PUB 22 - COPPER FOR

BUSBARS
PREFACES
a. Design Considerations
b. Copper for Busbar Purposes
c. Current-carrying Capacity of Busbars
d. Alternating Current Effects in Busbars
e. Effect of Busbar Arrangements on Rating
f. Short-Circuit Effects
g. Jointing of Copper Busbars
h. Mechanical Strength Requirements
i. Busbar Impedance
j. Appendices
k. Bibliography
Publication 22, June 1996
Reprinted January 2001 with some amendments
1
PREFACES
PREFACE TO 1984 EDITION
This C.D.A. publication has long been accepted as the standard reference work on
busbar design. This revised and updated edition incorporates recent progress in the
technology of busbar design as reflected in new standards and engineering
practices.
All data and formulae have been metricated and the method of presentation
facilitates the use of calculators or computers. The many variables to be considered
are clearly explained and special attention has been given to determining the most
economic loadings in order to maximise current carrying capacity for minimum
installation costs and running losses. There is, therefore, a useful comparison of the
electrical and mechanical properties of high conductivity copper and aluminium.
Extra attention has been given to recommended jointing techniques, both by
bolting and welding.
Improvements have also been made to the section dealing with skin effects. The
information on impedance has been expanded so that power factor variations can
now be further predicted. The tables of ratings and properties have been expanded
as have the examples of typical calculations. The references have been updated to
include recent publications.
CDA wishes to acknowledge the considerable help given in the revision of this text
by Mr G M Boothman, Chief Engineer, Busbar Unit, Balfour Beatty Power
Construction Ltd and by Mr W Jefferies, Chief Metallurgist, Thomas Bolton & Sons
Ltd. also for many helpful comments made on the text by Mr K G Cary (Simplex -
G.E. Ltd), Mr A Jackson (GAMBICA), Mr J C Power (British Electric Repairs
Ltd), Mr E G Wright (Ottermill Switchgear Ltd) and members of the British Non-
Ferrous Metals Federation High Conductivity Copper Group.
PREFACE TO 1996 EDITION
This edition includes the new BS EN copper alloy designations and corrections to
errors which appeared in the earlier version.
BUSBAR DESIGN DATA DISC
In order to assist in the design of effective busbar systems, CDA has made available
an interactive software program that allows optimum busbar size to be calculated,
taking into account configuration, working temperature and overall lifetime cost.
2
1. DESI GN CONSI DERATI ONS
INTRODUCTION
The word busbar, derived from the Latin word omnibus ('for all'), gives the idea of a
universal system of conveyance. In the electrical sense, the term bus is used to
describe a junction of circuits, usually in the form of a small number of inputs and
many outputs. 'Busbar' describes the form the bus system usually takes, a bar or
bars of conducting material.
In any electrical circuit some electrical energy is lost as heat which, if not kept
within safe limits, may impair the performance of the system. This energy loss,
which also represents a financial loss over a period of time, is proportional to the
effective resistance of the conductor and the square of the current flowing through
it. A low resistance therefore means a low loss; a factor of increasing importance as
the magnitude of the current increases.
The capacities of modern-day electrical plant and machinery are such that the
power handled by their control systems gives rise to very large forces. Busbars, like
all the other equipment in the system, have to be able to withstand these forces
without damage. It is essential that the materials used in their construction should
have the best possible mechanical properties and are designed to operate within
the temperature limits laid down in BS 159, BS EN 60439-1:1994, or other national
or international standards.
A conductor material should therefore have the following properties if it is to be
produced efficiently and have low running costs from the point of view of energy
consumption and maintenance:
a) Low electrical and thermal resistance
b) High mechanical strength in tension, compression and shear
c) High resistance to fatigue failure
d) Low electrical resistance of surface films
e) Ease of fabrication
f) High resistance to corrosion
g) Competitive first cost and high eventual recovery value
This combination of properties is met best by copper. Aluminium is the main
alternative material, but a comparison of the properties of the two metals shows
that in nearly all respects copper is the superior material.
3
TYPES OF BUSBAR
Busbars can be sub-divided into the following categories, with individual busbar
systems in many cases being constructed from several different types:
a) Air insulated with open phase conductors
b) Air insulated with segregating barriers between conductors of different phases.
c) Totally enclosed but having the construction as those for (a) and (b)
d) Air insulated where each phase is fully isolated from its adjacent phase(s) by an
earthed enclosure. These are usually called 'Isolated Phase Busbars'.
e) Force-cooled busbar systems constructed as (a) to (d) but using air, water, etc. as
the cooling medium under forced conditions (fan, pump, etc.).
f) Gas insulated busbars. These are usually constructed as type (e) but use a gas
other than air such as SF6, (sulphur hexafluoride).
g) Totally enclosed busbars using compound or oil as the insulation medium.
The type of busbar system selected for a specific duty is determined by
requirements of voltage, current, frequency, electrical safety, reliability, short-
circuit currents and environmental considerations. Table 1 outlines how these
factors apply to the design of busbars in electricity generation and industrial
processes.
Table 1 Comparison of typical design requirements for power
generation and industrial process systems
Feature Generation Industrial Processes
1 Voltage drop Normally not important Important
2 Temperature rise Usually near to maximum
allowable. Capitalisation
becoming important.
In many cases low due to
optimisation of first cost and
running costs.
3 Current range Zero to 40 k A a .c . with
frequencies of zero to 400
Hz.
Zero to 200 kA a.c. and d.c.
4 Jointing and
connections
Usually bolted but high
current applications are
often fully welded. Joint
preparation very important
Usually bolted. Joint
preparation very important.
4
Feature Generation Industrial Processes
5 Cross-sectional
area
Usually minimum.
Somewhat larger if
optimisation is required.
Usually larger than minimum
required due to optimisation
and voltage drop
considerations.
6 Kelvin's Law Not applied. Other forms of
optimisation are often used.
Applies. Also other forms of
optimisation and
capitalisation used
7 Construction Up to 36 k V. Individually
engineered using basic
designs and concepts.
Usually low voltage.
Individually engineered.
Standard products for low
current/voltage applications.
8 Enclosures Totally enclosed with or
without ventilation.
Usually open. Enclosed or
protected by screens when
using standard products.
9 Fault capacity Usually large. Designed to
meet system requirement.
Usually similar to running
current. Standard products to
suit system short circuit.
10 Phase
arrangement
Normally 3 phase flat
though sometimes trefoil.
Normally flat but
transposition used to improve
current distribution on large
systems
11 Load factor Usually high. Normally 1.0. Usually high but many have
widely varying loads.
12 Cost Low when compared with
associated plant.
Major consideration in many
cases. Particularly when
optimisation/capitalisation is
used.
13 Effects of failure Very serious. High energies
dissipated into fault.
Limited by low voltage and
busbar size.
14 Copper type High conductivity. High conductivity.
5
Feature Generation Industrial Processes
15 Copper shape
Usually
rectangular
Tubular used for high
current force-cooled.
Tubular used for some low
current high voltage
applications and high current
force-cooled.
CHOICE OF BUSBAR MATERIAL
At the present time the only two commercially available materials suitable for
conductor purposes are copper and aluminium. The table below gives a comparison
of some of their properties. It can be seen that for conductivity and strength, high
conductivity copper is superior to aluminium. The only disadvantage of copper is its
density; for a given current and temperature rise, an aluminium conductor would be
lighter, even though its cross-section would be larger. In enclosed systems however,
space considerations are of greater importance than weight. Even in open-air
systems the weight of the busbars, which are supported at intervals, is not
necessarily the decisive factor.
Table 2 Typical relative properties of copper and aluminium
Copper(CW004
A)
Aluminium
(1350)
Units
Electrical
conductivity
(annealed)
101 61 % IACS
Electrical
resistivity
(annealed)
1.72 2.83 '_ cm
Temperature
coefficient of
resistance(anneal
ed)
0.0039 0.004 / C
Thermal
conductivity at
20C
397 230 W/mK
Coefficient of
expansion
17 x 106 23 x 106 / C
Tensile strength 200 250 50 60 N/mm2
6
Copper(CW004
A)
Aluminium
(1350)
Units
(annealed)
Tensile strength
(halfhard)
260 300 85 100 N/mm2
0.2% proof stress
(annealed)
50 55 20 30 N/mm2
0.2% proof stress
(halfhard)
170 200 60 65 N/mm2
Elastic modulus 116 130 70 kN/mm2
Specific heat 385 900 J/kg K
Density 8.91 2.70 g/cm3
Melting point 1083 660 C
The electromagnetic stresses set up in the bar are usually more severe than the
stress introduced by its weight. In particular, heavy current-carrying equipment
necessitates the use of large size conductors, and space considerations may be
important. It should be realised that the use of copper at higher operating
temperatures than would be permissible for aluminium allows smaller and lighter
copper sections to be used than would be required at lower temperatures.
The ability of copper to absorb the heavy electromagnetic and thermal stresses
generated by overload conditions also gives a considerable factor of safety. Other
factors, such as the cost of frequent supports for the relatively limp aluminium, and
the greater cost of insulation of the larger surface area, must be considered when
evaluating the materials.
From published creep data, it can be seen that high conductivity aluminium exhibits
evidence of significant creep at ambient temperature if heavily stressed. At the
same stress, a similar rate of creep is only shown by high conductivity copper at a
temperature of 150C, which is above the usual operating temperature of busbars.
Table 3: Comparison of creep and fatigue properties of high
conductivity copper and aluminium
a) Creep properties
Material Testing Temp.
C
Min. Creep Rate
% per 1000 h
Stress N/mm2
Al (1080)
annealed
20 0.022 26 *
7
Material Testing Temp.
C
Min. Creep Rate
% per 1000 h
Stress N/mm2
HC Cu annealed 150 0.022 26 *
Cu-0.086% Ag
50% c.w.
130 0.004 138
Cu-0.086% Ag
50% c.w.
225 0.029 96.
* Interpolated from fig.3
b) Fatigue properties
Material Fatigue
strength
N/mm2
No. of cycles x
106
HC Al annealed 20 50
half-hard (H8) 45 50
HC Copper annealed 62 300
half-hard 115 300
If much higher stresses or temperatures are to be allowed for, copper containing small
amounts (about 0.1%) of silver can be used successfully. The creep resistance and
softening resistance of copper-silver alloys increase with increasing silver content.
In the conditions in which high conductivity aluminium and copper are used, either
annealed (or as-welded) or half-hard, the fatigue strength of copper is approximately
double that of aluminium. This gives a useful reserve of strength against failure initiated by
mechanical or thermal cycling.
The greater hardness of copper compared with aluminium gives it better resistance to
mechanical damage both during erection and in service. It is also less likely to develop
problems in clamped joints due to cold metal flow under the prolonged application of a high
contact pressure. Its higher modulus of elasticity gives it greater beam stiffness compared
with an aluminium conductor of the same dimensions. The temperature variations
encountered under service conditions require a certain amount of flexibility to be allowed
for in the design. The lower coefficient of linear expansion of copper reduces the degree of
flexibility required.
Because copper is less prone to the formation of high resistance surface oxide films than
aluminium, good quality mechanical joints are easier to produce in copper conductors.
Welded joints are also readily made. Switch contacts and similar parts are nearly always
produced from copper or a copper alloy. The use of copper for the busbars to which these
parts are connected therefore avoids contacts between dissimilar metals and the inherent
jointing and corrosion problems associated with them.
8
The higher melting point and thermal conductivity of copper reduce the possibility of
damage resulting from hot spots or accidental flashovers in service. If arcing occurs, copper
busbars are less likely to support the arc than aluminium. Table 4 shows that copper can
self-extinguish arcs across smaller separations, and at higher busbar currents. This self-
extinguishing behaviour is related to the much larger heat input required to vaporise
copper than aluminium.
Table 4 Self-extinguishing arcs in copper and aluminium busbars
Copper Aluminium
Minimum busbar
spacing, mm
50 100
Maximum current per
busbar, A
4500 3220
Copper liberates considerably less heat during oxidation than aluminium and is therefore
much less likely to sustain combustion in the case of accidental ignition by an arc. The large
amounts of heat liberated by the oxidation of aluminium in this event are sufficient to
vaporise more metal than was originally oxidised. This vaporised aluminium can itself
rapidly oxidise, thus sustaining the reaction. The excess heat generated in this way heats
nearby materials, including the busbar itself, the air and any supporting fixtures. As the
busbar and air temperatures rise, the rates of the vaporisation and oxidation increase, so
accelerating the whole process. As the air temperature is increased, the air expands and
propels hot oxide particles. The busbar may reach its melting point, further increasing the
rate of oxidation and providing hot liquid to be propelled, while other materials such as
wood panels may be raised to their ignition temperatures. These dangers are obviated by
the use of copper busbars.
Finally, copper is an economical conductor material. It gives long and reliable service at
minimum maintenance costs, and when an installation is eventually replaced the copper
will have a high recovery value. Because of its many advantages, copper is still used
worldwide as an electrical conductor material despite attempts at substitution.
9
2. COPPER FOR BUSBAR
PURPOSES
In most countries, coppers of different types for specific applications have been given
separate identities. In the United Kingdom this takes the form of an alloy designation
number which is used in all British Standards relevant to copper and its alloys. Copper for
electrical purposes is covered by the following British Standards:
BS 1432 : 1987 (strip with drawn or rolled edges)
BS 1433 : 1970 (Rod and bar)
BS 1434 : 1985 (Commutator bars)
BS 1977 : 1976 (High conductivity tubes)
BS 4109 : 1970 (wire for general electrical purposes and for insulated and flexible cords)
BS 4608 : 1970 (Rolled sheet, strip and foil)
(Copies of these are obtainable from the BSI Sales Office. 398 Chiswick High Road, London
WS4 4AL.)
To bring the UK in line with current European requirements BS EN standards are being
introduced. The European Standards relevant to electrical applications are expected to
supersede the British Standards in due course.
The current standards most relevant to busbar applications are BS 1432, BS 1433 and BS
1977 which specify that the end products shall be manufactured from copper complying
with the following requirements:
Cu-ETP Electrolytic tough pitch high conductivity copper CW004A (formerly C101)
Cu-FRHC Fire-refined tough pitch high conductivity copper CW005A (formerly C102)
Cu-OF Oxygen-free high conductivity copper CW008A (formerly C103)
European Standards EN1976 and EN1978 have replaced BS 6017:1981. Table 5 shows the
European material designations along with International Standards Organisation (ISO) and
old British Standard designations.
Table 5 EN, BS and ISO designations for refinery shapes and wrought
coppers
Designation
Description
ISO cast and
wrought
European
Designation
Former UK
Designations
Electrolytic tough
pitch high-
conductivity
copper
Cu-ETP CW004A C101
10
Fire- refined
tough pitch high-
conductivity
copper
Cu-FRHC CW005A C102
Oxygen-free high-
conductivity
copper
Cu-OF CW008A C103
Copper to be used for electrical purposes is of high purity because impurities in copper,
together with the changes in micro-structure produced by working, materially affect the
mechanical and electrical properties. The degree to which the electrical conductivity is
affected by an impurity depends largely on the element present. For example, the presence
of only 0.04% phosphorus reduces the conductivity of high conductivity copper to around
80% IACS. (The approximate effect on conductivity of various impurity elements is shown in
Figure 1). The level of total impurities, including oxygen, should therefore be less than 0.1%
and copper of this type is known as high conductivity (HC) copper.
Microscopic and analytical controls are applied to ensure a consistent product and in the
annealed condition conductivities over 100% IACS are usual. This figure corresponds to the
standard resistivity of 0.017241 '_m set some years ago by the International
Electrotechnical Commission.
Figure 1 - Approximate effect of impurity elements on the electrical resistivity of
copper
11
TYPES OF HIGH CONDUCTIVITY COPPER AVAILABLE
Tough pitch copper,CW004A and CW005A (C101 and C102 )
Coppers of this type, produced by fire-refining or remelting of electrolytic cathode, contain
a small, deliberate addition of oxygen which scavenges impurities from the metal. It is
present in the form of fine, well-distributed cuprous oxide particles only visible by
microscopic examination of a polished section of the metal. Typical oxygen contents of
these coppers fall in the range 0.02-0.05%. Between these limits the presence of the
oxygen in this form has only a slight effect on the mechanical and electrical properties of
the copper. It can, however, give rise to porosity and intergranular cracks or fissures if the
copper is heated in a reducing atmosphere, as can happen during welding or brazing. This
is a result of the reaction of the cuprous oxide particles with hydrogen and is known as
'hydrogen embrittlement'. Provided a reducing atmosphere is avoided, good welds and
brazes can be readily achieved. (See Jointing of Copper Busbars.)
Oxygen-free high-conductivity copper, CW008A (C103)
In view of the above remarks, if welding and brazing operations under reducing conditions
are unavoidable, it is necessary to use a different (and more expensive) grade of high
conductivity copper which is specially produced for this purpose. This type of copper,
known as 'oxygen-free high conductivity copper', is normally produced by melting and
casting under a protective atmosphere. To obtain the high conductivity required it is
necessary to select the best raw materials. The result is a high purity product containing
99.95% copper. This enables a conductivity of 100% IACS to be specified even in the
absence of the scavenging oxygen.
Effects of hot and cold working on structures
In the as-cast form, HC copper is available in wirebar and billet form, although the
advancement of modern casting technology is leading to a decline in wirebar production.
The cast shape is hot-worked by rolling or extrusion to produce a form suitable for further
processing by cold work into its final wrought form, either by rolling or drawing through
dies.
In the case of tough-pitch HC copper, the as-cast structure is coarse-grained with oxygen
present as copper-cuprous oxide eutectic in the grain boundaries. The hot working
operation breaks up the coarse grains and disperses the cuprous oxide to give a uniform
distribution of oxide particles throughout a new network of fine grains. In the case of
oxygen-free HC copper, the hot working operation breaks up the coarse grains into a new
network of fine grains.
PROPERTIES OF WROUGHT HC COPPER
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
The room temperature physical and mechanical properties of the high conductivity coppers
in the annealed condition do not differ significantly from one another.
12
1. Tensile strength
2. Proof stress
3. Hardness
4. Resistance to softening
5. Creep resistance
6. Fatigue resistance
7. Bending and forming

1. TENSILE STRENGTH
In the as-cast condition, high conductivity copper has a tensile strength of 150-170 N/mm2.
The changes in structure brought about by hot working raise the tensile strength to the
order of 200-220 N/mm2. Upon further working the resulting mechanical properties of a
particular form are influenced by the amount of cold work given to the material which has
the effect of raising its tensile strength, proof stress and hardness but reducing its
elongation. The effect on the mechanical properties of cold work (reduction in area) by
rolling is shown in Figure 2.
The maximum tensile strength obtainable in practice depends on the shape and cross-
sectional area of the conductor. The larger the cross-sectional area of a conductor the lower
its tensile strength, since the amount of cold work that can be applied is limited by the
reduction in area which can be achieved.
For the usual sizes of busbar conductors in the hard condition, tensile strengths from 250
N/mm2 up to 340 N/mm2 can be obtained depending on the cross-sectional area.
2. PROOF STRESS
The 'proof stress' required to produce a definite amount of permanent deformation in the
metal is a valuable guide to its physical properties. Proof stress is defined as the stress at
which a non-proportional elongation equal to a specified percentage (usually 0.2) of the
original gauge length occurs.
As with the tensile strength, the proof stress varies with the amount of cold work put into
the material (see Figure 2).
13
Figure 2 - Effect of cold rolling on mechanical properties and hardness of high
conductivity
3. HARDNESS
British Standards applicable to busbar conductors do not specify hardness measurement as
part of the testing requirements. It can however be more quickly and easily carried out than
a tensile test and is convenient therefore as a guide to the strength of a conductor. The
results have to be used with discretion for two reasons:
a) Unlike ferrous materials the relationship between hardness and tensile strength is not
constant (see Figure 2).
b) A hardness test is usually only a measurement of the outer skin of the material tested. If
the conductor is of large cross-sectional area and has received a minimum amount of cold
work the skin will be harder than the underlying metal. Consequently, variations in
hardness may be obtained dependent on where the measurement is made in relation to its
cross-section.
As a guide, typical hardness figures of the temper range of conductors supplied are:
Annealed (O) 60 HV max
Half-hard (H) 70-95 HV
14
Hard (H) 90 HV min.

4. RESISTANCE TO SOFTENING
It is well known that the exposure of cold worked copper to elevated temperatures results
in softening and mechanical properties typical of those of annealed material. Softening is
time and temperature dependent and it is difficult to estimate precisely the time at which it
starts and finishes. It is usual therefore to consider the time to 'half-softening', i.e., the time
taken for the hardness to fall by 50% of the original increase in hardness caused by cold
reduction.
In the case of HC copper this softening occurs at temperatures above 150C. It has been
established experimentally that such copper would operate successfully at a temperature
of 105C for periods of 20-25 years, and that it could withstand short circuit conditions as
high as 250C for a few seconds without any adverse effect.
If hard drawn conductors are required to retain strength under operating conditions higher
than normal, the addition of small amounts of silver at the melting and casting stage
produces alloys with improved resistance to softening. The addition of 0.06% silver raises
the softening temperature by approximately 100C without any significant effect on its
conductivity, at the same time appreciably increasing its creep resistance.

