choices and should be freely chosen.
9.2 Existentialists prefer to free learners to choose what to study and also to
determine what is true and by what criteria to determine these truths. Learners
are free to choose from the many available learning situations. Learners are free
to choose the knowledge they wish to possess.
9.3 Existentialist curriculum would consist of experiences and subjects that lend
themselves to philosophical dialogue and acts of choice making. Subjects that
are emotional, esthetic and philosophical are appropriate. Literature, drama, film
making and art are important because they portray human condition and choice-
making conditions. The curriculum would stress self-expressive activities,
experimentation and methods and media that illustrate emotions, feelings and
insights.
10. Perennialism

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 10.1 Perennialism is rooted in realism. It aims to educate the rational person
and to cultivate the intellect. Focus on past and permanent studies;
mastery of facts and timeless knowledge.
10.2 Teacher helps students think rationally; based on Socratic method, oral
exposition; explicit teaching of traditional values.
10.3 The curriculum is a common one and subject-centered. Emphasis on
language, literature and mathematics, arts and sciences.
10.4 The teacher is viewed as an authority in the field whose knowledge and
expertise are unquestionable. The teacher is the master of the subject
and must be able to guide discussion.
11. Essentialism
11.1 Essensialism is rooted in both realism and idealism. It aims promote the
intellectual growth of the individual and to educate the competent person.
Focus on essential skills and academic subjects; mastery of concepts and
principles of subject matter
11.2 Teacher is authority in his or her subject field; explicit teaching of traditional
values.
11.3 Essential skills are 3 Rs and essential subjects (English, Science, history,
mathematics and foreign languages).
11.4 It is concerned with facts and knowledge and also interested in conceptual
thought, principles and theories of subject matter.
11.5 The teacher is considered a master of a particular subject and a model
worthy of emulation. The teacher is , in authority and controls the classroom,
decides on the curriculum with minimal student input.
12. Progressivism
12.1 Progressivism is based on pragmatism. It aims to promote democratic and
social living. Emphasizes change as the essence of reality. It views
knowledge as something tentative that may explain present reality .
Knowledge leads to growth and development and it focus on active and
relevant learning.
12.2 Teacher is a guide for problem solving and scientific inquiry
12.3 Curriculum is based on student’s interests and it involves the application of
human problems, interdisciplinary subject matter, activities and projects.
13. Reconstructionism
13.1 Reconstructionism is based on pragmatism. It proposes to improve and
reconstruct society. They believe that schools serve as an important catalyst
to improve the human condition through educational and social reform.

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 13.2 Skills and subjects need to identify and ameliorate problems of society.
Learning is active and concerned with contemporary and future society
13.3 Teacher serves as an agent of change and reform. He helps students
become aware of problems confronting mankind
13.4 Curriculum emphasizes on social sciences and social research methods;
focus on present and future trends as well as on the national and
international issues
14. ISLAMIC PHILOSPHY OF EDUCATION
14.1 Definition of Philosophy
Love for wisdom
- Need to obtain the truth and to internalize them
- Make every effort to solve human and humanity problems prevailing in society
14.2 Islamic Philosophy
- Philosophy which is based on the teaching of Islam as obtained from revealed
knowledge
- The role of Islamic Philosophy is to explain the relationship between man and
his Creator (Allah), between man and man, and between man and his
environment.
14.3 Islamic Education
- Islamic education is a process to educate and train the mind, body, soul and
emotion of man based on revealed knowledge (al-Quran and As-Sunnah),
experiences of salaf al-Salih and prominent educators in the hope to produce
human being who is pious, able to carry out his responsibilities as caliph as
specified by Allah onto mankind to develop this world in order to achieve
happiness in this world and the world after. Islamic education is a process to
consciously guide educators mould students based on the teachings of Islam
14.4 Goals and Aims of Islamic Education
- The goal of Islamic Education, based on al-Quran and As-Sunnah, is to
mould and develop human being as a Muslim who is knowledgeable, believes
in God, performs good deeds, and has good personality in an effort to equip
himself and be responsible as a servant to God and be a pious leader.
- The aims of Islamic Education is to educate students:
to be of good behaviour
to achieve perfection in their soul
to do good and noble deeds
to practise refined culture
to get use to cleanliness, sincerity and good practices

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14.5 Islamic Philosophy of Education
- Philosophy of education is based on the teaching of Islam or revealed
knowledge.
- Islamic Philosophy of Education , Malaysian Ministry of Education states that
Islamic education is a continuous effort to deliver knowledge, skills and
practices of Islam based on al-Quran and as-Sunnah in developing attitude,
skills, personality, and views of life as a servant of God who is responsible to
develop oneself, society, environment, and country to achieve happiness in
this world and the world after.
- It aims to prepare man with sufficient experiences and knowledge so that he
knows who he is, his roles and responsibilities as a servant to God and a
leader so as to be devoted human being.
15. National Philosophy of Education
Education in Malaysia is an on-going effort towards further developing the
potential of individuals in a holistic and integrated manner, so as to produce
individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically balanced
and harmonious, based on firm belief in God. Our efforts are focused towards
creating Malaysian citizen who are knowledgeable and competent, who possess
high moral standards, and who are responsible and capable of achieving a high
level of personal well-being and able to contribute to the harmony and prosperity
of the family, the society and the nation at large.
1. The Philosophy of Teacher Education
The teacher, who is noble in character,progressive and scientific in outlook,
committed to uphold the aspirations of the nation, and cherishes the national
cultural heritage, ensures the development of the individual and the preservation
of a united,democratic,progressive and disciplined society
Teacher Education Conceptual Model ( refer to syllabus)

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CHAPTER 2: CURRICULUM
Overview
In this Chapter, we shall cover
• Concept and types of curriculum
• Factors influencing the formulation and changes in the curriculum
• The school curriculum: The New Primary Curriculum (KBSR)
• The Integrated Secondary school Curriculum (KBSM)
• The role of the teacher in implementing the curriculum
• Futuristic curriculum

Key Terms
• Curriculum
• Hidden Curriculum
• Recommended Curriculum
• Written Curriculum
• Supported Curriculum
• Taught Curriculum
• Tested Curriculum
• Learned Curriculum
• Futuristic curriculum
• Models of Curriculum Design

Further Reading
Barrow,R. (1984). Giving Teaching back to teachers. A critical introduction to curriculum
theory. Brighton: Wheatsheaf Books.
Duke, D.L. (1990). Teaching: An Introduction. New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.
Eisner,E.W. (1994). The Educational Imagination. New York: Macmillan College
Pub.
Glatthorn, A.A. (1987). Curriculum Leadership. Glenview: Scott, Foreman.
Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum.(1994). Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Rendah (KBSR)
secara menyeluruh. Kuala Lumpur: Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia
Stenhouse. (1975). An Introduction to curriculum Research and Development. London:
Heinemann.
Taba,H. (1962). Curriculum Development: Theory and practice. New York: Harcourt
Brace and World.

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Tyler, R.W. ( 1969). Basic Principles of curriculum and Instruction. Chicago: The
University of the Chicago Press
http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm.
http://pages.nyu.edu/~asr209/curriculum.doc
http://www.cast.org/udl/EnvisioningFutureCurriculum189.cfm

Suggested Input
1. Curriculum:
1.1. The planned and guided learning experiences and intended learning
outcomes, formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and
experiences, under the auspices of the school, for the learners’ continous and
willful growth in personal social competence.
1.2. The curriculum of a school can be conceived as a series of planned events
that are intended to have educational consequences for one or more students
1.3. Curriculum is all the learning experiences planned and directed by the school
to attain its educational goals
1.4. Curriculum is the plan made for guiding learning in the school usually
represented in retrievable documents of several levels of generality, and the
actualization of those plans in the classroom, as experienced by the learners and
as recorded by the observer; those experiences take place in a learning
environment which also influences what is learned.
2. Hidden Curriculum
2.1. It lies outside the official organizational context of teaching. It is taught
implicitly rather than explicitely, by the school experience.
2.2. It consists of the unwritten rules, conventions, folkways and values of the
culture known as school. It is shaped by factors like socioeconomic status and
background experiences of the teachers and students
3. Recommended Curriculum
The curriculum recommended by scholars, professional associations, reform
commissions and policy makers
4 Written Curriculum
The curriculum embodied in approved state and district curriculum guides
5 Supported Curriculum
The curriculum reflected in and shaped by resources allocated to support or deliver it
6 Taught Curriculum
The curriculum that an observer would see in action as the teacher taught
7. Tested Curriculum

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The set of learnings assessed in teacher-made tests, district developed tests and
standardized tests
8. Learned Curriculum
All the changes in values, perceptions and behaviour that occur as a result of school
experience.
9. Futuristic Curriculum
The futuristic curriculum embodies a learner-centered approach to education in which
students come to understand their strengths and weaknesses as learners and in which
students are able to be empowered to become life-long learners. Learning experiences
are designed to assist students to integrate new knowledge and to refine this new
knowledge towards new insights by comparing, constrasting, inducing, deducing and
analyzing. In addition, learning experiences provide opportunities for students to use
knowledge meaningfully for informed decision-making and for critical, creative and
futuristic thinking and problem-solving. The three approaches to implement this vision
are:
- content will be provided through multiple representations with multiple
strategies for acting upon it
- curriculum will be constructed as modules and accessed via networks
- materials, experiences and supports will be drawn from a wide range of
sources and integrated into the core structure of the curriculum
10. Curriculum Model
Based on a body of theory about teaching and learning. It is targeted to needs and
characteristics of a particular group of learners It has outline approaches, methods and
procedures for implementation. Curriculum models like Tylerian model, model Taba and
Stenhouse model of process
11. Tyler’s model of curriculum design
11.1 Tyler’s theory was based on four fundamental questions:
(i) What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
(ii) What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain
these purposes?
(iii) How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
(iv) How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
11.2 He placed an emphasis on the formulation of behavioural objectives.
According to him, since the real purpose of education is not to have the
instructor perform certain activities but to bring about significant changes in
the students’ pattern of behaviour, it becomes important to recognize that any

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 statements of objectives of the school should be a statement of changes to
take place in the students.
11.3 The attraction of this way of approaching curriculum theory and practice is that it
is systematic and has considerable organizing power. Central to this approach is
the formulation of behavioural objectives- providing a clear notion of outcome so
that content and method may be organized and the results evaluated.
12. Model Taba
12.1 Curriculum as a plan for action and it is a bottom-up approach to curriculum
where the teacher has a major role to perform.
12.2 According to Taba, there is a definite order in creating a curriculum and held
that teachers should help in tha development process. There are seven
steps in the development of a curriculum that is:
- diagnosis of needs
- formulation of objectives
- selection of content
- organization of content
- selection of learning experiences
- organization of learning activities
- evaluation
13. Curriculum as a process (Stenhouse)
Another way of looking at curriculum theory and practice is via a process. In this
sense, curriculum is not a physical thing, but rather the interaction of teachers,
students and knowledge. In other words, curriculum is what actually happens in
the classroom and what people do to prepare and evaluate. It is an active
process and links with the practical form of reasoning set out by Aristotle.

