The Skanda Cult in India: Sanskrit sources

by K.V. Sarma Acculturation is a universal phenomenon that takes place when two rich cultures come together and intermingle, one sumptuous enough to supply and the other capacious enough to absorb. The results are novel and blended patterns ennobling the one and enriching the other. In its broad and extended sense culture encompasses a variety of matters including life style, dress, food-habits and foodstuff, language, speaking habits and appellations, customs and manners, doctines and beliefs, myths and legends, deities and worship and the like. This phenomenon can take extensive strides and elaboration and also supplementation that, at times, the graft outgrows the trunk. A striking instance in point is the acculturation that has taken place in South India, especially Tamilnadu, in the cult of Skanda. For an estimation of the prevalence of the Skanda cult through Sanskrit and, for that matter in North India where it has ceased to prevail from about the 10th century A.D., the potential sources would be vedic literature, the Sanskrit epics and purnas, prose, poetic and drama literature, texts on Dharmashastra and worship of deities, stotra literature, technical texts and inscriptions mentioning the constitution of temples for Skanda. Places of pilgrimage, rivers, groves and ponds sacred to Skanda are also pointers to the Skanda cult in North India. Sanskrit texts mentioning the emigration and spread of the Skanda cult from the North to the South are also informative in the matter. The present paper endeavours to collect relevant information from all these sources and present them in order.

Kumra-Skanda-Krttikeya in Vedic literature

The evolution of Kumra-Skanda-Krttikeya who, during later times developed into one of the popular and prominent members of the Hindu pantheon, takes its origin from Vedic times. The tradition commences from the Rigveda where Kumra appears as related to god Agni as his father, a feature carried forward down the tradition. Thus Rigveda 5.2.1-3 mention Kumra as endowed with golden teeth and golden complexion who had been secreted by his mother in a cave (guh) -a feature current in later tradition also -- out of sight of his father1. Again, Agni is said to have seven auspicious mothers (RV 1. 141.2)2 and also born of seven mothers3, aspects which betray resemblances to the purnic Skanda. In the Kthaka Samhit of Krsna-Yajurveda the birth of Kumra in Agni is made mention of (36.5) and also his exploits (19.11). In the atapatha Brhmana (6.1.3.8-10) there occurs a symbolic account of the birth of Kumra. It is said that the six bhta-s are the six seasons, their lord is the year (samvatsara) and they drop their seed at dawn, which, after a year, gives birth to Kumra who is equated with Rudra, bring another traditional name of Skanda4. Elsewhere the same Brhmana states (6.1.3.18) that Agni born as Kumra had nine names, of which the ninth is Skanda. This Brhmana equates the Krittik-s with Agni (2.1.2.5).5 Again, the same Brhmana states elsewhere

(6.1.3.18) that Agni born as Kumra is given nine names, of which the ninth is Skanda. The Maitryani Samhita of the Krsna - Yajurveda contains a Skanda-gyatr where three of his names occur: Tat Kumrya vdamahe Krttikeyya dhma / tannah Skandah pracodayt // The Taittirya ranyaka, in Praptmaka 10, has a variant form of Skanda-gyatr which reads : tat Purusya Vidmahe Mahsenya dhmah / tanno Sanmukhah pracoyat//. The Siddhntashikhopanisad portrays Skanda as Bhagavn and as a teacher.6 The ivopanisad instructs the installation of the image of Skanda and the Mother Goddess near the ivalinga.7 The Atharvasira-Upanisad also makes a mention of Skanda but identifies him with Rudra.8 Among the ancillary texts related to the Atharvaveda, the Atharva-parishista-s, one of the texts entitled Dhrtakalpa or Sanmukhakalpa9 is an elaborate ritual on the propitiation of Skanda through homa (offerings in the sacred fire) and worship of his image with flowers, incense, lamps and sandal and offerings of naivedya (eatables). His names are mentioned as Skanda, Sadnana, Krttikeya, Brahmnya, Svm and Dhrta, the last meaning 'rogue' or 'master thief'! He is described as riding a peacock (yam vhanti mayrh) embellished with bells and banners (ghant patkin) and surrounded by the Mother Goddesses (yash ca Mtrganair nityam sad parivrto yuv). His image has six heads and lips (Sadnanostha). About his parentage it is noted: gneyam Krittikputram Aindram ke ca Pshupatam Raudram yo 'si so 'si namo stu te // kecid adhyate /

stating, 'who-so-ever you are, born of the Fire, Krittiks, Indra, Pashupati or Rudra, reverence to thee'.10

Skanda in domestic ritual

An understanding of the place of Skanda in the domestic ritual and social life of the common man in North India may be had from the grhyastras and dharmastras. According to the gniveshya Grhyastra ablutions were to be offered to, among other deities, Skanda, Vishkha and Sasth, the consort of Skanda.11 The Kthaka Grhyastra prescribes offerings in the sacred fire during the ritual of Havisyakalpa performed when a householder was offering his daughter in marriage. The deities to whom offerings were so offered include Skanda and Sasth.12 According to the Bhradvaja Grhyastra, (3.8.9) and Hiranyakesi Grhyastra (2.19.6) a seat (sana) was prescribed also to Skanda who too was invoked along with other deities. The Mnava Grhvastra (2.11) instructs the performance of a ceremony in honour of Goddess Sasth, consort of Skanda, on the sixth day of the bright fortnight. Coming to dharmastras, the Baudhyana Dharmastra (2.5.7) speaks about tarpana (religious offerings of water) to Skanda in his different forms, Skanda, Sanmukha, Vishkha, Mahsena and Subramanya and also his prsada-s and prsad-s.13 The mentions of the prsada-s and Prsad-s implies that by the time that this work was composed Skanda had been established as the war-god.

Skanda in texts of grammar, medicine and polity

The grammarian Pata jali of the 2nd cent. BC states in his Mahbhsya, commenting on Pnini's stra 5.3.99 of the Astdhyyi that the images of iva, Skanda and Vishkha were no longer being sold commercially, which was the case during the times of the Mauryas, and that during his time these images were used only for worship.14 The medical work Sushruta Samhit prescribes a spell for the exorcision of evil spirits in which occurs the verse mentioning Skanda (and Guha) with some of his characteristics. Kautalya of the 4th cent. BC who speaks of temples and images in his Arthashstra in a number of places, eg., devatgrha (12.5.3), devatcaitya (5.2.39), devatpratim (4.8.4), devatdhvaja (12.5.5; 13.3.45), in the context of the construction of a fort specifically prescribes the installation of Senpati (Mahsena, Skanda) at one of the gates.15 In his Ntyashstra (III.24) Bharata assigns Skanda to the eastern side of the hall for dramatic performances. The prevalence of the Skanda cult and the popularity of the deity is evidenced from the discovery of a large number of coins of the Kushanas and Yaudheyas who ruled in the northwest of India during the beginning of the Christian era. These coins bear the figure of Skanda or legends or both. The reverse of a coin of King Devasena, King of Ayodhya, bears the symbol of a cock on the top of a post. The same device is found also on the coins of Vijayamitra. The device was based on Skanda-Krttikeya according to J.N. Banerjea, as pointed out in his History of Art and Culture in Ancient India (p.141). Banerjea describes coins Huviska, the Kushana king, bearing figures and the inscriptional names in Greek Skando, Komaro, Bizgo and Mahseno being Greek counterparts of the names in Sanskrit (ibid., p.146). Another Yaudheya coin described by Banerjea (p.141) has the figure of the sixheaded Skanda, the heads being in two rows of three heads each, the right hand holding a long spear and left had resting on his hip (p.141). The Yaudheyas seem to have adopted Skanda as their patron deity, as would be apparent from the legend in their coins which reads: Yaudheya bhgavata svmino Brahmnyasya and Bhgavata svmino brahmanyadevasya Kumrasya. A large number of Yaudheya coins from the Rohtak region of Haryana, over which the Yaudheya dynasty ruled, have been collected and preserved in the Gurukul Museum at Jhajjar in Haryana. The earliest image of Skanda belonging to the Kushan period in red sandstone found in Rajasthan belonging to the 1st cent. BC has been preserved in the museum at Bharatpur, as mentioned by V.P. Limaye in his Critical Studies on the Mahbhsya (VVRI, Hoshiarpur, 1974, p. 402).