5. CREEP RESISTANCE
Figure 3 - Typical creep properties of commercially pure copper and aluminium
Creep, another time and temperature dependent property, is the non-recoverable plastic
deformation of a metal under a prolonged stress. The ability of a metal to resist creep is of
prime importance to design engineers.
The creep resistance of oxygen-free HC copper is better than that of tough pitch HC copper.
This is due to the very small amounts of impurities which remain in solid solution in oxygen-
free copper, but which are absorbed in the oxide particles in tough pitch copper. Some
typical observations are shown in Figure 3. Tough pitch copper creeps relatively rapidly
under low stress at 220C. The addition of silver to both oxygen-free and tough pitch
coppers results in a significant increase in creep resistance
15
.
6. FATIGUE RESISTANCE
Fatigue is the mechanism leading to fracture under repeated or fluctuating stresses.
Fatigue fractures are progressive, beginning as minute cracks which grow under the action
of the stress. As the crack propagates the load bearing area is reduced and failure occurs
by ductile fracture before the crack develops across the full area.
Conditions for such failures can be set up in a busbar system rigidly clamped for support
and then subjected to vibrating conditions. Support systems are discussed in detail in
Section 8.
7. BENDING AND FORMING
The high conductivity coppers are ductile and in the correct temper will withstand severe
bending and forming operations. As a general guide to bending, copper in the half-hard or
hard temper will bend satisfactorily round formers of the following radii:
Table 6 HC copper minimum bend radius
Thickness
Minimum bend
radius
Up to 10 mm 1t
11-25 mm 1.5t
26-50 mm 2t
where t = bar thickness
Material of thicknesses greater than 50 mm is not normally bent; however, it is possible to
do so by localised annealing prior to bending.
16
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
1. International Annealed Copper Standard
2. Effect of cold work on conductivity
3. Effect of temperature on conductivity
4. Copper in electrical contacts

1. INTERNATIONAL ANNEALED COPPER STANDARD
The electrical properties of HC copper were standardised in 1913 by the International
Electrotechnical Commission which defined the International Annealed Copper Standard
(IACS) in terms of the following properties at 20C:
Volume conductivity v = 58 MS/m
Density d = 8890 kg/m3
Temperature coefficient of resistance = 0.00393/C
It follows from the first two of these two values that:
Volume resistivity v = 1/ v = 1.7241 mcm
Mass conductivity m = v /d = 6524 Sm2/kg
Mass resistivity m = 1/ m = 153.28 kg/m2
These values correspond to 100% IACS. However, the lower oxygen and impurity levels of
modern HC coppers have led to higher typical values of density and conductivity, 101.5% of
the IACS value being typical of the conductivity of modern HC copper in the annealed
condition.
2. EFFECT OF COLD WORK ON CONDUCTIVITY
The conductivity of copper is decreased by cold working and may be 2 to 3% less in the
hard drawn condition than when annealed. Thus standards for hard drawn HC copper
17
products should stipulate a minimum conductivity requirement of 97% IACS compared with
100% IACS for annealed products.
An approximate relationship between tensile strength of cold worked copper and its
increase in electrical resistivity is:
P = T/160
Where P = % increase in electrical resistivity of cold worked copper over its resistivity when
annealed.
T = tensile strength, N/mm2
3. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON CONDUCTIVITY
As temperature increases, the conductivity of all metallic materials decreases with the
corresponding increase in resistivity, according to the formula:
where T1 = resistivity at temperature T1, cm
T2 = resistivity at temperature T2, cm
T1T2 = the temperature coefficient of resistivity for the temperature range T1 to T2, perC
The value of itself changes with temperature, but for small temperature ranges, the value
of and T1 is usually taken as a constant over the range. Its value at any temperature
above -200C is taken as
where T is expressed in degrees Celsius.
Hence the value of
20 = 0.003947 per C.
Resistance is related to resistivity by
where R = resistance, ()
= volume resistivity, (cm)
l = length of conductor, (cm)
18
A = cross-sectional area of conductor, (cm2)
It follows that the resistance of a metallic conductor also rises with temperature. Thermal
changes of resistance can be calculated in a similar way to thermal changes of resistivity,
but a different coefficient, , is used.
Hence
where RT1 = resistance at temperature T1,
RT2 = resistance at temperature T2,
T1T2 = temperature coefficient of resistance for the temperature range T1 to T2, per C
Like , itself changes with temperature but for small temperature ranges its value at T1
can be taken as constant over the range. Its value at any temperature T (C) above -200C
is taken as

4. COPPER IN ELECTRICAL CONTACTS
Copper and copper alloys have properties which make them ideal for many types of
contacts from light electronics applications to very heavy duties. The ranges of
compositions and properties of the coppers, copper alloys and copper-based sintered
materials, and the duties for which they are suitable are described in the CDA booklet
Copper in Electrical Contacts (Available on CD-ROM 'Megabytes on Copper II').
Available forms
HC copper conductors are obtainable in bar, strip, rod or tube form. For busbar applications,
the most common forms supplied are bar, rod or tube and these are normally supplied in
the hard condition. In this condition they offer greater stiffness, strength and hardness and
have a better surface finish. Because of the practical difficulty of straightening uncoiled
hard material it is normally supplied in straight lengths, coiled material being limited to the
smaller sizes.
The maximum length of material available with the advent of continuous casting methods
is dependent on a supplier's plant capabilities rather than the piece weight of a billet or
wirebar. The following notes can be used as a guide to what is available at the present
time:
A. Drawn bars and rods
B. HC tubes
C. Special sections
19
D. Dimensional tolerances and preferred sizes

A. Drawn bars and rods
For the reason given above these are drawn straight in the final stages of manufacture. The
maximum length attainable is therefore limited by the length of the drawbenches on which
they are produced. For sizes up to 100 mm x 25 mm, lengths up to 9 m, and for 200 mm x
37.5 mm lengths up to 5 m can be obtained. Rods up to 50 mm dia. can be supplied in
lengths up to 9 m. Larger diameters are available but because of the limited reductions to
which they can be subjected with normal commercial equipment hardness variations across
the section will be obtained.
Because of the difficulty in producing long lengths free from surface blemishes and the
handling problems encountered as the bar or rod weight increases with size and lengths, it
is normal practice for lengths supplied to be around 3 - 4 m.
B. HC tubes
Seamless, high conductivity copper tubes, complying with the requirements of BS 1977 can
be supplied in a range of sizes covering outside diameters of 1 mm up to 610 mm in wall
thicknesses of 0.3 mm to 27 mm. Clearly, all combinations of wall thickness and outside
diameter are not available, because it is not possible to produce the extremes of thickness
in tubes at the extremes of the outside diameter range.
The maximum lengths available depend upon the tube dimensions specified. As a general
rule, tubes in the size range 108 mm o.d. to 610 mm o.d. are supplied in 6 m lengths. Sizes
smaller than 108 mm o.d. can be produced up to 10 m long.
It is usual practice to supply tubes in the as-drawn condition, M, or alternatively, in the
annealed condition, O. However, other tempers can be supplied by arrangement.
Mandrel or bar drawing of tube is virtually obsolete and all the sizes indicated above are
manufactured by plug drawing processes. Thus, bore and outer surface finishes are good
and dimensional tolerances can be maintained over the whole length.
C. Special sections
These generally take the form of hard drawn angle or channel sections produced by
extrusion and drawing. Larger sizes can be fabricated from large sheets or plate by
shearing and bending.
D. Dimensional tolerances and preferred sizes
BS 159 for busbars requires the dimensions of flat and round bars to be within the
tolerances in BS 1432, BS 1433 and BS 1977.
If necessary, material can be supplied to closer tolerances than those quoted in the
respective British Standards. Obviously these involve a higher initial cost, but this may be
offset by the savings accrued from reduced or eliminated machining operations normally
carried out to ensure a good contact surface and fit.
20
The benefit to users of a range of preferred sizes is obvious and designers using copper
should be aware of this desirable and growing trend. BS 1432 and BS 1433 list the
recommended sizes.
21
3. CURRENT- CARRYI NG CAPACI TY
OF BUSBARS

DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
The current-carrying capacity of a busbar is usually determined by the maximum
temperature at which the bar is permitted to operate, as defined by national and
international standards such as British Standard BS 159, American Standard ANSI C37.20,
etc. These standards give maximum temperature rises as well as maximum ambient
temperatures.
BS 159 stipulates a maximum temperature rise of 50C above a 24 hour mean ambient
temperature of up to 35C, and a peak ambient temperature of 40C.
ANSI C37.20 alternatively permits a temperature rise of 65C above a maximum ambient of
40C, provided that silver-plated (or acceptable alternative) bolted terminations are used. If
not, a temperature rise of 30C is allowed.
These upper temperature limits have been chosen because at higher maximum operating
temperatures the rate of surface oxidation in air of conductor materials increases rapidly
and may give rise in the long term to excessive local heating at joints and contacts. This
temperature limit is much more important for aluminium than copper because it oxidises
very much more readily than copper. In practise these limitations on temperature rise may
be relaxed for copper busbars if suitable insulation materials are used. A nominal rise of
60C or more above an ambient of 40C is allowed by BS EN 60439-1:1994 provided that
suitable precautions are taken. BS EN 60439-1:1994 (equivalent to IEC 439) states that
the temperature rise of busbars and conductors is limited by the mechanical strength of the
busbar material, the effect on adjacent equipment, the permissible temperature rise of
insulating materials in contact with the bars, and the effect on apparatus connected to the
busbars.
The rating of a busbar must also take account of the mechanical stresses set up due to
expansion, short-circuit currents and associated inter-phase forces. In some busbar
systems consideration must also be given to the capitalised cost of the heat generated by
the effective ohmic resistance and current (I2R) which leads to an optimised design using
Kelvin's Law of Maximum Economy. This law states that 'the cost of lost energy plus that of
interest and amortisation on initial cost of the busbars (less allowance for scrap) should not
be allowed to exceed a minimum value'. Where the interest, amortisation and scrap values
are not known, an alternative method is to minimise the total manufacturing costs plus the
cost of lost energy.
CALCULATION OF CURRENT-CARRYING CAPACITY
A very approximate method of estimating the current carrying capacity of a copper busbar
is to assume a current density of 2 A/mm2 (1250 A/in2) in still air. This method should only
be used to estimate a likely size of busbar, the final size being chosen after consideration
22
has been given to the calculation methods and experimental results given in the following
sections.
METHODS OF HEAT LOSS
The current that will give rise to a particular equilibrium temperature rise in the conductor
depends on the balance between the rate at which heat is produced in the bar, and the rate
at which heat is lost from the bar. The heat generated in a busbar can only be dissipated in
the following ways:
(a) Convection
(b) Radiation
(c) Conduction
In most cases convection and radiation heat losses determine the current-carrying capacity
of a busbar system. Conduction can only be used where a known amount of heat can flow
into a heat sink outside the busbar system or where adjacent parts of the system have
differing cooling capacities. The proportion of heat loss by convection and radiation is
dependent on the conductor size with the portion attributable to convection being
increased for a small conductor and decreased for larger conductors.
a) Convection
The heat dissipated per unit area by convection depends on the shape and size of the
conductor and its temperature rise. This value is usually calculated for still air conditions
but can be increased greatly if forced air cooling is permissible. Where outdoor busbar
systems are concerned calculations should always be treated as in still air unless specific
information is given to the contrary.
The following formulae can be used to estimate the convection heat loss from a body in
W/m2:
where = temperature rise, C
L = height or width of bar, mm
d = diameter of tube, mm
The diagrams below indicate which formulae should be used for various conductor
geometries:
23
It can be seen when diagrams (a) and (b) are compared and assuming a similar cross-
sectional area the heat loss from arrangement (b) is much larger, provided the gap
between the laminations is not less than the thickness of each bar.
Convection heat loss: forced air cooling
If the air velocity over the busbar surface is less than 0.5 m/s the above formulae for Wv,
Wh and Wc apply. For higher air velocities the following may be used:
where Wa = heat lost per unit length from bar, W/m
v = air velocity, m/s
A = surface area per unit length of bar, m2/m
b) Radiation
The rate at which heat is radiated from a body is proportional to the difference between the
fourth power of the temperatures of the body and its surroundings, and is proportional to
the relative emissivity between the body and its surroundings.
The following table lists typical absolute emissivities _ for copper busbars in various
conditions. Changes in emissivity give rise to changes in current ratings, as shown in Table
7.
Bright metal: 0.1
Partially oxidized: 0.30
Heavily oxidized: 0.70
Dull non-metallic paint: 0.9
Table 7 Percentage increase in current rating when is increased from 0.1 to
0.9 - three-phase arrangement
Phase centres, mm
No. of bars in
parallel
150 200 250
1 23 23 25
2 15 16 18
3 10 11 14
4 9 9 12
5 6 7 9
24
The figures given in Table 7 are approximate values applicable to 80 to 160 mm wide
busbars for a 105C operating temperature and 40C ambient.
The relative emissivity is calculated as
follows:
where e = relative emissivity

1
= absolute emissivity of body 1

2
= absolute emissivity of body 2
The rate of heat loss by radiation from a body (W/m2) is given by:
where e = relative emissivity
T1 = absolute temperature of body 1, K
T2 = absolute temperature of body 2, K (i.e., ambient temperature of the surroundings)
Radiation is considered to travel in straight lines and leave the body at right angles to its
surface. The diagrams above define the effective surface areas for radiation from
conductors of common shapes.
HEAT GENERATED BY A CONDUCTOR
The rate at which heat is generated per unit length of a conductor carrying a direct current
is the product I2R watts, where I is the current flowing in the conductor and R its resistance
per unit length. The value for the resistance can in the case of d.c. busbar systems be
calculated directly from the resistivity of the copper or copper alloy. Where an a.c. busbar
system is concerned, the resistance is increased due to the tendency of the current to flow
in the outer surface of the conductor. The ratio between the a.c. value of resistance and its
corresponding d.c. value is called the skin effect ratio (see Section 4). This value is unity for
a d.c. system but increases with the frequency and the physical size of the conductor for an
a.c. current.
Rate of Heat generated in a Conductor,
W/mm = I2 RoS
where I = current in conductor, A
Ro = d.c. resistance per unit length, /mm
25
S = skin effect ratio
also
where Rf = effective a.c. resistance of conductor, (see above)
APPROXIMATE DC CURRENT RATINGS FOR FLAT AND ROUND BARS
The following equations can be used to obtain the approximate d.c. current rating for single
flat and round copper busbars carrying a direct current. The equations assume a naturally
bright copper finish where emissivity is 0.1 and where ratings can be improved
substantially by coating with a matt black or similar surface. The equations are also
approximately true for a.c. current provided that the skin effect and proximity ratios stay
close to 1.0, as is true for many low current applications. Methods of calculation for other
configurations and conditions can be found in subsequent sections.
(a) Flat bars on edge:
(1
where I = current, A
A = cross-sectional area, mm2
p = perimeter of conductor, mm
= temperature difference between conductor and the ambient air, C
= resistance temperature coefficient of copper at the ambient temperature, per C
= resistivity of copper at the ambient temperature, cm
(b) Hollow round bars:
(2
(c) Solid round bars:
26
(3
If the temperature rise of the conductor is 50C above an ambient of 40C and the
resistivity of the copper at 20C is 1.724 cm, then the above formulae become:
(i) Flat bars:
(4
(ii) Hollow round bars:
(5
(iii) Solid round bars:
(6
For high conductivity copper tubes where diameter and mass per unit length (see Table 14)
are known,
(7
where m = mass per unit length of tube, kg/m
d = outside diameter of tube, mm
Re-rating for different current or temperature rise conditions
Where a busbar system is to be used under new current or temperature rise conditions, the
following formula can be used to find the corresponding new temperature rise or current:
(8
where
I1 = current 1, A
I2 = current 2, A
1 = temperature rise for current 1, C
2 = temperature rise for current 2, C
27
T1 = working temperature for current 1, C
T2 = working temperature for current 2, C

20
= temperature coefficient of resistance at 20C ( = 0.00393)
If the working temperature of the busbar system is the same in each case (i.e., T1 = T2),
for example when re-rating for a change in ambient temperature in a hotter climate, this
formula becomes

Laminated bars
When a number of conductors are used in parallel, the total current capacity is less than
the rating for a single bar times the number of bars used. This is due to the obstruction to
convection and radiation losses from the inner conductors. To facilitate the making of
interleaved joints, the spacing between laminated bars is often made equal to the bar
thickness. For 6.3 mm thick bars up to 150 mm wide, mounted on edge with 6.3 mm
spacings between laminations, the isolated bar d.c. rating may be multiplied by the
following factors to obtain the total rating.
No. of laminations Multiplying factor
No. of
laminations
Multiplying
factor
2 1.8
3 2.5
4 3.2
5 3.9
6 4.4
8 5.5
10 6.5
28
4. ALTERNATI NG CURRENT
EFFECTS I N BUSBARS
1. Skin Effect
2. Proximity Effect
3. Condition for Minimum Loss
4. Penetration Depth

1. SKIN EFFECT
The apparent resistance of a conductor is always higher for a.c. than for d.c. The alternating
magnetic flux created by an alternating current interacts with the conductor, generating a
back e.m.f. which tends to reduce the current in the conductor. The centre portions of the
conductor are affected by the greatest number of lines of force, the number of line linkages
decreasing as the edges are approached. The electromotive force produced in this way by
self-inductance varies both in magnitude and phase through the cross-section of the
conductor, being larger in the centre and smaller towards the outside. The current
therefore tends to crowd into those parts of the conductor in which the opposing e.m.f. is a
minimum; that is, into the skin of a circular conductor or the edges of a flat strip, producing
what is known as 'skin' or 'edge' effect. The resulting non-uniform current density has the
effect of increasing the apparent resistance of the conductor and gives rise to increased
losses.
The ratio of the apparent d.c. and a.c. resistances is known as the skin effect ratio:
where Rf = a.c. resistance of conductor
Ro = d.c. resistance of conductor
S = skin effect ratio
The magnitude and importance of the effect increases with the frequency, and the size,
shape and thickness of conductor, but is independent of the magnitude of the current
flowing.
It should be noted that as the conductor temperature increases the skin effect decreases
giving rise to a lower than expected a.c. resistance at elevated temperatures. This effect is
more marked for a copper conductor than an aluminium conductor of equal cross-sectional
area because of its lower resistivity. The difference is particularly noticeable in large busbar
sections.
29
Copper rods
The skin effect ratio of solid copper rods can be calculated from the formulae derived by
Maxwell, Rayleigh and others (Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards, 1912):
where S = Skin effect ratio
d = diameter of rod, mm
f = frequency, Hz
= resistivity, cm
= permeability of copper (=1)
For HC copper at 20C, = 1.724 cm, hence
where A = cross-sectional area of the conductor, mm2
Copper tubes
Skin effect in tubular copper conductors is a function of the thickness of the wall of the tube
and the ratio of that thickness to the tube diameter, and for a given cross sectional area it
can be reduced by increasing the tube diameter and reducing the wall thickness.
Figure 5, Figure 6, and Figure 7, which have been drawn from formulae derived by Dwight
(1922) and Arnold (1936), can be used to find the value of skin effect for various conductor
sections. In the case of tubes (Figure 5), it can be seen that to obtain low skin effect ratio
values it is desirable to ensure, where possible, low values of t/d and -(f/r). For a given
cross-sectional area the skin effect ratio for a thin copper tube is appreciably lower than
that for any other form of conductor. Copper tubes, therefore, have a maximum efficiency
30
as conductors of alternating currents, particularly those of high magnitude or high
frequency.
The effect of wall thickness on skin effect for a 100 mm diameter tube carrying a 50Hz
alternating current is clearly shown in Figure 5.
Figure 4 Skin effect in HC copper rods at 20C. Relation between diameter and x,
and between Rf/Ro and x where x = 1.207 x 102 (Af) (Note: For values of x less
than 2. use inset scale for Rf/Ro)
Figure 5, Figure 6, and Figure 7, which have been drawn from formulae derived by Dwight
(1922) and Arnold (1936), can be used to find the value of skin effect for various conductor
sections. In the case of tubes (Figure 5), it can be seen that to obtain low skin effect ratio
values it is desirable to ensure, where possible, low values of t/d and -(f/r). For a given
cross-sectional area the skin effect ratio for a thin copper tube is appreciably lower than
that for any other form of conductor. Copper tubes, therefore, have a maximum efficiency
as conductors of alternating currents, particularly those of high magnitude or high
frequency.
The effect of wall thickness on skin effect for a 100 mm diameter tube carrying a 50Hz
alternating current is clearly shown in Figure 5.
31
Figure 5 Resistance of HC copper tubes, 100 mm outside diameter, d.c. and 50 Hz
a.c.
Figure 6 Skin effect for rods and tubes
32
Flat copper bars
The skin effect in flat copper bars is a function of its thickness and width. With the larger
sizes of conductor, for a given cross-sectional area of copper, the skin effect in a thin bar or
strip is usually less than in a circular copper rod but greater than in a thin tube. It is
dependent on the ratio of the width to the thickness of the bar and increases as the
thickness of the bar increases. A thin copper strip, therefore, is more efficient than a thick
one as an alternating current conductor. Figure 7 can be used to find the skin effect value
for flat bars.
Figure 7 Skin effect for rectangular conductors
Square copper tubes
33
The skin effect ratio for square copper tubes can be obtained from Figure 8.
Figure 8 Skin effect ratio for hollow square conductors

