ATLAS

OF

MEDIEVAL
E
H

ATLAS OF
MEDIEVAL
JEWISH
HISTORY

I/

"

dl9italia
~"

A LAS OF
MEDIEVAL
JEWIS.....-tI
HISTORY
HAIM BEINART

Carta, Jerusalem

Electronic version

published by

Copyright C 1992 by Carta,

The Israel Map and Publishing Company, Ltd.

Cartography, design and production: Carta, Jerusalem

English translation: Moshe Shalvi
Managing editor: Lorraine Kessel

All rishts reserved. No Rart of this book may be

repnnted or reproducea or utilized in any form
or oy any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the publishers.

ISBN 965-220-188-X

Picture Credits: mustrations on pages 43 and 55 are by courtesy of

The British Museum; those on pages 44 and 56 are by courtesy of The
Hebrew National and University Ubrary; aJI others are by Carta.

Printed in Israel

INTRODUCTION

Compiling the Atlas of Medieval Jewish History entailed a

number of problems, the first being the very definition of the
term medieval in Jewish history. One may even question
whether the Jews ever had a medieval age, since the history
of the Jewish people is unlike that of other European peoples,
who went through Dark Ages before they emerged into the
Renaissance. However, since we required a defined period
for practical purposes, we adopted an accepted concept and
superimposed it on Jewish life. It would be more accurate to
say that this atlas encompasses the period of the Jewish
people's exile from their land, arranged according to accepted
historical periods, beginning with the Barbarian Invasions in
the fourth and fifth centuries and continuing to the period after
the Chmielnicki Massacres of 1648-1649 and the collapse of
the Shabbatean movement.
The advances of scholarly research of our generation on
the history of the Jews has necessitated the compilation of
this atlas, the first in a series dealing with the history of the
Jewish people in the Diaspora.
The maps attempt to present the changes that befell the
Jews over a period of more than a thousand years. Despite
the many vicissitudes, disasters and trials that befell them
during this period, their ties to the Holy Land remained
unbroken. This is the common bond that united the Jewish
people and it finds its expression in this atlas. The maps
illustrate the changes that occurred in the Holy Land and
in the Diaspora in chronological order of the events: em
igration, expulsion from cities and countries, and forced
conversion. While it was impossible to structure the atlas
with complete synchronization, the reader can still learn
about the movement of Jews from one center to another
and how Jewish inspiration and vitality spread from one
geographical area to another. We have not always been able
to give an exhaustive description of Jewish life in each area,
from its inception to its demise. In some regions Jewish life
reached full development, both materially and spiritually. In
others, the pulse of Jewish community life stopped beating.
A further difficulty was determining political boundaries of
states and countries, since these changed from time to time.

Jerusalem,
1992

We have usually followed the accepted practice regarding

political boundaries.
The texts that accompany the maps provide a supplementary evaluation and give a geographical-historical expression
to the relevant period in the history of the Jews.
The atlas is divided into four sections: the first opens with
a description of the Jewish Diaspora in the fourth and fifth
centuries and ends with the Crusades; the second opens
with the period following the Crusades and ends with the
destruction of Jewish communities during the Black Death;
the third section ends with the expulsion of the Jews from
Spain; and the fourth ends with the devastation resulting from
the Chmielnicki Massacres of 1648-1649 and the spiritual
upheaval that came after the collapse of the Shabbatean
movement. Each of these four major disasters represents
the termination of an era.

This atlas could not have been produced without the aid of
students and friends, who gave me invaluable assistance in
gathering material and in verification of much of the detail.
My thanks are therefore due to Y. Avishur, M. Idel, R. BonfU,
A. Grossman, B. Z. Degani, A. David, M. Nadav, Y. T. Assis,
E. Friesel, Y. Y. Kaplan, Y. Kaplan, and M. Riegler.
I also owe thanks to Y. Ben-Zion for the picture of the
tombstone at Kabul, and to the photographer Z. Radovan
for the pictures of the Ramban Synagogue.
Thanks are also due for the preparation of this atlas to
the staff of Carta whose dedication, advice and extensive
experience and knowledge have been of infinite assistance
throughout.
For the preparation of the English edition my thanks are
due to Moshe Shalvi, who translated the Hebrew text into
English, and to the staff at Carta, particularly Lorraine Kessel,
Anna Gelman, Hanna Tabatchnik and Miriam Dobrusin.
Thanks are also due to Charles E. Smith, President, Paul
Bernabeo, Editorial Director, and Stephen Wagley, of Simon
and Schuster Academic Reference Division, who coordinated
the creation of this English language edition.

H.B.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Map

Page

No.

No.

FROM THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS OF EUROPE UNTIL THE CRUSADES

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.

The Barbarian Invasions of Europe Fifth Century .......... ...............................................................................

Distribution of Jews Middle of the Sixth Century .... ....................................................................................................
Synagogues in Palestine Second to Sixth Centuries ..................................... ............................................................
The Himyar Kingdom and Its War with the Ethiopians Sixth Century .....................................................
Wars between Persia and Byzantium 609-629 .........................................................................................
The Persian Invasion of Palestine 614--u18.................................... .............................................................
The Jews in the Arabian Peninsula Beginning of the Seventh Century ..................................................
Muhammad's Wars against the Jews 623--u29 .................. ..........................................................................
The City of Medina.................................................
.........................................
...................................
Arabian Conquest and the Rise of Islam 622-721..................................................................................
Visigothic Spain Seventh Century ........................................ ...................................................................................
The Jews in Italy during the Papacy of Gregory I (the Great) 590-604.. .............................
Charlemagne's Empire ........................................................................................................ .
Boundaries of the Divided Carolingian Empire 843 ....................................................................................... .
The Khazars and Pressure from the Christian States Eighth to Tenth Centuries ..................................
The Khazars .................................................................................................................................................................. .
The Radhanite Merchants ................................................................................................................................ .
Italy in the Framework of Byzantium and the Holy Roman Empire Ninth to Tenth Centuries .....
The Norman Invasion of Southern Italy ......... ......................................... ................................... ........................
The Ahimaaz Scroll of Genealogies.. ................... ................. ..................
......................................
Religious Ferment and Sects in Judaism Until the Twelfth Century.
The Gaonate in Babylonia ............................................................................ .
The Structure of a Yeshiva ..... ................................. ... ...............................
Bonds between Babylonia, Eretz Israel and the Diaspora ............. .
The Gaonate of Palestine .............................................................................. .
The Jews of North Africa Twelfth to Fifteenth Centuries .................................... .
Morocco.................... ..................................... .................................................... ....................
........................
Tunisia........................ .................................... .............................................................
.................
....................
Egypt ....
......................................... ............................... ....................................................................................................
Muslim Spain: Economy and Centers of Jewish Settlement Tenth to Twelfth Centuries ....
Reconquista: The Reconquest Until the Middle of the Twelfth Century ............................... ..........................
Jewish Communities in Ashkenaz Up to 1096...
.............................................................
The Massacres of 1096: "Gezerot Tatnu" (4856)
....................................................................
The First Crusade 1096 to 1099..................................... ........................... ..................................
The Crusader Kingdom in Eretz Israel .......... .
The Capture of Jerusalem June 7th to July 15th, 1099 ............
.................
From Crusade to Crusades............................
.............................................................................................
The City of Norwich....... ... .......................... ..............
..... ........... ...... ............ ... ....... ............................

13
14
16
16
17
18
18
19
19
20
21
22
23
24
24
25
26
27
28
28
29
30
30
32
32
34
34
34
34
35
36
38
39
40
40
40
41
42

UNTIL THE SLACK DEATH

37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46,47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.

The Travels of Benjamin of Tudela 1160 to 1173 .................................................................................................. .

Immigration to the Holy Land Twelfth Century ....................................................................................................... .
Jewish Communities in the Holy Land Twelfth to Fourteenth Centuries ..................................................... .
Immigration to the Holy Land Thirteenth to Early Fourteenth Century ........................................................... ..
The Jews of Italy Thirteenth Century .............................................................................................................................. .
Jewish Communities in Spain and the Reconquest Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries ....................
The Collecta Organization ...............................................................................................................................................
Spiritual Creativity The Tosafists.............................................. ....................................... ..............................................
The Spread of the Kabbalah...........................................................................................................................................
The Maimonidean Controversy ..................................................... .............................................................................
Hebrew Manuscripts of Ashkenaz, France and Spain...................................................................................
The Jews of England up to the Expulsion ......................................................................... ...................................
The Jewish Communities of France Thirteenth Century ........................................................ ...........................
The Rindfleisch Massacres 1298........................................................................ ...........................................................
Persecutions in Ashkenaz Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries ...........................................................................
Massacres in the Rhine Districts............................................... ..................... ...........................................................
The Pastoureaux and "Lepers" Massacres 1320-1321.......................................................................................
The Black Death 1348............. .............................................................. ........................ ...................................................

44
46
46

47
48
49
51
52
53
54
56
57
58
59
60
61
61
62

UNTIL THE EXPULSION FROM SPAIN

55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.

63.
64.
65.
66.

Destruction of the Jewish Community in France Fourteenth Century .......................................................

The Beginning of Jewish Settlement in Poland............. .................................... .................. ................................
The Jews of Spain up to the Massacres of 1391...................................
.............................................
The Jewish Quarter in Toledo............................ .............................................. ................................
Jewish Settlement in Portugal Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries. .................................................
The Mongol Empire ....................................................................................... ......................................................................
The Mongolian'Invasions of Palestine ................................................................................................................... .
Immigration to the Holy Land Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries.........
............................ .
The Beginnings of the Ottoman Empire .......
.............................................
.................... .
The Fall of Constantinople ............................................................................................................................................. .
Commerce in the Mediterranean Basin Fourteenth to Fifteenth Centuries......
............................... .
The Jews of Germany in the Shadow of Expulsions and Massacres Fourteenth and Fifteenth

64
64
65
66
67
68
68
69
70
71
71

72

Centuries .......................................................................... .

67.
68.
69.
69A.
70.
71.

72.
73.
74.

75.
76.
76A.

Centers of Dissemination of Hatred of the Jews...............................................................................................

The Jews of Switzerland Thirteenth to Fifteenth Centuries......... ............. ... ............. .................. .
The Jews of Spain on the Eve of the Expulsion Fifteenth Century ............................. .
Spanish Jewish Communities.............. ..................................... ............................... ..
The Kingdom of Arag6n at the Time of Alfonso V.......... ....................................................................... .
The Conquest of Granada 1 January 1492 ..................................... .
Violent Attacks Against the Conversos of C6rdoba 1473 .................................................... ..
Jewish Communities in Italy Fourteenth to Sixteenth Centuries............................ ..... ..........................................
The C~ty of Rome ................. ................................................... ................................................................. ..........................
The Jewish Communities of Italy........... .....................................................................................................................
Jewish Demographic Changes From the Thirteenth Century Until the Expulsion from Spain .....................
Jewish Populations in Europe
........................ ...................... ..................................... ...................................
The Expulsion Order ............................... ........................... .................. ..................................................................
Expulsion from Spain 31 March 1492 ......
......................... ................. ..................
..........................
Jewish Exodus from Spain and Portugal 1492-1497 ... . ..... .......... ...................... ... .............. .............. ......
Routes Taken by Jews Expelled from Spain.
..................
The Wanderings of R. Judah Hayyat ...
................................
................................................

73
74
74
75
75
76
77
77
78
78
80
82
83
84
84
86
86

UNTIL THE CHMIELNICKI MASSACRES AND SHABBATEAN MOVEMENT

77.
78.
79.
SO.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.

109.
110.
111.
112.
113.
114.
115.
116.

The Ottoman Empire at the Height of its Expansion Until 1683 ................................. ...... .. ........................
The Jews of the Balkan Peninsula Sixteenth Century ............. ..............................................................................
Palestine under Ottoman Rule Sixteenth Century................ ....................................................................................
Major Trade Routes Sixteenth to Seventeenth Centuries................................................................ ..........................
Immigration to the Holy Land Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries..................................................................
Immigration Routes to the Holy Land ......................................................................................................................
Emissaries from the Holy Land to the Diaspora Eighth to Seventeenth Centuries...................................
Jewish Communities in North Africa Fifteenth to Sixteenth Centuries .................................................. ..........
Jewish Communities in the Egyptian Delta Fifteenth Century ........................ ............................................ ....
Relations with the Radbaz .............................................................. .............................. ................................................
Kabbalists and Kabbalistic Centers Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries....... ........ .........................
The Karaites Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries.. ........................ ............................................. ..... ... ........................
Jewish Printers and Admission of Jews to Universities Fifteenth to Seventeenth Centuries...............
The Jews of Italy Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries..................................................................... .........................
The Jewish Ghetto in Venice ........................................ ................................................................................................
The Travels of David Reuveni Sixteenth Century ....................................................................................................
Emigration of Con versos from Portugal Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries ............................
The Readmission of Jews to England; Converso Dispersion Seventeenth Century ..............
Area of Jewish Settlement in the City of London ........................................................ .....................
Jewish Communities in Alsace Seventeenth Century ........................................................... ..................................
Jewish Communities in Holland Seventeenth Century.................. .................................................. ... ........ ...........
Major Voyages of Discovery and Spheres of Dominion in the New World ....................................
Jewish Settlement in America Seventeenth Century ...................................................................................... .
Jewish Settlement in India Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries ............... .................
.....................
Jewish Plantations in Surinam ........................................................ ..............................................................................
Inquisition Tribunals in Spain and Portugal.................................... .....................................................................
Heads of the Inquisition .....................................................................................................................................................
Inquisition Tribunals in Italy ............................................................................................................................................
Inquisition Tribunals Fifteenth to Seventeenth Centuries .......................................................................................... .
Religious Divisions in Europe 1560............................................................................................. ................... ..............
The Jews of Germany during the Reformation ............................................................................................... .
The Jews of Silesia, Moravia and Bohemia Sixteenth Century ...................................................................... .
Jewish Foundations in the City of Prague ................................................................................................. .
The Jews of Hungary under Turkish and Austrian Rule ............................................................. .
The Thirty Years' War 1618-1648 ............................................................................................................................ .
The Jews of Eastern Europe Until the 1650s ..................................................................................................... .
The Jews of Poland within the Council of Four Lands Seventeenth Century ........................................ .
The Chmielnicki Massacres 1648-1649 ...................................................................................................................... .
Shabbetai Zevi: Activities and Travels ...................................................................................................... .
The Travels of Nathan of Gaza ................................................................................................................................... .
Leaders of the Shabbatean Movement after the Death of Shabbetai Zevi ...................................... .
The Jewish Diaspora and Their Languages End of the Seventeenth Century ......................................... .
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................... .
Index to Maps ........................................................ .
Subject Index ......................................................................................................................................................................... .
Index to Persons .................................................................................................................................................................. .

88
89
89
90
90
91
92
92
92
92
93
94
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
100
100
101
101
102
102
103
104
104

105
105
106
107
107
108
108

109
110
111
113
114
115
115
118
120
135
142

A I the nations of the earth,

even the ships that go from
Gau to Spain are blessed only
for Israel's sake
Babylonian Talmud.

Tombstone of Me1iosa, daughter of R.

Judah and Miriam. discovered in Tortosa.
Inscriptions in Hebrew. Latin and Greek.
A Menora and a star similar in shape to a
star of David appear on the tombstone.

Thispage inlenfional(y lefi blank

FROM THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS OF EUROPE

UNTIL THE CRUSADES

Equestrian statue of Charlemagne.

dlqitalia
'/OWN Cgil"

u JG

LEGEND TO SYMBOLS
..........................

Town

I)............

Town with Jewish community

y.......... Synagogue
t ..........................

Church
Port

.\ .....

Battle site
Conquest of city

.q.. ...

Massacre of Jews

7........... .......... Expulsion of Jews

Blood libel

..........

Auto-de-fe and burning of Jews at the stake

Campaign or attack

--

Escape

Boundary of kingdom or province

...............".._. Line of the Reconquest

THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS OF EUROPE Fifth Century

The invasions of various tribes, collectively called the barbarians, into the boundaries of the Roman Empire caused great
changes in Western Europe and only the Eastern Roman
Empire - Byzantium - was able to withstand these invasions.
As for the Jews, it was not the barbarian invasions that endangered their survival but rather Byzantium and Christianity.
From the time of Constantine the Great (ruled 306-337), who
granted imperial favor to Christianity, Christianity sought to
populate Palestine with its co-religionists by encouraging both
pilgrimages to its holy places and settlement in the country.
Bands of Christian monks, "the Christian army," were the
standard-bearers of the church militant. Palestine and other
Christian centers became arenas for disputations with Jews,
and Christianity sought to interpret these disputations as
its triumph over Judaism. Christian tradition tells of whole
Jewish communities that converted: for example, the entire
Jewish community of Menorca was converted by Bishop
Severus in 418. It was during this period that Christianity
began laying the first foundation for a comprehensive ideology
concerning its ascendancy over Judaism. The Jewish people
were punished for crucifying Jesus, and the instruments of
this punishment were Vespasian and Titus, who, according
to this ideology, supported Christianity. An extensive fabric
of legends and folktales was woven around the allegation
that the Jews crucified Jesus, and the Jewish people were

branded as "killers of God." The church declared itself

the heir of Judaism, Verus Israel ("the true Israel"), and
sought proof for this in the Bible. The existence of the
Jewish people was necessary to enable the conversion of
the pagans to Christianity. Augustine (354-430), bishop of
Hippo (north Africa), found a justification for the humiliation
of the Jewish people in this interpretation of Psalm 59: 11
- "Slay them not, lest my people forget; scatter them by
thy power and bring them down ... ": "Slay them [the Jews]
not lest my people (the Christians) forget" the prophecies
in the Bible foretelling the realization of Christianity. "And
bring them [the Jews] down." These were the tenets that
guided Christianity in its war against Judaism over the many
generations and upon these foundations it built anti-Jewish
public opinion, whose effects were apparent during the
entire Middle Ages. Christian propagandists saturated the
centers of the ancient world. The most prominent was John
Chrysostom (c. 347-407), who determined the character of
the struggle against Judaism, a struggle that was necessary
for Christianity to emerge victorious in the pagan world.
Nonetheless, the church fathers required the assistance of
Jewish scholars to interpret and understand the Bible text.
One of them, Jerome (Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus,
342-420, of Bethlehem) required the help of Jewish teachers
in Palestine to learn Hebrew for his translation of the Bible
into Latin (c. 404).

PARTHIAN
EMPIRE
'I)

Isfahan
incites
MaMn to bum
s~,

seize Jews

~nd

forcibly !>aplite them. S40-Jews

ZIIre baptized.

..... .....

ARABIA

".

".

ThebesCl

"

200

400

. ............ ....

krn.

Decoration eX a Jewish tombstone

found , in t the catacombs in Rome.

. . Boundaries of the Roman Empire 395

_
Direction of invasions by Barbarian tribes
'I)
Town with Jewish community
Affttested area
_
Area densely populated by JIIWS

13

Bonna Colonia (Cologne)

FRANKISH
KI N GOO M Treveri.

DISTRIBUTION OF JEWS
Middle of the Sixth Century

Lutetia

Metz

(Paris)

. Nantes

.Mogontiacum

()rIWl$~.

'.....
Regensburg.

'i.

, -ure

......,.

...

AIIgUSta:
""'Badem.ueiIer V'tndeIicOrum La'
v'P I
unacum~" .
.Avarieum Chalon

.
:

u.

' Poitiers

Vindorussa

..... eon.
Clermont.
.;r~x

~unum

..

................C
:... .....' "
'..

Intercisa

SeIeucia

Brescia oncordia . :

.."_- , , .

Aquileia ".
1'WdI'
. Verona
'.. ' .
.TortOM
Ferrara
.'
".
.Aueh.ToItosa....... Avignon..
Gera' Bononia.
"Pula
..........
: :Vi~~:>i,: .. .'.
.'
0:.
....

:
lIT1IJlaCIum':
S U E V ES ....... :...:..... ......
...
: .' . '
.: . ArIeS
: (Genova) ' Luna
Rawnna
.......
". Danube
.......
.. ... '. Narbonne AgJtt
MIl seiIIes
. Awxtna
.SaIona .Sarajevo
.............. .
. ~ ........ :' ".
.'

r
Clusiwn . Perusia
. Naissus
<t.

AIccIi
So6a
'
V'1ef\Ile ....
:
.:

' Bordeaux

.'

V'1Odobona

Calatayud.

'\t>~OS

(Te.."" VISIGOTHIC
KINGDOM

'V"/

]oledo

.$aguntum
.Valencia

Augusta

i" ....
'.

C6~ck,b.;~ "",

<-" Granada
.;:,...
'!..

MaIaCa

T.... ~

".

...

......

..

S. AII~~ 0Cagliari
""""

Carthago

510bi

. .

~(fr MII~ arentwn

es9iano oBmdili
S11re13a 'Otranto

Macomer"Olbia

. MIIh6n

oAlicante

....... : ,!>,.... Elvira'

: '.

Gades

T~!~i

Philippi.

Beroea.

.SaIonika

Delphi

PatraI

Athens
PirlIeu&..
Corinth_
.........
Mantinta" o.--,po ...
Argot

AirnerIa

Abdera

~_ .... _:~~0s1ia~
...un... - - castel Piiiiiinr
~

.TanlJf:XJ
tosa,

Emerita

,.~.a-_2:.Ierii:~ .~ B

Der

c-a ItpaM

Auzia
......... ......... ......: ..~ilifi$

Hippo.

'Cm
Hadrumetum

1--

.................

1/1

-9V 4'

~>.

-9

:::.~,;

"'"
,..

-9"'"
oS'

......

........

".

I.
'.
533-Conqwal 01 ". Tripoli'
Vandal kingdom
by BoIisarius. Edict

==~'9

~ 11"0

..... ......

2.
Ancien! JewiIh

c:onwnunIIy lore*'

PtoIenIIiI

~t.....t

Io~. end -

. ......

1'A A

Iscina

....

. ... ....rt....!_

/ .....

....... ... Burian .""

....

Information regarding the Jewish dispersion is sparse. One

may learn about the way of life of the Jewish communities
from the canons of the church synods that convened in
Europe. For example, one of the rulings of the Council of
Elvira in southern Spain at the beginning of the fourth century
forbade Jews to bless Christian fields and Christians to eat
in the company of Jews. These prohibitions were intended
to prevent fraternization between Jews and Christians. From
this, one may also infer that Jews engaged in agriculture.
In the fifth century church councils increasingly discussed
matters involving the Jews. Although Rome was a center
of Christianity, the leaders of the church were weak, thus
enabling the church councils in various regions to issue
canons concerning Jewish affairs.
Anti-Jewish bias was prevalent at the church councils held
in France during the Merovingian period and their decisions
express the intent to sever social relations between the Jewish
and Christian populations. The decisions of these councils
determined the relationship of the Merovingian rulers toward
the Jews. However, Merovingian France admitted the Jewish
refugees who fled from Visigothic persecutions.
Massacre and persecution were the fate of the Jewish
communities in the lands conquered by the Byzantine armies.
The Emperor Justinian I promulgated a series of Novellae(new
laws added to the Corpus luris Civilis) intended to harm the
Jews and restrict the livelihood of the Jewish population in
the Roman Empire. One of the Novellae forbade the public
reading of the Torah in Hebrew, permitting the reading
14

.......-.'Cyrene
......... .

only in Greek. The Jews got around this law by composing

a corpus of Hebrew liturgical poetry that was incorporated
in the prayers and contained references to passages in the
Pentateuch.
The victory of Belisarius, commander of Justinian's army,
over the Vandals in North Africa (533) put an end to their
rule in that territory and from then on the status of the Jews
declined in the former Vandal kingdom. The Jews, Donatists
and Arians were warned against proselytizing. The status of
the Jews further declined with the capture of Burion, the fifth
city of the Pentapolis, situated at the southwestern edge of
Cyrenaica and the Jews of this ancient community were
forced to convert to Christianity and their synagogue was
turned into a church. Many Jews fled to the free Berber
tribes, who treated them kindly.
The map of Jewish dispersion shows a large Jewish world
extending beyond the borders of the Roman Empire, including
the Persian Sassanid kingdom. The rulers of this kingdom
were generally tolerant toward the Jews, allowing them to
establish their own organizations and institutions and thus
providing a new political foundation for Jewish self-government through the office of the exilarch, the lay head of the
Jewish community.
A distant independent Jewish community in southern Arabia maintained close contact with the Jewish community in
the Holy Land and some of its members were priviliged to
be buried in Bet She'arim.

l 7~
/

4.
S61- Asr!ement

0100

between Persians
and J\I$tinian

atipulat.. that ....e

remains under
Byuntine control.

.........
.'
.'

.'...'Ourosturum

~ \ 8

5 e a

.
COle HIS )-... . . .

.'

........

"

.
'

.....

'

Amisus

......

.....

....

....
M

.S<aa
Arbela

.Rhases
M
SASSANIAN KING DO
(NEW PERSIAN KINGDOM)
Hamadan
"Ha/wan

. Isfahan

~m

3.

540-Justinian,.!>usY
in ~
_ _ front. I\hClm'OW

.$usa

e a n

....
'"

-1

CUphl1Jt es

5 e a

...............

....

1/t A
4' 7 ~
S

tOlO*d Me!opo~mia, I1OI'them

Syria and CoIchis.

Fayum

iOxyr~us.
:
'\

.Tayrna

MinyaAntinoopolis

::

..-.......1:
H~ ... ."......

Magna

...... ......

..................................

Medina

Edfu
""

.".

"\
Thebes.

'.

'. '

...... ......... .

4 4

ARABIA

. .

Taif

Mecca

NUBIANS

. Najran

.Sana

Kane.

An oil lamp from Palestine.

15

SYNAGOGUES IN PALESTINE

Phoenicia

Second to Sixth Centuries

Phoenicia

Kefar &ram.~ "

~

.:

vlayim.~

Sikhni

~~

ArbI!I

appori
,

Pat ae5
Bet

.....

"

"'yfa

..........

\ \ (\

.... }!~!.~~

Kanaf
Umm
~ el-Qanatir
~ Apheka
.:

TiIeriN

Bet Verab

~Japh'1a

..,

~ Katzrin

~ Khirbet

urn
'I!p

.....

Khirbet ed Dikka

Kafr Can.

.....

,.'

EMayim ,.:

~Kh. Zcmaymira

Chorazin ~

Kh. Amudim Il

N~raya

Bakal\!fll ~ bema
El-R am~

:"

En N ~h ut

' ' ~ ' . , .. ........

..
~Daltot'l<efar~ ~ Dabiya

a 'lftI ~~
. ' Zalztla
~
. Meiron ~ ~

,:

Dabbura

GUsh HalaV
Alma'"

.'

..

Pahma.,

...
lit

IlfI Ga,der

~ Kolthav H a-Yardeo

8et She'an~

a'o~ Hayim

... . .

&

~~
se C \) .. ... .. . ..

Rehob ~

'. ~.Tirat

leVI

Hebron....

Pal.esti nai
.,...,. Modem name

Neapolil

Pr
10

..........

..'

Pa' a eat i n

I Ian.

THE HIMYAR KINGDOM AND ITS

WAR WITH THE ETHIOPIANS
Sixth Century
The kingdom of Himyar and Himyar ben Saba will become strong
in Yemen after the departure from there of the tribes of Saba. And
the kings of Himyar were called Tuba in the days when the kings of
Egypt were called Pharaoh. Their capital was called Zafar and was
near the city known today as Sana. And the most famous ruler, Asad
abuKarb, was the first to become a Jew after his return from his
war against Persia. He learned of Judaism from kwish scholars at
Medina when he passed throu!lt there on his travels. Many people of
his land became Jews with him, and the country of Himyar became
J ewish until the days of Yosef Du Nuas, whom the king of Ethiopia
fought against because of his war against the Christians of Nairan who
yoset pursued when he heard what the Christians had done to the
Jews of Najran. Because Christianity had spread in Nairan in central
Arabia when Himyar was Jewish. And the Ethiopians will become strong
in Himyar and Yemen and become a colony of Ethiopia for a long
time. And the Ethiopian governor of Sana will buid a splendid Christian
church in the capital in order to capture the hearts of the inhabitants of
Arabia for Christianity.

~ .L ........

Beersheba

20

Byzantine rule sought to deal a blow to the Jewish communities in Palestine and the Diaspora by abolishing the
patriarchate. The death of R. Gamaliel the Sixth in 426
brought an end to the harassment of the patriarchate.
(The harassment apparently continued until 429.) In spite
of the authorities' attempt to badger the Jewish residents
of Palestine by dividing the country into three provinces
- Prima in the center, Secunda in the north and Tertia in
south ~ the Jewish community remained resolute. A list of

Ein Gedi

Eshtemoa
Hurbat
.... Ithir~.~.
Kishor,.. ........................ ..

......

(Sichem ) ; '

,I ...

, ~ , t,. "

Pahrna I\f?

Town with synagOgue

A1fa ~

". . ....... . . . ,

...

\)~~&

seC ..........
........
:: ......

'0

'20

Ian.

synagogues and their mosaics present a picture of a Jewish

community attempting to cope with the edicts of the time.
Jews were forbidden to reside in Jerusalem, and Tiberias
became the most important Jewish center of the period.
The Samaritan community was badly decimated as a result
of its first revolt against Byzantine rule in 484, when Emperor
Zeno built a church on Mount Gerizim, and the revolt in 529
during the reign of Emperor Justinian I.

';;'I;~'~ ?~~. ~ 9 ~ ~ ~ ' ~.I ~ L, }J'P>I ~n In> AX 001 h ;\\':

?,,1~>Y:iloo l oo5.l

y ~Fl~)
1?,ex>111 n ~3 I -:O T(

;?~~1J, ::,:, o. ~ A r, ~t)

i1f

-.i~~t..,~'~iI~ ,\ "

'1~> .Yt4 I O!Y 'i'F1>ICX) ~ 'T'Y17,'

1Xn1'fool~lf1looY ~N

'/~{. I ~ ~~~?1~:1~
..:tii~l" \.. " .. ;''C''. -o"al.;.

A Himyar inscription.

The Jewish kingdom of Himyar in southern Arabia was

a thorn in the flesh of Byzantium, particularly during the
Byzantine-Persian wars, because it was located on a major
trade route. Byzantium's geopolitical motives for moving
against Himyar were founded on the strategic necessity of
establishing a southern flanking route to the Persian. Gulf.
This objective required a base on the Red Sea and an
alliance with Ethiopia, the only Christian state in the area.
The commercial motive was to maintain an open sea route
to India in order to protect the supply of spices and other
goods from India and Arabia to the merchants of Rome.
However', the Jewish kingdom prevented the passage of
Byzantine traders through its territory in retaliation for the
persecution of Jews in Byzantium, and Du Nuas, the last king
of Himyar, was particularly zealous in this matter. Persia was
too weak an ally to render any significant support to the

A.M Habermann, Sefer Gzerot Ashkenaz veTsarfat, Jerusalem 1946,

p. 29

16

dlqitalia
'/O \'iN Cgi l"

u JG

Jewish kingdom of Himyar because it did not share Himyar'~ ~----'"""":'-:-::--:;:---:---;-:-;;;-;;--:---r---~"'"':"'""-::------'

political and strategic needs in its relations with Byzantium
Himyar was threatened by the Christian merchant communi~
in Najran and by the Ethiopians. The latter, having formec
BYZ
an alliance with Byzantium, undertook to fight Byzantium'~
battle with Himyar to settle a score with that kingdom ovel
OF
,
Ethiopia's loss of control of the straits that led from thE
..~ Baghdad
PERSIA
Red Sea to the Indian Ocean. Himyar was also weakenec
.~,! CtesiphOll
r;;;iS'.,\
by internal strife. King Du Nuas was defeated and died in c Med;~:~=
battle on the seashore in 525, an event that signified thE
' ~o ' (
end of the Himyar kingdom. The Ethiopians destroyed thE
o
:
Gau -f
Jewish communities and the remnants of the independenl
r
A
A R A B
Jewish kingdom dispersed to the towns and mountains 0
the Arabian peninsula; many fled to the city of Tai~. ThE
i
.
6.
Jewish community in Najran was annihilated.
Many Jews flee

n '"'''";''-

.Khaybar

".

10 Ta"lf. Jewish
community

in Nairan

destroyed.

",Medina

A section of the floor mosaic of Bet Alfa synagogue

showing signs of the Zodiac.

WARS BETWEEN PERSIA

AND BYZANTIUM
609-629

Atil

Caspian

Sea

Sea

Phasisi':~" '(':~"""""" ......

Tillis.....

TrlpClUlt.

..................

; ,

.......

..............~:~~.::F. . \..

''''-'''d''

Khosrow fl.

Nineveh \...

Mediterranean Sea

628-Persians surrender
conquered territories 10

B\nantium. Heraclius

embarks on lriumphal
rnlIrch.

--(-

Campaigns 01 Khosrow n

--(
--(00. }

Campaigns of Heraclius

.....

Byzantine Empire
Persian Empire

d::,;,"''''
~.

EcbatanaO

$.~ EMPIRE

Euphrates

Persian

.... ....
............

Gulf
.......... .

ARABIA

".
"',

17

THE PERSIAN INVASION OF

PALESTINE

In 606 the Persian legions invaded Syria, Palestine and Phoenicia and began to dismember the Byzantine Empire. Palestine
was a natural center for Persian-Jewish collaboration since it
had a large Jewish community that was a potential counterforce to the Christian population and Byzantine rule. Most
of the Jewish population was centered in Galilee, in an area
that controlled the route leading from Damascus to Palestine.
There was also a concentration of Jews in Jerusalem, so large
that the governor of the city tried to force them to convert to
Christianty. The fall of Antioch to the Persians severed the
land route between Constantinople and Palestine and in 613
the Persians entered Damascus. Jerusalem was captured in
614, and in 619 the Persians conquered Egypt. In all these
conquests the Jews and Samaritans received the Persians
as liberators, turning many cities over to them. The Persian
conquest of Palestine was interpreted by the Jews as the
advent of the messianic period of redemption. This ferment
was reflected in the eschatological literature of the period and
in the increasing number of messianic movements among the
Jews.
The Jewish community's euphoria over the Persian conquest was short-lived; the Persians did not fulfill their promises
to the Jews and were soon favoring the Christian community
and persecuting the Jewish one. In a battle near Nineveh
(627), the Byzantines defeated the Persians and proceeded
to occupy Ctesiphon (628). With the death of Khosrow (628),
the way was open to the conquest of Jerusalem (629), but
the days of Byzantine rule too were short-lived. The Islamic
conqueror stood at the gate.

614-618

o
City that opened its gates to Persians
. . - Persian army

0(.....

Jewish army

~ Persian and Jewish army

THE JEWS IN THE

ARABIAN PENINSULA
Beginning of the
Seventh Century

- - - Trade routes
I)
City or town with Jewish community

-- -- ---"

Rainfall area

c::::J Oases

t":"":j Sands

1
1

400

'km.

,
I

MUHAMMAD'S WARS AGAINST THE JEWS

Haiar o
oDedan
3,
Qaynuqa' cion
from MedIna

sojourn about a

month at aJ.Qura
before continuing

northward and
, alEdrei

2.
624-MuIwnmad'.

men besiege

~'j!M~~eal
...
,;;norce

... .

"'111 withdraw

s.
627- Qurayza clan
pr()J><lOln terms of
lurrender alter 25-day

==.I~

600 men executed;

women and children

lOkI into

so,

"',

We know very little about the beginnings of Jewish settlement

in the Arabian peninsula. It seems that Jews began to live
in oases and urban centers in the first centuries C.E. The
settlers engaged in agriculture and commerce and were
organized in clans (or, according to some scholars, tribal
groups). Their agriculture consisted mainly of date groves,
while in commerce they developed the credit system and in
the crafts they were blacksmiths, gold- and silversmiths and
expert armor makers. Various families were identified by
their occupations. The story is told that Muhammad used to
buy goods on credit from the Jews.
Medina had a concentration of Jewish tribes; among the
large ones were Banu Nadir, Qurayza, Qaynuqa' and some,
who claimed to be of priestly descent, called Kahinan. Their
strongholds were greater in number than those of the Arabs.
The Khaybar Jews resided about a hundred kilometers
north of the Medina district and it is possible that this
Jewish settlement was larger than Medina. In spite of the
vicissitudes in their fortune, the Khaybar community played
an important role in the history of the Jewish people. The
Jewish settlements in Wadi al-Qura and other oases such
as Fadak and Tayma served as asylums for the refugees
from southern Arabia after the death of Du Nuas. Jewish
residents settled in these areas in proximity to nomadic
Bedouin tribes and to the Nadirs, who were sedentary
farmers. In spite of the influence of these two groups, the
Jews persevered in their own special way of life and did not
become nomads like the Bedouin, who changed their abode
twice a year.

623-629

Muhammad had hoped to convert these settlers, but ultimately realizing that he would never succeed, he declared a
war of extinction against them.
Relations between Muhammad and the Jews deteriorated,
especially after his victory over Abu Jahl of Mecca (in the second year of the Hegira). He now turned against his enemies
in Medina, besieging the stronghold of the Jewish clan of
Qaynuqa' and forcing them into exile. The Qaynuqa' went
by way of Wadi al-Qura to Transjordan and settled at Edrei.
Arab sources number the size of the clan as 750 people,
excluding women and children. In 627, after an unsuccessful
siege by the Meccans against Medina, Muhammad turned
against the Jewish clan of Qurayza and forced them to
surrender unconditionally. The Qurayza had hoped for mercy
and protection from their allies in Muhammad's camp but
Muhammad was determined to destroy them.
The fate of the Jews of Khaybar was different from that
of the other Jewish clans. They sought allies amongst the
Bedouin tribes of the south but Muhammad succeeded in
winning the Bedouin over to his side. In 629, after a siege, the
Jews of Khaybar turned to Muhammad and sued for peace.
Muhammad, apparently weary of war, agreed to a proposal
whereby the Jews were allowed to remain on their land on
condition that they paid an annual tax of one half of their
date harvest. According to the Hadith, this agreement on the
distribution of the spoils served as a model for the conquests
of Omar. This may explain and justify Omar's methods in
conquest.

THE CITY OF MEDINA

Jewish tribe BAN U A N I

19

Now came the tum of the Jewish clans in the southern

half of the peninsula and in the oases. This stage of the war
is reflected in the text of an agreement containing promises
given by Muhammad to the Samuel b. Adaya family in return
for an undertaking by the family to pay a poll tax and
an annual fixed amount of food products. Muhammad now
adopted a policy different from the one used against the
Jews of Hijaz and Khaybar. He declared that one must not
coerce Jews and Christians to accept the new faith and
ordered his officers and tax collectors to limit themselves
to taking a poD tax (jizya) and a land tax (karga or khara).
The majority of Jews were at that time concentrated in the

Yemen and those in the north, who joined their brethren in

the south, were the ones who renewed contacts with the
Babylonian geonim and subsequently with the secular and
religious leaders of the Egyptian Jewish community. Others
emigrated to Palestine after it was conquered by the armies
of Islam.
After Muhammad's death in 632 his successors continued
their conquest and expansion. Knowledge of the map of the
world at this period is one of the keys to understanding the
fate of Judaism, which was from now on poised between the
two world powers - Islam and Christianity.

ARABIAN CONQUEST AND THE RISE OF ISLAM

622-721

CoIogne (Colonia)
Paris

Met z
/A. ,, Tours

f
'-V--./.
..

r'

Mainz (Maguntia)

Poitiers

. Nimes ~., ....... ........

ToIedo . 4 Saragos

J. . . .

....

~.

J.~

o
I

- -....
.

'

[!II]] Persian kingdom

..... .. Boundary of Byzantine empire , 56S
c:J Byzantine empire, 700
_
Muhammad's conquests, 622632
Conquests during reign of first four caliphs, 632-661
Conquests during Umayyad caliphate, 661750
Conquests during Abbasid caliphate, 750 onwards
_
Major routes of Arab advances

20

Islam continued to dominate the Arabian Peninsula, conquering Damascus, Babylonia and Persia. The Arabs invaded
Palestine in 634 and by February had already reached
the gates of Gaza, defeating the Byzantine army in 636.
Jerusalem, still held by the Byzantines, was besieged in 637
and in March-April 638 surrendered to Caliph Ornar. In 640
Caesarea, the last Byzantine foothold in Palestine, was taken.
The Islamic armies continued their drive through Egypt and
North Africa and in 711 crossed the straits separating Europe

and Africa, invading and conquering the Iberian Peninsula.

They crossed the Pyrenees but were defeated in a battle
near Tours (Poitiers) and their advance was halted.
It was clear that the Jews belonged to the dhimmi class
(the protected people) by virtue of being Jews. Relations
with them were therefore determined by the agreements
concluded by' Muhammad and the practice at that time.
However, relations were greatly influenced by the political
and social developments in the caliphates.
The Jews tended to live in separate streets, but in this
they were not different from members of other faiths. In the
Arab city of Fes, Muslims from Kairouan lived in one street
and Muslims from Andalusia lived in another street and each
community had its own mosque. The Jewish quarter was in
the northern part of the city, but there was no fixed Muslim
legislation requiring Jews to reside in separate quarters. If
such legislation did exist, the Muslims, as a minority, would
have segregated themselves in their own quarters. However,

VISIGOTHIC SPAIN

in their own quarters Muslims made sure that churches

and synagogues were built no higher than mosques and
that Muslim houses were no lower than the houses of their
neighbors. Segregation existed in the bathhouses, and in
many cities separate Jewish baths were built (e.g., Gerona,
Granada and elsewhere). Heavy punishment was meted
out for sexual intercourse between members of different
communities and mixed marriages were strictly forbidden
unless the non-Muslim converted to Islam. Muslims were
forbidden to bequeath anything to the infidel. In general,
dhimmi children who converted to Islam lost their right of
inheritance and the father of a converted daughter was
not entitled to marry her off (and therefore receive her
mohar).

The superior status of Islam over other religions was further

emphasized by distinctions in type and color of clothing. Over
the generations, the Muslims added an increasing number of
prohibitions and limitations.

589-Third Church Coord 01 Toledo: KI'\9

Reccated declares c.l/IOIicism IOIe reJ90n of
country. JI!WJ lorboddlm \0 marry Christian women
or own Chri5'IlIn st.w~.

Seventh Century

~5
~v

J)Iwrd

."
.

.1>._ . . ...... .. ...........

.:t' . Zamora

LisbOn

BaOOjoz

Calatayud
~ona .

Taledo

moo

V ISI G O T HS

Seville"~
; C;~~;
~'"
0
I..uCIIna.:EMra

.....
.<.'
............9.~.'!':'~.. ./ c:rtagena
Gades . ....
~
Adra
Tingis Ceuta

\
li::] Byzantine provinces taken by Visigoths. 584-585
o

Kingdom of Visigoths in 600

Place with remains of Jewish residence

t...

The persecution of the Jews in Visigothic Spain began when

the Visigoths converted to Catholicism during the reign of
king Reccared (586). From then on the church councils
enacted a number of anti-Jewish laws with the intention of
eliminating the Jewish community.
King Sisebut, supported by the church councils, inaugurated a series of stringent anti-Jewish laws in 612. The Jewish
population was forced to convert and, even then, as converts
they were burdened with many restrictions. The church
council of 633, during the reign of King Sisenand, was the
most severe in its attitude toward the Jewish population and
its decisions regarding the Jews were adopted as the law of
the land. Nine basic laws (paragraphs 57-65) established a

100

200

. Gemna

Saragoesa. ~"O

F.56a:J:::::-_-;:;-FOO-r1"7h-;;:C~hu""'rc7'"h---,
CouncU 01 Toledo.
RestrictIOns again.t
Jews and persecution 01
cryplo-Jews.

T4
t

/ BASQUES .......
~"Le6n' " .. F ........ Mnp~.
}
~.~ Tudela .......... .

t)l

Tarrasona ~cena
0

3.
612-King
SiMbut ordml

reIeaoe 01
Chnsf slaws
owned by Jews.

6 t.3-~ SiMbut e>q>ell

from Spain Jews who refuse
to convert to Chnshamty .
Many Jews convert but
_relly continue to obsetw
Judaiom

Algiers

"....

tun.

legal network against the Jews and crypto-Jews. Paragraph

65 was the law that forbade Jews and crypto-Jews from
holding offices and having any jurisdiction over Christians.
This law served in the fifteenth century to forbid Jews and
crypto-Jews to hold office and to create anti-Jewish public
opinion.
The Visigoths who invaded Spain in 412 ruled for three
hundred years as a social upper strata of conquerors that tried
to impose the laws of a militant society and church upon the
country. They failed to integrate with the indigenous RomanSpanish community, and also rejected the Jewish minority.
Internal intrigues caused their downfall at the beginning of
the eighth century.

21

THE JEWS IN ITALY DURING

THE PAPACY OF GREGORY I
(THE GREAT) 590-604

3.
Pope Gregory
orderS punishmenl

of Christian fanatics
who harrassed
Jewish worshipers.

Otranto
4.
98-Bishop 0/ city

Pope Gregory censures an

apOSlate for desec-rallng a
synagogue and orders removal 01
crooses placed there.

Agrigento
5
Although Pope Gregory opposes forced
conver.IOO. he orders a group 01 Jews
who WISh to convert to be !liven financial
aid and to be baptized im
teiy, before
they change their minds.

~,-..,..-,::-:::----.... --;---;--,

IOU
!

Syracuse

flSCat .. synagOgUe
nd hou.... 0/ learning,
converting them In'o
churches. Pope Gregory
censur.. biohop and
orden him to pay
compensation for
buildings and relIgious
art~acl.

,-=;:..;;.:c.~_ __

Me d i t err a n e a n Sea

200

- =i km.

Area under Langobard control

Area under suzerainty of Byzantine empire

--,

Despite the scant information available on the Jews in Italy

in the sixth and seventh centuries, there are sources that
indicate Jewish settlement in a number of important Italian
cities. Legal autonomy for the Jews of Italy was recognized
by an edict of king Theodoric (after 512), in contrast to
the policy of the Byzantine emperors, who saw Jewish courts
merely as institutions of arbitration. The Jews of Genoa were
allowed to repair their synagogue and it was decreed that
they were not to be coerced in matters of belief.
The heads of the church in Rome had considerable international influence, but it was only during the papacy of
Gregory I (59<Hi04) that the church's attitude to the Jews was
given official expression. His papal bull Sicut Judaeis determined the church's relationship to the Jews throughout the
Middle Ages. The underlying principle of Gregory's bull was
the maintenance of the status quo and so, for example,
the extent of synagogue activities was restricted to what
had been permissible before the publication of the bull.
Successive popes in the Middle Ages continued to be guided
by Skut Judaeis. However, Gregory's general policy toward
the Jews was to refrain from religious compulsion and serious
economic persecution. While he permitted Jews to own
pagan slaves, he prohibited them from owning pagan slaves
who converted to Christianity and totally forbade trading
in these slaves. Pagan slaves who worked on Jewish farms
and converted and became colons (594), were obliged to
pay a fixed rental fee and forbidden to perform any personal
service for their Jewish masters. Gregory also supported the
persecution of the Jews by the Visigoths in Spain.
The largest concentration of Jews in Italy seems to have
been in Sicily, then under Byzantine rule.
Rome had the most ancient Jewish community and communal organization in Italy. The communal leadership had
its early origins in the office of the archisynagogus (head of
the synagogue) who was assisted by the elders of the community. The Jews of Rome, like the Greeks, Franks, Saxons,
Lombards, and Frisians, were called schola peregrinorum (a
sect of foreigners), and are mentioned as being present at the
coronation of emperors in Rome. Rome became the forum
for disputations between Jews and Christians on matters of
faith.

And King Charles sent to the King of Babylonia asking him to send Jews
descendants of the House of David And he agreed and sent him a wise
and important person, ~. Makhir by name, who was settled in Narbonne
. . . and he was given a big landed property in the time the city
was conquered from the Israelites ... And when the city was conquered
the King divided it in three parts: one was given to don Eymerich, the
city's governor; the second part was given to the local bishop; the third
was given to R. Makhir, who became enriched and was granted freedom,
and the king gave to the local Jews good laws, signed by the king Charles
through privileges, accepted by his descendants. And those who tried
persecute them, they would complain to the King who would order
reprisals. And immediately order was restored. Narbonne is under the
rule of France. And his (R. Makhir's1 descendants were in their time
leaders at the head of various dispersions.

Pope Gregory ( (the Great).

R. Abraham Ibn Daud, The Book of Tradition (, ed A Neubaur, Oxford

1888. Addition to manuscript, p. 82.

CHARLEMAGNE'S EMPIRE

A tombstone in
Auch (E1imberris).

Charlemagne (768-814), the central Carolingian figure, had

his name linked with many Jewish and Christian legends, one
of which is the legend concerning the role he played in the
Jewish settlements in Narbonne and Mainz and particularly
with the tradition that he was instrumental in having Torah
study transferred from Baghdad to Narbonne.
Charlemagne was the first western ruler to send a commercial delegation to the Caliph Harun ai-Rashid, and it
was this delegation that renewed and revived trade relations
between Christian Europe and eastern Islam. A Jew, called
Isaac, was a member of the delegation and was the only one
to complete the mission and return safely.
The relationship between Charlemagne and the Jews, and
the protection he extended to them, is expressed in his
edicts. One can assume that the foundations for the charters
of privileges for the Jews were laid during his reign.

There are three extant charters of privileges from the

Carolingian period, all dating from the reign of Louis the
Pious (814-840): one given to R. Domatus; the second to
several Jews from Lyons - David, Joseph and their compatriots; the third to Abraham of Saragossa. The three charters
provide a wealth of information about the history of the
Jews in Europe and particularly in the Carolingian empire.
Probably granted in 825, the charters gave protection to the
Jews and defined their rights. Each paragraph dealt with
a variety of subjects and problems, for example, exemptions
from paying certain taxes and excises that were levied on
the general population. We also learn from the charters of
the considerable Jewish involvement in the slave trade that
extended from Bohemia to Muslim Spain. The importance
of defining the legal relations between Jews and Christians
can be attested to their prominence in the records of judicial
proceedings. It is reasonable to assume that the Carolingians
instituted the office of magister Judaeorum, an imperial official
appointed to supervise matters relating to the Jews. The
office and its incumbent were destined to rouse the anger of
the church in Carolingian France, but also to be emulated
in many places.
Relations with the crown were of prime importance since
the right of residence for ' Jews in the Carolingian state, as
in every other state, depended upon the crown's approval.
A fundamental change in relations with the Jews took place
in the Carolingian state, which discarded the Theodosian
ordinances and replaced them with the ancient Teutonic
laws regarding aliens. The new relations were based upon
the ruler's patronage and protection in exchange for the
payment of a fixed annual tax.

KIEVAN
Kiev

RUSSIA

<;)c:I'

Sarkel

Kherson

Sea
EMIRAT
OF
COR D 0 B A V~encia

Venosa

Malaga . Granada
Tangier.

Constantinople .

-4

Kairouan

BAGHDAD

Sea

Jaffa ...Jerusalem
Gaza Ramle

Alexandria.
200

'00

' km.

Frankish kingdom. 768

Charlemagne's conquests
Frontier military districts
Conquered peoples and allies

23

dlqitalia
'/OWN Cgil"

u JG

BOUNDARIES OF THE DIVIDED

CAROLINGIAN EMPIRE
843
', '

<$'4;
1.

~~-:ges

; :.
'CoIonia
.:Aachen_ -(e Iogn )
0
e
Lyon against~.
Maim _ - frankfurt"':
.Prague
:..
-Lthem.=._~ ~ Pans' .:Verdun. - Worms
"..
N
QrlMns ". Metz '. Speyer
.
~es Loire ..
R '- .
.
' sBerdeaux ".~.,..~
ege,,,,,,urg a
.... ....Vienna
'i1r,ube
Tour
Pious and the

Atlantic
Ocean

reaction 01

Agobard 01

'.
...