Stenhouse defined curriculum as ‘ an attempt to communicate the essential

principles and features of an educational proposal in such a form that it is open to
critical scrutiny and capable of effective translation into practice’

A curriculum should provide a basis for planning a course, studying it empirically

and considering the grounds of its justification. It should offer:
Planning:
- principle for the selection of content- what is to be learned and taught
- principles for the development of a teaching strategy- how it is to be
learned and taught
- principles for the making of decisions about sequence teachers

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 - guidance as to the feasibility of implementing the curriculum in varying
school contexts, pupil contexts, environments and peer-group situations
- information about the variability of effects in differing contexts and on
different pupils and understanding of the causes of the variation in relation
to justification:
- a formulation of the intention or aim of the curriculum which is accessible
to critical scrutiny.
This process model looks into curriculum as a form of specification about the
practice of teaching. It is a way of translating any educational idea into a
hypothesis testable in practice. It invites critical testing rather than acceptance.

Given the uniqueness of each classroom setting, it means that any proposal,
even at school level, needs to be tested, and verifed by each teacher in his/her
classroom. It is not like a curriculum package which is designed to be delivered
almost anywhere.

Outcomes are no longer the central and defining feature. Rather than tightly
specifying behavioural objectives and methods in advance, what happens in this
model of curriculum theory and practice is that content and means develop as
teachers and students work together.
The learners in this model are not objects to be acted upon. They have a clear
voice in the way that the sessions evolve. The focus is on interactions. This can
mean that attention shifts from teaching to learning. A process approach to
curriculum theory and practice tends towards making the process of learning the
central concern of the teacher.

14. Factors influencing the formulation and changes in the curriculum

14.1 Government
- when a government adopts a policy to implement a curriculum like the
teaching of science and mathematics in schools ; this will bring out new
emphasis in these fields in the nation’s school.
14.2 Goals and their priorities
- Aims, goals and objectives,values holds for an educational program. This
is to help the students learn to participate effectively. A community or a
school faculty recognize these goals in this particular context is not
possible.
14.3 Content of the Curriculum

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 - Attention on the selection of content is an important curriculum
consideration.
14.4 Individual Needs
- A curriculum is formulated based on the needs of the individual such as
interest, basic skills (3R) and wholesome development of the child
- Individual needs are fulfilled to enable the student to acquire social skills,
able to understand oneself, develop interest and potentials and character
development.
14.5 Need of the society and nation
- society wants its members to acquire basic skills; basic concepts and
techniques in life from the political, social and economical point of view.
- to fulfill the aspiration of society, ambition and ideology of the nation
14.6 Universal Needs
- curriculum to disseminate knowledge and training to students to enable
students to inculcate universal understanding and cooperation
- improve the way of life of the population
- emphasizes on values, sentiment, knowledge and skills to ensure societal
stability, individual motivation and behaviour controls.
15. The Integrated Primary School curriculum

15.1 Primary education is divided into two levels. At level one, that is from Year 1 to
3, the emphasis is on acquiring strong reading, writing, and arithmetical skills. At
level two, that is from Year Four to Six, the mastery of these skills are reinforced and
emphasis is given to building a strong foundation in content and basic sciences. An
assessment examination at Year Six is used to evaluate student performance.
Besides this, continous school-based assessments are carried out at all levels.

15.2 Objectives of the Integrated Primary School curriculum:

- to master Bahasa Melayu
- to master the basic language skills
- to develop and improve intellectual capacities which include rational,
critical and creative thinking
- to master arithmetic skills and use them in their daily lives
- to master learning and thinking skills
- to master English as second language
- to develop leadership qualities and self confidence
- to be sensitive towards man and the environment

16
 - to master scientific and technical skills
- to understand and appreciate culture and participate in recreational
activities
- to look after one’s health and physical fitness
- to master the basics of entrepreneurship and productivity
- to acquire the skills of reading, reciting and understanding the meaning of
verses in Al-Quran
- to strengthen the fundamentals of aqidah(belief in God) and practice of
moral values
- to inculcate patriotism
- to develop talent and creativity
- to develop positive attitudes

15.3 The list of subjects for the primary school:

Core:
- Bahasa Melayu,
- English Language
- Chinese Language*
- Tamil Language*
- Mathematics
- Science
- Local Studies
- Islamic Education(Muslim Students)
- Moral Studies ( Non-Muslim students)
* for national-type schools only

Compulsory:
- Health Education
- Physical Education
- Living skills
- Art Education
- Music Education

Additional
- Chinese Language
- Tamil Language
- Arabic Language (Communication)

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16. The Integrated Secondary School Curriculum
16.1 Secondary school offers a comprehensive education programme. The
curriculum includes a wide range of subjects from the arts and sciences as well as
vocational and technical subjects that provide a practical bias and a hands-on
approach to learning. With the emphasis placed on technological literacy, the smart
school concept was introduced in 1996.

16.2 The Lower Secondary level coves a period of three years (Form 1 to Form
3). Students from rhe national primary schools enter Form 1 whereas
students from the Chinese and Tamil schools proceed to a transition year
(Remove Class) before entering Form 1. This Remove class is for
students to acquire sufficient proficiency in Bahasa Melayu which is the
medium of instruction in secondary schools. However, students who have
performed well in the Primary School Achievement Test are allowed to
proceed directly to Form 1.

16.3 Students moved into the more specialized fields of study at the upper
secondary after the Lower Secondary Assessment. Based on choice and
aptitude, students enter either the arts or the science strems in the
academic schools or religious schools. Several technical and vocational
schools provide technically based academic education and pre-
employment skills. All schools whether academic, technical, vocational,
religious or special education prepare students for the Malaysian
Certificate of Education Open Certification examination at the end of two
years of upper secondary education.

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CHAPTER 3: TEACHING AS A PROFESSION
Overview:
In this chapter, we shall cover
• Concepts of a professional and non-professional
• Code of Ethics
• Accountability towards school, profession, nation and self

Key Terms
• Profession
• Professional
• Non-professional
• Qualities of teaching-behaviour,mentor,model,leader
• Code of Ethics
• Accountability

Further Reading
Darling-Hammond, L.(1991) Teachers and Teaching:Signs of a changing profession. In
The Handbook of research on teacher education. Houston(ed.) New York:
Macmillan
Day,C. (1999). Developing Teachers: The Challenges of Lifelong Learning. London:
Falmer Press.
Hoyle,E. & John,P. (1995). Professional Knowledge and professional practice. London:
Cassel
Lieberman, M. (1995). Education as a profession. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall
http://www.mpls.k12.mm.us/departments/CIT2/ethics.htm
Ryan,K. & Cooper, J.M.(1998). Those who can,Teach. Boston: Houghton Miflin Co.

Suggested Input
1. Profession
A profession is an occupation which performs a crucial social function. To
accomplish this function it requires a considerable degree of skill requires a body
of systematic knowledge grounded in theory. This acquisition of this body of
knowledge and the development of specific skill entails a lengthly period of
higher education. The period of education and training involves the process of
socialization into professional values. These professional values tends to center

19
 on the pre-eminence of essential for the professional to have the freedom or
autonomy to make his/her own judgements with regard to appropriate practice.
2. Professional
2.1 Professional is one who has (i) a specialized knowledge base(technical
culture);(ii) commitment to meeting client needs(service ethic) ;(iii) strong
collective identity-professional commitment( professional commitment); dan
(iv) collegial as against bureaucratic control over practice and professional
standards (professional autonomy).
2.2 Characteristics of professionals:
- possess a specialized skill enabling them to offer a specialized service
- undergo intellectual and practical training in a well-defined area of study
- maintain detachment and integrity in exercising personal judgement on
behalf of a client
- establish direct, personal relations with a client, based on confidence,faith
and trust
- collectively have a sense of responsibility for maintaining the competence
and integrity of the professional as a whole
- tend or required to avoid certain manners of attracting business
- are organized in bodies which, with or without state intervention, are
concerned to provide the machinery for testing competence and
regulating standards of competence and conduct
3. Non Professional
The profession is not a unique service. Training is not rigorous that is a short
period of training. And entrance to the occupation is not especially competitive,
particularly on intellectual grounds. There is little decision-making power as most
important decisions that affects the person ‘s daily lives, even those directly on
the standards of their own profession are made by administrator. There is little
accountability and little involvement in activities professional organization
4. Qualities of a teacher
4.1 Leader who can inspire and influence students through expert and
referent power but never coercive power. This teacher knows his students
well and is kind and respectful towards his students. He has high standards
and expectations coexisting with encouragement, support and flexibility. The
teacher empower students and get them to do things of which they did not
think they were capable.
4.2 Coach/guide who helps students to improve on their skills and insights
4.3 Disseminator of knowledge and skills

20
 4.4 Role model to the student; practises what he/she preaches. He/She
upholds moral values and humanitarian principles in all his actions. Teachers
conduct their day –by-day doing in such a way that their behaviour can be
cherished by the learners. Teachers should be a human model for learners
therefore, they must uphold all codes of ethical conduct that are necessary
and essential in human modeling and moral education.
4.5 Innovator, creative, resourceful and encourages diversity and
individuality in his students.
5. Code of Ethics
5.1 Ethical responsibilites to students
- Teachers will educate students to high standards of achievement. The
teacher shall use best professional practices and materials and the
teacher is knowledgeable of and delivers the standards-based
curriculum
- Teacher shall engage in practices and select materials that include all
students, celebrate diversity and never exclude them from opportunities on
the basis of their race, gender, ethnicity, religion, national origin, language,
ability or the status, behaviour or beliefs of their parents
- The teacher is committed to developing the skill sets needed to best
accelerate the learning of the students currently in their classrooms
- The teacher creates a classroom environment that is respectful,
emotionally secure and physically safe for students

5.2 Ethical Responsibilities to Family/Community

- The teacher shall inform families of program philosophy, policies and
personnel qualifications and explain why we teach as we do, which
should be in accordance with our ethical responsibilities to students
- The teacher shall involve families in significant decisions affecting their
student and regularly communicate student progress with families
- The teacher shall inform the family of accidents involving their student, of
risks such as exposures to contagious disease that may result in
infection and of occurrences that might result in emotional stress
- The teacher shall maintain confidentialilty and shall respect the family’s
right to privacy, refraining from disclosure of confidential information and
intrusion into family life, except when a student’s welfare is at risk
- The teacher shall be objective and accurate in reporting the knowledge
upon which we base our programs, assessments and professional