2. PROXIMITY EFFECT
n the foregoing consideration of skin effect it has been assumed that the conductor is
isolated and at such a distance from the return conductor that the effect of the current in it
can be neglected. When conductors are close together, particularly in low voltage
equipment, a further distortion of current density results from the interaction of the
magnetic fields of other conductors.
In the same way as an e.m.f. may be induced in a conductor by its own magnetic flux, so
may the magnetic flux of one conductor produce an e.m.f. in any other conductor
sufficiently near for the effect to be significant.
If two such conductors carry currents in opposite directions, their electro-magnetic fields
are opposed to one another and tend to force one another apart. This results in a decrease
of flux linkages around the adjacent parts of the conductors and an increase in the more
remote parts, which leads to a concentration of current in the adjacent parts where the
opposing e.m.f. is a minimum. If the currents in the conductors are in the same direction
the action is reversed and they tend to crowd into the more remote parts of the conductors.
This effect, known as the 'proximity effect' (or 'shape effect'), tends usually to increase the
apparent a.c. resistance. In some cases, however, proximity effect may tend to neutralise
the skin effect and produce a better distribution of current as in the case of strip conductors
arranged with their flat sides towards one another.
34
If the conductors are arranged edgewise to one another the proximity effect increases. In
most cases the proximity effect also tends to increase the stresses set up under short-
circuit conditions and this may therefore have to be taken into account.
The currents in various parts of a conductor subjected to skin and proximity effects may
vary considerably in phase, and the resulting circulating current give rise to additional
losses which can be minimised only by the choice of suitable types of conductor and by
their careful arrangement.
The magnitude of the proximity effect depends, amongst other things, on the frequency of
the current and the spacing and arrangement of the conductors. The graphs in Figure 14
(Section 6) can be used to obtain values of proximity effect for various conductor
configurations at 50 or 60 Hz. Methods of calculation for other frequencies are available
(Dwight 1946). The unbalancing of current due to the proximity effect can be reduced by
spacing the conductors of different phases as far apart as possible and sometimes by
modifying their shape in accordance with the spacing adopted. In the case of laminated
bars a reduction may be obtained by transposing the laminations at frequent intervals or by
employing current balancers using inductances.
Proximity effect may be completely overcome by adopting a concentric arrangement of
conductors with one inside the other as is used for isolated phase busbar systems.
The magnetic field round busbar conductors may be considerably modified and the current
distortion increased by the presence of magnetic materials and only metals such as copper
or copper alloys should be used for parts likely to come within the magnetic field of the
bars.
3. CONDITION FOR MINIMUM LOSS
Both skin and proximity effects are due to circulating or 'eddy' currents caused by the
differences of inductance which exist between different 'elements' of current-carrying
conductors. The necessary condition for avoidance of both these effects (and hence for
minimum loss) is that the shapes of each of the conductors in a single-phase system
approximates to 'equi-inductance lines'. Arnold (1937) has shown that for close spacing,
rectangular section conductors most closely approach this ideal. Such an arrangement is
also convenient where space is limited and where inductive voltage drop due to busbar
reactance must be reduced to a minimum. In the case of heavy current single-phase
busbars and where space is slightly less restricted, the single channel arrangement gives
the closest approximation to the equi-inductance condition, the channels of 'go' and 'return'
conductors being arranged back-to-back, while for wider spacing a circular section is
preferable.
4. PENETRATION DEPTH
In the case of special conductor arrangements, or where high frequencies are employed,
the alternating current resistance may be calculated using the earlier sections. It is often
necessary to know the depth of penetration of the current into a conductor, that is the
depth at which the current density has been reduced to 1/e, or 0.368 of its value at the
conductor surface. This can be calculated using the following formula when its resistivity
and the frequency are known.
depth of penetration
35
where d = depth of penetration, mm
= resistivity of copper, cm
f = frequency, Hz
36
5. EFFECT OF BUSBAR
ARRANGEMENTS ON RATI NG
1. Laminated copper bars
2. Inter-leaving of conductors
3. Transposition of conductors
4. Hollow square arrangement
5. Tubular bars
6. Concentric conductors
7. Channel and angle bars
8. Comparison of conductor
arrangements
9. Enclosed copper conductors
10. Compound insulated
conductors
11. Plastic insulated conductors
12. Isolated phase busbars
The efficiency of all types of heavy current busbars depends upon careful design, the most
important factors being:
a) The provision of a maximum surface area for the dissipation of heat.
b) An arrangement of bars which cause a minimum of interference with the natural
movements of air currents.
c) An approximately uniform current density in all parts of the conductors. This is normally
obtained by having as much copper as possible equidistant from the magnetic centre of the
busbar.
d) Low skin effect and proximity effect for a.c. busbar systems.
To meet these requirements there are many different arrangements of copper busbars
using laminations, as well as copper extrusions of various cross-sections.
Figure 9 Busbar arrangements
37

1. LAMINATED COPPER BARS
To obtain the best and most efficient rating for rectangular strip copper conductors they
should be mounted whenever possible with their major cross-sectional axes vertical so
giving maximum cooling surfaces.
Laminations of 6 or 6.3 mm thickness, of varying widths and with 6 or 6.3 mm spacings are
probably the most common and are satisfactory in most a.c. low current cases and for all
d.c. systems.
It is not possible to give any generally applicable factors for calculating the d.c. rating of
laminated bars, since this depends upon the size and proportions of the laminations and on
their arrangement. A guide to the expected relative ratings are given in Table 8 below for a
50 Hz system. The ratings for single bars can be estimated using the methods given in
Section 3 and Section 4.
Table 8 Multiplying factors for laminated bars
Table 13 (Appendix 2) gives a.c. ratings for various configurations of laminated bars based
on test measurements.
For all normal light and medium current purposes an arrangement such as that in Figure 9a
is entirely satisfactory, but for a.c. currents in excess of 3000 A where large numbers of
38
laminations would be required it is necessary to rearrange the laminations to give better
utilisation of the copper bars.
The effect of using a large number of laminations mounted side by side is shown in Figure
10 for a.c. currents. The current distribution is independent of the total current magnitude.
Figure 10 Alternating current distribution in a bar with ten laminations
This curve shows that due to skin effect there is a considerable variation in the current
carried by each lamination, the outer laminations carrying approximately four times the
current in those at the centre. The two centre laminations together carry only about one-
tenth of the total current.
The currents in the different laminations may also vary appreciably in phase, with the result
that their numerical sum may be greater than their vectorial sum, which is equal to the line
current. These circulating currents give rise to additional losses and lower efficiency of the
system. It should also be noted that the curve is non-symmetrical due to the proximity
effect of an adjacent phase.
For these reasons it is recommended that alternate arrangements, such as those discussed
in the following sections, are used for heavy current a.c. svstems.
2. INTER-LEAVING OF CONDUCTORS
Where long low-voltage a.c. bars are carrying heavy currents, particularly at a low power
factor, inductive volt drop may become a serious problem with laminated bars arranged as
in Figure 9a. The voltage drop for any given size of conductor is proportional to the current
and the length of the bars, and increases as the separation between conductors of different
phases increases. In the case of laminated bars the inductive volt drop can be reduced by
splitting up the bars into an equivalent number of smaller circuits in parallel, with the
conductors of different phases interleaved as shown in Figure 9b. This reduces the average
spacing between conductors of different phases and so reduces the inductive volt drop.
3. TRANSPOSITION OF CONDUCTORS
The unbalanced current distribution in a laminated bar carrying a.c. current due to skin and
proximity effects may be counteracted by transposing laminations or groups of laminations
at intervals. Tappings and other connections make transposition difficult, but it can be
39
worthwhile where long sections of bars are free from tappings. The arrangement is as
shown in Figure 9e.
4. HOLLOW SQUARE ARRANGEMENT
To obtain a maximum efficiency from the point of view of skin effect, as much as possible of
the copper should be equidistant from the magnetic centre of a bar, as in the case of a
tubular conductor. This can reduce the skin effect to little greater than unity whereas
values of 2 or more are possible with other arrangements having the same cross-sectional
area.
With flat copper bars the nearest approach to a unity skin effect ratio is achieved using a
hollow square formation as shown in Figure 9c, though the current arrangement is still not
as good as in a tubular conductor. The heat dissipation is also not as good as the same
number of bars arranged side by side as in Figure 9b, due to the horizontally mounted bars
at the top and bottom.
Modified hollow square
This arrangement (Figure 9d) does not have as good a value of skin effect ratio as the
hollow square arrangement, but it does have the advantage that the heat dissipation is
much improved. This arrangement can have a current-carrying capacity of up to twice that
for bars mounted side by side, or alternatively the total cross-sectional area can be reduced
for similar current-carrying capacities.
5. TUBULAR BARS
A tubular copper conductor is the most efficient possible as regards skin effect, as the
maximum amount of material is located at a uniform distance from the magnetic centre of
the conductor. The skin effect reduces as the diameter increases for a constant wall
thickness, with values close to unity possible when the ratio of outside diameter to wall
thickness exceeds about 20.
The natural cooling is not as good as that for a laminated copper bar system of the same
cross-sectional area, but when the proximity effects are taken into account the one-piece
tube ensures that the whole tube attains an even temperature - a condition rarely obtained
with laminated bar systems.
Tubular copper conductors also lend themselves to alternative methods of cooling by, for
example, forced air or liquid cooling where heat can be removed from the internal surface
of the tubes. Current ratings of several times the natural air cooled value are possible using
forced cooling with the largest increases when liquid cooling is employed.
A tubular bar also occupies less space than the more usual copper laminated bar and has a
further advantage that its strength and rigidity are greater and uniform in all deflection
planes. These advantages are, however, somewhat reduced by the difficulty of making
joints and connections which are more difficult than those for laminated bars. These
problems have now been reduced by the introduction of copper welding and exothermic
copper forming methods. Copper tubes are particularly suitable for high current
applications, such as arc furnaces, where forced liquid cooling can be used to great
advantage. The tube can also be used in isolated phase busbar systems due to the ease
with which it can be supported by insulators.
40
6. CONCENTRIC CONDUCTORS
This arrangement is not widely used due to difficulties of support but has the advantage of
the optimum combination of low reactance and eddy current losses and is well suited to
furnace and weld set applications. It should be noted that the isolated phase busbar
systems are of this type with the current in the external enclosure being almost equal to
that in the conductor when the continuously bonded three-phase enclosure system is used.
7. CHANNEL AND ANGLE BARS
Alternative arrangements to flat or tubular copper bars are the channel and angle bars
which can have advantages. The most important of these shapes are shown in the
diagrams below.
These are easily supported and give great rigidity and strength while the making of joints
and connections presents no serious difficulty.
The permissible alternating current density in free air for a given temperature rise is usually
greater in the case of two angle-shaped conductors (diagram (a)) than in any other
arrangement of conductor material.
For low voltage heavy current single-phase bars with narrow phase centres, single copper
channels with the webs of the 'go' and 'return' conductors towards one another give an
efficient arrangement. The channel sizes can be chosen to reduce the skin and proximity
effects to a minimum, give maximum dissipation of heat and have considerable mechanical
strength and rigidity. Where high voltage busbars are concerned the phase spacing has to
be much larger to give adequate electrical clearances between adjacent phases with best
arrangement being with the channel webs furthest apart. For high-capacity generators
which are connected to transformers and allied equipment by segregated or non-
segregated copper busbars, the double angle arrangement gives the best combination with
the copper bar sizes still being readily manufactured. The current ratings of these
arrangements are given in Table 15 (Appendix 2). The ratings given are the maximum
current ratings which do not take the cost of losses into account and hence are not
optimised.
8. COMPARISON OF CONDUCTOR ARRANGEMENTS
The extent to which the a.c. current rating for a given temperature rise of a conductor
containing a given cross-sectional area of copper depends on the cross-section shape. The
approximate relative a.c. ratings for a typical cross-sectional area of 10 000 mm2 are
shown in Figure 11. For cross-sectional areas greater than 10 000 mm2 the factors are
greater than those shown, and are smaller for smaller cross-sections. In the case of double-
41
channel busbars, the ratio of web-to-flange lengths and also the web thickness have a
considerable effect on the current carrying capacity.
Figure 11 Comparative a.c. ratings of various conductor arrangements each
having a cross sectional area of 10,000 mm2 of HC copper

9. ENCLOSED COPPER CONDUCTORS
In many cases busbars are surrounded by enclosures, normally metallic, which reduce the
busbar heat dissipation due to reduction in cooling air flow and radiation losses and
therefore give current ratings which may be considerably less than those for free air
exposure. Ventilated enclosures, however, provide mechanical protection and some cooling
air flow with the least reduction in current rating.
The reduction in rating for a given temperature rise will vary considerably with the type and
size of bar and enclosure. The greatest decrease in current rating occurs with bars which
depend mainly on free air circulation and less on uniform current distribution such as the
modified hollow square arrangement (Figure 9d). In these cases the rating may be reduced
to between 60 and 65% when the conductors are enclosed in non-magnetic metal
enclosures. In the case of tubular conductors or those of closely grouped flat laminations,
which are normally not so well cooled by air circulation, the ratings may be reduced to
about 75% of free air ratings for normal temperature rises.
Where the busbar system is enclosed in thick magnetic enclosures, such as in metal-clad
switchgear, the reduction is approximately a further 15%. The effect of thin sheet-steel
enclosures is somewhat less. These additional reductions are due to the heat generated by
the alternating magnetic fields through hysteresis and eddy current losses. Besides the
derating caused by enclosure conditions, other limitations on maximum working
temperature are often present, such as when the outside of enclosures should not exceed a
given safety value. These deratings are affected by the electrical clearances involved and
the degree of ventilation in the enclosure. The above figures and the curves shown in
Figure 12 should only be taken as a rough guide to the required derating; an accurate
figure can only be obtained by testing.
All parts such as conductor and switch fittings, enclosures and interphase barriers may be
subject to appreciable temperature rise due to circulating and eddy current losses when
close to the heavy current bars and connections. These losses can be reduced to a
minimum by making these parts from high conductivity non-magnetic material such as
copper or copper alloy.
42
10. COMPOUND INSULATED CONDUCTORS
The current rating of copper immersed in oil or compound depend upon a number of factors
which may vary widely with design, and can normally only be confirmed by carrying out
temperature rise tests on the complete assembly.
The ratings of enclosed bars are nearly always much lower than the free air ratings. The
temperature rise is dependent on the rate at which heat is conducted through the
insulating media and dissipated from the outside casing by radiation and convection. There
is nearly always a closer phase spacing between conductors giving high proximity effects
and higher heat losses in the magnetic outer casings and so giving rise to higher
temperature rises.
Proximity effect is often more important for insulated bars than those in air. Laminated bars
have fewer advantages when immersed in oil or compound and circular copper conductors
either solid or hollow though are often preferred particularly for high-voltage gear and high
current generators, transformers, etc., where more effective cooling such as water cooling
can be employed to improve conductor material utilisation and hence reduce the overall
size of plant.
Figure 12 Comparison of approximate current ratings for busbars in different
enclosures
11. PLASTIC INSULATED CONDUCTORS
There is a widening use of plastic continuous insulation as the primary insulation for low
current and voltage busbars. This insulation is usually of the shrink-on P.V.C. type though
wrap-on tape is sometimes used. This method is used for voltages up to about 15 kV,
though much higher levels can be attained when specialised insulation systems such as
epoxy resin or similar based tapes and powders are employed. These systems are
particularly useful where high atomic radiation levels, or high temperatures (up to 130C)
43
are encountered, although account must be taken of the possibility of halogen gassing from
P.V.C. insulations at temperatures around 100C. Modified P.V.C. materials with improved
high-temperature performance are available.
12. ISOLATED PHASE BUSBARS
solated phase busbars consist of a metallic enclosed conductor where each individual
phase or pole is surrounded by a separately earthed sheath which is connected at its ends
by a full short-circuit current rated bar. The sheath is intended primarily to prevent
interphase short-circuit currents developing. They have the further advantage that the high
magnetic fields created by the conductor current are almost completely cancelled by an
equal and opposite current induced in the enclosure or sheath with reductions of 95% or
better in the external magnetic field being possible. An important result is that the
likelihood of steelwork overheating when adjacent to the busbar system is considerably
reduced except where the sheath short-circuit bars are located. This current flowing in the
enclosure makes the method of estimating the performance of the busbar system much
more complicated and can only be resolved by obtaining a heat balance between conductor
and enclosure using an interactive calculation method.
These busbars are used normally for operating voltages of between 11 kV and 36 kV
though equipment using much lower voltages and higher voltages are increasingly
changing to this system. Examples of such equipment are exciter connections, switchgear
interconnections, generator to transformer connections, high voltage switchgear using SF6
(sulphur hexafluoride) gas insulation (this gas having an insulation level many times better
than air). The current flowing in the conductor ranges from as little as 1000 A to in excess
of 40 kA. To obtain the higher currents forced cooling is used, the most commonly used
cooling media being air and water though other cooling gases or liquids can be used. The
use of these cooling systems usually creates much increased heat losses and so their use
must be justified by benefits in other areas, e.g., reduced civil costs, reduced physical size
where space is at a premium or reduction in size to enable normal manufacturing methods
be used both for the basic busbar material and also the complete busbar system.
Another factor which influences the method chosen for forced cooling is the naturally
cooled rating of the busbar system and also its ability to sustain overload conditions. The
busbars are usually manufactured in single-phase units of transportable length and consist
of a central conductor usually tubular of round, square or channel cross-section, supported
by porcelain or epoxy resin insulators. The insulators are located by the external metallic
sheath through which they are normally removed for servicing.
44
6. SHORT- CI RCUI T EFFECTS
1. Short-Circuit Heating of Bars
2. Electromagnetic Stresses
3. Corona Discharge