Skanda in the epics and the purnas

It is in the Sanskrit epics and the purnas that the Skanda cult develops fully from the phenomenal stage to the anthropomorphic stage. The birth, form, weapons, expolits, installation as the commander-in-chief of the army of the gods, subduing demons, marriage, worship in temples, festivals connected with him, places of worship and pilgrimage, fasts and feasts all add up to position Skanda as one of the important members of the Hindu pantheon, in due course, all over the country. Full-fledged accounts of some or all the above-said aspects are found weaved into full

texts or incorporated into longer texts like the epics and the purnas. The Skanda story as depicted in the Rmyana of Vlmk is rather short and takes up just three cantos of the Blaknda of the epic, 35 to 37 (edition: M.L.J. Press, Madras). It occurs in the contexts of sage Vishvmitra leading the princes Rma and Laksmana across the forest to the kingdom of Mithil, when they reach the banks of the river Ganges. Out of curiosity Rma enquires of the sage about the origin of the river and the sages reply trickles on to the story of the two daughters of Mr. Himavan, Gang and Um, the latter the consort of iva. Two versions of the birth of Skanda are indicated involving iva, Agni, Vyu and the Gangs. In the first version the divine Krittiks find no mention but in the second they nurse the new-born Skanda. The story stops short here since the query of Rma had been duly answered. However, it is patent that Vlmki was aware of several other developments in the story as indicated by references elsewhere in the epic. Thus, Queen Kausalya refers to Skanda as a great god (skandas ca bhagavn devah, 2.25.11) his being known as Krttikeya (Krttikeyasya ca sthnam, 3.12.21), arvana-bhava (ruroda shishur atyantam shishuh sharavana yath, 7.25.22), Mahsena (yatra jto Mahsenas tam jesham upacakrame, 7.87.10), Guha and ikhivhana riding the peacock, (aktim adya tejsv guhah shikhigato yath, 6.69.31). Skanda's being installed as commander-in-chief and his piercing the Krau ca Mountain have also been referred to (abhisiktah pur Skandah sendrair iva marudganaih, 7.63.15, and guho calam krau ca agrashakty, 6.67.19). It is in the Mahbhrata that we get, for the first time, a full-fledged depiction of Skanda with his manifold accoutrements and followers, exploits, worship by the masses, specific spots of pilgrimage, names of clans adhering to him, and allied matters. The story occurs in three contexts. In the Vanaparva (Aranyaparva), chapters 223 to 232, in 403 verses, form an account of Skanda given by sage Mrkandeya in response to the queries of King Yudhisthira who had been exiled to the forest by his cousin Duryodhana. Accounts of Skanda's birth, nurturing and exploits featuring several figures including Indra, iva, Agni, Um, Gang, Svh and the spouses of six ascetics are given. It is interesting that the last chapter, 232, forms an enumeration of the names of Skanda followed by a decade of verses in praise of Skanda. In the alyaparva of the Mahbhratha, in chapters 34 to 55, Balarma, elder brother of Lord Krsna, arrives after a long pilgrimage upon the scene where, in the battle-field of Kurukshetra, the warring brothers and Krsna were holding a belligerent conference. During the long narrations and discussions that followed, three chapters, 44 to 46, in 276 verses, occurring in the course Bladeva making a reference to the slaying of demon Traka, brief statement on the biography of Skanda occurs. What is significant here is the coronation of Skanda with an account of the presents made to him by the gods (45.1-54) and the long list of the names of the warriors who accompanied Skanda to battle the demons (45.55-77) and their characteristics (45.78-112). The third account of Skanda in the Mahbhrata occurs in the Anushsanaparva chs. 84-86, in 255 verses. The context is the narrative of grandsire Bhsma from his bed of arrows to Yudhisthira on the origin of gold. It is stated here that Agni is turned into gold and, as a digression, the relationship between Agni and Skanda causing the birth of Skanda and the extermination of demon Traka and his forces under the leadership of Skanda.

Despite divergences, discrepancies, additions and omissions, and, at times, contradictions, the three accounts are similar in the portrayal of the personality of Skanda. Even so are his epithets, purpose of his advent, leading the army against Traka and other demons and the status which he has been accorded in the pantheon16. In the Sanskrit purnic literature three texts are directly related to Skanda. They are the well-known Skanda-mahpurna which is divided into seven khanda-s and contains 83,000 verses, the SkandaUpapurna and the ankara Samhit of the Skandapurna in six khanda-s carrying 73,000 verses. All these extensive texts carry exhaustive accounts of the Skanda cult, though with considerable digressions and divergences, but the keynote story is the same, viz., the extermination of demon Traka who was the scourge of the gods. The other purnas, being the seventeen mahpurna-s, the seventeen upapurna-s and the purnic samhit-s are very much in the know of Skanda and the Skanda cult on account of their popularity among the masses. Incidents from the Skanda story or his exploits are referred to at several contexts. The Vyu-purna 72.42 gives the derivation of Skanda as: skandit dnavagins tasmt Skandah pratpavn/ and Mahbhrata, Vanaparva, 225.17 derives the name as: rsibhih pjitam Skandam anayan satshir dvigunashrotro dvdasksibhujakramah// Matsyapurns 157.41 derives Kumra as: dpto mrayitum daityn etasmt krand devah Kumras cpi so 'bhavat// kutsitn kanakacchavih/ skandatm tatah/

The Visnupurna, 1.15.115-116 speaks of his birth in the forest of reeds: Agniputrah Kumras tu apatyam Krittiknm tu Krttikeya iti smrtah// sharastambe vyajyata/

The Varhapurna, 24-49, speaks about sixth lunar day for his ablutionary rites: svayam Skando Mahdevah tasya sasthm tithim prdd abhiseke Pitmahah// The Skandapurna gives a summary in 1.1.31.6-7: mahim hi Kumrasya sarvashstresu kathyate/ vedaish ca sgamaish cpi purnaish ca tathaiva ca// tathopanisadarsh caiva mmmsdvitayena tu/ evambhtah Kumro 'yam ashakyo varnitum dvijh// sarvappapranshanah/

The same Purna 1.2.36.61, vouches salvation for the devotee: idam tat paramam divyam tanuksave ca syujyam Sanmukhasya vrajen narah//17 sarvad sarvakmadam/

Belle letters in Sanskrit on Skanda

Poets and playwrights in Sanskrit are in no way behind in referring to Skanda when there is a context. It is well known that the great poet Klidsa has adopted the Skanda theme for a full fledged long poem (mahkvya), the Kumrasambhava, which is one of the specimens of exquisite poetry in Sanskrit. While Klidsa has stopped short with its canto Eight, with the love-sports of iva and his consort Prvat, another poet of a later date supplemented the work with nine more cantos, 9 to 17, completing the theme of the story with the extermination of the demon Traka. That Klidsa conceived Skanda as a powerful god installed at a temple in Devagiri hill (modern Devagarh in U.P.) is patent from the eloquent reference to Skanda in the Meghadta, 1.45-46. Kumra (Skanda) is referred to by Klidsa also in his Vikramorvashya, wherein the celestial damsel Urvash was turned into a creeper as the inadvertently entered the Kumravana (Act IV, Praveshaka). Another great poem on Skanda is the Krttikeyavijaya by Grvnendra Yajvan alias Svmi Dksita, son of the renowned Nlakantha Dksita. (Ms. Mysore I. p.243)., Krttikeyakarnmrta, in 51 verses, (ptd. in Poona Orientalist, 27.iii-iv. pp.90-97) in 51, verese, is an exquisite work modelled on the r Krsnakarnmrta of Llshuka. A Kumaravijayakvya in eleven cantos with a com. Kavikulojjvin by Rmasri is also known (Ncc. IV, p.210). Bhsa, the dramatist, refers to Kharapata (Skanda) in his drama Crudattam (Act III, after verse 10), patron deity of thieves. The same idea is found also in the drama Mrcchakatika of draka (Act III, after verse 14) when arvilaka prays to the patron deity of thieves before he bores into the wall of Crudatta's house. He says: namo varadya Kumra-Krttikeyya namah. Kanakashaktaye Devavratya namo, Bhskaranandino namo yogcryya yasyham prathamah shisyah. Poet Ashvaghosa states in his long poem Buddhacarita that Buddha's birth his father felt as much joy as iva felt when his six-headed son was born: bhavanam atha vighya shkyarjo Bhava iva Sanmukha-janman prattah/ Buddhacaritam, 1.93 Varhmaihira describing the form of Skanda in an icon specifies him as bearing the weapon akti and donning the peacock feather: Skandah Kumrarpash aktidharo barhiketush ca// 957.41 In a context of Skanda's forces fleeing the battlefield, he delivers an exhortation to stop them as stated in Bhravi's Kirtrjuniya, 15.7.29, the commencing verse being: athgre hasat scisthitena sthirakrtin/ seny te jagadire ki cid yastacetas//

The exhortation ends with the verse: iti shsati senny gacchatas tn anekath/ nisidhya hasat ki cit tasthe tatrnyakarin// Bnabhatt, the proseteur, has a number of references to Skanda in two works, Kdambar and Harsacarita, of which one might be cited. The birth-chamber of prince Candrpda had a wall painting of Krttikeya riding on the peacock, carrying a banner made of red cloth and flourishing a lustrous akti.18 Bhavabhti, the dramatist too makes several references to Skanda in his works. To cite an instance. In the context of his duel with Parashurma, Lord Rma taunts his rival -- pointing to the latter's battle-axe with scorn: ayam sa kila yah saparivra-krttikeya-vijayvajitena bhagavat Nlalohitena sahasraparivatsarantevsino tubhyam prasdkrtah parashuh/ (Mahvracarita, Act II, after verse 33). The Kathsaritisgara of the Kashmirian poet Somadeva has several references to Skanda,19 one of which might be cited here. The context is where the two, Vydi and Indradatta, worshipping Krttikeya for obtaining knowledge: tennthau sati dhane 'py vm gatau prrthyitum Svmi-Kumram tapas tatah// Kath. 1.2.44 vidybhikanksinm/