. ... ..

~~~

CHARLES :., ~~~~e

t~"'sl!:~
~tM!~

Chnstianity.

Toulouse.

"'i

~ 'Aries

".'

Sara~::sa. Gero":a: coona

4.

Valencia
Granada

200

LO T H A I R
G;noa

PO~1J(PA.PAL

846-Amulo,

' '1\

km.

Alm..rs

.,:.~:l"' 'i' ;'

~:~~td' ;::fSkt
Incl. en~r
against ews,

""e"'' '<1

"'-

.... .... '. :............

850-Preachen; and
apostateucceed in
baptizing &Orne Jews, In
order to protect their
children. Jews &end
~..... .
them to more secure
v,
.ooL.:C1=
ty....;;.of;..;.Arlu=._ _--'

1::::::::=::::1;';;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;1'

... ..

l O UIS

.. '
".

..<;:arcassonw . - - Marv~~ (G
) ;':"iSlATES
.~a1bonne - --3'~
enova
' 'i:{i:;:...

. Tudela.... .

<a-

ToI::to

Cha1'in~
( Macon

Poiti3.rs

2.
839-The

Q eClQ

Tunis.

..:

". V

Bari
enos: B1ind.jsi
Taranto
Otranto.

. Messina

P Ie

S e:
rrno
w

Boundaries of division of
the Carolingian empire,
according to Treaty of Verdun , 843

The division of the Carolingian Empire after Charlemagne's

death did not substantially alter the status of the Jews in
the kingdoms. However, the anti-Jewish activities and the
writings of Agobard, archbishop of Lyons from 814 to 846,
and his pupil, Amulo, archbishop of Lyons from 841, did
signify the beginning of a change in attitude. Writings from
the second half of the ninth century reveal that there were
clergy who preached the forcible conversion of Jews. The
Jews strongly objected to these sermons and as a cautionary
measure sent their children to take refuge at Aries, where
they enjoyed a greater degree of protection.
As a result of the political division in France in the eleventh
and twelfth centuries, the Jews found themselves under the
jurisdiction either of dioceses that were the owners of cities
and towns, or of various feudal barons, to whom the Jewish
community paid taxes for rights of residence. There were
instances where a Jewish community (such as Narbonne)
was obliged to pay an annual tax both to the diocese and to
the baron who was the lord of the city.
It is from this period that we have increasing knowledge
and information about the Jews in France. In Toulouse it
was customary to degrade the Jews by publicly slapping the
cheek of the head of the community on Good Friday and
only in the twelfth century was this practice replaced by an
annual payment to the clergy. Sermons on the death of Jesus
incited the Christian masses and often resulted in violence
against the Jews. In Beziers, the Christian population was
allowed to stone the Jewish quarter on Easter and only
in 1160 was this license converted to a one-time payment
plus a fixed annual tax to the diocese. It is interesting to
note that the basic argument for persecuting the Jews was
the accusation of collusion between them and the invading
Normans in the south of France and their support for the
plundering raids of the Muslims.

THE KHAZARS AND PRESSURE FROM THE CHRISTIAN STATES

Eighth to Tenth Centuries
The conversion of the Khazars to Judaism is described in
a number of historical sources of the period. Mas'udi, the
Arab historian and traveler, in his book The Meadows of
Gold and Mines of Gems (943-947), tells of the Khazar
king who converted during the reign of Harun al-Rashid
(786-809); of Muslims, Christians and Jews who settled in the
Khazar city of Atil; of Jewish settlers, refugees from Muslim
countries and Greeks who settled in the Khazar kingdom as
a result of persecution by the Byzantine emperor, Romanus
I Lecapenus (919-944). Other Arab sources relate the conversion story, some telling of the king's disappointment with
his Christian faith, and of the talented Jewish polemicist
who succeeded in convincing the king (after the former had
purportedly poisoned his traveling companion, the Muslim
emissary). Other sources report that members of the king's
court were Jews; that his judicial court was composed of
seven wise men - Jews, Christians, Muslims and pagans;
that the basis of the Khazar livelihood was hunting and
trading in animal skins, wax and honey. These sources
also mention that Jews introduced work methods into the
kingdom; that they taught the Khazars to read and write
and that only because of their religious separatism were the

24

Jews able to maintain their independence and avoid being

crushed between the Byzantine hammer and the caliphite
anvil. However, political' considerations were certainly not
the only factors that prompted the Khazar king to convert.
The Khazars were constantly at war with their neighbors
and Byzantium did everything in its power to destroy the
kingdom - even inciting the Alan and Russian tribes to
attack the Khazars from the north. This constant state of war
prevented the Khazars from attending to the internal matter
of Jewish consolidation. There is a general consensus that
the Khazar kingdom of the ninth and tenth centuries was a
Jewish state with Muslim and Christian minorities, in which
the presence of Christians acted as a restraint on Byzantium's
treatment of its Jewish population. The persecution of the
Jews in Byzantium during the reign of Romanus I Lecapenus
could be reciprocated by King Joseph's persecution of the
Christians in his kingdom.
Not only international political factors undermined the
existence of the Khazar kingdom but also economic ones,
such as the lack of a centralized national economy (even by
standards of that period). It is true that the capital city of
Atil benefited from its strategic location on the crossroads

6.

.'.
'

.:........~ ....

,'

London .

9.
955- Hisdai ibn

".

to Jo&eph, king of

Trape2us .... ... . ...

5. ..

Khazars.

.......

Rome ~
Naples

T~do

C6rdoba

Beg. 0/ 8th
cenl.-many

B:ri
'.

Jews flee because

.Oria

of peneclUtions

BYZANTIUM

Athens . /

Seville

by Byzantine
emperor

leo m

(the isaurian).

3.

End 0/ 9th cenl.mass exodus of

Jews beca_ of
ution by Basil
Macedonian).

rr::

.'

Beg. 0/ 10th cettt. Byzantium inciles

A1ans to attack

Khazaria. King Aaron

defeats Alana.

.~

Tmgis .

Tunis

T~ouan

Kairouan

Fes
o

By.antine ~ prevents
Isaac b. Nathan, emissary of
Hisdai ibn Shaprut, from reaching
Kl=aria.

tOO 200

Barca

kin.

THEKHAZARS

..
'

BIa c k

~<,.NS

...........

.Sinope

.1

Trapezus
.. ...........
10

20 Parsah
1 Parsah =4.5 km)

>:

Ttftis :...... DerOOnt

..

Bilkan .....

....: ...

......

"

'

Area of Khazar kingdom as described

by King Joseph in his letter to Ibn Shaprut

"Let not my lord take it ill, I pray, that I enquire about the number of
his forces. May the Lord add to them, how many soever they be, an
hundredfold .. ..My lord sees that I enquire about this with no other object
than that I may rejoice when I hear of the increase of the holy people.
I wish too that he would teU me of the number of provinces over
which he rules, the amount of tribute paid to him, if they give him tithes,
whether he swells continually in the royal city or goes about through the
whole extent of his dominions, if there are islands in the neighborhood,
and if any of their inhabitants conform to Judaism? U he judges over
them? How he goes up to the house of God? With what peoples he
wages war? Whether he allows war to set aside the observance of
the Sabbath? What kingdoms or nations are on his borders? What
are the cities near to his kingdom called Khorasan, Berdaa, and Bab
aI Abwab? In what way their caravans proceed to his territory? How
many kings ruled before him? What were their names, how many years
each of them ruled, and what is the current language of the land?"

From letter by Hisdai ibn Shaprut to King of Khazars. Letters of Jews

Through the Ages, ed F. Kobler, Ararat PublishingSociety Ltd, London,
1952.

Tribes lhal surrounded

and harrassed Khazar

of an important trade route and was, therefore, the major

source of national revenue for the kingdom. However, the
duties on goods and taxes collected within the state - the
extent of which we know practically nothing - still fell short
of what the kingdom required.
The apogee of the Khazar kingdom was in the middle
of the tenth century, the period of contact between King
Joseph and R. Hisdai ibn Shaprut and the emergence of
Russian power. According to Russian sources, Sviatoslav,
ruler of Kiev (945-972), crushed the Khazars in 965, but they
are still mentioned in the Russian Chronicles of 1016 and
1023. Khazars from the city of Tamatarkha (Taman of today)

assisted Mstislav the Brave in his campaign against his brother

Yaroslav the Wise (ruled 101~1054). It is known that in 1078
Oleg, grandson of Yaroslav the Wise, resided in Tamatarkha
and the Chronicles relate that in 1079 he was siezed by
the Khazars and taken captive to Constantinople. However,
in 1083 he was able to avenge himself on the Khazars on
behalf of his brother. The Khazars are still mentioned at the
beginning of the twelfth century and so it seems that they
were active for a considerable period after their defeat by
the Russians in 965 and before they finally dispersed among
the many Jewish communities.

25

THE RADHANITE MERCHANTS

Rbinf!
Aachen

.Magdeburg

.~

~.,

Verdu~'~' ~-,

1
.

:"J.Metz

.......... lnrl:., l _
~AnIIIC.
r

Kiev a
_----------+
... '_~r

.14.'
Regensourg

'Atlantic

SPAIN

Oc.an

Tudela
C6rdoba

'

./

,\

lenubll

'

.,.",

~a

\~
,

..

~-

.....

Merchants bring

lumbert lents,

!JII'ia.._

:.

~ech

w. SoIJS8e

..

- ......

- .. -('7'-;---:----:-:----.

~.......>-...

3.

Fertile areas rich in

grains, citrus. fruits
and vegetables,
.pice., cotton, silk
and merino wool.

Bal<h '"

~Y" .. "" ::;,

, .......... ~

... .,.

.D__
,.....ne

TAANSOXIANA

a.la ck Sea

.. '
" \ ,,\' ('\..
,'KHAt"
I
\ ~

.....Mdu.
.......

2.

(' -'

'", _..'

~<

/ ",.,.
~ AlgIn
~\~
.. ' ................ ...........>Rat to .t~
....... ~ Oran
.
'f' "'''d '
' "I;'I!S
KlIrrouan@"
1:

HUN G A A Y

.~ ~

......

~ Atil

_----,

"
..

nz

_i
ANCE
G E R MAN Y V:Ona
lY9111
5aQ!iago de CamposteJa f

L/cu.

:o?Ie.

"'-Prague

Tripoli

Metropolis of North

~ha~t::r~:~

transacted ImportMt
business. Goods
brought here from
distant lands. Precious
metal oak was ~r
occupation in city.

up~

~i' s

~~o~the

'"~.

East.

~ Ba...... ~.. Isfahan. "=P::::E::':A=-=S-=-IA-:------'

~~,..~
.Kerman
................
..

II"~

'n'.n

BIn:a..........

i
~..

....1"'0

.....

fI

... ~.

AIaandria

....

Kula'. Baslll ............

.A

"'ian

.!

(j:Wa:.swords from

. ....... .

A.

Muscat

.~
....

M....chants bring
eunuchs, female sla_,
boys sold into slavery,

;;

Ub~. ~

FARS ..........'i~~..;,;;ii;j,;;,a~

amascus

.................. :",,!Falllma
E GYP T F~l;~ QulzI.ll1

4.

0
Z

KERMAN

Ahwaz

Amjar

A R A B I A

(il

11

. ,
.,.

~J
~

GOODS TRADED BY THE RADHANITES

Medicinal herbs (camphor)
Spices (cinnamon, turmeric)
Perfumes (musk)

Soap
Wax

Honey
Silk (brocade)

Furs
Skins
Swords
Arsenic
Pierced pearls
Silver (ingots)
Slaves

20ft

~- ........
@

The beginning of the ninth century saw a change in the

function of the Mediterranean ports of the Muslim countries.
The Muslim fleets grew stronger and were now able to attack
Byzantine garrisons on Cyprus, Crete, Sicily and southern
Italy. In fact, the Arabs controlled the Mediterranean and
the Byzantine navy ceased to play any practical role in
the area. North Africa became the link between Muslim
ports in the western, southern and eastern Mediterranean. In
Egypt, Fustat developed as a trading center, situated between
Alexandria and the Red Sea ports on the trade route to India.
Due to the. political stability of the tenth century, the Muslim
countries developed and prospered.
Among the towns that played an important role in devel
oping trade were the new ones - Fes, Marrakech, Meknes,
and Rabat - all of them Muslim. Kairouan exceeded them
all as the metropolis of North Africa; located on the trade
route midway between Alexandria and the ports of western
Morocco and Spain and adjacent to the fortified port of
Mahdia, it engaged in precious metal crafts, received slaves
from Sudan and Byzantium, and goods - oils, dried fruits,
turmeric, spices, and leather - from distant places. It was
a meeting place for great merchants and their agents and
many business transactions were effected there. From the
beginning of the ninth until the middle of the eleventh
century, considerable wealth was accumulated in Kairouan,

<00

: Ian,

Major Radhanile trade routes

Trade center

A letter from R. Hisdai ibn Shaprut to Joseph, king of the Khazars.

26

dlqitalia
'/O\'iN Cgil"

u JG

and palatial private and public buildings were constructed in

the town. Merchants, particularly the Jewish ones known as
Radhanites, played a major role in international trade. Their
caravans traversed many countries, from Europe through
North Africa to the Muslim east and on to India. Another
land route took them through Europe to the Far East and
China.
The origin of the Radhanites is unknown but some think
they came from the east. As Radhanite trade declined in the
tenth century, it was taken up by the merchants of Kairouan
and Fustat. Documents found in the Cairo Genizah contain
a wealth of material relating to the international wholesale
trade of North Africa as well as a considerable amount of
responsa about commercial matters referring to the sages and
geonim of Babylon. They reveal the lively trade engaged in by
Jewish merchants from different western communities, using

Fustat and Kairouan as their centers. Various documents

deal with the resolution of credit problems and litigation
between various merchants.
Rabbi Naharay b. Nissim, head of the Babylonian Jewish
community in Fustat, engaged in a particularly extensive
trade that was of international scope. His commercial establishment operated for more than fifty years in the eleventh
century, reaching near and distant lands and dealing with a
large variety of goods.
The volume and scope of international Jewish trade demanded the use of new methods of credit. It was these Jewish
merchants who introduced the use of the shuiatajiyya (the
equivalent of our check), which inter alia was used to protect
the merchants from robbery (as well as from merchant association partnerships of a family nature).

ITALY IN THE FRAMEWORK OF ~~-------=~---=:-----r-------'

BYZANTIUM AND THE HOLY
ROMAN EMPIRE
Ninth to Tenth Centuries

A tombstone in Venosa, southern Italy, from 829.

KINGDOM
OF HUNGARY

L-.--i:;;;;;:;;;;;;=
I~------------~-------------------------------I

The most important political factors for an understanding of

this period are the political status of Byzantium in southern
Italy, Rome as the papal seat, and the rise of city states in
the central and northern parts of the peninsula. This situation
did not change very much even after the incorporation of
northern Italy into the Holy Roman Empire, nor after the
Muslim conquests in southern Italy. In other words, a number
of forces, religious or political, combined to rule Italy and
within this framework lived the Jewish community, often
in very difficult circumstances. In the struggle of power in

southern Italy the Muslims tried to oust Byzantium and gain

a foothold in Europe.
From 652 until the 820s, Italian cities were at the mercy
of Muslim bands based mainly in T\:lnisia and the adjacent
islands, whence they engaged in pillaging raids with no intent
to conquer territory. It was only in 827 that actual steps
were taken to conquer Sicily and in 831 Palermo became
the Muslim capital city on the island. Messina was captured
in 843 and Syracuse in 878. In their military campaigns the
Muslim invaders took control of the straits of Messina and

27

for a while held Bari and Taranto, presenting a serious

threat to Rome. In 846 Rome was invaded and a number
of churches were looted. It was only toward the end of the
century (895-896) that a peace treaty was signed between
Byzantium and the Muslims. Sicily was ceded to the Muslims.
At first the island was dependent upon Tunisia, but when
Tunisia was conquered by the Fatimids it became part of
the Fatimid caliphate. After Cairo became the capital of
the Fatimid dynasty their influence on Sicily slackened and
the island was ruled by a local family.
The largest Jewish community on the island was at Palermo
where the Jewish quarter was located outside the city walls. It
was first mentioned in 967 and was probably the residence of
the judge Mazliah b. Bijah al-Bazak, believed to be the teacher
of the celebrated Talmudist, Nathan b. Jehiel of Rome. In
1030 two Spanish Jews, Hayyim and his son Nissim, assisted
the Jews of Sicily by obtaining tax reductions and protection
for Jewish merchants who traded with Sicilians. The Jews of
Palermo wrote to the rabbis of Kairouan about the activities
of Hayyim and Nissim. A Spanish Jew named Moses served
at the court of the ruler of Sicily, Tsamtsam a-Dullah, and
accompanied the latter on his journey to Egypt.
The Jews of southern Italy engaged in cloth dyeing and
silk weaving; many were also farmers. Otranto and Bari were
Torah centers and renowned for their scholarship. Evidence
of knowledge of Jewish tradition by the Jews of southern

THE NORMAN INVASION OF

SOUTHERN ITALY

Italy can be found in contemporary tombstones engraved in

Hebrew.
Historical evidence from northern Italy indicates the existence of small Jewish communities, located chiefly in small
and medium-sized towns (Ferrara, Bologna, Modena, Padua,
Mantua, Treviso and Milan). There is further evidence that
the famous KaIonymos family settled in Lucca in the state
of Tuscany (c. ninth century) and there founded a Talmudic
academy. Around the year 1000 some members of the family
emigrated to Mainz, where they established themselves and
founded a yeshiva. The Jews of Tuscany were known to have
owned vineyards and their presence in Modena is mentioned
in a document dated 1025. Venice was under the influence
of Byzantium and in 945 forbade her ship captains to haul
Jewish cargo or carry Jewish passengers to the east.
Louis D, grandson of Charlemagne, in 855 ordered the
expulsion of Italian Jews from the territories he ruled, but it
is doubtful whether this decree was ever implemented.
In 85(j the church council at Ticino forbade the employment
of Jews as tax collectors or as arbitrators between Jews and
Christians, and in Verona Bishop Ratherius repeated the
allegations of Agobard of Lyons against the Jews.
Italy was a repository of Jewish traditions and customs
and served as a bridge for Jews who passed from the Holy
Land mainly into the Holy Roman Empire through Sicily and
from there to Egypt and to Byzantium.

~""-HOlY ROllA ......

f"IU~.(\
:~PJRE

...
:............

_"'IlMAAiS
~

.... o t ( { .
Or~

...

'.

.: KINGDOM ". ..'

f -'ffjittl

.. '

FRANKISH .-I ....:........ :.....

K~NGDOM,:-~.

BOrdeaux .:'

:. '"

....

~Toiedo

CORSI

"Barce1ona

CALI'HATE

'e'"

~MJiI y, r

: .-.... Marseilles
'.

KIEV:'

'.

.'

....

.~

OF

HUNGARY.:

:....

Sea

Da~'dI:.

~
..

,.

SARDtNlA

.COrdoba

OF CORDOBA

n'" "'S

NOI<l"!:l!.:

5 ea
.Tripoli
Byzantine Empire, 1025
Areas under Muslim rule

-4 Ii

Alexandria ""
Fustat

A 8 S

THE AHIMAAZ SCROLL OF

GENEALOGIES

The Jewish community of the small town of Oria, located

between Taranto and Brindisi, was a center of Jewry in
southern Italy under Byzantine rule. The Amittai family was
active in Oria for many generations and their descendants
included: Shephatiah b. Shabbetai, the poet (d. 886); the
doctor, Shabbetai Donnolo (913-after 983) who composed
a number of medical texts in Hebrew; Paltiel I (d. 975),
astrologer and physician, who was appointed aide to the
caliph at the Fatimid court in Egypt and head of the Egyptian
Jewish community; and Ahimaaz, the author of one of the
first historical descriptions of the period (1054).

28

Important persollil9'!S of the Ahimaaz family

. Jerusalem

RELIGIOUS FERMENT AND SECTS

IN JUDAISM

Until the Twelfth Century

A decorated page in a Karaite Bible.

From the end of the seventh century the Jewish Middle

East was the arena for religious sects that claimed that they
had the power to redeem the People of Israel. Between the
years 685-705 a Jewish sect known as the Isanians was
founded in Persia by Abu Isa (Isaac b. Jacob aIlsfahani) also
called Obadiah, who claimed to be the Messiah destined to
redeem the people of Israel from their dispersion. He led
a revolt against the Muslims but was defeated and killed.
The basic principles of the sect were asceticism, including
the prohibition of eating meat and drinking wine; a ban on
divorce; and prayer seven times a day (based on the verse in
Psalm 119:164 "seven times daily do I praise Thee"). Some of
its tenets anticipate doctrines adopted by Anan, the founder
of the Karaite sect. The lsanian sect continued to exis~ after
the death of Abu lsa. Yudghan, Abu lsa's disciple and heir,

n.

declared himself to be a prophet and Messiah, founding a

sect that was named after him as Yudghanites. Mushka
was the founder of another sect, called the Mushkanites.
Somewhat more is known about Moses Haparsi, probably
Abu Imran; born in Baghdad, he too founded a religious
sect, settling in Zafran near Kermanshah before moving to
Tiflis (Tbilisi). His sect, which became known as the Ttflisites,
rejected the doctrine of resurrection and other basic tenets
of Mosaic law.
The most important sect were the Ananites, named for
their founder Anan b. David who, rejecting the Talmudic
halakhah, saw Jewish life as based solely on the Bible
as interpreted by him and his disciples. The sect was subsequently called Karaite and much of its doctrine was based on
Muslim influence. The doctrine was developed by Benjamin
b. Moses Nahawendi (between 830 and 860) and other
scholars who extended the exegesis and added new tenets.
Benjamin's legal works, Seier Mitzvot (''Book of Precepts")
and Seier Dinim ("Book of Laws"), represent an attempt
at a comprehensive code of Karaite law. Hiwi aI-BaIkhi,
probably born in Balkh in Afghanistan, was a contemporary
of Benjamin. A free thinker, he rejected both the written and
oral law, being influenced by various Persian religious trends.
His doctrines did not survive him by many years.
Three outstanding Karaite personalities were: Salmon b.
Jeruhim (tenth century), Daniel b. Moses al-Qumisi (ninth
to tenth centuries) considered the founder of Karaism in
Palestine, and Jacob aI-Kirkisani (first half of tenth century),
the greatest Karaite philosopher. Most of the Karaites who
settled in Jerusalem in the first half of the ninth century
joined the Aveki Zion ("Mourners of Zion"), a group of
Jews devoted to mourning the destruction of the Temple
and Jerusalem. (The group also included Rabbanite Jews.)
The existence of the Karaite movement was one of the
factors that led to the rabbanite examination of Biblical texts
and the subsequent codification of the spelling and reading
of the Hebrew Bible (Masorah).

orleans

1060Appearance 01 _ _ _
molSIiiah
______

:mo
performs
minldes_

"

Lyons

Marseilles
"Barcelona

Rome
Naples

~
E' cY

" I'
Tunis E'
' -__~____--~~~.
Algiers

Palerm

r I~q Catania
I]e

qn

Karaite centers
Expansion of K;.raite settlement , 8th-9th cents.
Expansion of Karaite settlement, lOth-lIth cents.
Expansion of Karaite settlement, 12th cent.

29

THE
GAONATE IN BABYLONIA
- - --

589
Rav Mar bar HW1lI 591
Rav Hanlna 614

Mar Hanan of Isklya

(?) Mat Rav Marl b. R. 'Oimi (formerly of F"ruz
Shapur and Nehatde,d
Mat Rail HanN ol BeI-Gihara (F"II"UZ'Shapur)
Rav Hana (or HW1lI)

Rav HW1lI 650

RavShahna
(also caI1ed Meaha~ b. Tahlifa)

PUMBEDITA

SURA

PUMBIDITA

SURA

Rav Hlal b. R. Hang 818

Rav Kimoi b. R Ashi 822
Rail Mooa (Mesharsheya) Kahana b. R. JiIOOb 825
828
833
Rav Kohen Zedek b. lvomai 838
839

842
651

Rav Hanina ol NeharPekod 689

Rav Hilai hal..evi ol Naresh 694
RaIl JiIOOb haKohen of NeharPekod 712
719

Rav Sar Shalom b. R. Boaz 848

served ' . tly { Rav Natronai b. R. Hilai 853
JOUl
Rav Amrarn b. Sheohna 857
858
860
869
Rav Nahahon b. R. Zadok 871
871
Rav Zemah b. Mar R. Hawin 879
Rav MaIkha 885
Rail Hai b. R. Nahahon
890
Rav Hilai b. R. Natronai 896
898
Rav Shalom b. R. Milhael 904
906

Rav Robbah
Rav80Ni
Rav Huna Mar; b. Rav Joseph
Rav Hlyya ol Mershan
Mar Rav Ravya (or Mar Yanka)
RaIl Natronai b. R. Nehen\ioh
Rav Judah

Mat Samuel 730

739
Rav Mari Kohen ol NeharPekod 748
752(1)

RaIl Aha 756

Rav Yehuidai b. R Nalunan 757
Rav Ahunal Kahana b. Mat R. Papa 761

764
Rav Hani1ai Kahana b. Mat. R Huna 759

n1
n3
Rav Mari hal..evi b. R. Meaharsheya n4
Rav Bebai hal..evi b. Abba ol NebarPekod m
781
7lrl
785
Rav Hilai b. R. Mari 788
796
Rav JiIOOb haKohen b. R. Mordecai 797
798
804

Rav Ivomal 810

Rav lvomai. uncle ol hi. predecessor 811
814
Rav Zadok b. Mar R. Jesse (or Ash,") 816

Rav Jooeph
Rail Samuel b. Rav Mat
Rav Natroi Kahana b. RaIl Mar Amunah
Rail Abraham Kahana

Rav Joseph b. R. Hiyya

Rav Ioaae b. R. Hananiab
RaIl Jooeph b. R. Balli
Rav Paltoi b. R. ~
Mar Rav Aha Kahana b. R.aII
Rav Menahem b. R. Joseph b. Hiyy_
Rav Mattathias b. Mar Balli
Rav Abba (Rabbah) b. R. Ammi
Rav Zemah b. R. Paltoi

Rav Hai b. David

Rav Kimoi b. R. Ahai

Rav Judah b. R. Samuel

(grandfather ol R. Sherira)
Rav Jacob b. R. Natronal 911
917- 26 Rail Mevasser Kahana b. R. Kimoi
Rav Yom Toy Kahana b. R. Jacob 924
926-36 RaIl Kohen Zedek b. R. Jooeph (appointed
while predecaeor was .tiII\MreJ
Rav Saadiah b. R. Jooeph (Rav Saadiah Gaon) 928
936
Rav Zemah b. R. Kafnai
938
Rav Hananiah b. R. Judah
Rav Joseph b. R. Jacob 942-44
943
Rav Aaron b. R. Joseph haKohen Sargado
960
Rav Nehemiah b. R. Kohen Zedek
968
Rav Shedra b. R. Hanooiah
Rav Zemah b. R. Isaac (descendant of Pailoi) 988(?)
Rav Samuel b. Hophnl haKohen 997(?)
998
Rail H8i b. R. Sherira
Rav Dosa b. R. Saadiah 1013
Rav Israel b. R. Samuel b. Hophni 1017
Rav Azariah ha-Kohen (eon ol R. Israel'l) 1034
Isaac (?) 1037
103&-511 Rav Hezekiah b. David (e,ilarch and gJn)

Rav Do&; b. Rav Nalunan (brother ol

R. Yehudal, the goon of Sura)
Rav Hananiah b. R. 01 S~

Rav MoIkha b. R. .Aha

Rav Rabbah (Abba) b. R. Do&;
Rav Shlnoi
Rav HanInai Kahana b. R. Abraham
Rav Huna hal..evi b. R. INa;
Rav ManaNeh b. Mat Jooeph
Rav Isaiah ha-Levi b. Mat R. Abba
Rav Jooeph b. R. SIWa
Rav Kahana b. R. Harinai
Rav Ivomal
Rav Joseph b. R. Abba
Rav Abraham b. R. ShetIra

Baghdad, founded by Caliph al-Mansur (762), attracted many

Jewish settlers.
Although the beginnings of the Jewish Diaspora in Babylon
preceded the Muslim conquest, the gaonate period coincided
with the period of Muslim rule. The decline of the gaonate
began with the death of Rav Hai Gaon in 1038. The gaonate
period is of special sign~cance in the history of the Jewish
people because the Jewish center in Babylon played a decisive
role in the life of the nation and had the vigor to withstand the
competition with Eretz Israel for the hegemony over Jewish
life, and to prevail.
Jewish means of livelihood in Babylon had changed even
before the Arab Conquest, when Jews began to assume
patterns of life similar to those that would later typify the

Jews of Europe during the Middle Ages.

Heavy taxation, revolutions, riots and insecurity forced
the agriculturist off his land and obliged him to seek refuge
in the cities. This process continued during the entire period
of Arab rule. In the first half of the ninth century, Rav Moshe
Goon writes: "In Babylon most people are without land"
(Hemda Genuzah, 60:65). The small communities and rural
settlements diminished, while cities grew and swelled. Jewish
population centers disappeared and were replaced by that of
Baghdad.
In Baghdad Jewish financial institutions developed to such
an extent that their economic influence within the caliphate
was considerable. Two Jewish bankers, Joseph b. Phineas
and Aaron b. Amram, and their heirs, the sons of Aaron

THE STRUCTURE OF A YESHIVA

7 Heads of rows of the assembly
(Alulim - honorary title 01 Torah sages)

Dara Kama - The first row

Dara Taniya - The second row

3 Members

1ne seven rows

The value of each row increased
with its proximity to the Gaon.
Each assembly head 01 a row was in
charge of a row of 10 Yeshiva members

70 Scholars
Place in the hierarchy was fixed and usually was
passed on from father to son or to a close relative

30

dlqitalia
'/OWN Cgil"

u JG

and of Netira, started business operations in the district

of Ahwaz (in Persia), later expanding them to trade on an
international scale. Documents referring to the two families
reveal the extent of their partnership and cooperation in business enterprises. Among their many activities was the lending
of money to the vizier of Caliph al Muqtadir, Muhammad ibn
Abdullah ibn Yahya (912-913), but there is every indication
that they engaged in moneylending prior to this date. They
also financed the caliphate, using money deposited with them
by Jews and non-Jews and taking as security the tax farming
rights in the district of Ahwaz. They engaged in international
transfer of funds and were thus able to help in financially
supporting the exilarchate and gaonate. Apparently they were
the innovators of the shuiatajiyya, a kind of check-promissory
note that could be redeemed by a surrogate.
Even the academies of Sura and Pumbedita could not resist
the magnetic pull of Baghdad, and at the end of the ninth
century, about 150 years before the waning of the gaonate,
they both moved to the city as independent institutions. Each
of the academies retained its independence, and preserved
its own character, methods of teaching, and public activities.
The famous geonim were Rav Saadiah, Rav Samuel b. Hofni
and Rav Hai - all residents of Baghdad. However, Babylon
could not financially support all its scholars who were taken
prisoner in the West, and who, according to legend, brought
with them the traditions of the Babylonian Talmud. Poets and
grammarians also emigrated to Spain. There was no intrinsic
difference between the situation of the Jews in Babylon and
their condition in other Islamic countries during the period
of Arab rule.
The divisions within the empire of the caliphate and the
subsequent founding of emirates in the second half of the
eighth century caused basic changes in Jewish life and existence. The following events constituted turning points for
the Jews and opened up new opportunities: the separation
of Spain from the caliphate in 756 and the subsequent
establishing of emirates; Moroccan independence in 788;
Tunisian independence in 800; that of Egypt (by Ahmad ibn
Tulun) in 868 and of Persia in 935. There was no basic change
in relations within the Jewish community nor was there any
change in the affinitive relations between the communities
of the Jewish diaspora. They all recognized the authority
of the central Jewish organizations, the exilarchate and the
gaonate, as powerful elements of unity and instruction for the
Jewish people. The Palestinian gaonate was acknowledged
as an equal partner with its Babylonian counterpart.
Rav Saadiah (882-942) was among the great geonim. He
was born in the Fayum district of Egypt, moved to Palestine
and, in 922, to Babylon, where he was appointed gaon of the
Sura academy in 928. Saadiah waged an unremitting battle
against the Karaites and is credited with having stopped their
expansion, although his struggle did help them to consolidate
as a sect. He was famous for his polemic with the Palestinian
gaon, Aaron ben Meir, over the establishing of the Jewish
calendar and its festivals, and for his controversy with the
exilarch, David ben Zakkai, on matters of authority. His
profound spiritual and scholarly activities included works of
halakhah, exegesis, philosophy, grammar, liturgy, piwut and
the translation of the Bible into Arabic.
The Babylonian gaonate came to an end with two great
and outstanding figures: Rav Sherira b. Hanina Gaon (c.
906-1006), gaon of Pumbedita from 968 to 1006, and his

son, Rav Hai Gaon (939-1038). Sherira was among the

prolific writers of responsa. One of his famous epistles was
written in response to an inquiry from Rabbi Jacob b. Nissim
b. Shahin of the Kairouan community, who asked for information regarding the Mishnah and Talmud. Sherira's reply
was a classic work of Jewish historiography in which he
listed the generations of Jewish scholars from the men of
the Great Sanhedrin until the period of the gaonate. His son
and successor, Rav Hai Gaon, gaon of Pumbedita, was one
of the great halakhists, a paytan, liturgist, judge and writer.
With his death, the gaonate in Babylon officially ended.

Lake
Urmia .
Maragheh
' Amida
(Amadiya)

3.
"Pillars of community"

Mosul '

- court bankers

Arbela

(Joseph b. Phineas
and Aaron b. Amraml
coUect taxes and lend
money to caliph.

2.
Baghdad -

C4!nter of

Asshur auihority and seat of

" exilarch. Many Jews

Halra
Dura

live In Karkh quarter

of city.

Nehavend
5.
Halwan 922-923 - Saadiah

Anatu

7.
968-998 - Rav 5haira
Gaon' 996-1008 - his

'~:::::'-'~---r

son, Rav Hai Gaon.

b. Joseph engages In

polemic with Aaron b.

Meir who tries to r...tore
Palestinian academy to
its former glory.

4.
End of 9th cent.-

Prestige and status

of .ca<lemies ebb
due to rivairy and the
establishment of new

centers of learning in

diaspora. Most geonim

reside in &ghdad.

liJPhrales
6.
928-Exilarch David b. Zakkai

Basra "

.ppomts Rav Saadiah .5 saon of

Sura academy; he restores it to
its former g r _ 93G--Open
conflict between Saadiah Gaon
and David b. Zakkai who was
champlOIled by Ihe goon 0/
Pumbedila. Saadiah deposed from
gaonate; reinstated only in 937.

100

200

km.

A letter sent from Fustat to R. Hai Gaon.

31

BONDS BETWEEN BABYLONIA, ERETZ ISRAEL AND THE DIASPORA

Atlanti c
Ocean
Balkh
~lgrade

Danube

Fes
. Marrakech

. Sijilmasa
Ouargla

200

'00

'kin,

Rov Saadiah Gaon exchanges lettenl

Wlti:l phDooopher and doctor, R. 1"",<
b, Solomon braeli who emigrated
from Egypt to Kairouan.

The contacts between the Babylonian geonim and the Diaspora were numerous and widespread. The gaonate became
the spirtual and halakhic center for Jewry, issuing instructions
and guidance both to the eastern and western Jewish communities. The Diaspora connection was important for establishing a consensus regarding halakhic doctrine. Instrumental
in achieving this goal were the emissaries sent by the geonim
to the Diaspora - students from the Babylonian academies
and Rabbinical judges ordained by the geonim. They were
the vanguard of the movement that helped create and
maintain the Jewish halakhic consensus during the life span

of the Babylonian centers of learning. Ties with the Diaspora

also found expression in the financial support extended
by the Jewish communities to the academies, considerable
correspondence about which was found in the Cairo Genizah.
These relations also helped to foster international commercial
ties in which Jews played a very important role.
Other communities, chiefly in Italy and Germany, had very
close ties with the academies in Palestine and they adopted
the Palestinian (Eretz Israel) tradition primarily in matters of
liturgical poetry.

THE GEONIM OF ERETZ ISRAEL; AND ALIYAH TO ERETZ ISRAEL

General Jawhar conquered Palestine on behalf of the Fatimid
Caliph al-Mu'izz after subjugating Egypt in 969. The Fatimids
were a branch of the Shi'ite sect who ruled over a Muslim
population that was predominately Sunni, and were, therefore, considered foreigners in Palestine, Egypt and Syria.
Paltiel (d. 975), a Jew of Oria, served as physician to alMu'izz during the conquest of Egypt and was responsible
for provisioning the Fatimid army. From his position of influence he was able to assist the Jewish community and
when he died he was buried in Eretz Israel. During most of
the Fatimid period the rulers employed many Jews, among
them the Jewish convert to Islam Yaqub ibn Killis (vizier
to Caliph al-Aziz from 978-990), who also aided the Jewish
community. The Jewish community in Eretz Israel prospered
under Fatimid rule, particularly the large communities of Tyre
and Sidon. Jerusalem, Tiberias and Ramie were large and
important Jewish centers; small Jewish settlements existed in
Transjordan. However, prosperity did not last and in 996 the
Fatimid throne was occupied by Caliph ai-Hakim (996-1021)
who persecuted non-Muslims. To make matters worse, there
were calamitous earthquakes in 1034 and 1067 in which

32

Ramie was particularly badly hit. Eretz Israel as a whole

had its share of al-Hakim's harassment but Jerusalem had
a double portion with the caliph's Nubian troops wreaking
their violence upon Jews and destroying their synagogues.
Many Jews were openly killed and survivors were subjected
to hard labor.
It was during this period that the Great Yeshiva of
Jerusalem moved to Ramie. From 1024 to 1029 an enormous
sum of money was cruelly extorted for the state coffers from
the Jews of Jerusalem and from the Karaites who had resided
in the city for over a hundred years. Pilgrimage to Jerusalem
ceased. Only about fifty Jews resided in the city.
The situation improved somewhat during the reign of
al-Hakim's successor, al-Zahir (1021-1034), and the Jewish
population slowly recovered. However, the disaster of the
crusades would follow in 1099.
Despite the dangers on land and sea, Jews continued to
make pilgrimages to Eretz Israel, especially during the Feast
of Tabernacles. Their destinations were chiefly Jerusalem,
the Mount of Olives and Hebron. With them came Jews
who wished to settle in Jerusalem. Among the settlers were

.j

Avelei Zion ("Mourners of Zion"), people who "abandoned

their families, repudiated their lands of birth, left cities and
dwelt in the mountains." "People from the east and the
west," who "set their sights on settling in Jerusalem, forsook
their possessions and renounced the temporal world." The
Karaite scholar, Sahl ben Mazliah, relates that "Jerusalem
at this time was a haven for all who fled, a comfort for all
mourners and a repose for the poor and humble; wherein
resided servants of the Lord who were gathered unto her,
one from a town, another from a family; wherein resided
dirge singer and eulogizers in Hebrew, Persian and Arabic."
Ramie was an important center for Jews from Babylon,
known as Knesset aJ-/raquiin, just as Jews from Eretz Israel
who lived in Egypt were known as Knesset a/-Shamiin. The
Karaites had their own synagogue in RamIe. Eretz Israel also
served as a transit point for Jews emigrating from east to
west.
Bedouin invasions and disturbances in 1029 and 1030 did
not hinder Jewish emigration even from Spain, as is attested
in a letter sent from Jersalem to Toledo in 1053 describing the
"Sephardim" who resided in Ramie and Jerusalem with their
wives and children. Even the Sephardic scholar Joseph ibn
Abitur intended to leave Spain and emigrate to Eretz Israel,
but one of his friends advised him to go first to Egypt.
The story of Rabbi Judah Halevi's aliyah typifies a trend
among many Jews in those days. Immigrants also came to
Eretz Israel from North Africa and Syria. Close ties existed
between the Jews of Tripoli and Eretz Israel. Wills from
Italy, Egypt and North Africa bear witness to the custom of
reinterring the bones of Jewish dead in the Holy Land. There
were, however, still many Jews who left Eretz Israel. Those
who emigrated to Egypt established communities, such as
in Alexandria. Many of the emigres were learned men and
graduates of yeshivot and it is reasonable to assume that the
educational needs of the Diaspora communities were what
motivated them to emigrate in order to teach the Torah.
In contrast to the lack of livelihood in Jerusalem, Ramie
was a commercial center, and one of the resident Jews held
the title of "The Merchants Clerk." He apparently served
as a third-party trustee for disputed property or perhaps
he was the "Head of the Merchants," as indicated by the
Arabic form of this title. In Tyre Jews were engaged in
glass blowing and some were shop owners. Here too the Jews
had a functionary called "The Merchants Clerk." Tyre was
no less an important Jewish center than Ramie, and when
the Seljuks conquered Jerusalem in 1071, the Palestinian
academy transferred to Tyre. Jews living in the coastal towns
seem to have been better off than those residing in the center
of the country (excluding Ramie). Jews were engaged in
many trades and particularly dyeing, in which they had a
monopoly.
Their financial hardships were further aggravated by the
burden of taxes; Jerusalem bore the heaviest tax load.
During this period Eretz Israel was renowned for its geonim

and its centers of learning. Because of the difficult local

conditions, its gaonate was overshadowed by the prosperous
Jewish Diaspora of Babylon. A number of geonim in Eretz
Israel were members of the ben Meir family, the most important being Aaron b. Meir. The gaon Solomon b. Judah
was the head of the community from 1027 to 105l. The gaon
Daniel b. Azariah was related to the Babylonian exilarch,
David b. Zakkai. The last of the geonim in Eretz Israel
were Elijah b. Solomon and his son Abiathar. The latter, who
lived during the period of the Crusades, moved to Tripoli
where he died in 1109. The Palestinian academy moved to
Damascus where it continued to function for about a hundred
years under the name "Hatsevi Academy" or "Eretz Hatsevi
Academy".

Abtathar b. Eliiah contends

with Dallid b. Canoel 0/
Fustat who wW>ea to
gain control 01 Pelel.tnlan

academy. When Tvre IaJIs

to CI'U!RIders, AbIa'har

c. 915-932
c. 932-934
c.. 934-948
c. 948~
c. 933-926
933(2 yeMS)
(30 Y"""')

Zemah
Aarm b. Mooes ben Mer
Isaac (IOn 0/ Aaron?)
Ben Meir (bro.her 0/ Aaron)
Abraham b. Aaron
Aaron
Jowph !.aKohen b. Enon
?
?

988-

...
1015
10000U127
1027- 1051
1051-1062
1062- 100
1084- 1109

lIC>ldmnv
JnOUI!S to

Damascus.

Me diterranean
S ea
{!JDan

oBanias

Em Zeihm

Edrei

Boslra "

Amara

Rabbath Ammon
2.
~_

- --,

Jerusalem

From ~Karait"" ImmiSlb'c to

Holy Land, choosing JeruSIIlcm
; their center and ""IIIlO9 on
"""'tern slope 01 Nllhal Kidron,

outside cilJi ",.11s.

4.

Aaron b. Moir (scIOn 01 a nesi~

/amily) as""... to rbf\$'6te primacy
01 Eretz Israel In Jewish IeadenJup
bu. defeated by Rav Saad'oah Goon
on issue of de.enninlO9 JeIIIi.h
calmdar.

THE GAONATE OF PALESTINE

c. 844-91S

c.1130PaIe,'m",n

ITIOWStoTnpclL

Samuel b. Jooeph !.aKohen

YOR b. Samuel

Shemoillh
Josiah b. Aaron b. Abraham
Solomon b. Jooeph !.aKohen
Solomon b. Judah
Daniol b. Azarioh
E1ijoh b. Solomon b Jowph !.aKohen

Abiathar b. Elijah

Cen ter

01 A cademy

Passage 01 Erel2 Israel A cademy

Pilgrim
Direction taken by immigyants
Major communities where pilgrims settled

33

dlqitalla
'loWoV

Ggil" u oS

THE JEWS OF NORTH AFRICA

Twelfth to Fifteenth Centuries
. 12mlT
4.
End of 10th c nl - SldlUlo
of clly ImprOV<!s and
becomes cenler fo r Jewish

................ ~

MlMABlTUN.

Marrakech:.~\S.: ....

JERBA

.,'
.....

. Ouargla
........................

...~~-G>...."" .. '

/;::~~t< .. ''.'. ,,.>.-_--.

I]

1130-1160 - Almohads
establISh confedera tion near

Dam

i1
I]

Jerusalem
Alexandria

Tashfin , leader of
Almoravids. imposes

establish states whose

capItals become

cOI'lquest o f Norrh Africa. Jews

large Iribut ~ on
J ews~ many nee to

centers for JeWlsh

forced

settlement.

' 00

AJAndukls.

kin.

Center of Torah and JeWIsh Jife

Berber I n bal areas," 9t h cent .
Furthest ex tenl of Almohads (alMuwahhldun)

Yusuf ibn Ziri, a Berber and founder of the dynasty,

was a loyal servant of the Fatimids in the days when they
ruled the Maghreb. He appointed his sons as governors
in various places. Eventually they grew strong and severed
their relations with the Fatimids in Cairo, recognizing the
sovereignty of the Abbasids in distant Baghdad. Soon they
established their city of Ashir and Jews from various places
were brought there. Rabbi Sherira Gaon and Rabbi Samuel
b. Hofni corresponded with Jews of Ashir. Kairouan was not
exclusive in its special status as a center for Torah learning
and Jewish life. In southern Tunisia the city of Gabes was
famous as a "mother city in Israel" and a Torah center. Fes's
status as a Torah center was determined by the residence
there in the eleventh century of R. Isaac b, Jacob, known as
Alfasi author of the;Rif(bom c. 1013 in Qalat Bani Hammad
in Algeria, and died 1103 at Lucena in southern Spain). Alfasi
was one of the architects of Torah study in Spain and among
Jewry in general.
EGYPT

The status of the Jews in North Africa as in all other Islamic

states was that of a "protected people" (dhimm/). The first
hundred years of Muslim conquest were rather turbulent;
there was no Pax Is/arnica. Naturally this affected Jewish
life. During the waning of the Umayyad dynasty and the
dawning of the Abbasid rule, a confederation of Berber
tribes revolted against the Arab rulers in Kairouan and
western Tripolitania. Ibn Rustam, one of the leaders of the
revolt, fled and established a new state in central Algeria
with its capital at Tiaret. At the same time, another group
established a kingdom in the city of TIemcen. Another Berber
tribe established a state in the Tafilalt Oasis, with its capital at
Sijilmasa. Despite religious differences, these states became
important Jewish centers. Tiaret was the residence of R.
Judah ibn Quraysh (Koreish), a well-known ninth-century
philologist and renowned author. Jews lived on the island of
Jerba, in the region of Jerid to Gabes, and in the area of
M'zab, and Ouargla.
When Egypt was conquered and the caliphate established
there, Kairouan became "the grand trading center in Africa,"
as it was designated in a legal document of 978, and a center
for Jewish scholars. With the weakening of Fatimid rule in
North Africa, government was transferred to the Zirids in
Kairouan.
Tanger Ceula

A tlan tic

Ocean

~.

Pelusium
Parva
Daphnae
Athribis Bubaslis
Leontopolis

Fustat , Heliopolis
Memphis Helwan

Bizerle .

T~ouan

Qasr-e~Kebir

Ariana

Ullca .
Mateur

Larache.

~ja .

Souk elArba .

/.la Mana
!l.la Goulette

Tunis SoIiman
Hammam Uf

Volub~is

Fes

Ebba Ksour

Mek~

Soknopaiou Nesos.
Karams Philadelphia
Arsinoe . Feyum
Teblunis Herakleqpolis Magna
Oxyrhynchus

Nabeul

El Kef.
SaIiI.

Thala

Hermopolis Magna.

Kairouan Sous"se Monasflr

He~hir EIMoknine

~11a

Hajeb elAroun

Mahctia

Akhmim

Ptolemais

Sfax

TadJa

Koptos
Qift
Thebes

Galsa EI.Guettar
Tozeur

Marrakech

Sijilmasa .

Nefta

EI Hamma

Kebili
. Taroudannt

100

50

200

km.

100

'km.

Hermopolis

Canopus.

Alexandria Hermopobs
.
, . Buslns
~ .

TUNISIA

MOROCCO

34

Sea

unon
3.
Fustat becomes capital o f Falimid
Caliph.te. l0a3-I089- David b. D.niel,
head of Fus lat acad emy. s trives 10 impose
hlS aU lho rily on Palestinian academy.

Atlas mountains and complete

s laughtered and

Yahudlya B " .Brega

Mid. 91h cenl.Berber Iribes fevoll

againsl Umayyods:

I071-Yu..uf ibn

....

scnol3r.!.

.
~~b<!ah...~~.) Ptolernais ~pollonoa
Tnpol! '! IS ...,..~
-" . . PentapollS

. lSurala
B.l a Cyre~e
Jadu .. ' M latah
.. '
. a
Ajdabiyah

G6bes

Medenine.
Ben Gardane.
Talaouine

Apollinopolis Magna

50

100

L::1:=d

km.

with distant lands. Perhaps the geographical importance of

these towns contributed to continuing Jewish settlement.
Kairouan played a central role in Jewish relations and contact
with Babylon.
In northwestern Africa a number of Berber tribes joined
forces to form a religious, social, and military confederation
called al-Murabitun, known as the Almoravids, whose doctrines favored a more radical religious orthodoxy. Their
leader, Yusuf ibn Tashfin (who founded Marrakechdn 1062),
set out on campaigns of conquest in Africa and Spain. In
1071 he forced the Jews in his North African domain to pay
a huge tribute of 100,000 dinars. Such taxation may explain
why so many Jews left North Africa for Spain. However, the
rule of the Almoravids cannot be compared to the reign of
the Muwahhidun (Almohads), who emerged in the twelfth
century and destroyed many Jewish communities.

In 1032 Fes was captured by one of the Berber sheikhs who

destroyed the town and its Jewish quarter and massacred
many of its Jews. However, neither this disaster nor those
that preceded or succeeded it arrested Jewish activity. The
scholars of Fes continued to correspond with the geonim of
Babylon on matters of halakhah and the Babylonian geonim,
Rabbi Sherira, Rabbi Hai and Rabbi Samuel b. Hofni would
send their responsa to "Abraham" or "Tanhum." It is possible
that these two were heads of the community and its judges.
Several important scholars from Fes moved to Spain where
they were among the founders of Torah study centers. The
Muslims of that period saw Fes as a Jewish town. Even the
Jews of Tiaret and Sijilmasa maintained contact with Babylon
and the geonim of Palestine. Berber troops, Umayyad armies
from Spain, and Fatimid soldiers caused great destruction in
these towns. Despite this, however, there was a resurgence
of Jews in these towns. Many engaged in international trade

MUSUM SPAIN: ECONOMY AND CENTERS OF JEWISH SETTLEMENT

Tenth to Twelfth Centuries

.t .....: ::

Santiago
de Compostela

"

,U

"Sahagun

.~ "

. ,
Burgos Najera "

Castrojeriz "

Palencia

------- -,
,"

pue

. Salamanca

I
I
I

:----{-----~

i ...J i_ -,

Madrid

~.

Talaveni

Tagus

____

TeJedo.

Santar~

I'S'i .

;.

_---.~- Al~
- - -.."....
4

{!y&

~,

So

na U
~tayud
enza

ig(lG

Daroca',

m.

/'

\,

4I ,'
,

""

er. il ,','

,-Cuenca .

' ~

~.

'-_J

,/

,'

EbfO

\0 n a

Gerona

Vrc

elona

...--;:-

Tarragona

of

Tort05&

'(c

,~ ~ a
, t4Ja

{!~~onz6!, ~

"

Badajoz

H~ _.

. ,...

"

of .l
__ ____ __ J, &sal

~ 'T"~ Urida .

&

.J'

.'. _ -~,~~

, GuadataJara

dela

'

........ .

." _- - --- - - - .L Barbastro

~"'1ara o~ ,

ro

.'

Pamplona "
.J'~
........... .
Miranda . , " " ,t.Estella
A rag 6 n
Belorado."
'
. Ruesta....-
"J~
_ "
~
-~

" L~n

....,...-,

fJ Navarre :..... ........

:t

'
\

.,\.. ~

!l D S

&

Badajoz.

nia
\

n
1.
912- 1\bd aIRahman
unifies central and
southel"!' Spain;
929- Founds C6rdob!

caHphate.

Mooea b. Hanokh.

Supports scholars
and poets, including

Hisdai Ibn Shaprut

lexicographer

appomted physician
to caliph. director of
customs and diplomatic
emissary. Also served

Menahern ibn

s.
993-R. Samuel H;>Ievi
ibn Nagrela (Samuel
Ha-Nagid) born in
C6rdoba.

1000000muel HaNagjd succeeded

by his SOn Jehoseph who is

murdered in 1066. Many Jews

killed, and many flee.

Glass

U Pottery

Cotton
Flax

~ Silk
Wool
Cloth manufacture
Yarn and rope

..
i

~~~tt.

4.
970-Death of Mose. b.
Hanokh causes factional
dispute on s uccession
to rabbinical seat of
C6rdoba between his son
Hanokh and Joseph ibn
Abitur, student at yeshiva.
Hisdai supports Hanokh
who is elected.

Caliph ai-Hakim.

Hisdai utablishes

!J>irituaJ center for

:;panish Jews and

ws/Jiv. headed by

2.

'f

50

t4J
J

.t
<!i><

Many Jews nee to

Granada; new center

9.

I km.

fJ
t3

Skins
Paper
Northernmost extent
or agricultural area

established.

1027-Samuel appointed by King

Habbus (Berber ruler 01 Granada)
as vizier; holds position during
reign of Badishison of Habbus.
Jews appoint 'm nasid (le<lder)
01 Spanish Jewry.

8.
lOI3-R. Samuel Halevi flees
from C6rdoba to Malaga.

tOO

Dyeing
Lumber
Port
Fishing

7.

Roads
Emirate boundary
Area under Moslems
11th cent.
'

35

AI Andalus, as the Iberian Peninsula was known, began to

prosper during the reign of 'Abd aIRahman D (822-852).
Despite many revolts he built a network of fortifications
to defend his kingdom against the Christian incursions and
concluded treaties with various Muslim princes. Thus he
was able to withstand the Norman invasions of the coastal
cities. He also found time to devote to cultural matters and
began constructing public building in C6rdoba and other
places. These buildings are the pride of Spain to this very
day. C6rdoba also became a center for Jewish spiritual and
cultural activity.
At the end of the tenth century, Jacob and Joseph ibn
Jau were appointed heads of the Jewish community. Jacob
was appointed nasi (leader) of all the Jews living in Muslim
Spain and in those areas of Morocco and Algeria that were
under Muslim Spanish suzerainty. The brothers were wealthy
silk merchants and manufacturers. Jacob was appointed tax
collector and was allowed to appoint rabbinical judges. Hisdai
ibn Shaprut was another major figure in Spanish Jewish life.
Muslim Granada was consolidated in the eleventh century
and included the whole of the southeastern part of the penin
sula. Rabbi Samuel b. Joseph Halevi ibn Nagrela (Samuel Ha
Nagid) was an outstanding leader of the Jewish community
in Granada. Born in C6rdoba in 993 he fled to Malaga in
1013 in the wake of the Berber conquest. He had a fine
Jewish and general education, including training in Arabic,
and soon made a name for himself as a teacher and Arabic
stylist to whom people turned for letterwriting skills. Samuel
was appointed to the staff of the vizier of Granada. One
of his first tasks in Granada was to collect taxes in some
of the districts. He soon succeeded in obtaining an important
position in king Habbus's administration as minister of finance
and later as vizier. His position at court was strengthened
during the reign of Badis, son and successor of Habbus.
Samuel successfully commanded the king's army from 1038
to 1056. Samuel viewed all his military victories as signs of
divine intervention and all of his activities as part of a divine
mission in which he was an emissary sent by the Lord to

defend his people. Consequently he fulfilled his tasks with

a fervor and loyalty uncommon among officials at court.
Samuel corresponded with Rabbi Nissim of Kairouan (whose
daughter married his eldest son Jehoseph), with R. Hai
Gaon, with the heads of the yeshivot in Palestine and with
the heads of the Jewish community in Egypt. In Spain
he maintained a close relationship with, and was patron of,
the paytan Isaac ibn Khalfun and the poet and philosopher
Solomon ibn Gabirol. He exchanged poetry with both of
them. In addition to being a poet he was a halakhist and
composed a major work in haJakhah. He was also known
as a philologist and writer of theological tracts. During his
lifetime there was economic prosperity in Granada, which
had many Jewish merchants and craftsmen. The Jewish
population of Granada was estimated at five thousand and
it was no wonder that the Muslims called the city Ghamatat
aJ Yahud ("Granada of the Jews"). The yeshiva at Granada
had many wellknown scholars.
In the Muslim area of northern Spain there was a large
concentration of Jews in Saragossa. The rulers were the
Banu Tujib dynasty, who maintained proper relations with
their Christian neighbors in the city. In the second half of the
eleventh century a new family, Banu Hud, came to power,
originating from Yemen. The city became one of the richest
in all of Spain. Most of the Jewish inhabitants were either
furriers or were engaged in the flax, clothing and leather
industries. In the environs of Saragossa Jews were engaged
in farming and viticulture; they traded with the merchants
of Barcelona and southern France. The community had a
great number of Torah scholars, doctors and intellectuals.
At the ruling court there was an atmosphere of tolerance
and Jews found ways of serving these rulers. In the 1030s
Abu Ishaq Jekuthiel b. Isaac ibn Hasan served as adviser to
King Mundhir D. Jekuthiel had a broad Torah and secular
education. He was patron to Torah scholars and poets.
In 1039 he was executed by the last of the Banu T ujib
kings.

RECONQUISTA:
THE RECONQUEST
Until the Middle of the Twelfth Century

An ivory vessel from lOth-century Spain.

The original is in the museum of the Hispanic
Society in New York.

36

Indecisive wars and battles were fought over a period of sev

eral hundred years between Muslim and Christian princes.
Charlemagne helped the Christians create a frontier buffer
zone, Marca Hispanica, between Muslim Spain and Carol
ingian France. Barcelona was one of the first cities in which
Christian rule was consolidated. It was in this district that
Jews developed extensive operations in commerce and in
leasing of fields and vineyards. Landholding was either by
outright ownership (aJlodium) or by tenancy. Jews often made
land transactions with bishops or monastaries, and also with
diocesan and parochial churches, the deeds of transfer being
written in Hebrew or at least bearing a Hebrew signature.

Jews developed various spheres of economic activity in the

city of Barcelona and in their own neighborhood, which came
to an end during riots in 1391. In addition to the official writs
of privileges which regulated Jewish life in Barcelona, there
was a more ancient writ known as the Book of Usatges
(Book of Usage) which defined the legal status of the Jews
and was composed between 1053 and 1071. Among its many
laws was one which stated that the punishment for doing
bodily harm to a Jew or for killing him would be determined
by the king. This meant that the Jews were dependent upon
the good will of the ruler. The church councils of Gerona
(1067-1068 and 1078) forced Jews who purchased land from
Christians to pay a regular tithe to the church.
Ordofio I (850-866) invaded the region between Salamanca
and Saragossa. He was very active in resettling the north
of Spain and chose Loon as his capital. His son, Alfonso
(866-909), continued his father's policies and conquered
territories in northern Portugal only to lose them to the
Muslims. Internal dissension and factionalism forced him to
halt the Christian advance. Perhaps he was also deterred by
the Muslim king 'Abd al-Rahman m, who was then the ruler of
Andalusia. During the reign of the King Ramiro (931-950),
Count Fernan Gonzalez of Castile rebelled against the king
and from this point the history of Castile actually begins.
Ramiro concluded a pact with Tota, queen of Navarre (who
negotiated with Hisdai ibn Shaprut). The Jews in Castile were
also apparently dependent upon the good will of the ruler.
Killing or wounding a Jew was punishable by a heavy fine
payable to the ruler, as though the Jews were his property.
In fact the regulations in this matter differed in each city

THE RECONQUEST

KINGD

Sahagim OOF Bur~s

LEON AND CASTILE

/

..<:.ar;.gos!~~
oZamoralJIle to Soria
,1- ~
Salamanca "'"""' VIia
,

....,-..II5!:fU

Gua&laiar,a
ri;~
Toledo -.(,-

'-

.1

I.!)

,;

,.,. lies

'.

MAJORCA

&CIajoz
CilalJ'ava
CAUPHATE OF COR~~
"'0 C6rd0ba. f_~
~\llIIlT
~""i'~\ IOU.~.GiJaIlI'
Seville'l!.ti 109
en:.~"
1109
Granada~
-.'V

1066

C> (\

Almeria

.t

Tange r
lDO

200

~=~~~
km.=----

&0-J-

Ceuta

tA e d \

11

C> '(\ q,

_____: :. . .: : : : : : : :::""_______-II

Conquest of dy by Christians, with date

Tribute paid to Christians
Massacres of Jews by Almohads and Almoravids

and district. The special circumstances of Jewish life are

exemplified by the riot of the inhabitants of Castrojeriz in
1035. In order to develop the district King Sancho m the
Great, encouraged the Jews to settle on the land, despite the
opposition of the Christian population in the district. Upon his
death in 1035 the Christian inhabitants of Castrojeriz broke
into one of the king's estates in Burgos, killing sixty Jews.
Jewish settlement in the rural districts not only required the
approval of the ruler but was dependent upon his physical
ability to protect these settlers. The settlements themselves
were on royal lands and were known as villa nova de Judaeis.
Such settlements were established in Navarre and Arag6n.
Ferdinand I unified Castile, Le6n and Galicia under one
crown (1037), thus creating the largest kingdom in Spain. the
reign of his second son, Alfonso VI (1065-1109), coincided
with the momentous events in Europe during the First Crusade. During this period the behavior toward the Jews in
Christian Spain was entirely different from that in the rest of
Europe. Alfonso VI, who assumed the title of Emperor of All
Spain, carried the battle standard against the Muslims. His
preoccupation with the Reconquista, in which he employed
French knights, was probably one of the reasons why the
Jews were not massacred like their brethren in other parts
of Europe.
The services rendered by the Jews to the ruling power
stood them in good stead. The Jews of Spain, who were
more numerous than their brethren in Ashkenaz (FrancoGermany), remained where they were after the Muslim retreat
southward. Those Jews who occupied important posts in the
local civil administration of the various Arab emirates were
destined later to play a vital role in establishing the rule of
the Christian victor.
Alfonso VI defeated the rulers of Seville, Badajoz and
Granada and forced them to pay him tribute. He also conquered Coimbra in Portugal and assisted in establishing the
Portuguese kingdom.
On 6 May 1085 he captured Toledo and in the terms of capitulation he promised the Muslims that he would honor their
rights and their mosques. However, only two generations
later the Muslims were forced to leave their dwellings in the
city, and the main mosque was converted to a church (1102).
Twelfth-century documents from Toledo attest to a sparse
Muslim population. The Jews of the city continued to live
in the southwest corner of the city which also contained a
fortress. (Remains of Jewish edifices have been preserved to
this day.)
The Jews were fortunate in having a personality like Joseph
Nasi Ferruziel (called Cidellus). He held office in the royal
court and was active on their behalf. He was born in Cabra
in the kingdom of Granada, and became the physician of
Alfonso VI, and nasi of all the Jews residing in Alfonso's
kingdom. He assisted the Jews of Guadalajara when the city
was captured by Alfonso and also aided the Jews who
migrated from the south to the north. The large estates
in and around Toledo that he owned were confiscated by
the crown after his death. Extant royal documents bear
his signature in Latin characters as a witness verifying the
contents of the document. His signature also appears on
a purely political document, Privilegium immunitatis, dated
1110, one year after the death of Alfonso VI. Joseph adopted
a firm stand regarding internal politics and ruthlessly expelled
the Karaites from Castile.

37

JEWISH COMMUNITIES IN
ASHKENAZ
Up to 1096
Otto I "the Great" (936-973), the Holy Roman Emperor,
and Otto II (973-983) were favorably disposed toward Jews
settling in their empire. In fact these were the formative years
of the German Jewish communities. Henry II (1002-1024) at
first confirmed the rights of the Jews of Merseburg (1004)
in their relations with the bishop of the city. However, in
1012 the Jews of Mainz were expelled. Some say this was
due to the incident of the priest Wecelinus converting to
Judaism; others relate it to the burning of the Church of
the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem by the Fatimid caliph alHakim. The decree was soon revoked, apparently after the
intervention of Rabbi Jacob b. Jekuthiel with Pope Benedict
VIII (1012-1024).
Mainz was the capital of the state and it was natural
that Jews should have dealings with the ruling authorities in
many spheres and that these dealings should affect the Jews
in other parts of the state. A Jewish community existed in
Mainz in the tenth century and perhaps even slightly earlier.
The arrival of Kalonymus and his Lucca family inaugurated
a period of efflorescence.
Speyer was ideally situated, not only on the Rhine but
also on an old Roman road. The official beginnings of its
Jewish community date from the time of Bishop Ruediger
(1073-1090), who granted the Jews privileges in 1084.
Ruediger was a major supporter of Henry IV in the Investiture
Controversy. His successor, Johann (1090-1104), continued
his predecessor's policies in his relations with the Jews of
Speyer.
The significance of Ruediger's privileges granted to the
Jews of Speyer transcends their actual value for the community. They were approved in 1090 by the emperor Henry IV
and eventually served as a model for many privileges granted
to the Jews by other German rulers and in other European
countries. The privileges determined the way of life of the
Jews and their relations with their Christian neighbors. From
what was allowed the Jews in the privileges we can infer what
was forbidden. The Jews were obliged to pay a protection
tax. In due course, their legal status was defined as belonging
to the crown or the state treasury and this implied their
subservience to the crown.
Worms was another important community. Construction
of its synagogue began in 1014 and was completed in 1034.
Shortly afterwards a Jewish neighborhood is mentioned in
documents. The local Jews supported Henry IV in the investiture question and were rewarded, together with the
other citizens of the city, with tax privileges. The commercial
contacts of the Jews of Worms extended to Frankfurt, Goslar
and other places. From the mid-eleventh century, Worms
and Mainz were the Torah study centers of Ashkenaz.
The Jewish neighborhood in Cologne is first mentioned
during the term of office of Archibishop Anno (1056-1075).
Apparently the synagogue was built in the second decade of
the eleventh century, though archaeological remains support
a claim that the building is from the end of the tenth century.
Relations between Jews and Christians in Cologne were

I.