1. SHORT-CIRCUIT HEATING OF BARS
Copper busbars are normally part of a larger generation or transmission system. The
continuous rating of the main components such as generators, transformers, rectifiers, etc.,
therefore determine the nominal current carried by the busbars but in most power systems
a one to four second short-circuit current has to be accommodated. The value of these
currents is calculated from the inductive reactances of the power system components and
gives rise to different maximum short-circuit currents in the various system sections.
These currents are very often ten to twenty times the continuous current rating and
therefore the transitory heating effect must be taken into account. This effect can, in many
cases, lead to dangerous overheating, particularly where small conductors are part of a
large heavy current system, and must be considered when determining the conductor size.
To calculate the temperature rise of the conductor during a short circuit it is assumed that
all the heat generated is absorbed by the conductor with none lost by convection and
radiation as for a continuous rated conductor. The temperature rise is dependent therefore
only on the specific heat of the copper conductor material and its mass. The specific heat of
copper varies with temperature, increasing as the temperature rises. At normal ambient
temperatures it is about 385 J/kg K and at 300C it is about 410 J/kg K.
Short-circuit heating characteristics are not easy to calculate accurately because of
complex a.c. and d.c. current effects, but for most purposes the formulae below will
normally give sufficiently accurate results:
where t = maximum short-circuit time, s
A = conductor cross-section area, mm2
I = conductor current, kA
= conductor temperature rise, K
If = 300C, then
45
The value of t obtained from the above equation should always be greater than the
required short circuit withstand time which is usually 1 to 4 seconds.
The temperature rise per second due to a current I is given by the following approximate
formula:
(I/A) should be less than 0.25 for reasonable accuracy.
The maximum short-circuit temperature is very often chosen to be 300C for earth bar
systems but the upper limit for the phases is normally lower and is dependent on the
mechanical properties required and surface finish of the copper material.
Heating time constant
The previous section considered very short time effects but in many cases it may be
necessary to calculate the temperature rise of a conductor over an extended time, for
example the time taken for a conductor to reach normal operating temperature when
carrying its rated continuous current. Under these conditions the conductor is absorbing
heat as its temperature rises. It is also dissipating heat by convection and radiation, both of
which increase with rising temperature difference between the conductor and the
surroundings. When maximum operating temperature is reached then the heat loss by
convection and radiation is constant and the heat absorbed by the conductor ceases.
The temperature rise after time t from the start of heating is given by the following formula
where the change of resistance with temperature can be assumed to be negligible:
where = temperature rise, C
max = maximum temperature rise, C
e = exponential constant (=2.718)
t = time, s
= time constant, s
The time constant can be found using the following formula:
where w = rate of generation of heat at t=0, W
46
m = mass, kg
c = specific heat, J/kg K
The time constant gives the time taken to reach 0.636 of the maximum temperature rise,
max.
2. ELECTROMAGNETIC STRESSES
When a conductor carries a current it creates a magnetic field which interacts with any
other magnetic field present to produce a force. When the currents flowing in two adjacent
conductors are in the same direction the force is one of attraction, and when the currents
are in opposite directions a repulsive force is produced.
In most busbar systems the current-carrying conductors are usually straight and parallel to
one another. The force produced by the two conductors is proportional to the products of
their currents. Normally in most busbar systems the forces are very small and can be
neglected, but under short-circuit conditions, they become large and must be taken into
account together with the conductor material fibre stresses when designing the conductor
insulator and its associated supports to ensure adequate safety factors.
The factors to be taken into account may be summarised as follows:
a) stresses due to direct lateral attractive and repulsive forces.
b) Vibrational stresses.
c) Longitudinal stresses resulting from lateral deflection.
d) Twisting moments due to lateral deflection.
In most cases the forces due to short-circuits are applied very suddenly. Direct currents
give rise to unidirectional forces while alternating currents produce vibrational forces.
Maximum stresses
When a busbar system is running normally the interphase forces are normally very small
with the static weight of the busbars being the dominant component. Under short-circuit
conditions this is very often not the case as the current rises to a peak of some thirty times
its normal value, falling after a few cycles to ten times its initial value. These high transitory
currents create large mechanical forces not only in the busbars themselves but also in their
supporting system. This means that the support insulators and their associated steelwork
must be designed to withstand these high loads as well as their normal structural
requirements such as wind, ice, seismic and static loads.
The peak or fully asymmetrical short circuit current is dependent on the power factor (cos
_) of the busbar system and its associated connected electrical plant. The value is
obtained by multiplying the r.m.s. symmetrical current by the appropriate factor given in
Balanced three-phase short-circuit stresses.
If the power factor of the system is not known then a factor of 2.55 will normally be close to
the actual system value especially where generation is concerned. Note that the theoretical
maximum for this factor is 2-2 or 2.828 where cos _ = 0. These peak values reduce
exponentially and after approximately 10 cycles the factor falls to 1.0, i.e., the symmetrical
47
r.m.s. short circuit current. The peak forces therefore normally occur in the first two cycles
(0.04 s) as shown in Figure 13.
In the case of a completely asymmetrical current wave, the forces will be applied with a
frequency equal to that of the supply frequency and with a double frequency as the wave
becomes symmetrical. Therefore in the case of a 50 Hz supply these forces have
frequencies of 50 or 100 Hz.
The maximum stresses to which a bus structure is likely to be subjected would occur during
a short-circuit on a single-phase busbar system in which the line short-circuit currents are
displaced by 180.
In a three-phase system a short-circuit between two phases is almost identical to the
single-phase case and although the phase currents are normally displaced by 120, under
short-circuit conditions the phase currents of the two phases are almost 180 out of phase.
The effect of the third phase can be neglected.
In a balanced three-phase short-circuit, the resultant forces on any one of the three phases
is less than in the single-phase case and is dependent on the relative physical positions of
the three phases.
In the case of a single-phase short-circuit, the forces produced are unidirectional and are
therefore more severe than those due to a three-phase short-circuit, which alternate in
direction.
The short-circuit forces have to be absorbed first by the conductor. The conductor therefore
must have an adequate proof strength to carry these forces without permanent distortion.
Copper satisfies this requirement as it has high strength compared with other conductor
materials (Table 2). Because of the high strength of copper, the insulators can be more
widely spaced than is possible with lower-strength materials.
Figure 13 Short-circuit current waveform

Single phase short circuit stresses
The electromagnetic force developed between two straight parallel conductors of circular
cross-section each carrying the same current is calculated from the following formula:
48
where Fmax = force on conductor, N/m
I = current in both phases, A
s = phase spacing, mm
The value of I is normally taken in the fully asymmetrical condition as 2.55 times the r.m.s.
symmetrical value or 1.8 times the peak r.m.s. value of the short-circuit current as
discussed above. It is possible, in certain circumstances, for the forces to be greater than
this due to the effect of an impulse in the case of a very rigid conductor, or due to
resonance in the case of bars liable to mechanical vibration. It is therefore usual to allow a
safety factor of 2.5 in such cases.
Balanced three-phase short-circuit stresses
A three-phase system has its normal currents displaced by 120 and when a balanced
three-phase short-circuit occurs the displacement is maintained. As with all balanced three-
phase currents, the instantaneous current in one phase is balanced by the currents in the
other two phases. The directions of the currents are constantly changing and so therefore
are the forces. The maximum forces are dependent on the point in the cycle at which the
fault or short-circuit occurs.
The maximum force appearing on any phase resulting from a fully offset asymmetrical peak
current is given by
(9
The condition when the maximum force appears on the outside phases (Red or Blue) is
given by
(10
The condition when the maximum force is on the centre phase (Yellow) is given by
(11
where Fmax = maximum force on conductor, N/m
I = peak asymmetrical current, A
49
s = conductor spacing, mm
The peak current I attained during the short-circuit varies with the power factor of the
circuit:
Power factor I, x Irms (symmetrical)
0 2.828
0.07 2.55
0.2 2.2
0.25 2.1
0.3 2
0.5 1.7
0.7 1.5
1.0 1.414

Correction for end effect
It has been assumed so far that the conductors are of infinite length. This assumption does
not generally lead to great errors in the calculated short-circuit forces. This is not true,
however, at the ends of bars where there is a great change in flux compared with the
uniform magnetic field over most of the long straight conductor. Where the conductor is
relatively short this effect can be considerable, the normal formulae giving overestimates
for the forces. To overcome this problem the preceding formulae can be rewritten in the
following form:
where Ftot = total force on the conductor, N
L = length of conductor, m
c = constant from relevant previous formula
The following substitution may then be made:
The formula will then be of the form
50
(12
If
is very large then
is almost equal to
and therefore the modified formula becomes almost identical with the standard formula. In
many cases, the following formula is sufficiently accurate:
(13
where Ftot is again the total force along the conductor in Newtons.
Formulae 9 to 11 may be used where
is greater than 20. For values between 20 and 4, is greater than 20. For values between 20
and 4, equation 13 above should be used. For values less than 4, equation 12 should be
used.
Proximity factor
Figure 14 - Proximity factor for rectangular copper conductor
51
The formulae in the previous section used for calculating short-circuit forces do not take
into account the effect of conductors which are not round as they strictly only apply to
round conductors. To overcome this when considering rectangular conductors, a proximity
factor K is introduced into the ordinary force formulae, its value being found using the
curves in Figure 14.
Except in cases where the conductors are very small or are spaced a considerable distance
apart the corrected general formula for force per unit length becomes:
The value of
is first calculated then K is read from the curve for the appropriate
52
ratio.
From the curves it can be seen that the effect of conductor shape decreases rapidly with
increasing spacing and is a maximum for strip conductors of small thickness. It is almost
unity for square conductors and is unity for a circular conductor.
Alternatively, the proximity factor can be calculated using the following formula, from which
the curves in Figure 14 were drawn (Dwight 1917). (See Figure 14 for explanation of
symbols).
This formula gives the intermediate curves of Figure 14, for s>a, b>0, a>0
Vibrational stresses
Stresses will be induced in a conductor by natural or forced vibrations the amplitude of
which determines the value of the stress, which can be calculated from the formulae given
in Section 8.
The conductor should be designed to have a natural frequency which is not within 30% of
the vibrations induced by the magnetic fields resulting from the currents flowing in adjacent
conductors. This type of vibration normally occurs during continuous running and does not
occur when short-circuit currents are flowing.
The stresses resulting from the short-circuit forces are calculated using the beam theory
formulae for simply supported beams for a single cantilever to multispan arrangements, the
applied forces being derived from the previous sections. The resulting deflections enable
the conductor stress to be calculated and so determine if it is likely to permanently damage
the conductor because it has exceeded the proof stress of the conductor material.
Methods of reducing conductor stresses
In cases where there is a likelihood of vibration at normal currents or when subjected to
short-circuit forces causing damage to the conductor, the following can he used to reduce
or eliminate the effect:
a) Reduce the span between insulator supports.
This method can be used to reduce the effects of both continuous vibration and that due to
short-circuit forces.
53
b) Increase the span between insulator supports.
This method can only be used to reduce the effects of vibration resulting from a continuous
current. It will increase the stresses due to a short-circuit current.
c) Increase or decrease the flexibility of the conductor supports.
This method will reduce the effects of vibration due to continuous current but has very little
effect on that due to short-circuit forces.
d) Increase the conductor flexibility.
This can only be used to reduce the effects of vibration due to a continuous current. The
short-circuit effect is increased.
e) Decrease the conductor flexibility.
This method will reduce the effects of vibration due to either a continuous current or a
short-circuit.
It will be noted that in carrying out the various suggestions above, changes can only be
made within the overall design requirements of the busbar system.
3. CORONA DISCHARGE
With very high voltage air-insulated busbars, particularly of the type usually installed out of
doors, it is necessary to ensure that with the spacing adopted between conductors of
different phases, or between conductors and earth, the electromagnetic stress in the air
surrounding the conductors is low enough not to cause a corona discharge. Corona
discharge is to be avoided where possible as it creates ionised gas which can lead to a
large reduction in the air insulation surrounding the conductor and so can cause flash-over.
Should flash-over occur, this will in many cases lead to a short-circuit between either
adjacent phases or poles or the nearest earth point or plane. This will cause considerable
burning of the conductors and associated equipment together with mechanical damage.
Corona discharge can also cause radio interference which may be unacceptable.
To avoid these conditions the busbar system should be free from sharp edges or small radii
on the conductor system. If this is not possible then additional equipment will have to be
incorporated in the design such as corona rings and stress relieving cones mounted in the
areas of high electric stress. The smallest radii required for prevention of corona can be
calculated from the formula:
where E = r.m.s. voltage to neutral, kV
r = conductor radius, mm
d = distance between conductor centres, mm
54
_ = air density factor
m = conductor surface condition factor
The values for the factors m and d are as follows:
m = 1 for a polished conductor surface, 0.98 to 0.93 for roughened or weathered surfaces,
and 0.87 to 0.80 for stranded conductors.
d = 1 at 1 bar barometric pressure and 25C. At other pressures and temperatures the
value is found as follows:
where b = barometric pressure, bar
T = temperature, C
At locations above sea level the normal pressure is reduced by approximately 0.12 bar per
1000 m of altitude.
The voltage Ev at which the corona discharge normally becomes visible is somewhat higher
than given by the above formula and can be determined as follows:
In bad weather conditions the discharge may appear at a voltage lower than that indicated
by the formulae and it is therefore advisable to make an allowance of about 20% as a
safety factor.
55
7. J OI NTI NG OF COPPER
BUSBARS
1. Busbar Jointing Methods
2. Joint Resistance
3. Bolting Arrangements
4. Clamps
5. Welded Joints

1. BUSBAR JOINTING METHODS
It is necessary that a conductor joint shall be mechanically strong and have a relatively low
resistance which must remain substantially constant throughout the life of the joint.
Efficient joints in copper busbar conductors can be made very simply by bolting, clamping,
riveting, soldering or welding, the first two being used extensively, though copper welding
is now more generally available through improvements in welding technology.
Welded joints in copper busbars have the advantage that the current carrying capacity is
unimpaired, as the joint is effectively a continuous copper conductor.
Bolted joints are compact, reliable and versatile but have the disadvantage that they
necessitate the drilling or punching of holes through the conductors with the bolt holes
causing some distortion of the lines of current flow. This joint type also has a somewhat
more uneven contact pressure than one using clamp plates.
Clamped joints are easy to make with the full cross-section being unimpaired. The extra
mass at the joint and hence cooling area helps to give a cooler running joint and with a
well-designed clamp, gives a very even contact pressure. The further added advantage is
that of easy erection during installation. A disadvantage is the much higher costs of the
clamps and associated fixings.
Riveted joints are efficient if well made, but have the disadvantage that they cannot
easily be undone or tightened in service and that they are not so convenient to make from
an installation point of view.
Soldered or brazed joints are rarely used for busbars unless they are reinforced with
bolts or clamps since heating under short-circuit conditions can make them both
mechanically and electrically unsound.
56
2. JOINT RESISTANCE
The resistance of a joint is affected mainly by two factors:
a) Streamline effect or spreading resistance Rs, the diversion of the current flow through a
joint.
b) The contact resistance or interface resistance of the joint Rj.
The total joint resistance Rj = Rs + Ri.
The above is specifically for a d.c. current. Where a.c. currents are flowing, the changes in
resistance due to skin and proximity effects in the joint zone must also be taken into
account.
Before considering the effect of the above factors on the efficiency of a joint, it is important
to realise the nature of the two contact surfaces. No matter how well a contact surface is
polished, the surface is really made up of a large number of peaks and troughs which are
readily visible under a microscope. When two surfaces are brought together contact is only
made at the peaks, which are subjected to much higher contact pressures than the average
joint contact pressure, and hence deform during the jointing process. The actual contact
area in the completed joint is much smaller than the total surface area of the joint. It has
been shown that in a typical busbar joint surface the effective contact area is confined to
the region in which the pressure is applied, i.e., near the bolts in the case of a lapped joint.
Streamline effect
The distortion of the lines of current flow at an overlapping joint between two conductors
affects the resistance of the joint. This effect must also occur when the current flows from
peak to peak from surface to surface though the overall effect is that through the joint.
In the case of an overlapping joint between two flat copper bars, the streamline effect is
dependent only on the ratio of the length of the overlap to the thickness of the bars and not
on the width, provided that this dimension is the same for both bars. It has been shown
both mathematically and experimentally that even in a perfectly made overlapping joint
between two relatively thin flat conductors having a uniform contact resistance, the
distribution of current over the contact area is not uniform. Practically all of the current
flowing across the contact surfaces is concentrated towards the extremities of the joint and
the current density at the ends of the overlapping conductors may be many times that at
the centre of the joint.
It is evident from the above that the efficiency of an overlapping joint does not increase as
the length of the overlap increases and that from a purely electrical point of view no
advantage is to be gained by employing an unduly long overlap.
The relation between the resistance due to streamline effect of an overlapping joint
between two flat copper conductors and the ratio of the length of the overlap to the
thickness is shown in Figure 15. It has also been found that the distortion effect in a T-joint
is about the same as a straight joint.
The resistance ratio e in Figure 15 is the ratio of the resistance of a joint due to streamline
effect RS, to the resistance of an equal length of single conductor Rb, i.e.
57
where a = breadth of bar, mm
b = thickness of bar, mm
l = length of overlap, mm
= resistivity of the conductor, '_ mm
From the graph it can be seen then that the effect falls very rapidly for ratios up to two and
then very much more slowly for values up to seven. This means that in most cases the
streamline effect has very little effect as the overlap is of necessity much greater than
seven.
Figure 15 Streamline effect in overlapping joints