21
 practices
- The teacher shall cooperate and team with other professionals who work
with students and families
- The teacher shall exercise care in expressing views regarding students.
Statements shall be respectful and based on firsthand knowledge
5.3 Ethical Responsibilities to Colleagues
- The teacher shall show respect for personal dignity and for the diversity found among
staff members, and to resolve matters collegially
- The teacher shall exercise care in expressing views regarding the professional
behaviour or conduct of co-workers and/or students.
- The teacher agrees to carry out the program at the site to which we are assigned.
When we do not agree with the program policies, we shall first attempt to effect
change through constructive action within the organization
- Teachers who do not meet program standards shall be informed of areas of
concern and, when possible, assisted in improving their performance
- In making assessments and recommendations, the teacher shall make judgements
based on fact and relevant to the interests of students and programs
6. Accountability
6.1 Teacher accountability refers to the responsibility towards one’s teaching
profession
6.2 Job accountability
o Performs curriculum and co-curriculum activities
o Follow job procedures
o Internalize one’s work ethics
o Responsible and perform job with dedication and commitment
6.3 Accountability towards nation
o knowledge practitioner and educate citizens of Malaysia
o inculcate moral values, develop and preserve our culture
o realization of the national philosophy of education and vision of the
country
o instill national integration
o develop a progressive generation
6.4 Accountability towards students and parents
o disseminate knowledge and skills to students
o educate and inculcate moral values
o inculcate good behaviours

22
 o develop students’ potentials intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and
physically
6.5 Accountability towards self
o as a model for students
o maintain good behaviours
o update oneself on current knowledge and skills
o perform one’s job sincerely

23
CHAPTER 4: THE TEACHER AND THE WORLD OF
EDUCATION
Overview:
In this chapter, we shall cover
• Roles and responsibilities of the teacher as an effective knowledge, skill and value
disseminator in the classroom
• Role as an educator in the teaching profession

Key Terms
• Knowledge practitioner
• Skills practitioner
• Educare
• Educere
• Social agent
• Agent of Change
• Consultant
• Mentor
• Manager
• Researcher
• Patriot

Further Reading
Brooks,V. & Sikes, P. (1997). The Good Mentor Guide: Initial Teacher Education
in Secondary Schools. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Cairney,T. (1987).Teachers as researchers. In Barbara Comper & Hancock, J.
Developing Teachers. Melbourne: Thomas Nelson
Fletcher,S.( 2000). Mentoring in schools; A handbook of good practice. London:
Kogan Press
Kinchheloe, J. L. (1991). Teachers as researchers: Qualitative Inquiry as a path
to empowerment. London: The Falmer Press
Tomlinson,P. (1995). Understanding Mentoring.Buckingham: Open University
Press.

Suggested Input
1. Knowledge and skill practitioner

24
 1.1. The teacher is a professional is an educator and a practitioner in knowledge
and skills. He/she is an effective practitioner and analyst who, through teacher
education, is competent in applying his/her theoretical knowledge in various
pedagogic contexts. He/she provides education for discipline, for knowledge, for
character, for life, for growth, for personal fulfillment and aesthetic refinement.
1.2. The practitioner understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and
structures of the discipline he or she teaches and creates learning experiences
that make these aspects of subject matter meaningful for students.
1.3. He/She understands how children learn and develop and can provide learning
opportunities that support their intellectual, social and personal development.
He/she also understands and uses a variety of instructional strategies to
encourage students’ development of critical thinking, problem solving and
performance skills.
1.4. He/She is eclectic in the sense of being able to synthesise rather than merely
select what is available. The teacher should possess the ability to harmonically
arrange what has been selected to be offered to the students.
1.5. The practitioner has to adopt technology as a means for becoming more
effective in producing his/her own materials, accessing the Internet to gain
information, ideas and core materials which will provide the basis for
presentation to the students.
2. Educare and Educere
2.1 Education arises from two Latin terms that is educare and educere. Educare is ‘
to lead, draw or bring out; to unsheathe. The etymology emphasizes the
militaristic aspect of the word; the word involved leading or bringing out the troops
or unsheathing one’s sword- the notion of preparing for battle.
2.2 Questions pertaining to the effects that emerge when one thinks of education in
this way:
- What or where are we trying to lead students to?
- What are we trying to bring out of them?
- Can we truly draw out some pre-determined intellectual and personal
qualities?
- Do we really think that children are all really alike, the same inside, and
that if we locate the best method, then we can teach them all and they will
learn the same thing?
2.3 Educere is to rear or bring up; allow to emerge as needed. If educere is the
act of emerging ,then as teachers, we must begin to ask ourselves: ‘What
will emerge? ; Can we control what emerges? and Should we try and control

25
 what learning emerges or what the student’s response to your teaching will
be?’
2.4 Educere is very parental, almost feminine approach to education because it
focuses on the nurturing and caring or what emerges when a student is
engaged in the learning process. Educere emphasizes what has become
understood in Western civilization as the feminine principle. Educere is
indeed the act of nurturing the young, being creative, compassionate, giving.
These are perceived as positive qualities. However, at the same time there
is the potential for nurturing to turn into the act of controlling and oppressing,
as in the mother who hovers over too much and does not allow enough
freedom for growth.
2.5 Educere emphasizes the main principle of leading the young forth for some
grand, great purpose; the act of instilling discipline, decisiveness, willingness
to die for a cause. As a teacher, this type wants to marshal the students
towards something beyond him or her self, which can be a wonderful
moments of growth – intellectual and emotional. As a teacher one has to
discover which principle he or she embodies and reflect on the positive and
negatives of each.
3. Social Agent
3.1 The teaching/learning process is basically and essentially an interaction
between humans. This interaction is carried within a social context. There are, generally,
clearly defined teacher and student roles in these learning environments. The student
tends to expect that the teacher will influence the learning environments. The student
tends to expect that the teacher will influence the learning process to some significant
extent.
3.2 The role of the teacher as a social agent is an important part of the learning
process. This is very clear as different individuals interact with a teacher and other
students to widely varying degrees.
3.3 The teacher’s role may be include the management of the social interaction that is
conducted as part of the learning process. In the primary school, the teacher has
a large role in guiding the behaviour of the young pupils. Often the teacher is
required to set boundaries as to where pupils may be at a particular time, whether
they may talk or need to be quiet and listening and what activities they should be
performing.
3.4 The teacher plays a number of other social roles in the teaching/learning process.
The teacher is often a motivator for pupils, encouraging or reproving them as
appropriate. The approval of the teacher can be a strong motivating factor,

26
 particularly for younger pupils. The teacher is also an arbiter of success;
measuring and quantifying pupils’ efforts. The teacher may also pass on cultural
and social values.
3.5 The role of the teacher as social agent is an important part of the learning
process, it is also clear that different individuals interact with a teacher and other
students to widely varying degrees. These individuals are self-motivated, do not
require any third party encouragement to learn, and can seek out and assimilate
the required body of knowledge.
4. Agent of Change
4.1 A change agent is an individual who influences clients’ innovation decisions in a
direction deemed desirable by a change agency. As a change agent, one has
to directly work with the teachers to adopt an innovation and encourage them to
become opinion leaders in their own interpersonal network.
4.2 One has to teach the teachers to use the various pieces of technology and it
goes further by assisting the teachers to learn to be constructivist teachers that
can incorporate technology into their curriculum. It is this balance of bringing
the technology into the curriculum through constructivist methods that is the
innovation.
4.3 Agent of change develops his/her own professional learning which has
encompassed strategies and interpersonal skills essential for managing change
within the school. Through significant steps, one has to update and improve the
culture of the school, to influence the staff to become more collaborative and
reflective in their practice, to be flexible and more responsive to the positive
outcomes of change and the development of their own professional learning,
creating a learning community.
5. Researcher
5.1 Teacher as a researcher involves the commitment to systematic questioning of
one’s own teaching as a basis for development. The commitment and skills to study
one’s own teaching and concern to questioning and testing theory in practice by
using skills and readiness to allow other teachers to observe your work directly or
through recordings and to discuss it with them on an honest basis.
5.2 Teacher plays a role in investigating pedagogical problems through inquiry.
According to Dewey (1929) teacher’s investigations not only lead to knowledge
about the school but also led to good teaching.
5.3 The benefits for teachers who attempt to become researchers in their own
classrooms are:
- the development of clearer theory of language and learning

27
 - increased knowledge and understanding of classroom practice, and
increased teaching skills
- easier collaboration with pupils and the potential to develop a shared
commitment to the desired improvements
6. Mentor
6.1 A mentor is one who guides and supports trainees to ease them through
difficult transitions; it is about smoothing the way, enabling, reassuring as well
as directing, managing and instructing. He/She should be able to unblock the
ways to change by building self confidence, self esteem and a readiness to act
as well as to engage in ongoing constructive interpersonal relationships.
6.2 Individual engaged in a one-to-one teaching/learning relationship in which the
mentor serves as a fundamentally important model with respect to values,
beliefs, philosophies and attitudes as well as a source of more specific
information.
6.3 Mentoring implies a close relationship within which the model may be a role
model, consultant, advisor, source of wisdom –even a sort of protector.
6.4 Mentoring is defined as a nurturing process in which a more skilled or more
experienced person, serving as a role model, teachers, sponsors, encourages,
counsels and befriends a less skilled or less experienced person for the
purpose of promoting the latter’s professional and/or personal development.
Mentoring functions are carried out within the context of an ongoing, caring
relationship between the mentor and the protégé
6.5 Mentoring is used to describe a combination of coaching, counseling and
assessment where a classroom teacher in a school is delegated responsibility
for assisting newly qualified teachers in their professional development
6.6 A mentor tries to develop individual’s strengths to maximize their professional
and personal potential and also that of students who come under their care
within a classroom situation.

7. Manager
7.1 The teacher structure the learning environment. In this role, all decisions and
actions required to maintain order in the classroom, such as laying down rules
and procedures for learning activities.
7.2 Teacher must manage a classroom environment. Teachers are environmental
engineers who organize the classroom space to fit their goals and to maximize
learning. The way the physical space of the classroom is organized can either
help or hinder learning.

28
7.3 It involves modeling a positive attitude towards the curriculum and towards
school and learning in general. Teachers who reveal a caring attitude towards
learning and the learning environment help to instill and reinforce similar
attitudes in their students.
7.4 Teachers are required to manage and process great amounts of clerical work.
There are papers to be read and graded, tests to be scored, marks to be
entered, attendance records and files to be maintained, notes and letters to be
written etc.

29
CHAPTER 5: THE TEACHER AND PROFESSIONAL
SKILLS
Overview:
In this chapter, we shall cover
• The mastery of professional skills by teachers in the school

Key Terms
• Learning skill
• Thinking skill
• Planning
• Facilitation
• Communication
• Management

Further Reading
Cullingford,C. (1995). The Effective teacher. London: Cassel
Dean, J. (1991).Professional Development in school. Milton Keynes: Open University
Press.
Ghaye,K. & Ghaye,A. 1998. Teaching and Learning through Critical Reflective Practice.
London: David Fulton Publishers.
Schon,D.A. 1987. Educating the reflective practitioner. San Franscisco: Jossey-B.
Travers,J.F., Elliot,S.N. & Kratochwill,T.R. (1993). Effective Teaching,Effective Learning.
Iowa: Brown & Benchmark Pub.