End 10th cenl.- Ernperors

Otto I and Otto 0 ......, edicts
subo,dmabng Jews to boshops
They ar~ to I'Hide in ..,arate
netghbo<hoods and enjoy cert ..n

prMIegn.

.......

Paris

F R AON C E

T,oyes
Rash, (R. Solomon

5.

b. Is<oioc) studies a t
yeshivoth of Worms
and Mainz. 106SReturns '0 T ,ayes

and establishes
yesh;"". Composes
~::r!f':t~~ on Bible

SERBIA

_00

km.

satisfactory during the eleventh century. Archbishop Anno

seems to have used the services of Jewish moneylenders. It
is known that many Jews brought their goods to the triannual
trade fairs in Cologne. Apparently they had a privilege to do
so and must have also had protection and exemption from
travel tax.
There were smaller Jewish communities in the district like
Trier and Metz. Many Jews in this region owned vineyards.
Troyes was known for its leather industry and the Jews of
that city were known for their manufacture of parchment.
The spring of 1096 saw a bustle of activity related to the
march eastward. Peter the Hermit from Amiens was the chief
agitator and preacher for launching the First Crusade. The
march of the peasants was the factor that confronted the Jews
with a choice between conversion and death. Rabbi Solomon
b. Samson, a contemporary Jewish chronicler, describes the
massacres of 1096, and cites the cries of the mob: "As they
passed through towns where there were Jews they said to
one another: 'We are going on a distant journejl to seek
the [Gentile] house of worship [reference to the Sepulcher
of Christ] and to exact vengeance on the Ishmaelites. Yet
here are the Jews dwelling in our midst whose forefathers
slew him and crucified him without reason. First let us take
vengeance on them and destroy them as a people, so that the
name of Israel shall no longer be remembered, or so that they
should be like Us and submit tothe son of depravity,(Jesus].'''
The Jewish communities, in a state of dreadful apprehen
siveness, circulated letters warning of the impending danger
and advising on various measures of defense. Peter the Hermit
arrived at Trier bearing a letter from the French Jewish
communities requesting that their coreligionists in Germany
give him and his crusaders money and provisions. The Trier
community responded and was thus saved. Perhaps one
could infer from this that there was a possibility of avoiding
the tragic results by paying a suitable bribe to the leaders

38

dlqitalia
'Iil'lll'd

gila u J3

of the crusade. However, this could only have succeeded

with a leader who had the power to control the mob. Such
was not the case with the leader of another contingent of
crusaders, Godfrey of Bouillon, who was destined to become
the first ruler of the crusader kingdom in the Holy Land. A
rumor spread that Godfrey had vowed to exact vengeance
on the Jews for the blood of Jesus. The Jews of the Rhine
communities turned to Kalonymus, the parnas of the Mainz
Jewish community, asked him to intervene with Henry IV,
who was in northern Italy at the time, and requested him
to order Godfrey to desist from his plans. However, before
Henry's orders reached him, the bloody events took place.
Henry ordered his vassals to protect the Jews and guarantee
their safety. The Jews of Mainz and Cologne appealed directly
to Godfrey and payed him five hundred pieces of silver to
dissuade him from his intentions. Godfrey, having succeeded
in his extortion, informed the king that he had no intention
of harming the Jews.
The first attack on the Jews of France was by Volkmar
and his followers, who then went on to Prague, arriving
while Vratislav D(1061-1092), king of Bohemia was fighting in
Poland and Cosmas the bishop of Prague was acting as regent.
Volkmar gave the Jews of the city a choice between apostasy
or death. Many chose to die for kiddush ha-Shem (sanctification of God's name); the few that converted later returned
to Judaism.
While the Jews of Prague were undergoing their terrible
ordeal, the Jewish communities of the Rhine were faced with
a similar trial. On 3 May 1096, William, viscount of Melun,
surnamed the Carpenter, attacked Speyer at the head of his
followers.
The Jewish community was saved by Bishop Johann, who
sheltered the Jews in his palace. Those killed were "eleven
holy souls who first sanctified their Creator on the holy
Sabbath and did not desire to foul the air with their stench.
And there was a graceful, prominent woman who slaughtered
herself for kiddush ha-Shem. And she was the first of the
slaughterers and slaughtered amongst all the communities"
(Seier Gezerot, p. 25). On 18 May, William and his cohorts
arrived at Worms. Here too Bishop Alebrand attempted
to protect the Jewish community by transferring some of
them to his palace. Most of the Jews who were left in the
city were massacred. After a week, William informed the

THE MASSACRES OF 1096:

"GEZEROT TATNU" (4856)

Jewish community that he could no longer lay siege to the

city and demanded that they submit to baptism. Most of
the community was destroyed. A week later William arrived
at Mainz, linking up with Count Emich (Emicho) of Leisingen.
Emich claimed that divine revelation ordered him either to
convert the Jews or to destroy them. The brigands then
forced their way into the palace of Archbishop Rothard,
who was a relative of Emich. The tragic story of the Jewish
community of Mainz is one of the great heroic chapters in
the history of the Jewish people. Its members exemplified
the ideology of kiddush ha-Shem and whole groups sacrificed
themselves as one for their religion and their faith. They saw
themselves as a generation chosen to be tested and they
were proud to be able to pass the test.
Mainz was not the end of the tragic story. Emich and
his followers next moved on to WUrzburg and NUrnberg
and then to Regensburg, where they arrived on 10 June
1096. Meanwhile, mixed bands of new crusaders composed
of English, Flemings and Lotharingians gathered at Cologne,
intending to attack the Jews. The archbishop of the city
together with some of its citizens attempted to hide the
Jews in the fortress and afterwards to disperse them in
the surrounding villages. The brigands contented themselves
with plundering Jewish property. For about three weeks the
Jewish refugees from Cologne succeeded in finding shelter
in their hiding places. However, on 23 June they were
discovered in Wevelinghoven, on 24 June in Neuss, and on
30 June in M6rs. Those Jews who did not undergo baptism
by force or by consent died for kiddush ha-Shem.
During this perod a band of French farmers who had
attacked the Jews of Rouen at the end of May reached
Cologne. In mid-June the Jewish communities of Trier and
Metz were slaughtered.
The destruction of the Ashkenaz communities was almost
total. Most of the scholars of Mainz and Worms, the two
most important centers, were killed. This was the major
reason for the transfer, during this period, of the Jewish
cultural center to northern France.
The path of the crusaders was a bloody one. Their goal
in the Holy Land was Jerusalem and it was there that the
Jews, together with the Muslims of the city, fought for their
lives. After losing the battle, the entire Jewish community
was slaughtered.

7.

30 ~y-Chrislians plunder Jewish

homes. Bishop Herman mhides
Jews throughout his estAtes;

Magdeb~rg

Columns of
a synagogue

in Worms.

so '00 Clermont
t:=J;;;;;;;;;j km.

L~ns

39

THE FIRST
CRUSADE
1096 to 1099

Med ite rra nean

Sea
M
;

C~Kmgdom
_

......

THE CRUSADER KINGDOM IN

ERETZISRAEL
.ss

K IN G D O M
OF ARM E N IA
AdoM '

'"

-.

'-... ..,1........

'-

........

F D A MA SCUS

~ On ROIh Hodesh $ivan, The day the Israelites we're tummOIled to Mount
Sinai to receive the Torah, tno.. who remained in the bi.hop'. courtyard
trembled; the enemies molested them as thry had done to the first group.
and then put them to the sword The victm., fortified by the courage 01
their brethren, died for kiddush ha-Shem, extending their necks to the
.word. There were some who took their own lives fulfiling the words of
the prophet "when mothers and babes were dashed to death logether;M
and father fell upon his I0I'l. Each his brother did dapalch. his kinsman
wle and children, _
the bt idegJ 00111 hill betrothed, and II merciIuI
woman and her only chid. And aD with ~ heart, accepted the
heavenly iudl;Jnent, making peace with their master they shouted Hear,
a israelI The lord is our God, the lord alone."

A.M H8bermann, Seier GzerOl Ashkenu

.krus.aJem lS\116,

Whie sundered chilclren lay twitching in heaps,

They hasten to slaughter the otheTs who wa1Iow in their blood,
SII'eWI) on the Boor of Your Sanctuary,
They wiD wethe before Your eyes forever,"
DlIVKJb. Me:shullamolSpej.'lrr: GodI Be not silent on my blood, penitenriaJ
hymn for eve of the D~ of Atonement.

THE CAPTURE
OF JERUSALEM
June 7th to
July 15th, 1099

Seal of Emperor
Frederick Barbarossa.

40

veT~t

p.29

FROM CRUSADE TO CRUSADES

One whole year elapsed after the fall of Edessa (1144)
before a delegation arrived at the court of Pope Eugenius
111 (1145-1153) in Italy. with a request for aid. In December
1145 the pope issued a bull calling for a Second Crusade and
promised those who answered the call an abeyance of their
debts and cancellation of the interest. This cancellation particularly affected Jews engaged in moneylending. TIle pope
also declared that participation in the crusade was equivalent
to a "sacrament of repentance" and anyone joining a crusade
who in his heart repented of his sins would be purified and
absolved from the punishment due for those sins. However.

there was little response until Bernard of Clairvaux became

active. He appeared before a large assembly of French nobles
including King Louis VII at Vezelay on 31 March 1146. His
rhetoric electrified the assembly, who soon pledged to take
up the cross. He continued preaching the crusade for about
a year in the Rhenish t(JI.Uns and in 1147 persuaded the

German king Conrad

m(ll38-1152) to take up the cross.

During this period a fanatical Cistercian monk called. Rudolf

was stirring the masses of the Rhineland to massacre Jews.
Once again the Jewish communities faced a repetition of
the massacres of 1096. This time, however, the ecclesiastical
and political heads of state intervened, fearing that unbridled
mob violence might tum against them. They appealed to
Bernard of Clairvaux as the person responsible for the

crusade propaganda and as a man of stature and authority

""('"-"'"'Sii.';;"~-------------I in the Christian world in general a nd in the Cistercian order

- of which Rudolf was a member - in particular. They urged

him to act responsibly and sagaciously in order to protect
the Jews. Jewish sources express an appreciation for the
religious feeling that motivated Bernard to protect the Jews.
Unfortunately he did not succeed in saving many Jewish

..
L

. ......

.
I

-.

, lila

+-- 1202 1204

1\411149

.. -~

1189-1192

.......

1212
1228-lm.1248-12S4

TI!1"ntory undtr onILtnc~ 01

Roman Catholic Church
TI!1"ntoo;ndor. ",ft""nu of
Greek
hodo. Church
TernOry undef Mu!ilm full

-()

Reconqu,.t,. 11'1 Spp.. l21h cenl

Cfuwder kingdom

""'" ...

I'

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41

dlqitalia
,

communities; the massacre of French Jewry (in the towns of

Ham, Sully, Carentan and Ramerupt) had begun before the
crusaders reached Germany. Rabbenu Tam (Jacob b. Meir
Tam, c. 1100(1171) was among the wounded at Ramerupt.
It was fortunate that Louis VD of France did not heed the
counsel of Peter the Venerable, abbot of Cluny (c. 1092-1156),
who, in a vitriolic and vituperative letter unprecedented even
for the Middle Ages, called for the total annihilation of the
Jews.
In England King Stephen (1135-1154) protected the Jews.
In Germany the Jewish communities attacked were those
of Cologne (only a few Jews were saved by hiding in the
Wolkenburg fortress), Worms, Mainz, Bacharach, WOrzburg
and Aschaffenburg. The rioting against the Jews ended in the
summer of 1147.
The Jewish communities of France continued to be persecuted in the period between the Second and Third crusades.
An example was the blood libel against the Jewish community
of Blois in 1171. In 1182 the Jews were expelled from the
kingdom of France by King Philip Augustus (1179-1123). All
debts owed by Christians to Jews were annulled and the
Jews were forced to pay a fifth of the debt to the state
treasury. In 1198 Philip Augustus authorized their return and
established a special department in his treasury to deal with
the Jews, as had been done in England.
The crusader defeat at the battle of Hittin (1178) and
Saladin's capture of Jerusalem aroused enthusiasm for a new
crusade (the Third). Popes Gregory vm (1187) and Clement
(1187-1191) called for Christians to save the Holy Land.
Once again the crusade had its preacher, Henry of Albano, a
monk from the Clairvaux monastery, who was aided by the
monk Joachim of Fiore, who spent the winter of 1190-1191
in Palestine. The Jews of Mainz, Speyer, Worms, Strasbourg
and WOrzburg, through which the crusaders were destined
to pass, decided to abandon these towns for places removed
from the crusader route. Frederick I Barbarossa (emperor
1152-1190) and his son Duke Frederick of Swabia protected
the Jews. Even the church intervened on their behalf and
undoubtedly both these factors were instrumental in saving
the Jews.
In England the crusade was closely linked to the personality
of King Richard 1 "the Lion Hearted" (1189-1199). During
an eight-month period (in 1189-1190) the Jews of England
suffered from a wave of massacres. Most of the London
Jewish community was destroyed. In February-March 1190
most of the rural Jewish communities were destroyed. The
massacres were well organized and presaged the eventual
expulsion of the Jews from England.
The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204), initiated by Pope Innocent m (1198-1216), ended without achieving its goal.

Innocent had hoped that the crusade would bring the Greek
Orthodox Church back into the Catholic fold. He saw it
as "a return of Samaria to Zion," but his hopes were not
fulfilled. This crusade set out for Constantinople but was
redirected to Egypt by the Venetians in order to settle some
political scores. After this crusade, Germany was endangered
by the Children's Crusade (1212), which marched through
northern France and the lower Rhineland. The crusade ended
dreadfully, as unscrupulous merchants sold the children as
slaves in Egypt.
The Fifth Crusade (April 1217-July 1221), the goal of which
was to free the Christians in Muslim captivity, was also
unsuccessful. Frederick n (1198-1250) and John of England
(1199-1216) were both supposed to participate in the Sixth
Crusade but only Frederick arrived in the Holy Land some
years later (1228) and stayed in Jerusalem. In 1248 Louis IX
(St. Louis, king of France 1226-1270) led the Seventh and
last crusade which was also unsuccessful.
The Jews of Europe were no sooner free from the nightmare
of the crusades than they found other disasters in store for
them.

THE CITY OF NORWICH

Jewish houses and courtyards

Caricature of English Jews from document dated 1233 showing Isaac

son of Jumet of Norwich (with crown) and members of his household.

42

c::::J
Christian caricatures ~ of English Jews.

Church property
Area of detailed map

UNTIL THE BLACK DEATH

Opening of the book of Numbers, The Duke of Sussex Pentateuch,

showing the four leading tribes of Israel camping around the
Tabernacle. Circa early 14th century, Ashkenaz.

BLOOD LIBELS
England had the first recorded case of blood libel, out it was
closely followed by other European countries, and the notion
even spread to Islamic countries. A libel case occurred in
England in 1144 at Norwich where it was alleged that the
Jews of the town bought a Christian child named William
(who was apparently an epileptic and died after one of his
fits) before Easter, allegedly tortured him and then killed
him.
The number of libel incidents increased and the emperor
of Germany, Frederick IT finally decided to clarify the matter.
Consulting with decent and learned Jewish converts to Chris
tianity, he initiated an enquiry as to whether Jews used blood
for ritual purposes. The council of the converts concluded
that they did not, and Frederick published a statement to
this effect. In 1247 Pope Innocent IV issued a bull denouncing
blood libels against the Jews. However, the bull did not
succeed in eliminating further occurrences.
Pope Gregory X (1271-1276) vigorously combatted blood
libel adding a special clause to the Bull of Protection of 1272

(Sicut Judaeis).
In 1343 an attempt was made to sell a Christian child born

out of wedlock to the head of the Jewish community in BrOnn.

A similar offer was made in 1699 to Meyer Goldschmidt, the
Jewish court jeweler to the king of Denmark.
In 1540 Pope Paul
(1534-1549) issued a bull (Licet
Judaeis) addressed to the bishops of Poland, Bohemia and
Hungary, in which he rejected the allegation that Jews used
the blood of Christian children.
There were two major blood libels whose repercussions
spread far beyond the place at which they occurred. One
concerned Simon of Trent (1475) who was beatified in the
eighteenth century and whose beatification was canceled in
1965 by Pope Paul VI. The second libel was that of the "Holy
Child of Laguardia" in Spain (1490-1491) whose body was
never found. In this libel Jews and conversos were accused
of attempting to bring about the annihilation of Christianity,
the Inquisition and the inquisitor Tomas de Torquemada by
means of the sorcerous use of a child's heart.
Another form of libel was the desecration of the host;
Jews were accused of stealing the holy wafer and using it in
sorcerous ritual in order to destroy Christianity. Such a libel
occurred in 1168 at Saragossa, Spain.
The poisoning of drinking wells was another accusation
levelled at the Jews (132(r1321). Europe was rife with these
libels, all of which ended tragically for the Jewish people.

THE TRAVELS OF BENJAMIN OF TUDELA

Benjamin of Tudela was a merchant-traveler who set out on
a journey to Palestine either in 1159 or in 1160, returning to
Spain in 1172-1173. His book Seier ha-Massa'ot ("Book of
Travels") contains a vivid description of his travels. In every
city that he visited he sought out the Jewish community,
enquiring about the life of the Jews in the East, and his
account became a major source for the history of that community. Benjamin visited the Holy Land during the period of
Crusader rule, meeting a number of Jews, some of them in
Jerusalem. After Benjamin had shown the way, and until the
time of Judah al-Harizi, a considerable number of Jewish
pilgrims from Spain and Ashkenaz visited Palestine, their
courage bolstered by a passionate yearning for the Holy Land
and the belief that their pilgrimage would hasten the coming
of the Redemption. A pupil of the Ramban (Nahmanides,
1194-1270) wrote: "Children of Israel- Torah scholars and

Decorated opening pages of the portion She/ah Lekha (NI.DTI. 13-15).

Egypt, 11th century.

44

1160 to 1173

pious men of action from all four points of the compass, this
one from a city, the other from a family - every man whose
heart was prompted to generosity, to a spirit of sanctity and
purification and affection for all that is holy - comes to
Eretz Israel, and to them the Messiah will reveal himself...
And now, many are awakened and volunteer to go to Eretz
Israel. And many think that we are approaching the coming
of the Redeemer" (A. Yaari: Massa'ot Eretz Israel).

Memorial plaque to R. Benjamin in the city of Tudela.

THE TRAVELS OF BENJAMIN OF TUDELA:

+---

Travels of Benjamin of Tudela

.. - - -

Presumed route
Number of Jews as recorded
by Benjamin of Tudela
Boundary between Christians
and Muslims

100

Large Jewish community

Mediumslzed Jewish community
Small Jewish community
200

'00

I Ian.

IN ITALY, GREECE AND TURKEY

Trapani

.Palermo

Messina
200

1500

Marsala
Syracuse

Mediterranean
100
!

Call greeting unto daughters and kindred,

Peace to brothers and to sisters,
From the captive of hope who is possessed
By the sea, and hath placed his spirit in the hand of the winds,
Thrust by the hand of the west into the hand of the east:
This one passeth to lead on, and that one to thrust back.
Between him and death is but a step,
Aye, between them but the thickness of a plank;
Buried alive in a coffin of wood,
Upon no floor, with no four cubits of earth, nor even with
less.
He sitteth-he cannot stand upon his feet,
He lieth down-he cannot stretch them forth;
Sick and afraid because of the heathen
And because of the marauders and the winds.
The pilot and the mariner, and all their rabbleThey are the rulers and captains there.
A section of a sea-poem of Judah Halevi, .describing the
hardships en route to the Holy Land. Translated by Nina
Salaman, Selected Poems of ~dah Halevi, Philadelphia 1924.

Sea

200

I km.

IN THE
IN THE NEAR EAST

HOLY LAND

45

IMMIGRATION
TO
THE HOLY LAND Twelfth Centuru
.,
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t.Mainz

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The synagogue established by Nahmanides upon his arrival

in Jerusalem (apparently a Crusader structure).

AYYUB\ 0

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(Ezra'ilomb)

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is

Interior of the Nahrnanides synagogue with restored pillars.

5<1

Ian.

JEWISH COMMUNITIES IN THE HOLY LAND Twelfth to Fourteenth Centuries

The continuous arrival of Christians from Europe did not substantially alter the life style of the country, since they did not
establish permanent settlements. The land was desolate and
even the crusaders' seignorial system was unable to provide
adequate livelihood. Ouring the crusader period there were
a number of rural Jewish settlements which had probably
already been established during or before the Arab period.
In the second half of the twelfth century Jews were living in
Tiberias, the capital of the ''Principality of Galilee," and in
Safed, the important stronghold of Galilee. Both these cities
were surrounded by Jewish villages.
Until Saladin's conquest of Jerusalem, Jews, with the exception of a few families, were forbidden to reside in the city.
Nevertheless, when Benjamin of Tudela visited Jerusalem he
found Jews engaged in the craft of dyeing, for which they had
purchased a monopoly from the king. These Jews resided
either near the king's palace or near the Citadel (David's
Tower).

46

Tyre, Sidon and Ashkelon had the largest Jewish communities in the country. According to Benjamin of Tudela,
about five hundred Jews resided in Tyre and two hundred
in Ashkelon. Karaites and Samaritans also resided in these
cities. Acre, Beirut and Caesarea also had a substantial
Jewish populations. The crusader conquest opened a period
of economic development from which the Jews benefited.
Various crafts constituted their major source of income. (In
Tyre, for instance, Jews manufactured glass and were tradesmen.) The settlers in the reconstituted yishuv (the Jewish
population in Eretz Israel) continued to maintain contact
with their countries of origin, from where they had come in
the wake of the crusaders. The importance of Rabbi Judah
Halevi's aJiyah (immigration) lies not only in its indication of
a yearning for Eretz Israel but also in its illustration of the
possibility of putting thalyeaming into practice.
Benjamin of Tudela was the first Jewish traveler to reach

the Holy Land in the 1160s. In about 1175 Pehthahiah of

Regensburg set out on his journey to Eretz Israel. The
aiiyah in 1209 of a group of rabbis and their pupils, headed
by Rabbi Samson b. Abraham of Sens, gave a considerable
impetus to the revival of the yishuv. In 1216 Judah al-Harizi
was on a visit to the Holy Land and met "the group who
came from France," headed by Rabbi Joseph b. Baruch of
Clisson and his brother Meir. The Disputation of Paris (1240)
and the public burning of the Talmud caused Rabbi Jehiel of
Paris and his son to migrate, while the Barcelona Disputation
in 1263 caused the Ramban (Nahmanides) to migrate in 1267.
When Rudolf I of Hapsburg, king of Germany, attempted
to assert royal authority over the Jews through additional
taxation, thousands of Jews, led by the Maharam (Rabbi
Meir b. Baruch of Rothenburg), decided to leave Germany.
In 1286 Rudolf issued orders to prevent this emigration;
the Maharam was arrested while attempting to leave and delivered to Rudolf who had him imprisoned. Rudolf demanded
a huge ransom for the Maharam. But the latter refused to
be ransomed on the grounds that this would serve as a
precedent for the authorities to imprison rabbis and leaders
of the community in order to extort large sums of money
from them. He died in prison in 1293.
Jews also migrated to the Holy Land from North Africa
and Egypt. Ashkelon was the focus for this aiiyah.
In 1209-1210 the Babylonian exilarch visited Eretz Israel
(possibly David b. Zakkai D, exilarch in Mosul). From his
visit we learn that Safed was a "state," that is, the center of
Jewish settlement in the Galilee. Little is known about the
Jewish community in Tiberias; Benjamin of Tudela described
it as having "about fifty Jewish families." An old tradition
relates that the disciples of Maimonides, who died in Fustat
in 1204, brought his remains for reburial in Tiberias. Tiberias
had favorable conditions for Jews to settle and for the revival

of its yishuv.
The beginning of the thirteenth century saw a strengthening
of the JeWish community in Jerusalem. Rabbi Jehiel b. Isaac
ha-Zarefati resided there and maintained contact with the
Jewish community of Fustat. Controversies within the community were not resolved until 1240. In 1244 the city was
sacked and destroyed by the Khwarizmi Turks.
When the Ramban came to Jerusalem in 1267 he found it
in a state of ruin. The minyan (quorum) of Jews who gathered
for prayers on the Sabbath were "the she'ar yashuv" (the
remnant that returned - d. 1 Samuel 7:3). He had a Torah
scroll brought from Shechem and renovated a building for
use as a synagogue. In 1268 he moved to Acre, where he
died in 1270.
Acre was a large and important Jewish center in the
thirteenth century. It had a Jewish quarter and a "Jews'
house" in 1206. When the newly crowned king of Jerusalem,
John of Brienne, visited Acre, he was received by representatives of the Frankish and Greek communities and by
members of the Jewish community holding a Torah scroll.
Judah Al-Harizi described the community as ignoramuses
"not a man among them who could stand in the breach,"
and this despite the arrival of three hundred rabbis from
France and England in 1211.
The Muslims conquered the city in 1291 and massacred
its Christian and Jewish inhabitants. One of the survivors
who reached Spain, Rabbi Isaac of Acre, described the
destruction. Among those killed was Rabbi Solomon, the
grandson of Rabbi Simon of Sens. The Jewish captives were
apparently brought to Egypt where they were ransomed by
the community.
The impoverished state and status of the yishuv continued
until the immigration waves of the fourteenth century inaugurated a process of regeneration.

IMMIGRATION TO THE HOLY LAND Thirteenth to Early Fourteenth Century

Atlantic

o c e an

~e
I

6.

,/

,
,

,
1

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,

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=~/X.

Nazareth
e

1187-Sa1adin
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ran.

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10M.......

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ERETZ

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100

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____________________________~~~=d~~

'0

47

Jerusalem in 12th century (From: J.

Prawer, A History of the Crusader
Kingdom, Hebrew ed., Jerusalem
1963, p. 138.)

THE JEWS OF ITALY

Thirteenth Century

Concordia Aquileia .
Treviso. ' ..' . ~. '~'''Tnesle
B Verona Padua'"
:
( .. : .
Pallia
re&aa
Vance
.
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: ....

Milan

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SARDINIA
Macomer
'San Antonio
oCa~

Sea

,:Aniloco

,"""
SICILY

0Cllln/a

Jewish life in Italy in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries

was determined by a constantly fluctuating political climate,
with the church promulgating anti-Jewish laws. Most of the
Jewish population was located from the center of the Italian
Peninsula southward. Rome was an important Jewish center,
while cities such as Lucca, Pisa and Venice had sparse Jewish
populations. Jehiel Anav, a relative of Nathan b. Jehiel,
supervised the finances of Pope Alexander m(1159-1181).
The significant political events of this period were the
Hohenstaufen rule in Sicily, the Angevin invasion of Italy
at the invitation of Pope Boniface vm (1294-1303), and the
wars of the Aragonese dynasty over the rule of south-central
Italy. Jews gave financial aid to the war campaigns of the
Aragonese.

48

For its part, the church had already established its attitude
toward Jews: at the Third Lateran Council (1179) and the
Fourth Lateran Council (1215) a number of anti-Jewish edicts
were issued, among them a decree that Jews must dress
so as to be easily distinguished from Christians. The distinction soon became institutionalized in the Jewish badge. The
council also limited the maximum rate of interest that Jews
could charge Christians. This period is also noted for the
blood libels in Trani, where in 1290 one such libel resulted in
four synagogues being converted into churches.
The popularization of the kabbalah in Italy began to bear
fruit; Bari and Otranto be{:oming important centers of Torah
study.

JEWISH COMMUNITIES IN SPAIN AND THE RECONQUEST

Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries
The reign of King James I (1213-1276), over the kingdom
of Arag6n saw the continuation of the Reconquest, which
affected Spanish Jewry. King James encouraged Jews from
Marseilles and North Africa to settle in his kingdom, and
many Jews supported his campaigns of conquest of the
Balearic Islands and Valencia. In order to settle and develop
the conquered territories, he granted land and property to
the Jews and they in turn enjoyed the status of settlers
in frontier areas. He exempted communities from payment
of taxes and reestablished the Jewish community of Perpignan, which at that time belonged to the kingdom of
Arag6n. Many of the communities which developed enjoyed
preferential status in commerce. Jews held key positions in
the court administration, including that of manager of the
king's personal property.
It would be accurate to say that the major royal adminstrative posts were held by Jews who were also prominent
in the Jewish community. Among the more outstanding of
these were Nahmanides of Gerona; the brothers Solomon
and Bahya Alconstantini of Saragossa, who assisted the king
in his campaigns of conquest and were destined to take part
in the controversy regarding the writings of Maimonides; Don
Judah (ibn Lavi) de la Cavalleria, who is mentioned from 1257
onwards as being the royal treasurer and bailiff of Saragossa.

From 1260 Don Judah controlled all the crown revenues,

judiciously managing royal expenditure. Nevertheless, from
1260 on, a decline in Jewish power and influence was already
apparent.
Despite the prominence of Jews under James, their status
in Arag6n was not one of total security or welfare. Though
no official action was directed against them nor was any
specific anti-Jewish policy promulgated, certain changes did
occur. During the reign of James I, the laws and edicts of
Popes Innocent III and Gregory IX were activated. In 1228,
James decreed laws relating to Jews: a fixed 20 percent
maximum interest permitted on loan, identical to that of the
Christian merchants of Florence; a Jewish oath could not
serve as evidence in a court of law; and Jews were excluded
from state administrative posts. Although the king was in
no way involved, the first instance of a blood libel in Spain,
concerning a Christian boy allegedly murdered by Jews, was
circulated in Saragossa in 1250.
These events are indicative of the change that took place
in the lives of Spanish Jewry. The Barcelona Disputation in
1263, with the participation of Nahmanides and in the presence of James I, was undoubtedly instigated by the church,
particularly by the Dominicans, who were fervent advocates
of a militant church policy. In many respects James's policy

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Extent of the Reconquest, 1147

Extent of the Reconquest. 1344

49

dlqitaila
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regarding Jews vacillated between two courses of action:

while he used them for his own purposes and had need
of many Jews for royal adminstration, he was nevertheless
guided by those church principles and policies that argued
for conversion, degradation and limitation. It was church
policy that eventually triumphed, although it is difficult to
determine the precise date at which this occurred.
The reign of James's son and successor Peter III
(1276--1285) is an important chapter in the history of the
Jews in the kingdom of Arag6n. The first Spanish ruler
to acquiesce to the pressures of Jew-haters, he enacted
numerous limitations on them. However, he too was compelled to use the services of Jews in carrying out his foreign
and domestic policies. Thus we find Moses Alconstantini
and the Abravalia family of Gerona among his courtiers.
Their involvement in state administration and finances was
reminiscent of the Reconquest period. One of the members
of the Abravalia family accompanied Peter on his Sicilian
campaign in 1282. During the latter part of his reign Peter
himself actively repressed the Jews, removing them from
all positions of influence. His son and successor, Alfonso
1lI (1285-1291), heeded the complaints of the urban nobility
against the Jews; dark clouds were beginning to gather in
Arag6n, foreboding days of retrogression and deterioration
that would end in the persecutions of 139l.
The reign of James I in Arag6n was contemporary with
that of two kings of Castile-Leon - Ferdinand 1lI the Saint
(1217-1252) and Alfonso X the Wise (1252-1284). During
James I's conquest of the Balearic Islands (1224-1233) and
Valencia (1238), Ferdinand III conquered most of the cities
of Andalusia (C6rdoba in 1236 and Murcia in 1243) thereby
opening an outlet to the Mediterranean that severed the
Aragonese advance to the south. Thereafter the military
campaigns were Castilian: Jaen in 1246 and Seville in 1248.

Be advised that we (that is, the kahaJ of Barcelona), the kahaJ of

Villafranca del Penedes, the kahaJ of Tarragona, and the kahaJ of
Montblanch, maintain a common chest and a common purse for the
payment of taxes and imposts levied upon us by the crown. Whenever
they wish to pass new regulations governing the assessment of taxes
either by the tax-assessors or by the submission of memoranda or
by individual declaration, to meet the requirements of the king, we do
not impose our will upon them, even though we are in the majority

(Solomon b. Abraham Adret, Responsa 01 No. 411) from Y. Baer, A

History of Jews in Christian Spain, Vol. 1. Translated from the Hebrew
by Louis Schoffman, Philadelphia, 1961, pp. 216-217.

Drawing of the key given to

Ferdinand ill by the Jews of
Seville to commemorate his
conquest of the city (23 Nov.
1248). The tongue of the key
reads: Dias abrira, Rey entrarJ
(God opens and the King ented .

50

After Alfonso's completion of his father's campaigns, there

followed a truce of about two hundred years in the Reconquest. During its final campaigns in the reign of Ferdinand
and Isabella, Jews did not take part in settling the frontier
areas; they were only required to pay a special war tax.
Under Alfonso X known as a lawmaker, continuing the
work of Ferdinand llI, a code of laws in the spirit of Roman
and canon law, was prepared for his country. Called Las siete
partidas because of its division into seven parts, it went into
effect about the middle of the fourteenth century. The prime
characteristic of the code was its attempt to organize Spanish
society according to the contemporary spirit of Christianity.
In the general section of the code (part seven) the regulation
requiring modesty of dress applied also to the Jews. The code
fixed a maximum rate of interest of 33% percent for loans
extended by Jews to Christians; it established the formula of
the Jewish ,oath, but also forbade breaking in to a synagogue.
In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the code served as
a basis for legal corroboration, but otherwise had little impact
on Jewish life. The code was only imperfectly implemented
in matters of state appointment and the employment of the
services of Jewish physicians. Christians were unhappy with
the code because it contained a measure of protection for
the Jews. However, the Jewish communities still had the
privileges granted to them by Alfonso's predecessors.
Alfonso did not restrict the communal autonomy of Castilian Jewry. The Jewish judiciary remained independent and
Jewish judges dispensed justice according to the laws of the
Torah. However, the litigants were allowed right of appeal
to the king's tribunal. The king also had the right to appoint
a Jew as chief justice who would be in charge of Jewish
judicial matters in any particular community. He was to act
as chief justice of appeals and was known as Rab de la
Corte.

and the city is supreme in all matters. U we should take action without
their counsel, they would not heed us. Sometimes we send our men
to them, and other times their representatives come to us with their
resoluti6ns. Only if they fail to do either of these things at our request
do we compel them by the arm of the government to come to us or to
adopt in their communities the measures that are in force in ours. In
other places however the head community decrees for its dependencies
and subjects them to its will.

THE COLLECTA ORGANIZATION

mutual alliance based not only on geographical proximity
but on a network of relations between large and small communties. Despite the dependence of the smaller communities,
the larger were not always able to impose their will upon the
smaller dependencies .

The Collecta was a regional organization of Jewish communities based on tax districts; its purpose was to create a
single, central fund for a group of communities, in which
a major community extended its authority over a number
of smaller satellites. This organizational structure created a

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51

dlqitaila
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SPIRITUAL CREATIVITY The Tosafists

. lincoln

t(2:::;~C~:')

ENG LAN 0

1 Heoekiah b. Jacob I
' . Magdeburg

1 Benjamin I

(1,\

Moses b. Vom T0\1

Elijah Menahem b. Mose.
Jacob b. Judah Hazan

{\

3 (\

I Eliezer b. Samson 1\ \ A S
ColOgne

Eujah b. Judah
Hayyim b. Hananel haKohen
.JudIII Sir 1Aon b. Isaac

ISamson
b. Samson 1
Moses b Jacob

V~b.~

Moses b. Shneour
Samuel b. Shneour
lsaoc b. Shneour

~~~.~~~

IMose. b. Abrahamt F R
uqt.es Pont-Audemer!

~ NeE

So
nn

'%.:..

Semak

c:.:::=-:::..:.::=:..-,~inz
Worm~

Couey

Nethanel
Jacob
Val<ar
Nalhanel ha-Kadosh b. Joseph
Isaac b. Isaac

Danube

~~!~ t~l<

U S T R I A

[1MiiC b. M"!9 01 Vi nno - Or z"ru'a

Itaac: b Asher haLevi - Rib~

Shemanah-o.-MOraecai
Samuel he-Hasid b. Kalonymus
Abraham he-Hosie! b. Samuel
Eliezer b. MeshuUam
Simhah b. Samuel
KaJonyn"Als b. Me~
Judah b. Kalonymus b. Me" - Ribak
Melr b. Kalonymus

Isaac b. Mordecai
EphraIm b. Isaac
Baruch b. Isaac
Moses b. Joel
Judah heHasid b. Samuel
Samuel b. Nalronal
Aaron
Mose. b. Hisdal 01 Taku
Abraham Hagadol b. Moses

Vienna

Vom TOIl b. Isaac

Menahem b. Perez

I TAL Y
.00

200

km.

Elieoer b. Solomon
_

Leading TosaflSts of their generation

Despite the bitter and burdensome trials in the Diaspora, the

spiritual creativity of the Jewish people never ceased. Their
spheres of creativity were diverse and their contribution to
the world of ideas of the Middle Ages and the subsequent
generations was great. In Spain Jews participated in the
translation from Arabic to Latin of classical works of philosophy. They thus served as a bridge between the culture of
the ancient world and that of the Middle Ages.
The specifically Jewish aspects of this creativity had many
facets ranging from biblical exegesis to kabbalah. Jewish
sages and scholars in various countries added their contribution to the spiritual edifice of the people and in a few
European countries, between the eleventh and the fourteenth
centuries, their achievements were unique. If one country
was famous for having the great Bible commentator, Rashi,
another was well known for being the cradle of kabbalah,
and still another for being the home of philosophical and
ethical literature. All these achievements became precious
assets of the Jewish people.
An examination of the intellectual climate in which the
fosafot ("additions," Le., collections of comments on the
Talmud) were compiled reveals similar, scholarly activity in
the fields of Latin literature of the Middle Ages, Roman
and canon law and Christian biblical exegesis. Despite the
differences between and the barrier that separated Jews
and Christians, they were nevertheleSs both affected by
the same intellectual climate. They not only confronted one
another in religious disputations but also met in order to
52

I A

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~=o~r~~E1~~2h~M~.~o~
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Maharam

Moses Parno.

ZuriCh.

1 Joseph b. Baruch I

Isaac b. Jacob haLallan \

Friedberg
.
/ P
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E1oeoer b. Isaac
rague
1Samuel b. MJMhem! Bamberg
Moses b. Jacob
WurzburOg""'-. Samuel b. Baruch
0 HEM

Numbe!9 ~:.=.:~~=;::=-----,
ROlhenburg

Vedidiah b. Israel
Speyer
.\
MordeCaI b. Hilil ha-:J<oIien
Regensburg
A

Chinon. ~--:---,--,,---'---,
~~~h b. Isaac
Abraham b. Joseph

Clisson1

\Munzenberg

/1 Judah b. Moshe I

r-;;-- - ; - - : - ; - - - ,

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Joseph Perez b. Elijah

H(I ~a: b.:~~

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Ponloise
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eI '
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P '
Samuel b. Simhah
M
Morlaix Vom T";' b~ Judah I n
Dre~x
ans
elz
Samson ha-Kadosh b. Joseph
Corbeil
J Judah b. David I. Vilry Toul j Eliezer I
Samuel b. Solomon
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t..oire

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EliUer b. Nalhan - Raban
Moses b. Solomon
Judah b. Kalonymus b. Moses - Ribak
Baruch b. Samuel

Joel b. Isaac
Eliezer b. Joel -Rail a

.Verona

learn from one another. Christian commentators were aided

by Jews in deciphering difficult biblical passages and the
phrase Hebraeus meus dicit ("a Jew told me") is frequently
found in the writings of Andreas, the pupil of Abelard, in the
twelfth century.
Although the tosafot were a collective compilation, like the
Mishnah and Talmud, nevertheless one can discern different
methodologies and local distinctions between France, Germany, England and other places. Rashi's pupils expanded,
elaborated, developed and completed his commentary, ushering in a new period of exegesis. The transitional period is
represented by Shemaiah of Troyes (Rashi's responsa) and
Simhah b. Samuel of Vitry. However, the most significant
work was done by Rashi's two sons-in-law: Judah b. Nathan
(Rivan), the father of a family of scholars, who checked Rashi's
Talmud commentary, added glosses to it and even composed
independent commentaries for most of the Talmud tractates.
He frequently used the commentaries of the sages of Mainz
and did not refrain from criticizing RashL The other son-inlaw, Meir b. Samuel of Ramerupt, was sometimes known as
"the father of the rabbis." (His sons were Samuel b. Meir
- Rashbam, Isaac b. Meir and Jacob b. Meir - Rabbenu
Tam, who called his father's commentaries tosafot.)
These sages witnessed the persecutions and massacres of
French Jewry during the crusades and their expulsion from
ne de France in 1182. It was they who issued the call to
immigrate to the Holy Land. In the towns of France and
Ashkenaz they attracted many pupils who then continued

their method of learning and it is, therefore, not surprising

that Moses b. Jacob of Coucy was able to compile his
monumental work Seier Mitzvot Gadol (Se Ma G) which
became a basic reference book for the study of the halakhah.
The works of the tosafists reached Bohemia; pupils from
Prague (Eliezer b. Isaac and Isaac b. Jacob ha-Lavan - brother of the famous traveler, Pehthahiah of Regensburg) came
to Ramerupt to study with Rabbenu Tam. Some of these
scholars were active in Ashkenaz and others in Bohemia
and Russia. The tosafist Peter b. Joseph of Carinthia in
Austria participated in editing Seier ha-Yashar by his teacher,
Rabbenu Tam, adding his own glosses. He died a martyr
during the Second Crusade. In Hungary there were two
tosafists: Abraham the Proselyte and his son Isaac the
Proselyte.
Ramerupt, Regensburg and Dampierre were important
tosafist centers, the Regensburg school having such scholars
as Joel b. Isaac ha-Levi and his son Eliezer b. Joel ha-Levi
(known as Ravyah). The head of the school in Dampierre was
Isaac b. Abraham (known as Rizba), who was a grandson of
Samson b. Joseph of Falaise and had been privileged to
study with Rabbenu Tam. The Rizba was a great halakhist
and rabbinical judge (posek), whose decisions were accepted
by scholars of many generations. Among those who sought
his opinion on aspects of Jewish law was Jonathan b. David
ha-Kohen of Lunel, an admirer of Maimonides (Rambam).
The Rizba was probably familiar with the Rambam's writings,
since he was the recipient of one of the letters sent by
Meir b. Todros Abulafia of Toledo to the rabbis of southern
France regarding the Rambam's doctrine of resurrection.
His younger brother was Samson b. Abraham of Sens who
was particularly noted for his commentary on several orders
of the Mishnah and for his use of the Jerusalem Talmud
as a source for halakhic decisions. Little is known of his
life but his literary legacy is greater than that of the other
tosafists. The bulk of his work has been preserved in his
own language and not reworked by his pupils. He emerges
from his work as a great scholar whose world was steeped
in the halakhah.
Cologne, "{

After Samson of Sens immigrated to the Holy Land at

the beginning of the thirteenth century, Paris became the
center of Torah study in northern France. Its school was
headed by Judah b. Isaac (known as Judah Sir Leon of
Paris, 1166-1224), pupil and relative of Isaac b. Samuel of
Dampierre (known as Ha-Zaken). The school was closed
in 1182, when the Jews were expelled from the kingdom
of France by King Philip II Augustus, but was reopened
in 1198, when the Jews were allowed to return. Jehiel of
Paris, Moses of Coucy and Isaac of Vienna studied and
were active in this school. Asher b. Jehiel (Rosh, 1250-1327)
was an outstanding scholar and leader of German Jewry,
who, in 1303, left Germany for Spain to take up a position
as rabbi in Toledo. He introduced the system of study of
Ashkenazic tosafists into Spain.
Jewish creativity in France declined after the Disputation
of Paris (1240) and the burning of the Talmud (1242). With the
destruction of the French Jewish villages and their expulsion
in 1306, this great spiritual achievement came to an end.
The Ashkenazic Hasidic movement developed in Germany
during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Samuel b. Kalonymus he-Hasid of Speyer and his son Judah he-Hasid of
Regensburg (c. 1150-1217) were the founders of the movement and their most important work was Seier Hasidim, a
book of pragmatic true-to-life ethical teachings which reflect
the contemporary life of German Jewry in their Christian
environment. The book preaches spiritual revival and instructs the pious on avoiding sin and on leading a righteous
life that will ensure his salvation in the life to come. Various
weltanschauungen are expressed in the book and scholars
believe that some of these were influenced by ideas prevalent
in the area; even the languages of the text, German and
French, indicate such influences. The Hasid, the protagonist,
is portrayed as the ideal - in his conduct, his full Jewish life,
and in his relations with his Christian neighbors. While he is
fully aware of the grim realities which surround his people,
he is called upon to bear the burden of the community and
lead it along the true path.

THE SPREAD OF THE KABBALAH

<.. Erfurt

ASHKENAZ
O.. mpierrh.
F.F::-ro"'....,..J4=92::--..,..
ka.."
bbaIah
~---,
.pread by kabbalists
expelled Irom Spain and
Portugal.

Philippopolis t

Conslanlinop~

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GREECE

Faro

te.

9.

Euripos

Thebes,,_!

ActMIia 01 MoNa
de Leon and IIMc: b.

Pat~

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Solomon Abi Sehula.

, 'ilemooI

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200

400

kll).

1250 l1S0
132S- 12S0

\
Kabbalah center

lSOO- J.32S

53

THE SPREAD OF THE KABBALAH

Jewish mysticism in its various guises was another manifestation of spiritual creativity. It was rooted in theosophy as
expressed by the creation, the revealed Shekhinah and the
promised redemption in time to come. The Kabbalah with all
its social and historical implications for the people of Israel,
held a special place among all the mystical philosophies.
A prolific literature created a world of values which found
expression in Seier ha-Zohar, the greatest book of Kabbalah,
and in the literature which developed around it, for example,
Tikkunei Zohar and Ra'aya Meheimna ("The Faithful Shepherd"). At the beginning of the thirteenth century, kabbalistic
works flourished in southern France and northeastern Spain,
eventually spreading even beyond the Spanish border. According to Isaac b. Samuel of Acre, who arrived in Spain in
1305, Seier ha-Zoharwas written by Moses de Leon between
1275 and 1285.
Kabbalistic literature gives further expression to a protest
against the moral decline in a Jewish society which must
mend its ways, as Seier ha-Zohar, Tikkunei ha-Zohar and
Ra'aya Meheimna do. In this literature, with its wealth of
symbols, Jewish sages sought solutions to the problems of
galut (being dispersed in the Diaspora), apprehension of the
Shekhinah and even practical instruction on hastening the
redemption (see Map 86 for details of the Lurianic Kabbalah
in Safed of the seventeenth century).

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'1'"0,." ' ",".,.,;.,..,~J'I'

Two pages from a compendium of religious laws from the Rashi school,
c. 13th century.

L 'Argenliere.[I)

PROVENCE

THE MAIMONIDEAN CONTROVERSY

Letter of French rabbis
Nah---'~--' __ .1
""""""" o w - '

?-"~ ASH KEN A Z

ffi

NOR THE R N F RAN C E

Orleans.
leiter of Asher b, Gershomill

[iIi]

EIJ

PROVENCE .

M'

MontpeUier,

- Aix enProvence

CD

alnz.
Sages of Ashkenaz join the ban
Wonns.
-Speyer

.~ns~ b. Abraham (Rash)

L!.J

'Ii

50

~
4
l

Corre5POndence

Aaron b. Meshulam .

Hillel
erona

andolherswithRam~Ferrara

Solomon b, Abraham of MontpeUier I L~

.
~
RalTl/Jh. the nasi~
MontpeU," aucMe
J
Sheshet & others
I
"
[!] Rabad, b~:'1 hall_

Huesca Monz6n
(animadversionist)
I TAL Y
SPA IN , aragossa
Barcelona
Ro"",'
Toledo AI ~a
I
~The Rashba acts as conciliator J Sages appeal
TajO
dec
J
Judah ibn Al,z:r
Henares
1 Nahnwoideo, House 01 She,het
Ramah

I<

DilIIu'rJII

e a

" \" c

<"40

lerlda'

ffi

10

Pope Honorius IV

EE

Mosul'
:'
c:,.phr"~

0.l1l<I lhe exilarch

BA BYl 0 N IA
Head 01 yeslW ....

J Samuel I\a,Kohen

Samuel b, Al,. Zechanah

SYRIA
Damascus J Jesse

David the nagid J

Solomon Petit
Ac~Safed

E R ETZ
Phinenas the d2(yyan I IS RAE

L First Controversy (1188-1200) on Mishneh Torah

(on Maimonides' method of codification and views on resurrection)

OJ

Baghdad'

~~

b. Hezekiah & others .,.

Daniel h.. Bavti & Joseph bar Yehud.>

rn
I

[li]

L.C:I!]

Alexandria'

2, Second Controversy (1232) on Guide of the Perplexed and Book of Knowledge

3. Third Controversy (1285- 1291) on Guide of the Perplexed (Solomon Petit)
4. Fourth Controversy (1304-1306) On the study of philosophy

~
GYP
'

. Cairo

I David the n~if(5omet,me5). Tanhum h.Yerushalm,

I Abfahlll1l, liOn 01 Mainonideo
T 1 Maimonideo' testimony agatnst hIS opponents

-1;~

III In favor of Maimonides [UTI Controversy in ~hich

l!.l Against Maimonides
[!]I) the region was Involved

54

100

I-----4km.

IT] Controversy

in which

the community was involved

200

.00

km

The writings and activities of Moses b. Maimon (Rambam,

1135-1204) encompassed all aspects of contemporary Jewish
life, extending even beyond his lifetime and domicile.
The range of his writings was wide and varied, covering
commentaries, halakhah (Mishneh Torah), medicine, respon
sa, epistles, philosophy and science. In the Guide 01 the
Perplexed he ,attempted,to'formulate ,a complete philosophical
system for the interpretation of Jewish scripture. The book
set out to grapple with the weltanschauungen of both Christianity and Islam and the threat they posed to the spiritual
and physical survival of the Jewish people.
The Rambam's halakhic approach and his views on resurrection caused a furious controversy which almost divided
the Jewish people, lasting about a hundred years and which
engulfed Jews in the east and west, in Islamic countries and
in Christian Europe.
The four controversies associated with the Rambam's
methods, philosophy and writings, were in fact merely stages
in an ongoing polemic which emerged during the Rambam's
lifetime, at the end of the twelfth century. The first controversy
arose from reservations regarding the Mishneh Torah, the
Rambam's system of defining halakhot, and his views on
resurrection. The second (1232) was associated with the
Guide 01 the Perplexed and SeIer ha-Madda; in the third (end
of the thirteenth century), an attempt was made to ban the
Guide; while the fourth dealt with the study of philosophy,

with the Rambam's writings assuming a secondary role. The

second controversy was the bitterest polemic, occurring at
a time when there were spiritual and religious conflicts in
Christianity and Islam as well. (In those days a savage crusade
was taking place in southern France against the Albigensian
heretics.) This second controversy, in which the greatest
Jewish scholars of the age were involved, had far-reaching
ramifications regarding the nature of Jewish education. In
1232, Solomon b. Abraham of Montpellier and his two pupils
David b. Saul and Jonah b. Abraham Gerondi with the support
of the rabbis of northern France issued a ban on the study
of the Rambam's philosophical works. A counterban against
Solomon of Montpellier and his pupils was issued in the
summer of 1232 by the Aragonese a1jamas (communities) and
David Kimhi, a pro-Maimonist, tried to enlist support from the
elders of Toledo for this counterban. Nahmanides attempted
to reach a compromise by proposing an educational program
for the study of the philosophical writings geared to different
age groups and communities. His prime concern was to avoid
a schism in Jewry. One of the consequences of this polemic
was the drawing of the papal Inquisition's attention to Jewish
religious matters and writings.
The third controversy involved a number of Jewish sages
from the Islamic countries. Solomon b. Samuel (Petit), one
of the important kabbalists in Acre, tried to revive the ban
on the Guide 01 the Perplexed by enlisting the support of
rabbis in Ashkenaz, France and Italy. He failed, arousing
the opposition of the heads of the community of Damascus
and Mosul, and that of the nagid David b. Abraham, the
grandson of the Rambam. In Italy, Hillel b. Samuel of Verona
(c. 122o-c. 1295), and in Spain, Solomon b. Abraham Adret
(Rashba) tried to mediate between the antagonists.
The last controversy occurred at the beginning of the
fourteenth century in Provence and Spain. Abba Mari of
Montpellier (b. Moses b. Joseph of Lunel) induced the Rashba
to issue a ban on the study of science and metaphysics
by anyone under twenty-five years of age. The Rambam's
writings were not specifically mentioned in the ban and
gradually the polemic abated.

Autographed responsum of Maimonides.

Statue of Maimonides in the Tiberias Plaza in C6rdoba .

Drawing of a personal seal belonging

to Nahmanides, found in 1972 near
Acre . The text reads: Moshe b'Rabbi
Nahman, Nuah Nefesh, Gerondi Hazak
Moses the son of Rabbi Nahman of
restful soul the Gerundian
Be Strong!

'.

55

dlqitaila
'/,\'iN

Cgil" u JS

HEBREW MANUSCRIPTS
OF ASHKENAZ, FRANCE
AND SPAIN

"-

'"

I
FRANCE

......
....U!-..
........ ..- ..........
.. ... "'r<..
'-:-- ~ ....... ....
+-~....,...,.",
~

~ _~

=~.:;:, rt",

~pml
IlfJ

~C'I"tQ~

rHoV""'1r ""'"

...".,..ji

, .""'<!;:>

L-,------:-

muminated page of prayer fo r Yom Kippur in $eCond volume of

Worma Maiu:or, Germany, c. I270.

c
1iiJ"

.r"",

In various Jewish communities scribes were engaged in copying books required for study and reference. The profession
developed as patrons employed scribes to copy books espedally

....

141L

14n

'"

.....

....;;..~;.::. ~
[IO"lr
",
,.~

ffi.T_v.m.

"""",
"
,..
UlI

1069

1'10

Ion

1111

.....

loll
LOU

1"1
1"9
lUll
I09S

A litO
g~ ..... Ii
Illl
,,~

IlOl

,".
uss

St.

""""","".
l!!!!J

" 1,..0

,..
,.
,~

-....

.."..
un

. Ewra
[iili]

. Mollla
[iillJ

Lo1)

IU'

@ill

1166

llaJ
1411

Apn6n,.1i.ffiI

10"

a......:t.I

[ll!I
Fonunao

M".ea"W
. CUIM dr Bilu

J-ao
luo;ml 1.91

loU

1411

lUI
IOU

56

digitaha

'~~ ~

I iI

THE JEWS OF ENGLAND UP TO THE EXPULSION

Jewish subjects from moneylending and usury to crafts and
agriculture. The attempt failed because by that time the
Jewish community was completely impoverished. Pressured
by the townspeople he ordered the archae (chirograph chests)
containing records of their debts to the Jews to be closed. It
soon became clear that there was nothing left to extort from
the Jews.
On 18 July 1290 Edward issued an edict for the banishment
of the Jews from England by the beginning of November. The
Jews were allowed to take only their personal possessions;
the rest of their property was confiscated. To replace the
loss of income the crown was authorized by parliament to
levy a tithe on ecclesiastical property and a 15 percent tax
on the property of the nobles and citizens. These taxes
were but a pittance in comparison to those paid by Jews a
hundred years earlier. The number of Jews expelled has been
estimated at four thousand, most of them going to France
and Ashkenaz.

The history of the Jews in England in the thirteenth century

can be described as one of persecutions and oppression
by the state and the population at large. The state and
the English church had, from the beginning, intended to
convert the Jewish community to Christianity and for this
purpose a home for converted Jews (dornus conversorurn)
was established in Londci1 in Q32.
The tax policy toward the Jews was one of merciless ex
ploitation. King Edward I (1272-1307) approved the church's
attempts at converting Jews. Many towns expelled the Jews,
while others received priviliges permitting them "not to tolerate Jews." (Leicester was the first to receive such a privilege in
1231.) The Jews moved to towns owned by Edward I after
being expelled in 1275 by Eleanor, the queen mother, from
the towns in her possession. However, local expulsions did
not cease.
In 1275 Edward I issued a decree, Statuturn de Judaisrno,
in which he endeavored to change the occupations of his

Newcastle
~ IZJJ

N orth
1219-WiIIiam of BIoio. bishop 0/
Worcester. forbids Jews to employ
Chriltians as &erVants Or wet nurses,

A Hebrew quitclaim of Jose son of Elias, Jose son of

Moses, and Judah the Frenchman. H. Loewe, Starrs
and Jewish Charters Preserved in the British Museum,
London 1932, Plate IX.
8eaurnaril
~.

10 accept

sacred vessels .. security

for 1oanI. and 10 earn Interest on

moneya received from Christ1al16.

ENGLAND

QlnwY

~o

~huddlan

~. Aint

"

In -t).-J 26J/q
w...tICO . , 12SS

6.
1275-Jews forbidden to
ell9llge in usury; allowed to
reside only in lowns owned
by king; obliged 10 wear
ldenlifY1!l9 badge from age
8. and to pOly taxes from age
12.

I.,l
Nottin9h<!m
~126q
Derby

11J1 ~

1241-Parliament or

01 tecognized Jewish
commuru.ies) summoned
to levy

. Leicester

Stamford

Bridgnorth

Jews" (repra;enlabveS

S.
1287 -AI Jewioh heada 01 family
arrested and held holt. until
piI\/IMftI 01 20,000 ranoom.

3.

A tlantic
O cean

S ea

Huntingdon
Northampton
J263~

a lax 0/ 14,000.
126J-(I>- Worcester
Weobley o
127S ~
Hereford. 1240 & Avofl 4.

r:-::--:-:-::--,

King's Lym
Norwkh . -.>

12J9

Tetford

&ngay

Bury 51. Edmunds

.~

Cambridge2
Bedford
J2 7)
-1)-1263
Sudbury.

. Ipawich

Colchester -1)-

Gloucester . , 127S
4!~aerleon

Newport.
126J -1)-

s.