Contact resistance
The contact interface between the two faces of a busbar joint consists of a large number of
separate point contacts, the area of which increases as more pressure is applied and the
peaks are crushed.
There are two main factors which therefore affect the actual interface resistance of the
surfaces.
a) The condition of the surfaces.
58
b) The total applied pressure.
The type of coating applied to the contact surfaces to prevent or delay the onset of
oxidation when operating at elevated temperatures or in a hostile environment is also
important, particularly in the long term.
Condition of contact surfaces
The condition of the contact surfaces of a joint has an important bearing on its efficiency.
The surfaces of the copper should be flat and clean but need not be polished. Machining is
not usually required. Perfectly flat joint faces are not necessary since very good results can
in most cases be obtained merely by ensuring that the joint is tight and clean. This is
particularly the case where extruded copper bars are used. Where cast copper bars are
used, however, machining may be necessary if the joints are to obtain a sufficiently flat
contact surface.
Oxides, sulphides and other surface contaminants have, of course, a higher resistance than
the base metal. Copper, like all other common metals, readily develops a very thin surface
oxide film even at ordinary temperatures when freely exposed to air, although aluminium
oxidises much more rapidly, and its oxide has a much higher resistivity.
The negative temperature coefficient of resistance of copper oxide means that the joint
conductivity tends to increase with temperature. This does not, of course, mean that a joint
can be made without cleaning just prior to jointing to ensure that the oxide layer is thin
enough to be easily broken as the contact surface peaks deform when the contact pressure
is applied.
Preparation of surfaces
Contact surfaces should be flattened by machining if necessary and thoroughly cleaned. A
ground or sand-roughened surface is preferable to a smooth one.
It is important to prevent the re-oxidation of the joint in service and it is therefore
recommended that the contact faces should be covered with a thin layer of petroleum jelly
immediately after cleaning the contact surfaces. The joint surfaces should then be bolted
together, the excess petroleum jelly being pressed out as the contact pressure is applied.
The remaining jelly will help to protect the joint from deterioration.
It should be noted that in cases where joints have to perform reliably in higher than normal
ambient temperature conditions, it may be advisable to use a high melting point jelly to
prevent it from flowing out of the joint, leaving it liable to attack by oxidation and the
environment.
The following sections describe the use of coatings on conductor contact surfaces. It should
be noted that recent tests carried out to investigate the performance of bolted joints under
cyclic heating with wide temperature variations indicate that joints without coatings give
the most reliable long-term performance (Jackson 1982). The reason for this is that most
coatings are of soft materials which when subjected to continuous pressures and raised
temperatures tend to flow. This has the effect of reducing the number of high pressure
contact points formed when the joint is newly bolted together.
Tinning. The tinning of the contact surfaces of a bolted or clamped joint with pure tin or a
lead-tin alloy is normally unnecessary, although advantages can be gained in certain
circumstances.
59
If the joint faces are very rough, tinning may result in some improvement in efficiency. In
most cases, however, its chief virtue lies in the fact that it tends to prevent oxidation and
hence subsequent joint deterioration. It may therefore be recommended in cases where the
joints operate at unusually high temperatures or current densities or when subjected to
corrosive atmospheres.
For the best results the surfaces should be tinned or re-tinned immediately prior to the final
joint clamping. It should be noted that both the electrical conductivity and the oxidation
protective action decrease as the lead content of the solder increases. Lead also has the
effect of reducing the surface hardness of the coating and a high lead content in the tinning
material should be avoided as this can cause the plating to creep once the joint is bolted
together resulting in premature failure due to overheating.
Silver or nickel plating. This type of plating is being used increasingly, particularly where
equipment is manufactured to American standards which require plated joints for high
temperature operation. Nickel-plating provides a harder surface than silver and may
therefore be preferable. These platings are expensive to apply and must be protected prior
to the final jointing process as they are always very thin coatings and can therefore be
easily damaged. There is also some doubt as to the stability of these joints under prolonged
high temperature cycling. Very high contact resistances can be developed some time after
jointing. It is therefore suggested that natural metal joints are in most cases preferable.
Effect of pressure on contact resistance
It has been shown above that the contact resistance is dependent more on the total applied
pressure than on the area of contact. If the total applied pressure remains constant and the
contact area is varied, as is the case in a switch blade moving between spring loaded
contacts, the total contact resistance remains practically constant. This can be expressed
by an equation of the form:
where Ri = resistance of the contact
p = total contact pressure
n = exponent between 0.4 and 1
C = a constant
The greater the applied total pressure the lower will be the joint resistance and therefore
for high efficiency joints high pressure is usually necessary. This has the advantage that the
high pressure helps to prevent deterioration of the joint. Figure 16 shows the effect of
pressure on joint resistance.
Figure 16 The effect of pressure on the contact resistance of a joint between two
copper conductors
60
Joint resistance falls rapidly with increasing pressure, but above a pressure of about 15
N/mm2 there is little further improvement. Certain precautions must be observed to ensure
that the contact pressure is not unduly high, since it is important that the proof stress of
the conductor material or its bolts and clamps is not exceeded.
As a bar heats up under load the contact pressure in a joint made with steel bolts tends to
increase because of the difference in expansion coefficients between copper and the steel.
It is therefore essential that the initial contact pressure is kept to a such a level that the
contact pressure is not excessive when at operating temperature. If the elastic limit of the
bar is exceeded the joint will have a reduced contact pressure when it returns to its cold
state due to the joint materials having deformed or stretched.
To avoid this, it is helpful to use disc spring washers whose spring rating is chosen to
maintain a substantially constant contact pressure under cold and hot working conditions.
This type of joint deterioration is very much more likely to happen with soft materials, such
as E1E aluminium, where the material elastic limit is low compared with that of high
conductivity copper.
Joint efficiency
The efficiency of a joint may be measured in terms of the ratio of the resistance of the
portion of the conductor comprising the joint and that of an equal length of straight
conductor.
The resistance of a joint, as already mentioned, is made up of two parts, one due to the
distortion of lines of current flow and the other to contact resistance. The resistance due to
the streamline effect at an overlap joint is given by:
where for a given joint a, b and l are the width, thickness and overlap length, these all
being constant, and contact resistance of the joint is:
61
where Y = contact resistance per unit area.
The total joint resistance is:
and the efficiency of the joint is:
The resistance of an equal length of straight conductor is given by:
The resistance ratio e is obtained from Figure 15.
In most cases it is inadvisable to use contact pressures of less than 7 N/mm2, 10 N/mm2
being preferred. The contact pressure chosen is influenced by the size and number of bolts
or clamps, the latter giving a more even contact pressure. For the sake of symmetry the
length of overlap is often made equal to the width of the bar, though with thick and narrow
bars the overlap can be increased to improve the overall joint performance.
Owing to the larger surface area from which heat may be dissipated, efficient joints
between single copper conductors usually have a lower temperature rise than the
conductors themselves. It is important, in general, to ensure that all joints have a
reasonable margin of safety. This is particularly so where multi-conductors join at one joint
and/or the conductors are normally running close to the specified maximum temperature
rises.
3. BOLTING ARRANGEMENTS
In deciding the number, size and distribution of bolts required to produce the necessary
contact pressure to give high joint efficiency, both electrical and mechanical considerations
have to be taken into account. The methods used to determine these requirements have
been given in previous sections.
A joint normally decreases in resistance with an increase in the size and number of bolts
used. Bolt sizes usually vary from M6 to M20 with between four and six being used in each
joint with a preference for four bolts in narrow conductors and six in large conductors. The
torque chosen for each bolt size is dependent on the bolt material and the maximum
operating temperature expected. Because of the strength of copper, deformation of the
conductor under the pressure of the joint is not normally a consideration.
Table 9 shows typical bolting arrangements for various busbar sizes. The recommended
torque settings are applicable to high-tensile steel (8.8) or aluminium bronze (CW307G,
formerly Cy104) fasteners with unlubricated threads of normal surface finish. In the case of
62
stainless steel bolts, these torque settings may be used, but the threads must be lubricated
prior to use.
In addition to the proof or yield stress of the bolt material and the thread characteristics,
the correct tightening torque depends on the differential expansion between the bolt and
conductor materials. Galvanised steel bolts are normally used but brass or bronze bolts
have been used because their coefficients of expansion closely match the copper conductor
and hence the contact pressure does not vary widely with operating temperature. Copper
alloy bolts also have the advantage that the possibility of dissimilar metal corrosion is
avoided. Because these alloys do not have an easily discernible yield stress, however, care
has to be taken not to exceed the correct tightening torque.
Because of their non-magnetic properties, copper alloys may also be preferred to mild or
high-tensile steel where high magnetic fields are expected. Alternatively, a non-magnetic
stainless steel may be used. In most cases however, high-tensile steel is used for its very
high yield stress.
Table 9 Typical busbar bolting arrangements (single face overlap)
Bar
width
mm
Joint
overl
ap
mm
Joint
area
mm2
Numb
er of
bolts *
Metri
c bolt
size
(coar
se
threa
d)
Bolt
torqu
e Nm
Hole
size
mm
Washe
r
diamet
er mm
Washer
thickne
ss mm
16 32 512 2 M6 7.2 7 14 1.8
20 40 800 2 M6 7.2 7 14 1.8
25 60 1500 2 M8 17 10 21 2.0
30 60 1800 2 M8 17 10 21 2.0
40 70 2800 2 M10 28 11.5 24 2.2
50 70 3500 2 M12 45 14 28 2.7
60 60 3600 4 M10 28 11.5 24 2.2
80 80 6400 4 M12 45 14 28 2.7
100 100 10000 5 M12 45 15 28 2.7
120 120 14400 5 M12 45 15 28 2.7
160 160 25600 6 M16 91 20 28 2.7
200 200 40000 8 M16 91 20 28 2.7
* high-tensile steel or aluminium bronze (CW307G, formerly C104)
63
4. CLAMPS
The choice of clamp material and method of manufacture depends on the a.c. or d.c.
current requirements, and on the number of clamps of a given size required. The
manufacturing methods used include machining from plate, sand or die casting, or
stamping from plate. In the case of low current a.c. (less than 3000 A) and d.c. systems the
clamps should be made from a high-strength material compatible with the required contact
pressure. They can therefore be made from steel in cast, forged or stamped form. Where
a.c. currents in excess of 3000 A are concerned, the choice of material is between the low
or non-magnetic steels or a brass or bronze. Steel clamps are generally unsuitable because
of the hysteresis losses induced in them.
5. WELDED JOINTS
The inert gas shielded arc processes, tungsten inert gas (TIG) and metal inert gas (MIG) are
the preferred welding methods for high conductivity coppers and are capable of producing
excellent busbar joints. The welding data given in Table 10 are provided as a guide to good
practice, but the actual welding conditions that will give the best results for a particular
joint must be determined from experience. Certain physical and metallurgical properties of
copper must, however, be taken account of when welding. The high thermal diffusivity of
copper - four or five times that of mild steel - opposes the formation of an adequate weld
pool necessary for good fusion and deoxidation which can give rise to lack of fusion defects
and porosity. The rapid heat sink effect, which is particularly pronounced in thicker
sections, must therefore be overcome. Preheating of the copper before welding is
necessary for thickness above about 3 mm as indicated in Table 10.
As explained in Section 2, the tough pitch grades of copper, CW004A and CW005A
(formerly C101 and C102), contain particles of cuprous oxide which are normally in a form
which has a minimal effect on electrical and mechanical properties. Prolonged heating of
the copper however, allows the oxide particles to diffuse to grain boundaries where they
can seriously affect the properties. This diffusion effect is both time and temperature
dependent and is minimised by performing the welding operation as quickly as possible and
by restricting the overall heating of the component as far as possible consistent with
adequate fusion and a satisfactory weld profile. This consideration obviously does not apply
to oxygen-free coppers which do not contain the oxide particles.
Table 10 Welding data for HC copper
a) Recommended usage of BS 2901 filler alloys for TIG and MIG welding of high
conductivity copper.
Designati
on
Grade
TIG
MIG
Argon or
Helium
Nitrogen Argon or
Helium
Nitrogen
CW004A Electrolytic
tough pitch
high
conductivit
y
C7, C21 Not
recommend
ed
C7, C8, C21 Not
recommended
64
CW005A Fire-refined
tough pitch
high
conductivit
y
C7, C21 Not
recommend
ed
C7, C8, C21 Not
recommended
CW008A Oxygen-
free high
conductivit
y
C7, C21 Not
recommend
ed
C7, C21 Not
recommended
b) Typical operating data for TIG butt welds in high conductivity copper.
(Direct current; electrode negative; argon and helium shielding)
Shielding gas
Argon Helium
Thickne
ss (mm)
Preheat
temperat
ure* (C)
Electro
de
diamet
er
(mm)
Filler
rod
diamet
er
(mm)
Gas
nozzle
diamet
er
(mm)
Weld
curre
nt (A)
Gas
flow
(l/min
)
Weld
curre
nt (A)
Gas
flow
(l/min
)
1.5 None 1.6-2.4 1.6 9.5 80-
130
4-6 70-90 6-10
3 None 2.4-3.2 1.6 9.5-12 120-
240
4-6 180-
220
6-10
6 up to 400 3.2-4.8 3.2 12-18 220-
350
6-8 200-
240
10-15
12 400-600 4.8 3.2-4.8 12-18 330-
420
8-10 260-
280
10-15
>12 500-700 4.8 3.2-4.8 12-18 >400 8-10 280-
320
12-20
* May be reduced significantly in helium shielding
c) Typical operating data for MIG butt welds in high conductivity copper.
(1.6 mm diameter filler wire; argon shielding)
Thickness
(mm)
Preheat
temperat
ure (C)
Welding
current
(A)
Arc
voltage
(V)
Wire feed
rate
(m/min)
Gas flow
rate
(l/min)
6 None 240-320 25-28 6.5-8.0 10-15
65
12 up to 500 320-380 26-30 5.5-6.5 10-15
18 up to 500 340-400 28-32 5.5-6.5 12-17
24 up to 700 340-420 28-32 5.5-6.5 14-20
>24 up to 700 340-460 28-32 5.5-6.5 14-20
Thermal expansion should be allowed for during welding as this leads to the closing of root
gaps as the temperature of the metal rises. The root gaps indicated in Table 11 should
therefore be allowed.
Oxy-acetylene and oxy-propane welding methods can be used with oxygen-free copper but
they are not recommended for welding tough pitch coppers as the reducing atmosphere
produced in the flame can react with the cuprous oxide particles to produce steam inside
the metal. This gives rise to porosity and is known as 'hydrogen embrittlement'.
Further details of the factors involved in the welding of copper can be found in the CDA
publication No 98.
Table 11 Recommended edge preparations for TIG and MIG butt-welds.
66
67
8. MECHANI CAL STRENGTH
REQUI REMENTS
All busbar systems have to be designed to withstand the mechanical forces to which they
may be subjected, whether these be due to their own weight, wind and ice loads, or short-
circuit forces. This force becomes more onerous with increasing voltage and decreasing
current due to respectively longer insulators and smaller conductors.
The conductor itself should have sufficient material strength under all operational
conditions. It must be able to support itself without undue deflection under normal working
conditions, and not suffer permanent damage under abnormal conditions. The following
section enables the mechanical strength requirement of a conductor to be calculated using
the short-circuit forces obtained from the formulae given previously.
1. Deflection
2. Natural Frequency
3. Wind and Ice Loadings
4. Maximum Permissible Stress
5. Thermal Expansion

1. DEFLECTION
The maximum deflection of a beam carrying a uniformly distributed load and freely
supported at each end is given by the formula:
where = maximum deflection, mm
w= weight per unit length of loaded beam, N/mm
L = beam length between supports, mm
E = modulus of elasticity (124 x 10
3
N/mm
2
)
I = moment of inertia of beam section, mm
68
If one end of a beam is rigidly fixed in a horizontal position the deflection is 0.415 times
that given by the above formula and it follows that if a freely supported beam is also
supported at its mid-point then its maximum deflection is reduced to 0.025 of its former
value. If both ends of a beam are rigidly fixed in a horizontal position the deflection is 0.2
times that given by the above formula.
Thus with a continuous beam freely supported at four or more points the maximum
deflection in the centre spans may be assumed to be 0.2 times that given by the formula,
while the deflection in the end spans is 0.415 times. The deflection in the end spans,
therefore, may be assumed to be twice that in the centre spans, assuming equal span
distances.
Moments of inertia
In the above formula the moment of inertia I for the section of the beam has to be
calculated about the neutral axis which runs parallel to the beam where the beam has zero
tensile forces. In most cases this is the same axis of the centre of cross-section.
For a rectangular section of depth D and breadth B
For a circular section of diameter D
For a tubular section of internal diameter d and external diameter D
It should be noted that the value of I for a given cross-section is dependent on the direction
in which each individual force is applied. Moments of inertia for a range of copper rods,
bars, sections and tubes are given in Tables 12 16 (Appendix 2).
2. NATURAL FREQUENCY
The natural frequency of a beam simply supported at its end is
and for a beam with both ends fixed horizontally it is
69
where fn = natural frequency, Hz
= deflection, mm
As the deflection with fixed ends is 0.2 times the value with freely supported ends it follows
that the natural frequency is increased by 2.275 times by end-fixing; fixing one end only
increases the natural frequency by about 50%. Where equipment is to be mounted outside,
natural frequencies of less than 2.75 Hz should be avoided to prevent vibration due to wind
eddies.
3. WIND AND ICE LOADINGS
In considering the loading of a conductor for outdoor service not only must the weight of
the conductor itself be taken into account but also the weight of a coating of ice which it
may carry, together with the wind pressure on the ice loaded conductor.
The maximum thickness of the ice and the maximum wind speed are normally specified by
the purchaser of the busbars but where these are not specified they are usually available
from national standards bodies within the country where the equipment is to be installed.
The wind and ice loading can be calculated using the following formulae:
Wind loading:
W
w
= p(D+2t) x 10
5
Ice loading:
where ww = wind loading, N/m
wi = ice loading, N/m
p = wind pressure, N/mm2
D = diameter, mm
t = ice thickness, mm
It is assumed that the wind load is at right angles to the vertical load of the conductor
weight, and that its ice load and hence the resultant load on the conductor has to be added
vertically. The resultant load is given by:
where R = resultant load, N/m
w = conductor weight per unit length, N/m
and where R acts at an angle to the vertical given by the formula
70
The vertical sag or deflection in the conductor span is given by
where i is the sag in mm in a plane inclined at an angle to the vertical.
4. MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE STRESS
The maximum permissible stress in a conductor is the resultant of its own natural weight
(w) and the additional forces of wind (ww) and ice (wi) loadings (see above) and the
magnetic forces resulting from a short circuit. It should be noted that the direction of a
short-circuit force (Ws) depends on the position of adjacent phases and the direction of the
currents in them.
In a general case the following method should be used for calculating the resultant force
and its direction:
and
The maximum skin stress in the conductor can then be calculated using the following
formula:
where f = maximum skin stress, N/mm2
M = maximum bending moment, N mm
71
Z = section modulus, mm3
For a single beam of length L (mm) uniformly loaded and freely supported at both ends or
freely supported at one end and fixed at the other,
where W = load, N/mm
L = span, mm
For a circular section of external diameter D or for a rectangular section of depth D,
where I = moment of inertia, mm
D = diameter, mm
Then the maximum stress
The maximum permissible stress is dependent on the conductor material, temper, etc., but
must not exceed the material proof stress or permanent deformation will occur. For a
conductor manufactured from hard drawn copper the value is approximately 245 N/mm2.
For a beam which is horizontally fixed at both ends the bending moment at the centre is
reduced to one third and that at its ends to two-thirds of those for a simple supported
beam.
5. THERMAL EXPANSION
If the changes in length that occur in a conductor as it expands and contracts with
temperature variations are not allowed for, undue forces will be set up in the conductor
support system or in the equipment to which the busbar is connected.
The coefficient of linear expansion for copper may be taken as 17 x 106 /C (for
temperatures from ambient up to 200C) compared with 23 x 106 /C for aluminium. The
lower value for copper is of great importance when allowing for thermal expansion under
both normal and transitory conditions, as up to 25% less expansion need be accommodated
for a particular length of busbar. If a length of copper bar were to be kept from expanding
or contracting, a force of nearly 2 N per mm2 of cross-sectional area would be developed
for a temperature change of 1C.
72
In most cases the supports expand far less due to much smaller temperature changes and
lower thermal expansion coefficients. It is therefore normal practice to allow for the full
expansion using flexible conductor connections at suitable points.
Types of expansion joints
In the case of short bars it is usually not necessary to make any special provision to
accommodate expansion. There will normally be one or two reasonably flexible bends
capable of relieving any undue stresses which may be set up.
Figure 17 Types of expansion joints in copper conductors
To relieve intermediate supports of stress, clamps which allow the conductor to move freely
in the longitudinal direction should be provided. These clamps must be designed and
arranged with care to avoid the danger of stresses building up at any point at which the bar
may become wedged or prevented from moving freely.
In the case of long straight runs it is advisable that expansion joints should be introduced.
The joints may use laminated thin copper strips or leaves and have the same total current
rating as the busbar itself.
As an alternative to laminated flexible joints, copper braid may be used. This type of joint is
usually more expensive to manufacture but has the advantage that it can accommodate
expansion in more than one direction (in most cases three directions) and also tends to
eliminate vibration forces being passed from one piece of equipment to another. It is
important that the ferrule into which the copper braid is clamped is of sufficient thickness
to ensure consistent high conductivity after manufacture and during its service life. Where
high resistances develop in the joint after manufacture, overheating and ultimately braid
failure due to oxidation of the braid material may result.
73
9. BUSBAR I MPEDANCE
1. VoltDrop
2. Inductance Formulae
3. Capacitance Formulae
4. Geometric Mean Distance Formulae
The busbar reactance is not normally sufficiently large to affect the total reactance of a
power system and hence is not included in the calculations when establishing the short-
circuit currents and reactive volt drops within a power system. The exception to this is
when considering certain heavy current industrial applications such as furnaces, welding
sets, or roll heating equipment for steel mills. In these cases the reactance may be required
to be known for control purposes, or to obtain busbar arrangements to give minimum or
balanced reactance. This may be important because of its effect on both volt drop and
power factor, and hence on the generating plant kVA requirement per kW of load, or on the
tariffs payable where the power is purchased from outside.
The busbar impedance is made up of three components: resistance, inductance and
capacitance. The values of these components are given an ohmic value which in the case of
inductance and capacitance is dependent on the frequency of the system. They are defined
as follows:
Resistance:
where Rf = resistance at frequency f (Hz), _
Ro = d.c. resistance
S = skin effect ratio
K = proximity ratio
Inductance:
where XL = inductive reactance, _
f = frequency, Hz
L = inductance, H
Capacitance:
74
where Xc = capacitive reactance, _
f = frequency, Hz
C = capacitance, F
Impedance:
where X = XL - XC
The value of XC is usually very much smaller than XL, and XL is usually much larger than
Rf. The value of X is taken to be positive with the sign of XL - XC to indicate whether the
system has a positive or negative power factor.
1. VOLT DROP
The volt drop in a busbar system is estimated as follows from the usual formula:
VB = I ZB
where VB = volt drop, V
I = current flowing in the conductor, A
ZB = busbar impedance, _
However, to find the magnitude of the load voltage VL available, the busbar volt drop VB
must be subtracted vectorially from the supply voltage VS:
VS = supply voltage, V L = angle of load,
VB = busbar volt drop, V _B = angle of busbar,
75
VL = load voltage, V RB = busbar resistance, W
I = current, A XB = busbar reactance, W
The apparent volt drop in the busbar trunking, phase to neutral, is given by:
Multiply by -3 for phase to phase volt drop.
The above formula gives a very close approximation as long as the busbar system volt drop
remains small in comparison to the system voltage.
2. INDUCTANCE FORMULAE
The development of inductance formulae is mathematically complex and is the subject of
many electrical engineering papers and books. To enable many of the normal busbar
configuration inductances to be calculated for self and mutual inductances, the following
formulae have been included.
It should be noted that self inductance LS is the inductance due to a single conductor,
assuming that it is effectively outside the flux range of all other conductors. Mutual
inductance M is the inductance resulting from the flux from other conductors.
Rectangular strip
Circular section bars

Rectangular strip - Single Conductor
76
where
Ls = self inductance, 'H
Ds = 0.2235 (a + b)
= g.m.d. (geometric mean distance from itself), cm
l = length of busbar, cm
Two Parallel Conductors
where
77
M = Mutual inductance, 'H
Dm = g.m.d between bars
Obtain Dm from figure 18 or formulae at end of this Section)
l = length of busbar, cm
Go-and-Return Conductors
The inductance L per conductor includes both self and mutual components and therefore
becomes equal to LS - M, i.e.,
where the conductor spacing is small compared with the conductor length, or
where b is small compared with d.
Circular section bars - Single Conductor

Two Parallel Conductors

Go-and-return conductors
78
As before,
L = Ls - M
if the conductor spacing is small in comparison with its length and in comparison with d.
3. CAPACITANCE FORMULAE
The capacitance of an a.c. system can be of great importance when designing the
protection equipment for the busbars and associated electrical plant. Capacitances for
several configurations of busbars are as follows, where
permittivity E = E0Er
where
Er = relative permittivity of the material.
Isolated twin line
Line above a conducting earth
79

Twin line above a conducting earth

Isolated three-phase line with transposition
80

Concentric cylinders
4. GEOMETRIC MEAN DISTANCE FORMULAE
Rectangular Bars
81
Ref. Dwight 'Electrical Coils and Conduits' 1946, p. 143

Three Phase conductors
Ref. Dwight ' Geometric Mean Distance for Rectangular Conductors' 1946
82
Figure 18 - Geometric Mean Distance - two rectangular bars (Apologies for
quality of diagrams. Please contact CDA UK if you need better quality)
a) Short edges facing
b) Long edges facing
83
Figure 18 - Geometric Mean Distance - two rectangular bars (Apologies for quality of diagrams. Please contact CDA UK if
you need readable versions)
a) Short edges facing
84
85
Figure 18 - Geometric Mean Distance - two rectangular bars
(b) Long edges facing
86
10. APPENDI CES
SUMMARY OF METHODS OF BUSBAR RATING
The following examples summarise the rating methods detailed in section 3 and section 4
for typical cases. Unless otherwise stated, a temperature rise of 50C above an ambient of
40C and a frequency of 50 Hz have been assumed. The ratings may be increased by
blackening the busbar surfaces. (see Radiation)
Case I d.c., single rectangular-section bar on edge in still air
Case II d.c., single circular-section bar (solid or hollow) in still air
Case III d.c., laminated bars in still air
Case IV a.c., single rectangular-section bar in still air
Case V a.c., single circular section bar, in still air
Case VI a.c., laminated bars, in still air
Case VII Enclosed busbars
Case VIII Economical use of busbar configurations

Case I d.c., single rectangular-section bar on edge in still air
Apply formula 4 or read direct from Table 12, for standard sizes.
Example:
Copper bar l00 mm x 6.3 mm (A = 630 mm2, p= 212.6 mm)
I = 7.73 (630)0.5 (212.6)0.39 = 1570 A
(or read direct from Table 12).

Case II d.c., single circular-section bar (solid or hollow) in still air
87
Apply formula 6 or read direct from Table 16 for standard sizes.
Example:
50 mm diameter copper rod
I = 8.63 (1964)0.5 (157)0.36 = 2360 A
(or read direct from Table 16).