Suggested Input
1. Learning Skill
1.1. Learning skills refer to the skill that teachers have to attain when collecting,
processing and summarizing data with the aim of developing oneself towards life
long learning. It is also the ability to obtain knowledge in the field of cognition,
affection and psychomotor through observation, reading, writing, imitation,
memorization, understanding, analysis, synthesis, evaluation and memory.
1.2. It refers to the ability to receive accurate signals, process information, and
store in the memory and to apply it in problem solving. There is the need to
acquire learning skills such as observing, making assumptions, understanding,
remembering, thinking and interpreting to produce effective learning.

30
1.3. Importance of learning skills:
- enable a teacher to obtain knowledge systematically and meaningfully.
- inculcate interest and liking for learning and always increase their knowledge
and life long intellectual skill
- apply learning skills in all types of situation
- inculcate self discipline
- train individual to read with speed and aptly
- train individual to obtain data efficiently
- train individual to process data effectively
- increase one’s memory
- promote and sharpen one’s interest and potential
- help individual to attain referencing skills in the library
- train individual to encounter learning challenges
- motivate individual to life long education
- train individual to manage time effectively
1.4. The three processes in learning skills are collection of data, processing data
and making report. The collection of data consists of:
- active listening
- note taking
- make reference
- interview
- questioning for information
- speed reading
- critical reading
1.5. Active listening
- listen with purpose
- listen to obtain direction
- listen to identify elements in a text
- listen to be able to repeat
1.6. Note-taking:
Note-taking while reading, listening or viewing is a strategy for recording and
organizing information in order to understand and remember it. As such, it is a
way of using writing as a tool learning. There are different strategies for note-
taking but regardless of the type used, a key to successful note-taking is
regular review and revision of notes, which is emphasized here.

31
 Note-taking enhances one’s comprehension of instructional material. It helps
he/she use one’s notes as learning/study aids and shows he/she how to use
note-taking independently.
- Cornell system of note-taking- 5 R’s : record, reduce, recite, reflect and
review.
- Record: draw a vertical line down your paper. The left side of your paper ,
should be 1/3 the width of the paper, the right side 2/3. Jot down notes on
the right side of the line.
- Reduce: Use the column on the left side of the line to ‘reduce’ your notes
to key words and phrases that describe the most important information
you need to remember.
- Recite: Fold back or cover the note taking column with only the key words
showing, read each one in turn and recite anything that you understand or
remember about the concept.
- Reflect: Take a break. Think about the information in your notes without
looking back at them. State what you do and don’t understand about the
topic. Decide how you are going to clear up any misunderstandings and
do it.
- Review: Review your notes at regular intervals so that you stay familiar
with the information that they contain.
1.7. Make notes:
Making notes is an activity done after note-taking. It consists of the process of
arranging, completing and refining notes taken. Process in making notes are:
check notes taken; arranging the notes in order; arranging information
according to categories or specific order; taking notes with reference to the
original information.
1.8. Notes as graphics
- Teachers can keep notes in the form of graphic organizers, arranging
ideas in the page in ways that make relationships clear. Graphic organizer
is a scheme for arranging information on a page so that the relationships
among the concepts are made clear visually. For instance, a causal
relationship might be shown with an arrow pointing from the cause to the
effect, or subordinate details might be shown radiating from a main idea
like spokes from the center of a wheel. For some learners, information is
easier to process if the ideas are arranged graphically instead of in a
linear fashion as is the case with traditional outlines, lists or pages of
notes. For most learners, such visual displays can be aided to

32
 comprehension and retention of information. Graphic organizers help
teacher understand relationship among ideas, refines and extends
comprehension of information, helps teachers see learned information
from new perspectives and encourages teachers to try them as an
independent study strategy.
1.9. Make References:
It refers to usage of books from the library. Teachers should be able to make
references on books from public libraries, school libraries, libraries in higher
institute of learning, teacher activity centers.
1.10. Questioning skills
Teachers are able motivate student learning and thinking. Teachers should
be able to use questions of higher-order so that students think critically such
as able to explain, expound and voice their own opinions.
1.11. Speed Reading:
- There are two types of speed reading that is: skimming and
scanningSkimming means speed reading with the aim of obtaining facts
generally while scanning refers to speed reading with the aim of obtaining
specific information from any resource.
1.12. Critical Reading:
- Critical reading helps teachers to understand content of the subject matter
faster and will remain longer in the memory. There are two techniques of
critical reading, that is: SQ3R and KWL.
- SQ3R refers to survey, question, read recite and review
- Survey: Get a good idea of the chapter’s content . Survey the title, the
introduction, the summary, pictures and maps, chapter questions,
heading, subheadings and words in special print (boldface, italics, capital
letters)
- Question: After carefully surveyed the material change all the headings
into questions. Questions help you learn because to find the answers, you
need to read actively. Questions challenge you and give you a purpose for
trying to master material. Write a list of all your questions and keep them
in the same order that the headings appear in the book. Leave enough
space after each questions for answers.
- Read: Read the question you wrote for the heading.Then read the text
that follows the heading to find the answer. Do the same thing to find the
answers to other questions written.

33
 - Recite: Once you read a section, stop and describe in your own words the
major ideas that were presented. Since text books are divided into
sections with headings and subheading, recite whenever you reach one of
these convenient stopping places.
- Review: you are ready to go back over the material and review it. Survey
again what you have read. Skim over the headings of the chapter- and
ask yourself what they mean and what information they contain. Recite
important ides under each heading.
- KWL (developed by Donna Ogle) prepares you to learn by helping you tap
into your present knowledge, identify what you need to find out and sort
through the information you’ve learned. K stands for what you know; W
stands for what you WANT to learn; L stands for what you’ve learned. The
KWL process allows you to zero in on your study topic and use your time
most effectively. Each step keeps you focused on your study goals.
2.0 Thinking Skills

2.1 Thinking skill is a cognitive process broken down into a set of explicit steps
which are then used to guide thinking. Thinking skills allow one’s cognitve system
to function more efficiently.
2.2 Teachers need thinking skills and strategies that will enable them adapt to
constant change. Critical thinkers are self-correcting and they discover their
weaknesses and act to remove obstacles and faults.
2.3 Critical thinking is reasonable reflective thinking that is focused on deciding
what to believe or do.It has become an activity both practical and reflective that has
reasonable belief or action as its goal.
2.4 It comprises the mental processes, strategies and representations people use
to solve problems, make decisions, and learn new concepts. It has to do with
organizing, analyzing, evaluating or describing what is already there. Among the
critical thinking skills are inferring, comparing, compare and contrast , analyze,
supporting a statement, decision making, ordering, evaluation, creating groups,
investigation and experimenting.
2.5 Teachers have to internalize the reflective thinking until reflective questions and
analysis become like the “inner speech” or “self talk” which occurs frequently and
spontaneously for the experienced teacher.
2.6 Dewey contends that teachers should be trained in analyzing and defining
principles behind the reflective techniques. Reflecting involves active, persistent
and careful consideration of behaviour or practice. It is the means for meeting and

34
 responding to the problems. The more reflectivity that occurs, the better the quality
of teaching.
2.7 The teacher as a reflective practitioner is seen as thoughtful persons
intrinsically motivated to analyze a situation, set goals, plan and monitor actions,
evaluate results and reflect on their own professional thinking. The reflective
practitioner is one who can think while acting and thus can respond to the
uncertainty, uniqueness and conflict involved in the situations in which
professionals practice.
2.8 There are five components of reflective thinking: (1) recognizing an educational
dilemma;(2) responding to a dilemma by recognizing both the similarities to other
situations and the special qualities of the particular situation; (3) framing and
reframing the dilemma,(4) experimenting with the dilemma to discover the
consequences and implications of various solutions;(5) examining the intended and
unintended consequences of an implemented solution and evaluating the solution
by determining whether the consequences are desirable or not.
3.0 Planning
3.1 Effective planning is essential to good time management. It can be broken down
into long-term, medium–term and short-term planning. Teachers have to plan
what they want to achieve for the year.
3.2 A useful technique for planning in the long-term is to list all the tasks that have to
be accomplished to achieve the long-term goal. Write them on a grid so that you
can see the deadline for each aspect.
3.3 Having set the long term plan , the teacher need to transfer the tasks to a
medium term plan. In transferring the tasks from the long term plan to the
medium term, one is aware of the times of term which are busy enough without
adding in extra work.
3.4 Short term planning amount to listing out all the tasks for the week. The
effectiveness as a planner will depend to an extent on whether one can do the
tasks without interruption in the times that have been allocated.
3.5 In short, a teacher as a planner performs the following tasks:
- teaching strategies that are congruent with purpose;
- plans that reflect the diversity of the classroom;
- shows an ability to speak and write about the significance of acquired
knowledge and cumulative experience
- understands theoretical and practical aspects of curriculum development
and implementation;
- demonstrates a thorough understanding of one or more teaching models;

35
 - makes conscious, creative decisions about the components of lesson
design;
- develops on a continuing basis a repertoire of effective and positive
classroom management techniques
- presents materials in a variety of ways to accommodate different
dominant learning styles;
- exhibits high standards of professional ethics regarding colleagues
4.0 Communication Skills
4.1 Communication refer s to social interaction performed through messages.
Messages are formally coded events, symbols or signals or representational
events which are of shared significance in a culture and which are produced for
the purpose of evoking responses.
4.2 The ability to communicate is not just a matter of being able to articulate or
demonstrate great wit. It is a two way process, of listening as much as talking, of
encouraging others to talk as much as talking oneself.
4.3 Skills in communication also include interpersonal skills. Teachers need to
effectively interact with his students and colleagues. The types of interpersonal
skills are:
- Attending behaviour: teacher shares students’ feelings and he wishes to
help
- identifies and accepts the different emotions or objectives underlying each
student’s answer, through eye contact, facial expressions and verbal
encouragement
- Reflection : teacher states an opinion, a wish, a belief or preference to the
class or when he asks a question which reflects his personal view. The
teacher provides direction, suggest alternatives or redirect thinking among
students towards the real issues.
- Inventory questioning : Teacher uses a set of questions to help students
describe more clearly or to become more forthright in thought feeling or
action. He rephrases questions and uses different words which seek to
assist students.
- Encouraging alternatives : teacher acts to get student to clarify further
what he is saying,for example, a teacher will provide an answer or a
suggestion as an alternative, then seek two or more alternatives from
students.