Bristol

Jews obliged 10 wear an

idontiIvin!i badge and forbidden
to build i\magogues.
Wilton

SaIisbu~.
/

BIood6bel

~.

1281 .

Expullion
-OO-Pogrorns

Exeter

Church council

. ...._ ._

1192

Chichester
. 1240

9.
. -......
r:1-=-sJ7"uI:-y7.129O-==-"""""Edict"""-oi~t "
compels Jews to Ieaw England by
1 Nov. under punishment 01 death;

Jews
permitted to lake or .... ,hen__
_ . Jewioh .......... and

English Channel
I

,q..126J

SouthamptOO2

Towns in ownenlhip of Queen Eleanor

50

Wi~hester

Romsey~

1256 &

FRANCE

cIatroyed.

100

I !em

57

THE JEWISH COMMUNITIES OF FRANCE Thirteenth Century

Lor

' Damront

-~
-AIm;on

.~

..

~~ - ~--------~

Ambotse
Tours

F. ...

' loches

. .:

~".

'""

' Bout~

N
. Newrs

Dwl...,-AuroR

_C~tellerault

Chalon-sur-Saone.

Poitiets

St.-Savin
- Crozant

IJ

_ SI.Jeand~

Taillebourg
A
' Samtes

t1~

' ~e

VeyreMonton
' Auzon

::' '0\

Bordeaux
~
~~e

....

...........:

..........
Mannande

Le

Masd'~ ~n

'A9Pf
Caslelsamisin_

- Condomj
G

y ./

con

- Aire
9

Toubuse

T 0

u I

22JuIY i306 (lOch 01 Av)-

All Jews~; lora<!

:.::.

to
.......... """ month
.....thout prOper1y . SoI11t
mow 10 AragOn; r4!Ct'IIII!d by
local J~ cornmllllily

...:.,.......

Sea

..............t.'

Market

town

7S
,

$0

!un

58

dlqitalia
'/ow.Ve gild u oS

A small number of those expelled moved to Gascony while

the majority were welcomed by the kingdoms of Arag6n
(including Provence) and Navarre (Barcelona took in sixty
families). In 1315 they were allowed to return, only to be
finally expelled in 1394.

Thirteenth-century France underwent a process of centralization and the increased power of the king caused a worsening
in the condition of the Jews. The years 1236 to 1239 were
characterized by a revival of anti-Jewish feeling together with
preachings for a new crusade. Jewish quarters in Anjou,
Poitou and Brittany were attacked, prompting an order
from Pope Gregory IX in 1236 to the bishops of France
to denounce the assaults, d;::spiie his usually unfavorable
attitude toward the Jews.
The expulsion of the Jews from England made a profound
impression in France. Philip IV the Fair ordered the expulsion
of the Jews in 1291 and again on 6 June 1299, but his orders
were not implemented. The crown forbade the expelled Jews
from Gascony (an English possession) and England to enter
France and, judging by Philip's policies and extortionary
methods, Jewish expulsion from France was inevitable. Thus
in 1306 Philip ordered their expulsion from all districts under
his control. This order and its purpose were similar to
the expulsion of 1182, except that in 1182 it was ordered
by a boy king (Philip Augustus) who depended upon irresponsible advisers, while in 1306 it was a well-calculated
decision. The 1182 expulsion encompassed a relatively small
area of France while that of 1306 covered all the areas of
the king's domain, which was most of France. Philip the Fair
hoped to achieve great financial gain from the expulsion of
the Jews and the seizure of their property.

King David, from an illuminated

manuscript, eastern France, 1280.

THE RINDFLEISCH
MASSACRES 1298

Greussen"
Batgendorf
Erfurt

"Biedenkopf
Salzungen
4.

"Schmalkalden

Tola! number of

Wasungen

casuali'''': 20,000 Jews

"KOnigsee

in 146 communities.

Meini

Thernar"

Schleusingen

Mellrichstadt

Friedberg

'i'Frankfurt

ROmhiid
Waldberg.. "
.... Soden
KOnigshofen
Bad Neustadt
Dittenbrunn"
Kissingen.., "MOnnerstadt
Rieneck~

Lohr
Grossostheim

" Kronach

Lichtenfels"

"Hammelburg

"'Gem nden

"B gkundstadt

Niesten

Wirsberg

Karlsta.?t

Amberg
"Aurach

"Windsbach
Freystadt

Ombau

He!deck

l.=!c..:=:~~'::==:::::..J

13th Av 10

Depictions of
Jewish figures

",Neumarkt
17th Av6.5

Gunzen sen"
Meckenhausen
DinkelsbOhl
...
S . lberg Gedin
"Pie
r
g Berching Wolfsegg..
WassertrUdl
~
"Weissenbur; 17th Av .lS
Oltin""n
HohentnJdingen
..Riedenburg
6chsffitl..
.,
~NOrdhngen

The ligures refer to communities recorded in the memorbuch

of the Nurnberg community. They do not include all of the
children.

of the 13th century.

59

dlqitaila
'/,\'iN

Cgil" u JS

PERSECUTIONS IN ASHKENAZ

Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries

During the second half of the thirteenth century antiJewish

propaganda seriously affected the Jewish communities in
Germany. On 20 April 1298 a massacre instigated by a
hostdesecration libel spread from the Franconian town of
RtHtingen to many other areas. The inflamed mob, led by a
German knight called Rindfleisch, went from town to town
inciting the population of Franconia, Swabia, Hesse and
Thuringia to slaughter the Jews. This they did with extreme
cruelty. destroying entire Jewish communities. Among those
killed in Nurnberg were Rabbi Mordecai b. Hillel and his
"family.

Between 1336 and 1339 a group of lawless German bands

known as Armleder (so-called after the leather armpiece they
wore) attacked Jewish communities in Franconia and Alsace
leaving slaughter and destruction behind them . Of particular
note was the massacre of Jews in the communities of Rouffach, Ensisheim, RibeauvilJe and Molhausen (Mulhouse). In
Colmar the local population massacred the Jews. When the
Armleder began to menace the general peace and security,
a number of towns concluded a ten-year armistice with John
Zimberlin, one of the Armleder leaders in Alsace.
The local authorities tried to restore calm by concluding
additional agreements in the Rhine and other areas but
the armistice was shortlived. The Armleder massacres were
portents of and preludes to the destruction of European
Jewry during the Black Death .

Stade"

!
~
1\."""""'"Milnsler
. . . .,"'-.-""
~

:<O."""" . . . . . . . . . .",'S; "HamEin

Xanten
NOf<iI;,usetl

Duderst/l(!1"

&er"ch . ErflJZ1

HESSE

..Amst~dt

PiJI)fJeIilem" T H URI N G I A

'"

Frieo;I)er ;S

Sulzbu.g

"""-

......

.~I

",.,'

,. Mellnchsladl

Glud..oozy

Ei5er4tadt.

.5"Izburg

WII/1W. Neustadt

Neunl.... chm

"Bad RelCho.-nhaD

,""""

Zo/ingen

.Rappnsv.;l

Luame

,Ju:denbu,g

' """,

"l;;===".;,.~..;;;'"km.
!

."'.....

'GMtZ

rU

.leibnnz
V(llkl't'1'I\I>rkl

60

digitalia

'/tl'lll C It

MASSACRES IN THE
RHINE DISTRICTS

.Emmerich
'KJeve
Goch Rees

.WeseI
Xanten
Rheinberg.
.Dinslaken
'Geldern Malheim
a.d. Ruhr .&.sen
'
"" Kempen .
Dillsburg

. Dortmund

Uerdingen
"lserlohn

Runr
Kaiserswerth
" Neuss.
Wolihagen'
Wassenberg Wev~ven
.Erkelenz
~nnagen
GrevenbroicJt
Monheim
ROd' ._lSaster 'Stommeln
'~I''\r .Bergheim Malheim
.Jllbch 1& m'ch'
"
Cologne (KoIn)
Aldenhovelr.. :
Daren
Kerpen
Biedenkopf
lechenicti" "BrIlhi "",Siegburg
Sieg
.Nideggen Bonn~,.Beuel
"Malburg
ZUlpicl1
'Heimerzneim
Euskirchen Konigswinter
.Hachenburg
MOnstereifel.
Remagen,. Linz am Rhein
Ahrweiler. ~
,!Neslerburg
!3iessen
Altenahr''''
Sinzig He' b h
"G<Onberg
Wetzlar'
Andernach...., 0 .IIlSiearschahn
.., y
Monzenberg
Koblenz "Montabaur

oNidda
Mayen. Kobem Y
Diu" "L' bur
Gerolstein
MUnstermai!..I~ "'A1k
' ""'Lahnstein
un 9 Weilnau <7 Friedberg
"'"
en "Brau bach
" Assenheim'
.. BOdingeo
Ehre'l~is'.
V.
Cochem .
Ka den ~BoKamPd
;11
<
ppar
KOnigstein" Kronberg Gelnhausen.
Beilslein' Oberwesel~~Kaub

Malhe',m

Frankfurtv
'Hana
Krov
Bacharach vv y Lorch Eltville
0
0
u
Witdicli
Trarbach
.
,
ffenbacll
Steinheim
..
"Rhe' 1-"1en
Mainz
Seligenstadt
'"
v'<'
In"",
V
Aschaffenburg
BemkasteJ
Kirchberg
'Bingen
Babenhausen
V
' - 'Neurnagen
Brelzenheim:Langenlonsheim
. Gross,psieirn ..
Kim..
" Kreuznach
.Oppenhelm
Dieburg
'Trier
"Sobemheim
,
"
Klingenberg
Obermoschel" Alzey
Lichtenberg
am M~tBensheim
Freud~,,,,,,,
'Saarburg
Rockenhausen
Worms.
"
MiJtenberg
He~eirn

'Kusel
Weinheim '0'
Amorbach
SI. Wendel.
Altleiningen.
Kaiserslautem.
Dorkheim
.Schriesheim WaldOrn
Wachenheim:
'Lad b
BuchenY
Deidesheim
en urg 'Eberbach
Neustadt an der
Heidelberg Mosbach
Weinstrasse
Speyer
.Wiesloch ModanOhl"
Neudenau"
Homba ch
Landau.
....
rsh .
in der
Pfalz
\.Jenne etm
Saargemund'
Zabern" Bruchsal. Eppingen.
Weinsber~
WlSSembourg.
' r;:Q,
Kleingartach. Heilbronn
~
Woerth. Lauterbourg.
Bretten GOglingen
DCiIk en

GI~ch

Neuwille~

Seltz'

Haguenau

THE PASTOUREAUX AND

"LEPERS" MASSACRES
1320-1321
A popular religious movement of Pastoureaux ("shepherds")
in the town of Agen in southern France soon turned into
a crusade bent on storming Granada and freeing the last portion of Christian European soil from Muslim rule. Along their
route they turned first on Jewish communities in southern
France and then on communities across the Pyrenees in the
kingdoms of Arag6n and Navarre. Pope John XXII opposed
the crusaders and so did James II of Arag6n, who, in order
to protect the communities of northern Iberia, dispatched his
son, crown prince Alfonso, to suppress them. This is one of
the rare instances of a movement for liberating Christian
soil from Muslim domination being destroyed by the party it
wished to serve.
As if this were not enough, the Jews of Chinon (in central
France) were, in 1321, accllsed of poisoning wells in conspiracy with the lepers (who lived as outcasts from society).

Orleans
Tours

Atlantic

FRANCE

2.
Jews flee from
Toulouse. barricade

.Pforzheim

.Bischwiller .Sinzheim
'Herrlisheim

Leonberg
Weil der Stadt'

~tultgart

"

'i' v
V v

Jewish community
Major community (before 1239)
Massacres belore 1298 (excluding that
01 Werner the Good)

V '"

0/ T ouJou.., orden;

s.- . .

arrest of Paaloureaux,
wnereul'D" Jews leave

4.

Rich ....... are killed

by Chriotion P.da
Whom !hey piid 10
help them ftee 10 Spain.

.~C.

IyF,s

~..

lne"""ives In tOlW' of
Narbonne. Voscount

Bordeaux
EssIingen.

Wolfsheim .Strasbourg
.Herrenberg
MoIsheim"

,pberkirch
o
Rosheim "Enheim
Erstein"
Offenburg
Benfeld.
Lahr
Chat . Rhinau o CI).
SI H'
.sI!I~at
Ettenheim Haslach
'. IPPO. e BergheIm
y

(RaPPO~I'=~:\~v~uewi~r CI .Ke~ngen
"
KaysersbergYTurckheim Marckolshelm
Homberg
.Rottweil
Munster v C" I"
~ 'Endingen
Sulz~ch 0 mar.
Waldkirch
Herrlisheim'" 41
Breisach
'VilIengen
Guebwiller "Rouffach
Freidburg
Thann Soultz"" "Ensisheim
Masevaux " "" Wattwiller
"
"Sentheim
Rougemonl'
"Mulhouse
.Oberlingen
Radolfze1l.
"Bellort
"Altkirch
Waldshut
Diessenhofen'
.Bask
.5ackingen"
Delle
v
'Rhelnfelden
o 10 70
Wmterthur
.Baden
~\un.

Lyons

Narbonne

c e a n

.:",

',.

~
. "
/.

Albi

to\lrler. PutourelllU)(
freed by town pne.ts;

,.e.

.a

massacre ISO Jews.

~~ "~,"'-

Aries'

Lourdes.~

.Burgos

CASTILE
Gerona.
Saragossa

Mediterranean
Sea

Tajo
~

100

\un

Werner the Good blood libel. 1287

Rindfleisch massacres, 1298
Armleder massacres. 1336-1339

61

THE BLACK DEATH 1348

Many countries - from Spain in the southwest to Poland
in the east - were hard hit by the great bubonic plague
that reached Europe in 1348. The non-Jewish population
accused the Jews of causing the plague by poisoning the
wells. While Jewish casualties of the plague were relatively
low in proportion to those of the Christians, the number
of Jewish dead was swelled by the massacres. Jews were
cruelly tortured in order to extract confessions that they
were responsible for disseminating the plague. In many places
they were burned at the stake. Pope Clement VI (1342-1352),
recognizing the absurdity of the allegations against the Jews,
issued a bull from the papal court at Avignon in 1348
denouncing the allegations.
Charles IV, emperor of Germany, and King Peter IV
of Arag6n tried to protect their Jewish communities, but,
nonetheless, Jewish casualties were great.
The Black Death and its aftermath proved a critical turning
point for the Jewish communities. In Spain it represents the
beginning of a decline for the communities in Castile and
Arag6n, not only in numbers but also politically, culturally
and economically.

Atlantic
Ocean

Toledo"

tOO

200 ,.

=----3 kin.

l 1348 Pl-ogresslOn of the Black Dealh (month & year)

Spread of the Black Death at sixmonth intervals

62

o Jewish community stncken by massacre

(I Jewish community which defended itself

Woodcut depicting the burning of Jewish martyrs in Ashkenaz.

From Schedel's WeJtchronik, 1493.

UNTIL THE EXPULSION FROM SPAIN

Burning of books by Pedro Berruguette. Saint Dominic supervises the

burning. The book in the air is the New Testament.

dlqitalla
c
'Iil'lll'

gila

il JS

DESTRUCTION OF THE JEWISH

COMMUNITY IN FRANCE
Fourteenth Century
ENGLAND
London.
'Bristol
6.

~1";V~::'~I~.with

..:'"

in return of Jews for 20 years.

ASHKENAl

Main,

Worms.

oNoyon
'tompiegne

-1).'0

2.

Bru....l.

~miens

Ro~en

against Jews.

Cologne

:.:

De Vesoul appomled chief I

collector

7.
1380-Charle. VI e.tend.
residence agr~mE!nt .
provoking uprising

Senli.

,
.. :.,. Melz.

Speyer'

".

Pans
.Orleans

\.-oire
Tours. Blois
~/-(J-oChioon

r1317

FRANCE

5.

Bordeauxo

28 June 1315-Kmg louIS X

Jews to return. Twelve

year agreement includes
restriclions on moneylending
and interest rales.
inVItes

<?"V

"-?.,

Agen'

.....
'I)+-

Avignon
Tarascon:

~:

....,
P.roY.nc~ ::

Arles'6;!l~noAix en Provence
Montpellier '~o
'N rbo
Marseilles
a nne 9.

..

.:

~~-o-

Perpignan

100

200

=d

km.

SPA I N

The Hundred Years War (between England and France,

1337-1453) further impoverished France. An attempt was
made between the years 1359 and 1361 to renew Jewish
settlement in the country. Privileges of protection were extended to the Jews and, for a period of twenty years, they
were even allowed to charge a high rate of interest on loans.

In 1365 and 1366 certain factions tried to influence the crown

to expel the Jews. Charles V (1364-1380) did in fact sign
a decree to this effect on 6 January 1367, but it was never
implemented. The king also ordered an inventory of Jewish
property. Similar decrees were issued in 1368 and 1370.
When Charles V died in 1380, the population attacked the
Jews, killing many. They died as martyrs and their children
were kidnapped. In Paris, the provost Hugues Aubriot tried
to thwart the rioters, even returning kidnapped children to
their parents, but was dismissed and imprisoned. Aubriot
and the Jews were both casualties of the anti-crown riots of
1382. Charles VI succumbed to popular pressure and on 15
July 1394 decreed the expulsion of the Jews from France
by 3 November - seven years short of the twenty-year
period granted in the charter of resettlement issued by his
father Charles V.
The Jews were also expelled from Toulouse on 7 December
1394. (There were twelve families and an additional seven from
the environs of Toulouse.) Jewish communities remained
in Franche-Comte, Lorraine in the north, Provence and
Navarre. In 1481, when Provence was annexed to France,
the edict of expulsion was applied there as well; however, the
king acquiesced to the plea of the Jews of Marseilles, Aries,
Aix-en-Provence, Tarascon and Salon-de-Provence and renewed their privileges. In 1484 there was an outbreak of riots
in the towns of Provence (except Salon) and on 19 August
1484 Charles VIII (1483-1498) forbade Jewish settlement in
ArIes. In 1486 the town council turned to its representatives
in the Assembly of Estates demanding the expulsion of the
Jews, a similar demand being made in Marseilles. Anti-Jewish
feelings were particularly strong after the Spanish expulsion
(1492) and Charles finally yielded to the pressure. At the end
of July 1493 he ordered all Jews to either convert or leave
ArIes within three months.
The Jews of Aries and Marseilles succeeded in obtaining
a number of postponements of the decree but in 1500-1501
the remnant were forced to leave. Only a few Jews remained
in the French papal territories. The renewal of Jewish settlement in southwest France became the task of the conversos
who fled the Iberian Peninsula, but many years were to pass
before they were allowed to live openly as Jews.

THE BEGINNING OF JEWISH SETTLEMENT IN POLAND

It was only in the thirteenth century that the Jews of Poland
began to enjoy privileges, although there is evidence of Jews
in Poland at an earlier period. In 1264 King Boleslav V the
Pious of Kalisz, granted the Jews privileges, being influenced
by those granted them by the emperors of Germany. The
first privilege was to ensure protection against blood libels.
It also recognized the status of the Jews as the servi camerae
regis ("servants of the royal chamber").
In 1334 Casimir III the Great conferred privileges upon
the Jews of Poland, ratifying these privileges in 1336 for
other parts of his kingdom - Lesser Poland (western Galicia
with Cracow, its capital) and Red Russia (Ruthenia, eastern
Galicia with Lvov, its capital). After the unification of Poland
and Lithuania in 1386, Grand Duke Vitold granted the same
privileges to Lithuania (1388).
In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries many Jewish

64

refugees from Germany arrived in Poland. The Polish

nobles and townspeople wanted to expel the Jews and
consequently, during the reign of Ladislaus (Wtadystaw) II
Jagiellon (1386-1434), the Jews were persecuted.
A blood libel in 1399 in Poznan resulted in the massacre of
the Jews and the looting of their neighborhood. In 1407 there
was an anti-Jewish outbreak in Cracow by the students of
the university (founded in 1400).
There is little information about early Jewish communities
in Lithuania. The important centers were Brest Litovsk,
Troki, Grodno and perhaps Lutsk. In Volhynia the Jewish
community of Ludmir (Vladimir in Volhynia) was already
known in the thirteenth century. (Volhynia was annexed to
Lithuania in 1336.) Many Lithuanian Jews were farmers, but
the nobles from time to time attempted to drive them off
the land. Slowly, Jewish urban settlement developed, with

Jews engaged in operating lease concessions, an activity ,

that in due course extended over all of Poland, Lithuania
and the Ukraine.
In 1441 Casimir IV Jagiellon recognized the Karaite community, granting them equal rights with Christians.
The expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492 also had ,
repercussions in Poland and Lithuania, and in 1495 the Jews
were expelled from Lithuania and Cracow. (However, they
were allowed to reside in Kazimierz, a suburb of Cracow.)

, -- - -TiT-------,----------------.,
..... .'

Balti c

.........

S ea

'.

:'

:Gdan~ ~3...,..,-....,,--:-,---:-:,...--,
(Danzig)
1264-~v of Kalio.

. :

~.nt.

prM1ege$ to Jews of

"

.......

........ . ........

:.,

11.

i.:.

.:".:

w .....

S..

Lomza

Kokian

"'"

..
) liegnit~
( '.
.: ..... ......
Breslau

(1386).
gwtl$

LI THUANIA

.:.

'

.....

POLAND
Beg 12th cent .-Followlng
perwcutions of Crusades,
mal)y Jews ft Germany

J<azlm'en ........ ":

Hrubiesz6w...

Poland.

for

Kovi!l
Lublin Chelm:' V1: dimtr

... (Ludmtr) LulSk

~

Sandomierz

;....
..

Cracow

.'

'''>''
...:

.Bmo
:'" ... .......

....

'" .. .....:.2... ....

Vtennae

Krosno

1407- Universlly sludents

rnauacre Jews.

End 12th cenl.- MstlSlav~

...

imposes heavy firye on

Prmce of Cracow,

('

~I

1"I

: Sopron

4.

km.

....

.....,

Zhidachov

Galieh.
R dR

0..

uII,a

".

. .. .

~chach:
....
"0

: Kamenets
.' .. : Podolskiy

l334-Ca&imir m the Great

PtM=Polish
Jewry. 1364-
extended
to t.es.er (lillie) P
and Red
renews

Danube Esztergom

b Ien

eSlr

li ttl e Po ll nd

.Rovno
Osl~og

: Dubno
:

Lubacz6w

0(\
;.; .'. ...........:........... '.Drogobych

........ :

... :' P<rJ"'':' l.':.of violence

CI

.....

Tar~ Jaroslav.
Lvov ".
Bochnia .Jaslo
.PrZI?m~
'....... .

:'

Interior of a synagogue in the

, Jewish neighborhood of Toledo,
founded in 13th century.
After the riots of 1391, it was
converted into Santa Maria
La Blanca church.

0uI<e V.told

privileges to Jews

of lithuania.

:' .:.
Warsaw:.

omn

~ostyn
0",..;. "".
Kalisz
oS';' .. .. :

:':

Pultusk

Poznait'

".