Case III d.c., laminated bars in still air
a) Apply formula 4, or read direct from Table 12 for one bar.
b) Multiply by appropriate factor from section 3
Example:
4 copper bars 100 mm x 6.3 mm with 6.3 mm spacing.
I = 1570 A per bar.
Multiplying factor for 4 bars = 3.20.
Hence I = 3.2 x 1570 = 5020 A

Case IV a.c., single rectangular-section bar in still air
88
Divide d.c. rating by appropriate value of
as obtained from Figure 7
Example:
Copper bar 100 mm x 6.3 mm (a/b = 100/6.3 = 16)
d.c. rating = 1579 A (Case I).
Rf/Ro = 1.12 from Figure 7
-1.12= 1.058
Hence I = 1570/1.058 = 1480 A

Case V a.c., single circular section bar, in still air
a) Divide d.c. rating by appropriate value of
as obtained from Figure 4 (solid rods or tubes).
Example:
50 mm diameter copper rod.
d.c. rating = 2360 A (Case II)
Hence Rf/Ro = 1.61, from Figure 4
89
Hence

Case VI a.c., laminated bars, in still air
a) Determine rating of one bar as for Case IV.
b) Multiply by appropriate factor, Table 8
Example:
4 copper bars 100 mm x 6.3 mm with 6.3 mm spacing.
d.c. rating per bar = 1570 A (as Case I)
a.c. rating per bar = 1480 A (as Case IV).
Multiplying factor for 4 bars = 2.3
Hence I = 2.3 x 1480 = 3404A

Case VII Enclosed busbars
a) Multiply still air rating by appropriate constant (see Enclosed copper conductors) i.e.. by
0.6 to 0.65 for conductor configurations largely dependent on air circulation (e.g., modified
hollow square arrangement, Figure 9c), or by 0.7 for tubular conductors or closely grouped
flat laminations.
90
b) Multiply by further 0.85 if enclosure of thick magnetic material.
Example:
4 copper bars 100 mm x 6.3 mm arranged as in Figure 9c, to carry a.c.
d.c. rating, single bar = 1570 A (as in Case I).
a.c. rating, single bar = 1480 A (as in Case IV).
Multiplying factor for 4 laminations (Table 8) = 2.3
Multiplying factor for configuration of Figure 9c, (see Figure 11) = 1.28
Hence still air rating for this configuration = 1480 x 2.3 x 1.28 = 4360 A
Multiplying factor for non-magnetic enclosure (Enclosed copper conductors) = 0.60
Hence enclosed rating = 4360 x 0.6 = 2610 A
Multiplying factor for magnetic enclosure = 0.85
Hence rating in magnetic enclosure =2610 x0.85 = 2220 A
Case VIII Economical use of busbar configurations
Example:
Two channels, each 100 mm high x 45 mm flange width x 8.6 mm thick (A = 1430 mm2 per
channel). a.c. 60 Hz, 30C rise on 40C ambient in still air. From Table 15, rating based on
50C rise on 40C ambient. = 5550 A
Use re-rating formula (equation 8) to obtain rating for 70C working temperature and 40C
ambient.
Hence rating under conditions specified = 5550 x 0.756 = 4195 A
Equivalent 4-bar laminated configuration for same cross-sectional area = 118 mm x 6.3
mm per bar (A = 743 mm2, p = 249 mm).
Hence d.c., rating per bar for 50C rise on 40C ambient. = 1300 A (from equation 4, and
application of appropriate conversion constant as above).
91
a/b = 118/6.3 = 18.7 (see Figure 7)
= 1.08 (from Figure 7 for 60 Hz).
Hence a.c. rating per bar = 1300/1.08 = 1190 A
Multiplying factor for 4 laminations = 2.3 (Table 8)
Hence a.c. rating for 4 laminations = 1190 x 2.3 = 2760 A
Thus the double channel arrangement is able to carry more current than laminated bars, in
the ratio 1.52:1 for this cross-sectional area. This corresponds to the factor given in Figure
11. For larger cross-sectional areas this factor would be still greater, for smaller sections
the increase would be rather less than this, the exact value depends on the ratio of web to
flange lengths of the channel used, and on the thickness of web and channel; a rather wide
spacing between "go" and "return" conductors is also assumed in Table 15, in order to
approximate to the "equi-inductance line" condition (see Condition for minimum loss).
TABLES OF PROPERTIES OF HC COPPER CONDUCTORS
Table 12. Current ratings, moments of inertia and section moduli - strips and
bars
Table 13. a.c. current ratings of laminated bars
Table 14. Current ratings, moments of inertia and section moduli - tubes
Table 15. Current ratings, moments of inertia and section moduli - sections
Table 16. Moments of inertia, section moduli and current ratings - rods
Table 17. Comparison of flat bar d.c. current ratings for different ambient and
working temperatures
92
Table 12. Current ratings, moments of inertia and section moduli - strips and bars
Approx. d.c.
rating
(1)
Approx. a.c.
rating
(2)
Moment of
inertia
I
Modulus of
Section
Z
B
u
s
b
a
r

S
i
z
e

m
m
X
-
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
a
l

a
r
e
a

m
m
2
W
e
i
g
h
t

k
g
/
m
A
p
p
r
o
x

d
.
c
.
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

2
0

/
m
S
t
i
l
l

a
i
r

(
3
)
A
F
r
e
e

a
i
r

(
3
)
A
S
t
i
l
l

a
i
r

A
F
r
e
e

a
i
r


A
E
d
g
e
w
i
s
e

m
m
4
F
l
a
t
m
m
4
E
d
g
e
w
i
s
e
m
m
3
F
l
a
t
m
m
3
B
u
s
b
a
r

s
i
z
e

m
m
10x1.60 16.0 0.143 1077 105 115 105 115 133.3 3.413 26.66 4.266 10x1.60
12.5x1.6
0
20.0 0.179 862 125 135 125 135 260.4 4.266 41.66 5.333
12.5x1.6
0
16x1.60 25.6 0.229 673 155 170 155 170 546.1 5.461 68.26 6.826 16x1.60
20x1.60 32.0 0.286 538 185 205 185 205 1066 6.826 106.6 8.533 20x1.60
25x1.60 40.0 0.357 431 225 250 225 250 2083 8.533 166.6 10.67 25x1.60
30x1.60 48.0 0.429 359 265 290 265 290 3600 10.24 240.0 12.80 30x1.60
10x2.00 20.0 0.179 862 115 130 115 130 166.6 6.666 33.32 6.666 10x2.00
12.5x2.0 25.0 0.223 689 140 155 140 155 325.5 8.333 52.08 8.333 12.5x2.0
93
Approx. d.c.
rating
(1)
Approx. a.c.
rating
(2)
Moment of
inertia
I
Modulus of
Section
Z
B
u
s
b
a
r

S
i
z
e

m
m
X
-
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
a
l

a
r
e
a

m
m
2
W
e
i
g
h
t

k
g
/
m
A
p
p
r
o
x

d
.
c
.
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

2
0

/
m
S
t
i
l
l

a
i
r

(
3
)
A
F
r
e
e

a
i
r

(
3
)
A
S
t
i
l
l

a
i
r

A
F
r
e
e

a
i
r


A
E
d
g
e
w
i
s
e

m
m
4
F
l
a
t
m
m
4
E
d
g
e
w
i
s
e
m
m
3
F
l
a
t
m
m
3
B
u
s
b
a
r

s
i
z
e

m
m
0 0
16x2.00 32.0 0.286 538 175 190 175 190 682.6 10.66 85.33 10.66 16x2.00
20x2.00 40.0 0.357 431 210 230 210 230 1333 13.33 133.3 13.33 20x2.00
25x2.00 50.0 0.446 344 255 280 255 280 2604 16.66 208.3 16.66 25x2.00
30x2.00 60.0 0.536 287 295 330 295 330 4500 20.00 300 20.00 30x2.00
40x2.00 80.0 0.714 215 380 420 380 420 10660 26.66 533 26.66 40x2.00
10x2.50 25.0 0.223 689 130 145 130 145 208.3 13.02 41.66 10.42 10x2.50
12.5x2.5
0
31.25 0.279 557 160 175 160 175 406.9 16.27 65.60 13.02
12.5x2.5
0
16x2.50 40.0 0.357 431 195 215 195 215 853.3 20.83 106.70 16.66 16x2.50
94
Approx. d.c.
rating
(1)
Approx. a.c.
rating
(2)
Moment of
inertia
I
Modulus of
Section
Z
B
u
s
b
a
r

S
i
z
e

m
m
X
-
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
a
l

a
r
e
a

m
m
2
W
e
i
g
h
t

k
g
/
m
A
p
p
r
o
x

d
.
c
.
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

2
0

/
m
S
t
i
l
l

a
i
r

(
3
)
A
F
r
e
e

a
i
r

(
3
)
A
S
t
i
l
l

a
i
r

A
F
r
e
e

a
i
r


A
E
d
g
e
w
i
s
e

m
m
4
F
l
a
t
m
m
4
E
d
g
e
w
i
s
e
m
m
3
F
l
a
t
m
m
3
B
u
s
b
a
r

s
i
z
e

m
m
20x2.50 50.0 0.446 344 235 260 235 260 1666 26.04 166.6 20.83 20x2.50
25x2.50 62.5 0.558 275 285 315 285 315 3255 32.55 260.4 26.04 25x2.50
30x2.50 75.0 0.670 229 330 370 330 370 5625 39.06 375.0 31.25 30x2.50
40x2.50 100 0.893 172 425 475 425 475 13330 52.08 666.5 41.66 40x2.50
50x2.50 125 1.115 137 520 575 520 575 26040 65.10 1041 52.08 50x2.50
60x2.50 150 1.339 114 605 675 605 675 45000 78.13 1500 62.50 60x2.50
10x2.75 31.5 0.281 547 150 170 150 170 262.5 26.05 52.5 16.54 10x2.75
12.5x2.7
5
39.4 0.352 437 180 200 180 200 512.7 32.56 82.03 20.67
12.5x2.7
5
16x2.75 50.4 0.450 342 220 245 220 245 1075 41.67 134.4 26.46 16x2.75
95
Approx. d.c.
rating
(1)
Approx. a.c.
rating
(2)
Moment of
inertia
I
Modulus of
Section
Z
B
u
s
b
a
r

S
i
z
e

m
m
X
-
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
a
l

a
r
e
a

m
m
2
W
e
i
g
h
t

k
g
/
m
A
p
p
r
o
x

d
.
c
.
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

2
0

/
m
S
t
i
l
l

a
i
r

(
3
)
A
F
r
e
e

a
i
r

(
3
)
A
S
t
i
l
l

a
i
r

A
F
r
e
e

a
i
r


A
E
d
g
e
w
i
s
e

m
m
4
F
l
a
t
m
m
4
E
d
g
e
w
i
s
e
m
m
3
F
l
a
t
m
m
3
B
u
s
b
a
r

s
i
z
e

m
m
20x3.0 60.0 0.536 287 260 290 260 290 2000 45.00 200.0 30.00 20x3.0
25x3.0 75 0.670 229 315 350 314 350 3906 56.25 312.4 37.5 25x3.0
30x3.0 90 0.803 191 365 405 365 405 6750 67.50 450.0 45.0 30x3.0
40x3.0 120 1.071 143 470 520 470 520 16000 90.00 800.0 60.0 40x3.0
50x3.0 150 1.339 114 570 635 570 635 31250 112.50 1250 75.0 50x3.0
60x3.0 180 1.607 95.7 665 740 665 740 54000 135.00 1800 90.0 60x3.0
80x3.0 240 2.142 71.8 860 955 860 955
128x10
3
180.00 3200 120.0 80x3.0
10x4.0 40 0.357 431 175 195 175 195 333.3 53.33 66.66 26.67 10x4.0
12.5x4.0 50 0.446 344 210 230 210 230 651.0 66.67 104.2 33.34 12.5x4.0
96
Approx. d.c.
rating
(1)
Approx. a.c.
rating
(2)
Moment of
inertia
I
Modulus of
Section
Z
B
u
s
b
a
r

S
i
z
e

m
m
X
-
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
a
l

a
r
e
a

m
m
2
W
e
i
g
h
t

k
g
/
m
A
p
p
r
o
x

d
.
c
.
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

2
0

/
m
S
t
i
l
l

a
i
r

(
3
)
A
F
r
e
e

a
i
r

(
3
)
A
S
t
i
l
l

a
i
r

A
F
r
e
e

a
i
r


A
E
d
g
e
w
i
s
e

m
m
4
F
l
a
t
m
m
4
E
d
g
e
w
i
s
e
m
m
3
F
l
a
t
m
m
3
B
u
s
b
a
r

s
i
z
e

m
m
16x4.0 64 0.571 269 255 285 255 285 1365 85.33 170.6 42.67 16x4.0
20x4.0 80 0.714 215 305 340 305 340 2666 106.7 266.6 53.35 20x4.0
25x4.0 100 0.893 172 365 410 365 410 5208 133.3 416.6 66.65 25x4.0
30x4.0 120 1.071 143 430 475 430 475 8999 1600 599.6 80.00 30x4.0
40x4.0 160 1.428 107 545 610 540 605 21330 213.3 1066.5 106.7 40x4.0
50x4.0 200 1.785 86.2 665 740 660 735 41660 266.7 1666 133.4 50x4.0
60x4.0 240 2.142 71.8 775 860 770 855 72000 320.0 2400 160.0 60x4.0
80x4.0 320 2.856 53.8 995 1120 980 1105
170x10
E3
426.7 4268 213.4 80x4.0
100x4.0 400 3.571 43.1 1210 1365 1185 1340
333x10
E3
533.3 6666 266.7 100x4.0
97
Approx. d.c.
rating
(1)
Approx. a.c.
rating
(2)
Moment of
inertia
I
Modulus of
Section
Z
B
u
s
b
a
r

S
i
z
e

m
m
X
-
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
a
l

a
r
e
a

m
m
2
W
e
i
g
h
t

k
g
/
m
A
p
p
r
o
x

d
.
c
.
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

2
0

/
m
S
t
i
l
l

a
i
r

(
3
)
A
F
r
e
e

a
i
r

(
3
)
A
S
t
i
l
l

a
i
r

A
F
r
e
e

a
i
r


A
E
d
g
e
w
i
s
e

m
m
4
F
l
a
t
m
m
4
E
d
g
e
w
i
s
e
m
m
3
F
l
a
t
m
m
3
B
u
s
b
a
r

s
i
z
e

m
m
10x5.0 50 0.446 344 200 225 200 225 416.7 104.2 83.34 41.68 10x5.0
12.5x5.0 62.5 0.558 275 240 265 240 265 813.4 130.2 130.1 52.08 12.5x5.0
16x5.0 80 0.714 215 290 325 290 325 1707 166.7 213.4 66.68 16x5.0
20x5.0 100 0.893 172 345 385 345 385 3333 208 333.3 83.20 20x5.0
25x5.0 125 1.116 137 415 465 415 465 6560 260.4 520.8 104.2 25x5.0
30x5.0 150 1.339 114 485 540 480 540 11250 312.5 750.0 125.0 30x5.0
40x5.0 200 1.785 86.2 615 685 610 680 26670 416.7 1334 166.7 40x5.0
50x5.0 250 2.232 68.9 745 830 740 820 52080 520.8 2083 208.3 50x5.0
60x5.0 300 2.678 57.4 870 970 865 960 90000 625.0 3000 250.0 60x5.0
80x5.0 400 3571 431 1120 1260 1110 1250 213x10 833.3 5333 333.3 80x5.0
98
Approx. d.c.
rating
(1)
Approx. a.c.
rating
(2)
Moment of
inertia
I
Modulus of
Section
Z
B
u
s
b
a
r

S
i
z
e

m
m
X
-
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
a
l

a
r
e
a

m
m
2
W
e
i
g
h
t

k
g
/
m
A
p
p
r
o
x

d
.
c
.
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

2
0

/
m
S
t
i
l
l

a
i
r

(
3
)
A
F
r
e
e

a
i
r

(
3
)
A
S
t
i
l
l

a
i
r

A
F
r
e
e

a
i
r


A
E
d
g
e
w
i
s
e

m
m
4
F
l
a
t
m
m
4
E
d
g
e
w
i
s
e
m
m
3
F
l
a
t
m
m
3
B
u
s
b
a
r

s
i
z
e

m
m
E3
100x5.0 500 4464 344 1355 1530 1345 1520
417x10
E3
1042 8334 416.8 100x5.0
10x6.3 63 0.562 273 235 260 235 260 525 208.4 105.0 66.16 10x6.3
12.5x6.3 78.75 0.703 218 275 305 275 305 1025 260.5 164.0 82.70 12.5x6.3
16x6.3 100.8 0.899 171 335 370 335 370 2150 333.4 268.8 105.8 16x6.3
20x6.0 120 1.071 143 385 430 385 430 4000 360.0 400.0 120.0 20x6.0
25x6.0 150 1.339 114 460 515 460 515 7813 450.0 625.0 150.0 25x6.0
30x6.0 180 1.607 95.7 535 600 535 595 13500 540.0 900.0 180.0 30x6.0
40x6.0 240 2.142 71.8 680 760 675 755 32000 720.0 1600 240.0 40x6.0
99
Approx. d.c.
rating
(1)
Approx. a.c.
rating
(2)
Moment of
inertia
I
Modulus of
Section
Z
B
u
s
b
a
r

S
i
z
e

m
m
X
-
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
a
l

a
r
e
a

m
m
2
W
e
i
g
h
t

k
g
/
m
A
p
p
r
o
x

d
.
c
.
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

2
0

/
m
S
t
i
l
l

a
i
r

(
3
)
A
F
r
e
e

a
i
r

(
3
)
A
S
t
i
l
l

a
i
r

A
F
r
e
e

a
i
r


A
E
d
g
e
w
i
s
e

m
m
4
F
l
a
t
m
m
4
E
d
g
e
w
i
s
e
m
m
3
F
l
a
t
m
m
3
B
u
s
b
a
r

s
i
z
e

m
m
50x6.0 300 2.678 57.4 825 915 815 910 62500 900.0 2500 300.0 50x6.0
60x6.0 360 3.214 47.8 965 1075 955 1065
108x10
E3
1080 3600 360.0 60x6.0
80x6.0 480 4.285 35.9 1230 1370 1220 1355
256
x10E3
1440 6400 480.0 80x6.0
100x6.0 600 5.356 28.7 1490 1680 1480 1670
500
x10E3
1800 10000 600.0 100x6.0
120x6.0 720 6.428 23.9 1750 1970 1700 1915
864
x10E3
2160 14400 720.0 120x6.0
160x6.0 960 8.570 17.9 2250 2535 2130 2400
2.05
x10E6
2880 25600 960.0 160x6.0
20x8.0 160 1.428 107 460 510 455 510 5333 853.3 533.0 213.3 20x8.0
100
Approx. d.c.
rating
(1)
Approx. a.c.
rating
(2)
Moment of
inertia
I
Modulus of
Section
Z
B
u
s
b
a
r

S
i
z
e

m
m
X
-
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
a
l

a
r
e
a

m
m
2
W
e
i
g
h
t

k
g
/
m
A
p
p
r
o
x

d
.
c
.
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

2
0

/
m
S
t
i
l
l

a
i
r

(
3
)
A
F
r
e
e

a
i
r

(
3
)
A
S
t
i
l
l

a
i
r

A
F
r
e
e

a
i
r


A
E
d
g
e
w
i
s
e

m
m
4
F
l
a
t
m
m
4
E
d
g
e
w
i
s
e
m
m
3
F
l
a
t
m
m
3
B
u
s
b
a
r

s
i
z
e

m
m
25x8.0 200 1.785 86.2 545 610 545 605 10420 1067 833.6 266.7 25x8.0
30x8.0 240 2.142 71.8 630 705 630 700 18000 1280 1200 320.0 30x8.0
40x8.0 320 2.856 53.8 800 890 795 885 42670 1707 2134 426.8 40x8.0
50x8.0 400 3.571 43.1 965 1070 950 1055 83300 2133 3333 533.3 50x8.0
60x8.0 480 4.285 35.9 1120 1250 1110 1235
144x10
E3
2560 4800 640.0 60x8.0
80x8.0 640 5.713 26.9 1435 1595 1420 1580
341x10
E3
3413 8533 853.3 80x8.0
100x8.0 800 7.142 21.5 1735 1955 1595 1800
667x10
E3
4267 13330 1067 100x8.0
120x8.0 960 8.570 17.9 2032 2290 1760 1985
1.15x10
E6
5120 19200 1280 120x8.0
101
Approx. d.c.
rating
(1)
Approx. a.c.
rating
(2)
Moment of
inertia
I
Modulus of
Section
Z
B
u
s
b
a
r