In his Naisdhyacarita, 18.27, poet rharsa proclaims that the feather-tuft Sanmukha's peacock bore no comparison to the exquisite locks of Princess Damayant: bhajate khalu Sanmukham shikh cikurair nirmita-barhigarhanah/ Ksemendra of Kashmir, in the Brhatkathmamjar, 6.1.16, in the tale of Svayaprabha compares him to Skanda, son of iva, and Jayanta, son of Indra: tasya Skanda iveshasya Sryaprabho bhavat snuh pratpkrntabhdrah// Jyanta iva Vajrinah/

Two camp-kvyas and a drama on the Skanda theme are also known. The camp-s are: Kumravijaya-camp in four ucchvsa-s by Bhskara Yajvan, son of ivasrya Yajvan of Puttr of the Mullundram family, and the other, also termed Kumravijaya-camp by Subrahmanya, son of Rmalingasri, pupil of Sadshivendra. Manuscripts of both of these are recorded in the New Catalogues Catalogorum of Sanskrit (NCC), (Madras University, Vol. IV, p. 210). The Skanda drama entitled Kumravijaya is the work of Caundji pant Ghanashyma, son of Mahdeva, manuscripts of which are also recorded in NCC IV, p.210. An anonymous prose work Kumracarita redundant with alliteration has been recorded in NCC IV. 202.

Skanda in stotra literature

The combination of popularity, charisma and personal exploits coupled with the promise of bounty to devotees have caused a number of hymnal texts on Skanda, hymns of different types like mantra, stotra, pj-kyama, vrata and the like. Apart from individual texts a number of works of all these types occur also in the purna-s and sthala-mhtmyas.

The skanda-gyatr-s occurring in the Vedic Maitryanya Samhit and Aitareya ranyake have already been referred to. Manuscripts of Guha-gyatr are recorded in NCC, V.89. Those of a Krttikeya-mantra occur in NCC IV.6. Among texts on Skanda rituals might be mentioned Guhakalpa, Guhaprashams and Guhbhiseka (NCC.89), and Kumratantra, two texts of the same title, one from Krana-mahtantra and the other from Vdhlatantra (NCC IV. 203). Among vrata texts dealing with vows intended to propitiate Skanda are Krttikeya-vrata, Krttikeya-vratakalpa, Krttikeya-vratakath and Krttikeva-vratavidhi, manuscripts of all of which are recorded in NCC IV.7. Of stotra-s a large number have gained popularity. To mention a few: Krttikeyastava, Krttikeyastotra, Krttikeyastotra-kadamba (NCC.IV 7), Guhastotra (NCC. IV 89), Krttikeyapraj vardhanastotra (NCC.6), Guhstaka (NCC V. 90), Subrahmanyastotra, Sadhanastuti, rKumramngala-stotra, Subrahmanystaka, Subrahmanyabhujangastotra by ankara, Subrahmanystottarashatanmastotra, Subrahmanystottara-sahasranma-stotra and so on. Manuscripts of several texts bearing the same Kumarasamhit are noted in NCC IV. 211.

Names of Skanda
As the Skanda-Kumra concept of the Vedic age developed, legends multiplied and exploits were added, His names and epithets also grew in number alongside. The stotra literature in Sanskrit provide nearly 1100 names of Skanda as recorded in the Sanmukha-Sahasranma-stotra or Subrahmanya-s (Skanda-purna, Ksi-khanda, ii. ch. 14), the Subrahmanya-Astottarashatanmastotra, Subrahmanyabhujanga of Sankarcrya and allied works.

Skanda temples and pilgrim spots in North India

In current times few Skanda shrines survive in North India. However early literature in Sanskrit and inscriptions speak of several shrines and pilgrim spots sacred to Skanda. Obviously a list of these must be far from full since many temples have fallen into ruins and many inscriptions yet to be unearthed.20 Still the existing ones and the sculptures preserved even now should serve as a pointer to those that existed.

Skanda comes down to the South

A matter of utmost importance in the history of Skanda cult in India is its transmission from the North to the South of India, a graphic account of which is available in the Skanda Purna: ankara Samihit, Sambhava-kanda, chapters 48 to 50. It is stated that subsequent to the terrible fight between Skanda and demon Traka at Mypuri, the capital of the latter near the Krauca Hill in the Hemakta region of the Himalayas, which resulted in the destruction of Traka and the shattering of Krauca, the divine architect Vishvakarm constructed a grand city named Devagiri for the victorious Skanda. Later a thought arose in the mind of Skanda to worship at the sacred shrines in India dedicated to God iva. In pursuance of this wish, he left Devagiri with his troupe by an aerial path, towards the South. First the worshipped iva in His sacred shrine at Kedarnth. Then he came down to Kshi

(Varanasi). From there he sped to the South, first to rparvata (present-day rshaila), then Virpksa and then to Daksina Kailsa (present-day Klahasti) on the banks of river Suvarnamukh. He then visited Venkatchala (Tirumala) from where he came to Vattav (Tirulanktu) where is to be found God iva in the rdhava-tndava pose. From there he came to Kanchi and then to Kumrakostha (Kumarakkottam) where he established himself. He then worshipped at Aruncala (Tiruvannmalai), Pennnallr (Tiruvennainallr) on the banks of river Pennr and then Vriddhchalam and Chidamibaram. From there he went to Myram and reached the banks of Maniyr. The divine architect Vishvakarm constructed for him at this place a city by name Kumrapura. From Kumrapura Skanda passed on to a place called entipura where too a grand edifice was constructed for him and where he established himself. This place has, later, become renowned as Tiru-Chendr being one of the most important centres of the Skanda cult in Tamilnadu.

Skanda-Subrahmanya in Sanskrit Tradition

by Dr. S.S. Janaki
The religious history of Bhrata Varsa, now called India, has its origin from prehistoric times. The original name of Indian religion, namely, Santana Dharma, is significant and indicates its chief characteristics of eternality, continuity and variety. Foreigners have coined the name 'Hinduism' for this unique religion. Whatever be the name, the spirit of Indian religion and spiritual culture has been almost the same throughout Vedic, Vedantic, Epic and Puranic times. Its form however, has undergone remarkable changes. In the Vedic period cosmic powers were worshipped as divine manifestations. In subsequent times, the two major deities, iva and Visnu, their consorts, family, and incarnations, were and are still being adored externally and internally through yoga, meditation etc. But the fact remains that Indian religious culture satisfies during all times the yearnings and needs of persons endowed with differing capacity (adhikra) for deeper experience and varying psychological nature (svabhva). Kumra is generally considered as the son of the divine parents iva and and Prvat. He is known from varied Sanskrit texts from the ancient to the present times under varied names like Krttikeya, Viskha, Guha, Senpati, Sanmukha and aravanabhava. Some of these like Krttikeya (son of the Krttik goddesses) and Saravanabhava (born in a thicket of reeds), clearly describe the god's personal details through their own etymology and simple legends. Amongst the god's names Skanda and Subrahmanya are crucial to understand the symbolism and evolution of the deity's concept and its worship (upsan) in diverse ways as suited to a range of devotees. In the present paper the references to Skanda and Subrahmanya as occuring in the ancient Sanskrit literature, which includes Yajur, Sma and Atharva Vedas, Chndogya Upanisads, Rmyana, Mahbhrata, and Skanda Purna, are collected and critically studied. In the final analysis it is shown that this god was and is conceived and meditated upon at different levels, in his iconographical mrti form (skala), in a form and formless state in the pcyatana worship with distinct symbolism, as also at the pure absolute level with no attributes (nirguna) or parts (niskala). Firstly, varied information about Skanda in the selected texts is given under distinct categories and explained. Skanda is a noun derived from the verbal root skand that carries some meanings like 'jumping', 'spurting'/'spilling'/'effusing', 'perishing', 'drying up', and 'gathering together'. Sandhnam skandanam caiva pcanam Gamanam osanam skandadhtvarthadaranditi dhanam tath

Early Sanskrit texts like the Rmyana, Mahbhrata and Skanda Purna bring out the appropriateness of the name Skanda given to Kumra, while describing his birth and valorous deeds. Among the meanings of the root skand, that of 'spilling', especially of the semen of iva, recurs in the stories about the birth of Kumra. There are of course, slight variantions in them. Three such anedcdotes about his birth can be seen now. Vlmki's Rmyana. In Bla Knda (Sargas 36 and 37) of the Rmyana, sage Vivmitra recounts the details of Kumra to Rma and Lakshmana, in order to bring out the unique charm of the deity and his valorous deeds as a child. In sarga 36 it is said that iva and Prvat enjoyed sexual union for one hundred divine years. No child was born to them as was expected of such a marriage by the gods who suffered a lot by the misdeeds of the demons. Headed by Brahm, the gods approached iva and Prvat and requested them to engage themselves in severe austerities with full control of sexual instincts for the benefit of the three worlds (verse 11). Trailokyahitakmrtham tejastejasi dhraya While agreeing to do so, iva asked the gods, when by some chance, his instincts were stirred up, who would be able to receive and retain his powerful semen. As suggested by the gods, after some years iva discharged his seminal fluid on to the Mother Earth. The latter was able to carry and retain iva's lustre only due to it being carried to the entire earth by Agni the Fire-god. When iva's fiery lustre spread over the worlds, silvery mountains and a divine thicket of reeds (aravana) appeared on earth. In that forest was born Kumra.