s.
~~~nL~~':""'n"ia

0"

.......
w

Grodno

.:::k':;:''9dom=:....
. _ _-.J
.............

.'

II:

.'Vilna

Troki

PRUSSIA

:" . . . \........ It.:;;:..

6.
1399-BIood
bbel: Jews
accused of
stealing the
host.

....... ..... ...... .

L.:.R:=;IJaIa=::.._ _ _ __

---.J

HUN GAR Y

THE JEWS OF SPAIN UP TO THE MASSACRES OF 1391

The Black Death, which reached Arag6n in 1348 brought with
it a wave of murderous attacks on Jews, who were accused
of causing the plague. The kingdom of Castile underwent a
radical decline in population during the second half of the
fourteenth century, not so much as a result of the plague as
of a general increase in mortality and of population migration.
The Jews were not held responsible for these factors. Thus,
the 1354 attack on the Jews of Seville which seemed a distant
echo of the Black Death, proved to have had a local cause
- an accusation of a host desecration.
The rule of Peter the Cruel (1350-1369) king of Castile
was contested by his half-brother Henry of Trastamara
and during their bitter struggle many Jewish communities
suffered. Henry was the first ruler to use an anti-Jewish line
as the basis of his political policy, declaring that he was
waging war against his brother in order to free Castile from
the harmful influence of Peter's Jewish advisers. Toledo was
one of the first communities to be affected when in the spring
of 1355 some of Henry's forces entered the town attacking
and looting the small Jewish quarter of Alcana. According to
the contemporary Spanish historian Pedro L6pez de Ayala,
more than one thousand Jews were killed in Alcana. The
attackers were not able to penetrate the larger Jewish quarter
of Toledo, which was protected by mercenaries hired by the
Jewish community.

Other Jewish communities in Castile were also attacked.

In 1;'360 Henry advanced from northern Castile, attacking
Jewish communities and populations along the way. In April
1366 Henry took the town of Burgos, demanding one million
maravedis from the Jewish community in ransom money; in
May when he entered Toledo, he made the same demand of
its Jewish community, which had to sell the Torah crowns in
order to pay the ransom. A year later Henry again entered
Burgos, forcing the Jews to pay a further ransom of one
million maravedis. The first rioters were French and English
mercenary troops enlisted by Peter and Henry in their civil
war. They were responsible for the destruction of most
of the Jewish communities of Castile. Even the southern
communities were not spared; Peter, the avowed protector
of the Jews, allowed the Muslims of Granada, who aided
him, to sell the Jews of JaE!n into slavery.
The persecutions of 1391 were preceeded, in 1378, by
the confiscation of synagogues in Seville, instigated by the
anti-Jewish agitation of the archdeacon of Ecija, Ferrant
Martinez. On 4 June 1391 anti-Jewish disorders broke out
in Seville spreading through the other Jewish communities
of Andalusia and subsequently through most of the communities in Spain. Clergy, nobles, townspeople and peasants
all participated in the riots. At the beginning of July news
of the attacks reached Arag6n, causing general agitation.

65

FRANCE

.....

.. ...

.....

0 -'

""""
. ..
~

.....

"
"
'"

~
~

"""'"

!-_.

. '"

--, -.,

......

,n 139] nOli

the Corles {fl!PI'Uft'Ital~$

"no:! certlWn Cll on'

"
THE JEWISH QUARTER IN TOLEDO

-.,.....

,,

'-

Sr. ~mass

"'.

ll5$-~oI'

Jew;oh--.. ....
T..........

'- ,,

,,

toIdin .. MoM
INn 1.000 Jfwo

,,
,,
,

, , , , ,, , , ,
,,
,

,
, ', ,,,', ,
'Ale"",,
,, , ,
't
\, t

'*
t

,
,

,,
,

----- ----t

Chu rch

't ",..,.,.

.,
....
"""""..

c_.,

....

r jo

,, ,

"

""'.
D

,,
,,
, ,

II

Capital of ooe
alIne pillars of
the Toledo synagogue.

66

digitaha

'~~ ~,

I iI

In Catalonia, where most of the Jewish communities were

destroyed, the riots were accompanied by a revolt of the
indentured artisans and peasants against their lords. However, this revolt was only a secondary factor in the crusade
against the Jews, although the authorities were wary of its
side effects. The crown took advantage of the disturbances:
the king of Arag6n, John I (1387-1395) ordered an inventory
of the property of Jews killed in the riots who had no heirs,
since it was the custom in those days for the crown to inherit
such property.
Two communities in the kingdom of Arag6n were unharmed
- those of Saragossa, the capital and royal residence, and
Perpignan. In Saragossa Rabbi Hasdai Crescas was active
and instrumental in organizing the defense of the town's
Jews, collecting money to hire one of the nobles, Francisco
d'Aranda, and his troops for this purpose. At the end of 1391
the king left Saragossa to tour the kingdom and pacify the
population. Every place he visited he began negotiations

JEWISH SETTLEMENT IN
PORTUGAL

on the size of fines to be paid and the procedures for

procuring a royal pardon. The population of a number of
towns succeeded in placing the blame for the riots on the
Jews.
Very few Castilian Jewish communities were spared; even
the large ones disappeared as if they had never existed. Only
Navarre escaped almost unscathed from the riots. But the
Jews were attacked during the riots of 1328.
Many Spanish Jews saved their lives by apostasy, so that
entire communities together with their leaders were obliterated. Even great Jewish personalities converted prior to the
riots of 1391, some of them under the influence of Friar
Vincent Ferrer. This gave rise to a new phenomenon: the
creation of a community of conversos who wished to return
to Judaism and who secretly practiced Jewish observance
alongside openly professing Jewish communities that began
to recuperate and rebuild their lives during the fifteenth
century.

LEO

Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries

Ever since Portuguese independence, during the reign of
Afonso ill (1248-1279), the Jewish communities of Portugal
developed their own unique organizational structure. The
crown appointed a single head of all the Jews in Portugal
called the arrabi m6r, who in tum appointed seven regional
heads, or arrabi menors, each heading one of the seven
regional divisions of Portugal. The arrabi m6r had a wide
range of authority in supervising Jewish communal life. He
was the intermediary between the crown and the community;
he represented the latter before the crown and conveyed
the crown's wishes to the community. He also advised the
crown on matters of taxation and obligations imposed on
the Jewish community. However, he was not a "chief rabbi"
in the conventional sense, but rather a crown administrator.
The fourteenth century was relatively tranquil for the
Jews of Portugal notwithstanding anti-Jewish agitation and
church pressure, for example, with regard to the wearing of
identifying badges and restriction of residence. Although the
anti-Jewish atmosphere fomented by the church resulted in
the massacres of 1449, Jewish communal life continued to
function unperturbed.

(l

Jewish community in 13th cent. (1279-1325)

New Jewish settlement in reign of Afonso IV, 1325-1357
New Jewish settlement in reign of Pedro, 1357-1467
New Jewish settlement in reign of Ferdinand, 1367-1383
Boundary of regional organization under arraby mor
Regional capital

67

THEMONGOc E
.... ......

(
#

..,. .......... .

......:....
. . . ..

1'"

."

";:'".

..

.oArbeIa

1)Circesium
..,

(aHaIra

~8

Rakka .0

o
10

0",

AJ-Anbar

1)

Akbara

.0 .,.

(Pumbedita)

1:.

ligrjs

...

Hilla
Kula ~

.o Wasit

<-P 4ates

tOO

Basra

200

km.

THE MONGOLIAN INVASIONS OF PALESTINE

M e d

t r ran e a n
S a

So

I==-~~:~
'!-v

SicbI.

<>
Ulan;

/\

;.:,
4.=-=-=

Q~t A~llI"4
/II-

,,

-:-:--:-7"-'

l3OO-1303-Mam/uks

recapture country;
expel Mongols.

, Rabbath Ammon
,,
so
,
I

2S

km.

68

Mongol conquests.
1260

+ ___

Conquests of II-khan
Ghazan. 1299

~ ........

Timur's invasions,
1401

The Mongol invasion of Europe and the Middle East from

the end of the twelfth century brought radical changes to
those areas. Nations were destroyed and whole populations
annihilated. The world was engulfed by a powerful wave of
conquest the like of which it had never known before.
Before the death of Genghis Khan (1227) the Mongols had
reached the Dnieper in Europe and in 1421 they crossed the
Oder, annihilating a German and Polish army in a battle
near Liegnitz. In 1258 the Mongols, led by II-khan HUlegU,
conquered Mesopotamia, from which they proceeded to
Palestine, reaching Gaza in 1260. In September 1260, at
the battle of Ain Jalud (Ein Harod) in the Valley of Jezreel,
they were decisively defeated by Baybars and the MamJuk
army, thus ensuring MamJuk rule over Palestine. In 1299,
underthe leadership of H-khan Ghazan, they launched an
invasion with the aid of an Armenian army and Druzes
from the Lebanon. At the end of the fourteenth century the
Tartar prince Timur (Tamerlane) revived the Mongol empire
and in 1401 conquered and set fire to Damascus. Palestine
surrendered without battle, accepting the Tartar yoke until
the death of Timur in 1405.
The Mongol campaigns directed against Muslims in the
east as well as their expansion in Europe caused great dread
both in the east and in the west. The Muslims in the east
were the chief victims of these campaigns although in the
course of events the Mongols became closer to Islam, some
even converting. The Jewish communities were saved in
a number of places, including Baghdad (1258), Aleppo (in
1260 Jews found asylum in the central synagogue, which
was left untouched) and Damascus. The Mongol invasions
aroused messianic hopes for an imminent redemption among
the Jews of Italy and Spain. Some believed the Mongols to
be descendants of the ten tribes. In Christian Europe some
Jewish communities were suspected of contact with the
Mongols, and accused of being associated with their invasions
and devastations. The Jewish communities in Silesia and
Germany suffered from the Mongol advance westward.

IMMIGRATION TO THE HOLY LAND

Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries
"'''

c-

,.

C H IA

"""""
- Tabriz

ER SIA

.......

u~

r..
nean

The massacres in 1391 in Spain increased the number of

immigrants to Eretz Israel. Among the newcomers, of whose
travels we do not have details, were many conversos, such
as Isaac Nifoci of Majorca. They went to Palestine despite

.-

the difficult living conditions and the persecutions of the

Mamluk regime. Jews came not only from Spain but also
from Ashkenaz. Two important personalities from Italy came
in the 14805: MeshulJam of Volterra (148 1) and Obadiah
of Bertinoro (1485). The involvement of the latter in the
life of the Jerusalem community was both considerable and
significant. Every traveler had to choose his own way from
among the existing routes to Palestine, a particularly difficult
task after the Venetian edict against transporting Jewish

travelers to the Holy Land.

Some travelers wrote reports on their journey, describing
not only the communities of Jerusalem and Sated but also
those encountered on the way. thus leaving noteworthy accounts of J ewish life in Eretz Israel and the Diaspora.

.""""""

Wood engrllving of II InilIP of Jerusalem by ErhMd Reuwil;:h, 1486.

69

digitalia

.1'111 C~Itc

THE BEGINNINGS OF THE

OTTOMAN EMPIRE
Ottoman incursions into the Byzantine Empire occurred
over an extended period, gradually undermining Byzantine
rule in Asia Minor and the Balkan peninsula. Region upon
region was wrenched from Byzantium, even by Venice and
Genoa, which took control over various islands in the eastern
Mediterranean. It was in these regions that Jewish life was
revived. The Turks captured Gallipoli in 1354 and Adrianople
in 1361. From this point the way was open to additional
conquests in Europe and the course of the wars between
1361 and 1430 determined the fate of Macedonia. Salonika
held out after being under Venetian rule from 1423 until
it was occuped by the Turks in 1430. From that date the
Ottoman Empire became a serious threat to the Christian
states of Europe.
In the fourteenth century there were few Jewish settlements
in Asia Minor or in the areas ruled by Byzantium. Constantinople had a small Jewish community as well as a Karaite
one. The Romaniot (Byzantine Jews) failed to develop a
rich cultural or spiritual life under the Byzantines and after
the Ottoman conquest they integrated with the newly established communities.
The fall of Constantinople to Mehmed (Muhammad) U

HOLY ROMAN
EMPIRE
)1i1an

......:..

Uvomo .:
Sie~

......

I a c k

..... WA LLACH I A

Lucca/
P'sa : . "iior~nce

in 1453 was seen by Jewry as a second fall of Rome.

Constantinople epitomized hatred of Jews in all its dreadful
manifestations. Its conquest became associated with messianic hopes for the beginning of the redemption, arousing
Jews and conversos to leave Spain for the east, the Holy
Land and other places under Ottoman rule; in the words of
the emigres "to be taken under the wings of the Shekhinah
(divine presence)."
After the conquest of Constantinople the Ottomans established their capital there (also called Kosta by the Jews) and
repeopling the almost deserted city by the forcible transfer of
Jews and other populations from Salonika, Adrianople and
other towns.
In 1470 the first group of Jewish emigrants from Ashkenaz
settled in Salonika, followed by a large number of Seohardic

Vent "
M:ntu~ ... , "
Panna
.: . F

Jewish tombstone found in cemetery near Istanbul.

............

. Ancona
~

l<

Urbon6 o

Se a

..... : IP ' .~ Asco"

(.j .

Vit~r .t;'<r ",~~Ieto

.~

'.

Rome

':
Benevento
Capta Tran! Bari
Naples Taranto. Brindisi

~Bursa
1326 -Mer town
captured,
"bec.me
center ror an
Independent state.
Ottoman Capital Ul)tU
1413

KINGDO M OF THE lWO StClllES

Messina
'" .Reggio

OTTOMAN
E.M P IRE

Naxos

C , \.

Catania
~gusa. Syracuse

Cos
Famagusta

Rhodes

Tunis
. Susa

Kairouan"

ll'

Mahdia

5 e

. Beirut
. Sidon .
Tyre " Damascus

------

11

Tripoli"

s u
OUoman empire at beg. of expansion
Genoa

70

Venice
Byzantium

... - -

Expulsion

.Tripoli

CYPRUS

L T A ~

po.

1 E.

"Cairo

. SilIed

THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE

refugees from Spain, after the Expulsion (1492), Portugal,

Sicily, Calabria and Naples. The city soon became a thriving
Jewish center along with Constantinople, Adrianople, Bursa
and other places.
The conquest of Damascus and Aleppo in 1516 and the
Ottoman subjugation of Palestine (1516) and Egypt (1517)
opened new horizons for the Jews of the Diaspora.
The volunteers and the Venetian and Catalonian residents of
the city's trading cantons were unable to withstand the Ot
toman siege. The Jewish Romaniot community was dispersed
and its quarter destroyed.

Strait of Bosporus

3, 1453- Turks haul

ships overland
to circumvenl
Christian
barricade,

-- ..........
/2~

\\ r

1.

13 Apr, 1204Crusaders capture

cIty. Jewosh quarter
destroyed; ceases to be
InhabIted

_ _ _ - ; ; . . t ;opohS
(Gate

!)

\ Fourth Gate
Forum
Forum 0/ Arcadlus

:r
:

r~
Forumo~
~f- Hi7podrome

'"

;C'
<0

'"

!!.

:~o~ ~=fQuarter)@
1
Church of

lJlkos SIre

~s

Third Gate

.A1
0' .

~'ti

Second ))

(II

state

(
Golden Gate

Theodosiu5

.-J":)Port of TheodOSIUS

Ir

~.,,~

(Jt3

2
r.-:-::::-~---,

Sea of M ar m ara
Location of Jewish Quarter
1. In IOth l1th cent s.
2, 10501203
3. 1280fl.

Detail from a woodcut of Constantinople (1520).

Jewish cemetery in center indicated by an arrow.

COMMERCE IN THE 'MEDITERRANEAN BASIN

Fourteenth to Fifteenth Centuries
........

.. .... ... ... ...

H

A t1antic Ocean

.........

AN

...:/WOl O ..
:. H

1.
Embarkiltion port lor

POL

....

N GAR

..

Y. ..1-......
... "

Jews; only lour Jews

allowed per

~,

MUS LI

tLZ2:I

KIN GOO

Major trading areas of Venice and Genoa in Mediterranean

Venice
Genoa

+-- Trade routes of Venice and Genoa

; (nn for Jewish merchants

Ottoman empire
Byzantium

71

dlqitaila
'/,\'iN

Cgil" u JS

Jewish economic activity in the Mediterranean basin in the

fourteenth and fifteenth centuries covered a variety of commercial fields including maritime trade to many countries.
Jews were partners to trade agreements with ship captains.
The captain carried out the commercial transaction and
the Jew financed the merchandise. Sometimes special joint
ventures would be organized between Jewish and Christian
merchants, including Jewish residents of Muslim countries
who would lend the Venetian Christian merchants money
for payment of customs duty on the goods they were delivering. A number of ports (e.g. on Crete) had special inns for
Jewish travelers. Many Jews served as agents in the trade
between Europe and Muslim countries.

Jewish commercial activity was considerable despite many

restrictions: Jewish passengers were limited to four per
ship per voyage; some captains refused to carry Jewish
passengers to Egypt; Venice forbade sea captains to carry
Jewish passengers bound for the Holy Land; and Mamluk
rulers in Syria and Egypt generally oppressed their Jewish
citizens.
European trade in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries
developed considerably in comparison with that of the Radhanites in the ninth to the eleventh centuries. Credit facilities
and methods of finance improved, and trade routes were
shorter and safer. Jews in their various places of residence
played an important role in this trade.

THE JEWS OF GERMANY IN THE SHADOW OF EXPULSIONS

AND MASSACRES Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries
Although the Jewish communities were persecuted even before the period of the Black Death, neither the massacres
nor the plague itself and its consequences were able to eliminate the Jews of Ashkenaz. However, conditions within the
communities deteriorated; in some places Jewish residence

was limited to ten years. Only a few communities were able

to recuperate, but by the middle of the fifteenth century
the network of Jewish communities had grown despite the
continued harrassment of the population. The Jews of Prague
who were saved during the Black Death were massacred in

....:

ERANIA.. '.

:..

..-SAXo",
.... 1432

"

5.
1510 . . .. Brandenburg
149J ........ -00

Braunschweig

rg

... '."'!!""

..

1453-John 0/ Capistrano's
preachi~ inftue"".. host
desecration Hbel against
Jews. 4 July I453-Ikeslau:
II Jews burned al 51......;

....

CoIogne ~
. ,1424

.Reirna

Meissen

1424 ...

'"

Frankfurt

:'

I 38

Wonns. 4
1470
..: Neuttadl an der Wei!lltralse.
1405

".

,.

F RAN C E

,6

..A..'

Endingtl!

Oijon ;'

..

1470

1477-.,.-Colmar
.1411'1414 . . . FreiOO~

BasI ~hofen,o.

1477 '~J8:~!

' J......t, corntIUIiIieI

ordered 10 J!III/ ~
0/ Church CouncIl 01

140

14J5

*-+(t-Nomber9.

.Kelheim

..

'" 1519
'-11

1J97

1500

c;. 14J9

......

.........
.......

.....
.........

"1-kisselS'

14S4

-nl
~~

14~4

"BrUnn

.... __ -....

Krems
' ... :'

TuU'
1411 ~

__ - -

~
i\. ,oEnns

Voenna

lOll "

14 Zl--O-~ .'

'!f

,>

I publilhes leiter

6.
Trient (Trento)
M.rch 1475-8ady of chid
i
SImon found in Jowiah courtyard. /
' 1475
Community leaders arrested,
intaYOgllted and bumed all1ake.
Jt>diciaIl>foceecingoI halted by POP<'
Sb,IuIIV, but reopened oIter papal
court of inqui'll iUllifies hbel. JeW.
forbidden 10 rosa in city.

Toh~

Cracow
'.~ ...... ...
..

....

A'.
.. :

. . . ...... .

....... .

''2

.' i"=7:"""--:7.=-~---'
23 May 142G-Du~e
' A l b e r t V orders M1zure
01 all Austrian Jews and
confiocationoftheiT
property.
.....::.;=.:<..:.::3:-"
. ----'
12 Mar. 142I- Duke

A1berl V orders

92 Jewish
bumi ng
ndofl22

mnai,:;""n;

Budape;1

Austrian Jews,

confiscating IMiT

L.!P';;:.;OP<'=rI.;<.Y.' --_

-'

Fa"~enfeld HUN GAR Y

14J9, 1491:

Ilt~ .....Sc~nberg
'_u~,

100cxn."
Empire

Laibach.Ceil! : ,
"(ljubiana)
rieste

.' ....

....

:
"'.

~ tom~unity that reco\lered after Blilck Deilth. at beg. of 13S0s

--0- M/l.55aCres and persecutions during period of Hussite
~ EKpulsion of Jews

"I

~,

".

V''.

...

WoIfsbergO

.. ,

1to.~".W;~;"'r Neustadt

~.
Graz

cIeocribi~ all acts 0/ Jews

-nt
Christianity.

'-

/00."

1J61~Brieg

.,'

"

~'''' '"""'.

/\

'

.. --.' .. OImUlz'-"
C;lglau. /M 0 R A V I
,
" 4

/ . satzburg
149S . .

Lindau
l 14l0

"

AND

..

(. "'* 1453 ,1455

... __ ,145 7

" "
,
... ,

l.!4 76 ,loaO 10 massacre 0/ Jews

..
accuMd 0/ _'""- .L_

1404

si:I ~
.

Burghausen"/

Ravensburg

.......
POL
Breslau ".
'" 13 50 ,14 SS.....

B 0 HEM I A

18 Mar. 1496-Maximilian

.i.'io'rit,'#

=:::.::::;

::::::1::.4-':'18)
, Ir~

\ Sch

p . ___
rllgUe , ...

143901450 :1

Oberlingen

-",L.:f:::.;==
. ::;:.::::.:'z=~_:_17_,and_""""",_--.J
'7'

..(t-IJS9 1448 .1483', , iJ61 .1468 /

Augsburg"llt. 4"

1499

,-,

"

4.
" . 14 U-1437-War
~nsburg
H....it.. leads

lCo";tance.~ 1430

..Zurich

'
\

--',

l.iegnit:z.

1389-At EasI .... 3,ooo

I~adt
d1iWS.

.,._. nuT

U1

~*

Ensisheim.ScMlfha~OI

..' 1477

ISla

Reudi""",n ....

lJa9 ,,

1J95 \

" 1498...
1498,

14~0 ,

usa "-

I...... ..

lOll'

N
d
Uffenheim ~ eusta I

Pforzheim

Slrasbou~

Bamburg c;.

HeiJbTonn V 1453

Landau

".

lSlO . . oWUrzburg

14J; ~Speyer

.~,cger

10SJ
149S

:.

.........

.Coburg~_ ... '"

Mads~o -J-~

,,

....-:>~

G\OQau

I.

101l ~. DresAen"~GOrlil2

~ IOsa

Marburg

Bingen

72

... ROlenbtag En
"' 1510
~. urt

1016

".......... .....

Aschersleben

'

, Oder

H.O L Y ROM AN EM P IRE

Dorimund

Warsaw

~ Massacres

Blood libel

movement

and killing of Christian children, thus giving official sanction

to the legendary lies and superstitions current among Christians. Maximilian did leave an opening for Jews to return
to Styria, but the local authorities obtained extensions of
the expulsion order. He refrained from molesting the Jews
of Moravia and Bohemia and opposed their expulsion from
Regensburg.
One would have thought that upon the election of Charles
I of Spain as emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (Charles V
[1519-1556]) he would have treated the Jews of Ashkenaz in
as harsh a way as did his grandparents Ferdinand and Isabella.
However, he made a distinction between his Jewish policy in
the two realms, particularly since he was preoccupied with
the problems of Lutheranism in Germany. At Charles' court
the Jew Joseph (Joselmann) b. Gershon of Rosheim (c.
1478-1554) was successfully active as the shtadJan (intercessor) for the Jews of Germany. There was very little change in
conditions for the Jews of Germany in the sixteenth century,
the Ashkenazic center of gravity moving to Poland-Lithuania,
Bohemia and Moravia. Already in the fourteenth and particularly in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries there were
the beginnings of Jewish immigration to northern Italy and
in the direction of the Ottoman Empire, including Palestine.
The persecutions, massacres and expulsions took their toll
on the Jews of Germany and sapped their creative strength.

1389. In the 1380's a long list of expulsions from various

places were added to the list of massacres.
During the second half of the fifteenth century John of
Capistrano preached in German cities, inciting people against
the Jews. Many of the expulsions in the fifteenth century
were initiated by the townspeople. The Jewish privilege of
temporary residence in Cologne was not renewed. King
Sigismund requested that the expulsion be postponed and
Duke Adolf was appointed as a judge-arbitrator. In his judgment of 24 July 1425 he asserted that the city was entitled
to carry out its decision, but the Jews had already been
expelled in October 1424. The refugees settled in a region
adjacent to the archbishop's diocese, but a dispute between
the archbishop and the townspeople of Mainz led to the
expulsion of the Jews from the diocese. Albert III, elector
of Brandenburg (1470-1486), wrote in 1462 "Every ruler is
entitled to appropriate Jewish property, even to kill them,
except for those few who must be allowed to live as a
testimony. The Jews can avert this fate by giving one-third
of their property to every ruler upon his investiture." Albert
slightly altered this text in 1463 but basically it remained the
same.
The Emperor Maximilian I (1493-1519) adopted the same
tactic of expelling the Jews, publishing an edict of expulsion of
the Jews of Styria on 18 March 1496, in which he enumerates
ailthe Jewish offences against Christianity such as kidnapping

CENTERS OF DISSEMINATION OF HATRED OF THE JEWS

Lubeck.fit'
,~'{

~{s:

X 0
I\'

POMER

, .... .....
~

p.

Hamburg

..)

Frankfurt

'%.

Warsaw

<)",

Oder

Wittenberg

Cologne. ;?(
1451-54, 1468,1474-78 "
Second half of 15th cent.

; ........ .
/

Breslau

Un

..

'.

".

.....

IS'
From 13th cent. until
beginning of 16th cent .
Before 1450, 1451-54, .1
1474, 1490-1519
II

'"

rague

....

'

.'

'.

.-.

: ......................' ."
..:

....

GAR

...

.'

Esslingeni>'O'
Reutlingen ";if

.... H

.. ,
.'
Wiener Neustadt :.....

Erlau

;0 Perlonnances of anti.Jewish Passion and Mystery plays

'1-45-1-52- ""

. "'l!l Anti.Jewish manuscripts and plays

r---....,...,....
SWITZERLAND

"Anti-Jewish preaching

': .!fI AntiJewish denuncia

ns

: .. Places of pilgrimage with antiJewish motifs

L ..~
.. ~5~O~
'0" ~~
. --~~~-----L--~(~--_m
73

dlqitalia

'"w.V e gild u oS

THE JEWS OF SWITZERLAND Thirteenth to Fifteenth Centuries

The oldest Jewish community in Switzerland seems to have
been in Basle, where Jews are first mentioned in 1213. Additional communities in the area in the thirteenth century
were in Constance, Lucerne, Berne, Zurich, Geneva and
Lausanne. Although most of their members were engaged
in moneylending there were also merchants, tailors, metal
craftsmen and owners of vineyards and orchards. The Jews
of these towns, who came mainly from Alsace and Germany,
were soon destined to be persecuted and expelled from
Switzerland. Among other things they were accused of caus'

Three Forest cantons, 1291

1\
Cantons that joined Confederation, till 1353 til
Cantons that joined Confederation, lill 1513 /
138' Jewish community founded
~

ing the Black Death and the Jews of Chillon were accused
of poisoning wells. The fate of the Jews of Geneva, Lucerne
and Berne was similar; many were expelled or burned at the
stake.
Jewish life in Switzerland was reconstituted on a small
scale toward the end of the fourteenth century, a few Jewish
doctors being given permits of residence. It was only in the
German-speaking areas that a number of communities took
root. The scholar Moses of Zurich was known for his notes
and additions on the Semak (Seier Mitzvot Katan).

Jews burned during wellpoisoning libel, 1348-1349

Burning of Jews in 140 1
Blood libel
Expulsion

A 15th century woodcut depicting Jews

bleeding the child Simon - subject of
a blood libel in 1475.

THE JEWS OF SPAIN ON THE EVE OF THE EXPULSION Fifteenth Century

The expulsion of Spanish Jews in 1492 had its roots in
the persecutions of 1391, when a large Jewish population
of about two hundred thousand was forcibly converted and
continued to live alongside both the surviving Jewish community, to which they no longer belonged, and the Christian
community, which had not accepted them. The apostates
Pablo de Santa Maria in Castile (formerly Solomon ha-Levi,
rabbi of Burgos) and Jer6nimo de Santa Fe (formerly the
doctor Joshua ha-Lorki of A1caniz) became prominent figures
within the Christian community, both working actively against
their former coreligionists, each in his own way inducing
the authorities to convert the remaining Jewish population.
Upon the advice of Jer6nimo, the antipope Benedict
in 1413 convened a religious disputation in Tortosa, inviting
twelve rabbis from the kingdom of Arag6n to participate.
The disputation, which continued for about two years (1413
and 1414) caused considerable stress among the Aragonese
communities, bereft of their rabbis and leaders, who were
struggling with the apostates in Tortosa. These years were
characterized by much apostasy. The Dominican friar Vincent
Ferrer traveled from place to place preaching conversion and
exerting pressure on the Jewish population.

xm

Only at the beginning of the 1430s could signs of recuperation be discerned among the communities of Castile,
particularly in their attempt to establish a nationwide Jewish
organization with a code of regulations. In 1432 Abraham
Benveniste of Soria, "Rab de la Corte," convened representatives of the Castilian Jewish communities in order
to reestablish the Jewish judicial and educational systems,
determine methods of tax collection, combat informers and
establish norms for a more modest life style in Jewish society.
Unlike those of Castile, the large Jewish communities in
Arag6n were not revived after the persecutions of 1391, and
in the 1430s the Jewish communities of the Balearic Islands
ceased to exist.
The riots against the conversos in 1449 in Toledo and
Ciudad Real must be viewed against the background of an
antagonistic Christian society unwilling to accept the "new
Christians" and their descendants. The instigator of the riots
in Toledo was Pedro Sarmiento, appointed by King John
II of Castile as commander of the fortress. A heavy war
tax imposed on the city, to be collected by the converso
tax farmers, served as the pretext for the riots which were
directed against the conversos and did not affect the Jews.

74

dlqitalla
c
'Iil'lll'

gila

il JS

SPANISH JEWISH COMMUNITIES

...
...

CI

sea

TO\j'n

W1

J ewish residenls

Town wilh converso residents

.. .. ; J Massacres,91 Jews, with date
11480

I Meetings 01 Castilian Cortes

at whIch JeWIsh matters were
discussed and decisions laken

'i

T....

Riots recurred against the conversos in Toledo in 1467 and

in the towns of Andalusia in 1473-1474.
The status of the conversos in the intensely religious environment of a militant Christian state striving for religious
unification became the subject of considerable polemical
literature. The disputes between those favoring integration
and those opposing it, gave rise to anti-Jewish as well as
anticonverso literature. Alfonso de Espina, a Franciscan
friar, published a major work around 1460 in which he
argued that the continued observance of Mosaic law by the
conversos resulted from their contact with Jews and could
be remedied only by the expulsion of the Jews. Alfonso
was also the principal originator of the idea of the national
Spanish Inquisition.
The ascent of Ferdinand and Isabella to the throne of
Castile in 1474 and of the united kingdoms of Castile and
Arag6n in 1479 raised hopes for a respite among the Jews.
In 1474 the converso request to settle in Gibraltar, on a
promise of fidelity to Christianity, was rejected out of hand
by Ferdinand and Isabella. The Catholic Monarchs conceived

THE KINGDOM OF ARAGON AT

THE TIME OF ALFONSO V

c:

. L~

'11
Qj

I..

<:)

Lisbon
I..

..
c;

"t

I~"~' I

Kingdom of Arag6n

75

a plan for the organization of the united kingdom to be

implemented in stages: stabilizing their rule by creating a
calm atmosphere and preventing revolts of the nobles and
townspeople; establishing a national Spanish Inquisition to
deal with the problem of converso fidelity to Christianity;
the conquest of Granada, the last Muslim foothold in western
Europe and the Expulsion of the Jews. By these methods they
intended to create a united Christian kingdom of Castile and
Arag6n of "one flock and one sword." The crown's first step
in 1475-1476 was to quell the revolt of the marquis of Villena
that supported the union of Portugal and Castile through
the marriage of crown princess Joana, daughter of Henry
IV of Castile, to Afonso V, king of Portugal. Ferdinand and
Isabella then turned to deal with the "Jewish heresies" of the
conversos.
In 1477 they appealed to Pope Sodus IV for permission to
establish a national Inquisition in Spain, which was granted
in 1478, and in 1480 two Dominican monks, Miguel de
Murillo and Juan de San Martin, were appointed as the first
inquisitors. They began their activities on 1 January 1481
in Seville for the whole of Andalusia and Spain. In 1483 an
expulsion order was issued against all Jews of Andalusia giving
them one month to leave. During that time the Dominican
Tomas de T orquemada was appointed inquisitor-general of
the Spanish kingdom, and it was he who was responsible
for the Andalusian and other expulsions - Saragossa and
Albarracin in 1486. The latter, postponed at the request of
Ferdinand, did not take place until the general expulsion
of 1492. Inquisition tribunals were systematically established
throughout Spain.
During the war against Granada the Jewish communities of
Castile were heavily taxed, the amounts increasing each year.
On 25 November 1491 Granada, the last Muslim foothold in
the Iberian Peninsula, capitulated. On 6 January the Catholic
Monarchs entered the city in a triumphal procession and on

31 March 1492 they signed the Edict of Expulsion of the

Jews from the whole of Spain. The edict specifically stated
that the reason for the act was religious, namely that so long
as Jews continued to reside in Spain there would be no hope
for the integration of the conversos with Christianity. There
is no doubt that the ideas embodied in the edict were those
of Torquemada, who based his anti-Jewish ideology on the
writings of Alfonso de Espina.

THE CONQUEST OF GRANADA

1 January 1492

Astorga"

Saldana"

5,000
1,000
800
1,100
4,500
3,000
1,200
2,000
7,500

~, Caceres.

,,

BeJvis

Benavente
Briviesca
Burgos

caceres
Cartagena
Castrojeriz
C6rdoba
Coria
Escalona
Estadillo
Guadal~

Huete

3,500
2,500
700
8,200

1,100
1,200
3,300
1,000
1,800
6,500
4,000

83,750
33,120
65,750
13,539
16,000
38,550
28,350
42,775
3,742
6,120

25,030
4,000
12,600
90,620
44,750

1,500
2,600
Lorca
1,200
Madrid
4,000
Madrigal
Medina del Campo
8,500
2,500
Merida
2,000
Miranda
500
Olmeda
2,000
Palencia
5,000
Plasencia
4,800
Salamanca
2,000
Saldai\a
Segovia
11,000
2,500
Seville
Talavera de)a Reina 2,500
3,500
Toledo
2,000
Toro
Trujillo
7,500
5,500
Valiadolid
3,000
Vitoria
6,500
Zamora

u6n

VlS

. ,.

Pope Sixtus

Almagro.

"'"....
"

.-;

... '~

" .... _ - - ......

\. \)Cbrdoba..,

c:LJ 4 91

<:r

.!)

ii:q,; ~G

.q"\.

La Rambla.
Marchena

.~Utrera

I. ...

;....

.~Ronda
Cardela.
.

>-

~eM

.Osuna

.J~Quesada. :' .... '.j..j~~; '.:

~bir ...
. Lor""~
~.
.".AlcalA Ia Real "f/4 BaD" A

&ena

......

.;.: .. . .~

.:

. ."'" .

lojllp.

() ;M~

1'&

G~naM

K.

'Guadi>c

Adra.

Ve",.
Al

meffa

N~ljar

..
~ed

(In 1474 the tax was paid in maravecis. The war tax
in gold coins (castellanos; 1 castellan0=485 marevedis.)

lerrllnelln

Sea

T
~

76

Baza

.Ubeda

52,000
107,560
16,070
111,400
60,120
30,870
100,650

Cartagena
L

orca

<.4

100

km.

4.t 0~
4~4-

R A'q N A
ga
Ronda
Malaga
l.
'-r714==n=-_-;:F,erdi
7."nan
---;d-and
-.----.
r.1"";";48=-7--A""'ft'-er- c-. p-'u-re-o"'f""' Isabella request permission
MAIlIga, Jews of city
from pope to establish
held prisoner. of war;
Inquisition tribu""J 1478ransom of 20 miWon
~:e~:nJ~~ill~ a~~480;:rti,=~e~~nded
Juan de San Martin first
inqUisitors; Jan. 1481Conquest and date
begins functioning .
Expulsion

Monarchs enter city.

..

'i~
...
.: ... ~{

~a Fronter~'0"' ~~

Granadakjlast Mustim
strongho In Europe,
falls to Christians;
SOme o( Muslims leave
(or North Africa. 2
Jan. 1492- Catholic

t:==' s;;;;;;;jl

~-1;ranada

.Jerez de

6.

Inquisition tribunal
when Catholic
Monarchs undertake
to conquer Gra nada
(1478).

S \ P.

....r ~ -A17.
- , . Carmona
-

2.

~t:~/i;h:=nt o(

,
Merida
Badajoz' ,

44,870
11,785
11,825
42,120
64,000
38,000
13,350
5,800
14,500
53,400
51,020
23,970
140,000

.roledo Huete

Irujillo

Sevil~

Jerez de Ia Frontera

Escalona

Talavera
lde Ia Reina CI)
Bel ~

Coria

1491

3,770
45,000
15,120
5,200
76,234

"'"'

ANNUAL TAXES PAID IN 1474 BY JEWS OF CASTILE AND

WAR TAX PAID IN 1491 FOR THE CONQUEST OF GRANADA

Alaejos
Alcala
Alfara
A1magro
A1.mansa
Almazan
Amedo
Avila
Ayll6n
Badajo2:

Ayll6n

Alaejos. Ol:nedo
Almazan
Madrigal" Medma del Campo
Salamanca
Segovia
Avila.
.Guadalajara
4t Madrid Alca~ de Henares

1474

Valladolid

.Toro

',,'

TOWN

Medina de Pomat

Le6n"

tr

!em.

ChristiM
Moslem attack.

VIOLENT AITACKS AGAINST THE

CONVERSOS OF CORDOBA 1473

The Israelites battle with Amalek. A drawing from a manuscript of Moses

Arragel's Spanish translation of the Bible (1422-1430).

JEWISH COMMUNITIES IN ITALY

Fourteenth to Sixteenth Centuries
The distribution of Jews in Italy underwent a change after
the Black Death, beginning with emigration from the south
and the arrival in northern Italy of Jews, some of whom had
been expelled from Germany. Communities were founded
where previously there had been none. The changing political
climate in the Italian Peninsula also created favorable conditions for Jewish settlement. Jewish loan-bankers gave great
impetus to Jewish settlement in northern Italy and greatly
assisted in the development of town and rural centers. Settlement was facilitated by the founders of banks receiving
a condotta (privilege) for a period of time adequate for the
establishment of a community.
Among the popes who reigned at the end of the fourteenth
century it was Urban V (1362-1370) who issued a bull of
protection for the Jews, as did Boniface IX (1389-1404) after
him. The antipope Benedict XIII (1394-1417) was extremely
hostile toward the Jews, his animosity reaching its peak during
the Disputation of Tortosa (1413-1414). He was deposed in
1417; his successor Martin V (1417-1431) issued two bulls
favorable to the Jews and also attempted to restrain the antiJewish agitation of the Franciscan friars. Other popes were
either indifferent to the Jews or assisted in their persecution.
Calixtus m (b. Alfonso de Borgia, 1455-1458), the Spanish
pope, showed his disdain for Judaism when he intentionally
dropped a Torah scroll given him by the Jews of Rome
at his election. Another pope, Sixtus IV (1471-1484), was
instrumental in establishing the national Spanish Inquisition
and in 1475 a papal court of inquiry justified the Trent
libel, which the pope endorsed in a bull of 1478. Rodrigo
Borgia, later elected as Pope Alexander VI (1492-1503), had
a considerable influence upon late fifteenth-century popes
while he held the post of vice chancellor of the papal curia.
The expulsion from Spain also caused changes in Italy,
particularly in the territories under Aragonese rule - Sicily,
Sardinia and southern Italy - since Jews were also expelled
from those territories. Until the end of April 1492 no expulsion

D1ustration from a Hebrew illuminated manuscript, Arba'ah Turim by

Jacob b. Asher, Mantua, Italy, 1435.

order similar to that of Spain had been published. Furthermore, on 23 May the municipality of Palermo declared that
it was forbidden to harm the Jews. However, on 9 June
Ferdinand and Isabella forbade emigration from Sicily and
the transfer of money to the Ottoman Empire. Jews were
obliged to prepare an inventory of their possessions and
deposit their bills of exchange with notaries. On 18 June the
expulsion order was published, causing a wave of protest. On
20 June the citizens of Messina warned the king of the harm
that would be done to the city if the Jews left. Palermo argued
that the exodus of Jewish craftsmen would affect arms and
agricultural supplies. At the request of the Jews the governor
issued an order for their protection, continuing to protect
them even though he was compelled to rescind the order. The
Jews succeeded in postponing the expulsion until 12 January
1493. In the interim period there were continuous attempts
to persuade the crown to rescind the order. Ferdinand,
however, insisted that all Jews leave, including those of Malta
and Sardinia.
About forty thousand Jews left Sicily alone. The numbers
expelled from Sardinia were comparatively small. Pope
Alexander VI did not prevent the refugees from residing in
districts of the Papal States. Others went to the Ottomandominated Balkans and still others to the kingdom of Naples,
where refugees from Spain had arrived.
In 1503 the kingdom of Naples was won by the Spanish
and on 25 November 1510 an order was issued for the
expulsion of the Jews, the date of implementation being fixed
for the end of March 1511. By this order the Jews were
77

forbidden ever to return. The expulsion order enabled the

conversos of Apulia and Calabria and those who were tried
and condemned in absentia by the Inquisition to put their
affairs in order and leave the kingdom within a few months.
They \!Jere allowed to take all their movable JX)SSeSSions other
than gold and silver. Despite the edict, two hundred families
were allowed to remain on condition that they annually paid
three thousand ducats to the crown. Most of the Jews left
the kingdom and in 1541 a total expulsion was ordered which
included the conversos.

THE JEWISH COMMUNITIES

OF ITALY

...
'

....

:...." ..... "

" '"

".

THE CITY OF ROME

A rea

..

01 Jeu.O.h ,HiCinK:e

.: 4:-

Ark d Ille

"

uw

in a synagogue.

Detail from a
drawi~ in an
Italian Haggadah,

1453.

.....

"",,-_.

" , -.

M onIagwlO

."""""
...... ........

. .....
.

Badia PoIesina

.o.d~

-. c---.
..........
.~

It:~~~~::~~~::
ICo'l'i"'!:'.

"""...,.

.Mir&ndola Borw:\mo

S. Felice .. plI!bfO"

;:u.

Soirra"

V9W

78

diqitalia

... ....

...................... .......
................. ..............

'""

.""'"'"
,

..

M
G.......

..'...........

:.E ..-~. .

c_

."""'"

0 F
Triurico

...
ChiRiClh1Oi1hl

Sen Sewrino

t.uc.no

9.

1~

Endl~ID""""
"-

..
"1It:~ .

.....
-............
"---s=r
:::.-:t
MIS.

~.

79

JEWISH DEMOGRAPHIC CHANGES

From the Thirteenth Century until the Expulsion from Spain
No r t h
E NG LAN

S ea

'-.-/

london

:... -:

<......... .~.....[

'5;

Breslau

FRA

':

Bordeaux
". Mont

Le6n

5 PA IN :.

0 4 0.000 ...... ....

80 .00~.~ Sara~"

Lisbo~

i :'L--J 150:000

C6rdoba

( .AVlgnon

SO.oOO

'

CORSICA

Naplest

L. ...

: :~

.....(;fi

<I>

.........., ............. / ..:::.:

50.000

''0

Salomka.

If,

;.q '"
IRE

Smyrna

conquest Jewish
community expands
and becomes spiritual
center.

] ripali

RUSSIA

,_.

S ea

r;::;-:--;--

<

~'.

'.

?'<i>... .

--:--;--:
... ..,.
....-..-...-,
........ ..:Basra

Developmenl o~u"

Alexandria.
Cairo.

"~/)

'\.

,//,~-,:. ,3 ."-'
Da~~~./

M e d iterranean

Expulsion from Spain

Old center

... :
I A ';

After T urkish

Estimated number of Jews in c.1300

New center

HU AN

~ ..

r--J 120.000 Estimated number of Jews before

'\.........-/

. ..

_ 5.000 \.
a 20 .000 ".

SIC ILV
~____

Tunis

. (/

Kherson

I TAL Y

SARDINIA

........

-:: ....

;.....:

Rome.. :\

cj:fg,goo\. . ...........

. .:;:. . .,. ...

LIT

l'
' ..THE CHURCH

Cartagena

Oran.
llemcerf

'iTA~~'~F Belgraa~ .

'"
-Marseilles
.Barcelona

alencia

:~i:~: ~~~.~

:....

C 7120.00

Granada

;...,....

lier .

$:; ~2S0'000

~ ...'

.. '

'"

A U 5 T R'.1 A
:
U N GAR Y

.. '
'.'

'.P 0 LAN D '.:

iJ be

develops following

L.:R:.;:uss:::i::::
._ _..,.......J

arsaw ... . Pinsk

".

Jewish cenle,

:~I:.:~~h

tlI nsk.

( ...

~ C

~ :J~crye:./:) St~~~~!~ ~~ ~I~

L--.) 100 .000
Q 20.000

cr ....
,;

..

G E R MAN Y

~ims

R uen-

~ ,.... ... ...........

?====rl~ogo~oo

York
.Norwich

~"""'"

.." c;, \ A

, \)

r; i:(liTIt
H~tl:n~"300
r~'lt5
~..,
R. Jehiel from

AM'"

P.ris (1260).. Nahmanides

200
400
M
(1267) and K. Obadiah of
~==~~!!km
~, ________________~~~~_______1~&~rnoo~
~'~og(1~~~)~
~~L___

L-______________________________

It is difficult to estimate the size of the Jewish population

in the Middle Ages. Even were we able to surmise the
number of Jews in a particular place, we would still be
ignorant of their composition by age and sex or the birth
and death rate. We lack not only the absolute numbers
but also other factors. It is certain that there were great
population fluctuations resulting from expulsions, or from
persecutions and massacres, which often destroyed entire
communities. Therefore any estimate can be based only upon
actual available statistics such as tax records or martyrology
lists. These figures are more or less accurate but relate
only to a particular time and place. It is clear that we are
dealing primarily with an urban Jewish population having
diverse occupations which differed from place to place.

I!B
1111

Jewish figures from the 15th century.

MAJOR EXPULSIONS
1290
1306

1322
1367
1381
1394
1421
1426
1439

80

Edward I expels Jews of Eng/and

Philip N expels Jews of France
(Louis X readmits Jews for a twelve-year period)
Charles N again expels Jews from France
Expulsion from Hungary
Expulsion from Strasbourg
Charles VI expels Jews of France
Expulsion from Austria
Expulsion from Cologne
Expulsion from Augsburg

1450
1453
1467
1483
1492
1492
1493
1495
1496

Expulsion from
Expulsion from
Expulsion from
Expulsion from
Expulsion from
Expulsion from
Expulsion from
Expulsion from
Expulsion from
conversion)

Bavaria
BresJau
TIemcen
Andalusia
Spain
Sardinia
Sicily
lJthuania
Portugal (replaced in 1497 by forced

England

Germany

The statistical information on England relates only to the

period of the expulsion. Basing himself on tax records, the
historian Georg Caro (1867-1912) estimated the size of the
Jewish population in 1280 to 1283, - that is, before the expulsion - at between 2,500 and 3,000. This is a considerably
smaller figure than is arrived at by various other calculations,
which place the number at between 15,000 and 17,500. The
historian S. W. Baron (1895-1989) assumed that the correct
figure lies between the two estimates. In London there were
apparently no more than 2,000 to 2,500 Jews and the bulk
of the Jewish population resided in the rest of England.
Therefore it would seem that the total number of Jews in
England at the time of expulsion (1290) was about 10,000
- a very small number in relation to the general population,
which is estimated at 3,500,000.

Germany's Jewish population increased between the eleventh

and thirteenth centuries. During the subsequent two hundred
years the population grew only gradually. The Hohenstaufen
rulers founded many towns that attracted Jewish settlers. The
number of Jews massacred in Mainz during the First Crusade
is indicative of the size of this major Jewish community. Jewish
sources give a figure of 1,100 to 1,300 killed, while Christian
sources cite 1,014. The NOmberg Jewish community is
recorded in a tax list from 1338 as having 212 persons
decreasing to 150 by 1449. Another reliable demographic
source is the NOmberg memorbuch in which the names of
the 628 martyrs of the Rindfleisch massacres in 1298 were
recorded. Apparently the community recuperated since the
massacres of 1349 claimed 570 victims. To these numbers one
must add those Jews who escaped. The community numbered
some 1,000 in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. NOrnberg recovered after the Black Death and became one of
the largest communities in Germany. In 1498, when the Jews
were expelled from the town, it had a population of about
20,000.
According to S. W. Baron the total Jewish population
of Germany and Austria at the beginning of the fourteenth
century was about 10,000. In 1500 there were in all of
Germany (the Holy Roman Empire) about 12 million people.
Therefore the percentage of Jews was very small. Because
the Jewish population was primarily an urban one, it is
difficult to calculate the population of every town and village.

France
The statistics for French Jewry are also meager. In the
south of what is today France, there was a dense Jewish
population. According to Benjamin of Tudela, the town of
Aries had two hundred Jewish families when he stopped
there in 1160, while in 1194 the Jews were more than 25
percent of the town's population. A similar situation existed
in the town of Tarascon. On the other hand, in September
1341, King Robert found that there were 1,205 Jews living
in 203 houses in Aix-en-Provence, that is, no more than 10
percent of the general population. Narbonne experienced a
decline in Jewish population and ;n 1305 there were no more
than 1,000 Jews in comparison to 15,000 residents (about
7 percent). Toulouse had 15 Jewish families in 1391 and
the situation was similar in Beziers, A1bi and other towns
in southern France. Only in the port town of Marseilles
was there a large Jewish community. In 1358 at Avignon,
210 heads of Jewish families swore allegiance to the pope.
Its Jewish population grew toward the end of the century
and in 1414 the community requested permission to enlarge
the area of the cemetery. In the 1490s refugees from Spain
arrived at Avignon, but it is still difficult to calculate the size of
the Jewish community in a town which was one of the largest
in Europe, having 30,000 inhabitants in 1355. Carpentras had
64 Jewish family heads in 1276 and despite the expulsion
in 1322, the community grew to 90 family heads in 1343. In
1486 the townspeople exerted pressure to reduce the area
of the Jewish quarter, whose members in 1476 numbered
12 percent of the town's population.
In northern France, in the town of Troyes there were
no more than 100 Jews during Rashi's time (1040-1105).
While the expulsion of 1182 put a halt to Jewish population
growth it did not affect the Jews of Champagne, Burgundy,
Poitou and Normandy. In 1182 there were equal numbers of
Jews and Christians residing in Paris. There was a large concentration of Jews residing in Villejuif near Paris, however,
in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries their numbers
in Paris were on the decline. Jews resided in hundreds of
small towns and the historian Heinrich Graetz (1817-1891)
estimated that in 1306 there were 100,000 Jews who were
expelled by Philip IV the Fair.

Italy
The demography of Jews in Italy differed considerably in the
north and the south. In the 1260s Benjamin of Tudela found
500 families (or taxpayers) in Naples, 600 in Salerno, 500 in
Otranto, 300 in Capua, 300 in Taranto, 200 in Benevento,
200 in Melfi and 200 in Trani. He found 20 families in the
port of Amalfi - at this time the town was in a depression.
In this period Sicily was heavily populated with Jews: 200
in Messina, 1,500 families in Palermo - the largest single
concentration of Jews in southern Italy. Until the expulsion
of 1493 Sicily was the center of Italian Jewish life. Palermo
and Syracuse had about 5,000 Jews each at the time of the
expulsion. Therefore, Nicolo Ferorelli estimated the number
of Jews in Sicily at about 50,000 (1492). This figure seems
accurate, since Attilio Milano (1907-1969) arrived at a figure
of 37,046 Jews for Sicily - with its 45 communities, and
Malta, Gozo and Pantelleria. There was also a community in
Sardinia during the period of Aragonese rule. In the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries the community of Rome developed
considerably (in 1527 there were 1,738 Jews). Venice in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was the largest and most
important of the northern communities, numbering several
hundred Jews.
During the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries the Jews of
Italy migrated from place to place, achieving a degree of
communal organization similar to that achieved by the Jews
of Ashkenaz and Spain in the thirteenth century.

81

Frequently the number of Jewish immigrants exceeded

those who were native born. Expulsion of the Jews from the
southern towns in 1492 to 1511 shifted the Jewish center of
gravity to Rome and northward, where the Jewish population
was about 25,000 to 30,000, a figure that remained unchanged
for several centuries.

Spain
The Jewish population of Castile grew from 60,000 in 1300 to
160,000 by 1492. By contrast the Jewish population in Arag6n
decreased to 75,000. Navarre had 15,000 Jews. A knowledge
of the number of Jews in Spain in 1492 is an essential factor
in estimating the size of the Jewish population of Europe,
Asia and Africa from the sixteenth century onwards. The
number of Jews expelled from Spain has been estimated
by both Jewish and Christian sources. The priest-historian
Andres BernaJdez, a contemporary of the expulsion period,
estimated that in 1492 there were 35,000 heads of family in
Castile and 6,000 in Arag6n. One Jewish document calculates
50,000 heads of family, while another estimates that 53,000
were expelled. Isaac Abrabanel (1437-1508) estimated the
number that left and crossed the Portuguese border on foot
at 300,000 "young and old, children and women," which
would mean that in Castile there were between 150,000 to
200,000 Jews at the time of the Expulsion. Another method
of calculation is by the size of the communities. For example
the Jewish community of Caceres in Estremadura numbered
130 persons and in the neighboring Talavera de la Reina
between the years 1477 and 1487 there were 168 families,
these numbers being typical of many other communities. A
conservative estimate of the Castilian communities will show
that between 1486 and 1491 there were 14,400 to 15,300
families. Estimating six people per family we would reach a
figure of under 100,000. If we add to the number of Jews who
left Spain some of the conversos, we will arrive at the total
Jewish population towards the end of the fifteenth century. A
further source of information is the tax paid by the refugees
crossing the Portuguese border, each of whom had to pay
eight cruzados for permission to cross over and to reside
for eight months in the kingdom of Portugal. Here a figure
of 120,000 can be reached. We also know that those who
went to North Africa in hired ships numbered approximately
50,000. Several thousand refugees crossed the border of the
kingdom of Navarre in 1493, having been given certificates
of passage and protection so that they might get to Spanish
ports whence they could embark. About 50,000 Jews went
to Italy and several thousand to Avignon. All these figures
bring us close to the estimate of 200,000.
These figures refer only to the Jews of Europe to whom we
must add the Jews of Poland-Lithuania estimated at about 50
to 60 communities (30,000 persons) in the fifteenth century.
Hungary and the Balkans had very few Jewish communities
until the arrival of the Spanish refugees.
By comparison with our knowledge of European Jewish
demography we are in the dark concerning the number of
Jews in North Africa (including Egypt) and Asia. North Africa
had sizable Jewish communities in the tenth and eleventh

82

centuries but there was a decline in the twelfth and thirteenth

centuries. After the persecution of 1391 and the expulsion
of 1492, Jews from Spain reached North Africa. In Asia
concentrations of Jews could be found in Iran and Iraq and it is
reasonable to assume that they numbered several thousands.
We have no information about the size of sixteenth-century
Jewish communities in Yemen, the Ottoman Empire, Byzantine Asia Minor and Palestine. However, we know that the
revival of the Jewish yishuv in Palestine in the sixteenth
century brought with it a substantial increase in the number
of Jews in the Holy Land.

JEWISH POPULATIONS IN EUROPE

(By Percentages)

HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE

Switzerland and
Low Countries)

Jewish population
in country as
percent.age of
total population
Population of country

as percentage of total
population of Europe

Total population
Jewish population
Jews as percentage
of total population

1300

1492

44.000.000

53.800.000

450.000

600.000

1.02

1.22

Granada, 31 March 1492

THE EXPULSION ORDER

Don Fernando and Dof\a lsabela

by the Grace of God ... etc .... To
the Prince heir don Juan, our very dear and beloved son, to the Infantes,
Prelates, Dukes, Marquises, Counts, Masters of Orders, Priors, Ricos
ornes, Commanders, Ak:aldes of Castles and Fortified houses 01 our
Kingdoms and Domains, to all Councils, Alcaldes, Aiguasils, Merinos,
CaleaIleros, EsciJderos, officials and notables of the very noble and loyal
to'Nll of Avila, and aU the other towns, viI1ages and places 01 its Bishopry,
and to aU other Archbishopries and Bishopries and Dioceses of our
Kingdoms and Domains, and to the A1jarnas of the Jews in the oamed
to'Nll of Avila and to aU other towns, villages and places 01 its Bishopry,
and to all o ther towns and villages and Places 01 our Kingdoms and
Domains, and to aU other Jews and persons, males and females of
any age, and to aU other persons 01 any standing, dignity, preeminence
and state they may be, to whom the contents of this Order may concern
in any way, grace and gTeetings.
Know indeed or you must know, tnat we have been informed tnat in
our kingdoms there weTe some bad Christians who judaized and apos
tatized against our holy Catholic Faith, mairVy because 01 the connection
between the Jews and the Christians. In the Cortes of the past year
which we held in Toledo in 1480, we ordered the separation of the
abovementioned Jews in aU cities, villages and places in our kingdoms
and domains, and to !jve them Jewish quarters and separate quarters
where they should live, hoping that through this separation the matter
IAIOOld be remedied. We further ordered that an inquisition be held in
our kingdoms and domains. As you know, this was done and has been
the practice for more than twelve years and throu!ll it, as is well known,
many sinner5 have been found by the inquisitors, churchmen and many
other secular authorities.
Thus the great damage caused to Christians by their participation,
connection and conversation they had and are having with the Jews
which is proven which they do to subverse and remove from our holy
Catholic Faith the devoted Christians and apart them from it and attract
and pervert them to their damned faith and opinion instructing them
in their ceremonies and observances of their law, organizing meetings
in which they read to them and teach them in what they have beliel
and keep according to their Law, circumcising them and their children,
providing them with books in which they recite their prayers, informing
them when they have to fast in their fasting days, coming together
lor readings and teaching them histories 01 their Law, notifying them
the days of their holy days to come, informing them how they are to
be observed, giving and bringing from their homes Matzoth and meats
slaughtered according to their rituals, iKlvising them from what to abstain
in lood and in olher malter5 in observance of their Law, convincing
them as much as they are able to observe and keep the Law of Moses,
making them to under5tand that there is no other Law nor truth, but
their5, which has been proven through many confessions by the Jews
themselves as weU by those whom they perverted and deceived, which
all caused great c\arnage in detriment of oor holy Catholic Faith.
Although we were informed about this beforehand and we know that
the rea! remedy to all the damages and inconveniences is to separate
the said Jews and the Christians in aU our kingdoms and to e)<pe! them
from our realm. We had thought it sufficient to order them out 01 the
cities and villages and settlements in Andalusia, where they had already
caused great damage, thinking that this woukI be enough for those
living in other cities, villages and places in our kingdoms and domains
who would stop acting and sinning as described above.
And because we are aware that this matter, and punishments inflicted
on some of tnese Jews who were found guilty of these great sins and
transgressions ;,gainst our holy Catholic Faith, proved to be insufficient
as a complete remedy, in preventing and remedying the great sin and
transgression against the holy Catholic Faith and religion; it is not enough
for a full remedy in order to cease this great offence to the faith, since
we have discovered and seen that Jews pursue their evil and damaging
intentions wherever they are found and are in touch; in order that
there should be no further damage to our holy Faith, both through
those whom God preserved so far and those wno failed, but reformed
their conduct and were brought back to the told of the holy Catholic
Church _ our Holy Mother - and what is bound to happen bearing
in mind our human weakness and the deceit and intrigues of tke DeviJ
who is continuously lighting us, something that can easily occur, we
nave decided to remove the main cause lor this through the expulsion
of the Jews from our kingdoms. Whenever a grave and detestable

crime is committed by any member of any society or group, it is proper

that that society or groop be dissolved or that the low disappear o r
suffer for tke sake of the lofty, the few for the sake 01 the many.
Those who corrupt the good and decent ~Ie in towns and viI1ages
and contagiously injure others, they should be expelled from these
places. If for matters far less consequential which may cause c\arnage '"
to the state we act this way, all the more so lor a very serious crime,
one of the most dangerous and contagious crimes as this is.
Therefore, in consultation and agreement with the clergy, the higher
and lower nobaity in our realm, other men of science and conscience
from our Council and having deliberated much on the matter, we have
agreed to order the expulsion of aU Jews and Jewesses in oor kingdoms.
Never should anyone of them return nor come back. We have therefore
issued this order. Thus we order all Jews and J~ 01 any age, who
tive, dlNeU and are Iound in our kingdoms and domains, whether born
here o r elsewhere, and are present here for any reason, must 1eave oor
kingdoms and domains until the end 01 the next month of J uly this year,
together with their sons and daughters, their male and maidservants
and their Jewish relatives, old and yoong, whatever their age. They
should not dare to return and live where they previously lived, not for
passage or in any other Ionn, under a penalty, that il they fail to do
so and to obey the order, and il they are loundliving in our kingdoms
and domains, or come here in any way, they should be put to death, tkeir
property being confiscated by our Court and Royal Treasury. TI!ese
punishments will be inflicted on the basis of the act and law, without
trial, verdict and proclamation.
We order and prohibit that no man in our kingdoms, whatever his
status, position and level should receive under his protection, should
accomodate or defend, openly or secretly, any JEMI o r J ewess, from
the abovementioned date, the end of next July and onwards, for ever,
neither in their lands nor in their houses, or anywhere in our kingdoms
and domains, under the penalty of having their property, their vassals,
their fortresses and any other thing that passes in inheritance confisalted.
They .,.,.;11 also lose any acts al mercy they have !Tom us to the advantage
althe Court and Royal fisc.
In order that these Jews and JEMlesses can sell in a proper way their
goods and property during this time until the end of the month 01
July, we take them and their property, throughout this period, under
our protection, auspices and royal defense, so that during this period
until the last day of July, could securely move around, sell, exchange
or transfer their movables and land, and decide freely and willingly
anything connected with them. During this period no hann, evil or
injustice should be in8icted on the people and their property against
the law, under a penalty against anyone who contravenes the royal
safety of the kingdom.
We hereby as well authorize and pennit tnese Jews and Jewesses to
take out from our kingdoms and domains their property and goods, by
sea or land, as long as they do not lake away gold, silver and coins
and any other article forbidden by the law of the kingdom, apart from
goods which are not prohibited and exchange bills. We also instruct all
the Councils and Courts of Justice, the regidores, the cabaOeros and
escuderos, the officials and notables in the city of Avila, and cities,
villages and other places in our kingdoms and dOmains, all va55a1s who
are under our dominion and natives, that they should keep and fulfil our ~,.,
o rder and everything written in it, do and give any help and support . ~
to anyone who needs it, under the penalty of losing our mercy and ~~
having aU their property and positions confISCated by the Court and \~\.'
Royal Treasury.
.':Ioi
In order that this may reach everyone, and that no one should pretend
~
ignorance, we command that oor order be proclaimed in the usual places
\."i
and squares in this city and major cities, in villages and places in the .""\'1
bishop's domain by the herald and in the presence of the notary public. ~
No one shouk:l act ;,gainst this under penalty of our mercy and
i.\.:
deprivation 01 aU offices and confisaltion of his property. And we order
~1
any person who would be summoned to appear before us in our Court,
~.
wherever we may be, !Tom the day of summons tiB fifteen days coming, ~)
and under the same penalty to appear. And we order any notary public '~
oMlo wiU be summoned for it, to present the order stamped by his seal ~
so that we shaU be informed how our order is carried oul.
~!~I
Given to our city of Gr2lMda, the 31st 01 the month of March in the
"lo"
year 1492. I, the King and I, the Queen. I, Juan de Coloma, the secretary
~"
01 the King and Queen our Lords, have written as ordered.

l0'1

(Original text: R. LeOn Tello, J udios de Avila, A Wi! 1964,

(}p.

91-95.)

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digitalia

'/tl'lll C ~Itc

EXPULSION FROM SPAIN

31 March 1492

The expulsion order came as a surprise to the Jews of

Spain. During the month of April unsuccessful efforts were
made to rescind the edict, in which Micer Alfonso de la
Caballeria among others was involved. On 1 May the edict
was promulgated in Castile, and two days earlier in Saragossa.
The Jews were allowed three months to wind up their
affairs and leave Spain. Spanish Jewry immediately began
to prepare to leave. Among those who left for Italy was the
family of Don Isaac Abrabanel from the port of Valencia.
Compelled to forgo loans he had advanced to the crown,
he was permitted to take gold, silver and jewelry out of the
country although this was forbidden in the edict. Others
attempted to smuggle their valuables out. The authorities
were interested in a calm and orderly expulsion. Various
personalities, among them descendants of conversos Luis
de Santangel and Francisco Pinelo, negotiated with and gave
guarantees to ship captains for chartering vessels to carry the
evacuees to North Africa and other places. This was a trying
period for the communities whose leaders had the additional
task of disposing of community property - synagogues,
schools, public ritual baths (Mikvaot) , and cemeteries etc.

The value of property declined drastically; houses, fields and

vineyards were sold for the price of a donkey or a mule. By
contrast, the price of cloth and silk rose because the refugees
were allowed to take such goods with them. The Christians
at first hoped for a loss of faith on the part of Spanish Jews
and a subsequent readiness to convert and remain in the
land where they had resided for close to fifteen hundred
years. They were astounded by the Jews' spiritual fortitude
as they left for the ports of embarkation with hymns on their
lips.
Jews were forbidden ever to return to Spain on pain of
death unless they were prepared to convert to Christianity.
As a result, Spain was without Jews for hundreds of years.
The Spanish expulsion served as a model for expulsions in
Lithuania (1495) and Portugal (1496), though the latter was
changed by King Emanuel (Manuel) I (1495-1521), for a
forced conversion of the Jewish population.
Contemporary descriptions of the hardship and suffering
of the banished Jews produced epics unequalled in the annals
of human history.

"I heard it told by elders, exiles from Spain, that a certain ship was
smitten by pestilence and the owner cast the passengers ashore on
a desolate site. Whereupon most of them died of starvation, a few
attempting to walk until they could find a place of habitation. One Jew
among them with his wife and two sons struggled to walk and the
woman being barefooted swooned and expired, while the man, carrying
his sons, both he and they collapsed from hunger and upon recovering
from his swoon, he found the two boys dead. Arising in great distress
he cried 'God of the Universe! You do much to cause me to abandon
my faith. Know you that despite those who dwell in Heaven, I am a Jew
and will remain a Jew, despite all you have brought upon me or will
bring upon me.' And so saying he gathered dust and grass, covered the
youths, and went to seek an inhabited place."
Capital of a column from a synagogue that was to be inaugurated in
1496/7 in Gouveia, Portugal.

From Solomon Ibn Verga (late 15th-early 16th centuries), Shevet

Yehudah, Hebrew edition by A. Schochat, Jerusalem 1947, p. 122.

JEWISH EXODUS FROM SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 1492-1497

The Expulsion from Spain altered the map of Jews in Europe,
creating a Diaspora within a Diaspora - Spanish Jewish
communities formed within existing Jewish communities.
This situation poses two questions. How many Jews left Spain
and what were their destinations? It is difficult to calculate
the number expelled, but an estimate may be hazarded,
on the basis of the number of Jewish residents in various
places. The majority of Spanish Jews in the fifteen century
resided in Castile. A conservative estimate of this population
is 30,000 families, that is, between 120,000 to 150,000 people.
In Arag6n the estimate is about 50,000 people. This gives us
a total of 200,000 expelled - an approximate estimate given
in both Jewish and non-Jewish sources.
Most of those banished went to Portugal, where they

84

were offered a temporary eight-month haven for the per

capita price of eight cruzados. Twenty-five ships led by Pedro
Cabron left Cadiz for Oran but the Jewish passengers fearing
to disembark - despite the reassurance of a Genoese pirate
named Fragosso - returned to Arsila in North Africa. Storms
forced the ships to anchor at Cartagena and Malaga where
many of the Jews converted while others died of an epidemic.
Those who disembarked at Asilah remained there until 1493.
They were joined by a group of Jews who had settled in
Portugal and were now on their way to the east (except
for 700 heads of family who went to Morocco), paying a
considerable sum of money for this privilege.
Other refugees went to North Africa, Italy and further
eastward. Some went to the papal state in France. Their

 Prague
. Vienna

5 OK 1496-EdicI0l
Expuloion promulgaled.
19 Mar 1497-Edicl
commuled by forced

con"",..,n. Jews
_mblod al Lisbon,

<eremon.aJ1y baptaz.ed; only

lew "'"""9t 10 ncape

Atlantic

0" (

Cairo

31 Mar. 1492-EdicI
of ExpulSlon signed I
May 1492-Promulgahon
01 EdIct ; Jews giVtTl 3
months to leave.
'00

200

km.

journeys were beset with hardship, suffering and affliction,

robbery, extortion, and even murder. Many lost their lives
on the way.
A cruel fate awaited those Jews who fled to Portugal.
John II (1481-1495) accepted 600 wealthy families and skilled
craftsmen, granting them permanent residence; others, who
were given only temporary residence, were enslaved if they
failed to leave on time.
The reign of John II's successor, Manuel I (1495-1521) was
a tragic one for the Jews of Portugal. Isabella, daughter of
Ferdinand and Isabella, agreed to marry him on condition
that he rid Portugal of the Jews. Thus on 5 December
1496 the edict of expulsion was promulgated, the text being
an abridged copy of the Spanish edict. In February 1497
Jewish children up to the age of fourteen whose parents
intended emigrating, were seized and forcibly baptized. Soon
the age limit was extended to twenty, and Jews began to
flee the country in every possible way. Many children were
detained and transferred to the Portuguese colony on the
island of So Tome in the Gulf of Guinea off the African
coast, where they were cruelly ill-treated and most of them
died in the jungle.
On 19 March 1497 the expulsion edict was replaced
by forced conversion, a change in policy which possibly
stemmed from the desire to retain the Jewish population
within a sparsely populated nation of about one million
people that had recently undertaken large settlement commitments in western Africa. The act of conversion was
accomplished through deception, by assembling at Lisbon,
the only officially-sanctioned port of embarkation, all those
wishing to leave. Those assembled were then ceremonially
baptized and declared citizens of the realm. Only a few,
among them Abraham b. Samuel Zacuto, were able to resist

o
L

?Oo

400

. ~km.

and later escaped. On 30 May 1497 the king issued orders

that those who converted should be safe from persection
and from the Inquisition for a twenty-year period. From this
it would appear that Manuel I was already contemplating
the institution of a national inquisition modeled on that of
Spain.
Many new communities were established by the Spanish
exiles in the Mediterranean basin, the Ottoman Empire
proved particularly congenial to Jews and conversos, who
developed a comprehensive spiritual network in their communities. The Holy Land also attracted the Spanish exiles
and its conquest by the Turks (1517) served as a fulcrum for
the expansion and development of the Jewish communities
in the country.

"And I Judah, son of my lord the wise and pious R. Jacob may he
rest in peace, while residing in Spain savored.a smidgen of honey, mine
eyes saw the light and my mind was given to seek wisdom and inquire
thereof. I went from strength to strength gathering all that was found
in the aforementioned book, gleaning a morsel here and a morsel there
until I possessed most of what it contained. In true faith I believe it
was this knowledge that enabled me to withstand the terrible hardships
that befell me upon my expulsion from Spain; and that whosoever
heareth of it, both his ears shall tingle; to relate all the hardships, from
I know not the numbers thereof but of some I will tell and I shall
speak the praises of the Lord.
We traveled, I and my famay, with 250 other souls in one vessel, in
midwinter 1493, from Lisbon the great city of the Kingdom of Portugal
at the command of the king. The Lord struck us with pestilence to fulfill
his word 'I will smite them with pestience and destroy them ... ' and this
was the reason why no place would receive us - 'Depart ye! unclean!
men cried unto them' and we left wandering ceaselessly, four months
on the sea with 'meager bread and scant water'. "
R. Judah Hayat, Ma'arekhet haE\ohut, Mantua, 1558, introduction.

85

ROUTES TAKEN BY JEWS EXPELLED FROM SPAIN

Aviles

Silntander.

Oviedo

Castro

Lar

Fuentemblil : ..

UrdiZ.
'~S ..Bilbao

///1 :

Vitoria I
I

/Estella"" ""
1 .. .
...

...
Burgos 1____
'Ol>.,... _~

.Tu~... .
, MeIga<;"'O:~
.,,,.."'
,~

'.

Pamplo't,;'
I

"Palencia
. Valladolid
" Medina del Campo

Miranda do Dooro., '....J

Oporto

..

.-

Castelo Rodrigo~

<

Coimbra

Sillamanca
_.

:.

Vllar

Formoso1~iU .

(!)

:.

Be,ar
ngo. Plasencia

': Con<t
.,' Alcantara

Marv~o

,
~acer~
.,

A..!;;;,ches.

Cuenca"

.Talavera de Ia Reina
Toledo

Valencia
,tJe AlcAntara
: Badajoz

Almagro

Almaden

Alcaraz

E
Murcia

Cartagena

Granada

a n

a {\

AlmerIa

Asilah

........- Routes taken by Jews

expelled from Spain

THE WANDERINGS OF
R. JUDAH HAYVAT

1.

2.
Priests board ship,

p~hl&i~""'n;

Lisbon
"

....
<r
C

f?

SPAIN

'"

~ MAIa~

apostatize after
S days; about SO,
incluchng Judah
Hawal's IIoIIle,
resist and die 01
atarvation.

e Mediterra n ea n
e~r~"'C~
-J

o '00 200

Fa
MOROCCO
km.

ALG ERIA

R. Judah 110)/1111, libeled ""

SpanlShMuolim eKh, impriooned lor
40 days; ransomed "" lawn', J.ws

86

dlqitaila
'/,\'iN

Cgil" u JS

UNTIL THE CHMIELNICKI MASSACRES

AND SHABBATEAN MOVEMENT

The Turkish fleet besieging a city. Late fifteenth century.

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE AT THE HEIGHT OF ITS EXPANSION Until 1683

The expansion of the Ottoman Empire in Europe aroused
deep fear in the Christian world, since it seemed that with
the fall of Constantinople in 1453 there was no power that
could halt this expansion. With great momentum the empire
annexed the whole of the southern Mediterranean basin,
excluding a few areas under Spanish rule in Morocco. Attempts by various popes to arouse the Christian world to
forestall the danger were unsuccessful, particularly since the
Christian world was disunited and engaged in wars over the
Lutheran Reformation.
The victory of the allied Christian forces in the naval
battle of Lepanto (1571) led by Don John of Austria, half
brother of King Philip II of Spain (1556-1598), dealt a blow
to the Ottoman navy but did not affect the foundation
of its empire. Philip had made his plans for war against
England and was therefore interested in preserving calm
on his Mediterranean flank. Thus in 1578 he succeeded
in negotiating an armistice with the Turks. In 1580 Philip
ascended the throne of Portugal, intensifying his plans for
war with England, which he attacked in 1588, only to be
defeated.
For their part, the Turks turned to central Europe, where
they already controlled large areas of Hungary, threatening
the Holy Roman Empire. On 28 October 1595 the Turks
were defeated in the battle of Giurgiu and their expansion
was halted.
The existing political climate enabled the Jews to promote

A 15th-century woodcut depicting

characters from different nations.
On the right is a Jew.

'%.

London

Don

H0 l Y

... ...Mainz

Breslau .
ROMAN

Paris

Atlantic

immigration to the Holy Land and revitalize the Jewish population there. Within the Ottoman Empire Jews engaged in
international trade, particularly with Europe. Philip II of Spain
even suspected them of both covertly and overtly supporting
Turkish expansion, suspecting the Jewish exiles from Spain
who had settled in large numbers in Ottoman-dominated
European territories of collusion. Refugee communities were
established in many towns in the Balkan Peninsula, the Turks
encouraging their residence in important centers. Thus, for
example, Jews were ordered to settle in Constantinople
after its conquest by the Turks in 1453. In Salonika the
Spanish, Portuguese and Italian refugees joined the indigenous
Romaniots and the more recently arrived Ashkenazic Jews
(1470). The communal organization in Salonika was of a
special character, each immigrant group forming its own
congregation (kahal kadosh) named after its native country
or town. At the height of its development the city had thirty
such congregations.

Regensburg.

Kiev

..

EMPIRE

Ocean

FRANCE

Avignon

.........
.....
$)
-..J

Lisbon.

......... .

.0'

.Madrid

Q::

~ :'

SPAtN

Granada

TarVer.

Oran

@l.4SJ Ottoman conquest, with date

Ottoman empire in 1451

Conquest of Muhammad II
Conquests till 1520
Conquests of Suleiman the MagnifICent. 15201566
Conquests till 1683
Suleiman I the Magnificent

88

..

THE JEWS OF THE

BALKAN PENINSULA

ArrMlI of
Ashkenazi
Jew. who

inmigrated
during
Reformation

Blae k

c=='---------!\)aI"lbe

Sea

Sixteenth Century

7.

and re/igjouo

ONicopdis

wan.

SO,OOO Jew.

Pleven

reside in city;

6.

estabIioh 44
.

.Sliven

.Sofia
Samokov

"CONGREGATIONS" (SYNAGOGUES)
IN SALONlKA, 16TI-1 CENTURY

Mid 16th
QInI.-About

Yambol

*Ar"g6n
Ashker=i
Astruc

. Phiippopolis

~ Adrianople
15aa, @
Dhidhim6tikhon .
is/.
.SidhirokastTon
Rodosto.
Istan6;lllsSS
.se,. . KavaJla
(Constantinople)

Pazardzhik
Ohrid
.
@Monastir

FIorina

v.,

Kastoria

Taranto
Otranto

otuu ill

SaIonika

erOla

1HASOS

5.

Chalcis
lepanto . Thebes.
@Patras
. Athens

. 0
ChioL IZITUT...

le,~
in Amasya.

Baalei Teshuva - 'Community of the Penitent'

Calabria (Old)
Castile
*Castile (Expulsion)
Catalonia
*Catalonia (Expulsion)

l_

@/ ms
Brusa

G"lIipoli
Balikesir
Magnesia

LESBOS

9.

2.

Corfu

1522-Alt~
c~uestol ioIand,

. Borlu

Etz Hawim (or Etz Hada'at)

Evora
Ishmael
Italy
*Lisbon (Old and New)
Majorca (Baalei Teshuva)
Midrash (Castile)

ISO Jewiah famllies

bro~1I here from

SaIoriika; contribute
to developing

Tyrrha
important
Ephesus.
@ . NazilU eommercial
Island also _center.
K~

Corinth

as lYan$it station for

t:::::r"nls to Holy

NeotHen
Otranto
Portugal (New)
Provence
*Pugliese
Shalom (or Neve Shalom)
Sicily (Old)
Sicily (New)
Spain (Expulsion)

ORhodes

Mediterranean
50

Sea

100

'km.

Candia

CRETE

o Torah center

* Large Congregation

PALESTINE UNDER
OTTOMAN RULE
Sixteenth Century
Ein TIraya .
KaIr Vasif.
PeIo!m
Ac~ J~'
_C~
':
Kefar Nahum- - Beths..ida
Kabul
Mitzpeh- lAJw
Shefaram- S a f ed Migdal Kimerel
- Tiberias
KaIr eanaKt:n Kadesh ............... .
el Tujar

Mediterranean
Sea

EnG~.

:a~

. .. . ...

(Jerun).........
-.' :

.. .

Jew. in Safed 1M! in their own

quarten; in Shechem and

JeruoaIom in mixed quarten.

Four IlIhnic ~po

.........

.xit"
M....'",.,. (native born), .

A j l un

Maahrebio (from North """""" ,

AsIikenazinI and $ephudim

(refugees from expulaione).

N a bl us
1.
1516-Tutkioh Sultan

~.!...G<>nquen

Nablus
'"

....
... .... .......

'"

2.
l522- T.......
relata oll,570
""""(300
famaios) IiIq in

RamIe

............. .

.'

K erak

city.

. JerusaJem
~.

...... ':"'"

.~ 'I

Je r usa l em

;.-"

FE

' . ;'

' '.~.

" ,.'

......

Tombstone of Samuel son of Yoel

ibn Shuaib from the Aragonese
congregation in Salonika.

. Gan

..

'

. Hebron

.'
......... ..... ... .....

"

Boundary eX 5aJ1ak (province)

89

dlqitalia
c
'11':'1'01'

gila

il J3

MAJOR TRADE ROUTES Sixteenth to Seventeenth Centuries

~"ube

Sea
CORSICA

SARDINIA

Ankara

Important

commerc~

port,
particularly
""th decline
of Venice at
end of 17th
'-'c-"'en..;.;.I.__---'SICII.Y

Tunis-

Palras

\,
\

lzmir "

Tyrrha

'9..:

~/es

Aleppo

5
Ordonances promulgated

CYPRUS

to stimulate cOI'TU1lerce.

Mediterranean

' 'I .

Fay:'Sla

Center of wholesale trade.

Sdon

Sea

Tripoli
- Beirul

Da~us

Alexandria - " ~

Ca' . ....t>~

...

Ottoman army Janizaries

from the 16th century.

.00

lro

f~ ~

1!9!11

~==~~~~~.----------------------------------~,--~~--~

IMMIGRATION TO THE HOLY lAND Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries

The instability stemming from frequent changes of rule in

Palestine, the harassment encountered there by Jews, and
the heavy taxation imposed upon them all failed to deter
Jews immigrating to the country. The immigration wave of
the sixteenth century brought new life to the local Jewish
population that is described in the accounts left by pilgrims.
The Jews resided in a few towns, chiefly Jerusalem, Safed,
Tiberias and in some agricultural villages in Galilee. For
hundreds of years the Jews of Italy played a special role
in strengthening Palestine's Jews by direct support to the
communities and by serving as a transit station en route
for the immigrants.
Some of the refugees from Spain as well as kabbalists
came in the hope of imminent redemption.
Safed of the sixteenth century had an established and
growing Jewish community and was the home of many great
scholars, among them Jacob (I) Berav, Joseph Caro and
Moses Trani. In 1548, nineteen hundred taxpaying families,
of whom 716 were Jewish, lived in the town.
In 1560 Dona Gracia Mendes-Nasi obtained concessions in
Tiberias from the sultan (confirmed and extended for Joseph
Nasi, her nephew, in 1561), intending to rebuild the town and
reestablish the Jewish community. Joseph Nasi ordered the

reconstruction of the town's walls (completed in 1565) and

the planting of mulberry trees for the silk industry. A call was
issued to Jewish communities in the Mediterranean basin
inviting them to settle in Tiberias and the entire community
of Cori (south of Rome) made preparations to emigrate.
After Joseph Nasi's death in 1579 the Tiberias venture was
continued by; Solomon Abenaes (Ibn Yaish) a Portuguese
converso statesman, wealthy merchant and successor of
Joseph Nasi at the Turkish court in Constantinople.
The decline in the seventeenth century of the Jewish
population in the Holy Land in general and in Galilee in
particular reflected the erosion of the Ottoman Empire during
this period. The Jewish community of Safed was severely
affected by the continuing wars between the Ottoman rulers
and the Druzes of Lebanon, as well as by epidemics and
a plague of locusts. Despite attempts at reconstituting the
Safed community in the 1720s, it never regained its sixteenthcentury status and glory. The center of gravity shifted to
Jerusalem. Rabbi Isaac ha-Kohen Sholal (Sola)), the last
nagid in Mamluk Egypt from 1502, settled in Jerusalem
in 1517. The beginning of the seventeenth century saw a
stream of immigrants to Jerusalem, particularly from Italy.
The distinguished rabbi, Isaiah b. Abraham ha-Levi Horowitz

90

dlqitaila
'/,\'iN

Cgi l" u JS

IMMIGRATION ROUTES TO THE HOLY LAND

RUSSIA

GERMANY
HUNGARY

.'
"

.......

.... .'
WA l l

CH I ...

soc..,

.''':.;.~- ...... ~-

a n

~~

T~"
I

,,,

,
,,
,

(called ha-Shelah ha-Kadosh), settled in Jerusalem in 1622.

There was a unique upsurge of support for the Jews

,,

I
BeIrut. Jtl

,,
I

T","

of Palestine among Protestants, especially in England and

Holland , concurrent with a wave of renewed assistance by
the Jewish Diaspora, especially for Jerusalem. The Jews of
Italy and the Low Countries IAlTe particularly generous.

For many generations the Jews in the Holy Land were

dependent upon the financial support of the Diaspora, brought
by travelers or immigrants via treacherous routes, often at

great risk to their lives. However, such support was inadequate, and the local community was forced to send emissaries
known as shadarim (from sheJuhei de-rabbanan) out to the

entire Diaspora, east and west, to procure contributions.

The despatch of these emissaries attested to the close ties
between the Jews of the Diaspora and those of the Holy
Land.

~U'"lIlY wa->~~ ?ft' ~ ~1P $) ~ .,,\IoOWI ""P,'1a91J

"J ,,..'"

!>~., ~l'>)u ""r' "'" I-'~"'],,, ,,). \"" ",,;a..J/"" ..."J,."""

., ;u., '1 "'.:Jo'..? tJ.,) ~ ~rt.ob u. k ""\)..w.J:JI./IJ ~

Signature of R. David ben limn!! (the RaDBaZJ.

Co~ 01 Tor<'Jh Scroll

from Damascus 1565.
Incised copper with
silver decoration.

9'

digitalia

.1'111 C It

EMISSARIES FROM THE HOLY LAND TO THE DIASPORA

to Seventeenth Centuries
RUSSIA

'"
.. ".
____KUIIDIST
Ill

AIgier'1Il

-----:~~=- -- ------------

Or~nm----

ID---------- -----~~-------------

---

III Baghdad

MOIIOCCO

,,..

ALG Ell 1010

,,

,
\
"<
"<

,..

Emissaries:

From Sale<!
From T<beriaa
F~_

\ .

t!J 8th-11th cents.

141h151h cents.
ID l61h-17th cents.

[IJ

....

From Hebron

..

..... YEMEN

IN NORTH AFRICA

~~

JEWISH COMMUNITIES :

T"",

TUNISI ...

Fifteenth to Sixteenth
Centuries

" " -'

Touilourt
0...;.'

IN THE EGYPTIAN DELTA

s

Medilerraneiln
Abu Qi.. Rashid

RELATIONS WITH THE RADBAZ

ITALY

Venice.
CHUR CH

Zift~ MlI Ghamr

...... .....
''''''''
z:,.,;,

. .

lsUinbul

K~ni;I

8RamIa

00.15

.TripoIi

. El KhaMa
Abu QiT

... o..ma.:...

PEIIS, ...

~m

" "....... . .
G~

Giu

Ham~

R....,

EGVPT

TUIIIEY

{Canea)"'ea':"lHUS

~ub Cairo

s...

SaIonib
GREECE

INDIA

t.

,lAUIA

Community that 1m!

.. Town wher~

~D&Z

"'.MIl (quation) 10
raided and from wIvr..

he ~tched his rnponsa

92

digitalia

'ltllil C It

KABBALISTS AND KABBALISTIC CENTERS

Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries

POLAND

RUSSIA

.....

....

.::..

.............

"~'

.;

:'

..

.:) ':'
~ ",

.(

SPAIN

o ':'

GIIUel

NOTED KABBAUSTS OF SAFED

Kabbalists before

Ike Im e of lhe Ali

(Isaac b. Solomon
Lum )

The persecutions of 1391 in Spain and the subsequent events,

culminating in the Expulsion of 1492, made a deep impression
upon the kabbalislS of the period and resulted in farreaching
changes in kabbalistic thought. The problem of redemption
was heightened. particularly because hopes that the Messiah
would come in 1492 (based on lhe passage in Job 38:7 "When

the morning stars sang together" - the numerical value

of the Hebrew word, "bron," for "sung" is 1492) proved
baseless. The messianic frustration and the catastrophe of
expulsion precipitated a soul searching by the kabbalists.
Two books by anonymous authors, published about 1500,
were particularly significant : SeIer haMeshiv, a commentary
on the Pentateuch, and Kaf haKetoret, a commentary on
the book of Psalms. The authors attempted to highlight the
apocalyptic meaning of every word in the Sible. There were
"seventy modes of expounding the Torah" (Num. R. 13:15)
and each generation had its own mode; thus it was expulsion
and redemption that occupied their generation, proving to
be a particularly dominant theme in Kaf haKetoret, which
ex pressed the new weltanschauung of Sated kabbalists and
was founded on messianic eschatology.
In the kabbalistic center of Sated, outstanding personalities
were: Moses b. Jacob Cordovero, author of Tomer Devorah;
Elijah b. Moses de Vidas, author of Reshit Hokhmah; Eleazar

h . Moses Azikri, author of Sefer H aredim; Hayyim b. Joseph

Vital, author of Sha 'arei Kedushah; Joseph b. Ephraim Caro,
author of the Shulhan Arukh, one of the great halakhists of
all time, who apparently met Solomon Molcho, kabbalist and
pseudo-messiah, in Salonika and was so deeply impressed
by him that when Mokho was martyred at the s take in
Mantua in 1532, Caro also expressed a desire to meet a
martyr's death. Caro wrote a mystK:.aI diary called Maggid
Mesharim in which he recorded messages revealed to him
by a "heavenly mentor" (maggid'). Another kabbalist living
in Safed was Solomon b . Moses haLevi Alkabez . Born in
1505 in Salonika, he studied with the greatest of its rabbis,
Joseph Taitazak. Around 1535 he settled in Sated, where
he died in 1584. A1kabez is the author of the piyyut L ekhah
lJodj, a hymn welcoming the Sabbath that is woven out of
strands of kabbalistic imagery expressing messianic yearning
for redemption. Another personality active in the Holy Land
was the Hebrew poet,lsrael b. Moses Najara (1555?-1625?).
Born in Damascus he settled in Gaza around 1587, serving
as a rabbi until his death.
The outstanding kabbalist of the sixteenth century was
Isaac b. Solomon Luria, known as haAri . He was born in
1534 and was active in Safed from about 1569 until his death
in 1572. Luria's originality is in his pioneering conception o f
the theoretical aspect of kabbalah and its permeation with
messianic eschatology. In Safed he gathered around him a
group of disciples who subsequently expounded, expanded
and propagated his teachings. Midsixteenth-century Safed
was like thirteenth-century Gerona as a center of theoretical
kabbalah.

93

dlgitalia

THE KARAITES

NOVGOROD
2.
16th cenl.- Young

Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries

Karaites sent to

Is tanbul to study;

".

relum as communit)l

leaders .
~

....

Sanctuary of the Sovereign, city of peers,

Arise from your ruin,
Too long have you languished in the valley of tears,
The merciful Lord will have pity on you.
No longer shall you be shamed or humiliated
Why are you downcast and disquieted?
The needy of My people shall find shelter in Zion,
And the city shall be rebuilt on its mound.

"0 " , "

End of 1 h ent .DevelOpment of lite,uy

activity. Isaac b. Abraham
of T rokl wrife.s ",nit
Chris~n polemic. Hizzuk
Emurni(!.

(,)

.........
HOLY
ROMAN
EMPIRE

From Lekhah Dodi ("Come My Beloved" by Solomon Alkabez.

.........
Krasnystaw LUisI< .

lelO

t--= t-

200

I km .

Derazhnya
I.

Lvov. /
..l .. .. .:~.. :.......... ....... .

....

.......... :

HUNGARy

' Galich

...

:............

Area of Karaite settlement

JEWISH PRINTERS AND ADMISSION OF JEWS TO UNIVERSITIES

Fifteenth to Seventeenth Centuries
About twenty years after Johann Gutenberg developed a new
method of printing and printed his forty-two-line Bible in 1455,
there are verified accounts of Jewish printers printing books in
Hebrew. Books printed before 1501 are known as incunabula
and at present there are 175 extant editions of books printed
with Hebrew letters. These deal with the whole Bible or
various parts of it, biblical commentaries, tractates of the
Babylonian Talmud, prayer books, Passover haggadot, and
books on the halakhah. Italy was the cradle of Jewish printing
in the fifteenth century with presses operating in at least
eleven towns including Piove di Sacco and Reggio di Calabria,
1475; Mantua, 1476; Soncino, 1483; and Brescia, 1491. Jewish
printing continued in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
with presses operating in Venice, Cremona and Sabbioneta.
Both Jewish and non-Jewish craftsmen contributed to the
development of Hebrew printing.
Spain was the next largest center for Jewish printers and
their presses. In 1476 Solomon b. Moses Alkabez (grandfather
of the Kabbalist Solomon Alkabez) established a press in
Guadalajara and Eliezer Alantansi in Hijar in Arag6n in 1485;
one was set up in Zamora in 1487. For Portugal there are
extant incunabula attesting to printing presses in Lisbon in
1473; in Faro in 1487 operated by Eliezer Toledano the
printer; and in Leiria in 1492 operated by the printers Samuel
D'Ortas and sons.
Constantinople had one incunabulum, Arba ~ Turim by
Jacob b. Asher, completed in December 1493 by the printers

Printers in the 16th century.

94

David and Samuel ibn Nahmias.

In the sixteenth century presses were established in other
Jewish centers such as Prague (1512), Salonika (1513), Fes
(1516) and Augsburg (1533). Amsterdam became an important center for Hebrew printing in the seventeenth century,
after Manasseh ben Israel established the first press in 1626.
Christian printers were also active in printing Hebrew
texts both for Jewish and non-Jewish clients; such presses
operated in Basle (1516) and Lyons (1520).

UNIVERSITIES
The medieval universities founded in the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries were naturally closed to Jews, since their curriculum
was largely theologically oriented. The few "Jews" who were
able to attend these universities were apostates. The universities of Oxford, Paris and Salamanca established faculties
for the study of Hebrew and Judaica, particularly for men
studying to be priests. Medicine was one of the few subjects
that interested Jews, but few places were open to them.
Eventually a number of Jews were able to c;tudy medicine at
the University of Padua. At the beginning of the seventeenth
century a larger number succeeded in gaining admission to
Dutch universities, particularly Leiden.
In Spain the conversos were able to study at many of
the universities until the end of the fifteenth century, when
a number of universities limited the intake of conversos,
thus compelling some of them to obtain forged documents
attesting to their Christian ancestry. The University of Salamanca established a faculty of Hebrew in 1314 and when the
University of Alcala de Henares was founded in 1509 some
conversos were admitted. However, the major converso
admittance into universities was in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, some of them even attained high status.
The Inquistion kept a close watch on university students,
fearing the spread of heretical ideas.

I
I
I

ISsa

Printers' mark of Gershom

b. Moses Soncino, one of
the most famous and prolific
Jewish printers of Hebrew
and non-Hebrew books.
active between 1489-1534.

149111l Br~
Yerona
Soncino.", IS91te-

I
I

148J'IoI

Oxford

I56J

1516

AmIt~

ISSI

IS09!b

110

Pans-- 1669 ", Sulzbac~

IS09~ Strasbourg "
I Sal ~ FreiburJl.

I::: L~a

Lisbon.

.. . ca
1118

Guadalajara 1Il1476 --Hijar 141S

147J
AIcaIiI Henares
1S09
1290
SPAIN

de

. Faro

frasue

Forth 111
", 1691

J48

Namberg ~ IS99

" "'II IS40

Zurich 1S16

1J64
100

!IO

tun.

IUJ
_-- - --

_---------------------------------_--------.Ortona
Naples

------------------ -

~ 1S18

DMu~

ISSJ~

Sea

ck

II

Adrianople . .
14U
ISIJ~SaIonikt
Istanbul

1487

OTTOMAN

Osuna "

1487

~ISl4
I

1476
10as

1S07 \!Pesaro.
ISOJ\! Plana

t3/

I C 61!:DRome. <~
1487

Po

ISlI ~ Rirnn.

IsnYJ1I Augsburg

1J46

~Iaman

Leiria

1492

Bologna.

,/

tlan

FRANCE 1S16

Ferrara .

.Venice ta lS16

"Padua
147S ~PIowdeSacco

t~

8asIe

....Valladolid

1476l!l.Mantua

Sab~ 1477

1697 " BetIin I

ISH 1101"\--- .
. F~ ~IS9S
1696"' .........U
IIoL' .Le...
1656
GERMANY . .
ISSO'lj """".
ISlJ~AnIwerJ:~ ISI8
. LeIJlZl9 ISH
161 0
IS Il CraJW
IS Il ~ Frankfurt ...

1160.

Zamora

IS62
1121

Leideneo-:

. _ .. __

L.UlIUUI.

1487

~Ha'l'btll'S

Cr~

IS56

Copenhagen"1606 , /

1616 "

Trento .

1S7J
116 7

~ Rivil d

EMPIRE
Izmir 1Il149J

IS 16

Med iterra ne an

F";

~ " 160S

MOROCCO

S ea

III
\!

"
1487

!!I ISS7

Sated

Printing press founded between 1469 1499

Pmting press founded between lSOO-1599
Printing press founded between 1600-1700
University where COfIWITSOS studied
(with date of foundation)
200

ERElZ
ISRAEl
ISS7\!

Cairo

EGYPT

400

tun.

...

THE JEWS OF ITALY Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries

The history of the Jews in Italy in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries is as complex as that of the two preceding
centuries. The Italian Peninsula was fragmented into many
states, between which constant rivalry played an important
part in both the establishment of new Jewish communities
and in the expulsion of Jews and and their constant emigration. Jewish emigrants from Germany, most of whom
settled in northern Italy, as well as refugees from Spain and
Portugal, among them conversos who reverted to Judaism,
were assimilated by the Italian Jewish communities. Each
group of immigrants brought with it customs and traditions
of communal organization which they reestablished and
continued to practice for many generations in their new
communities, quite distinct from one another.
The Jewish fate in sixteenth-century Italy was one of expulsions from various towns and areas. Persecutions, as in
Spain, were uniformly applied in the Spanish-ruled territories
of southern Italy. After Spain took control of Milan and
northern Italy, it was extended to these areas as well. In
the 1570s Spain exerted its influence upon Savoy and its
environs. With regard to the Jews, Spain was concerned

about the rise of Islam and the expansion of the Ottoman

Turks and saw the Jews as collaborators with the Turks.
Philip II of Spain, who succeeded in uniting the kingdoms
of Spain and Portugal in 1580, was particularly troubled by
this matter, seeing himself as the protector of Christianity
against its external enemies and guardian of the faith against
internal heresy.
Internal power struggles in sixteenth-century Italy and external pressures also affected the popes, some of whom (particularly popes Julius II, 1503-1513, and Leo X, 1513-1521)
were patrons of the arts. They encouraged and supported
artists, philosophers and architects, and transformed their
domains into centers of culture. Others, assisted by the
Inquistion, supported the persecution and expulsion of Jews.
During the papacy of Leo X (Giovanni de' Medici) Rome
blossomed, its population increased from forty to ninety
thousand, the Jewish community also grew. Elijah (Bahur)
Levita, Hebrew philologist, grammarian and lexicographer,
lived and worked in Rome from 1514 to 1527.
The papacies of Julius III (1550-1555) and Paul N
(1555-1559) were years of grief and suffering for the Jews

95

HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE

........:

....
.. .....
,.t/.ila n

,.savoy

~ 1 59 7

.... 1 5 7 5

:"
: " .:
.'

.... ,.

'"

. e~

~o

"

...

OTTOMAN
EMPIRE

~\.

~'

~S 7 5

" 'r, t"

Bronze Italian Hanukkah lamp

from 16th century showing
the lily of Florence.
Order to burn books (12 Aug. 1553)
Expulsion of Jews, with date
II Printing press
~
Auto de Fe during papacy of Julius II
l'".'o,1 Papal States
Republic of Venice
~ Republic of Genoa
Spanish domain

~ 15 75

500

100

I km

of Italy. Paul N revived the Inquisition and was the author

of the bull Cum nimis absurdum ("because it is absurd") of 14
July 1555, which determined the official attitude of the church
toward the Jews. The bull decreed the segregation of Jews
into separate streets or quarters (ghettos) and the wearing
of a yellow badge and hat. On 30 April 1556 he ordered
the arrest of the Conversos who had come from Portugal
and settled in Ancona. An inquisition tribunal sentenced
fifty of them; twenty-four were burned at the stake. Dona
Gracia Nasi and her nephew Joseph Nasi, former conversos,
attempted to intervene on behalf of those condemned to the
stake by organizing a boycott of the port of Ancona and
transferring commerce to nearby Pesaro. The boycott was
unsuccessful but the attempt was significant as an instance
of exertion of Jewish power through the use of economic
sanctions against Christian authorities. The policies of Pope
Gregory XIII (1572-1585) toward the Jews were less severe.
Despite their hardships, the Jews of Italy continued to
maintain an active community life and even increased their
support of the Jews of the Holy Land.

96

THE JEWISH GHETTO IN VENICE

Sixteenth Century

THE TRAVELS OF DAVID REUVENI

10.
Summer J.532-ReuwnI
and MoIcho !"Mel willi
JoMph 01 RoIhIim and
Charla V. Both arTeIIecI
and ....,1 10 Mantua .........

........

MoIcho is rMrtyIed al
etak.

Loire

Atlantic

HOLY

FRANCE

o c e an

~Q'"

SARDINIA

<o"t-

S "'\.. "v.

,c \

Mediterranean

Sea

SICILY

"" Places visiled by David Reuveni

In 1524-1525, shortly after Palestine was conquered by

Sultan Selim, David Reuveni appeared from the east and
proposed the grandiose scheme of organizing a JewishChristian military campaign against the Ottoman Empire,
which was threatening Christianity. His plan called for Pope
Clement VII to make peace between the Emperor Charles
V and King Francis I of France, and then to give him a
letter of recommendation to the emperor of Ethiopia. The
combined forces would execute a flanking military campaign
against the Ottoman Empire while the Jews of Habor, led
by Reuveni's brother, would join the forces and conquer
Palestine. The plan was based upon the belief that the soldiers
of Habor were brave warriors who lacked only weapons for
their assured victory.
It is important to note that this plan was proposed by a
Jew to the Christian world for a war against the Ottomans
who, after conquering Palestine, opened their gates to Jewish
and converso refugees from Spain. Reuveni relates in his
diary that the pope found the plan plausible but said he was
unable to make peace between Charles V and Francis I,
who was at that time negotiating for a treaty with the Turks.
The pope referred Reuveni to John III, king of Portugal,

..

'

_
' ...

-s- ... Knaybar

17~

'" Medina
2.

Jedda
..,/.

NUBIA

~~

....L, (

Khartoum

-,

A SIR

\ i .. 0:......
. \

Massawa

( nnar
Autograph of
Solomon Molcho. ~----E=~~7''-----'

Suakm .

~Mecca

o tOO 200
~ km.

~ETHIOP~
leila

SHEBA

97

giving him a letter of recommendation. In referring Reuveni

to Portugal, the pope no doubt wished to rely on Portuguese
experience of voyages and discovery. In particular, he may
have borne in mind their reputation for voyages to the east,
perhaps thinking that they might operate from their overseas
colonies or from places discovered in their voyages around
Africa. However, doubt has been cast on this supposition
by a non-Jewish source. A letter by Marco Foscari, the
Venetian representative in Rome, written on 13 March 1524
(while Reuveni was still in Rome) states that it was Reuveni
who suggested the visit to Portugal.
Reuveni requested and also received a second letter to the
emperor of Ethiopia, from which we learn that he promised
the pope his loyalty to the Holy See and the Christian world
if his plan succeeded. His appearance before the king of
Portugal had a resounding effect upon the con versos, one
of whom, Diogo Pires, inspired by Reuveni, returned to
Judaism, circumcised himself and took the Hebrew name of
Solomon Molcho.
Solomon probably spent some time studying kabbalah in
Salonika, where he possibly met Joseph Caro, who was
greatly impressed by Molcho. Returning to Italy in 1529 he
was by then convinced he was the Messiah. In 1530 he
appeared before Pope Clement VII, who recognized him as
a visionary, after he correctly predicted the Tiber's flooding

of Rome in 1530. The strange appearance of David Reuveni

and Solomon Molcho jointly and severally before pope and
kings, the pt;Otection proffered by the pope - particularly to
Molcho (considering that he was a converso who returned to
Judaism) - and their combined mission to Emperor Charles
V is food for thought. It is difficult to determine whether
this was a messianic phenomenon linked to a political plan,
for this was the period of eschatological fervor. Even a
personality like Don Isaac Abrabanel had calculated the year
of redemption, first 1503 and then 1531, as the year for
the coming of the Messiah.
David Reuveni and Solomon Molcho were arrested by
order of Charles V. Reuveni imprisoned, died in an inquistion
prison in Spain (in the town of Uerena) while Molcho died
as a martyr at the stake. Despite their tragic end, the fact
that Jews were able to negotiate openly with heads of state
is most significant. If we examine this fact in conjunction
with the activities of former conversos during the sixteenth
century, we may perhaps gain some insight into the origin of
the new ideas and weltanschauung in Jewish thinking. There
is no doubt that they were fully acquainted with the political
climate and balance of power within Christianity and the rest
of the world and were therefore able to present a plausible
case to the heads of state. The appearance of David Reuveni
caused a great stir amongst Jews and conversos.

EMIGRATION OF CONVERSOSFROM PORTUGAL

Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries

8.

r-

Glllckatadt e

de

~mpostela

r'.-

,...

Convene. t1IftI in Madrid

(l)

(:
...

Be ir a

.,:

'.

our?* .:

Casielo~.... ""

Branco \ . TejO

'

IL~z

Serpa..

....

search em;g,w,ta to
prewnt II1\U!IIIir1g ohold.
and 1iIwr. and r.corcf their

'.

.
"':

.'., .'

(j,) . :
Faro(j,), Tawa
,

Center of Messianic movement

Major COnverso community

..

Customs post

11> Port

98

SARONA

I==~

Castro Marim
6.

,":

".0-:'

.:STAT18OF

CORSICA

"

.'.

': ...

;THE

,-,des=tina=IiOns.;;;,;
.;;;;....._ _--.J

Alga r Ve\ (
lagos (l)

..

,', "

leave. Custom ctficiaIa

Alentej O ~

.':

.'.

r
Campo Maio.". '.'......
Mou~

'.

-.,.-~..,

bonb-!businaoa

alter Belgium'.
annexation to Gonnany.
1529- CoIll/erlOe
fo<bIdden to enter
city; !hoM aIrudy In

L..:.to::...;P;,;;;Bm;;.;:pbia=;;.;..
. _ _.....- '

Arronch)

Serubal

in ..... , _ ......~

: GERMANY

1.

o
lisbon(l) Q,.

.;:, Mogad

them to ...... country.

Freixo .. 5
Almeida .. ':
Nov. 163G- Conv.rooo

~
1601-02-P'hiiD m
~ 200,000 ducats
from c:onwnae; ........

'.

Douro ~;'. and

leave in omaD groupo; _
taken along "king'. ~

TMonte
0' - -:.::.
. , .. .'.,

"

7.

* :..

nda
MIra

....,

;'.
.:

l52G-Convene. MItIe .'

residence expelled.

ragan~ .

V...na (l) Minh 0

Ocean

~+
I...

londOn

Ii)
-"noon " J~
Antwerp
~ ;' ~

~.

.......v. Man~
. ......

Atlantic

Amster~
3.

Rotterdam ,!lit

Bnstolfi)

Satiago

of embarkation

:"

0"

<;~URCH

".

THE READMISSION OF JEWS

TO ENGLAND; CONVERSO DISPERSION
Seventeenth Century

North

6.

Sea

3.

4.

. Pans

f RANC E

100

200

One of the outcomes of the Expulsion of Jews from Spain

was a Sephardic diaspora within the existing Diaspora - a
new reality in the history of the Jews. Those expelled
settled and established communities in many places in the
countries of the Mediterranean basin, particularly in the
domains of the Ottoman Empire. In due course, these
communities absorbed the indigenous Jewish communities,
transplanting their communal organization from Spain. However, the refugees from Spain were not alone in establishing
the new Sephardic communities. At the beginning of the sixteenth century the first refugees from the forced conversions
in Portugal in 1497 joined the newly established Sephardic
communities, after first forming communities of their own.
From the sixteenth century these new Jewish communties
were joined by conversos who had succeeded by various
means and routes in escaping from the Iberian peninsula. By
the mid-sixteenth century many conversos settled in Jewish
centers in France and in the Low Countries. They were the
first Jews to settle in Amsterdam toward the end of the
sixteenth century, as well as in Hamburg and GlOckstadt at
the beginning of the seventeenth century.
Manasseh ben Israel (1604-1657) was a man of considerable
achievements who undertook to work for the readmission of
Jews to England, believing in its messianic significance (to
scatter the Jews to "the end of the earth" [Deut 28:64], the
medieval Hebrew for Angk-Terre). He was also interested
in the reported discovery in South America of the Ten
Lost Tribes. In 1655 Manasseh negotiated unsuccessfully
with Oliver Cromwell for the formal readmission of Jews to
England. However, in 1656 the small converso community

km.

Petition from Manasseh Ben Israel (first signator) and six Jews living in
London to Oliver Cromwell, requesting permission to conduct services
in their homes. 24 March 1655/6.

was allowed to live openly as Jews, thus de facto renewing

the community that had been expelled in 1290.
The conversos of Spain and Portugal who continued in
secret to observe the precepts of the Torah had powerful
spiritual resources. During the years 1499 to 1502 a turbulent
messianic movement developed, based on the anticipation of
- and expressing the yearning for - the coming of Elijah
and the Messiah, both of whom would both lead the Jews
to the Promised Land. Among the leaders of the movement
were two "prophetesses": Maria G6mez of ChiD6n and Ines,
the twelve-year old daughter of the shoemaker Juan ~teban
from the town of Herrera. The remembrance of their Judaism
sustained the conversos for hundreds of years until they
were able to cast off their disguise and openly join #ewish
communities and profess and practice their religion.
In the 1630s, Jacob Cansino (d. 1666), the Jewish interpreter of the governor of Algeria, negotiated with the countduke of Olivares (1587-1645), prime minister of Philip IV of
Spain, for the return of Jews to Spain and the founding of
a community in Madrid. Although the plan was foiled by
the Inquisition, it is significant that the prime minister was
prepared to give serious consideration to Cansino's private
proposal.
During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Sephardi
Jews developed a wide range of economic activities which
included distant voyages of trade to the Far East and the
New World. The Jews and conversos expelled from Spain
developed a particular spiritual tradition that reached its
peak in Holland with the works of Juan Prado, Baruch
Spinoza, Isaac Orobio De Castro and Daniel Levi De Barrios.
99

AREA OF JEWISH SETILEMENT IN

THE CITY OF LONDON

JEWISH COMMUNITIES IN ALSACE

Seventeenth Century

"........ _.0 ..:0._

FRANCE

E\oo.oN.k
En_

Os-n. Lo W
AI