S
i
z
e

m
m
X
-
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
a
l

a
r
e
a

m
m
2
W
e
i
g
h
t

k
g
/
m
A
p
p
r
o
x

d
.
c
.
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

2
0

/
m
S
t
i
l
l

a
i
r

(
3
)
A
F
r
e
e

a
i
r

(
3
)
A
S
t
i
l
l

a
i
r

A
F
r
e
e

a
i
r


A
E
d
g
e
w
i
s
e

m
m
4
F
l
a
t
m
m
4
E
d
g
e
w
i
s
e
m
m
3
F
l
a
t
m
m
3
B
u
s
b
a
r

s
i
z
e

m
m
160x8.0 1280 11.43 13.4 2610 2935 2230 2510
2.73x10
E6
6827 34140 1707 160x8.0
200x8.0 1600 14.27 10.8 3170 3570 2760 3110
5.33x10
E6
8533 53330 2133 200x8.0
20x10 200 1.785 86.2 525 585 480 535 6670 1667 667 333.4 20x10
25x10 250 2.232 68.9 625 695 580 645 13020 2083 1042 416.6 25x10
30x10 300 2.678 57.4 720 825 700 795 22500 2500 1500 500.0 30x10
40x10 400 3.571 43.1 910 1030 880 995 53330 3333 2667 666.6 40x10
50x10 500 4.464 34.4 1090 1235 1060 1200
104x10
E3
4167 4168 833.4 50xl0
60x10 600 5.356 28.7 1270 1435 1200 1355
180x10
E3
5000 6000 1000 60x10
102
Approx. d.c.
rating
(1)
Approx. a.c.
rating
(2)
Moment of
inertia
I
Modulus of
Section
Z
B
u
s
b
a
r

S
i
z
e

m
m
X
-
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
a
l

a
r
e
a

m
m
2
W
e
i
g
h
t

k
g
/
m
A
p
p
r
o
x

d
.
c
.
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

2
0

/
m
S
t
i
l
l

a
i
r

(
3
)
A
F
r
e
e

a
i
r

(
3
)
A
S
t
i
l
l

a
i
r

A
F
r
e
e

a
i
r


A
E
d
g
e
w
i
s
e

m
m
4
F
l
a
t
m
m
4
E
d
g
e
w
i
s
e
m
m
3
F
l
a
t
m
m
3
B
u
s
b
a
r

s
i
z
e

m
m
80x10 800 7.142 21.5 1615 1840 1525 1735
427x10
E3
6667 10670 1333 80x10
100x10 1000 8.928 17.2 1950 2225 1800 2065
833x10
E3
8333 16670 1667 100x10
120x10 1200 10.71 14.3 2285 2610 2100 2395
144x10
E3
10000 23980 2000 120x10
160x10 1600 14.28 10.7 2930 3380 2620 3040
341x10
E3
13330 42660 2666 160x10
200x10 2000 17.84 8.62 3550 4150 3140 3630
6.67x10
E6
16670 66670 3334 200x10
250x10 2500 22.30 6.89 4320 5030 3710 4310
13.0x10
E6
20830
104x10
3
4166 250x10
25x12 300 2.678 57.4 700 710 640 650 15630 3599 1250 599.8 25x12
30x12 360 3.214 47.8 805 820 750 765 27000 4319 1800 719.8 30x12
103
Approx. d.c.
rating
(1)
Approx. a.c.
rating
(2)
Moment of
inertia
I
Modulus of
Section
Z
B
u
s
b
a
r

S
i
z
e

m
m
X
-
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
a
l

a
r
e
a

m
m
2
W
e
i
g
h
t

k
g
/
m
A
p
p
r
o
x

d
.
c
.
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

2
0

/
m
S
t
i
l
l

a
i
r

(
3
)
A
F
r
e
e

a
i
r

(
3
)
A
S
t
i
l
l

a
i
r

A
F
r
e
e

a
i
r


A
E
d
g
e
w
i
s
e

m
m
4
F
l
a
t
m
m
4
E
d
g
e
w
i
s
e
m
m
3
F
l
a
t
m
m
3
B
u
s
b
a
r

s
i
z
e

m
m
40x12 480 4.285 35.9 1010 1100 950 1030 64000 5759 3200 959.8 40x12
50x12 600 5.356 28.7 1210 1330 1160 1275
125x10
E3
7199 5000 1199 50x12
60x12 720 6.428 23.9 1405 1550 1320 1455
216x10
E3
8639 7200 1439 60x12
80x12 960 8.570 17.9 1785 2000 1670 1870
512x10
E3
11519 12800 1919 80x12
100x12 1200 10.71 14.3 2155 2420 2010 2255
1.00x10
E6
14390 20000 2398 100x12
120x12 1440 12.85 11.9 2520 2880 2310 2640
1.73x10
E6
17280 28800 2880 120x12
160x12 1920 17.14 8.97 3225 3650 2860 3235
4.10x10
E6
23040 51200 3840 160x12
200x12 2400 21.43 7.18 3910 4480 3380 3870 8.00x10 28790 80000 4798 200x12
104
Approx. d.c.
rating
(1)
Approx. a.c.
rating
(2)
Moment of
inertia
I
Modulus of
Section
Z
B
u
s
b
a
r

S
i
z
e

m
m
X
-
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
a
l

a
r
e
a

m
m
2
W
e
i
g
h
t

k
g
/
m
A
p
p
r
o
x

d
.
c
.
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

2
0

/
m
S
t
i
l
l

a
i
r

(
3
)
A
F
r
e
e

a
i
r

(
3
)
A
S
t
i
l
l

a
i
r

A
F
r
e
e

a
i
r


A
E
d
g
e
w
i
s
e

m
m
4
F
l
a
t
m
m
4
E
d
g
e
w
i
s
e
m
m
3
F
l
a
t
m
m
3
B
u
s
b
a
r

s
i
z
e

m
m
E6
250x12 3000 26.78 5.74 4750 5440 4060 4650
15.6x10
E6
35990
125x10
3
5998 250x12
25x16 400 3.571 43.1 840 960 740 855 20830 8533
16.7x10
3
1067 25x16
30x16 480 4.285 35.9 960 1095 845 975 35990 10240
24.0x10
3
1280 30x16
40x16 640 5.713 26.9 1200 1370 1055 1220 85330 13650
42.7x10
3
1706 40x16
50x16 800 7.142 21.5 1430 1635 1260 1450
167x10
E3
17070
66.7x10
3
2134 50x16
60x16 960 8.570 17.9 1660 1895 1460 1685
288x10
E3
20480
96.0x10
3
2560 60x16
80x16 1280 11.43 13,4 2100 2400 1850 2130 683x10 27310 171x10 3414 80x16
105
Approx. d.c.
rating
(1)
Approx. a.c.
rating
(2)
Moment of
inertia
I
Modulus of
Section
Z
B
u
s
b
a
r

S
i
z
e

m
m
X
-
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
a
l

a
r
e
a

m
m
2
W
e
i
g
h
t

k
g
/
m
A
p
p
r
o
x

d
.
c
.
r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

2
0

/
m
S
t
i
l
l

a
i
r

(
3
)
A
F
r
e
e

a
i
r

(
3
)
A
S
t
i
l
l

a
i
r

A
F
r
e
e

a
i
r


A
E
d
g
e
w
i
s
e

m
m
4
F
l
a
t
m
m
4
E
d
g
e
w
i
s
e
m
m
3
F
l
a
t
m
m
3
B
u
s
b
a
r

s
i
z
e

m
m
E3 3
100x16 1600 14.28 10.7 2530 2880 2220 2560
1.33x10
E6
34130
267x10
3
4266 100x16
120x16 1920 17.14 8.97 2940 3360 2590 2990
2.30x10
E6
40960
384x10
3
5120 120x16
160x16 2560 22.85 6.73 3750 4360 3180 3700
5.46x10
E6
54610
683x10
3
6826 160x16
200x16 3200 28.57 5.38 4540 5725 3760 4370
10.7x10
E6
68270
1.07x10
6
8534 200x16
250x16 4000 35.71 4.31 5520 6425 4500 5250
20.8x10
E6
85330
1.67x10
6
10670 250x16
300x16 4800 42.84 3.59 6460 7525 5270 6150
36.0x10
E6
102x10
3
2.40x10
6
12800 300x16

106
Notes:
1. Ratings apply for single bars on edge operating in a 40C ambient temperature with 50C temperature rise. For other ambient and
working temperatures apply formula 8, section 3.
2. a.c. ratings are for frequencies up to 60 Hz.
3. 'Free air' conditions assume some air movement other than convection currents, and may be applicable for outside installations. 'Still'
and 'free' air conditions both assume no enclosure.
107
Table 13. a.c. current ratings of laminated bars
Number
and size
of bars
Total
Section
Current for stated temperature rise above 20C
ambient
mm mm
2
20C 30C 40C 50C
2 - 20x5 200 430 540 640 720
2 - 25x5 250 500 640 750 855
2 - 30x5 300 590 750 880 1000
3 - 30x5 450 800 1020 1200 1360
4 - 30x5 600 1030 1300 1530 1740
2 - 40x5 400 750 950 1120 1270
3 - 40x5 600 1030 1300 1530 1740
4 - 40x5 800 1260 1600 1890 2140
2 - 50x5 500 880 1120 1320 1500
3 - 50x5 750 1200 1520 1790 2030
4 - 50x5 1000 1500 1900 2240 2540
2 - 60x5 600 1030 1300 1530 1740
3 - 60x5 900 1380 1750 2060 2340
4 - 60x5 1200 1700 2150 2540 2880
2 - 80x5 800 1260 1600 1890 2140
3 - 80x5 1200 1700 2150 2540 2880
4 - 80x5 1600 2080 2630 3100 3520
2 - 100x5 1000 1460 1850 2180 2470
3 - 100x5 1500 1990 2520 2970 3370
4 - 100x5 2000 2420 3060 3610 4090
4 - 50x10 2000 2330 2950 3480 3950
4 - 60x10 2400 2580 3260 3850 4360
108
Number
and size
of bars
Total
Section
Current for stated temperature rise above 20C
ambient
4 - 80x10 3200 2970 3760 4440 5030
3 -
100x10
3000 2880 3650 4300 4880
4 -
100x10
4000 3240 4100 4840 5480

Notes:
All values are bars arranged on edge and spacing equal to the bar thickness. All bars in free
air and painted black.
Values for 30C rise based on test results, values for 20, 40 and 50C rise based on 30C
rise values and assume temperature rise proportional to 1.75 power of I.
Courtesy of Ottermill Switchgear Ltd.
109
Table 14. Current ratings, moments of inertia and section moduli - tubes
a. Metric sizes
Outside
diameter
Wall
Thickn
ess
Cross
Sectiona
l
area
Appro
xweig
ht
Mome
nt of
inerti
a of
sectio
n
Modul
usof
sectio
n
Appro
x
resista
nceper
m 20C
Approx. d.c.
Current
rating A
(1)
mm mm mm2 kg/m mm4 mm3 Indo
or
Outdo
or
12 1.0 34.56 0.307 527.0 87.83 502 185 250
12 1.5 49.48 0.440 695.8 116.0 351 220 300
12 2.0 62.83 0.559 816.8 136.1 276 250 340
15 1.0 43.98 0.391 1083 144.4 394 225 300
15 1.5 63.62 0.566 1467 195.6 273 275 360
15 2.0 81.68 0.726 1766 235.5 212 310 400
18 1.0 53.40 0.475 1936 215.1 325 265 350
18 1.5 77.75 0.691 2668 296.4 223 320 420
18 2.0 100.5 0.894 3267 363.0 172 365 480
18 2.5 121.7 1.08 3751 416.8 143 405 530
22 1.0 65.98 0.587 3645 331.4 263 320 410
22 1.5 96.61 0.859 5102 463.8 179 385 500
22 2.0 125.7 1.12 6346 576.9 138 440 570
22 2.5 154.1 1.37 7399 672.7 112 490 630
22 3.0 179.1 1.59 8282 752.9 97.0 525 680
28 1.5 124.9 1.11 11000 785.5 139 480 620
28 2.0 163.4 1.45 13890 991.8 106.3 550 700
28 2.5 200.3 1.78 16440 1157 86.7 605 780
28 3.0 235.6 2.10 18670 1334 73.7 660 850
35 1.5 157.9 1.40 22190 1268 110 585 750
110
Outside
diameter
Wall
Thickn
ess
Cross
Sectiona
l
area
Appro
xweig
ht
Mome
nt of
inerti
a of
sectio
n
Modul
usof
sectio
n
Appro
x
resista
nceper
m 20C
Approx. d.c.
Current
rating A
(1)
mm mm mm2 kg/m mm4 mm3 Indo
or
Outdo
or
35 2.0 207.4 1.84 28330 1619 83.7 670 850
35 2.5 255.3 2.27 33900 1937 68.0 740 950
35 3.0 301.6 2.68 38940 2225 57.5 805 1030
54 1.5 247.4 2.20 85300 3160 70.2 855 1090
54 2.0 326.7 2.91 11060
0
4096 53.1 980 1250
54 2.5 404.5 3.60 13440
0
4978 42.9 1090 1390
54 3.0 480.7 4.27 15680
0
5808 36.1 1190 1520
76.1 2.0 465.6 4.14 31980
0
8404 37.3 1330 1690
76.1 2.5 578.1 5.14 39200
0
10300 30.0 1480 1880
76.1 3.0 689.0 6.13 46100
0
12110 25.2 1610 2050
76.1 3.5 798.3 7.10 52720
0
13850 21.7 1740 2210
108 2.5 828.6 7.37 1.153x
106
21360 20.9 2010 2550
108 3.0 989.6 8.80 1.365x
106
25280 17.5 2190 2790
108 3.5 1149 10.2 1.570x
106
29080 15.1 2360 3010
133 3.0 1225 10.9 2.590x
106
38940 14.1 2630 3350
133 3.5 1424 12.7 2.987x
106
44920 12.1 2830 3610
111
Outside
diameter
Wall
Thickn
ess
Cross
Sectiona
l
area
Appro
xweig
ht
Mome
nt of
inerti
a of
sectio
n
Modul
usof
sectio
n
Appro
x
resista
nceper
m 20C
Approx. d.c.
Current
rating A
(1)
mm mm mm2 kg/m mm4 mm3 Indo
or
Outdo
or
159 3.0 1470 13.1 4.474x
106
56280 11.8 3070 2910
159 3.5 1710 15.2 5.171x
106
65040 10.1 3310 4420

112
b. Sizes based on Imperial dimensions
Outsi
de
Diame
ter
Wall
Thick
-ness
Appro
x.
sectio
nal
area
Appr
oxwe
ight
Mom
entof
inerti
a
x 103
Modul
us
of
sectio
n
x 103
Approx.
Resista
nce
per m
20C
Approx. d.c.
current
rating A
(1)
mm mm mm2 kg/m mm4 mm3 '_ Indoor Outdo
or
12.5 1.22 43.9 0.387 0.738 0.115 400.2 205 285
12.5 2.65 83.9 0.744 1.14 0.178 210.0 285 390
19 1.22 68.4 0.610 2.75 0.286 257.0 300 400
19 2.65 136 0.218 4.74 0.494 129.0 420 560
19 5.1 223 1.984 6.20 0.646 78.73 540 715
25 1.22 92.9 0.819 6.84 0.534 189.2 390 505
25 1.63 118 1.063 8.69 0.679 148.7 440 570
25 2.04 149 1.325 10.3 0.808 118.1 490 640
25 2.65 189 1.684 12.5 0.976 92.95 555 720
25 4.07 272 2.431 16.2 1.26 64.52 665 865
25 6.36 380 3.38 19.3 1.51 45.93 785 1020
32 1.63 154 1.378 17.6 1.10 114.8 540 695
32 3.26 291 2.59 30.2 1.89 60.14 745 955
32 6.36 506 4.51 43.8 2.74 35.00 985 1260
38 1.63 186 1.65 31.3 1.63 94.37 635 838
38 3.26 356 3.178 54.9 2.86 49.43 880 1138
38 7.64 730 6.498 90.7 4.73 24.06 1260 1620
44 1.63 219 1.955 50.6 2.26 80.48 730 935
44 3.26 421 3.74 90.6 4.04 41.77 1020 1300
44 7.64 882 7.84 157 7.01 19.90 1470 1880
50 1.63 250 2.227 76.6 2.99 70.42 820 1050
113
Outsi
de
Diame
ter
Wall
Thick
-ness
Appro
x.
sectio
nal
area
Appr
oxwe
ight
Mom
entof
inerti
a
x 103
Modul
us
of
sectio
n
x 103
Approx.
Resista
nce
per m
20C
Approx. d.c.
current
rating A
(1)
mm mm mm2 kg/m mm4 mm3 '_ Indoor Outdo
or
50 2.04 312 2.775 93.4 3.65 56.42 915 1170
50 4.07 597 5.30 165 6.46 29.52 1270 1620
50 4.87 702 6.25 189 7.39 25.04 1380 1760
50 6.41 892 7.93 227 8.85 19.68 1560 1980
50 10.2 1300 11.5 287 11.2 13.56 1870 2390
64 2.04 392 3.48 187 5.85 44.83 1110 1420
64 4.07 759 6.89 339 10.6 23.18 1550 1980
64 10.2 1700 15.1 632 19.8 10.33 2310 2960
75 1.63 380 3.40 267 6.95 46.26 1170 1500
75 2.04 472 4.21 328 8.55 37.29 1300 1670
75 2.65 610 5.43 417 10.9 28.87 1490 1900
75 4.07 912 8.13 606 15.8 19.25 1830 2320
75 4.89 1090 9.69 704 18.3 16.18 2000 2530
75 5.40 1200 10.78 761 19.8 14.65 2080 2660
75 10.2 2110 18.7 1190 30.9 8.311 2760 3530
89 2.65 716 6.37 672 15.0 24.60 1700 2170
89 5.40 1410 12.64 1250 27.8 12.47 2400 3050
89 12.7 3040 27.05 2290 51.0 5.785 3500 4470
100 3.26 1000 8.93 1230 23.9 17.50 2100 2680
100 6.41 1910 17.0 2200 42.9 9.196 2910 3710
100 12.7 3550 31.5 3600 70.4 4.954 3960 5050
115 3.26 1130 10.1 1760 30.6 15.53 2330 2970
114
Outsi
de
Diame
ter
Wall
Thick
-ness
Appro
x.
sectio
nal
area
Appr
oxwe
ight
Mom
entof
inerti
a
x 103
Modul
us
of
sectio
n
x 103
Approx.
Resista
nce
per m
20C
Approx. d.c.
current
rating A
(1)
mm mm mm2 kg/m mm4 mm3 '_ Indoor Outdo
or
115 6.41 2170 19.3 3200 55.5 8.103 3210 4090
115 12.7 4050 36.0 5350 92.9 4.341 4400 5610
127 4.07 1570 14.0 2990 46.8 11.15 2850 3600
127 7.64 2860 25.4 5150 80.5 6.156 3850 4850
127 12.7 4560 40.5 7600 119 3.860 4870 6130
140 4.89 2065 18.4 4740 67.3 8.518 3340 4000
140 8.86 3630 32.3 7870 112 4.844 4430 5600
140 19.1 7220 64.2 13600 193 2.438 6240 7900
150 5.90 2710 24.1 7350 95.6 6.484 4000 4930
150 10.2 4540 40.4 11600 151 3.871 5180 6370
150 19.1 7980 71.0 18200 238 2.209 6850 8450