Lord Krttikeya

Prvat was however disappointed at the gods not allowing her to hear the "fire of iva". Thereupon she cursed both the gods and Earth, that thenceforward the gods would not be able to impregnate their consorts, and that the Earth also would be enjoyed by many husbands. So saying iva and Prvat go to the Himalayas to perform severe penance. The first effort of the gods was thus unsuccessful due to the displeasure caused to Prvat. No god could impregnate his consort on account of Prvat's curse. Hence Brahm suggested to Indra and others that iva's 'seminal lustre' held by Agni could be transmitted to the Gang flowing in the divine regions (ka Gang). Besides not being the consort of any divinity, Gang, as arising from the Himalayan ranges, was the elder sister of Prvat. Hence Prvat would be quite delighted if Gang would bear and retain 'iva's lustre' and deliver it as a son for the benefit of the three worlds (Sarga 37 verse 8).

Lord aravanabhavana

Accordingly, iva's tejas was transferred to Gang by Agni with the help of Vyu. She bore it with great difficulty and deposited it in the Himalayan range. At that time there was a brilliant glow all around. Bright dazzling metals like gold, silver and copper appeared. Kumra was born in that atmosphere. Immediately Indra and other gods arranged for the six Krttik stars, who represent a star cluster in the third mansion having Agni as its regent, to nurse the child with their milk. They did so in the form of nymphs. Concluding the birth-story of Kumra, Vlmki says that the gods called the child Skanda, being born from the spilling of iva's tejas through Agni (verse 27). Mahbhrata (Vana 183-4, alya 39) narrates the birth of Kumra as the son of Agni and Svbh. But the significance of his name 'Skanda' is explained (Vana 184.18; Salya 39.6) as in the Rmyana. The birth-story of Kumra in the Skanda Purna (chapters 25,26) is different. As narrated here, iva listens to the troubles of the gods created by the demons against them, and the necessity for iva procreating a son soon to overcome their problems. According to their wishes, iva took up a beautiful form with six faces and looked at Prvat lovingly. At that time, a dazzling lustre similar to numerous suns arose from the eye in his forehead. This was so, because iva is greatly self-controlled that his semen can have only an upward movement. Hence he is called rdhvaretas. The six-faced lustre spread out in the whole world. People, not being able to put up with it, ran in all directions. At iva's suggestion, the Fire and Wind gods carry the lustre to a forest of reeds near Ganges, who united it with a lotus that was in a pond nearby. There a charming child with

six faces and twelve arms was born. In the next moment the infant was transformed into a normal but extremely beautiful child (26.16-17). Again, when at the bidding of Visnu, the six Krttiks came near, the child again became sextuple in order to allow each of them to feed it with millk (tsm anugrahrthya sodh mrtir abht ksant). In another context it is said that when Prvat embraced the children, they all converged into one form. In this account there is the emission of the lustre of iva through his eye(s) in his forehead. We also have the appearance of Kumra as a baby in six forms or their merger into a single personality as needed in the context. Hence both the meanings of the root skand, namely, 'emitting' and 'merging into one' are applicable here. II.v. In yet another context the Skanda Purna (35.11) applies the third meaning of skand as 'drying' or 'scorching' (osana). Does he not attack and scorch the power of his enemies in the three worlds and win over them? kramya ca yato tena skando yamkhytah sutaste girisambhave. kandaddhikramena jagattrayam

In section II, in the context of explaining the etymological significance of the term Skanda as applied to Kumra, a few versions of his birth were noted. The variations in them are quite interesting and need to be critically studied and analysed. There are, for example, different persons like iva, Brahm, Agni, Indra, Prvat, Svh, and Gang who are considered as Kumra's parents. Also, he is considered as one person, a person with six faces, one with six forms, or, as seen in II. iv., he is born as single and transformed into six different babies for being fed by the Krttiks, only to become single again when embraced by Prvat. In fact, the Mahbhrata (alya 41.85-7) refers to Kumra's varied parentage and his being considered as one, two or four or even as hundred or thousand: kevidenam vyvasyanti pitmtasutam sanatkumram sarvesm brahmayotim kecinmahevarasutam kecitputram vibh umyh krttikyca gangyca ekadh ca dvidh caiva caturdh ca yoginmvaram devam atadh ca sahasradh. vibhum tamagrajam vasoh vadantyut mahbalam

Having seen Kumra in II. iv. as one or six in appearance, we can see now an account of him taking four forms on a special occasion, as narrated in the Mahbhrata (alya. 39). The story starts here, after the birth of Kumra to Gang., when Brhaspati performs the divine child's purificatory rites (jtakarma). Immediately thereafter, due to the grace of goddess Sarasvati, Dhanur Veda with its accessories of missiles (astra), weapons (astra) etc. attend on the body. It became powerful, internally and externally (mahyogabalnvitah).

His parents eagerly approached the unique baby with great affection. As they all wanted to meet him at the same time, Kumra took four similar and resplendent forms, (samarpinah, bhsvaradehh) and went to them with a spear in hand. Thus he approached and saluted Rudra as Skanda, Um as Viakha., Agni as kha, and Gang as Naigamea. It is to be noted that of these four, Skanda and Vikha are well known as Kumra's names. Dazed by the unique powers of Kumra, the divinities requested Brahm to anoint him as their commander-in-chief. Brahm acceded to their wishes. As a mere child, Kumra then performed miracles like killing powerful demons like Traka and Srapadma, and splitting the Krauca mountain with his akti. Regarding Skanda and Visakha there is interesting information in some ancient texts. According to the Smavidhna Brhmana (I. 20. p. 59) Skanda is one of the deities to be propitiated with the chanting of specific Sma Vedic hymns (like I.246, I.533 and I.565). iti dve es skandasya samhit, etm prayujan skandam prnati The Vama Brhmana is a minor treatise associated with the Sma Veda. It is concerned with the deities, the Samhits or their musical renderings of specific hymns among them, and the long line of sages through which the Sma Veda has come down. The introductory part of Vama Brhmana entitled Smatarpana enumerates the list of deities, to whom water-libations are to be offered. Amongst them figure the twin-gods Skanda-Vikhau, (p. 217, Vama Brhmana). The Atharva Pariistas are a collection/compilation delating with elaborate ritualistic and procedures details of important Atharva rites as related to many deities. The 20th section in this text is titled Skandayga or Dhrtakalpa, 'dhrta' (literally, 'rogue') being a synonym of Skanda. This vrata is to be observed on the sixth day after new moon in the months of Phlguna (February-March), sdha (June-July) and Krtika (October-November). The worship of Skanda on the occasion follows the usual routine of invocation (vhana), invitation (hvna), his entry, offering of pdya to wash his feet, worship with flowers, followed by the cordialities (upacras), naivedya, offerings in fire, worship and consecration of the thread (pratisara), and tying the same, and allowing the god to leave the place (visarjana). Skanda is called by his other names including Vikha in the course of the varied worship. In one context (20.6.4) his diverse parentage as the son of Agni, Krttiks, Paupati, Rudra and Indra is mentioned. gneyam krttikputiamaindram kecitpupatam raudram yo i so i namo stu te // iti // kecidadhyate /

Importantly in 20.2.9, in the context of inviting Skanda to be present for the worship, Skanda is referred to as a 'brother of Vikha'. bhrtra viakhena imam balim snucaram jusasva ca vivarpa