~~~~fl

. '.

! -- ,~

GERMANY
Upper
Alsace

.........

...-

l!$. Bel Midrash (Semmry)

o ~h

cemetery

Printer's mark
of Manasseh Ben Israel.

JEWISH COMMUNITIES IN HOLLAND

Seventeenth Century

IELGIUM

Tombstone of David Israel Mendez

in the Ouderke rk cemetery near
Amsterdam.

Document of
e..;communicalion
pronounced upon
Baruch SpinoUi.

100

digitalia

'ltl'lll C ~It.

MAJOR VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY AND SPHERES OF DOMINION IN

THE NEW WORLD

.....

JEWISH SETTLEMENT IN AMERICA

_
_

Portuguese voyage
Under Portuguese control
Under Spanish control
_
Under Dutch control
Under English control
~ Under French control

Seventeenth Century

5.
Starting 1655-Jewioh
communities formed in
Er9ish coIonieo 0/ Jamaica

Ocean

and 8aJbado&; Jews f!I1ia'I

freedom 0/ trade and
eslabliohsynagogues.

Pacific
Ocean

...,

'000

km.

The Santa Maria, Columbus' flagship

on his voyage to the New World.

101

JEWISH SETTLEMENT IN INDIA Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries

Srinagar

K e.h m i r

1\(&

",Ill

Bengel
Calcutta

The Inquisition standard at Goa.

.Sura!

1.

IN 0 I A

.Bombay
Bay

01
Deccln
~

Bengal

_ _..-..Goa
6.

pnn.r!Y
/1~?':-1
In

... ,....

Fort SI. George

(Madras)

s.

CEYLON
In d ; if n

JEWISH PLANTATIONS IN SURINAM

y

-"
s.w._
a a

Do.oAharon
-.
SarfatyO a
a

1.

a
0

166S-First

DO

Peirson

Pereira'be Silva
Mesa o

a Elias Ely

o~bram

a
o

2.

,,("N~

o
o

a
aJoseph

kin. (Approx.)

Nasi

de Pina

0
0

a Lichtenberg

102

~~

J-.......
Nasi 0
VOK.,.l

I\IM8DIIU&.

y / ...l ~nd

aaa

Raphael Aboali

/tn:'
3.

00

00

o 100_
t::=:::iIIIttIt 11m.

Oceifn

Although Jewish and converso settlement in South American

colonies was forbidden, in the sixteenth century conversos
succeeded in gradually settling in the Spanish colonies of
Mexico and Peru. Occasionally the crown would permit entry
for commercial reasons and the conversos fully exploited
these opportunities to infiltrate and settle in Spanish and
Portuguese colonies. During the seventeenth century there
was an increase of immigrants to the New World; but significant Jewish settlement began in 1624 with the conquest
of the northern region of Brazil by the Dutch - a campaign
in which Jews participated - later settling in Pernambuco
and leading full Jewish lives. Following Dutch colonial expansion, Jews also settled in Carribean islands. The Jewish
community in Brazil was short-lived, dispersing after the
reconquest of the northern territories by the Portuguese in
1654. Some of the refugees arrived in the same year at New
Amsterdam, settling there despite the governor's opposition.
They were the first Jewish settlers in North America.

Conversos also reached India, settling chiefly in the Portuguese colony of Goa, which also had an active inquisition
tribunal. The converso commercial ties in the Far East
brought spices and precious gems to Europe.
Cochin in India had a Jewish community whose origin
and foundation date are uncertain. There are accounts of
Jews from Egypt and Aden trading with India and of Jewish
merchants who stayed on in the country for several years on
business. We also know that the Rambam's brother drowned
in the Indian Ocean (1169) while on a business trip.
The first news of a Jewish community in Kaifeng, China,
reached Europe in 1605 in a report from the Italian Jesuit
missionary, Matteo Ricci, who resided in Peking. Jewish merchants probably arrived in Kaifeng via Persia and Afghanistan
in the first quarter of the twelfth century.

The Dutch fleet anchored in Paralba (1640).

INQUISITION TRIBUNALS IN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL

4.

17 0..:.1-'14 Nov.
1491- TrW cI La o-aa:

6~1nd2"

<Medo.

RAN

MInIia-

burned at stake at Avia'

oller being accUMd 01

Narbonne-

I'I'OII'der ~ 0wiatiIn chid

whole body WIll ..........

found,

......

...................... .
:'"

'-

La

Val

'

:.~)~
inora. ~~

Porto

.,: ::;

"""

':

Salamanca

: C'
. ludad

:'

*1 14BPLia

....
JOZ

oeer

11""1417

115091

Cbrdoba

114821
Seville

Daroea *

\114981

Madnd

..."

118fhtenl!
TOftosa

Albanacin

A
Cuenca

Ilml

11488 1

CIIKIad Real

do Calatrava

5pnIh NIIiDnII

*Alcaraz I

~ Osuna

11481)'

i\

J="'v.....=-=-,...:c..-sc:
.,.."

~::

cI-.-...~

..-w 1IIInIetI1I ......-

UI~
__-a_lIIInll!l""""" III In

1149H4"

llllntplto . . an ~

Murcia
~Jal,"
;;t 114831

11415 1

.~~TN' )f~1

Toledo

Campo

BelalcAUlr
Llerena

Ilml

114')-1415

".'.
....

*Segovia
114901

11490 p

.Pu
tde

.. BacIa'

:.

* Avila
'

Calatayud

SigOenza

Ca~po
r.:;";71

Rodrigo

<~c:.na

dele

MedIna

*ArtvaIo

Granada

*Jerez de Ia Frontera

11495\

r.:;";71

t!!!!J

'00
,

100

Ian.

!to
,

tOO

'km,

The Inquisition organized its activities most methodically,

slowly spreading its network in Spain. A tribunal was founded
in Seville in 1481 and in C6rdoba in 1482; the tribunal whose
jurisdiction was over all Castile was at first located at Ciudad
Real (1483); later it moved to Toledo in 1485. Thus the
inquisition organized tribunals throughout the country, eventually extending its authority to the New World, first in Mexico
(1532), later founding tribunals in Cartagena (Colombia) and
in Lima (Peru). In Portugal the inquisition had three centers

~.Oran
ALGERIA

Permanent tnbunal .
WIth date of InstitutIOn
Temporary tribunal
Area where tribunal active
T ransfe. of tribunal

- Lisbon, Evora and Coimbra - and when it began its

activities against the conversos in Brazil, the Inquisition sent
visiting commissaries. In 1621 the first tribunal was founded
in Brazil in the Bahia district, but most of the suspects were
sent to Portugal for trial.
Both the Spanish and Portuguese inquisition tribunals persisted in persecuting the conversos who returned to Judaism,
even though they managed to leave the Peninsula and settle
in regions where the Inquisition did not function.

103

Tomas de Torquemada, first

head of the Spanish Inquisition.

10"~:"""D"," /Ob-~RX r~~'''''S::J.,nJ ,,,,:,?";;Jj"" b;I!"J11J~

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HEADS OF THE INQUISITION

"'/'I")

0/;

N~ ImrPlnhPLo

"':J1J1J1hli

Of,lP.,I"!1i'tS Ih"'r:J;t)N' ;J1J~-, iV":r!/lln:J ~/:I"'''r:-'

,'..1:.11 lJ""~/I"D.J' U,.j J,J,fi -,phitl, ,.,1,;1 "''''UI

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"11'"
1.--.n} lP.AJ..,.,/J n.tlIJ rill' 1,phl,J'''~ b ,p~ "PO"'I /S&-,I..
-p'ti' C'ftft tvP ,,.,J,U,I,.I"'!.I h~" ,J.Jj:) l P t$. ,b~.,np.,J1

V'mS ?!JilJiJJ

.,,,.;,

Tomas de Torquemada

1481- 1489

Diego Deza
Francisco Jim(mez de
Cisneros
Adrian of Utrecht
Alfonso Manrique
Juan Pardo de TAvira
Garcia de Loaysa

1498- 1506
1505- 1517
1517- 1522
1523- 1538
1538
1538- 1546

Fernando VaId~
Diego Espinosa

1546-1566
1566-1571

Pedro Ponce de Le6n

Gaspar de Quiroga
Jer6nimo Manrique de Lara
Pedro de Portocarrero
Fernando Nuno de Guevara

1571- 1573
1573- 1594
1594- 1595
1595-1599
1599-1602

Juan de ZUniga
Juan Bautista de Azevedo
Bernardo Sandoval y Rojas
Luis de Aliaga

1602- 1603
1603- 1607
1607- 1618
1618- 1625

Andr~ Pacheco
Antonio de Zapata

1621- 1625
1626-1643

Antonio de Sotomayor

1632-1643

Diego de Arce y Reinoso

Pascual de Arag6n

1643- 1665
1665-1666

Juan Eduardo Nithard

1666-1669

Diego Sarmiento de Valderas

1669-1694

Juan Tomas de Rocaberti

Alfonso Fernandez de
C6rdoba y Aguilar
Balthasar de Mendoza y
Sandoval
Vidal Marln
Antonio IbAilez de Ia Riva
Herrera
Francisco Giudici
Jose de Molinas
Juan de Arcemendi
Diego de Astorga y
Cespedes
Juan de Camargo
Andr~ de Urban y
l.aria tegui

1694- 1699
1699

Manuel Isidoro Manrique de

Lara
Franciso Perez de Pardo y
Cuesta
Manuel Quintana Bonifas
Felipe Beltran
Agustin Rubib de Celoallos
Manuel Abad y la Sierra
Francisco Antonio de
Lorenzano
Ram6n Jose de Arce
Francisco de Mier yl Campillo

Prior of Santa Cruz in

Segovia
Bishop of Palencia
Archbishop of Toledo
Cardinal; later Pope Adrian VI
Archbishop of Seville
Archbishop of Toledo
Cardinal; Father Confessor to
Charles V
Cardinal and Bishop of
SigUenza
Bishop of Plasencia
Archbishop of Toledo
Bishop of C6rdoba
Cardinal; Archbishop of
Seville
Bishop of Cartagena
Head of the Church in South
America
Cardinal; Archbishop of
Toledo; Adviser to the
Crown
Dominican; FatherConfessor
to Philip m
Cardinal; Archbishop of
Burgos; Head of the
Church in South America
Dominican; FatherConfessor
to King
Cardinal; Archbishop of
Toledo
German; Father-Confessor to
the Queen
Archbishop; Head of the
Council of Castile
Archbishop of Valencia

Bishop of Segovia

1705-17rB
1709-1710

Bishop of Ceuta
Archbishop of Saragossa

171(}-1716
1717- 1720
1720
1720

Italian priest

172(}-1733
1733- 1740
1742- 1758

Bishop of Pamplona
Archbishop of Valencia;
Chairman of Council of
Castile
Archbishop of Santiago

1745-1758

Bishop of Teruel

1797-1808

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oJ l"!I~i' 1l--':I
THE AMRAPHEL SCROLL
Sermon held by R. Abraham b. Eliezer haLevi exhorting Jews and Con
versos not to lose heart because of the persecutions. He advises those
tried to declare openly that they are Jews and not to be frightened when
put on trial. He alludes to the Auto-de-fes of the Inquisition. The sermon
is based on the Midrash Shir ha-Shirim Raba. The power of the person's
love of the Almighty is stronger than earthly fire.
j. . ("

By permission of the keeper of the Michael Collection, Bodleian Library,

Oxford.

INQUISITION TRIBUNALS IN ITALY

"

..... :\...

OTTOMAN

EMPIRE

Counselor of the Suprema

Bishop of Barcelona

lillTI Palermo
*

Bishop of Salamanca
Bishop of J~n
Cardinal; Archbishop of Toledo
Head of the Church in South
America

200

km.

1814-1820

Under Spanish rule

104

"Tn..r;., O,u """p_"/!S~ .",u "L,} (J"":J 'rt

"';'",. };.,,,;tb'. . .,,,J

. :Jr""

'~"i't,~"j1r:uu t,~")U~

'M

.r-~'''''~' ""~ 'Jl" o.~~~ In~')

JJ"J'J

1699-1705

1758-1761
1761-1783
1783- 1792
1792- 1794
1794- 1797

xL,,,,.,
JJ"pJ"

~ 1~"PV 1.l'n17 ~D~

InqUISItion tnbunal

INQUIsmON
TRIBUNALS
Fifteenth to
Seventeenth
Centuries

3.

CHINA

1=--1

I GuetenWa !

~
ro/IIp~ .

Ca~*

Pacific

o c e an

Iperu !

Lima

1.

Indian
Ocean

Seal of the Catholic Monarchs

Ferdinand (1474-1506) and
Isabella (1474-1504) after
Unification of Kingdom of
Castile and AragOn.

'ODO

kin.

InquISition tribunal. with date oIloundation

REUGIOUS DIVISIONS IN EUROPE 1560

Roman Catholic
Calvinlsl
\'.\c

Lulh~ran

Anglican
Hussll~
Orlhodox
Muslim

~\. ~ ~ /"1..., ~
~ 0
vt./
\L"'O

SARDINIA

Mediterran ean

100

200

Sea
0,

~km.

105

Dan~

(Gdank)

Sternberg . ~ 1500
Hamborg

North S e a

ISI7- Luther. who

Initially ac!mor1iohed

penec:ulion of Jews.
~ llitulenlly ant..
Jewish alter /ailing to

~~:T6ii4=iRaiiiiieii;;n;;iVu~t-:-1
I'

secw-e convel'llons.
Hanll()\ler.
Braunschweig "

POLAND

ISlo L.Spandau
.~ Bertin

1S7

J~I
571
randenbor

6.
1537-John Fredrick
expels Jews of Saxony.
Luther refu.... to
receive Joseph of
Rosheim or intervene on
behalf of Jews.

,'\

:........: i

....... .'

<. Pilsen-7

8,

....

'.

..:/; ...

.Pr~

.:

BOHEMIA

r"'::.:

ISO<

,'.. ,

....

Pans.

.....
~
8,
\.
of

I.~

1..... ;

:;

'-:'/Eger

.f..

~....... .

.....~ ..'...... .
....

'

.....

~J"':'"

MORAVIA

Augsburg
4.
l53O-Jewith economic
activit. . ratricteel and
Jews expdtd from
er.... near Turkioh
border. Order racinded

FRANCE

by

2 anti-Jewi&h

ecnc.~tMir
Lies
and
. tJw
Tllragrarnmaron. cau. lor

deshUCtion o f _
Joseph of Rosheim obtains

Charla V upOn

inte-ntlon of Jooeph
of Roonan. but Jews
~ to wear ydow

Gurk

onIer from town council

of Strasbourg lorbidding
. . of second book.
~~ then printed in
another town.

7 1614 Expulsion o( Jews. with date

/
Blood libel

100

The sixteenth century was not auspicious for the Jews of

GermanyAustria. Though they resided in many villages and
towns, pressures exerted by the German emperors and the
many expulsions greatly depleted the Jewish communities.
The rise of Protestantism did not encourage the renewal of
Jewish settlement. Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor,
fought the spread of Protestantism but was not antagonistic
toward the Jews, who were represented at court by the
shtadJan (intercessor) Joseph b. Gershon of Rosheim. Martin
Luther was at first tolerant toward the Jews, hoping to attract
and convert them to Protestantism, but later, disappointed
at their rejection, he became violently hostile to them. The
Jews of Germany were subjected to the anti-Jewish polemic
of the apostate Antonius Margarita (1530), who followed in
the footsteps of another apostate and antiJewish agitator,
Johannes Pfefferkorn. The activities of these agitators were
opposed by a number of humanists led by Johannes Reuchlin,
who engaged Pfefferkorn in written and verbal attacks and
counterattacks from 1511 to 1521. Anti-Jewish propaganda
also found its expression in a number of plays depicting the
Jews as the killers of Christ.
The Jewish center of gravity moved eastward. Despite the
adverse effect on the Jewish community of the expulsions
from the crown cities in Bohemia and Moravia to the countryside and villages, Jews somehow managed to withstand
the trials and tribulations of this period.
106

'.

"

The expulsion of Jews from Frankfort on the Main

in 1614. Engraving by Georg Keller.

The Thirty Years' War destroyed these communities and

increased the numbers who fled to eastern Europe, Poland
and Lithuania, joining the already established and growing
Jewish communities of these countries within the superbly
organized structure known as the Council of Four Lands.

THE JEWS OF SILESIA, MORAVIA AND BOHEMIA

2.
154I-Suaoected 01 burning
houMa and collaborating
with Turko, moet 01 Jews 01
Bohemia, Moravia and Silaia

..................:
Oder

Uegnitz.

expelled; mow to Polish

bol.r.

:-..
4.

PI\sen

_al"

Breznice.

5.

......

Beg. 01 17th
cenl-Number 01
Jews In Bohemia
inaeues; JewiIh
convnunity 01
Prague numbers
aboUt 10,000.

<:aslav

.Chot~~.r......

.:..

.....:
:.S.~tavy
0

-0
00

-TTOPJ>CyJ

'.

r.

OImOtz

.Hranice
Nove M
.. ~o ..... . Pro:tejOV Upnfk
BoskoVlce
Prerov
:I~u M 0 R A V.I A. .Hol~
... Trest
B
Vyskov
Kromenz
::;Tek. Treblt
(Bnr:) . .BucOYice
Austerlitz
Jemnice Kounice
.:
. Znojmo

....
50

.Schweldnitz

:( J3gerndorf.
Ratibot
Kostelee n. O. :,,:
.....

flbe

Kolin

general expuIoion .

lima.

.Ohlau

B~
neg
.Niemcla
...... ReicJx!nbacli
Mo
ber
,.......

nster g
. / Frankenstein Neisse
Jicin.
. GI.
~iKzkow
..... atz
.Glucholazy
'"
.NovY BydzOY
S
L E S
.;'
Hirschberg
'\ .'. Landshut.
.' ........

poetponed

.Trzebnica
.Oels

Breslau
.Strzegom

.. .. , ..:.:

1557 -Prague city

council domando
eXDUleion 01
Bolwmien J .... and
kina announca he
will
not . . - their
writa 01 protection.""
Many Jews law, but

Sixteenth Century

.....:....

..........

100

1:=== ::1;;.:::;;;;:;:::;;;;:;=:;3'

km.

JEWISH
FOUNDATIONS
IN THE CITY
OF PRAGUE

Figure of a Jew from

a woodcut illustration
to the Prague

Haggadah, 1526.

Entrance to the Pinkus synagogue in Prague.

107

dlqitalia
c
'1,1'1,\'

gil" u J,

THE JEWS OF HUNGARY UNDER TURKISH AND AUSTRIAN RULE

Though there is very little information about early Jewish
presence in Hungary, it seems there was a well-integrated
settlement in the eleventh century, Esztergom (Gran) being
the most important community. The church council of Szaboles in 1092 prohibited Jews from marrying Christian
women, working on Christian festivals and purchasing slaves.
During the First Crusade King Kalman (1095-1116) protected
the Jews of his domain against attacks by remnants of the
crusader army passing through Hungary. From the twelfth
century Jews played a role in the economic life of the country,
but in 1222 an order was issued forbidding them to hold any
office that would give them authority to judge Christians or
to receive titles of nobility.
We do not know what befell the Jews during the Mongol
invasion of Hungary in 1241 when King Bela IV (1235-1270)
was severely defeated and the country overrun and devastated. But in 1251 the king granted a privilege to the Jews
that was similar to those granted in Germany. It would appear
that Bela wished to encourage Jewish settlement. Despite
this privilege, the church council of Buda in 1279 ordered
Jews to wear a distinguishing badge.
The Black Death led to the first expulsion of Jews in 1349
and to a further general expulsion decree in 1360. In 1364
Jews were allowed to return, subject to restrictions. In 1365
the king instituted the office of "judge of the Jews," appointing
one of the nobles to represent the Jews before the crown in
matters relating to collection of taxes and protection of their
rights. Only in the second half of the fifteenth century, during
the reign of Matthias Corvinus (1458-1490), did the status of
the Jews improve, despite the animosity of the townspeople,
who were mostly of German origin. The Jewish population
increased and Buda emerged as the largest community in
the kingdom.
A blood libel case in Tyrnau (Trnava; 1494) led to both the
arrest of sixteen Jews who were then burned at the stake
and to anti-Jewish riots in the town. At the beginning of the
sixteenth century there were anti-Jewish riots in Pressburg
and Buda, but none during the reign of Louis II (1516-1526).
The Turks first invaded Hungary in 1526, the year in which

lvov

R Y
Suged o
oBuziali

s.

BOSNIA
SERBIA
Boundary of Holy Roman Empire, 1550
Tenitory under Austrian control
Tenitory under Turkish conlrol

the Jews were expelled from Esztergom (Gran) in northern

Hungary - an expulsion that is thought to have been the
result of an accusation of Jewish collusion with the invading
Turks. From this point there was a distinct difference between
the status of the Jews living in Turkish-held territories and
those living in the domains of the Holy Roman Empire. In
the former, they enjoyed satisfactory treatment while in the
latter they were persecuted. Jews even emigrated to other
parts of the Ottoman Empire.

THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR

North

VilnIUS tVilna)

s,.

1618-1648

Pans

..........
",:

....
'

108

Boundary of Holy Roman Empire at end of Thirty Years' War Peace of Westphalia (1648)

.....:..

THE JEWS OF EASTERN EUROPE

Until the 1650s

'.

Taisl
Tuku~s o RI9'I

SWEDEN

7.

~I= 1~;-o';:f.:~~~=01

JOO Jews who refuse 10 be baplized

in frozen INal.,. oIlMna riVer.

Uepaya.~:.:~.~""""~~~~:~:" " . . . . P~~I$k. i:~~)

r

::
...... \

..... ~I:!

it:::':.s

T ok

....)

,
1592 :;.

16J9 1556

".

Minsk
Grodno

' .... ............. .. ;;~in':.,

fi

ZZ 5163
J6JS

OIm01Z .

EM P I A E

~ hnia

~
i?:'

~1~04

.' :.- ..~~o,S

'.; ,. .

.';
Vtenna-

"" 'I

Lvov :.

Jews live in a ~te

-~quarter ("'Jews
lowni.l<azimier-z.
Belgrade

o
o

N""""rod

!................

;.
...,

......
.........
.. '

,\.

("

i.

'.

/ ....

Bucharesl .

.....: ..:..-....

\ .

'\ . ~

~ 10 JewiSh ' -.

>-,

".

0,,'"
~r
,~....,--:-,-;:-,

0...;.;;.;.;;=-_ _ _--'

"'.

Augustus extends ./eIInsh

aulonomy; grants rabbis
and community leaders
eltlf1lSiue authorily to ac:t

.... .,

......
"

": ..:........\:~~ 0

:. -

City main~ privilege of

non toJ.lJIIdis JudMi1
(non toleration of Jews)

:"

....;

/'2.

\-

". ..'

./iBuJa

........:..

:'
--,.
' _ _~

.... .....

'.

.""

"
0

L,;f;::;orm""i""I19-'---_ _ _-'

'-. Kremenels.

.. PrumySl
l!' -1:1628
:>' .. ,/' 16JO

H" 'U' N" "G A R Y

:':

." .

power 01 nobles. many

Jews move to "pnvate

~/ 16J6 /'V1~:i~

POL AND

....

confiscated.
L.:R::::U
= S::.;;S=I:....A- - - - - - J

SA. a result of increasing

Brest
Lltovsk

-;:fro~m~!:mI!!
;:::!~
Lublin \. In V~IhYIll. LIT H U A N I A Kiev
~
..... Lutsk
Zhitomlr

A 0 MAN
~crac.ow~ Yaroslaw ......

are arrested and IheIr goods

MogJ1ev ....
.' '. :.,

I
oWarsaw
townships"-and viIIaga;
_ .""
lec~y(a
.(
Pinsk serve as agmt. and
MiedzY,fzec ....
Slewards for latgl ellato.

Kalisz Socliaczew
........... ..' K I
and also ongage in
.............".

zee Poznan

Ivan the Terrible

6~~~m

!....~~rnclensk ~'7.~~;T

Votebsk

MinaI

o Moscow

..

~ __)

...... ....

:.-.~... ~~!I.!!.. /

,.
,. 0

Adria~ple

Blood Ubel
. . Anti-Jewish riots
~ Expulsion
1. Town with fair

In 1495 Alexander JagieUon, grand prince of Lithuania and

later (1501) king of Poland and Lithuania, expelled the Jews
of Lithuania. Though some of the leading wealthy Jews
apostatized, the majority immigrated to Kaffa (Feodosiya
in Crimea), to Constantinople or to Poland (where they
were allowed to remain an additional year). The folly of the
expulsion was soon recognized and in 1503 the Jews were
allowed to return, their communal property being restored.
Conditions for those who returned were difficult, since they
had to redeem their property from the German inhabitants,
pay a special tax, and pay for the annual upkeep of one
thousand cavalry.
The major Jewish communities in Poland were Cracow,
Poznan and Lvov, the latter being a commercial center for
the trade routes to Kiev and Istanbul.
Two outstanding rabbinic personalities in Poland were
Rabbi Jacob b. Joseph Pollack who opened the first yeshiva
in Poland, and his pupil Rabbi Shalom Shakhna b. Joseph
(died in Lublin in 1559), founder of Talmudic scholarship
in Poland. R. Pollack (1460/147o-after 1522) was born and
studied in Bavaria and was later rabbi in Prague, from which
he moved to Cracow.

There was a considerable growth of Jewish communities

during the reign of Sigismund nAugustus (1548-1572), partly
due to immigration from Moravia and Bohemia; in some
places the Jewish population doubled toward the end of
the sixteenth century. A conspicuous example was the
community of Lublin, a town that, in the midsixteenth century, was famous for its trade fair.
In the middle of the sixteenth century the major Jewish
communities in Lithuania were Brest Litovsk (which had
160 Jewish homes in 1566; though they were all burned in
1568, the community succeeded in rehabilitating itselO; and
Grodno, out of which developed the community of Tykocin
and Pinsk. The Vilna community developed slowly; being
a town with the privilege of non tolerandis Judaeis (1527)
very few Jews could reside there, but by 1568 there are
records of an organized community. Toward the end of
the sixteenth century communities also developed in Lutsk,
Kovel and Kremenets.
The death of Sigismund II (1572), the last of the Jagiellon
dynasty, and the election of Henry III of Valois in 1574 resulted
in a deterioration of Jewish status in Poland Lithuania that
was ameliorated beyond recognition with the election in 1576
109

of Stephen Bathory, who reigned until 1586. Jews were active

in his court, successfully representing the interests of the
Jewish community at large. During the reign of Sigismund
III Vasa (1587-1632) the situation deteriorated for Poland in
general and for the Jews in particular.
Polish-Lithuanian Jewry was fortunate in having great rabbinic leaders and a central institution of self-government

called the Council of the Lands (also known as the Council

of Four Lands). The council led the communities from the
middle of the sixteenth century until 1764 and among its
many achievements was support of the development of a
study of Torah that was a synthesis of Ashkenazic erudition,
Kabbalah and Talmudic sophistry (piJpul).

THE JEWS OF POLAND WITHIN

THE COUNCIL OF FOUR LANDS
Seventeenth Century

The Jewish quarter in Kazimierz.

"Kaunas (Kovno)
VdnJus(Vilna. WiJno)
T~(Trokl) "

"Smorgon

A
Mo9Icv"

"Mir4k

"Bobruisk

vw" Boundary of the Unds

___ Bomdary of pfOYince

Provincial (UncI) capital

1
7>N pkc. ,..,..., .,. bHd upctJ c:oN.~ry ~ .,..oa
rs _rrJa 10 -PtrJ/. 01 Cound oIlhe FOUl Undo" by IstMI
H>Ip<m)

110

Principal community
Town with fair

The Jews of Poland created a national institution for selfgovernment known as the Council of Four Lands, consisting
of representatives of the four lands or provinces: Great
Poland, Little Poland, Red Russia and Volhynia. Lithuania
was a separate entity; its council probably functioned as
early as the 1560s.
Basically there was cooperation and coordination between
the two councils in matters relating to Jewry at large, though
relations were sometimes strained over divergent approaches
to local problems.
The two councils, initially established to deal with matters
of taxation and protection of the Jewish community, soon
became institutions dealing with internal community affairs.
In the first half of the sixteenth century ~e have evidence of
a central rabbinical court for the Jews of Poland; a similar
court already existed in Lithuania.
Representatives of the four provinces (roshei ha-glilot)
formed a council of elders who governed Polish Jewry. They
would usually assemble at the annual fairs of Lublin in February and Jaroslaw in September and deal with such subjects
as the election of rabbis, taxation and personal matters.
In 1549 the Polish government, realizing its administrative
inability to collect Jewish poll taxes, imposed this task upon
the council. The Council of Four Lands probably started
functioning from the middle of the sixteenth century (the
earliest extant record from its official minute book [pinkas] is
dated 1580) and was dissolved by the Polish Sejm in 1764.
The nonrabbinical delegates (roshei ha-medinot) of the
provinces elected one of their number as the parnas (community leader) of the House of Israel of the Four Lands;
he headed the council, presided at the assemblies, and
negotiated on its behalf with the king. They also elected a
ne'eman (trustee) of the House of Israel of the Four Lands
to serve as a treasurer and secretary. This appointment was
for one year, with salary and expenses, and was also open
to rabbinical candidates (rabbis qualified to be elected to
the assembly of judges). In later years a number of trustees
were elected, dividing the tasks among them.
In Lithuania the council's executive consisted of an elected
parnas and a number of shelihim (emissaries) whose duties
were to visit the Jewish communities, check the population

THE CHMIELNICKI MASSACRES

rolls and assess their ability to pay taxes. These emissaries

were eventually replaced by appointed clerks who dealt with
tax collection in the province. The trustees were responsible
for tax collection and the secretaries of the council recorded
the regulations.
Representatives of the two councils would meet to discuss
and settle matters relating to the obligations of Polish-Lithuanian Jewry as well as determining their relations with one
another.
The institution declined following the destruction of the
Polish-Lithuanian community in the Chmielnicki massacres
of 1648-1649 and in the Russian and Swedish wars against
Poland.
THE ORDINANCES OF 1595 IN CRACOW

Mult I<>90 tMctoral

system held once
year dwilll

int"rmed"t. days

01 Passover

........

~,"-

...........

(l..uoMr for , .. _ I I )
dutiel 01 headio1g the commund)I

rotated once a month.

. . . . . . . . . . . . .'1' .. the contn'IJI\iIy unci

~1Id by

Ij)eCIIII contnlCl .

,~

5T..... (........' ............

1........ C.

wi,,, (CoUdI)

..

- .... C - -

T...." .......
.lunldicllon .. rnonetMy maIt_
01 OWl' 100 gold PteC8

'.,.,.....-800 I" .......

Juriodiclion i> """'1Ary maltlrq

up 10 100 gold poeca

_H_

,.,.""...
- a - .......
Junsdocl1on ..
~

up to 10 gold poeca

1648-1649

Toward the latter half of the seventeenth century two calamitous events shattered Polish Jewry: externally, the Cossack
rebellion led by Bogdan Chmielnicki (Bohdan Khrnelnytsky;
1599-1657) and the major wars on Polish territory which followed; and internally, the Shabbetai Zevi crisis, which shook
the very foundations of the community. Repercussions were
still felt in the second half of the eighteenth century.
The massacres of 1648-1649 decimated Polish Jewry,
scattering the survivors throughout many countries. The
anti-Jewish propoganda presented the Jewish lessee as an
exploiter of the peasants and agent of the nobility. Many
Jews died in the rebellion of Pavoloch and other uprisings.
In 1637 three hundred Jews were killed east of the Dnieper
and many communities were destroyed. The anti-Jewish ag-

itation in the 16405 found a leader in Chmielnicki, whose

rebellion dealt a crushing blow to the Polish army near
Korsun (1648). In the course of his campaigns against the
Poles, Chmielnicki, at the head of a Cossack army and the
peasant-serf paramilitary bands of Haidamacks, destroyed
Polish Jewry and their communities. The Jews were betrayed
by the Poles despite their mutual defense pacts, the latter
suggesting apostasy as a mode of rescue. Entire communities
resisted this temptation, preferring martyrdom. Following the
never-to-be-forgotten slaughter of the Tulchin and Nemirov
communities, the shocked Polish nobility went to battle
against the Cossacks and Haidamacks but were defeated.
Chmielnicki's forces lashed out on all fronts, wreaking havoc
and death while those taken captive were sold by the Tatars

111

as slaves. The Jewish communities of Istanbul, Salonika,

Venice, Rome, Hamburg and Amsterdam did everything in
their power to ransom the captives. The Russian and Swedish
invasions of Poland completed the destruction of the Jewish
communities.
Jews did not reside in the principality of Moscow. In the
area that was the Soviet Union and was then Polish, Jews
resided in Vitebsk, Smolensk and Polotsk and the adjacent
villages. By 1667, following the wars involving Russia, Poland
and Sweden, the grand duchy of Lithuania was destroyed
and the Jews who were taken captive were ransomed under
the terms of the Truce of Andrusovo (1667). Jewish refugees
fleeing westward were also caught by the invading Swedes
and Brandenburgers and very few succeeded in reaching
Amsterdam or Hamburg. In other towns, such as Lublin,
the Jews were handed over to the Russians, many being sold
into slavery. In Lvov they were spared after paying a huge
ransom. The deteriorating situation brought complete ruin
upon the Jews of Lithuania, Reisen, Podolia and Volhynia.
The Truce of Andrusovo stabilized Poland's eastern border,
the entire area east of the Dnieper remaining in Russian
hands. Attempting to rationalize their defeats, the Poles
laid the blame on those who had forsaken Catholicism
- the Eastern Orthodox, Protestants and Jews. In Lvov and
Cracow there were anti-Jewish pogroms. John DI Sobieski
(1674-1696) - exemplary for the privileges he granted the
Jews of Zolkiew, his town of residence - did much to revive
the Jewish communities during his reign and with his death in
1696 the Jews lost a patron. In 1699 a blood libel in Sandomir
(Sandomierz) had grave consequences for the community.

Renewed invasions by the Russians, Swedes and Saxons

dealt crushing blows to the Jewish communities. On the eve
of the eighteenth century the Jews of Poland faced a crisis
of actual existence.
Jews had been predominant in the Polish economy for
several centuries - in national and international trade and
commerce, in leasing large estates and salt mines, banking
and crafts and participation at the trade fairs of Lublin and
Jaroslaw; but this predominance was gravely affected by
antiJewish propaganda and the consequent molestation was
one of the major factors that contributed to the destruction
of the Polish economy.
Of some they removed their skins and the ne.sh they threw to the dogs;
some they cut off their arms and le~ and cast them on the wayside to
be driven over by carriages and horses; on some they inDicted many
wounds but not enough for them to die, and threw them out so that they
would not die soon and would convulse in their blood until their spirit
would depart from them; and many they buried alive, and slaughtered
children in the presence of their mothers; they cut up many children like
fish; and they cut the stomachs of pregnant women and wrenched the
foetus from them and beat their faces; some, they cut their stomachs
and put a live cat in them and sewed up the stomach, and cut off their
hands so that they could not tear out the live cat; and they hung children
on the breasts of their mothers; and they speared children on sticks and
burned them on the fire and brought them to their mothers to be eaten
by them: and sometimes they took the children of Jews and made
bridges of them to pass over. There was no form of gory death which
they spared them - the four forms of death, by trial, stoning, burning
and strangulation.

From Yeven Metzula by Nathan Nata Hanover, Venice 1653, (ed Ein
Harod 1945, p. 32).

THE CHMIELNICKI MASSACRES

10.

Minsk

. Stutsk
9.
NOlI. 1648- Negotiations

between Chmielnicki and new

king. John 0 Casimir Vasa:
they fail and I8lting renewed
an summer 1649.

L:.:.:=:.=.:....:=:.- - --'
Bresl

~:-;~

Wlodawa.
Lublin .
Kra4nik.

Cd""'-"""

Lyubornl

.Chetm
\

ZaIl'lOtt

7.
. Pinsk
20 July 1648-W,th
fall o/Iown about

~nd=P=ed
apoetarize.

.Ludmir

-~r'~

~rubiesz6w J.utsk . OIyka

Sz.cz.ebr
;romaSz1ji,-!XJgoraj
SokaI
T arilograd Na
Belz

. Jaroslaw
Prz~

8.
Oc:t. 1648-Jcwo

partic1pate in def""""
0/ city and contribute
~ pari 01 rllNOm
palO 10 bh oiege.

11.
Aug. 1648-TaUII

cl..n belrays
ChmieIrkki who !oKs
boult. Forced 10 sigJl
puce.

112

3.

"\

SHABBETAI ZEVI: ACTIVITIES AND TRAVELS

........
Shell

.....

E~

"

/ ........... .

Sea

6.

Autumn 1663-Sent ..
..."...." to Egypt to raiIe
money for JeruaaIem

c:ommunity. Aided by

100

JoIeph.CMI.b;
utkilh. "lord") heel of
. Jewioh community
and IftMum of Eawtian

200

km.

Mordecai levi orginated from Greece (probably Patras), and

settled in Smyrna (lzmir) where his son Shabbetai was born
on the Sabbath, Ninth of Av (August) 1626. As a youth
Shabbetai levi studied with Rabbi Joseph Escapa and seems
to have been ordained a hakham (scholar) when he was
eighteen. Shabbetai levi early began showing signs of mental
instability - extreme manicdepressive psychosis - which
plagued him for his entire life. During his manic spasms he
committed acts that ran counter to religious law, including
pronouncing the Ineffable Name of God and proclaiming
himself the Messiah. These repeated violations led the rabbis
to banish him from Smyrna at some time between 1651
and 1654. Wandering through Greece and Thrace, visiting
Athens, Patras and Salonika, he arrived in Constantinople in
1658, staying there for eight months, before being expelled
because of his blasphemous pronouncements and behavior.
Returning to Smyrna, he remained there until 1662, when he
decided to settle in Jerusalem.
Traveling via Rhodes and Cairo, where he established
contacts with leaders of the Jewish community, he arrived
in Jerusalem at the end of 1662. In the autumn of 1663 he
was sent by the community as an emissary to Egypt to raise
money. On 31 March 1664 in Cairo he married Sarah, his

third wife, who was rumored to be a woman of easy virtue.

Returning from Egypt, he stopped at Gaza in April 1665,
where he met Abraham Nathan b. Elisha Hayyim Ashkenazi.
Nathan convinced Shabbetai levi of his messianic destiny
and on 17 Sivan (31 May 1665) Shabbetai levi proclaimed
himself the Messiah.

Shabbetai Zevi

113

Letters despatched from Palestine, Egypt and Smyrna to

the many communities of the Jewish Diaspora proclaiming
the need for repentance to facilitate the coming redemption,
created a fervent revivalist atmosphere which developed into
a mass movement of people who believed in Shabbetai Zevi
as the revealed Messiah of the Jewish people. In eastern
Europe the Chmielnicki massacres and the Russian-Swedish
war provided fertile soil for the growth of such a movement.
The messianic revelation had special significance in PolandLithuania, and in several places it resulted in massacres
(Pinsk - 20 March 1666; Vilna - 28 March; Lublin - 27
April). A number of delegations were despatched from Poland
to Shabbetai Zevi, both while in Smyrna and when he was
imprisoned in Migdal Oz in Gallipoli. His meeting with one
of the emissaries, Nehemiah ha-Kohen, was destined to play
a crucial role in Shabbetai's life. Other prominent Jewish
communities, such as Salonika, Amsterdam and Livorno
(Leghorn) were caught up in the fervor, and many became
his followers.
The movement's vital energy sprang from the Holy Land
and the belief in redemption which would originate from it, as
well as from the renewal of prophecy that was confirmed by
the rabbi of Gaza, Jacob Najara, and some other scholars.
The overwhelming enthusiasm that swept over and united
Jews all over the world brought people from all walks of
life to the movement: from the punctiliously observant kabbalists to the simple folk, all were united in repentance

THE TRAVELS
OF NATHAN
OFGAZA

....
.....

HOLY ROMAN

EMPIR E
:

Nathan of Gaza

114

and in anticipation of the coming redemption. Ashkenazim,

Sephardim, conversos returning to Judaism, Jews from
Yemen and Persia, and in fact the entire Diaspora, were
engulfed by these expectations.
The Shabbatean movement included many rabbis and
scholars among its adherents: David Yitshaki of Salonika,
Samuel Primo of Bursa, Judah Sharaf, and Mattathias Bloch
Ashkenazi. It also had many opponents, the greatest of
whom was Jacob Sasportas, rabbi and erudite scholar, who
narrated the story of his polemic with the Shabbateans in a
book called Zizat Novel Zevi. Shabbetai Zevi also had many
opponents in Egypt, Jerusalem and Safed.
The tumult and messianic fever caused by Shabbetai Zevi
and his followers prompted the authorities to arrest and
imprison him in Constantinople (30 December 1665). He
was later transferred to the fortress at Gallipoli (19 April).
On 3 or 4 September he was visited by the Polish kabbalist
Nehemiah ha-Kohen. After an angry debate with Shabbetai,
he declared his willingness to convert to Islam and was taken
to Adrianople where he denounced Shabbetai Zevi. On 15
September Shabbetai was brought to Adrianople and given
the choice of death or apostasy. He converted, assuming the
name of Aziz Mehmed Effendi. His apostasy was emulated
by many of his adherents.
News of Shabbetai Zevi's apostasy spread quickly, causing
shock and consternation amongst the Jews. For some, it
was proof of their errors while others tried to rationalize

lIDO

000

km.

HUNGARY

....... .

-0

RUSSIA

............. .
...
....... :.

the apostasy, continuing to believe in Shabbetai Zevi and his

mission. Shabbetai Zevi continued his activities even after
his apostasy trying to persuade adherents to follow him
into Islam. Denounced and arrested in Constantinople on
16 August 1672, he was exiled to Dulcigno in January 1673,
dying there on the Day of Atonement (17 September) 1676.
Following the apostasy, secret sects of believers sprang up
in various places. In Turkey a sect of believers arose called
the Doenmeh, who followed in Shabbetai Zevi's footsteps by
converting to Islam without renouncing their Judaism.