36
5.0 Management Skills
5.1 Management means making things work or creating opportunities for the
organization,which means enabling it to function efficiently and effectively.
5.2 Management skills are as follows:
- ability to articulate and implement aims and policies. Teacher must be
able to lead their colleagues in thinking about the aims of the school and
how to turn them into action.
- Articulation of the curriculum philosophy. Teacher should be able to lead
thinking about curriculum, including continuity and progression, so that
coherence is ensured for the individual student
- Management of care and discipline
- Management of people : managers need to deal with people not only
within the school,but also outside it, such as parents, governors. They
need skill in eliciting ideas from colleagues and drawing them together;
such skills as counseling, discussion leadership, presentation skills,
negotiating skills and communication.
- Management of resources
- Evaluation is an important part of management, whether individuals or of
the school as a whole.
6.0 Facilitation
6.1 Facilitator of learning means that the teacher’s role is to provide the type of the
environment conducive to the kind of learning the teacher wishes to encourage.
Frank Smith(1983) identifies three aspects of the learning process, which he
refers to as demonstration, engagement and sensitivity. For learning to take
place, the environment must provide demonstrations of what is to be learnt.
6.2 The quality of any learning experience will depend on the nature and clarity of
the demonstrations, the degree of sensitivity that learners display towards them,
and the opportunities afforded for using and experimenting with new knowledge.
Although teachers may not have a great deal of control over the sensitivity of
learners, there is much they can do to create demonstrations which increase, or
focus,the learner’s sensitivity, and to provide opportunities for learners to
experiment with and use new knowledge.
6.3 Facilitator assesses the needs of their learners before initiating classroom
strategies to meet these needs. Teachers who facilitate learning do not set up
demonstrations that are unnecessarily repetitious and boring for children. They
provide only what the children need, even if this means that some of the best
prepared demonstrations go unused because the children already know what

37
they show.

38
CHAPTER 6 : THE TEACHER AND SELF DEVELOPMENT
Overview:
In this chapter, we shall cover
• The sources of motivation, knowledge and skill enhancement
• The teacher as a learner in self development programme

Key Terms
• Action research
• Reflection-on action
• Reflection-in action
• Reflection about action
• E-learning
• In-service courses
• Collaboration

Further Reading
Elliot,J. (1991). Action research for Educational Change. Open University Press
Jolliffe,A.,Ritter,J. & Stevens, D.(2001). The online learning handbook: Developing and
using Web-Based learning. London: Kogan Page Ltd.

Kember,D. (2000). Action Learning and Action Research. London: Kogan Page Ltd

Kemmis,S. & McTaggart, R. (1988). The Action Research Planner. Victoria: Deakin
University Press.

Moon, J.A. (2000). Reflection in learning & Professional Development: Theory &
Practice. London: Kogan Page Ltd.

http://www.learnativity.com

http:// www.stanford.edu/dept/SUSE/csm/features/collaboration

http://www.etc.sccoe.k12.ca.us/2002/01_currint/02 currsumm3.html

Suggested Input

1.0 Action Research

1.1 The study of a social situation with a view to improving the quality of action
within it
1.2 The study of a social situation, involving the participants themselves as
researchers, with a view to improving the quality of action within it.

39
 1.3 Action research is concerned with social practice; aimed towards
improvement ;a cyclical process; pursued by systematic inquiry; a reflective
process; participative and determined by the practitioners.
1.4 Objectives of action research
- develop and improve practice through research based on the interest of
concerned parties
- develop knowledge and practical understanding of the research process
- develop professional knowledge of teachers
- develop and improve education as a discipline
1.5 Characteristics of action research
- carried out by teachers directly involved with the social situation studied
- carried out in groups and collaboratively with the commitment to increase
their practical understanding
- begin with practical questions arising from daily teacher routine with the
aim of developing practical situation and knowledge on teaching practice
- continuous process: ascertain focus, clarifying situation, develop
strategies and present findings
- journal writing to record reflections and progress on the research
- reflective process by teachers
2.0 Reflection-on- action
2.1 Reflection-on-action is the form of reflection that occurs after action and
relates, via verbalized or non-verbalized thought, to the action that the
person has taken-in other words, it is a relatively narrow concept that is
retrospective and has a role in learning, in informing action and in theory
building.
2.2 It is a systematic, considered process of deliberation enabling analysis,
reconstruction and reframing in order to plan for further teaching and
learning.
2.3 It opens up possibilities for talking with others about teaching

3.0 Reflection-in-action
3.1 Reflection-in-action occurs in association with action and guides the
process of action via knowledge in use, which is derived from theory in
use, and makes limited contact with espoused theory and according to
Schon, reflection-in-action only occurs in situations where the action yields
unexpected consequences and is not part of actions that go according to
plan. A conscious process and the knowing-in –action that led up to it,

40
 asking ourselves” What is this?”, and at the same time,”How have I been
thinking about it?” Our thoughts turn back on the surprising phenomenon
and at the same time, back on itself. It is thinking while “ in the thick of
things” or “ thinking on one’s feet”
3.2 Reflection-in-action has a critical function, questioning the assumptional
structure of the knowing-in-action. We think critically about the thinking that
got us into this opportunity and in the process, restructure strategies of
action, understandings of phenomena, or ways of framing problems
3.3 It gives rise to on-the-spot experiment. We think and try out new actions
intended to explore the newly observed phenomena, test our tentative
understandings of them, or affirm the moves we have invented to change
things for the better.
4.0 Reflection- about-action
4.1 This represents a broader, critical stance which involves inquiry into the
moral,ethical,political and instrumental issues embedded in teachers’
everyday thinking and practice.
4.2 Professionals exercise both responsibility and accountability for decisions
that they make in their teaching and maintain broader understandings of
the interrelationships between teaching purposes and practices.
5.0 Characteristics of Reflective Practice
5.1 Reflective practice involves the mental process of reflecting, which may or
may not be characterized by what we have called ‘being reflective’
5.2 The subject matter may be refer to reflection on the everyday events of
practice, paying more or less attention to the setting of the practice
5.3 Reflective practice may refer to reflection on the everyday events of
practice or the conditions that shape reflection, such as political influences
5.4 Reflection may be ongoing or a reaction to a specific event or an
unexpected occurrence or observation of a problem; it is characterized by
states of uncertainity ; it may have an ethical or moral content
5.5 The end point of reflection in reflective practice may not be resolution of an
issue, but attainment of a better understanding of it.
5.6 Reflection will have involved the process of thinking, but it may be aid by
the process of articulation of the thinking orally or in written form
5.7 Review and reconstruction of the ideas surrounding reflection will be
aimed at understanding or resolving the issue in the context of a general
aim of improving practice, specifically or generally.

41
 5.8 Reflective practice is usually enhanced when there is some sharing of the
reflection with others
6.0 E-learning
6.1 A unifying term to describe on-line learning, web-based training and
technology-based training
6.2 The convergence of the Internet and learning or internet-enabled learning.
It is the use of network technologies to create, foster, deliver and facilitate
learning, anytime and anywhere
6.3 The delivery of individualized, comprehensive, dynamic learning content in
real time, aiding the development of communities of knowledge ,linking
learners and practitioners with experts
6.4 A phenomenon delivering accountability, accessibility and opportunity to
allow people and organizations to keep up with the rapid changes that
define the Internet world
6.5 A force that gives people and organizations the competitive edge to allow
them to keep ahead of the rapidly changing global economy
6.6 Web-based learning involves a diverse collection of methods and
technologies and most programs include: learning materials made up of
text, graphics and multimedia elements, video conferencing, chat rooms or
discussion forums and the use of a Web browser.
6.7 Advantages of the Web-based learning are:
- can be used to deliver learning at any time to virtually any place;
- uses many of the elements of CD-ROM-based learning
- learning materials are relatively easy to update
- can increase the number of interactions between the learners and the
event facilitator
- allows learners to form both informal and formal Web-based learning
components
- allows the use of problem-and/or assignment-based learning
- can make use of resources already on the Internet
- can present real-time content using video conferencing, video streaming
or discussion rooms
- has the ability to include multiple media such as text, graphics, audio,
video and animation into the learning materials
7.0 In-service Courses

42
7.1 In-service education is education inbtended to support and assists the
professional development that teachers ought to experience through their
working lives.
7.2 Courses are designed to provide avenues for teachers to refresh their
knowledge, to improve their competencies and to bring about paradigm
shift in their outlook towards educational issues.
7.3 The basic principles which have guided the design of in-service courses
are:
- A teacher needs to have subject knowledge. A teacher with a sound
foundation in his/her subject matter will be better able to plan for students’
learning based on content outcomes and to keep abreast of current
developments in that specific field of knowledge.
- Pedagogic knowledge is essential for managing learning. Knowledge
about classroom management, teaching preparation, teaching and testing
skills and the use of teaching aids are needed. Pedagogical skills such as
techniques, methods , material and overall management are essential to
every teacher.
- Every teacher has a practical theory that is practical knowledge which is
directly related to teachers’ actions in and experience of the classroom.
Practical theory of teachers refers to private, integrated but ever-changing
system of knowledge, experience and values which is relevant to teaching
practice at any particular time.
- The need for process knowledge which will enable teachers to become
more aware of their practical theory and its implications on their classroom
action. It is about ways other knowledge is developed and understood in
the context of a person’s experience. This knowledge is derived from the
teacher’s awareness of himself/herself as a person, his/her own beliefs,
values and attitudes towards his/her actions and relationships with other
people. The content of process knowledge are reflection, self awareness,
facilitation skills, effective communication, critical and thinking skills.
Teachers need these skills to understand themselves as educators and to
inculcate good values amongst their students.
7.4 In-service training is concerned with the need to upgrade teacher
education to give teaching a professional status and to promote the
development of quality teaching . It also provide opportunities for teachers
to grow. Teachers are able to further themselves either for professional
enrichment or professional upgrading.

43
 7.5 The objectives of courses that are provided to in-service teachers varied
from year to year depending on the focus of the courses provided. They
are as follows:
- to acquaint teachers to recent teaching learning approaches;
- to enhance quality of instruction in classrooms;
- to equip teachers with competencies to create effective learning
environment;
- to inculcate in teachers that learning as a life long process in upgrading
their expertise;
- to enable teachers to face and overcome challenges face in the education
field
7.6 The training components of in-service courses are hands-on activities,
usage of modules, practicum or field experience and assessment and
examination
7.7 The above components reflect the emphasis on experiential learning as a
form of ensuring teachers attain relevant competencies. Field experiences
enable teachers to put theory into practice with the hope that such learning
experiences will further enrich teachers’ schemata relating to the course
content and activities undertaken. Examinations and assignments are
designed to assess the quality of teaching and learning.
7.8 Training mechanisms in providing courses for in-service teachers are
centralized training in teacher training institute, private premises;
centralized training with cooperation from various agencies using State
education departments and centralized training in collaboration with local
and foreign universities.
8.0 Collaboration
8.1 Collaboration is ‘ to work with another or others on a joint project’
8.2 Research shows that teachers frequently discuss their teaching strategies
with other teachers; have extensive interactions with teachers; participate
in leadership activities such as mentoring and presenting at conferences
and workshops.
8.3 Collaborative planning and on-going professional development supports
both more thoughtful and effective teaching within the classroom and
greater coherence across courses and grade levels.
8.4 Expertise in teaching comes from a process of sharing, attempting new
ideas ,reflecting on practice and developing new approaches

44
8.5 High quality teaching is developed by creating a deliberate repertoire of
strategies and a well-sequenced plan for content that connects to
students’ prior learning, and doing so in collaboration with others so that
knowledge is shared
8.6 A framework for collaboration requires: a working relationship that is
allowed to evolve and is sustained through the trust of the teacher; the
belief that working together is not through compulsion but voluntary ;the
development of skills and initiatives is seen as an on-going process
whereby change can be implemented and supported; working together is
seen as a scheduled activity which gives status to what is been developed
but does not stifle the individual’s own development; an open appreciation
of the needs of those involved
8.7 Collaboration is seen as promoting professional growth

45
CHAPTER 7: CHALLENGES OF THE TEACHING
PROFESSION
Overview:
In this chapter, we shall cover
• The role and challenges of the teacher in the new millennium
• The characteristics of the teacher in the new millennium
• Forecast and plan for changes in education

Key Terms
• Innovator
• Nation-builder
• Knowledge disseminator
• Interpersonal relationship agent
• Management of change
• Globalization of education

Further Reading
Arnold,R. et.al. 1991. Educating for a Change. Toronto: Doris Marshall Institute for
Education and Action.