The grammatical texts of Pnini and Patajali also refer to Skanda and Vikha as twin gods, worshipped in images, under the stra "Devatdvandve ca" (Pnini VI. 3. 26). Patajali (Mahbhsya on VI. 3. 26) clarifies that these two gods were not offered libations together in the Vedic age: na caite vede sahanirvpanirdisth Hence it is clear that the consideration of Skanda and Vikha as twin gods was only a post vedic concept. But in the earlier times they may have been considered as brothers. It is interesting to note that Valmiki in his Rmyana, compares Rm and Laksmana to SkandaKumra, the twin sons of Agni, in youthful charm and prowess (Kumrviva Pvak). It is clear from these references that Vikha is not a mere synonym of Skanda because he was born in the particular star (Vikhsu jtah). But in some later Vedic texts and in the Rmyana they are considered as brothers or even twins. As seen above in sections II to IV, the Vedic, Epic and Puranic literature use the term 'Skanda' meaningfully. True to the different etymologies of the term, the texts provide information of the god like his birth, parentage, concept and rituals. In a retrospective such details are: 1. He was born from the 'spilling' or 'emission' of the semen or lustre of iva that got spread out through the gods of Fire and Wind. 2. At birth he was a person with six faces of six separate individuals, but was subsequently 'lumped into one' by the embrace of Prvat. 3. He 'scorches' or 'thoroughly destroys' the external enemies or internal vices of his devotees. 4. Primarily he is the son of iva and akti (Prvat). Others associated with his birth and evolution are Brahm, Agni, Indra, Svh, Gang and Krttiks. 5. According to one version, the born child miraculously appeared in four forms, Skanda, Vikha, kha and Naigamea, respectively to his four parents Rudra, Um, Agni and Gang. 6. He is also considered as the twin deities, Skanda-Vikha, to whom water-libations are offered. Skanda-yga to these twins is mentioned in some Atharva texts. Specific Sma Vedic hymns are also said to be chanted for them. 7. According to grammatical texts, the concept of Skanda-Vikha as twin deities is postVedic. The term Skanda also occurs along with names of his parents, as Somskanda representing the triune aspects of iva, Prvat and Skanda. It is the most

common form of iva worshipped in many South Indian temples. The signification of Somskanda can be understood in the light of iva's explanation of Kumra's concept of Prvat in Skanda Purna (Sambhava, 35.5-8). Accordingly, the love of the two streams of grace, namely, iva and akti, unite in Subrahmanya. He represents the eternal union of the Supreme iva and Prvat of Inexhaustible Energy, that is comparable to the blend of sound and sense. Kumra is 'sixfaced' on account of his representing both iva as Sadsiva with 'five faces' (namely Sadyojta, Tatpurua, Vmadeva, Aghora and na) and the many faceted akti endowed with one face: ivo ham niskalah prna aktis tvamanapyin / prakrtipratyaykrvm abdrthakau matau // tvam abdo rtho smyaham bhadre jagattvam Somskanda Mrti patirasmyaham // pacakrtyaparacham pacavaktrassadivah ekavaktrsi bahudh bhinnpi paramevar tvanmayo manmayo yasmt sadvaktrah parikrtitah /

/ //

Thus by invoking the grace of Kumra, one invokes the grace of iva and akti. All these ideas are signified through the form of Somskanda, in which Skanda is placed between his parents. In every temple of iva we have these images. It is noteworthy that in Kci near Chennai, temples dedicated to these three gods are themselves situated in the same order - the Kumra Kota temple of Skanda is located in between the temples of Ekmrantha and Kmksh. While the term Skanda and the legends based on its etymology highlight mostly the personal details of the deity, the term Subrahmanya is loaded with symbolism at the supreme and absolute levels. This signification is quite in keeping with the two components of the term, namely, the prefix su- (meaning beauty, excellence, joy etc.) and its qualifying noun brahmanya that is related to Vedas, Supreme knowledge, Absolute Reality etc. A few puranic legends and the liturgic formula Subrahmanyom and its many-sided symbolism support the prime status given to Subrahmanya as being on part with the Supreme iva. In a few versions he is even considered higher than his father. The Skanda Purna (Sambhava., chaps. 34, 35) highlights the supernal qualities of Subrahmanya in the words of iva himself. In this context (34.28-30) it is said that both these gods signify the mystical syllable Om. These are evident in the two formulas containing the names of the two gods followed by Pranava. Moreover, the son secretively explains the same to his father iva also.

arthamha sma sennh rutv ambhuh svarasyrtham subrahmanyom svarasyrthastvam iti jnanti ye loke te ynti mama tulyatm //

pranavasya evameva na cham ca

rahasyatha samayah sadivom

/ // //

In more than one context (Sambhava 35,20,26-7) the Purna refers to iva's glorification of his son. Herein iva says "At the level beyond formlessness (Niskala) my son represents the Absolute Truth, Consciousness and Joy (Saccidnanda). He is the importable Supreme Lustre (Param Jyotih), before which the sun, moon, and stars are dulled". It is also said that while iva is the Lord of divinities and of supreme knowledge, his son is their leader in yet a higher degree. Herein a novel derivation of Subrahmanya as sutrm brahmanyah is given. In the midst of myths and legends, one is constantly reminded of Subrahmanya as the embodiment of Brahm Jna, as the expounder of the meaning of Om, and as the upholder and lord of Vedic way of life and rites. 'Subrahmanyom', with the repetition of pranava three items for special reverence ('darrtham' as Syana explains) in many Vedic sacrifices and rituals, is intended not only for iva's son but also for any divinity like Indra and Agni. So much so, that this mantra is to be found in many Vedic texts, especially the Brhmanas. In conclusion it can be seen that Skanda/Subrahmanya is a federal deity and an integrator among the divinities. He is endowed with the essential of all divinities. Svmi is the most common word for 'God' in India. It is significant that 'Svmi' is primarily the name of Subrahmanya alone. In the lexicons like those by Amara Simha, Svmi occurs as a name of Kumra. Other divinities have, so to say, borrowed the name from Kumra. Skanda is the son of iva and akti, younger brother of Vinyaka, son-in-law of Mahvishnu, and is identified with the rising sun. By worshipping Kumra we can be the recipient of the bounties conferred by all the other gods.

Skanda Legends in the Puranas

Introduction
The purnas in Sanskrit are important source books for understanding Hindu culture, since the purnas have assimilated much material on diverse topics in the course of the past several centuries. There are several legends relating to the three primary gods Brahm, Visnu and Shiva and others associated with them. There is a general statement that the Vedas have to be amplified with the help of the itihsas and Purnas. Though we can find the roots of some purnic legends in the Vedas, such as the Trivikrama form assumed by Lord Visnu, there are other legends in the prnas which are of independent origin. Though legends relating to Skanda in the pranas appear to have developed independently, there is a Vedic basis for these legends. It is proposed here to examine the legends relating to Skanda in the Purnas in their historical development.

Birth of Skanda: general account

In general the Purnas describe Skanda as the son of Lord Shiva. The legend is almost the same in all the pranas. When Lord Shiva and Prvat were having coitus, the celestials were disturbed by the might of the demon Traka and deputed Agni to Lord Shiva to seek protection. When Lord Shiva was disturbed in his privacy, his semen fell on the ground. Lord Shiva directed Agni to swallow it. Agni did as directed but he could not retain it and released it into the river Gang. She got impregnated and later cast the child onto the bank. Then the asterism known as Krttik assumed human form as the Krttik nymphs and nursed the child. Hence he go t the name Krttikeya. There are certain minor variations in the above legend in the different Purnas. The Mrkandeya Purna, Nrada Purna and Kmara Purna have no reference to the origin of Skanda.

Various legends about his origin

There is a brief reference to the birth of Kumra as the son of Agni in the forest of reeds in the Visnu Purna1 and Vyu Purna.2 The Matsya Purna describes elaborately the oppression of the celestials by the demon Traka,3 the marriage of Shiva and Prvat4 and briefly the birth of Kumra.5 According to the Matsya Purna the seed of Shiva was first taken by Prvat and then ejected and received by Agni, through whom it entered the belly of all the gods, but it could not be digested and burst out to become a pool of fresh water. Then the six Krttik maidens drank it and offered it to Prvat who conceived. But the babe came out of her right side. 6 He was born as a wonderful boy, illuminating all the worlds, having six heads and wielding the weapon shakti. Since he was destined to kill Mr, the evil ku asuras, he came to be known as kumra. The six Krttiks had united into a single Skh and hence Kumra as their son was known as Krttikeya and Viskha.8 Viskha and Krttikeya were joined together by Indra and anointed as Lord Guha by all the gods headed by Brahma, Indra and Visnu on the sixth day.9 Indra offered him his daughter Devasena.10 Tvasta gave him a toy kukkuta, capable of assuming any form.11 Visnu endowed him with different weapons. Agni blessed him with splendour. Vyu gave him a