Nathan of Gaza persisted in his activities even after the

apostasy and on his travels secretly visited Shabbetai Zevi in
Adrianople (mid-I667). Nathan continued writing, preaching
and explaining Shabbetai Zevi's actions, defending his apostasy and his messianic mission. For the next ten years (from
1670) he remained in Macedonia and Bulgaria staying mainly
in Sofia, Adrianople and Kastoria. He died in Skopje on 11
January 1680.
The crisis caused by the Shabbatean messianic movement
was felt in the Jewish world for many years.

LEADERS OF THE
SHABBATEAN
MOVEMENT
AFTER THE
DEATH OF
SHABBETAI ZEVI

200

_
!

Ian.

Shabbatean center during lifetime of Shabbetai levi

Shabbatea.n center after death of Shabbetai levi

THE JEWISH DIASPORA AND THEIR LANGUAGES

End of the Seventeenth Century

This general map reveals the entire Jewish world as it was on

the eve of the year 1700. The dispersion of the Jews reveals
the increased numbers that occurred after the Jews emerged
from a past of upheavals, crises, crusades, Black Death, local
and national expulsions and a messianic movement that was
unprecedented in scope. Substantial Jewish communities can
be found in central and eastern Europe, Asia and North
Africa. In its formative years the New World opened its

gates to Jewish pioneers of the Spanish and Portuguese

settlements.
The beginning of the eighteenth century is marked by a
display of Jewish attachment to the Holy Land. Judah Hasid
(Segal) ha-Levi arrived in Jerusalem in October 1700 with
several hundred immigrants, the harbingers of a renewed
Zion.

115

JEWISH DIASPORA AND

THEIR LANGUAGES

Nor

S ..

l.
t

Pa c ific
c e an

Atlan' ti c
O ce an

,
116

digitalia

'ltl'lll C ~Itc

"'-

ASIA

I
AFRICA

Indian

Ocean

117

digitalia

1'111 C~Itc

SELECT BIBUOGRAPHY

SELECT BIBUOGRAPHY
The following books and articles have been selected for suggested reading. This list does not purport to
be a full description of proposed reading. Research in Jewish history is ever-expanding and new vistas are
constantly being opened. This bibliography contains only those sources which have served in the preparation
of the maps themselves and does not include many others which throw light on the subjects dealt with in this
atlas. Hebrew sources of which there are many have not been listed here, nor have articles from academic
periodicals in Jewish history in any language.
The bibliography is arranged alphabetically according to subjects.

GENERAL READING
I. Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, London 1932.
S. W. Baron, A Social and Religious History of the Jews, 2nd rev. ed., 18
vols. New York 1952-1980.
S. W. Baron, The Jewish Community: Its History and Structure to the
American Revolution, 3 vols. Philadelphia 1942.
G. Caro, Sozial und Wirtschaftsgeschichte der Juden im Mittelalter und
der Neuzeit. 2 vols. Leipzig 1908-1920.
A. Lukyn Williams, Adversus judaeus, Cambridge 1935.
L.1. Newman, Jewish Influence on Christian Reform Movements, New York
1925.
J. Parkes, The Conflict of the Church and the Synagogue: A Study in the
Origins of Antisemitism, London 1934.
J. Parkes, The Jew in the Medieval Community: A Study of his Political and
Economic Situation, London 1938.
O.S. Rankin, Jewish Religious Polemic, Edinburgh 1956.
J. Trachtenberg, The Devil and the Jews: the Medieval Conception of the
Jew arid its Relation to Modern Antisemitism, New Haven 1934.
J. Trachtenberg, Jewish Magic and Superstition: A Study in Folk Religion,
New York 1939.

SOURCE MATERIAL (COLLECTIONS;

TRAVELOGUES)
I. Abrahams, Hebrew Ethical WiUs, 2 vols. Philadelphia 1948.
R. Chazan, (ed.), Church, State and Jew in the Middle Ages, New York
1980.
S. Grayzel, The Church and the Jews in the XlIlth Century: A Study of
their Relations during the Years 1198-1254 based on the Papal Letters
and the Conciliar Decrees of the Period, Philadelphia 1933.
J. Marcus, (ed.), The Jew in the Medieval World: A Source Book 315-1791,
Cincinnati 1938.

L. Poliakov, Jewish Bankers and the Holy See: From the Thirteenth to the
Seventeenth Century, London 1977.

ASHKENAZ (INCLUDING GERMANY AND FRANCE;

THE CRUSADES)
I. Agus, The Heroic Age of Franco-German Jewry, New York 1969.
I. Agus, Urban Civilization in Pre-Crusade Europe: A Study of Organized
Town-Life in North western Europe during the Tenth and Eleventh
Centuries based on Responsa Literature, New York 1965.
J. Aronius, (ed.), Regesten zur Geschichte der Juden im Frlinkischen und
Deutschen Reiche bis zum Jahre 1273, Berlin 1902.
B. Blumenkranz, (ed.), Histoire des Juifs en France, Toulouse 1972.
R. Chazan, Medieval Jewry in Northern France: A Political and Social
History, Baltimore 1973.
S. Eidelberg, Jewish Life in Austria in the XVth Century, Philadelphia 1962.
L. Finkelstein, Jewish SeU-Government in the Middle Ages, New York
1924.
Germania Judaica, 3 vols. Tabigen 1963-1968.
H. Gross, Gallia Judaica: Dictionnaire geographique de la France, Paris
1897.
G. Kisch, The Jews in Medieval Germany: A Study of their Legal and
Social Status, Chicago 1949.
A Neubauer, (ed.), Medieval Jewish Chronicles and Chronological Notes,
2 vols. Oxford 1887-1895.
A Neubauer-M. Stem, (eds.), Hebr6ische Berichte aberdie
Judenverfolgungen w3hrend der Kreuzz(Jge, Berlin 1892.
L. Rabinowitz, The Social Life of the Jews of Northern France in the
XlI-XlV Centuries, London 1938.
S. Salfeld, (ed.), Das Martyrologium des Narnberger Memorbuches, Berlin
1898.

THEKHAZARS
MESSIANIC MOVEMENTS, KABBALAH, JEWISH
THOUGHT

D.M. Dunlop, TIle distory of the Jewish Khazary, Princeton 1954.

J. Greenstone, The Messianic Idea in Jewish History, Philadelphia 1906.

AH. Silver, A History of Messianic Speculation in Israel from the First to
the Seventeenth Centuries, New York 1927.
D.J. Silver, Maimonidean Criticism and the Maimonidean Controversy,
1180-1240, Leiden 1965.

ENGLAND

KABBALAH
J. Husik, A History of Medieval Jewish Philosophy, Philadelphia 1946.
G. Scholem, Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism, New York 1954.
G. Scholem, The Messianic Idea in Judaism and Other Essays on Jewish
Spirituality, New York 1971.

Stars and Jewish Charters 1-3 (ed. H. Loewe), London 1932.

A Hyamson, The Sephardim in England: A History of the Spanish and
Portuguese Jewish Community 1492-1951, London 1951.
J. Jacobs, The Jews of Angevin England: documents and records, London
1893.
V.D. Upman, The Jews of Medieval Norwich, London 1967.
H. Richardson, The English Jewry under Angevin Kings, London 1960.
C. Roth, History of the Great Synagogue, London 1950.
C. Roth, A History of the Jews in England, Oxford 1964.

SPAIN, PORTUGAL, THE INQUISmON

KARAITES
Z. Ankori, Karaites in Byzantium: The Formative Years, 970-1100, New
York-Jerusalem 1959.
J. Mann, Texts and Studies in Jewish History and Literature, Vol. 2.,
Karaitica, Cincinnati 1935.
L. Nemoy, Karaite Anthology: Excerpts from the Early Literature, New
Haven, Conn.-London 1952.

ITALY
A. Milano, Storia degli ebrei in Italia, Torino 1963.

118

Y.F. Baer, Die Juden im christlichen Spanien, 2nd, ed. 2 vols.,

Farnborough 1970.
Y. Baer, A History of the Jews in Christian Spain, 2 vols., Philadelphia
1961-1966 (expanded and revised edition: 1981 - translated into
Spanish by J.L. Lacave).
R.D. Barnett, (ed.), The Sephardi Heritage: Essays on the History and
Cultural Contribution of the Jews of Spain and Portugal, London 1971.
H. Beinart, Con versos on Trial: The Inquisition in Ciudad Real, Jerusalem
1981 (expanded and revised edition).
H. Beinart, (ed.), Records of the Trials of the Spanish Inquisition in Ciudad
Real, 4 vols., Jerusalem 1974-1985.

SELECT BIBUOGRAPHY
H. Beinart, TrujDlo: A Jewish Community in Extramaduca on the Eve of the
Expulsion from Spain, Jerusalem 1980.
F. Cantera Burgos, Sinagogas Espaffolas, Madrid 1955.
F. Cantera Burgos-J. Ma. Millas Vallicrosa, Las Inscripdones Hebraicas
de Espafia, Madrid 1956.
S. Katz, The Jews in Visigothic and Frankish Kingdoms of Spain and Gaul,
Cambridge, Mass. 1937.
M. Kayserling, Geschichte der Juden in Portugal, Leipzig 1867.
H.C. Lea, A History of the Inquisition of Spain, 1-4, New York-London
1906-1908.

B. Netanyahu, Don Isaac Abravanel, Philadelphia 1972.

J. Regne, (ed.), History of the Jews in Aragon: Regesta and Documents
1213-1327, Compiled, edited and annotated by Yom Tov Assis,
Jerusalem 1978.
L. Suarez Fernandez, Documento acerca de la Expulsi6n de los Judios,
VaUadolid 1964.

EASTERN EUROPE
S. Dubnov, History of the Jews in Russia and Poland from the Earliest
Times to the Present Day, 3 vols., Philadelphia 1916-1920.

w. Fischel, Jews in the Economic and Political life of Medieval Islam,

London 1937.
S.D. Goitein, (ed.), Letters of Medieval Jewish Traders, Princeton 1973.
S.D. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society: The Jewish Communities of the
Arab World as Portrayed in the Documents of the Cairo Geniza, 5
vols., Berkeley-Los Angeles-London 1967-1989.
J. Mann, The Jews of Egypt and Pakstine under the Fatimid Caliphs, 2
vols., London-Oxford 1920-1922.
J. Mann, Texts and Studies, 1, Cincinnati 1931.
J. Mann, The CoUected Articks, Gedera 1971.
N. Stillman, The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book,
Philadelphia 1979.

ASIA MINOR AND BYZANTIUM

A. Sharf, Byzantine Jewry from Justinian to the Fourth Crusade, London
1971.
J. Starr, Jews in the Byzantine Empire 641-1204, Athens 1939.
J. Starr, Romania: The Jewries of the LevaI1t after the Fourth Crusade,
Paris 1949.

ERETZ ISRAEL AND THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

EGYPT, NORTH AFRICA AND ARAB COUNTRIES
A. Chouraqui, Between East and West: A History of the Jews of North

Africa, Philadelphia 1968.

M.R. Cohen, Jewish SeU Government in Medieval Egypt, Princeton 1980.

I.M. Goldman, The life and Times of Rabbi David Ibn Abi Zimra, New
York 1970.
M.S. Goodblatt, Jewish Life in Turkey in the XVth Century, New York
1952.

119

INDEX TO MAPS

INDEX TO MAPS
(Numbers represent map numbers)

A
Aachen (see also Aix-Ia-Chapelle) ... 14. 17.30.31.
51
Aarau .......................................................................................... 51
Aarburg...
....... 51
Aargau
................................................................ 68
Abbasid Caliphate ............................................................. 38
Abbeville ...
....... 13
Abdera ........................................................................................... 2
Abu Qir ..................................................................... 62. 84. 85
Abyar ............................................................................................. 84
Abydos ..................................................................................... 37
Acco (Acre) (see also Ptolemais) ........ 6. 23. 33. 35.
37.38.39.44.45.61.62.65. 79. SO. 91
Acerenza ............................................................... .
..... 40
Acmonia ...
........ 2
Acquapendente
................
....... 73
Acquaviva
....... 73
Acqui (Terme) ..
.... 73a
Acre (see Acco)
Acri (in Italy) ..................................................................... 40. 73
Acri (in Sicily) . ........................................................
......... 2
Acs... .......................................
................................... 108
Adana
.......................................... 2.33
Aden
............................................ 2.4.7.17.97.116
Adige River
. ........................... .... 73b
Adra .... ........................................
.... 11. 70a
Adramyttium ........................................................................... 2
Adrianopie ........ 1.20.32.35.63.65.77.78.81.88.
113.114
Adriatic Sea . .................................................... 12. 40. 73
Aegina ..........................................
........ 2
Afghanistan ................................
.......... 60
Africa ..
....................................................... 97. 116
Agadir ..
.................................................................... 25. 83
Agathae (Agde) ........
......... 2
Agde (Agathae) ....
....... 2. 11. 13. 49. 91
Agen... ...........................
................................... 49.53
Agra (India) . . . . . . . . . ................................. 99
Agra (Spain) .
.................................................... 47
Agram6n ....
......................................... 47
Agramunt ..............................
........... 41. 42. 47
Agreda ....
........... 41. 69
Agrigento ................ . .................. 2. 12. 18. 40. 73
Agropoli
................................................................ 73
Agudo .............................
......... 92
Aguilar de Camp60
.............. 41.47.57.69
Ahrweiler ........................
....... 52
Ahwaz (Ahvaz) ......................
............... 1.2. 17
Aichach ............................................................................. 46.51
Aiguillon ..................................
................................. 49.55
Ailingen .............................................................
....... 52
Ain Jalud (Ein Harod) ...........................
..... 61
Aire ......................................
..49
Aix-en-Provence ................................................ 45. 49. 55
Aix-la-Chapelle (see also Aachen) ........................... 13
Ajaccio ..........................................................
..................... 73
Ajdabiyah ..................................................................................... 24
Anun (city) ................................................................................... 79
Ajlun (Sanjak) ........................................................................... 79
Akbara .......................................................................... 21.37.60
Akhmim ........................................................................................ 27
Akkerman ................................................................................... 62
Aksum (city) ........................................................................ 2. 4
Aksum (kingdom) (see also Ethiopia) ........................ 4
Ala ................................................................................................ 73
Alaejos ............
........................................... 70
Alag6n .................
.............................. 41.42
................................... 16
Alans.. ....................................
Alatri ..
........... 73
Alawiya ............ ..........................
.................... 23
Alba (de Tormes) (in Spain) ........................ 41.47.69
Alba (in Italy) ................................................
... 73a
Albalate .........................................................
..... 47
Albalate de Cinca
....................................... 42. 47
Albarracin ...............................................
... 42. 69. 101
Albertirsa. ..........................
............................................ 2
Albesa ........................................................................................ 42

120

Albi ........................................................................ .
.49.53
Alcacer do Sal ................... .
....... 41.59
Alcala (see Akala de Henares)
Alcala de Guadaira ............................................................... 41
Alcala de Henares ....... 28.41.45.47.57.70.76.88
Alcala la Real ....
............................. 70a
Alcamo ..... ............................................................................. 73
Alcaiiiz
........................ 42.47.69.76
Alcantara ............................................................................. 41. 76
Alcara
.... 73
Alcaraz .................................................................... 47. 76. 101
Alcarras
................................ 47
Alcira .......... ............................
............................. 41.75
Alcolea de Cinca ...
....... 41.42.47
Alcoutim ......................................................................... 41. 59
Alcover ..................................
........................ 42
Alcoy..................
..................................................... 41
Alcudia .................................
............. 42
Aldenhoven
.................................................... 52
AI-Djar ................
.................... 17
Alen~on .....
........................................................... 49
Alenquer
............................................................. 41.75
Alentejo ............................
.......................... 59.92
Aleppo ...... 2. 33. 37. 38. 61. 62. 77. SO. 81. 82.113.
114
Ales..
.....................
............... 49
Alessandria ..
.................................................. 73a
Alessio ...............
..................................... 65
Alexandria ..... 1.2.5.10.17.22.24.27.37.38.39.
45.62.65.75. 77. SO. 84. 85. 91. 113. 116
Alfaro.. .......................
... 70
Alforga
......................................................... 42
Algarve (city)
.................................................. 59
Algarve (province) ..... ,.. .. .... ...............
............ 92
Algeciras
.......... 28
Algeria ............
... 76a. 82. 83
Aighero
.................................................... 73
Algiers ......................
..17.22.24.77.82.83.116
Alicante
............................... 2.41.69.76
Alife ...................................... 40. 73
Aljezur..
.............. 41.59
Aiken .............................................................................................. 52
AUariz ... ................................................................ 41. 69. 76
Alma ...
................................. 3. 23. 37. 79
Almaden ...................................................................... 69. 76. 92
Almagro .................................. 41.47.69.70.76.92
Almansa .................................
............. 70
Almazan ...................................................................... 47.69.70
Almeida (in Portugal) ............................................... 47. 92
Almeida (in Spain) ............................................... 47
Almeirim
..................................................... 91
Almeria .............................. 2. 28. 29. 54. 69. 70a. 76. 91
Almod6var
............................................... 91
Almod6var del Campo ....
........... 69
Alonei Mamre
........ 38
Alsace ..................
...................................... 49. 52. 95
Alsfeld ...........
...................................................... 67
Altamura ..
....................................................... 73
Altea .........
......................................................... 91
Altenahr ....................
....................................................... 52
Alter do Cho ............................................................... 41. 59
Altkirch ......... ......... ...............................
. ...... 52
Altleiningen ...
.......................................................... 52
Altomonte ..
................................................. 40. 73
Alvito .....
........................................................... 41. 59
Alvor ............................................................................... 41. 59
AIWajh . . .................................... 91
Alzey ...........
....................................................................... 52
Amalfi .............................................. 12.18.37.40.73
Amandola .
............................. 73
Amantea
.........................................
. ......... 73
Amasya .....
. ........................ 77
Arnata ...
.......................................................... 23
Amazon River
98. 116
Amberg .......
....................................................... 50
Amboise....
. .......................................................... 49
Amelia ............................................................................................ 73
America ..
......................................... 97. 116

Amida (Amadiya) ......................................... 1. 2. 20. 21

Amiens
............................................ 49.55
Amiros
...................................................................... 2
Amisus ...... ............................................................
........ 2
Amorbach ..
..................................................................... 52
Amsterdam
. 82. 86. 88. 92. 93. 96. 115. 116
Amu Darya River ....................................
................ 116
Amudim. Khirbet ..
..................... 3
Amur River ...................................
. 116
Anagni...
........................................... 73
Anatolia .....................................
....... 62
Anatu
....................................................... 2. 21. 37
Anbar (AI-) (see also Pumbedita) ................................ 60
Ancona ............ 2. 18. 35. 40. 73. SO. 81. 89. 102. 114
Ancyra (see also Ankara) ..................................... 1. 2. 5
Andalusia ..........
................... 70
Andelot ... ................................................
................... 49
Andernach ...................................................................... 46. 52
Andria ...... ................................
................... 73
Andujar ..................................................................... 28.57.69
.................... 44
Anduze ......................
Anemurium
................................................................. 2
Angers....................... .....................................................
..49
........................................................ 60
Angkor .......
Angora (see also Ankara) .
......... 63. 65. 77
Angou~me ....................
.. 49
Ani. Banu....... .........................................
......... 9
Anjou ...................... ...........................
........................... 49
Ankara (see also Ancyra. Angora)
.77. SO. 81
Ansbach
............................................
................... 51
Anti-Atlas Mts. .
............................ 24
Anticoli
........... 73
Antinoopolis .
............................................................ 2
... 2
Antiochia (in Asia Minor) .
Antiochia (in Syria) ........ 2. 5.13.17.22.32.33.35.
37.65
Antiochia (principality) ............................ ........... 33
Antwerp
... 88. 92. 96
Apamea (in Asia Minor) .....
.................. 1. 2
Apamea (in Syria) .................................................................... 2
Apheka
................ 2.3
Aphilon.
................................................... 37
Apollinopolis Magna ............................................................ 27
Apollonia (coast of Black Sea) .................................. 2
Apollonia (eastern Asia Minor)..
............. 2
Apollonia (Eretz Israel) .......
....... 6
Apollonia (Libya)
........................... 1. 2. 22. 24
Apollonia (western Asia Minor) ............................. 2
Apt ...................................................................................... 49
Apulia ............................................................................................. 18
Aqiq. Wadi .............................. .............
....................... 9
....... 23
Aqraba .....
Aquileia ......................................................................... 1. 2. 40
Aquitaine ...
..................... 49
Arabia ............................... 1.2.3.4.5.7.10.17.85.97
Arabian Sea .. ... ... .................
................................... 7
Aradus (see also Arwad)
....................... 2
Arag6n. Kingdom of ........... ..................... . .................. 69a
Arag6n ............................ 28. 29. 41. 42. 53. 69. 75. 76
Arbel .....................................................................
..... 3
Arbela (Erbil)
2. 21. 38. 60
Arbel Spring ... .
..................... 38
Arbois ...
. .................. 49
Arborio ....................................................................................... 73
Arb6s ...
..................... 42
Ardabil..
..................... 10
Arena...
..................... 73
Ares
............................................................... 41
Arevalo
............................................ 41.44. 69. 101
Arezzo
...........................
....................... 73
Argenta (see also Argento) ..
. ........... 73
Argento (see also Argenta) .................................. .... 44
Argos..
....................... 2
Ariana... ........................................
.................... 26
Ariano..
..................... 73
Ariccia ..
.. ..... 2. 73
Arinthod . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Ariza...
.. ................... 42

INDEX TO MAPS
Aries (Arelate) .. 2, 13, 14,22, 37, 38, 45,47,49,55
Arles-sur-Tech
.................................. 42
Armenia, Kingdom of ................................ ....... ....... 33
Armiro
............................ . ...................... 37
Arnedo
.............................................................. 41,70
Arnhem
..................................... 51
Arnstadt ..................................................................................... 51
Arnstein ... .....................................
.......... SO
Arronches ..............................................
................. 76, 92
Arsinoe
............................... 27
Arsuf ................................................................................... 33
Arta ..........
...... 37, 63, 78
Artaxata ..................................................................................... 1
Artesa (de Segre) ................................. 42
Arwad (see also Aradus) .... .... .. ............... ..... ....... 33
Arzignano . . . ................................ 73
Aschaffenburg . ............. ................. ........... 35, 52
Aschersleben ............................................
............ 66
Ascoli (Piceno) ......................................
........... 2,73
Ascoli (Satriano) ...............................
......... 37, 40
Ashdod ............................. ..... .......... 3, 33, 81
Ashir .............................................................. ................ 22,24
Ashkelon (see also Migdal) .... 3,33, 37, 38, 39, 62,
79
Ashkenaz ................................... . ... ..... 43, 44, 45, 46
Asia .......................... . ...
. .... ... 116
Asilah
..... 25, 76, 83
Asir
.............................. ..... 91
Asola
........................................................... 73
Assab ..................................................................... 91
Assenheim . ....... ..... .............. .............
......... 52
Asshur ........ .............. ..................... ......... 2, 21, 38
Assisi ...
.......................... 73
Assus ..... ........................................................................................ 2
Astorga ....... ............... ....... ... ...... 41,57, 69,101
Astrakhan ........................................................................ IS, 16
Asturias ...................................................................................... 13
Aswan ...
....................................... ..... 10,27, 91
Ataki
................................................ III
Atella .......................... ........................... 73
Aterno (see also Pescara) ........................................ 40
Athens ............................................... 2, 22, 37, 78,81, 113
Athribis ....................................................... 2, 27
Atienza ..................................................................................... 69
Atil (Itil) (river) ......
.................... 16
Atil (lIiI) (town) ...
. 15,16,17
Atlantic Ocean .................................................... 97, 98, 116
Atlas Mountains .................................................................. 24
Atlit
.............. ....... ......
............ 33
Atouguia (da Baleia) ....... ................................. 59
Atri ............ .............. ............................................... 73
Aub
............. SO,51
Aubagne ..
. .............................. 49
Auch (Elimberris) ............................ 2, 13
Augsburg ..................... SO, 51, 66, 67, 74, 88, 104, lOS
Augusta ....................................................................... 73
Augusta Vindelicorum (see also Augsburg) ........... 2
Aumale .................................................................................... 49
Aurach ................................................ .................... ............. 50
Austerlitz ..
...... 51, 106
Australia (see also New Holland) ............................. 116
Austria ...
..................... 43, 74
Auterive ............... ...... ............................................................ 49
Auxerre ......
.................................. 49
Auzia
.............................. 1,2
Auzon ........................................................................................... 49
Avallon .................................
.. ............................... 49
Avaricum ...................................................................................... 2
Avellino .............. ...................... ... .............. ...... 40
Avenio (see also Avignon) .. ..................................... 1
Aversa ...
............................. 73
Avigliana ..
...... 73a
Avignon (see also Avenio) . I, 2,44, 45, 47, 49, 54,
55, 74,75,91,92,115
Avila ................................ 41,44,47,57, 69, 70,76,101
Aviles ............................... ..................
................. 76
Avon River .......................................................................... 48
Aws, Banu ....... .................................................................... 9
Ayll6n
.............................. 70
Aytona ............................................................... 42
Ayyubid Sultanate ... ............................
38
Azemmour ................................... ........... ......................... 83

Azores Islands
Azrou

..........

97
.. .............. 83

B
Baalbek ...........
. . .. .............. ...... 33, 37
Babenhausen ........
................................................ 52
Babylon (in Egypt) ........................................................... 5, 10
Babylon (in Mesopotamia) ............................. 21, 37
Babylon (Kingdom 00 (Babylonia) ... .. .. . . 22, 45
Bacharach .................................. ............................... 35, 52
Badajoz (city) ....... 11, 28, 29, 41,47,69,70,76,91,
101
Badajoz (province) ... .................... ..... 28
Baden ......................................
...... 52, 68, lOS
Badenweiler ..
................ 2
Badia Polesina .............................................................. 73b
Bad Neustadt .......................................................................... SO
Bad Reichenhall ... ..
..... ... 51
Bad Windsheim (see Windsheim)
Baena ...
........................ .. .. ................... 28, 69, 70a
Baeza ..............................
............. 76
Baghdad, Caliphate of ........................................................ 13
Baghdad (city) .. 4, 7, 17, 20,21,22,37,38,45,77,
82,116
Bagnacavallo .......................................................................... 73
Bagnaia .................... . . . ................................ 73
Bagneres-de-Bigorre ........... ..............
. ........ 49
Bahia (see also Salvador) ......................... ........... 103
Baiersdorf ................. .............. ...... ................. 51
Baka .......................................................... 3
Bakhchisaray ..
. . .. . ........... 110
Bala ..
.......... .............................. 48
Balaklava
............................................................... 110
Balearic Islands . ......... 28,29,41,42,69, 101
Balikesir
......... .......................... ...... 78
Balkh . . . . . . ...
17,20,60
Ballobar .......................................................... 42
Baltic Sea ................. ................................ 56
Bamberg .............. 30,31,43, 46, SO, 67
Banias (see also Panias) ............................... 23, 33, 38
Bai'lolas ....... .... ... .............................
........ 41,42
Baqubah ........................................................ .......... 2, 21
Bar ...... ......... .................... .................. 111, 112
Barbados ................................................................................. 98
Barbastro
.................................... 28,41,42,69, 101
Barbonne-Fayel ................................................................... 49
Barca ................................................................. 10, 17,22,24
Barcelona (city) .. 11, 13, IS, 17,22,28,29,37,38,
39, 41, 42, 44, 45, 47, 54, 57, 65, 69, 69a, 75,
76,92,101
Barcelona (province) .................................................. 28, 29
Barcelos ................................................ .............. 41,59
Barge ...................... .. ...................................... 73a
Bari ..... ..... 2, 12, 18,22, 32,37,40, 69a, 73, 82
Barjols .................. ......................... 49
Barles ............................................................................................ 49
Barletta ........................................................................... 40, 73
Bar-sur-Aube .......................................................................... 49
Basel (see Basle)
Basle (Basel) .. 35,46,52,54,66,67,68,88,95, 104
BasqlJe Provinces ................................................................. 29
Basques ........................................................................... 11,29
Basra ............... 10, 17,20,21,22,37,38,60
Bassano ............... ...................................................................... 73
Bastia ......... ..................... ... . . . . . .
...... 73
Bastia Mondovi .............................. . ...... ...... ... 73
Batgendorf .............................................. ........... SO
Battipaglia .............. ................... ..................... 73
Baunach ............ ....................................................... so
Bavaria ................. ..... .............. ......... 66, 74
Bayeux .................................................................................. 49
Bayonne .................................................................................. 92
Bayreuth
................................................................. 51
Baza ................................. ... ............ 57,70, 70a, 76
Bazaliya
........... ............ ........... Ill, 112
Beaucaire ....................................................................... 44, 45
Beaumaris .................................................................................. 48
Bechyne .................... ................... ... ............ 106
Bedford .... . . . . . . . . .............. . .......... 35, 48
Beersheba .......... .......................................... 3, 6
........ 52
Beilstein .....................
Beira .................................... 59, 92

Beirut (Berytus) .............. 2, 33, 35,61,62,65, 80,81

Beja (in Portugal) .............................. 28,41,47,59,91
&!ja (in Tunisia) ............. . .. ......... .. ... ... ...... 26
Bejaia .......... . . . . . . ................................... 83
&!jar . . .. ..... . .. .......... .. ...... .. ... 41,47,76
Belaguer ... . ... ......................... ,...................... 28, 42, 69
Belalcazar .................................................. 41, 69, 92, 101
Belaya Tserkov
................ Ill, 112
Belcastro .... . ................................................................... 40, 73
Belfort (in France) ........................................................... 49
Belfort (in Germany) ..
..................................... 52
Belgium
................................................ 82,96
Belgrade
......... 22,32,35, 77, 78,81, 82, 85
Bellpuig
............................ 42
BeUuna
.................................................... 73
Belmonte
..................................... 41,59
Belorado ............ .................................... 28,41
Belshite ............................................................. 69
Belvis ...... ...................... .................................... 70
Belz .. . ... . . . . . . ............ ....... . . . . . 111, 112
Bembibre ........................................... ... ........ 41,76
Benavente ........................................................ 41, 47,57,70
Bene ..
. .. .........................
............. 73a
Bene Berak .................................... ... .....
............... 33
Benevento (see also Beneventum) .. 13, 18, 37, 40,
73
Beneventum (see also Benevento) .............................. 2
Benfeld ........................... ...................................... 52, 95
Bengal, Bay of
........................................... 99
Bengal (province) ................... ........ . . . . ............. 99
Ben Gardane ...........................
.......................... 26
Benghazi .......... ................................ . ... ........ 62
Benha ...................................................................................... 84
Benitachell ...................................... ... ................. ...... .. 47
Bensheim ................................................................................... 52
Berat ........................................................................................... 78
Berching .. .
............................................... 50
Berdichev
.................................. 111, 112
Berenice ................................................................................ 2
Berestechko
.......................................................... 111
Berezhany .... ...... ........ ........ ...... ..... ... ....... ...... ... ... ... ... ...... 111
Berga ................................. ............... .............................. 42
Bergamo ................................................................... 73
Bergheim (in Alsace)
........ . ............ 52
Bergheim (in Germany)
.............................. 52
Berkhamsted ............................
... 48
Berlanga (de Duero) ................................ 41,47,69
.. 88, 105
Berlin. .................... .... ....... ...
Bernay ....................................................................................... 49
Berne (Bern)...... . ............. 35, 46,51, 54,68
Bernkastel .. ... .................. ... .............................. .. .. . .. 52
Beroea ................................................................................ 2, 63
Bershad .. .... ................. ........ ... ..... .... ... ... ....... ... ..... ............... 111
Bertinoro
........... .......................... 62, 73
Besalu
................. ..... 28,41,42,69
Besanc;on ................................ ..................... 46, 49
Bet Alta .................... ...... . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. 3
Bet Guvrin ..................................... 3,23, 33,37,61
........
33, 37,39
Bethlehem
Bethsaida.............. ...... ... . ..................................... 79
Bet She'an (see also Scythopolis) .......... 3,6,39,62
Bet She'arim ....................................................................... 3, 4
Bettona ..................................................................................... 73
BetYerah ......................................................................... 3
Beuel ......................................................................................... 52
Bevagna ....................................... .............................................. 73
Beziers .......... ...... .. 11 , 14, 37,44,45,49, fB
Biala
.........................
III
Bianze ..................................................................................... 73a
Biarritz ..................................................................................... 69
Biedenkopf .............................................. SO, 52
Biel .
....
. . . . . 42,51,68
Biella ............................................................. .............................. 73
Bigarella
......... .. ...... . . . . . . 73b
Bilbao .................................... ................. ........... 76
Bilbeis (see also Qulzum)
....... 37,62, 77, 84
Bilgoraj ................................. . ........ Ill, 112
Bilkan ................. .......................................... ....... 16
Bingen .................................................................................. 46, 52
Biram .......................................................................................... 2
Biriya
................
................. 23, 79
Birzai
.............................................................. 87
Bischheim . .................................. .... .... 95
Bischwiller ........ ................................................................. 52

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INDEX TO MAPS
Bisena .........................................
................ 37
Bisignano
.............................. 40, 73
Biskra
.................................... 83
Bistagno . .............................................. ................. ........... 73a
Bitonto ........... ............ ....................................
...... 73
Bivona .. ...............................
............................... ............ 73
Bizerte..
.............. 26
Bizra ........... ..........................
............... 21
Bizya
............................................... ......... 2
Black Bulgars
............................. 16
Black Sea
.................... 5,15,16,17,54,65,116
Blankenburg
.......................... 51
Blaszki ....................... ........
...... 111
Blaubeuren ............................... ..............................
...... 46
B1aundus .................................................................................... 2
Blesae (see also Blois)
...... 35,55
Blois (county) ............. .........................
........... 49
Blois (see also B1esae)
........................... 49
Bobruisk
....... 111
Bochnia
...................................... 56, 110
Boguslav..............................
.......... III
Bohemia (see also Bohmen) ..
........... 62, 66, 106
BOhmen (see also Bohemia)
............... 43
Bolekhov ....................................
................ III
BoIIene ....
.................. ........... ..... 49
Bologna (see also Bononia) ...... 18,40, 73b, 88, 89,
91
Bolzano (see also Bozen) .......
...... 73
Bombay .................................................
............... 116
Bondeno ...............
............................... 73b
Bone ..
............................. 83
Bonn (see also Bonna) .................................. 30, 46, 52
Bonna (see also Bonn) ............................................... 2, 43
Bonneval
................. 49
Bononia (see also Bologna) ......
........... 2
Bopfingen ....
...........................
..... 51
Boppard ..
................................................................. 52
Bordeaux
....................... 2, 13,49, 53, 55, 92
Borgoforte
............. 73b
Borgonovo Tidone .........
.................................... 73
Borgo San Lorenzo .....
............... 73
Borgo San Martino .......
............... 73a
Borispol .... ........................
................................... 112
Borja ...................
.............................. 42
Borlu
............ 78
Borneo
.............. 97
Boskovice .......................................................................... 106
Bosnia ..............................................
.............. 108
Bosporus (Strait) .....
...... 64
Bostra ....
........... 7, 23
BouiUon ........................... ........................
................... 32
Bourges ................ ........................
14, 32, 49
Bouxwiller ...........................
95
Bozen (see also Bolzano) ......... ..
.......... 67
Bra
............................... ......... 73a
Bracon ..
............. 49
Braga~a .. ..........................
........... 41, 59, 76, 92
Bragin ........................................ ........................ ........... 111, 112
Brahmaputra River ........
........................ 99, 116
Brailov ................................
........................... ............. 111
Braine .................................
.............. 49
Brandenburg ......................
........................ 66, 105
BrandYs ...........................................
........................... 106
Braflsk ...... .....................................
........ 111
Bratislava (see Pressburg)
Braubach ........................................
.............. 52
Braunau ................
....... 46,51
Braunschweig ..............
...................... 51,105
Braysur-Seine .......... ........................
................ 49
Brazil ......
....... 98, 103
Brega .......................................
. 17,24
........... 52
Breisach.. ..............................
Bremen ..............
51,54
Bremgarten .............................................................................. 68
Brescello ...............
.................................................... 73b
Brescia .................................................................. 2, 40, 73, 88
Br~t Kujawski ..................................
............. 111
Breslau ................................................... 51,66,67,74,106
Bressuire .................................................................................. 49
Brest Litovsk (BrzeSC)
... 56, 110, 111, 112
Bretten ..........................
........... 52
Brettheim ..................
............................................. 51

Bretzenheim
........................... ........................... 52
Breval
.... 49
Breznice ...............................................
............ 106
Bridgnorth
............................................. 48
Brieg (Brzeg)
... 51, 66, 106
Brihuega .........................
.. .............. 41
Brindisi .............................. 2, 12, 18, 19,32,37,40,73
Bristol.............. .........................
.. 35, 48, 54, 92, 93
Brittany ..................................
.................................... 49
Briviesca ................
.... 41,57,69, 70
Brixen (Bressanone)
........... 67
Brno (see also BrOnn)
.................................... 106
Brody ................. ........... ....... 111,112
Bruchsal ...........
................ 52
BrUhl ....... ............
.. ........................ 52
Brunau ...... ...............................
........................ 51
BrUnn (see also Brno) ........ ................... 51,66,67, 106
Brusasco .... ...........................
................. 73a
Brusilov ..................
.............. 111
Brussels (BruxeUes)
................... 46, 54, 105
Brzeziny ........................
......... 111
Bubastis ................................
........................................ 27
Buchach (see also Buczacz) ................................. 56
Bucharest ......
..........................
.... 103, 116
Buchen .....
............................
................... 52
Bucovice
............................................................ 106
Buczacz (see also Buchach) .......................... Ill, 112
Buda (see also Pest, Budapest) .............. 77, 81, 108
Budapest (see also Buda, Pest) ................................. 116
BOdingen ........ ................................................................. 52
Budrio ............................................................ ........ 73
Buenos Aires .......
..................... 97
Bug River
..... 111,112
Buitrago
......................
...... ...... 41,47,69
Bujalance
................................. 69
Bukhara
...................................... 60
Bungay ..
...................................... 35, 48
Burgau .
...................................... ................ 51
Burgbemheim ...
........................................................... 51
Burgdorf ............................................. 68
Burghausen ................................................................................ 51
Burgkundstadt ............................................
..... 50
Burgos ...... 11,28,29,41,44,47,57,69,70,76,92,
101
Burgundy ..........................
.... 49
Burion (Boreum) ..
.... 1,2,24
Burriana .........................
.................... 41
Bursa ..... ..............................
........ 63, 74, 78, SO
Buryats ..................
........................ .. 16
Bury St. Edmunds ......
...................... ............. 35, 48
Busca .... ............................ ..............................
......... 73a
Busiris ..............................
.............. 27
Buzi~ .......... ......................................

108

Bydgoszcz
............................................................ III
Byzantine Empire (see also Eastern Roman
Empire) .................
....... 2, 4, 5, 10, 15
Byzantium (city) (see also Constantinople) ........... 2

C
Caccamo.........
......................................... 73
Caceres .......
............... ...... 41, 70, 76
Cadiz (city) ......
.28,41,69,75
Cadiz, Gulf of ..........................
.................. 59
Caen ..................... ...........................
................ 49
Caerleon
......................................................................... 48
Caesarea (in Eretz Israel) .......... 3,6,10,33,37,39
Caesarea (in Algeria)
..... 1, 2
Caesarea (in Turkey) ...
........... 1,5
Cagli .....
.. ............. 73
Cagliari ............... ........... 2, 12, 18, 40, 69a, 73
Cairo .......... 37, 38, 39,45,62,65,77, SO, 84,88, 91,
113, 115, 116
Calabria. .... ........... ........ ...
.................................... 18
Calaceite .......
................................. .... 47
Calahorra
..................................... 41,69,76, 101
Calais
................... 54
Calascibetta .
........................ 73
Calatayud ........ 2,11,28,38,41,42,47,69,76,101
Calatrava ...... ...........................
..................... 28, 29
Calcutta
...................................................... 97, 99
Caldas de MombUy .....................
................ 42
Calicut ...
....................................
........... 97

Calizzano .......................
................ 73
Calneh ...................................
. ..... 38
Caltabellotta ...
...................... 73
Caltagirone .......... ........ .........
... . ....................... 73
Caltanissetta ......
............ 73
Caluso ..................... .......................................
.............. 73a
Camaiore ...........
...................................
........ 73
Camarasa ................................................................................ 42
Cambil....................
............................
.... 70a
Cambridge (see also Cantabrigia) .......... 35, 43, 48
Camerino ..................... .............
.......................... 73
Cammarata .....
.......... 73
Campania ..................... ............ .. ....................................... 12
Campobasso .............
........ 73
Campo do Calatrava .....
........................ 101
Campo Major .............. ...................................
...... 91,92
Camposampiero ...........................
..................... 73
Camprod6n ...........
.............. 42,47
......
..... 73a
Canale.
Canary Islands ................................................... 97, 101, 103
Candela ............................................................................ 40, 73
Candia ..................
... 35,44, 63, 65, 78, 81, 85, 86
Canelli
.......................................................... 73a
Cannes ....
.............................. 49
Canneto .....
............................... 73b
Canopus .................................
........................ 27
Canta
............................................... 83
Cantabrigia (see also Cambridge) .............................. 43
Canterbury .......................
.. 35, 48
Canytela..
.................................. 2
Capestang .........................
.................................. 44, 49
Capriata ........
..... 73a
Capua..
.1,2,12, 18,37, 40, 44, 69a, 73
Carbonne ................. ........................
..... 49
Carcare ................. ............................
........ 73
Carcassonne ..........
............................... 14, 44, 49, 53
Cardela ...................
..................................................... 703
Cardica
.................................... .. 37
Cardiff ..................................................................................... 104
Cardona...............................
......................... 42
Carentan ..........................
................................... 35, 49
Caribbean Sea .................
......................................... 98
Carignano ........................
. .................... 73a
Carrnagnola ...................
........................... 73a
Carmona ...................
..... 28, 41, 57, 69, 70
Carpentras .......
...... 45, 49
Carpi ..........................
................. 73b
Carri6n
....................... 41
Cartagena (in Colombia) ........................................... 103
Cartagena (in Spain) ........ 11,28,41,69, 70, 75, 76,
91, 101
Carthago (Carthage) ..
............. 1, 2
Carthago Nova
.................................................. 2
Casale Monferrato ....
..................... 73a
Casalmaggiore .................
....................... 73b
Casalmorano ......................................................................... 73
Casaloldo ...
.............................. ..... 73b
Casar de Palomero ..
....................... 41
Casarrubios ......................................
........................ ...... 41
Casimir (see also Kazimierz)
............ 111
Casium ................................ .................................
.... 2
Caslav ................................ .................................
..106
Caspian Sea ............................................. 5,15,16,17,116
........................... 73
Cassano.............
Castelbelforte .................................................................. 73b
Castel Bolognese.
..................... 73
Castel d'Ario ................................................................... 73b
Castelfidardo ................
.......... 73
Castelfranco .................................................................... 73b
Castelfranco Veneto ...................
..................... 73
Castel Goffredo .............................
.................. 73b
Castellammare ......... .........................
......... 73
Castellane ....................... ....................... ........................ ... 49
Castellaro
............... 73b
Castell' Arquato ..........................
... 73
Castell6n de Ampurias ......................... ..... 41, 42, 47
Castell6n de Farfailo .....
... 42
Castell6n de Ia Plana ........................................ 41, 63
Castellucchio
................................. 73b
Castelnovo di Sotto . ..................................................... 73b
Castelnuovo
........................ ........................ 81
Castelnuovo di Porto
....... 73
Castelo Branco .... ...........................................
... 47, 92
Castelo Rodrigo
....... 59, 76

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INDEX TO MAPS
Castelponzone .............................................................. 73
Castel Porziano ....
..................................... 2, 40
Castel San Pietro ..........................
.................... 73
Castelsarrasin .............
............................ 49, 53
Castelvetrano ..
........................ 73
Castel Voitumo .................................................................. 40
Castiglione ..................................................
.. 73
Castiglione d. Stiviere .................................................. 73b
Castiglione Montovano .............
............... 73b
Castiglion Fiorentino ........................................................... 73
Castile, Kingdom of ......... 29, 41, 69, 69a, 70, 75, 76
Castrocaro .......................................... ................................ 73
Castrojeriz .......................... . ................. 28, 41, 69, 70
Castro Marim ...
.................... 41,59,92
....................... ................... 73
Castronuovo ......
Castroreale
................. 73
Castro Urdiales ............
........................... 76
Castrovillari .........................
........................... 40, 73
Cata ..... ..............................
.............. 108
Catalonia, Kingdom of ...
...... ............... 42, 69
Catania
............. 2, 12, 18,22, 40, 73
Catanzaro ...................................................................... 40, 73
Cattaro
.............................. 81
Caudebec-en-Caux ...
....................................... 49
Cava de' Tirreni .................................................................. 73
Cava9ia ......... ...... _....... ............ .... ... ....................... 73a
Cavaillon ............................ ...................................... 47,49
........................................ 73a
Cavallermaggiore ...
Cave ....................................................................................... 73
Cavour .
................................................................. 73a
Cavriana ............................................................................ 73b
Ceara .......................................................................................... 98
Cefalu..
....... ......... ... . 73
Celico..
.......................................... 73
Celje ........... .......................... ...................................... 66
Cento ..................................... .............
. 73b
Ceresara .. ... .................................................
. 73b
Cerigo (Kithira)
................................... 81
Cervera
....................... 41,42,47,69
Cerveteri .. .
........................................................ 2
Cervia .....
........................................ 73
Cesena
............................................ 73
Ceuta
........................................................ 24, 25, 83, 101
Ceva ...... .................................................
.................... 73
Ceylon ...........................................................
................. 99
Chalcis.......... .....
....... 37, 78
Chalons-sur-Marne ........................................
.......... 49
Chalon-sur-SaOne ..................................... ... 2, 14,49, 55
Cham ...
......................................................
........ 51
Champagne ................................................................... 49
Champagnole ................................................................. 49
Chantemerle
............................................ 49
Chaource .......... ................... .. .... ...................... .............. 49
Charles' Kingdom .
..................................... 14
Charray ...........
. .......................... 49
Chartoriysk (Staryy Chartoriysk)
........ 111
Chartres ............................... .............................................. 49
Chateaudun ..
............. 49
Chateau-Landon ...
................................................. 49
Chateauneuf-sur-Loire ..................................
...... 49
Chateaurenard (-Provence) .......................... .............. 49
Chateau-Thierry .................. ...................................... 49
Chatellerault ...........................................
......... 49
Chatenois ............................................................................ 52
Chaumont-en-Bassigny . . . . . ................ 49
Chaumont-en-Vexin ........................................... ...... 49
Chauny .......................
........ ..... ........................... 49
Chaussin ... ................. ................... ... ............. 49
Chaves ....................................................... 41,59
Chechelnik ................................................ 111
Ch~ciny ..
............................... 111
Checy ..
.. ........................................ 49
Chelm ...
..................................... 56, 111, 112
Chelva ...
.........................
............... 41
Cherasco ...
....................... ..................... 73a
Cherchel ... ................................. ..... .......... 76a, 83
Chernigov ...................................................... 111, 112
Chemobyl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Chiaromonte ..
........... ............................... 73
Chichester ..... ........................ . . . ........................ 35, 48
Chieri ..
...
.
73a
Chieti
... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Chigirin
.......................... . .. .. .. 112
Chile .................. ........... .............. ..
...... 97
Chill6n . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 41,69,92
ChiOon ...................
...................... 54, 68
China .............
..... 60, 97
Chinon .....
............................ 43, 49, 53, 55
Chios ........ .. ... ......
........ 37, 63, 78, 81, 85
Chiusi. . .... 73
Chivasso
........................
................. 73a
Chodziez ............................................................................ 111
C h o j n i k i ............ .......... 111
Chomsk (Khomsk)
........................................ 111
Chorazin ............................................................................. 3, 79
Choroszcz .....
.......... 111
Chotebor ... .. .. ..................................
..... 106
Christopolis ................................................. 37
Chrysapolis ...................................
........... 2
Chudnov ....
.......................... 111, 112
Church, States of the (see also Papal States,
...... 18, 85,89, 102
States of the Church) .....
Ciechan6w
......................................... 111
Ciechanowiec ........ ........................................................... 111
Cifuentes ... . .......................................................................... 49
Cigliano ...... .............................................................. 73a
Ciminna ...................... ...................................... 73
Cingoli
............................................................. 73
Circesium
.......................... 2, 20, 21, 37, 60
Cine ......... .. .. . . . . . . . . . . ...
....... 73a
Cirta .... .................... ....... ............................ 2, 22, 24
Cisneros
......................... .........................
.. 41
Cittadella .....
.... 73
Citta della Pieve ..
.......................... ............... 73
Citta di Castello
....................... ....... 62, 73
Cittaducale
.............................................................. 73
Ciudadela
.......................................................... 42
Ciudad Real
......... 41,57,69,101
Ciudad Rodrigo .. . . . . ........ 41, 69, 76, 101
Cividale del Friuli ..
....... 73
Civita Castellana .............................................................. 73
Civitanova
......................
............ 73
Civitavecchia
.................................................... 2, 40
Clermont (-Ferrand) ..
.. 2,13,32,49,55
Clisson . .... ................................................. 39, 43, 49
Clusium .....
......................................... 2
Cnidus .......... .............................. .....
........ 2
Coburg..
......................................................... 46,51
............... 41
Cocentaina
Cochem ......... ..........
. ............... 52
Cochin ..
.... 99, 116
Coimbra .. ...... ........... 28, 29, 41, 59, 69, 76, 91, 101
Colchester ................. ...
............. 48
Colchis .. .......................................
.......... 2
Colle di Val d'EJsa ............... ..... 73
Colmar ........................... .... 49, 51, 52, 54, 66, 95, 105
Cologna Veneta .............................................. 73b
Cologne (KOln, Colonia) ............. 1,2,14,17,20,22,
30,31,32,35,43,44,46,52,54,66,67,74,88,
105,116
Colomo
.................................................... ............ 73b
Comiso.
.............................................................. 73
Como
........ ..................................................... 73
Compiegne ......
....................................... 55
Concordia .................................... . ............................. 2, 40
Condom ........................................................................... 49, 53
Conegliano ..
............ ..................... 73
Congo River ..
................ 116
Constantina ... ....................... .... ...................
........ 41
Constantine ..... ......................... ...........................
....... 83
Constantinople . 4, 5,10,15,17,20,22,32,35,37,
44,54, 60,63,64,77
Contantinopolis (see also Constantinople) ............ 1
........................................... 73
Conversano
Conwy
......... ................................... 48
Copenhagen ..
............... 88
Copertino
.......... ........................... 73
Corato .................
......................................... 73
Corbeil ........
......................... ...................... 43, 44, 49
C6rdoba (Caliphate)
.........
. ........ 29
C6rdoba (Emirate) ..
.................................... 13
C6rdoba ...... 1,2,11,15,17,20,22,28,29,37,41,
47, 57, 69, 69a, 70, 70a, 71, 76,92,101
Coreglia .... ..... ........ ..... .....
..... 73

Corfu .................. 37, 62, 63, 65, 78, 81, 82, 114
Cori .................................. .....................
. ......... 81
Coria .............................................. 69,70, 76, 101
Corigliano ..
................................................... 40, 73
Corinaldo ............................................................................ 73
Corinth (Corinthus)
........................... 2,37,63,78
.... 73
Corleone ....
Correggio ... . .......................
.... 73b
Corsica
......... 18, 40, 65, 69a, 73, 89, 102
Cortemilia ..................
........................... ...... 73a
Cortona
........................
..... 73
Corycus (in Cilicia) .................
. ........................... 2, 37
Corycus (in Pamphylia) ...
.......... 2
..' 2, 63, 78
Cos ............................. .. . ... ... .... ... .......
Cosenza
.................... 40, 73
Cosne-sur-Loire ........................... ............................. 49
Couey ......
.................................................... 43
Couey-ie-Chateau Aulfrique .... .................................. 49
Coulommiers .......................................
....... 49
Courland
.... 104
Courson (-Ies-Carrieres) . ................................. ....... 49
Courson...
........................................
....... 43
Coutances
..................................
....... 49
Coventry .....................
........................................ 48
Covilh! ................................. ..... 41,59
Crac des Chevaliers ........................................................... 33
Cracow (Krak6w) .............. 56,86,88,110,111, 116
Cranganur ......................
....... 99
Creglingen .................................................................. 50
Crema ........
. .................................. 73
Cremona
...... . ........... 40, 73, 88, 89
Crescentino ....
........ .. ............. .
............ 73a
Crest .....
...................................
....... 47,49
............................. 62, 63, 77, 78, 80
Crete ...
Creussin ........................................................... ........................ 51
Crevalcore
....................................
.. 73b
Crimea ..................... ..............................
........ 81, 110
Crotone ..
.................................... 40, 73
Crozant ..........................................................
........... 49
Ctesiphon
.................. 1,2,4,5,7,10, 21
Cuba .. .......................... ......................... .................. 98, 116
Cu~Uar ........................................................................ 41,57
...... 28,41,57,69,76, 101
Cuenca
Cuers.. ..........................................
....... 49
Cullar de Baza ......... .................... .
............ 47
Cuneo..
............................................................... 73
Cuorgne
........................................................... 73a
Curat;ao ....................................................................
....... 98
Curitiba ..
. ............ .......... ......................... 98
Cuzco
..........................
................... 97
Cyprus ................................................................. 1,77,80
........................ 1, 2, 24
Cyrene .................... ...................
Cyzicus ..
...................................... 2

D
Dabbura ...........
......... 3
Dabiya ....
.......... 3
Dachau ...
....... 51
Dalton ....................... ......... ......... ............. 3, 23, 79
Dama ............................................................................................. 2
Damanhur ................................................................................. 84
Damascus (city) .... 1,2,5,7,10,17,20,22,23,32,
33,37,38,45,61,62,65,77,80,81,85,86,88,
91,114,116
Damascus, Emirate of ............
....... 33
Damietta (see also Dumyat) ........ 35,37, 38, 65
Dampierre .. ......................... ............. ...... ...... .. 43, 44, 49
Dan .............................
................................. 23
Danube River .. 1,5, 10, 17,31,32,35,51, 108, 116
Danzig (see also Gdansk) ................ 54, 56, 92,111
Daphnae ..
............ ........................ 27
Daroca
.......... 28,41,42,69, 101
Darum .....................................................
........................ 33
David Gorodok
......... ................... ............... 111
Dead Sea . . .......... ....... .................. . 3,79
Deccan ......................................................
...... 99
Dedan ... ...................................................
............... 7,8
Deggendorf ....................................... . ................ 51, 67
Deidesheim ............................ ....................... 52
Delhi ........... .
.......... .. . ........ 99, 116
Delle ...
.. .............................................. 52
Delphi ........... .. .......
......... 2
Denia ............................................................ 28, 69, 76
Denmark ........
........................................... . ... 104

123

dlqitalia
'/OWN Cgil"

u JG

INDEX TO MAPS
Derazhno (see also Derazhnya) ............................. 111
Derazhnya (see also Derazhno) .................................. 87
Derbent
........................... 1, 10, 15, 16
Derby
........................................ 48
Dertosa (see also Tortosa in Spain) ............................ 2
Deruta ......................................................................................... 73
Desna River
...........................
....... 111,112
................... 88
Dessau .............................
Devizes ..........................
.. 35, 48
Dhidhim6tikhon .................................................................... 78
Dibse (Thapsacus) .........................................
37
Dieburg ..................................................................................... 52
Dieppe
....................................................
.... 49
Diessenhofen ......................................................... 52, 66, 68
Diez ............................................................................................... 52
Digne ..
.... 47,49
Dijon .....
..... 2,49,55
........... 3
Dikka, Khirbet ed ......... ........ .................
Dillingen ..............................................................
........... 51
Dimeira ......................................... ....................
........ 84
Dingolfing ...............................................
....... 51
DinkelsbUhl .............................. ........................
... SO
Dinslaken ..........................................................
............ 52
Diospolis (see also Lod) ..................................................... 6
.....................................
.......... 55
Dittenbrunn
Dnestr River ........................................................ 56, 111, 112
Dnieper River ........ 15,16,17,38,60,111,112,116
Dobromil ................................................................................... 111
Dobrzyn (Golub-Dobrzyn) ....
... 111
Docimium
....... 2
DOle ......................................................................
...... 49
Domfront .................................................................
......... 49
Don River
............................. 15, 16, 116
Donaueschingen
.... 67
DonauwOrth .................................................................... 46,51
Dorfen ........................................................................................ 51
Dormagen
................................................................... 52
Dormans .................................................................................. 49
Dortmund ............................ .............................
51, 52
Dorylaeum ..............................................
.... 2
Dourdan .....
................................ 49
Douro River (in Portugal) (see also Duero) ........ 59
Dover, Strait of .................................................................... 48
Draguinan
..................................... 49
Drama ................................................................................. 37, 63
Dresden ........
............................................... 51,54
....... 43, 49
Dreux ................................
Drogobych
......................... 56,111
Drohiczyn
........................ ...... 111
Drosendorf ...................................................................... 51
Druze ... ...........................
.......................................... 61
Dublin ................
................... 54, 92, 93, 116
Dubno ........................
....... 56,111,112
................................................................... 51
Duderstadt
Duenas
........................... ......................................... 41
Duero River (Spain) (see also Dooro) ... 11,28, 29
Duisburg ................................................................................... 52
Dukla .......................................................................................... 111
Dulcigno (Ulcinj) .............................................. 113, 114
DUlken ........................................................................................... 52
Dumyat (see also Damietta) .................................. 84, 91
Dunstable ....................
............................................. 35, 48
Dun-sur-Auron ....................................................................... 49
Dura (-Europos) ......................................................... 2,5,21
Durango..........................
...................................... 69
Durazzo ....................................................................... 35, 63, 78
DUren ............................................................................................. 52
DUrkheim (Bad Dilrkheim) ............................................. 52
DUmstein ............................................................................... 46
Durosturum .....
...........................
.... 2
................................... 51
Dilrrwangen ................................
Dvina River .......................................................................... 110
Dvorets ............................................... ...................................... 111

E
Eastern Roman Empire ....... ....................................... 1
Ebba Ksour .........................................
.. 26
Eberbach .........................
......................................... 52
Ebermannstadt ...................................................................... 50
Ebern...................
.. .............. 51
Eboli...
.. ................................................ 73
Ebro River
............ 11, 28, 29

124

Ecbatana (Hamadan) ... ...................... 1, 2, 5, 21, 22

~c~r ............................................................. 47
ECI)a .................
............................... 41, 65
......... 1,2,5,32,33,35
Edessa (city)
Edessa, County of .............................................................. 33
Edfu .................................................................................................. 2
Edrei ........................................
.............. 2,7,22,23,61
Eger (Cheb) . . . . . ............................ 51, 66, 106
Eggenburg ..........
............ 51
Eggenfelden ...
.............................................
...... 51
Eggolsheim ................................................................................ SO
Egna...........
.............................................. 73
Egypt ......
.... 1,10,17,27,45,82,85,91
..... 51
Ehingen .... ....................... ...........................
Ehrenburg ....
............... 52
Echstatt ..
................................................. SO
Ein Ganim (see also Jenin) .... .................................... 79
EinGedi ....................................................................................... 3
Ein Tiraya ...........
...................................... 79
Ein Zeitim ................
........................................ 23, 79
Eisenach ..................
.................................................... 51
Eisenstadt.
............................... 51, 108
Ejea .............................
................ 41,42
Elaea ..........................
........... 2
..7,32,33
Elath ............
Elbe River ...........
...........................
...... 51, 106
Elbeuf .................................................................................. 49
El Burgo (de Osma) .............................................. 41, 101
Elche ...........
................................... 11,41
Elephantine ............................
....... 27
Elimberris (see also Auch) .....
.............................. 2
Ellwangen ......................
.................. SO
Eltville .... .....................
. ............................................. 52
Elvas ............................................
..... 41,47,59,76
Elvira (see also Granada) ............................. 1, 2, 11,28
Emerita Augusta(see Merida) ........
... 2
Emmerich ..................... .......................
................... 52
Empoli ........................... _.................
........................... 73
Endingen (Alsace)
..................................... 52,66
Endsee 50
England .....................
. 43, 48, 74, 75, 93, 97
English Channel
.......................................... 48, 93
Enheim..............................
............................................. 52
Enna
..................................................... 73
En Nashut .....................
........................................... 3
Ennezat ..................................................................................... 49
Enns.................
............................................... 66
Ensisheim ...........
................................... 39,49, 52, 66
Epernay ..................................................................................... 49
Ephesus ...............
................................................. 1,2, 78
Eppingen .............................................................................. 52
Erdberg ............
.............................................................. 51
Erding .............
......................................... 51
Eretz Israel (Palestine, Holyland) ..... 22,39, 44, 45,
60,61,81
................... 44, 46, 50, 54, 66, 67
Erfurt ....................
Erkelenz .
........................................................ 52
Erlau ......................
............................................ 67, 108
Erstein ............ ........................
.................................. 52
Escalona ................
.11,41,57,69,70
Eshtemoa.........................
............... 3
Essen............................
............... 52
Esslingen ......
................................... 46,51,52,67
Estadillo ......... ...... ........... ........... ....... ................... .......... 42, 70
Este ......................
................................. 73
Estella ..................................................... 28, 41, 69, 76, 101
Estrernadura .................................................................. 59,75
Estremoz ....................... ............................................ 41,65
Esztergom (see also Gran) .......................................... 108
Etampes .........................................
............... 49
Ethiopia (see also Aksum) ................................... 4,7,91
Ettenheim ........................................
....................... 52
Etterdorf ..........................
............................. 95
Euboea........
...................................................................... 63
Eumeneia ...................................................................................... 2
Euphrates River .............. 5, 7, 13, 17,21,33,60,116
Euripos ............................ .........................
.... 44
Europe...............
......................................................... 116
Euskirchen ............................. ..................................
52
Evlayim..... ..........................
................ 3
Evora .............
............. 28,41,47,59,69,91, 101
Evpatoria ......
.................. 110

Evreux ........
.................................................. 43, 49
Exeter ...... ................................................
........................ 48
Ezion-geber .... ...................................................................... 4

F
Fabriano .......
........................ 73
Fadak..............
. ................. 7,8
Faenza ...
...... 73
Falaise ...
................................................................... 43, 49
Falerii .....
......................................................................... 2
Falkenstein ..
........................ 51
Falset .................. ............................... 47
Famagusta
.................................... 35, 62, 65, SO, 81
Fano.. ........................
........ 73
Fararna ....................................
................. 17,37
......................... 84
Fariskur .................................................
Faro .......
.41,44,47,59,69,88,92
...........................................
........ 17
Fars......
Fatehpur. ...................................................
........................ 99
Favria ..........
................................................ ............... 73a
Fayum (Depression) ......
.... 84
Fayum (Faiyum)
.. 1,2,22,27,37,84
Feas ..............
.......... 47
Fecamp ..... ..............................................
..49
......................................... 42
Felanitx .... ...........................
Feldkirch ........... .......................
...... 51
Feldsburg ...................................................
........ 51
Feltre .........
............................................. 73
Fermo .... ........................................
....... 73
Ferrara ......................... 2, 18, 40, 45, 62, 73, 86, 88, 89
Ferrette ...
....................... .... ....... .... ...........
....... 52
Fes .. 10, 17,20,22,24,25,44, 76a,83,86,88, 116
Feuchtwangen
..........................
..... 51
Fidenza.........................
.................................. 73
Figueras. ...... ..... .......
. 41, 42
Finale Emilia .........
................................................. 73b
Fiorenzuola d'Arda .. .......................................
......... 73
Fismes .......................... ..........................................
..... 49
Fiume ......................................................
... 108
Flanders ...................
...................................... 46, 75
Flint.............................. .............................
................. 48
Florence (Firenze) ........................... 44, 54, 73, SO, 116
Florina
............................................
......... 78
Floss
..................................................................... 51
Foggia ................................................................................. 40, 73
Foligno
........................ 73
Fondi .......
.. 2, 40, 73
Fontanetto ........................................................................... 73a
Forcalquier ................................................
.. 49
Forchheim ..
........................ 50
Forchtenberg ..... ".
......................... .. ........................ 50
Forli......................
.......................
.. ......................... 73
Fort S1. George (see also Madras)
....... 99
Fortuna...
.. ....................... 47
Fossano ....... .............................................
.. ............ 73a
Fossombrone
................ 73
Fraga ................ ,..
........ 41, 42, 69
France ........ 17,43,44,45,49,53,55,74,75,82,97
Franche-Comte
.................. 55
Franconia
.........................................
.. 51
Frankenhausen
............................. ,
........................ 51
Frankenstein ...........
106
Frankfurt (am Main) ........ 13, 14, 15, 46, SO, 52, 54,
67,82,88,105,115,116
Frankfurt (am Oder) ................ ,..
...... 67, 88
Frankish Kingdom .......
....... 2
Frascati
.................................................................... 73
Frassineto ...................... ,.. ..............................
.. ........... 73a
Freiburg ........................................................... 52,66,67,88
Freising ........................ ,.............. ,..,............................................. 51
Freixo (de Espada a Cinta) .....
.. ........................ 92
Fre.;us.........
........ 49
Freudenberg ....................................................
, SO, 52
Freystadt ...................
..............................
.......... 50
Fribourg
..................................... .. ............ 68
Fridingen
..................................................
.. .... 46
Friedberg ...
.......... 43, 50, 52
.. ..... 52
Friedrichshafen ..
Friesach ................................................................................... , 51
Friesland ......................................................................
.. .. 96
Fritzlar ............................................................................. 46, 51
Fromista... ...........................
........... 41, 47, 69
Fubine .....
.. ...................... 73a
Fuenterrabia ..
......................... 76

INDEX TO MAPS
Fulda ................................
............................... 13, 35, 51
FOrstenfeld .............................................................................. 66
Forth
............................................. . . . . . . 88
Fustat, EI- (see also Cairo) .. 17,20, 22, 24,27, 39,
65
Fuwa ..