Burbules,N.C. & Torres,C. (2000). Globalization and Education: critical Perpectives.

London: Routledge.

Beck,U. 1999. What is Globalization? Cambridge: Polity Press.

Scholte,J.A. (2000). Globalization: A critical introduction. London: Palgrave.

http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/scholte.htm

http://www.unesco.org/webworld/infoethics_2/eng/papers/paper_23.htm

http://www.canr.msu.edu/aee/extension/oct96.htm

Suggested Input
1.0 Innovator
1.1 Teacher as an innovator demonstrates evidence of keeping current with recent
research and significant literature. He/She is involved in organizations and
projects, particularly leadership roles.
1.2 He/She also implement an integrated curriculum, restructuring the learning
environment through the transparent and informational use of information and
communication technology. The teacher consistently works with colleagues in the

46
 school, ensuring ICT programs are integrated across the curriculum areas and
year levels. The teacher critically reflects upon ICT skills and functional
knowledge and actively addresses social, legal and ethical issue in relation to
learning technologies. The teacher is actively involved in school planning and
utilizes the school community to actively design ICT learning environments.
1.3 The innovator also make references and recommendations indicating excellent
performance and potential for success. He/she will develop and continue to refine
a well-reasoned educational philosophy that includes receptivity to new ideas.
He/she also expresses strong commitment to one or more educational values.
1.4 A innovator also instigate change in small ways, collaborating with other staff,
working on joint projects. He/She changes strategies, techniques, texts and
materials when better ones are found and/or when existing ones no longer
provide a substantive learning experience for her students. This teacher also
employs a combination of lecture-discussion, simulation, service learning,
cooperative learning, visual media, role-playing, guest speakers and debates and
whatever is age and grade appropriate in order to accommodate diverse learning
styles and to present the subject from different angles to facilitate insights and
connections. This teacher values and uses students’ ideas about how to enhance
their own learning.
1.5 An innovator continues to develop, to seek evidence of best practice, to take on
board innovation, and to keep up-to-date all the time. For the teacher this means
updating their subject knowledge as well as their skills and knowledge of new
approaches to teaching, managing and planning.
2.0 Nation-Builder
2.1 A teacher is a marvelous entity and no tool has been able to replace it as yet.
The teacher has been rightly called ‘nation-builder’ because he holds the
remedy for problems like illiteracy, population explosion, poverty, employment,
erosion of values etc. Society in general and parents in particular continue to
have a blind faith in the teacher.
3.0 Knowledge Disseminator
3.1 The teacher is a knowledge and skill disseminator and he/she disseminates
concepts, principles,guidelines dan rules of the thumb, essential facts and essential
skills. There are several tasks that the teacher undertakes as a knowledge and skills
disseminator.
He/She :
- exudes enthusiasm in the way he gets attention of his student all the time
and this facilitates learning.

47
 - Focuses attention to important areas of the subject and areas that are
likely to be problematic to comprehend;
- Set objectives for learning task
- Checks prior learning
- Tries to make learning meaningful and memorable
- Facilitates encoding/recall of information so that the student is able to
retrieve when this is needed
- Assesses learning
3.2 The teacher facilitates encoding/recall of information so that the student is able
to retrieve it when this is needed. One way is through the use of mnemonics. The
idea behind mnemonics is to inject sense into apparently senseless material.
3.3 Another way of helping the student learn is to get the students to go beyond
‘what is it?’ to think about “how and why’ to relate the new information to his
existing knowledge and to use the new information as often as possible.

4.0 Interpersonal relationship agent

4.1 The teacher fosters relationships with school colleagues, parents, and agencies
in the larger community to support students’ learning and well-being.
4.2 The teacher uses knowledge of effective verbal, nonverbal, and media
communication techniques to foster active inquiry, collaboration and supportive
interaction in the classroom.
4.3 The teacher possesses communication skills such as:
- builds and maintain rapport
- uses active listening skills
- possess an awareness of individual’s needs and anxieties
- handles confrontation
- offers constructive criticism and suggestions
- accepts varying teaching styles, value systems and levels of autonomy.
4.4 The most effective interpersonal relationship agent should possess the following
characteristics:
- empathy
- respect
- warmth
- genuineness
- concreteness
- self-disclosure
- immediacy

48
 - congruency
- spontaneity
- non-judgmental
5.0 Management of Change
5.1 Change is inevitable in education and it is a process that involves learning.
As an educator/teacher, one has to be able to understand the social,
organizational and political identities and interests of those involved; focusing
on what really matters instead of getting caught up in peripheral issues;
assessing the agendas of all concerned
5.2 In managing change, the following suggestions may guide the process:
- Pay attention to the context. Whether acting as a change agent in an
organizational or with individual students, understanding the context is
critical to success. Both organizations and individuals are shaped by
factors that it is important to address the process of change. Individual
learners have norms and values that will influence the direction of change.
- Be prepared to be proactive. Underlying the managing aspect, one has to
be able to initiate the change process even though fulfilling this role may
raise questions about the ethics of facilitating change including use of
power in giving students tools they can use in their lives.
- Attend to learning. Since learning and change are interconnected, the
teacher can assist those who are undergoing the change process in
understanding the different kinds of learning as well as the learning cycle
of the change process. In managing change, the teacher should allow for
periods of reflection to incorporate and/or practise new ways of thinking.
- Build in action. Any change will not be complete unless it involves action.
Taking action related to a new mental concept or to organizational change
will increase flow of information surrounding it and allow those involved to
test it out, receive reaction to it, and involve others in learning about it.
Action will provide the proof that the change has occurred.
6.0 Globalization and Education
6.1 The process whereby political, social, economic and cultural relations
increasingly take on a global scale, and which has profound consequences
for individuals’ local experiences and everyday lives.
6.2 It refers to ‘a process of removing government- imposed restrictions on
movements between countries in order to create an open, borderless world
economy. Globalization is also being defined as a process which embodies a
transformation in the spatial organization of social relations and transactions-

49
 assessed in terms of their extensity, intensity, velocity and impact-generating
transcontinental or inter-regional flows and networks of activity.
6.3 Globalization has impacted upon the nature of the agencies that ‘school’
children, and students. At a glance, it would seem that national governments
still have considerable freedom to intervene in the education systems.
6.4 Globalization has found expression in some direct ways such as the de-
localization of schooling. Since the 1980s, there has been a degree of
parental choice within state schooling. It has been possible to choose which
schools to apply to both primary and secondary levels.
6.5 To these developments must be added changes in educational technology-
especially the use of the internet and other computer forms and the growth of
distance learning. These involved highly individualized forms of learning and
may not lead to any additional interaction with neighbours or with agencies.
They allow people from different parts of the world to engage in the same
programme –and student contact can be across great physical distance.
6.6 As the educational systems becomes more marketized, colleges, schools
and non-formal education agencies seeks to build relationships based more
on viewing learners as customers rather than participants. The main role of
the teacher-turned-classroom manager is to legitimate through mandated
subject matter and educational practices a market-based conception of the
learner as simply a consumer of information.

50
CHAPTER 8: DEVELOPMENT OF THE EDUCATION
SYSTEM IN MALAYSIA
Overview:
In this chapter, we shall
• The characteristics of the early education system in Malaysia
- before British
- during British Colonial rule
• The implications and effects of the various educational reports on the development
of the national education
- Razak Report 1956
- Rahman Talib Report 1960
- Education Ordinance 1967
- Cabinet Committee Report 1979
- Education Act 1995 and 1996
• The characteristics of the current education programme
- smart school
- information and communication technology
- distance learning

Key Terms
• Pre- Independence
• Early Independence
• Razak Report
• Rahman Talib report
• Education Ordinance
• Cabinet Committee Report
• Education Act
• Smart school
• Distance learning/Open university
• Information and Communication Technology

Further Reading
Ministry of Education Malaysia.(2001). Education in Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur.
Majdalany,G. & Guiney, S. 1999. Implementing distance learning in urban schools. No.
150.
Rowntree,D. (1998). Exploring Open and Distance Learning. London: Kogan Press Ltd.

51
Schlosser, C.A. & Anderson, M.L. 1997. Distance education: review of the literature.
Washington : Association for educational Communications and

Sherry,L. 1996. Issues in distance learning. International Journal of Educational

Telecommunications, 1(4): 337 – 365.

http://www.unesco.org/webworld/infoethics_2/eng/papers/paper_23.htm.

http://www.gseis.ucla.edu/courses/ed253a/dk/GLOBPM.htm

Suggested Input

1.0 Pre-Independence
1.1 Prior to attaining independence from the British colonial rule in 1957, there was
an absence of uniformity in the provision of formal education in Malaysia. There
was separate schools with different media of instruction, curricula, methods and
standards for children of the various ethnic groups, that is Malays, Chinese and
Indians.
1.2 Two types of schools emerged : the English medium and the vernacular schools.
English medium schools, established by the then British government, individuals
and missionary societies, provided a western education for a mixed urban
population. Education was not free..
1.3 Chinese and Tamil vernacular schools were set up by their respective
communities. Free education was provided in the Malay vernacular schools
which were established by the government
1.4 Secondary education was only available in English government and mission
schools as well as in independent Chinese schools. Malay medium and Tamil
medium education were limited to the primary level.
1.5 Under British colonial rule, higher education in Malaya was dictated by the British
policy of producing the necessary personnel for the Malayan Civil Service with
senior posts reserved for and filled by the Europeans. The first institution of
higher education was not established until 1905 when King Edward Vll College of
Medicine was founded in Singapore. The second institution was the Raffles
College which was established in 1928. These two colleges developed side by
side until 1949 when they were amalgamated to constitute the former University
of Malaya in Singapore.
1.6 The upsurge of nationalism and desire for self-government resulted in the setting
up of two Committees, popularly known as the Barnes (1950) and Fenn-Wu
(1951) to look into the problems of and recommend improvements to Malay and
Chinese education. As an outcome of these two Committees, the Education

52
 Ordinance of 1952 was passed but it did not produce the desired changes in the
system. As a result, a special committee was set up in 1956 to work out a policy
based upon the decision to make Malay the national language whilst preserving
the languages and cultures of the other domiciled races of the Federation of
Malaya. The recommendations of the Committee contained in the Report of the
Education Committee 1956, commonly referred to as the Razak Report, formed
the basis of the Education Ordinance of 1957, which laid the foundation for the
national education policy.
2.0 Post Independence 1957-1960
2.1 The post independence era is the period during which the foundation of the of
the national education system was laid. The early years was a period of post –
war reconstruction and the nation had to contend with the communist insurgence
until 1960s.
2.2 The ultimate objective of the education policy as stipulated in the Razak report
was to bring together all races by progressively and gradually making the Malay
language the main medium of instruction. Chinese and Tamil would continue to
be the media of instruction as the primary level in the vernacular schools.
2.3 In 1960, a Review Committee looked into the implementation of the
recommendations made by the Razak Report of 1957. The findings of this
Committee, commonly referred to as the Rahman Talib Report, confirmed the
soundness of educational policy as laid down by the Razak Report and its
general acceptance by the public. The recommendations of these two reports
became the integral components of the Education Act 1961. In January 1976,
the Act was extended to the states of Sabah and Sarawak, which had been
incorporated into the formation of Malaysia in 1963.
2.4 The two most important tasks facing the new nation since independence were
education for unity and universal education. The process of consolidating the
diverse school system into a cohesive national educational system, with the
National Language as the main medium of instruction, was initiated during this
period.
2.5 In 1957, all existing primary schools were converted to national and national
type-schools. Malay medium primary schools were renamed national national-
type primary schools. Whilst Malay was the medium of instruction in national-
schools, the medium of instruction in national type schools were English and the
vernacular languages. The national language was made a compulsory subject in
these national-type schools.