vehicle. He was extolled by all the gods. Skanda killed Traka. Elsewhere in the Matsya Purna12 the popular version is described. Agni dropped Shiva's semen in the Gang, who cast it off in the reeds. The child Guha was born from it and killed the demon Traka. Describing the creation of Daksa and the creation made by him, the Garuda Purna13 makes a brief reference to the birth of Kumra as son of Agni born among the reeds. Skha, Viskha and Naigameya were also born to Agni. Since Kumra was the child of Krttiks, he was known as Krttikeya. The Bhgavata Purna14 mentions Skanda as son of Agni and the Krttiks and as the father of Niskha and others. From the Skanda Purna15 we know details about the formation of different parts of the body of Skanda on different lunar days as he was born from the reeds. He was cast on the reeds on the first day of the waxing moon in the month of Caitra. On the second day his body was collected together. It attained a definite shape on the third day. All the limbs including his six faces and twelve eyes became prominent on the fourth day. He was decorated by the gods on the fifth day. He rose up on the sixth day. All the sacraments (samskras) were performed for him by Brahm. But according to the Shiva Purna these were done by sage Visvmitra.16 Shiva conferred on him the shakti (spear), Gaur the peacock as his vehicle, and Agni presented the goat. Differing from the Matsya Purna, it is stated that the ocean gave him the cock.17 According to the Brahmnda Purna 18 further gifts were made by others: Visnu gave him the peacock and the cock, Vyu a banner, Sarasvat the lute, Brahm the goat and Shiva the ram. We find the same details in the Vayu Purna19 also. The Shiva Purna20 states that the semen of Shiva that fell on the reeds developed into a child on the sixth day of the waxing moon in the month of Mrgasrsa (December). It describes in detail the marriage of Shiva and Prvat, the birth of Kumra and the killing of Traka.21 The Padma Purna22 gives a slightly different version of his origin. When Shiva and Prvat were in sexual union, Agni came there as a parrot. The disturbed Shiva released the semen outside and made Agni to drink it. But a lake was created out of a portion of the semen that fell on the ground. Prvat bathed in this lake. Then she met the six Krttiks there. They offered her water to sip from a lotus-leaf. Soon after drinking the semen-mixed water she became pregnant and gave birth to a male child. The child came out tearing her right side and was known as Kumra. Similarly an identical one called Vishakha burst out from the other side. These two were born on the fifteenth day of the waning moon in the month of Caitra. They were united into one on the fifth day of the waxing moon of that month. On the sixth day he was anointed as the chief of the army of the gods, and was called Guha. Tvastr presented him a cock as a toy. The Brahma Purna23 begins the description as in the Padma Purna as above and makes a digression in order to explain the greatness of the sacred spots in the region around the river Gautam. The description is same as in the Padma Purna up to the birth of Kttikeya. The Vyu Purna24 refers to the despatch of Agni by Indra to obstruct the union of Shiva and Prvat, Agni was cursed by the enraged Prvat that he would bear the foetus for having caused the obstruction. The foetus was later transferred by Agni to the river Gang; the details are the same

as in the general version. The narration explains the reason for the name Skanda as causing the destruction of the demons. The Vmana Purna25 gives a different account of the birth of Skanda answering a query relating to the destruction of Krauca. Agni is said to have dropped the semen of Shiva in the river Kutil. The river proceded to the mountain Udayagiri and deposited the foetus in the reeds. The child was known as Sanmukha since he was nourished by the six Krttik stars. According to the Brahmavaivarta Purna26 Krttikeya was born from the semen of Shiva that fell in the reeds on the bank of the river Sanmukha. He had the peacock as vehicle. The Bhavisya Purna27 dealing mainly with various austerities states that the sixth day of Mrgasrsa is the day one when he killed the demon Traka. The Linga Purna28 describes the destruction of the god of love and mentions that Kumra, born of the wedlock of Shiva and Prvati, would kill the demon Traka.29 The Linga Purna further describes the penance of Shiva and Prvat and their marriage, but the actual birth of Kumra is not mentioned.30 We have a reference to the destruction of Traka by Kumra in the chapter describing the destruction of Tripura.31 In the same chapter, Kumra, referred to as Sanmukha, is described in his beautiful form as a sportive child adorned with ornaments.32 He is described as accompanying Shiva setting out for the destruction of Tripura in the next chapter.33 It is well-known that Skanda killed the demon Traka with the shakti. The Skanda Purna34 gives some details relating to this legend. Shakti had fallen at Camatkrapura in the Htaka region and extended support to the mountain Raktasrnga ('Red Summit'). The city was hence known as Skandapura. The greatness of the shakti is that if one rubs his back against the shakti, he does not contact any disease for a year.

Marriage of Skanda
The Brahmnda Purna35 states that Skanda married Devasen, the daughter of Indra. But the Skanda Purna36 states that he married Sen, the daughter of Yama, the god of death. But according to the Varhapurna37 Shiva blessed him with all playthings and asked him to be the husband of Sen.38 Since the meaning of the words Devasen and Sen denote the army of celestials, it is considered that they are symbolic representations of Kumra made as the chief or leader of the celestials. According to another version found in the Brahma Purna39 describing the Kumratrtha, he never married. This purna adduces the reason for the same. After killing the demon Traka, Prvat devised a plan and made every woman to appear to Skanda as his mother. This had the desired effect. Skanda beheld his mother in every woman and hence got detached from life and declared that all women were mothers for him and resolved to be a bachelor. The Shiva Purna40 contains a different version furnishing the reason for Skanda remaining unmarried. According to this version when Skanda was going round the earth, he was informed by Nrada that the marriage of Ganesa, his brother, was performed by his parents in order to get rid of him. On hearing this Skanda was angry in spite of the entreaties made by his parents and

proceed to the mountain Krauca with the resolve not to marry any time. Hence Skanda was known to be Kumra indicating that he was not married. It is to be noted that the traditional Tamil account holds that he set out to the Palani Hills protesting the favourtism shown by his parents in offering the fruit to his elder brother for having won the competition of going round the world first. Similarly the legend of Skanda marrying Vall is unknown to the Sanskrit purnic tradition.

The significance of the Skanda legend in the Purnas

On this legend is the Matsya Purna, V.S. Agarawal has stated41 that its purpose is to explain the ancient Kumravidy or the metaphysical doctrine of Agni as the miraculous Child. 42 The Child is same as Kumra Agni which is but another name of Rudra, as often identified in the Brhmanas.43 Moreover the Brhmana text propounds the theory of eight names of Shiva such as Rudra, Shiva, Pashupati, Ugra, Asani, Bhava, Mahdeva and sna44, corresponding to the astamrtis of Shiva. These eight cannot simply create life and when they unite they incarnate as Kumra, which is stated here as the ninth creation. Thus Kumra is the principle of life.45 Skanda represents the integral power of all the six cakras or six Krttiks and therefore is called Krttikeya, each cakra representing a Krttik nurse. In the legend in the Matsya Purna, Vraka (foremost attendant of Shiva), Skanda and Ganesa are all identified. It is stated that Prvat was attracted by the elephant-headed attendant of Shiva among a group of attendants frolicking on the mountains. She agreed with Shiva's suggestion that she may take him to be her son. Vinyaka was then addressed by Prvat as Vraka. Though in later mythologies they are conceived as quite distinct, here they are stated to be created from the ablution of the body of Prvat. Hence Ganapati is Vraka and Vraka is Skanda46. The gift of a cock made by Tvast to Skanda is the symbol of differentiated vowel sounds in their short, long and prolated sounds. Since Skanda is the son of Agni, his pet bird is the cock.47

The destruction of Krauca

The legend associated with Skanda as piercing the Krauca mountain is described in the Vmana Purna.48 After Skanda killed the demon Traka, the demon Mahisa entered the Krauca mountain. Skanda was requested by Indra to kill him and also break the mountain. Skanda had his own reservation about Krauca, since Krauca was the grandson of Himlaya, the grandfather of Skanda. Indra was angry and there was an argument. It was hence agreed upon that whoever goes round the Krauca mountain earlier than the other would be declared stronger. The mountain was requested to be the judge. After they completed their round, the mountain falsely declared Indra to be the winner. The infuriated Skanda smote the mountain along with the demon Mahisa. But according to the Shiva Purna49 Skanda saved the Krauca mountain from being afflicted by the demon Bna on another occasion.

Other minor legends relating to Skanda

Skanda is stated to have been blessed to become a Brahmarsi by Visvmitra according to the Skanda Purna.50 When Indra hurled his thunderbolt at Skanda certain maidens known as the 'mothers of the children' were born, and assumed the practice of carrying away newborn babies. Their names are Kk, Hilim, Rudr, Vrsabh, y, Palal and Mitr.51 The Shiva Purna52 has a rather unique and interesting account about an exploit of Skanda. Nrada, a Brhmana, once approached Skanda and requested him to find his sacrificial goat that had run away. Skanda entrusted the task to his attendants. They ultimately found the goat in the abode of Lord Visnu and brought it to Skanda. Skanda rode on the beast and went around the whole universe. When Skanda returned, the Brhmana noticed him without the goat, and asked him to produce it. But Skanda advised him against the use of goat as a sacrificial item and added that he should feel satisfied since the sacrifice was completed already by his favour. From the above description we understand the different stages of the development of the Skanda legends in the purnas. We find that the references to Vall and the legend of the killing of Sra are absent in the purnic tradition.