1. Current ratings are for 50C temperature rise and 40C ambient
115
Table 15. Current ratings, moments of inertia and section moduli - sections
SINGLE CHANNEL TWO CHANNELS
Height
h
mm
Width
off
lange
f
mm
Thicknes
st
mm
Area
A
mm
Approx
.
weight
*kg/m
Moment
Of
Inertia
x 10
5
mm4
Modulus
Of
section
x 10
5
mm3
Approx.
d.c.
resistan
ce
at
20C
Approx
a.c.
rating
(A)
x-x y-y x-x y-y /
m
Test
1
Calculated
2
76.2 33.3 4.91 542 4.82 5.06 0.543 0.133 0.0226 31.8 2200 3000
76.2 33.3 5.49 690 6.15 6.30 0.673 0.165 0.0286 24.9 2500 3400
76.2 33.3 7.21 884 7.86 7.78 0.822 0.204 0.0358 19.5 2800 3800
102 44.5 5.08 890 7.92 14.5 1.60 0.286 0.0497 19.4 3200 4400
102 44.5 6.10 1050 9.35 16.9 1.86 0.333 0.0583 16.4 3500 4800
102 44.5 8.59 1430 12.7 22.3 2.42 0.439 0.0780 12.0 4000 5550
127 55.6 6.60 1450 12.9 36.4 4.05 0.573 0.102 11.9 4500 6150
127 55.6 8.61 1850 16.4 45.4 5.02 0.796 0.127 9.35 5000 6850
152 68.3 7.01 1850 16.8 68.9 7.30 0.901 0.147 9.15 5600 7700
152 68.3 9.75 2550 22.7 90.9 10.7 1.19 0.220 6.76 6300 8600
152 68.3 12.5 3180 28.3 111 12.9 1.45 0.270 5.41 6700 9200
116
SINGLE CHANNEL TWO CHANNELS
Height
h
mm
Width
off
lange
f
mm
Thicknes
st
mm
Area
A
mm
Approx
.
weight
*kg/m
Moment
Of
Inertia
x 10
5
mm4
Modulus
Of
section
x 10
5
mm3
Approx.
d.c.
resistan
ce
at
20C
Approx
a.c.
rating
(A)
x-x y-y x-x y-y /
m
Test
1
Calculated
2
178 81.0 8.26 2610 23.2 129 15.9 1.46 0.272 6.59 7000 9650
178 81.0 13.2 4010 35.7 191 23.7 2.18 0.417 4.29 7900 10850
203 81.0 11.9 4280 38.0 272 34.3 2.68 0.513 4.04 8900 12300
228 105 12.7 5140 45.7 413 51.7 3.61 0.688 3.35 1000
0
13750
89.9 63.5x63
.5
4.76 542 4.81 3.62 0.957 0.0806 0.0533 31.8 2750 3000
108 76.2x76
.2
4.76 671 5.95 6.41 1.71 0.119 0.0583 35.7 3300 3600
108 76.2x76
.2
6.35 910 8.08 8.08 1.92 0.150 0.0637 18.9 3650 4100
126 88.9x88
.9
6.35 1070 9.52 13.3 3.33 0.211 0.0957 16.1 4200 4500
144 102x10
2
6.35 1230 10.9 17.5 5.00 0.243 0.128 14.1 4800 5200
117
SINGLE CHANNEL TWO CHANNELS
Height
h
mm
Width
off
lange
f
mm
Thicknes
st
mm
Area
A
mm
Approx
.
weight
*kg/m
Moment
Of
Inertia
x 10
5
mm4
Modulus
Of
section
x 10
5
mm3
Approx.
d.c.
resistan
ce
at
20C
Approx
a.c.
rating
(A)
x-x y-y x-x y-y /
m
Test
1
Calculated
2
162 114x11
4
6.35 1390 12.3 29.1 7.33 0.359 0.167 12.4 5400 5850
162 114x11
4
7.94 1650 14.7 35.5 9.20 0.439 0.208 10.4 6000 6550
180 127x12
7
7.94 1850 16.4 49.2 12.4 0.549 0.251 9.32 6750 7400
216 152x15
2
7.94 2260 20.1 86.5 21.6 0.803 0.370 7.61 8000 8700
118

* Weights based on 8.89 g/cm3
1. 30C rise on 40C ambient
2. 50C rise on 40C ambientFor approximate values for ambients below or above 40C
decrease or increase rating by 0.25% per C. Increase ratings by 20% if painted matt black.
Table 16. Moments of inertia, section moduli and current ratings - rods
Diamet
er
Section
al
area
Weigh
t
Momen
t of
inertia
x 10
3
Section
modulusx
10
3
Approx
Resistan
ce
Per
M
At
20C
Approx.
d.c.
current
capacity
(1)
Approx.
a.c.
current
rating
(1)
mm mm
2
g/m mm
4
mm
3
'_ A A
6 28.27 251.9 0.0636 0.0212 609.7 130 130
8 50.27 447.9 0.2011 0.0503 343.0 195 195
10 78.54 699.8 0.4909 0.0982 219.5 265 265
12 113.1 1008 1.018 0.1696 152.4 340 340
15 176.7 1575 2.485 0.3313 97.56 460 460
18 254.5 2267 5.153 0.5726 67.75 590 590
22 380.1 3387 11.50 1.045 45.35 770 770
25 490.9 4374 19.17 1.534 35.12 920 910
28 615.8 5486 30.17 2.155 28.00 1070 1020
35 962.1 8572 73.66 4.209 17.92 1455 1275
119
Diamet
er
Section
al
area
Weigh
t
Momen
t of
inertia
x 10
3
Section
modulusx
10
3
Approx
Resistan
ce
Per
M
At
20C
Approx.
d.c.
current
capacity
(1)
Approx.
a.c.
current
rating
(1)
mm mm
2
g/m mm
4
mm
3
'_ A A
42 1385 12344 152.7 7.274 12.44 1860 1550
50 1963 17495 306.8 12.27 8.780 2360 1850
56 2463 21945 482.8 17.24 7.000 2755 2040
63 3117 27775 773.3 24.55 5.531 3230 2270
68 3632 32358 1050 30.87 4.747 3585 2410
75 4418 39363 1553 41.42 3.902 4095 2630
1
50C temperature rise and 40C ambient
Table 17. Comparison of flat bar d.c. current ratings for different ambient and
working temperatures
a. Ambient temp = 30C
Calculated from formula 1, section 3
Temp. coeff. of resistance, a, at 30C = 3.781x103
Temp. coeff. of resistivity, b, at 30C = 3.794x103
Resistivity, , at 30C = 1.772'_.cm
Size Temp rise (C)
mm 10 20 30 40 50 60
12.5x2.5 65 95 120 145 160 175
16x2.5 80 120 150 175 200 215
20x2.5 95 145 180 210 240 260
25x2.5 115 175 220 255 290 315
120
Size Temp rise (C)
mm 10 20 30 40 50 60
31.5x2.5 140 210 265 310 350 385
40x2.5 175 260 325 385 430 475
50x2.5 210 315 395 465 525 575
63x2.5 255 385 485 570 640 705
16x4 105 155 195 230 260 285
20x4 125 185 235 275 310 340
25x4 150 225 280 330 370 410
31.5x4 180 270 340 400 450 500
40x4 220 335 420 490 555 610
50x4 270 405 510 595 670 740
63x4 330 495 620 725 820 900
80x4 405 605 765 895 1010 1110
100x4 490 735 925 1085 1225 1350
25x6.3 195 290 365 425 480 530
31.5x6.3 235 350 440 515 580 640
40x6.3 285 425 535 630 710 780
50x6.3 345 515 650 760 855 940
63x6.3 420 625 790 925 1040 1145
80x6.3 515 770 970 1135 1280 1405
100x6.3 620 930 1175 1375 1550 1705
125x63 755 1130 1425 1670 1885 2070
160x6.3 935 1405 1770 2070 2335 2570
50x10 445 665 835 980 1105 1215
63x10 535 805 1015 1190 1340 1475
80x10 655 985 1240 1455 1640 1800
121
Size Temp rise (C)
mm 10 20 30 40 50 60
100x10 795 1190 1500 1755 1980 2180
125x10 960 1440 1815 2125 2400 2640
160x10 1190 1785 2245 2635 2970 3265
200x10 1445 2165 2725 3195 3605 3965
250x10 1755 2635 3315 3885 4380 4820
100x16 1025 1535 1935 2270 2555 2815
125x16 1235 1855 2335 2735 3085 3395
160x16 1525 2290 2880 3375 3805 4185
200x16 1850 2770 3490 4090 4610 5070
250x16 2240 3360 4230 4955 5590 6150
315x16 2740 4105 5170 6060 6830 7515

b. Ambient temp = 40C
Calculated from formula 1, Section 3
Temp. coeff. of resistance, a, at 40C = 3.644x103
Temp. coeff. of resistivity, b, at 40C = 3.656x103
Resistivity, , at 40C = 1.833 '_.cm
Size Temp rise (C)
mm 10 20 30 40 50 60
12.5x2.5 65 95 120 140 160 175
16x2.5 80 115 145 175 195 215
20x2.5 95 140 180 210 235 260
25x2.5 115 170 215 250 285 315
31.5x2.5 140 210 260 305 345 380
122
Size Temp rise (C)
mm 10 20 30 40 50 60
40x2.5 170 255 320 380 425 470
50x2.5 205 310 390 460 515 570
63x2.5 255 380 480 560 635 695
16x4 100 155 190 225 255 280
20x4 120 185 230 270 305 335
25x4 145 220 280 325 365 405
31.5x4 180 270 335 395 445 490
40x4 220 330 415 485 545 600
50x4 265 395 500 585 660 730
63x4 325 485 610 715 810 890
80x4 400 595 750 880 995 1095
100x4 485 725 915 1070 1210 1330
25x6.3 190 285 360 420 475 525
31.5x6.3 230 345 435 510 575 630
40x6.3 280 420 530 620 700 770
50x6.3 340 505 640 750 845 930
63x6.3 410 615 775 910 1030 1130
80x6.3 505 755 955 1122 1260 1390
100x6.3 610 920 1155 1355 1530 1685
125x6.3 745 1115 1405 1645 1855 2045
160x6.3 920 1385 1740 2040 2305 2535
50x10 435 655 825 965 1090 1200
63x10 530 795 1000 1170 1320 1455
80x10 645 970 1220 1430 1615 1780
100x10 780 1170 1475 1730 1955 2150
123
Size Temp rise (C)
mm 10 20 30 40 50 60
125x10 945 1420 1790 2095 2365 2605
160x10 1170 1755 2215 2595 2930 3225
200x10 1420 2135 2685 3150 3555 3915
250x10 1730 2595 3265 3830 4320 4755
100x16 1010 1515 1905 2235 2520 2775
125x16 1220 1825 2300 2700 3045 3350
160x16 1500 2255 2840 3330 3755 4130
200x16 1820 2730 3435 4030 4545 5005
250x16 2205 3310 4165 4885 5510 6070
315x16 2695 4045 5095 5975 6740 7415

c. Ambient temp = 50C
Calculated from formula 1, Section 3
Temp. coeff. of resistance, a, at 50C = 3.516x103
Temp. coeff. of resistivity, b, at 50C = 3.527x103
Resistivity, , at 50C = 1.888 .cm
Size Temp rise (C)
mm 10 20 30 40 50 60
12.5x2.5 65 95 120 140 155 175
16x2.5 75 115 145 170 195 210
20x2.5 95 140 175 205 230 255
25x2.5 110 170 210 250 280 310
31.5x2.5 135 205 260 305 340 375
40x2.5 170 250 320 375 420 465
124
Size Temp rise (C)
mm 10 20 30 40 50 60
50x2.5 205 305 385 455 510 565
63x2.5 250 375 470 555 625 690
16x4 100 150 190 220 250 275
20x4 120 180 230 265 300 330
25x4 145 215 275 320 365 400
31.5x4 175 265 335 390 440 485
40x4 215 325 410 480 540 595
50x4 260 390 495 580 655 720
63x4 320 480 605 705 800 880
80x4 390 590 740 870 980 1080
100x4 475 715 900 1060 1185 1315
25x6.3 185 280 355 415 470 515
31.5x6.3 225 340 430 500 565 625
40x6.3 275 415 520 610 690 760
50x6.3 335 500 630 740 835 920
63x6.3 405 610 765 900 1015 1120
80x6.3 500 745 940 1105 1245 1370
100x6.3 605 905 1140 1340 1510 1665
125x6.3 730 1100 1385 1625 1835 2020
160x6.3 910 1365 1720 2015 2275 2505
50x10 430 645 815 955 1075 1185
63x10 520 780 985 1155 1305 1435
80x10 635 955 1205 1415 1595 1755
100x10 770 1155 1455 1710 1930 2125
125x10 935 1400 1765 2070 2335 2575
125
Size Temp rise (C)
mm 10 20 30 40 50 60
160x10 1155 1735 2185 2565 2890 3185
200x10 1400 2105 2650 3110 3510 3865
250x10 1705 2555 3220 3780 4265 4700
100x16 995 1495 1880 2210 2490 2745
125x16 1200 1800 2270 2665 3005 3310
160x16 1480 2220 2800 3285 3710 4085
200x16 1795 2690 3390 3980 4490 4945
250x16 2175 3265 4110 4825 5445 5995
315x16 2660 3990 5025 5900 6655 7330
126
Bibliography
Note that only CDA Publications are available from Copper Development Association. Other
reference material is available from the appropriate standards organisation or from a
technical library service.

NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS
British and European Standards:
BS 23 Copper and copper-cadmium trolley and contact wire for electric traction.
BS 7884 Copper and copper-cadmium stranded conductors for overhead electric traction
and power transmission systems.
BS 159 Busbar and busbar connections.
BS 6931 Glossary of terms for copper and copper alloys.
BS 1432 Copper for electrical purposes, strip with drawn or rolled edges.
BS 1433 Copper for electrical purposes, rod and bar.
BS 1434 Copper for electrical purposes - commutator bar.
BS 1977 High conductivity copper tubes for electrical purposes.
BS EN 1652 Copper and copper alloys. Plate, sheet and circles for general purposes.
BS EN 12165 Copper and copper alloys. Wrought and unwrought forging stock.
BS EN 12166 Copper and copper alloys. Wire for general purposes.
BS EN 12163 Copper and copper alloys. Rod for general purposes.
BS EN 1652 Copper and copper alloys. Plate, sheet, strip and circles for general purposes.
BS 4109 Copper for electrical purposes-wire for general electrical purposes and for
insulated cables and cards.
BS 4608 Copper for electrical purposes-rolled sheet, strip and foil.
BS 5311 High voltage alternating-current circuit-breakers.
BS EN 60439-2 Specification for low voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies.
Particular requirements for busbar trunking systems (busways).
BS EN 1976 Copper and copper alloys. Cast unwrought copper products.
BS EN 1978 Copper and copper alloys. Copper cathodes
127
BS EN 60439-1 Specification for low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies.
Specification for type-tested and partially type-tested assemblies.

IEC Specifications
IEC 28 International standard of resistance for copper.
IEC 137 Bushings for alternating voltages above 1000V.
IEC 273 Dimensions of indoor and outdoor post insulators and post insulator units for
systems with nominal voltage greater than 1000V.
IEC 344 Guide to the calculation of resistance of plain and coated copper conductors of low
frequency wires and cables.
IEC 349 Factory-built assembler of low-voltage switchgear and controlgear.

American Specifications
C 29.1 Electric power insulators, test methods for.
C 37.20 Switchgear assemblies including metal-enclosed bus.
C 37.30 High voltage air switches insulators and bus supports, definition and requirements
for.
C 37.31 Indoor apparatus insulators, electrical and mechanical characteristics.

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SECTION 5
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69,1950, p 1388.
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131
WYMAN, B.W., and SHORES, R.B.: A New Isolated-Phase Metal-Enclosed Bus. Trans. A.l.E.E.,
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SECTION 6
Asea Jour., Electromagnetic Forces on Busbars. 25, 1952, p 84.
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LYTHALL, R.T.: Low-Voltage Breaking Capacity: Fault Current More Important than kVA
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SCHURIG, O.E. and SAYRE, M.F.: Mechanical stresses on Busbar Supports During Short-
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132
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WAGNER, C.F. and EVANS, R.D.: Symmetrical Components. (McGraw-Hill).
WILSON, W.: The Calculation and Design of Electrical Apparatus. (Chapman and Hall),
London, 1940.
WILSON, W.R. and MANKOFF, L.L.: Short-Circuit Forces in Isolated Phase Buses. A.l.E.E.
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SECTION 7
CONSTABLE, F.H.: Growth of Oxide Films. Proc. Roy. Soc., 115, 1927-8, p 385.
COPPER DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION: Joining of Copper and Copper Alloys. C.D.A. Pub.
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1938, pp762-765.
FRICK, C.W.: Current-Carrying Capacity of Bare Cylindrical Conductors for Indoor and
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LANCTOT, E.K.: Temperature Rise and Joint Resistance of Three-Phase Bus Assemblies of
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133
WENNER, F., NUSBAUM, G.W. and CRUIKSHANKS, B.C.: Electrical Resistance of Contacts
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SECTION 8
ASHDOWN, K.T. and SWERDLOW, N.: Cantilever-Loaded Insulators for Isolated Phase Bus.
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KILLIAN, S.C.: Mechanical Forces on Buses due to Fault Currents. Elect. World, Dec. 12th,
1942, pp 60-62.
SCHURIG, O.R. and SAYRE, M.F.: Mechanical stresses on Busbar Supports During Short-
Circuits. A.I.E.E., 44, 1952, pp 217-237.
SCHURIG, O.E., FRICK, C.W. and SAYRE, M.F.: Practical Calculations of Short-Circuit Stresses
in Supports for Straight Parallel Bus Conductors. Gen. Elec. Rev., 29, 1926, pp 534-544.
TRIPP, W.A.: Forces on Conductors During Short-Circuit. Elect. J., Dec., 1937, pp 493-497.
SECTION 9
ARNOLD, A.H.M.: The Inductance of Linear Conductors of Rectangular Section. J.I.E.E., 70,
1932, pp 579 586.
BOGARDUS, L.R.: Resistance Welder Feed has Low Reactance Drop. Elec. World, 10th Sept.
1938, p 702.
DEANS, W.: What Shape Conductors for Electrical Busbars? Power, Feb., 1943, pp 75-78.
DWIGHT, H.B.: Reactance of Strap Conductors. Elec. Rev., 70, 1917, p 1087.
DWIGHT, H.B.: Reactance Values for Rectangular Conductors. Elec. J., 16, 1919, p 255.
DWIGHT, H.B.: Reactance and Skin Effect of Concentric Tubular Conductors. Trans. A.I.E.E.,
61, 1942, p 513
DWIGHT, H.B.: Geometric Mean Distance for Rectangular Conductors. Trans. A.I.E.E., 65,
1946, p 328.
DWIGHT, H.B. and WANG, T.K.: Reactance of Square Tubular Busbars. Trans. A.l.E.E., 57,
1938, p 762. Discussion, p 765.
Elec. Times: Transformers for Electric Furnaces. 5th Dec. 1940, p 375.
GRAY, A.: Absolute Measurements in Electricity and Magnetism. 2nd Edition, (MacMillan),
1921, Chapter XIII.
134
GROVER, F.W.: The Calculation of Inductance and Reactance of Single Layer Coils and
Spirals Wound with Wire of Large Cross Section. Proc. I.R.E. (US), 17, No. 11, Nov. 1929, p
2053.
GROVER, F.W.: Inductance Calculations. (Van Nostrand), 1946.
HIGGINS, T.J.: Formulas for the Inductance of Rectangular Tubular Conductors. Trans.
A.I.E.E., 60, 1941, p 1046.
HIGGINS, T.J.: Formulas for the Inductance of Rectangular Tubular Conductors. J.App. Phys. ,
13, No. 11,1942, p 1046.
HIGGINS, T.J.: Formulas for the Calculation of the Inductance of Linear Conductors of
Structural Shape. Trans. A.l.E.E., 62, Feb., 1943, p 53.
HIGGINS, T.J.: Formulas for the Geometric Mean Distance of Rectangular Areas and of Line
Segments. J. App. Phys.!eu!, 14, No. 4, 1943, p 188.
HIGGINS, T.J.: The Design of Busbars for Industrial Distribution Systems and Epitomisation
of Available Data. Trans. A.l.E.E., 64, 1945, p 385.
HIGGINS, T.J.: Theory and Application of Complex Logarithms and Geometric Mean
Distances. Trans. A.l.E.E., 66, 1947, p 12.
HIGGINS, T.J. and MESSINGER H.P.: Equations for the Inductance of Three-Phase Co-Axial
Buses Comprised of Square Tubular Conductors. J. App. Phys. ,18, 1947, p 1009.
KARAPETOFF, V.: The Inductance of Cables and Transmission Lines. (McGraw-Hill), 1914.
LYTHALL, R.T.: Low Voltage Short-Circuit Calculations: The Effect of Equivalent High-Voltage
Reactance. Elec. Rev., 123, No. 3182, 18th Nov. 1938.
LYTHALL, R.T.: The J and P Switchgear Book. (Johnson and Phillips Ltd.), 1947, p 271.
MAXWELL, J.C.: On the Geometrical Mean Distance of Two Figures in a Plane. Trans. Roy.
Soc. Edin., 26, 1872, p 729.
MESSINGER, H.P. and HIGGINS, T.J.: Formulas for the Reactance of Co-Axial Buses
Comprised of Square Tubular Conductors. Trans. A.l.E.E., 65, 1946, p 328.
MILLER, W.H.: Three-Phase Rectangular Conductors-A Simplified Reactance Formula.
Electrician, 20th June 1947, p 1681.
O'RAHILLY, A.: A Note on Self-Inductance. J.l.E.E.,86, No. 518, Feb. 1940, p 179. Discussion,
June 1940, p 567.
ROSA, E.B.: On the Geometrical Mean Distances of Rectangular Areas and the Calculation of
Self-Inductance. N. B. S. Bull., 3, 1907, p 1.
ROSA, E.B. and GROVER, F.W.: Formulas and Tables for the Calculation of Mutual and Self
Inductance (Revised and Extended). N. B. S. Bull., 8, 1912, Paper No. 169.
ROTH, E.D.: Champ Magnetique et Inductance d'un Systeme de Barres Rectangulaires
Paralleles. Rev. Gen. de l'Elec, 44, No. 9, 3rd Sept. 1938, p 275.
135
SCHURIG, O.R.: Engineering Calculation of Inductance and Reactance for Rectangular Bar
Conductors. Gen Elec. Rev., 36, No 5, May 1933, pp 228-231.
SCHWANTZ, W.G. and HIGGINS T.l.: Formulas for Calculating the Inductance of Channels
Located Back to Back. Trans. A.l.E.E., 65, 1946, p 893.
SIEGEL, C.M. end HIGGINS, T.J.: Equations for the Inductance and Short-Circuit Forces of
Buses Comprised of Double-Channel Conductors. Trans. A.I.E.E., 71, 1952, p 425.
136