53
 2.6 English and Chinese secondary schools were converted to national-type
secondary schools. Such schools became fully assisted schools. In 1968, the
process of conversion of English medium national type schools into national
schools began in stages with the teaching of five subjects in Bahasa Melayu in
Standards 1-3.
2.7 1958 marked the beginning of Malay medium secondary education. Malay
medium secondary classes were started as an annex in English secondary
schools. These classes eventually developed into national secondary schools.
2.8 The Language Institute was established in 1958 to train Malay Language
specialist teachers. The Dewan Bahasa and Pustaka was founded in 1956 to
produce textbooks and reference books in the National Language.
2.9 The entrance examination into secondary school, the Malayan Secondary
Schools Examination, was abolished in 1964 and universal education was
extended from six to nine years in Peninsular Malaysia. This examination was
abolished in Sarawak in 1974 and in Sabah in 1977.
2.10 Curricular reforms focused on reviewing the existing syllabuses and designing a
common content curriculum with a Malaysian outlook. Common content
examinations were implemented in all schools.
2.11 A comprehensive education system of the lower secondary education was
introduced in 1965. Technical and vocational education was given an impetus
with the establishment of the Technical and Vocational Education Division in
1964.

3.0 Educational Development 1970-1980

3.1 Social and economic issues shaped the development of education from the
seventies to the 1990. Racial harmony and eradicating economic imbalances in
the society were crucial to sustained development, stability and progress. This is
the period of the New Economic Policy, which is a socio-economic policy to
achieve national unity and development by focusing on eradicating poverty and
restructuring the Malaysian society to eliminate the identification of race with
economic function and geographical location.
3.2 The medium of instruction of instruction was converted in stages beginning in
1970 and by 1983 it became the medium of instruction at the tertiary level.
Today Bahasa Melayu is the medium of instruction in all national schools and it
is compulsory subject in Chinese and Tamil Schools. English is taught as a
second language.

54
 3.3 In 1980, the Malaysian Certificate of Education examination was conducted in
Bahasa Malaysia only. In 1970, English ceased to be the medium of instruction
in primary teacher education programmes.
3.4 The administrative machinery of the education system was expanded and
improved to enable the government to implement the two pronged strategies of
the New Economic Policy using education as a vehicle. The Curriculum
Development Centre was established in 1973 to evaluate, review and develop
the school curriculum in line with national goals.
3.5 In 1979, Cabinet Committee Report recommended new approaches and
strategies to further consolidate, strengthen and expand the national system of
education. In 1980s several recommendations of this Review Committee were
implemented to bring about greater democratization in educational opportunities
and reduce the imbalances between the rural and urban areas.
3.6 A major reform was in the introduction of the New Primary School Curriculum in
1983 and by 1989 the Integrated Secondary School Curriculum was
implemented. The national philosophy of education was formulated of
education1988 which further reinforced the direction and goals of education in
Malaysia.
4.0 Educational Development 1990-2000
4.1 The last decade of the twentieth century witnessed unprecedent and
accelerated change at a pace that has never been experienced before.
Advances in information communication technology(ICT) have hastened the
pace of globalization and the trend is irreversible.
4.2 Vision 2020 initiated in the early 1990s may be perceived as Malaysia ‘s first
step into the Information Age and a globalized world. To enable Malaysia make
the quantum leap towards an industrialized nation status and eventually into a
knowledge economy, the country needs to build a world class education system.
4.3 1996 saw the change when the Education Act 1961 replaced by the Education
Act 1996 to regulate the expansion of education. Of paramount importance was
the enactment of the Private Higher Education Institutions Act 1996 which made
provision for the establishment of privately run tertiary institutions.
4.4 The last decade of the twenthieth century has witnessed concerted quantitative
and qualitative developments in primary, secondary and tertiary education. re is
an increased access to tertiary education with the setting up of public and
private universities, university colleges, matriculation colleges, community
colleges, private colleges as well as foreign university branch campuses.

55
 4.5 To ensure greater access to education and basic education for all, children were
assured eleven years of school after 1997 when most students were promoted
to the upper secondary after sitting for the lower secondary assessment
examination. The curriculum was continuously reviewed and updated to
incorporate thinking skills with greater emphasis on science and technology. It
was during this stage that saw the emergence of the smart school concept and
the introduction of computer literacy in the schools and in teacher training.
4.6 The launching of a training programme for school heads and the setting up of a
university for teachers, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris in 1997. The diploma
level pre-service teacher training programme was introduced. Another
development is the introduction of the Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) and Sijil
Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia(STPM) Open Certification examinations.
5.0 Education Ordinance 1952
5.1 Features of this policy:
- to promote a National School system by the gradual introduction of the
English Language into Malay vernacular schools and Malay Language
and English Language into Chinese and Tamil Vernacular schools.
- To maintain the existing English medium National type schools
- To develop vocational secondary schools
6.0 The Report of the Education Committee 1956 (Razak Report)
6.1 Major Recommendations:
- orientation to a Malayan outlook by the introduction of common content
syllabuses and time tables for all schools.
- The national language (Malay Language) to be the main medium of
instruction in all schools
- The national language and the English Language to be compulsory
subjects for all primary and secondary schools
- Conversion of existing primary schools to National schools (Malay
medium) and National-type schools (English, Chinese or Tamil medium)
- The establishment of one types of National Secondary school open to all
races using common content syllabuses, with a flexible curriculum
7.0 Rahman Talib Report (1960) and Education Act 1961
7.1 Major recommendations:
- universal free primary education
- automatic promotion up to Form III
- enhancement of Technical and Vocational education
- setting up of the Federal Inspectorate of schools

56
 - introduction of Bahasa Malaysia, the National language as the main
medium of instruction
- An examination system which uses only two main languages that is,
Bahasa Malaysia and English Language
- Expansion of teacher training programme
- Provision of Religious and Moral Education
8.0 Report of Cabinet Committee 1979
8.1 Major recommendations:
- emphasis is given to the basic education of 3Rs- reading, writing and
arithmetic
- emphasis is given to spiritual education and required disciplinary elements
- emphasis is given to a curriculum tailored to Malaysia
- two mainstreams of secondary level of education, academic and
vocational
- the opportunity to extend schooling from 9 years to 11 years
- well managed plan for educational management to enhance the overall
quality of education
9.0 Education Act 1995
9.1 Main recommendations:
- the national education system is designed to produce world class quality
education to achieve the country’s aspirations
- the National Philosophy of Education is the basis for the National
Principles of Education
- the duration for primary education is 5 – 7 years
- pre-education education is part of the national education system
- improved technical and polytechnic education
- provisions are made for the monitoring of private education
10.0 Open and Distance Learning
10.1 An open learning system is one which the restrictions placed on students are
under constant review and removed wherever possible. It incorporates the
widest range of teaching strategies, in particular those using independent and
individualized learning
10.2 Open learning: arrangements to enable people to learn at the time,place and
pace which satisfies their circumstances and requirements. The emphasis is
on opening up opportunities by overcoming barriers that result from
geographical isolation, personal or work commitments or conventional courses

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 structures which have often prevented people from gaining access to the
training they need.
10.3 Distance learning can be defined as an instruction and learning practice
utilizing technology and involving students and teachers who are separated by
time and space. It can occur between schools, between schools and colleges
and universities and even within school buildings and districts.
10.4 Distance learning first emerged as a concept in the nineteenth century, when
it was characterized as a correspondence course. It reappeared as the open
universities of the 1970s and then as the video tape, broadcast, satellite and
cable productions of the 1980s. Today, distance education refers to the use of
audio, video and computer video conferencing technologies as delivery
modes.
10.5 Distance learning is learning while at a distance from one’s teacher-usually
with the help of pre-recorded, packaged learning materials. The learners are
separated from their teachers in time and space but are still being guided by
them.
10.6 Distance learning encourages students to be creative, to participate actively in
their own learning, to experience others and to prepare for the kind of world
that they will enter as adults. Further, computer learning activities that employ
multiple interactive media encourage active listening, focused attention, and
the ability to work independently.
11.0 Information Communication and Technology
11.1 ICT is defined as any computer-based resources, networked and stand alone,
including both hardware and software, currently available as teaching and
learning resources.
11.2 Examples include tailored multimedia teaching packages; information sources
such as the internet ; data management tools such as word-processing ,
software or spreadsheets.
11.3 The ability to use ICT effectively and appropriately is now seen as essential to
allow learners to acquire and exploit information within every sphere of human
activity. The school curriculum already reflects the perceived value and
importance of developing ICT literacy and information literacy in all students.. IT
is integrated into the curriculum.
11.4 Changes in the perception of what constitutes a ‘learning environment’ have
been highlighted in a number of recent developments which seek to exploit the
potential of ICT. Today libraries in higher education have developed and
exploited a networked environment.

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11.5 Successful integration into the curriculum depends on teachers being convinced
of the relevance of ICT as a means of providing access to a richer range of
resources for themselves and students. This emphasis must be on using
appropriate technologies to enhance and support effective learning. Teachers
need to be able to exploit modern information sources for themselves as
continuing learners even when they are teachers.