Skanda Kumra in ancient North India

R.K. Seth

The vast literary references to Skanda or Murukan or Subrahmanya throughout the history of Sanskrit and Tamil literature alike prove his importance as a pan-Indian deity. The poets of Pariptal are familiar with the Skanda mythology. Murukan of Tamil, the 'Red-god' bears the 'gem-like' peacock flag and rides a peacock or an elephant and is the commander of the hosts of heaven. In Tirumurukrruppatai he is the child of the daughter of Himavat, born down to the earth by Agni and nursed by six Krittik devis and the vanquisher of the demons. Arunagirinthar with 'sublimity of thought and depth of mystic feelings', Kumra Guru Para with his devotional hymns and many others including Saint Ramalinga have sung the glory of this 'embodiment of grace', and unfailing Lord Krttikeya compassion of the Lord. By the time of Tirumurukrruppatai, Murukan worship was prevalent throughout South India. For Brahmns he was personification of the sacrifice; for warrior chieftains he was known for his valour, for rishis he was the object of 'meditation and austerity' and also as a source of wisdom and integration. Murukan had become the source of 'eternal youthfulness' as well as 'release and liberation'. Skanda in the Upanisads, Brahmanas and Sutras The Chandogya Upanisad (ca. 7th Century B.C.) identifies Skanda with the Vedic sage Skandakumra: 'tam Skanda ityacaksyate' (7.26.2). Skanda was regarded as a separate deity, but not as a war-god by the time of Chandogya Upanisad. Rather, the early Skanda was regarded as a 'religious teacher'. His identification with Sanatkumra has been explained by M. Mukhopadhyaya: "Ksastriyas had influence in the formulation of upanisadic doctrines and the brahmanic policy of drawing Ksatriya sympathy attributed the teaching of secret knowledge to Ksatriya chiefs. And in this background it may not be improbable that Sanatkumra was identified with the divine army chief.1

S.S Rana feels that the common parentage -- Skanda described as the son of Brahm, Sanatkumra also being son of Brahm -- and the similar functions of both led to the identification of Skanda and Sanatkumra in Chandogyopanisad.2 In the atpatha Brahmna Kumra appears as one of the aspects of the Rg Vedic god of war, Agni. By the time the Skandayga text of Pariistas of the Atharvaveda came into being, his association with the peacock was known.3 His description includes bells and banners4 and is having mothers around him.5 iva, Agni and the Krittiks are described as his parents.6 The mixing up of various motifs is such that Skanda is associated with Agni, Krittiks, Pashupati and Rudra. However the rsi says 'whoever you are I pray to you!7 In Baudhyana Dharmastra, Sanmukha, Jayant, Vishakha, and Mahsena are some of the names of Skanda. The offerings of oblations for these and his parsadas and parsadis suggest his being recognised as a war-god.8 This process of rituals and oblations for Skanda are described in Kathkagrhyastra and Agnivesya Grhyastra, etc. Various other references in stra literature suggest that the myth of Skanda - Kumra existed by this time and that he was a popular god by the time stras were written. Explaining Panini's stra 99, Patajali mentioned the images of iva, Skanda and Viakha. The expression samratipugartha indicates the worship of these gods. Images of these gods were sold by the Maurya kings for replenishing their royal coffers (A.K. Chatterjee p. 29).9 From Patajali we come to know the separate identity of Skanda and that Viakha came out of the right side of Skanda when Indra struck him with his vajra. A.K. Chatterjee has given some references to prove that Skanda was worshipped as a god, probably even in the lifetime of Buddha (6th Cent. B.).10 Kautilya has referred to Skanda as Senpati, the Generalissimo of the celestials.11 It is known that temples of Krttikeya existed during the time of Kautilya. Skanda-Krttikeya in Mahbhrat Chapter Sixteen in Mahbhrata describe in detail Skanda-Krttikeya. Ten chapters of Vanaparva, three in the Salya Parva and three in Anusasana Parva provide details regarding the birth and exploits of Skanda. The development of the Skanda-myth in Mahbhrata is quite evident. In Vanaparva Skanda is the son of Agni and Svaha. Agni is, of course, identified with surya. In Vanaparva when Krttikeya displayed his enormous capabilities the devas instigated Indra who after initial hesitation declared war against Krttikeya. Indra was completely defeated. The thunderbolt hurled by him at Skanda pierced him on the right side. A new god Viakh came out from the right side of Skanda. When Indra accepted the superior capabilities of Krttikeya and requested him to become the king of devas he politely refused and instead agreed to become the Chief Commander of the Devasena ('army of devas'). The growing power and prestige of Skanda is quite apparent in this episode. Skanda achieved a very prestigious place as a deity and only next to Visnu and iva in importance. The alyaparva refers to his intimate relationship with mothers. A.K. Chatterjee correlates this with the 'mother worship in vogue in the days of Mohenjadaro'. There are

references where Skanda is termed as Yogvara or Mahyogi. This idea was later on developed in the Purnas. In Mahbhrata, Rudra, Uma, Agni and Ganga request Brahm to perform the rites of making child Kumra the generalissimo of the army of celestials which is done on the banks of river Sarasvat. Here Skanda assumes four forms - Sakha, Visakha, Naigameya and Skanda. Sakha goes to Ganga, Naigameya to Agni, Vishakha to Parvati and Skanda to Rudra. All the four claiming to be the parents of Kumra achieve satisfaction. A large number of gifts are presented to Skanda after which he kills all the demons. Taraka, the chief and Mahisa his aide are destroyed. Daitya Bana hides in Krauca Mountain that is pierced by Skanda and the demon is killed. He is praised for his victory. Some call him son of Mahesvara others associate him with Agni, Ganga, Prvati or Krittikas. Skanda-Krttikeya in Rmyana The Balakanda of the Ramayana provides a direct role of Agni in the birth story of Skanda. Although in one version Skanda is described as the son of iva but the role of Agni is also mentioned. As he is named Krttikeya the relationship of Krittikas was known. When Rama is proceeding to the forest Kausalya invokes the blessings of Bhagavan Skanda for the welfare of Rama during the exile.12 In the Agastya hermitage a shrine of Krttikeya and other gods is mentioned.13 Various other references about Skanda e.g. a great warrior, Mahsena, akti as his weapon and peacock as his vahana, his name Guha, his piercing the Kraunca mountain etc. are available in Valmiki Ramayana. Skanda-Krttikeya in Purnas The description of the birth and other aspects of Skanda-Krttikeya occrs at various places in a number of purnas. Vayu Purna (generally placed between 350 BC and 550 AD) describes the birth and exploits of Skanda which is similar to Ramayana. It confirms the account of Mahbhrata-Vanaparva by describing Skanda as the son of Agni by Svh (1.8.11). The account of Brahmnda Purna, one of the earliest but later than Vayu Purna, tallies with that of Vayu. The Matsya Purna (Chapters 158-160) Provides a 'romantic elucidation' of the story of Skanda as given in Ramyna and Mahbhrata (Salyaparva). Here the Krittikas provide drinking water to Parvat, who was taking bath in the golden lake created by the semen of iva which Agni and other gods were forced to swallow, and which burst out of their bodies after sometime. The condition of Krittikas was that on drinking the water the son who would be born to her right side, the three lokas were filled with the bright golden rays emanating from his body. By the time of Vamana Purna Krttikeya's birth was from 'Agni' but mother became Kutila another daughter of Himalaya but this idea does not appear in any other Purana. We have a philosophical interpretation regarding the birth of Skanda in Varaha Purna. The poet is aware of the variations about the origin of Skanda in previous ages.14

From the union of Prakrti (Uma) and Purusa (iva) is born Ahamkara the highest tattva or param tattva (Varah 25.1-5) In Brahmvaivarta Purna Skanda is identified with Visnu. In Bhagavata Purna and Visnudharmottara Purana. (III.71.7) Kumra-Krttikeya is the manifestation of Visnu for leading the devasena in battle against the demons.15 It was perhaps an effort of reconciliation of different sectarian cults. Later on Maya of Visnu is identified with Parvat (Brahmvaivarta Purna III. 15.34), who is accepted as mother of Krttikeya. Skanda, an instructor god, identified with Sanatkumra in Chandogya Upanisad is endowed with the epithet 'best among the knowers of Dharma' (Matsya Purna 184.2-4). He provides the secret of Mahdeva to the rsis. The knowledge of Skanda acquires such dimensions that in Skanda Purna even iva acknowledges his superiority.16 In Mahbhrata (IX.46.14) Krttikeya is described as Yogvara. This aspect is continuously remembered. Skanda as a yogi is the subject matter of various puranic references. Brahmvaivarta Purna mentions the foster-mothers Krittikas as yoginis and kalas of Prakrti (III.15.36). The reason of Skanda being depicted as a 'yogi' or 'preceptor of the yogis' is his being the son of iva, the great yogi. An allegorical meaning is also available whereby the energy of iva (transcendent Divine Being) and Parvat (female energy) descends to the level of matter (ejected semen) taken by Agni (Susumna). The River Ganga is the left cord. In the words of V.S. Agarvala, 'from there it was thrown in grove of reeds, which is the body itself or more properly Sahasrara, the centre of thousand spokes in which each spoke is compared either with a reed or to a petal of Infinite Mind, that inheres in the highest centre.17 Krttikeya is quite often compared to the Sun. In the earliest Vedic literature Sun god is connected with Agni; Surya is another aspect of Agni. From very early period Skanda and Agni are associated, hence the relation of Skanda with Surya is quite natural. In Vyu Purana Skanda is 'Adityasatasankaso mahatejah pratapvn.' In Brahmnda Purna the epithet used is Dvdas'arkapratapavan. Various other puranas reveal his association with the Sun-god.18 The motifs of Son, Sun and Warrior The motifs of son, sun and warrior have been analysed in detail (Clothey: "Sonship is not necessarily related to physical generation; the role of the son is "as a manifestation or realisation of that being or idea which is called . . . father." In Brhadranayaka Upanisad the son is explicitly understood as a manifestation and fulfillment of the idea represented by father, and the father is said to be poured forth in manifestation in the son. Similarly the warrior motif is related to Vedic Indra, Agni and Rudra. Warrior is the preserver of Dharma. Warrior destroys the enemies and is the savior of the cosmic order, hence he is a creator who preserves the old order and initiates the new order. The motifs of son-sun-and warrior coalesce in Skanda. The chronology of the development of these cosmological and mythological aspects are encased in obscrity but the fact is that 'Skanda mythology embraces motifs that had already developed in earlier Vedic mythology'. The son, warrior and sun attributes had been