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CHAPTER 9: EDUCATIONAL OUTCOME
Overview:
In this chapter, we shall cover
• The inequality in educational opportunities and outcomes
- concepts and issues
• Home and environmental factors affecting educational achievement
• Characteristics of schools which affect academic achievement

Key Terms
• Restrictive culture
• Compensatory education
• Social status
• Socialization
• Urban and rural location
• School culture
• Teacher’s expectation
• Effective schools

Suggested Activities

Further Reading
Banks, O. 1976. Sociology of Education. London: Batsford Ltd.
Calfee,R. 1986. Curriculum and Instruction: Reading. In B.I. Williams,P.A. Richmond, &
Mason (Ed). Designs for compensatory education: Conference proceedings and
papers. Washington,D.C. : Research Evaluation Associates, Inc.
Cheng, Y.C. 1993. Profiles of organizational culture and effective schools. In School
effectiveness and school improvement 4, 2 : 85 –110.
Deal,T.E.1993. The culture of schools In Educational Leadership and school culture
edited by Marshall Sashkin and Walberg,H.J. Berkeley: McCutchan Publishing.
Doyle, W. 1986. Vision and reality: A reaction to issues in curriculum and instruction for
compensatory education. In B. I. Williams, P.A. Richmond & Mason (Ed)
Designs for compensatory education. Conference proceedings and papers. Washington,
D.C.: Research Evaluation Associates, Inc.
Fraser,E. 1973. Home Environment and the school. London: University of London Press.
http://www2.moe.gov/~bpgEng.html
http://www2.moe.gov-my/~bpghlbestari_htm.

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Suggested Input
1.0 Compensatory Education
1.1 Compensatory education programs has traditionally been informed by the belief
that disadvantaged students can benefit most from a less challenging curriculum
and limited achievement goals.
1.2 The purpose of compensatory education is to help the child make the progress
that she or he would have made if an appropriate program had been available.
The specific services provided must be tailored to the child’s needs.
Compensatory education can mean extra instruction or related services
provided during the school year.
1.3 It provides for learning opportunities in both cognitive and affective areas, in
skills of learning how-to-learn and learning how to be a student. It emphasizes
mastery learning techniques that may improve scores, but fail to help students
learn how to work independently and develop coherent mental representations
for school work in general.
1.4 Peterson (1986) concluded that low achieving students can successfully be
taught a variety of cognitive strategies such as memory, elaboration, self-
questioning, rehearsal, planning and goal setting, comprehension, problem-
solving, hypothesis generating and study skills; and that compensatory
education should give greater emphasis to their development.
2.0 Factors Affecting the Development of Educational Inequalities
2.1 Social Class
- Social class is a product of the distribution of valuable resources in society
and not of a particular ethnic group’s historical experience. It is measured
by the indexes of socioeconomic status (SES) These indexes are based
on weighted combinations of parental education, occupational prestige
and income.
- Students from more advantaged homes and neighbourhoods are more
likely to enter school with a base of knowledge and values that encourage
school success; be surrounded by an atmosphere of parental support for
and active involvement in schooling; have economic resources to
purchase instructional materials and educational services that are
available to students whose parents have less money.
2.2 Race and Ethnicity
- In countries like America, racial and ethical differences are always the
most important basis of inequality. Why do race and ethnicity sometimes
matter so much and sometimes so little in a group’s ability to take

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 advantage of school opportunities? Sociologist argued that ethnic groups
migrating voluntarily to a new land have strong incentives to assimilate to
the culture of the new country. In the long run, the new group will be
integrated into the host country.
- In contrast, racial and ethnic groups conquered by a technological
superior power are unlikely to be assimilated as easily, both because the
majority group is unlikely to fully accept those it has conquered and
because the colonized rarely accept their conquerors.
- An important reason that ethnicity is properly characterized as the varying
divider is that some immigrant groups become assimilated and move up
the socioeconomic ladder faster than others. The success of fast-rising
minorities is often attributed to their superior drive or intelligence.
However, some minorities typically come to their new country with a host
of advantages, not enjoyed by other groups, quite apart from their drive
and intelligence.

2.3 Gender
- Countries with higher per capita incomes were more likely to have greater
gender equality in schooling. Economic progress is strongly associated
with conditions that make women’s lives less restricted. Countries with
many ethnic groups generally had less gender equality, perhaps because
it is politically difficult to extend educational opportunity when many ethnic
groups are competing for preeminence.
- In the industrialized world, a great deal more equality exists between men
and women. In secondary school and higher education enrolments,
women are either equal to men or actually over represented compared
with men.
- Although women now experience fewer disadvantages in educational
access and educational attainments, they continue to experience many
disadvantages in how they are treated in schools. Classroom interaction is
one area of continuing unequal treatment.
- There are good reasons to believe that gender will become a less
significant factor in the future, even in the area of jobs and salaries. One is
that as women gain ground, men’s sensibilities change, however slowly
and unevenly. Moreover, as the pool of career-oriented women increases,
men have more difficulty hiring and promoting men on grounds other than
demonstrated competence. Women’s organizations and women’s support

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 networks contribute to equalization of opportunity by continuing to
challenge discrimination in an active way.
3.0 Factors Affecting Educational Achievement
3.1 Home Factors
- The first five or six years are crucial foundation years, and even after
starting at school the child continues to live with his parents and to be
deeply influenced by their behaviour and attitudes. The family shares in
the socialization process alongside the school.and the family environment
is likely to encourage a favourable response to school. The school has
become the focal socializing agency
- The family background, for example working class children to perform less
well in school. There is the relation ship between social class background
and educational achievement.
- The tendency of the working classes to under-achieve is consistent.
Parental interest may affect one kind of school system than in another
whilst achievement motivation may count for more in one kind of teaching
situation than in another.
- Relationship between social-class background and educational
achievement. The influence of different social class milieu of the school
affecting the level of educational and occupational aspirations and
academic achievement of children from different social backgrounds have
been found.
- Home conditions – pride, confidence, affection and interest of parents in
their children, as shown in instances in which parents read to their
children, play with them or attend school functions with them appear to
affect the achievement of the children. On the part of plus achievers, there
is a general tendency to respect their parents, to take them into their
confidence, and to return the love their parents show. Minus achievers do
not appear to be so much exchange of affection or mutual respect, or
desire to measure up to expectations. The climate of affection within the
home for a particular child and its various manifestations appear to be
related definitely to school achievement.
- Motivational aspect of the home environment whereby parents who are
well educated and provide the child with favourable environment are likely
to motivate him to study well. They will take an interest on their children’s
school work.

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 - Emotional aspects such as emotional stress, insecurity and anxiety are
factors which will affect the child’s achievement. Thus a child from a well
to do home with good cultural background may have high innate ability
and high intelligence test scores but because of an unsettling home
environment may do relatively poorly in school.
3.2 Material Environment
- The effect on school performance of extreme poverty. Malnutrition and
poor living conditions are bound to have an influence on the health of the
child, and so directly or indirectly on his ability to learn.
- Pre-natal damage may occur to the child as a result of inadequate pre-
natal care. Poverty can also influence indirectly, by limiting the family’s
ability to forego adolescent earnings.
- Poor housing and overcrowding can impede the child’s homework and his
opportunity for reading or constructive play. Poverty, poor housing,
overcrowding and other slum conditions affect a large number of children
in ways which are likely to depress their educational performances.
- There is a close relationship between material deprivation and the whole
way of life of the family. Poverty can make a parent less willing to keep a
child at school; can make it difficult for him to afford books and toys, or
expeditions which help a child to learn; can enforce housing conditions
which make the whole family strained and unhappy or deprive the parent-
child play or talk together. Thus school achievement should be related not
so to isolated factors in the environment but to family life as a whole.
4.0 Characteristics of school that affect educational achievement
4.1 The Social milieu of School
- School factors in terms of the quality of teaching, grouping and differential
prestige and status attached to the schools have exerted great influence
on the aspirations, expectations and achievement of students.
- A variety of school conditions in terms of physical facilities, school size,
quality of teachers,geographical isolation, medium of instruction, financial
resources and social class milieu affect the achievement of students.
4.2 School Culture
- It is defined as the historically transmitted patterns of meaning that include
the norms, values, beliefs, ceremonies, rituals, traditions and myths
understood, maybe in varying degrees, by members of the school
community.

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 - It has been found that healthy and sound school cultures correlate
strongly with increased student achievement and motivation and with
teacher productivity and satisfaction.
- Recent studies found support that students are more motivated to learn in
schools with strong cultures. Implementation of a clear mission statement,
shared vision and school wide goals promote increased student
achievement.
- School culture also correlates with teachers’ attitudes towards their work.
It was found that strong school cultures had better motivated teachers. In
an environment with strong organizational ideology, shared participation,
charismatic leadership and intimacy. Teachers experienced higher job
satisfaction and increased productivity.
4.3 Teachers’ expectation
- Teachers’ expectation of the students’ ability had a significant influence on
their performance. The teachers who had high expectations for certain
students, somehow communicated this message to them in the
classroom. The expectations of the higher intellectual performance could
have been communicated to the group by the teacher in the classroom by
giving them more attention, encouraging them more, demanding more of
them and treating them more pleasantly. The students whom the teachers
expected to do well, performed better, although their ability was similar to
that of the unselected group.
- The Drop-out Study (1973) found that if the students perceived that their
teachers’ academic expectations of them are high, then a higher
percentage of the students were enrolled in school compared with those
who perceived the teachers expectations to be low.
5.0 Effective Schools
5.1 Effective schools are distinguished from inefficient ones by the frequency and
extent to which teachers learn together, plan together, test ideas together,
discuss practices together, reflect together, grapple together with the
fundamental vision and focus of developing students to fullest capacity.
5.2 Effective schools are a learning community, a place where teachers and
administrators study, work and learn together with the mission of improving
student achievement.
5.3 All efficient school has a culture and it is the information one gets from a culture
that sends a message to the student that they will be productive and successful.
The effective teacher thinks, reflects and implements. The efficient teacher

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 models what is expected from the students- the ability to think and solve
problems on their own. Effective teachers use their cumulative knowledge to
solve problems.
5.4 All effective classrooms start on time. Students know the classroom procedures.
Teachers understand how to teach for mastery. Teachers have high
expectations for student success. All effective classroom are managed by
effective teachers.
6.0 Smart School
6.1 Apart from the role of education to fulfill national development goals and
aspirations, the project also meant to address various educational needs :
- to prepare school leavers from the information Age
- to bring about a systemic change in education, from an exam-dominated
culture to a thinking and creative knowledge culture
- to re-emphasize science and technology education with a focus on
creativity and innovation
- to equip students with IT competence
- to inculcate Malaysia values among the students and produce a
generation of caring, peace-loving and environmentally concerned citizens
6.2 The smart school uses technology to support and enhance teaching-learning.
With the aid of multi-media technology, self-accessed, self-paced and self-
directed learning can be practiced. This will allow students to develop their
strengths to a level of excellence and breed a generation of inventors and
innovators.
Curriculum for smart school emphases through 4 subject areas, that is science,
Mathematics, Bahasa Malaysia and English Language. The emphases are knowledge
acquisition, analytical creative thinking and the ability to make decisions and solve
problems, IT competency proficiency in an international language, inculcation of values
towards the development of the good person.

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