associated earlier with Indra, Agni and Rudra. Incidentally all the three have association with Skanda. It has been argued that the admittance of Skanda in the Aryan pantheon (as distinct from the probable Skanda cult in the Indus Valley culture) and his subsequent association with Rudraiva necessitated the merging of Skanda myth with the iva-Prvati myth, though his early association with Agni was not contradicted (Rana S.S.).19 This is in line with the development of Son-Sun-Warrior myth noted herewith. Skanda in Kldsa Kumrasambhava represents a transition period from late Epic to early puranic times. Cantos 9 to 11 describe the "three stages of gestation of iva's emanation, Kumra: first within Agni, the Divine Fire; second in Ganga's waters. One ought to remember that Ganga also born of Himalaya is iva's consort and regarded with intense jealousy by Gaur; then taken in by Krittiks, the Pleiades into their wombs when they bathe in the holy waters of the river. Unable to bear the burning heat of the fetus, they throw it back into Ganga, who pushes it into a clump of reeds on the bank. iva's emanation Kumra is born in this spot. Prvat chances upon the new born babe, 'blazing in splendor' and accept him as her own son..." Chandra Rajan explains that 'Kumra, the son is self-begotten of iva. In the metaphysical terms it might be appropriate to regard Kumra as the emanation of iva. In Meghadutam the idea is already incorporated: Skanda has made that hill For his is the blazing That the wearer of the In the Divine Fire's mouth to protect Indra's hosts. (Devagiri) energy, crescent his fixed sun-surpassing moon placed

In the next stanza the request to Meghadtam continues -- spur the peacock the fire-born god rides to dance.20 In Kumrasambhavam the appointment of Kumra as general of the gods and his conquest of Traka and other asuras has been described: iva's son, his lotus face radiant with joy, released a missile that was like the Fire that consumed the universe at the end of time. This results in the Lord of Titans being fatally struck and falls on the ground like a mountain peak hit' thus making devas led by Indra jubilant. (Canto 17-49,51) The names of Skanda used by Kalidasa include Kumra, Sadnana, Sanmukha, Sanmatura, Guha, aravanabhava, arajanma, Krttikeya and Pavaki. Kalidasa provided a new splendor to the already brilliant myth of Krttikeya. The poet was familiar with the Mahbhrata, Ramayana and iva Purana descriptions of the Skanda story. Bana Bhatt, a contemporary of Harshavardhana, mentions the slaying of Traka and Krauca. The akti of Skanda and its immense capability is described; riding on a beautiful peacock, he carries a red cloth banner.

When Skanda myth was absorbed by iva-Parvat concept various interpretations for the symbolism were provided. iva is Sat (Existence): Um is Cit (Knowledge) and Skanda is nanda (bliss). The three together constitute Brahmn who is Existence-Knowledge-Bliss Absolute. Skanda as the form of Ananda is an aspect of the Supreme. Anado Brahmeti Vyajanat' (Taittirya Upanisad III, 6)21 "The peacock -- his vehicle -- represents Vedas, his weapon akti is Brahmvidya, i.e. Jna-akti (Power of Knowledge)... Vedas being the abda or sound form of the universe and the peacock symbolizes the universe or the evolutionary trend of Maya. The cock on Skanda's banner stands for nivrtti or the path of wisdom leading to the Knowledge of the self".22 Swami Harshananda23 has associated Skanda with the 'spiritual perfection'. His six heads represent the five sense organs and the mind, which co-ordinates their activities. By the control, refinement and sublimation the concept of highest level of perfection is achieved. Another dimension of symbology is linked with yoga, the six centres of psychic energy, of consciousness in the human body. When a yogi is able to raise his psychic energy to the uppermost Sahasrra Cakra, he achieves the vision of supreme knowledge, iva-akti. This supreme knowledge and perfected state of spiritual consciousness (Turiyatta) is represented by Skanda-Krttikeya. By riding the peacock that kills the snake that stands for 'time', shows that he is 'beyond what is within time and outside it'. Snake represents lust and northern Indian Skanda is throughout a personification of celibacy. Peacock is creation in all its glory' hence the master of creation Skanda rides it. It may seem to be a devotional interpretation of a devotee but the inherent meanings and psychological interpretation of the concept of Skanda has an unusual charm surrounding it from the beginning. Skanda Worship and Iconography Worship of Skanda was prevalent in north India quite early. Bilsad stone pillar inscription of the time of Kumragupta (415-16 AD) and various other stone and bronze sculptures discovered from northern and eastern India are a testimony to the popularity of Skanda. A red sandstone image of Skanda (2nd cent AD) at National Museum, New Delhi; sculptures of Skanda as 'instructor god' in the Gwalior Museum; image of Kumra Krttikeya at Baijnath, Almora (U.P) in the Prvat temple and a sculpture from Himachal Pradesh at National Museum, New Delhi are a testimony of the popularity and importance of Skanda. A large number of sculptures ranging from 7th century Ad onwards found in the eastern India, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and also from Chamba hills and Mandi area of Himachal Pradesh further establish the antiquity and prevalence of Skanda 'holding the portfolio of defense in the kingdom of heavens'. Yaudheyas, an ancient Indian military tribe, had adopted him as their spiritual and temporal ruler. Kumra Gupta of Gupta dynasty, Devamitra of Ayodhy (1st Cent. AD) and Vijaymitra are also known as devotees of Skanda.

Rohtika -- now Rohtak in Harayana near Delhi -was historically a town of Yaudheyas. Mahbhrata description24 of this being a favorite city of Krttikeya is confirmed by the discovery of several Krttikeya type coins. The famous text of northern Buddhism, Mahmayri (4th Cent. AD) mentions that Kumra Krttikeya was the well-known deity of Rohitaka.25 Although Skanda is no longer known in this area, his vahana the peacock is treated as sacred and its killing is a taboo (perhaps due to other reasons). The discovery of 5th century AD six-armed image of Skanda in the ruins of Avantipura indicates that he was present in Kashmir. Yaudheya coinage of Punjab (300-340 AD): References from Nilamata Purna of a Krttikeya standing facing, holding sceptre; 'Kumraloka' indicates that Skanda had an peacock on right. In Brahmi: 'Yaudheya Ganasya important place as a deity. Mention is also Jaya' (Victory to the Yaudheya people). Reverse: available of 'Skandabhavana-Vihra' in Kalhana Goddess standing with hand on hip, wearing as indicated by Stein in Rajatarangini, (Vol. II, transparent garment. p. 340). The name of the founder was Skandagupta. The available detailed information of copper coins of Devamitra, King of Ayodhya (1st Cent AD), the carved pillar shaft near Knpur suggest the popularity of Skanda-Krttikeya in U.P. areas. Skanda sculptures traced at Mathura of Kanishka's time and of the later period inform us of Skanda worship. There is sufficient evidence to prove that Skanda was publicly worshipped in temples, specific instance being of Dasvatra temple at Devagarh in Jhansi area an d the discovery of several Skanda sculptures from this area belonging to post-Gupta period. The popularity of Skanda worship in ancient times in Bengal, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa etc., is also a known fact. By providing information from various memoirs of Archaeological Survey of India and other research works Rana S.S. (pp. 96-106) has explained this in his work. The image of Krttikeya or Kumra signifies the idea of youth and spirit. The very name Kumra indicates strength. His vehicle the peacock and his attendants all symbolize energy and strength. The sculpturing of Krttikeya as explained by D. D. Sukla26 and J.N. Banerjea27 provide he intricate details for the purpose. In this context also the emphasis is on representing his figure 'like the morning sun', clothed in red cloths and 'himself having a fiery red color.' His youthful form should be 'beautiful, auspicious and pleasing to look at'. His face is full of smile, splendor, grandeur and his 'head is adorned with variegated and beautiful crowns' etc.

The details about Skanda-Krttikeya sculptures indicate the interest shown in the god and his various aspects, especially as the commander of the army of gods. His general form, six headed, the five fold Skanda, multi-armed Skanda are described. The Uttarkamika gama, Ansumad Bhedgama, Purakrnagama, Kumratantra etc. Provide unique, detailed attributes of the appropriate forms of the images of Skanda.28