G
Gabes ......................................
. .. 22, 24, 26, 83
Gader .
............................................................................. 3
....................... 2, 11
Gades (see also Cadiz)
Gaeta ............................................ . . . ...... 35, 40, 73
Gafsa ... .............................. ................. ................. .... .. 26, 83
Galapagos, Islands ........................................................... 98
Galich (Halicz)
........... 56,87, III
Galtipoli (in Italy) ..... .......................................... 40, 73
Gallipoli (in Turkey) .. 35, 37, 57, 65, 77, 78, 81, 82,
113,115
Gamburg ......................... .. .......................... ................. SO
Gandia .................................... ..................... ......................... 41
Gandia ..... .............................................................................. 76
Ganges River ...........................................
. 60, 99, 116
Gangra .........................................................................
.. 2
Gardanne
.............................................................. 49
Gardenas (see Grodno)
Garonne River ..................................................................... 49
Gars .............................................................................................. 51
Gascony (Gascogne) ........................................................ 49
Gassino
.......................................................................... 73a
Gattinara ................................................................................ .. 73
Gavi ...... ..................................................................... 73
Gaza (Sanjak) .......................................................... 79
Gaza .. 2,3,4,5,6,7,33,38,61,62,65, 79,85,91,
113, 114, 115
Gazzuolo ....... ....................................................................... 73b
Gdansk (see also Danzig) .............................................. 56
Gebal (Byblos) ..................................................... 2
Gelderland ........ .............................. ....................... 96
Geldem .................................................................................... 52
Gelnhausen ..
......................................................... 52
Gemona (del Friuli)
............................. 73
GemOnden .................................................. .......................... SO
Genazzano ............................................................................... 73
Geneva .............................................................. 35, 66, 68, 88
Genoa (Genova) ... 2, 12, 14, 18, 22,35, 37, 40, 54,
62, 63, 65,66, 69a, 73,88,89, 102, 116
Genoa, Republic of ...
....................... 66, 73, 102
Genova (see Genoa)
Genzano .......................................................
...... 44
Georgia ...
.................................
..... 38
Gerace
..... ....... .......
............................. 40, 73
Geraci
................................ ...... 73
Gerasa
.................................................... 2, 3
Geresh ................................................................................ . 21
Germa
........................
............................ 2
.......................... .............. 2
Germanicopolis .........
Germany (see also Holy Roman Empire) ... 17, 30,
74,96
Germersheim .......................................................
....... 52
Gerolstein .................................................... ............ ............... 52
Gerolzhofen ................................
......................... 50
Gerona ..... 11, 13,28,29,37,39, 41, 42, 44, 47, 54,
57, 69, 69a,76
Gerrha ...................................................................................... 7
Ghazna .................
.................................................... 10
Giarole
............................................................. 73a
Gibraltar ..........................
......... 57, 69, 703, 76
Giessen
...................................................... 52
Gilboa,Mt. .
..
. ..... 37
Gioi
...... ....................... 73
Giovinazzo
.............. 40
Girga . ...................................................................... ......... 91
Gisors ......
..........................
..... 49
Giurgiu ..................................................................................... 77
Givat Binyamin .... ..........................
............. 62
Giza ........................................
.. ............ .... ..... 84
Gladbach (MOnchen-Gladbach) .... . ...... 52
Glasgow .....
.......................
............ 104
Glatz ....... ............................................................................. 106
Glinyany
........................................ 111
Glogau (GIog6w) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Gloucester ...... ............................................................. 35, 48

Gl6wno
........................ ........................... 111
Glucholazy ..
.......... ...................... ......... 51, 106
GlOckstadt .. .. ....... .. ................ . ........................... 92
GmOnd (Schwabisch GmOnd) ..................................... 51
.......................................... 56, 111
Gniezno .................
Goa ........ ..........
. ........ 97,99, 103, 116
Goch ......................... ....... ............ .................................. 52
Goito
.................................................................... 73b
Golden Horn ..
................................................ 64
G6mara ................................ ................................................ 69
Gomel ......................................................... 111,112
Gonzaga .................. .... ... .. ....... .................................... 73b
Gorizia
......................... .... 39, 66
Gor6tz ..... ...............................................
51, 66
Gorodenka ............. .... ................................................ 111
Gortyna ....
........ 2
Goslar ... ... ... ... .................................
. 51
Gostyn ........................................................................................ 56
GOttingen ................................................................................... 51
Gouveia ..........................
.. 69
Governolo ..........
......................... ........ 73b
Gradisca d'lsonzo ................................................................. 73
........ ..................................................................... 40
Grado
Gran (see also Esztergom) ...
..................... 35
Granada (see also Elvira) ... 1, 2,22, 28,29,37, 41,
47, 69, 69a, 70, 703, 75, 76, 101
Granada, Kingdom of ...................................................... 41
Granada (province) ....................................... .... 28, 69, 70
Granollers ........ ... ...........................
....................... 42
Granov ............................................................................ 111
Grasse .................................
. .. ...... 49
GraubOnden ..
.......... ................................. 68
Gravina
........................................................ 40, 73
Gray ............................ ................................................................. 49
Graz ..................................................................................... 51, 66
Great Poland (see also Poland) ........................ 56, 111
Greding .... ...... .............................
........... SO
Greece ....................................................................... 44, 85, 113
Grenoble .... ................................................................... 49
Greussen
........ ............. ... .................................... ... SO
Grevenbroich ...................................................... ................ 52
Grimaldi ........................ ............................. ..... .............. 73
Grimaud . . ...................................... ........................................ 49
Gr6dek ..................................... ............................................. 111
Grodno ................................................. 56, 110, 111, 112
Grodzisk
............. .... ............................ 111
Gronau
................................................................... 51
Groningen
........................................ 96
Grosseto ................. ................................................................. 73
Grossostheim
........................................... SO, 52
G rottaglie ....... ..... ... ... ... ...... ......................................... 73
Gronberg ..... ................................ ......................................... 52
GrOnsfeld
................................................................... SO
Guadalajara
..... 28,29,41,44, 47,57, 69,70, 88
Guadalquivir River ................................................ 28, 29
Guadalupe
.......... 41,69, 76, 101
Guadiana River ...........................
........... 11, 28, 29
Guadix
................................................................ 703
Gualdo Tudino ......................................................................... 73
Guarda .........................
.............. 41,47,59
Guurdiagrele ............................................................. ... .......... 73
Guastalla ...... .........................
................................ 73b
Guatemala ............................ ............................................... 103
Gubbio ............................................................................. 73
Guebwiller .................................................... ........... 49, 52
Guettar, EI .......................................................................... .. 26
GOgel ....................................... ........................................... SO
Gog6ngen
..................................................... SO, 52
Guimar!es ...................................
................. 41, 59
Guisona ............................................................................ ........ 42
Gundelfingen . ............................................................. ......... 51
GOnzburg ........................... ........................................ ............. 51
Gunzenhausen ....... .............................................. ................ SO
Gurk ..............................
........................... .......... 105
Gush Halav ....
............ 3,23, 38, 39, 79
Gusyatin ....
................................................ III
GyOr .........
..................... 108
Gyozlev ........................ ............... .................................. 81
Gyula ............................. ............... ......................... ... 108

H
Hachenburg " .................................................................. 52

Hadersdorf ..................
. ..... 51
Haditha ......... ..... . ........ ............ 2, 37
Hadrach .............. ..............................
............ 23
Hadrurnetum ...
............. ... ........................ 2
Hagenow ..
.................................... 66
Hague, The .......... ................ ......
..... 96
Haguenau ...
...... 49, 52, 95
Haifa ...
............................ .......... .................... 23, 33
Hainburg ..
. ............................................................. 51
Haiti .... ..................... ........... .... 98, 116
Hajar .... .........................
.. ............... 7, 8,10
Hajeb el-A1oun .................................... ......................... 26
Halicarnassus
. ............... 2
Ha6cz (see Galich)
Hall (Solbad Hall)
........................... .... ........ 67
Hals .................................................
. .............. 51
Halutza ................................................................................... 6
Halwan (in Pers\<l) .....
............................. 2, 21
Ham .............. ............... ... ......................
. .. 35
Hama (see also Hamath)
............ 37, 61, 81
Hamadan
. . ................... ........................... 2,20
Hamath (Epiphania, Hama) ................................... 2,38
Hamath (Hamath Gader) .. ......................................... 23
Hamburg .. . ...................... 66, 88, 92, 105, 115, 116
Hameln
............ ... ............................. 51
Hamma, EI .............................. ..................... 26, 83
Hammam lif ............................................... ............ 26
Hammelburg ......
.. ... ........ ... ............... 46, SO, 51
Hanau
...................................... .. 52, 67, 88,105
.................................... 105
Hanover (Hannover)
Harburg ............................................................................... 51
Harlech
................................................................ 48
Haro ...
............. 41, 57, 69
Harra .......................................................................................... 91
Harran ....
........................... ............................ 37,38
Haslach .......... .................................................................... 52
Hassfurt ........................... .......................... ......... SO
Hatra ......... ............................................................ 21, 60
Hebron .. 3, 6, 23, 33, 37, 38, 44, 61, 62, 79, 82, 91,
113,115
Hegenheim ................. ......................... ............... ..... 95
Heideck ................ ........................ SO
Heidelberg ....... .....
52, 67
Heidingsfeld . . ... ..... .. ............................................. SO
HeUbronn ........................................................ ..... ...... ... SO, 52
Heimerzheim ......................................................................... 52
Heinbach ......................................... ... ............... ................... 52
Heliopolis ................
.......................... .......... 2, 27
Helmstedt ................................................................... ............... 51
Helwan ...........
.. 27, 84
Henchir ... .............................................. ............................... 26
Heppenheim ..............
.................. 52
Herakleopolis Magna ........
.......................... 27
Hera! .............................................................................. 10, 60
Hereford ............................ ..................................... 35, 48
Hermopolis ........ ...................................................................... 27
Herrnopolis Magna
............................... 2, 27
Herrnopolis Parva ...
..... 27
Herrenberg .. ..............................................
............. 52
Herrera (del Duque) ......................................................... 92
Herrlisheim ............................................................................ 52
Hersbruck ....... ................................................................. SO
Hervaas ..............................................
........... 41
Hesse ..............................................................................
...... 51
Hljar ............................................................................. 88
Hijaz .......... ...
...................
8,91
Hildesheim . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 67
Hilla ... ..........................
... ... .................. 37, 38, 60
Himalaya, Mts . .................................................................... 99
Himyar, Kingdom of ............................................................ 4
.......
......
1, 2
Hippo (Regius)
Hira ........................... .. 10
Hirschberg .........................
........................... 106
Hispania
........... ....................... ......
........ 1
.................................. 29
Hispanic March ...................
Hit ..............,............................
........... 2, 21, 37
Hittin (see Qame Hittim)
HOchstadt
........................ ...................... .............. SO
Hof
................. . . . . . . . ..... ........ 51
Hohentrodingen . . . ...................................... SO
Holesov
......... 106
Holland
................... 82, 93, 96, 97
Holifeid ......
..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SO

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INDEX TO MAPS
Holy Roman Empire (see also Germany) ... 18,66,

105
Homberg ............. ........................
.......... 51
Homs (Ernesa) ........................................
.... 2, 33, 61
Hormuz ..........
......................................... 85, 97
Horn ........... .......................
........................................... 51
Hombach
....................................... 52
Homberg
.............................................................. 52
Horovice
.................................................. 106
Hradiste ..
....................................................... 106
Hranice ........
............................. 106
Hrubiesz6w
......... 56, Ill, 112
Huang He River ...
.....................
... 116
Huesca ............ 28,29, 41, 42, 45, 47,53, (fl, 76, 101
Huescar .................................................................................. 70a
Huete
................................
..... 47, 57, 69, 70
Hulda ....... .......................
................ 3
Hungary ."
................................... 15, 74, 108
Hunin
........................................ .............. 83
Huntingdon
......................................................... 48
Husayfa
.............. .............
....................... 3
Hyeres ......
................ 49
Hythe ... .........................
.. ............ 48

I
lasus . .............................................. ............................ .......... 2
Ibilin ........................ .....
..... 23
Ibiza
................. _......... _........................... :............. 41, 42
Ibiza, Island .
..................... 42, 69
\conium (see also Ikonion) .............................................. 5
lesi ...................................................................
.... 73
Iglau (JihiavA) ............................................................ 66, 106
Iglesias ...... .................................................................................. 73
Ikonion (see also \conium) ............................................. 2
lIintsy
...................................... .................... .................... 111
lIIe ................................... ................... 42
lUescas ................................................................................... 57, 69
lIIiers
.................................................................... 49
lmola ......................................
....... 40, 73
Inca ... _ ....................._...................................................... 42
Incisa .
................................. 73a
India ....................................
........................ 85, 97, 99
Indian Ocean ........................
.................. 97,99,116
Indus River ....................................................................... 99, 116
Ingelfingen ................................................................................... SO
Ingolstadt ............................................................ 46, 51, 66, 67
Innsbruck ............................................................................ 51, 67
Inowroclaw ............................................................................... 111
Intercisa ........................................................................................... 2
loannina (Yanina) ....................................... 63, 78, 80, 114
los .....
..........................
.................... 2
Iphofen .................................................................................. SO, 51
Ipswich .................................................................................. 35, 48
Ireland ............................................................................................ 93
Iscina ......... ......................................
................ 1, 2
. ............ 52
lserlohn .... ............................................
lsemia ............................................................................................. 73
Isfahan ............................................................... 1,2,10,17,60
Isle Aumont ................................................................................ 49
Isny ................................................................................................... 88
Isola Dovarese .......................................................................... 73
Istanbul (see also Constantinople) .. 63, 65, 75, 78,
80,81,82,85,88,113,114,115,116
Italy .. 17,19,43,44,45,74,75, 76a, 82, 85, 86,103
Ivrea ......................... _...................................................................... 73
Izmir (see also Smyrna) ....... 22, 77,78, 80, 88, 113,
114, 115, 116
Izola .............................................
............................ 73
!zyaslav ............................................................................ Ill, 112
lie de Gres ................................................................................... 33

J
Jabneh ............................................................................. 6, 33, 37
Jaca .................................................... 28, 41, 42, 53, 69, 101
Jadu ................................................................................................ 24
Jaen ...................... 28, 29, 41, 57, (fl, 70, 70a, 76, 101
Jaffa ............. 1,2,6,23,33,37,39,62,65,74, 75, 81
Jagemdorf (Krnov) ..... ...................
. ....... 106
Jahijan ...............................................
................. 21
Jamaica ...................... ................. 98,116
Jamnia (see Jabneh, Jaffa)
Jan6w ............. _................... .
..................................... 111

Janville ....
................................................
..... 49
Japhia .............................................................. 3
......... Ill, 112
Jaroslaw (see also Yaroslaw) ..
Jasieniec .......................
.............................. 111
Jaslo ......................
........................... 56
JAtiva ................................................ ........... 41, 44,47,69
........................... 97
Java...............................
Javorov
............. 111
Jedda ..............................
.............. 10,17,91
Jemnice .....................................
.................. 51,106
Jenin (see also Ein Ganim)
................................... 79
Jerba . . . . . . .......... 24, 26, 65, 83, 85, 115
Jerez de la Frontera ........
...... 41,57, (fl , 70, 101
Jericho .
....... _......... _.................... _.......... 3, 6, 23, 62
Jerusalem, Kingdom of .................................................... 33
Jerusalem (Sanjak) ...............................
........ 79
Jerusalem .. 1, 2, 3, 4,5,6, 7, 10,20,22,23, 32,33,
34,35, 37,38, 39,60,61,62,65,74,77,79,81,
82,85,86,91,113,114,115,116
"The Jews' Fortress" ........
................... 110
Jezira (see Jezirat IbnAmar)
Jezirat IbnAmar ........................
..................... 21,37
Jicin
................................................................... 106
Joigny ...... ..... .............. ..
................... 43, 49
Joppa (see Jaffa)
Jordan River ........................................................... 3, 60, 79
J6zef6w
................................................. III
Judenau .....
............................... _........... 51
Judenburg
............................................. 51
JOlich . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................................... 52
Julis .....................................................
............................ 79
Jussey ............................................................................................ 49

K
Kabul (in Afghanistan) ............................................... 10, 60
Kabul (in Eretz Israel) ......,.................................................. 79
Kadesh (Kadesh Nafta)j) ........................................... 23, 79
Kaffa ............... 15, 16,54,60,62,65,77,86, 110, 116
Kafr Cana
............ .. ................... 3, 79
Katr Yasif .. _... _.. _...... _.... _.......................... _............... 79
Kaifeng .................................... _...................._........... 60,97, 116
Kairouan ............................ 10,17, 18,20,22,24, 26,82
................................................................ 52
Kaiserslautem
Kaiserstuhl .................................................................................. 46
Kaiserswerth ............................................................................. 52
Kale .................................................................................................. 37
Kalisz .................. ............................................... 56, 110, 111
Kalush ......................................................................................... 111
Kaluszyn .................................................................................... 111
Kamenets (in Lithuania) ... ........................
.... 111
Kamenets (see also Kamenets Podolskiy) ....... 111,
112
Kamenets Podolskiy (see also Kamenets) " ....... 56
Kamp (Bornhofen) ............................................... _.......... 52
Kana!, Khirbet ............ _.................... _.........
...... 3
...................................................................... 10
Kandahar
Kane .......... ...................................
................... 2,4,7
Kanev ........................................................................................... 111
Karakorum ................................................................................. 60
Karanis ........................
........................................ 27
Karden (TreisKarden) ...........
..................... 52
Karlsbad (Karlovy Vary)
............................. 106
Karlstadt ....... ..... ... ...
........................................... SO
KasbaTadla ............................................................................... 83
Kashmir
......................................................... 99
Kaster ........................................................................................... 52
Kastoria ........................... .......... _........................... 78, 114
Katzrin ............................................................................................ 3
Kaub ........................................................................................... 52
Kaufbeuren . .............................
........................ 51
Kavalla ......................................................................................... 78
Kayseri ........................................................................................... 32
Kaysersberg ....................................................................... 49,52
Kazimierz (see also Casimir) ......................................... 56
Kazvin ............................................................................................... 5
Kebili ........................
..................................................... 26
Kef, EI ......................
.................................. 26
!<efar Awarta ......... ...............................
............... 62
Kefar Baram ............................................ ........................ 3, 79
Ketar Hananya ................................................................. 23, 79
Kefar Mandi
............................................ 23
Ketar Nahum ....................................................................... 3, 79

Kefar Nevoraya ...................................................................... 3

Kelheim ........
..................................... 51, 66
Kempen
..................................................................... 52
Kempten .......
.........................
......... 51
Kenzingen ... ..................... ................................................. 52
K~pno ...................................................................................... 111
Kerak ........................
..... 33
Kerak (Sanjak)............. ..............
........................ 79
Kerch .............
. .. 15, 16
Kerman .............................
....... 17
Kerman (province)
................................. 17
Kermanshah
... 21
Kerpen ....................
.......................................................... 52
Khan el Tujar ...........
.................... 79
KhaniA (Canea) .......
.... 63, 85
Khanka, EI ......
......... ............... ...... 84
Khartoum ................................
.............................. 91
Khaybar ......................................................... 2,4,7,8,37,91
Khazaria (see also Khazars) ................................ 15, 17
Khazarian Sea (see also Caspian Sea) ................. 16
Khazars (see also Khazaria) ................ ................... 5, 13
Khazraj, Banu ......................................................................... 9
Kherson
..................................... 5, 15, 16
Khiwa .
...................................................... 10
Khmelnik ......
.... ........ 111
Kiev ........... 15, 17,22, 38,44,77, 110, 111,112,116
Kievan Russia ..
....................................................... 15
Kifri ..................................... . . . ...... 1
King's Lynn .
................................................. 35, 48
Kinneret, Lake ........................
...... 79
Kiphato ..................................................
...... 37
Kirchberg ..................................................................................... 52
Kirchheim ................................................................................ 51
Kiriath Sefer .......................................
...................... 23
Kim .................................................................................................. 52
Kishor, Hurbat ............................................................................ 3
Kissingen (Bad Kissingen) .............................................. SO
Kitzingen .............................................................................. SO, 51
K\agenfurt .................................................................................... 66
Klatovy ................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Kleingartach ............ .................................
...... SO, 52
K1etsk .......................................................................................... III
K1evan ..........................
.................................. 111
Kleve ............................................................................................... 52
Klingenberg .....................
......................................... 51
Klingenberg am Main .................................................. 50, 52
Klosterneuburg ........................................................................ 51
Kobem ........................................................................................... 52
Koblenz ..............
............................ 31,52
Kobrine .....................................
........................... III
Kokhav HaYarden .......................
..................... 3
Kolin ...
............................................. 106
Kolki ....
................................ ......... 111
KOin (see Cologne)
Kolomyya
.......................
................ 111
Komamo ...........
......................................... 111,112
KOnigheim
................... . . . . .................. SO
KOnigsberg ... .......... ..............
..... 51
KOnigsee ..........................................
.................................. SO
KOnigshofen ...... ............................................................... 50
KOnigstein .................
....................... 52
KOnigswinter ..
........................................... 52
Konin ...,.......................................................................................... 56
Konstantinov .......................
................... 111, 112
Konstanz (Constance) .....................
.. 52, 67, 68
Koper (Capodistria)
... ............. 73
Koptos ...
.......... 27
Korets ........................................
....... Ill, 112
Kor6ni ..............................................
.... 63, 78
Korostyshev .................................
......... 111
Korsun ....................................................
.. 112
KoScian
............................................
........... 56
Kosice ........................................................................................ 108
Kosovo .................................................................................. 63, 65
Kostelec n. O......................................................................... 106
Koszeg ........................................................................................ 108
Kounice ........................
................... 106
Kovel (see also Kowel) ......
...................... 111
Kovno (Kaunas) ...................
................... 111
Kowal ..........................................
................................. 111
Kowel (see also Kovel) ._
....... 56, 110
Kozienice ..................................
............ 111
Kraiburg ....................................
............. 51
Kr....k ...................
..................................... _ 112

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INDEX TO MAPS
Krasnystaw ............................................................................... 87
KratollO .................................................... ......................... ....... 78
Krautheim ................. ...............................
............ SO, 51
Kremenets (Krzemieniec) ....................... 110,111,112
Krems ................................................
................. 35, 51
Kreuznach (Bad Kreuznach)
......... 46, 52
Krisa .......................................................................................... 63
Krobia
...................................
................ 111
Kromeriz .
.................. 51, 106
Kronach ..
. . ... ..................
.............. SO
Kronsberg .......................................................................... 52
Krosno
................................................................... 56
Krotoszyn .
..................................................... 111
Krov ............................................................................................. 52
Krzemieniec (see Kremenets)
Kula ............................. 10, 17, 21, 37, 60
Kulrnain ...
.................................. SO
KUIsheim . . ... . ....................................
....... 51
Kum .....
. ... .........................
....... 20
KUnzelsau ............................................................... ..... 50, 67
Kurdistan
................................ .......
............ 82
Kusel ..........
......................................
.............. 52
Kus~si
.. .................................................................. 78
Kutno .............................................
.............................. III
Kuty ............................................................................................. III
Kyburg ............. ... ....... ......................................................... 68
Kyustendil
.......................... 78

L
..... .. . . . . . . ........... .... .. 51
La Almunia ...................................................
...... 47
Labdah (Leptis Magna) .......................... ............ . ..... 24
La Bi$bal .................................... ............. ............
........... 42
Lachva (Lakhva) ................ ............................................ 111
La Coruna ........................................................ 41, 47, 69, 76
Ladenburg ...............................................
...... 52
Lafert~surAube .................................................................. 49
lagos ...... ............... .................. 41, 59, 91, 92
La Goulette ............
......................................... 26
Laguardia ...................... ............................................... 69
Laguna de Negrillos ..........
............... 47
Lahnstein ................................................................................ 52
Lahore ....
..................................... 99
.... 52
Lahr ............................................
Laibach (see also Ljubljana)
...................... 66
La Javie .................................................................................... 49
Lalbenque .................................................................... 47,49
La Mancha .......................................................................... .... 75
La Marsa ..................................................
..... 26
Lambesc ...................................................................... 49
Lamego ..................................................................... 101
Lamia . ..............
...
...................... 37, 63
La Motte-duCaire ............................................. 49
Lampsacus ..
.......................................................... 2
Lanciano
............................................. 40, 73
Lanc;:on ..................................................................................... 49
Landau .................................................................. 51
Landau in der Pfalz ................................................... 52, 66
Landsberg ............................................................................ 51
Landshut ............................... ............................. 51,106
Langeac ................ .................................... ....
.... 49
Langenlois ..............
.......................... 51
Langenlonsheim ............................... ....... ....................... 52
Langenzenn ............................................................................ SO
Langnau ............................................................................. 68
Laodicea (see also Latakia)
................ 2, 33, 37
Laon
............................................ 49
L'Aquiia
................ ...... 73
Larache ............................................................. 25, 83
La Rambla ...................................... ........................... 70a
Laranda ...................... .................................................... 35
Laredo ......... ..................... ....................
69, 76
L'Argentiere .......................... ........................................... 45
Larissa .. ............................ .... ............. 2, 63, 78, SO
La RocheUe .. .................... ............................. ... 47,49,92
Las Palmas ........... ............................................. 101
Lastovo ....................................................................................... 81
Latakia (see also Laodicea) .......
33, 37
Lauda ............. ... .......
..... 35, SO, 51
Laudenbach .................... .................. ............... 51
Lauf
................................ ......... 51
Laufenburg ............................................................................ 68
Laa

Lauingen ..
.........................
... 46, 51
Lauriacum ...........................................
. ........................ 2
Lausanne ...... ... .............................
.................................. 68
Lauterbourg .....
..... .................... 49, 52
Lavello .... .... .... ................
.................................. 2, 40
La Volta ....
........................ 73b
Lecca
... . 73
Lechenich
..... ........................ ......... 52
Lli!czna ............................
................................................. 111
Lli!czyca ... ............ .. ........... ....................... 56,110, III
Ledesma ......................................................................... 41
legio .. .
.................
....... 6
Legnano
. . . . ............ . 73, 73b
Leibnitz .. . ... .............. . ..............
.................. 51
Leicester ...................................................................... 35, 48
Leiden ............... ........... ...................... .............................. 88
Leipheim ...... . ....................
....................... 51
Leipzig
.................................................................. 51, 88
Leiria .............. ...... .................................... 41,47,59, 88
Lel6w ..............................
.. ................... 111
Le Luc
....................... 49
Le Mans ..... ..........................
........ 49
Le Mas d'Agenais ................................................................ 49
Lemnos ..............................................
............. 2, 78
Lena River
116
Lendinara ............................................................................... 73
Lentini ............................. ... . ..............
........... 73
Leoben ................................................................................. 51
Le6n ....... 11,28,29,41, 57,69, 69a, 70, 76, 92, 101
Le6n (province) .................................................................... 28
Leonberg ...................... ........... ............................................. 52
Leontini ........................
........................... 2
Leontopolis ..............................
.... 2, 27
Lepanto ............................................................... 63, 77, 78
Leptis .
........................
..................................... 2
Lerida ....... 28, 29, 38, 41, 42, 44, 45, 57, 69, 76, 101
LesArcs ................................................................................... 49
Lesbos .............................................................. 63, 78
Leszno ........................................
........ 111
Letichev ...............................
........... III
Lezajsk ...........................................
............ III
Lhasa ............................................................................................ 60
Libyans .................................................................................. 2
Licata ............................................................................. 73
Lichtenberg ..
.. .............. ............................ SO, 52
Lichtenfels
.............................. ..... 50
Liegnitz (legnica) ...................................... 51, 60, 66, 106
Lienz ...................................... ........ ................ ............ 51
Liepaja .............. .... ..... ........ 110
Lignyle Ribault ............................................................. 49
Ligurian Sea .................................................................. 73
Lille .....................................
................. 46
LiDebonne ................................................
................. 49
L'DsesurlaSorgue .
........ 47,49
Lima .................. .......................... 97, 98, 103
Limassol
.......... ................................. 35
Limburg
................................
............. 52
Limoges
................................................. 49
Limoux ......................... .......................................................... 49
Limyra
......................................................................... 2
Lincoln
............... ...... ....................... 35, 43, 48
Lindau ........... ............................................. .. 51, 66, 68
Linz ......................................... .................... 46,51
Linz am Rhein .......................................................................... 52
Lipnik ......................................................................................... 106
Lipovets ... ... ... ..... ..... ... ... ..... ...... ..... ... ....... ........... ................. III
Lisbon (Lisboa) ... 11, 28,29,35,41,44,47,59, 65,
69, 69a, 75, 76, 76a,88, 91, 92, 97, 101
Lisieux ........................................................................ 49
Litani River ...... .............................. ..... .... ....................... 61
Lithuania ................................ .... 56,74, 110, 111
Litin ........................................ ........... ............................. 111
Little Poland ....................... ..... ............. 56, 111
I.,ivorno (leghorn) ...... 73, SO, 88, 91, 102, 114, 115
Livorno Ferraris
................. .. ......................... 73a
l.,jubljana (see also Laibach) ....................................... 66
Llansa ..
...................... ...................................... 91
Uerena ........................................................ 41,69, 101
Lobzenica
.................................................. 111
Loches .. ...................... .........
............. 46, 49
Lod (see also Diospolis)
. 6, 23, 33, 37
Lodi ...................................................................... .... 82

Logroi'lo ..................... .......................................... 41, 101

Lohr (am Main)
................................................ SO
Loire River ................................................................ 35, 49
Loja ..
...........................
................ 70.,
Lokachi ... .
........... 111
Lokhvitsa ................................................................... 111, 112
Lombardy
............................
..... 18
Lomza .
........................
.......... 56
London ....... 1, 13, 35, 43, 48, 54, 74, 75, 88, 92, 93,
94, 104, 115, 116
LonguevillesurScie ......................... ...
.................... 49
Lonigo ..
.. ..................................... 73b
Lons-leSaunier ......................................... ........................... 49
Lorca .............................................. 28, 41, 70, 70." 76, 91
Lorch ..........
................ 52
Loreto ........
.................................................................... 73
Lorrnaye ..... ............................ ........................................ 49
Loro Piceno ..... . .. ...........................
............................ 73
Lorraine (Lothringen)
......... 14,30, 49, 55
Lothair's Kingdom (see also Lorraine) ...
..... 14
Louis, Kingdom of ....................................... ................ 14
Loul~ ......... .................................................................. 41,59
Lourdes .......................................................................... .......... 53
LOvenich ... . .. .. ... ..................
...................................... 52
LOwenstein .. .
.... ... ... ........ ................... 46
Lu
......................................................... 73a
Lubacz6w ................. ............................................................... 56
Lubart6w ...................................... .........................
....... 111
Lubeck ............. ........... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 67
Lublin . . . . ........... 56, 62, 88, 110, lll, 112
Lubny .............................................................
...... 112
Lucca ................................. 12, 13, 18, 22, 30, 37,40, 73
Lucena ................................... 11,22,28, 29,41,47,70.,
Lucera ..............................
............. 40, 73
Lucerne (Luzern) ................................................ 51,67,68
Lucignano ................................................................................ 73
Ludmir (see also Vladimir in Volhynia) ..... 56, 111,
112
Lugagnano ..............................
......................... 12
Lugano ................................................
................... 46
Lugdunum (see also Lyons) ...................................... 1, 2
Lugo (in Italy) .................... ......... ........ 40, 73
Lugo (in Spain) ........................... .......... 47,76
...................... 111
Luk6w ....................... ..........................
Luna (in Italy) .
.................................. 2, 40
Luna (in Spain) .................................................................... 42
Lundenburg (Breclav)..
.......................... 106
LUneburg..
......................................
........... 51
Lunel ........................
......... 37,38,39,44, 45,49
......................................... 2
Lutetia (see also Paris)
Lutsk ................................................. 56,87,110, 111, 112
Luz (in France)
........................................ ..... 53
Luz (in Portugal) . ........................................
............ 92
Luzzara ............................................................................... 73b
Lvov
....... . 56,62,87, 110, lll, 112, 116
Lyons (Lyon) ........ 13, 14,15,17, 20,22, 32,35,47,
49, 55, 88, 116
Lystra ......................................................... .
........ 2
Lyubar ................................ .
................... lll
Lyuboml
.....................................
...... 111, 112

M
Ma'an
................................................................................ 7
Ma'ara ..............................
.. ............................ 2
Macau .......................................................................................... 97
Maceda . ................................................................ 47
Macedonia ....................................................................... 57
Macerata .......................................................................... 73
Macomer ...................................................................... 2, 40
Macon (Matisco) ......
.................. 2, 14, 49
Madagascar ............................................................... 97
Maddaloni .................................................................................. 73
Madeira ....
..........................
.................. 97
Madras (see also Fort 51. George) ................. 99, 116
Madrid ...................... 28, 41, 57, 69, 70,76,92,97,101
Madrigal .........................
........ 69,70
Madyan Maqna ............................................................ ........ 7
Magdeburg
.......... 17,30, 31,43,54,66
Magnesia
... 2,78
Maguntia (see also Mainz) ........... .................. 1
Mahdia ..........................
...... 26
Mah6n .........
.......... 2, 41, 42
Main River
.............................................. SO

127

dlqitaila
'/,\'iN

Cgil" u JS

INDEX TO MAPS
Mainz (see also Maguntia, Mogontiacum) .. 13, 14,
17,22,30,31,32,35,39,43,45,46,52,54,66,
67,105,115
Maiori
......................
.. ...... 73
Majorca (Mallorca)
1,28,29,42,44,69,101
Mak6w...
.............................
.. .............. 111
Malaca (in Spain) (see also Malaga) ............................ 2
Malacca (in Malaya) ........
...................... 97
Malaga (see also Malaca) ...... 11,17,22,28,41,47,
65,69,70, 70a, 76, 76a
Malta ....
................. 1, 102
Mandio
............................
.. ........................... 92
Manfredonia
................................................. 73
Mangup
................. 110
Manosque .........
.. ...................... 49
Manresa .......
...... 41, 42
Mansilla..
41
Mansura, EI- .
.. 84
Mantes-Ia-Jolie ...................................
. 49
Mantinea ...............
.......... ..............
...... 2
Mantua ........ 18, 40, 44, 54, 73b, 76a, 82, 86, 88, 89,
91,102
............................................... 3
Ma'on
Ma'oz Hayim
.................................
........... 3
............................
.. ... 7
Maqna..
Maqueda.. .
.. ........................... 41,47,69
.....................................
.. ...... 21
Maragheh
Marash ..
.. ............................ 2, 33
Marburg.......
.. .............. 52
Marearia
......... 73b
Marchegg....
.. .................................... 51
Marchena ............................................................................ 70a
Marckolsheim
....... 52,95
Mariana
........................................ 73b
Marib
...................................... 7
Marino.
.. .......................................................... 73
Markt Bibart
........................................... 50
Marlborough
.................... 48
Marmande .........
.. .................... 49
Marmara, Sea of ..
............. 64
Marmoutier
........................
......... 49
Marostica ........
.................................. 73
Marrakech .....
.. ....... 17,22,24,25,83,116
........................... 37, 73
Marsala .......................
Marsan ........................
.................................................. 53
Marseilles (Marseille) .. 2, 13, 14, 17,22,35,37,38,
44,47,49,54,55,65,74
Martinengo ............................................................................... 73
Martinique ........................................................................ 98, 116
Martirano ..................................................................................... 73
Martorell ....................................................................................... 42
Marviio .......................................................................................... 76
Masallatah ................................................................................... 24
Masevaux ................................................................................... 52
Massa ............................................................................................. 83
Massa Fiscaglia ........................................................................ 73
Massa Lombarda .................................................................... 73
Massawa .............................................................................. 91, 97
Masserano ................................................................................... 73
Massignano ................................................................................ 73
Massing ......................................................................................... 51
Masuna .......................................................................................... 83
Mata-Mehasya .................................................................... 2, 21
Matelica ......................................................................................... 73
Matera ..................................................................... 2, 18, 40, 73
Mateur ........................................................................................... 26
Matmata ....................................................................................... 83
Mattancheri ................................................................................ 99
Mauretanians ............................................................................... 2
Mautern ........................................................................................ 51
Mayen ............................................................................................ 52
Mayenne ....................................................................................... 49
Mayorga ........................................................................................ 41
Mazagan ............................................................................... 25, 83
Mazara ........................................................................................... 73
Meaux ............................................................................................ 49
Mecea .............................................................. 2, 4,7,8, 10,91
Meckenhausen ......................................................................... SO
Mecklenburg ............................................................................. 66
Med~a ............................................................................................ 83
Medellin ......................................................................................... 69
Medenine ..................................................................................... 26

128

Medina (AI-Madinah)
....... 2,4,7,8,9, 10,91
Medinaceli ......................
......... 41,44,69
Medina del Campo ........... 41, 47, 57, 69, 70, 76, 101
Medina de Pomar ................................................ 41, 69, 70
Medina Sidonia
............ 28
Mediterranean Sea
........ 3, 5,17,54,65,116
Medjana ...
................ 83
M~dole.... ........................ .......... ..............
.. ......... 73b
Medzhibozh
........................ 111
Megiddo .............
.. .......................................... 62
Me'i1ya .......
...........................................
.. ............. 81
Meiningen .....
... SO
Meiron ..
.. ........................................ 3, 23, 79
Meissen
......... 51
Meknes ........................................................... 17, 25, 83,115
Mekong River .......
.. ................................. 116
Meldola ......
.. .................................................. 73
Melfi ..................................................................... 18, 37, 40, 73
Melga~..............
.. ....... 76
Melitene
........................................ ..............
..... 5
Mellingen
........... ............. ............................. 68
Mellrichstadt
........ 50, 51
Melnik
............. ..................
.............. 106
Melun .........
.................................. ...... 43, 49
Memmingen
.......................... 51
Memphis (Kurnub) ....................................................... 6
.. ......................... 27
Memphis (in Egypt) ...
Menorca (Minorca) .........
...... 1, 42, 69, 101
Mercadal .......................................
........... 42, 44
Mergentheim (Bad Mergentheim) ...................... SO, 51
M~rida .................................................. 11,28,41,69,70,76
Merowe ................................................................................. 91
Merseburg
....... 30, 31, 51
Mers el-Kebir .......................................................................... 76
Merton ................................
............................. 48
Merv
.....................................
.. ............. 10
Mesembria .....................................
................... 63
Mesopotamia ...........................
.. ............... 60
Mesoraca ................................................................................... 73
Messina ...... 2, 12, 18, 19, 22, 35, 37,38,40, 44, 54,
62, 65, 69a, 73
Mestra (Sparta) .................................
.. ............. 57
Mestre....
......................
............ 73
Metz ........................... 2,13,14,17,30,31,43,49,115
Mexico ......... ............................
.. ..................... 98, 103
Mexico (city)....
................ 97, 98, 116
Meze ...............
.. ............................................. 47, 49
M~zel ...................................................
................... 49
Miden ....................................................
.. ............ 51
Miedzych6d ..............................
...................... 111
Mi~dzyrzec (eastern Poland)
..... 110, 111
Mizyrzec (western Poland) .....
.. .......... 110, 111
Mielnik ...............................
...................................... 111
Mifshata ........................................................................................... 3
Migdal (see also Ashkelon) .....
.. .................. 81
Migdal Hayehudim ................................................................... 2
Milan ............................ 2, 12, 18,22,32, 35, 40, 73, 102
Milan, Duchy of ..........................
.. ....... 89
Mileto .........................
.. ............................................. 73
Miletus ............................................................................................ 2
Miliana ............................................................................................ 83
Militello .....................................
.. ................................. 73
Millesimo ...................................................................................... 73
Miltenberg .....................................................
............. 52
Mindus .............................................................................................. 2
Mineo .............................................................................................. 73
Minho ..................................................................................... 59, 92
Mifio......................................
.......................................... 47
Mifio River ................................................................................... 59
Minsk ..................................................................... 110, 111, 112
Minya ................................................................................................. 2
Mi6glia ......................................................................................... 73a
Mir .................................................................................................. 111
Mirabello .................................................................................... 73a
Miranda (de Ebro) ................................ 28, 41, 47, 57, 70
Miranda do Corvo ........................................................ 41, 59
Miranda do Douro ...............
...... 41, 59, 69, 76, 92
Mirandola ........................................................
......... 73b
Mison................
.. ........... 49
Mississippi River .............
.. ...... 98, 116
Missouri River ................ ..........................
.. 98, 116
Mistelbach .................................
.. ................ 51

Misurata
.............................
.. ......... 24
.................................................................... 84
MitGhamr.
Mitzpeh Migdal
......... 79
Mlawa ...............................
.. .............................. 111
Mocha (AI Mukha) .. ..
.. ....................... 7
MOckmOhi ..
50, 52
Modena ........
....... 18, 73b, 115
Modica
.................................
.... 73
Modigliana ................
.. .... 73
Modon .................
........... 35, 44, 62, 63, 65, 78, 81
Mogadouro
........... 59, 92
Mogilev (-Podolskij) ..........................
........... 111
Mogilev
.... 110, IF
Mogontiacum (Mainz)
.......... 2
Mohacs ...........................
................................ 108
Moknine, EI- .
.. ............ 26
Moldavia
........ 63, 65
Molfetta .......
.. ....... 73
Moisheim
...... ...............
.. ..... 46, 49, 52
Mombasa
.........................
.. ....... 97
Monastero Bormida .......
.. ... 73a
Monastir .......................................................... 26, 63, 78, 80
Moncalieri .. ...
.. ..... 73a
Moncalvo ........ ..............
.. ..... 73a
Mondavio
....... 73
Mondolfo ................. ...................
.......... 73
Mondovi ....................................................................................... 73
Monesiglio ................................................................................ 73a
Monfort .............
.. ..................... 33
Monforte
......................................... 41, 59
Mongolia (Mongolian Empire).
.................. 60
Monheim .................................................................................... 52
Monopoli
......... 40, 73
Monselice .
. ....... 73
Montabaur ........
.......................................................... 52
Montagnana
............................................. 73b
Montalban ...........
.. ............. 42, 69
Montalcino ............
......... 73
Montalto ..................................................................................... 73
Montblanch ...................................... . .
. ........... 41, 42
Montclus .................
.. ................ 55
Montealegre ..... ................................ . .
.. .. 41, 69
Monte Cassino .......
.. .................. 40
Montechiaro d'Asti .......
.. .... 73a
Montefiascone ..........
.........................
. ....... 73
Montefiore Conca
..................................
.. .. 73
Montegiorgio ........................................................................... 73
Montelimar ......
.. .... 49
Montelupone ...........
.. ................................. 73
Montemayor .................
.. 47
Montemayor de Pililla ......... .......................
.47
.... 73
Montepulciano .......................
Montereau-faut-Yonne .................................................... 49
Monterubbiano ........
. 73
Monte San Giovanni .............
.......... ..................... 73
Monte San Savino ............................................................... 73
Monteux ......................
.. .......................... 49
Monteveglio ..............
............ 73b
Monticelli d'Ongina ....................................................... 73
Montigny ...........................
........... 49
Montigny-Ie Roi ....................
.. .. 49
Montivilliers ...........................................
.. ............... 49
Montoro ........
.. ............................ 57
Montpellier
..................... 37,39,45,47,49,55
Montreux ................................................................................... 68
Monz6n ...........................
..... 28,41,42,45,47,69
Moosburg .......................
.. .............................................. 51
Morano ........................................................................................ 73
Moravia .........................................
............. 66, 106
Mor Budejovice ........................ .................... .
.. ..... 51
Morella
................................................................. 41, 76
Morhange .................................................................................... 51
Mori ................................................................................................ 73
Morlaix .........................
.. .............................................. 43
Morocco ........................................................... 25, 76a, 82, 83
MOrs (Moers) ...........
.......................... 31
Mortain ........................
.. ............................. 49
Mortara .........
.. .......................................... 73
Mosbach .......................
.. ........ SO, 52
Moscow ..........................
.......................... 110
Mpsel River ................
.. ........................... 52
Mostaganem
................ 83
Mostiska ...........................
... 111
Mosty ...........................
................................... 111

INDEX TO MAPS
Mosul ..................................................................... 21,37,38,45
Motol ............................................................................................ 111
Motta .............................................................................................. 73
Moura .................................................................................... 47,92
Mozambique .............................................................................. 97
Mozyr .......................................................................................... 111
Mstislav ...................................................................................... 111
Mudhaynid, Wadi ..................................................................... 9
Muggia ........................................................................................... 73
Mahldorf ....................................................................................... 51
Malhausen (see also Mulhouse) .................................. 49
Malheim (east of Frankfurt) ........................................... 52
Malheim (north of Cologne) ........................................... 52
MOIheim a.d. Ruhr ................................................................. 52
Mulhouse (Malhausen) ........................................ 52, 95
Multan ............................................................................................ 10
Munich (Munchen) ....................................................... 35, 51
Mannerstadt ..................................
........................ SO
Munster (Alsace) .................................................................... 52
MUnster (north of Cologne) ........................................... 51
MOnsterberg (Ziebice) .....
................................... 106
Milnstereifel ........................................................................... 52
MOnstermaifeld .....................
............................... 52
Munzenberg ............................................................................... 43
Munzenberg .......
......................................................... 52
Murabitun (A1-Murabitun) ............................................... 24
Murau...............
............................................................ 66
Murcia ........................................................ 41, 47, 69, 76, 101
MOrten ....................................................................................... 68
Muscat..
.............................
..... 10,17,97
Mutzig ............................
.................................................. 95
Myra...
.................................................................... 2
Mytilene ...
........................................................... 37

N
Na'aran ....
................................................... 3
Nabeul..............
.......................... 26
Nabi Samwil ................................................ "
.... 37
Nablus (Sanjak) ........... .............................
......... 79
Nadir, Banu ............................................................................... 9
Nadvomaya ............... ............................
............... 111
Naghisa, Banu .......................................................................... 9
Nahrwan .........
................................ 2, 21
Naintre ....................................................................................... 49
Naissus
.......................................... 2
Najera ...........
.28,41,57,69
Najran ..... .......................
..................... 2,4,7,10
............................... 106
Namslau .......... ........................
Nancy
.................................................................... 49
Nantes ..............
......... 2, 14, 49, 92
Naples, Kingdom of ...................................... 73, 89, 102
Naples (Napoli) ...... 2, 12, 18,22,37,40,44,54,62,
65,69a, 73,74, 75, 76a,81,88, 89, 92, 102
Narbo (see also Narbonne) ..............
.......... 1
Narbonne .. 2, 11, 13, 15,37,38,44,45,47,49,55,
65
Nardo .................................................................................. 40, 73
Nami................. ............................
.73
Naro (in Sicily) .............................................................. 73
Naro (in Tunisia)
......................................................... 2
Narodichi
................................................................. 111
Narol ............................................................................ 111, 112
Nasielsk ... . ......................................................................... 111
Naso ....................
................................................. 73
Naumiestis ..
...................................................... 87
Navarre (Navarra) . 28, 29, 41, 53, 55, 69, 69a, 75,
76
Nave ............................................................................................... 2
Naxus (Naxos) ....................................................... 2, 63, 78
Nazareth
............................................ 6, 39
Nazilli ...............................
................................................. 78
Neapolis (see also Shechem)
.......................... 3, 6
Neckar River ........................................................................... 52
Nefta ......... .........................
.................................. 26
Negroponte (Chalkis) ........................................ 44, 63, 65
Nehardea
............. 2, 21, 38
Nehavend .........
........................................ 20, 21
Neisse (Nysa) ............................... 51, 66, 106
Neman River ........................................................................... 56
Nemirov..........
.................................. 111,112
Nepi .....
............................ 73
Nettuno ...
............................................................... 73

Netum ........................................................................................... 2
....................... 51
Neuburg
Neudenau ........................................................................ SO, 52
Neuenburg (Neuchatel) ..........................
.......... 68
Neuhaus ...........................
........ 51
Neumagen .......................
........ 52
Neumarkt .......................
............ SO
Neurnarkt-St. Veit ......
............................................. 51
Neunkirchen ............................................................................ 51
NeuOtting ............
.............................................................. 51
Neuss ............................................................................. 30,31,52
Neustadt am Klinger .......................................................... 51
Neustadt an der Aisch ............................................... SO, 66
Neustadt an der Weinstrasse ................................ 52, 66
Neuwiller .............................................
..................... 52, 95
Nevers ............................................................................................ 49
New Amsterdam (see also New York) ........... 97, 98
Newbury .............................
....................................... 48
New Castile (see also Peru) ........................................... 97
Newcastle ... ........................................................
....... 48
New England ............
................... 97, 98
New Galicia ...
......................................... 97
New Granada ..
............ 97
New Guinea .............................
................................... 97
New Holland (Australia) ...
........................... 97
New Holland (in North America) ............................... 97
New Holland (Surinam) ............
... 97
New Netherlands ................................................................... 97
Newport (America) ............................................................... 98
Newport (Isle of Wight)
.................... 48
Newport (Wales) .......
................................ 35, 48
New Romney.........
..................... 48
New Spain ............................................................................... 97
New York (see also New Amsterdam) ......... 97, 98,
116
N'Gaous (Mac-Mahon) .
......... 83
Niana ...... .
. ........................ 3
Nicastro ...............................
................................ 40, 73
Nice ............................................
........................................ 79
Nicephorium
... ........................
........... 2
Nicomedia ..
........................ ... 2, 20
Nicopolis .......................
. 1, 65, 77, 78, 80
Nicosia (in Sicily) ................................................................. 73
Nicotera
.............................................................. 40, 73
Nidda ............................
...................................... 52
Nideggen ..
......................................... 52
Niebla .................. ........................ ........... 28
Niederstetten
...................... SO
Niemcza ... .......................
................................... 106
Niesten ................................................................................. SO
Nieswiez (Nesvizh) ...
... 111
Niger River
..... 116
Nijar
........................
................................... 70a
Nikolsburg (Mikulov) ......
..................................... 106
Nile River ........................................... 5, 17,27,84,91,116
Nimes ......
........................................... 10, 14, 49
Nine Communities ............................................................ 111
Nineveh ............................................................................... 5, 38
Niort..
................ 49
Nish................. ................ 32,35
Nishapur ...... .......................................
.......................... 10
Nisibis ............................................. 1,2,21,22,37,38,60
Nitra...
..................................... 108
Nizza Monferrato ............................................................... 73a
Nocera Inferiore ...
...................................... 73
Nocera Umbra ...
........................................ 73
Nola
....................... ................... 2, 40, 73
Nonatola ............................................................................... 73b
Norcia ......
........................................ 73
Nordhausen
....................................... 51
NOrcllingen ..
........ 46, SO, 66
Normandy ....................................................................... 19, 49
North Africa
................. 76
Northampton ..
........................................ 48
North Sea..................
.... 93, 116
Norwich ......................................... 35, 36, 48
Noto ........................................................................................ 73
Nottingham
................................................... 35, 48
Novara ...................................................................................... 73
Novellara .............................................................................. 73b
Nove Mesto
................................................................... 106
Novgorod .... ................................................................. 54, 110

Novi Ligure ............................................................................. 73

NovY Bydzov .......... ..................................
................. 106
Nowe Miasto ........................................................................ 111
Noyon ........................................................................................ 55
Nubia ............................................................................................ 91
Nubians .......................................................................................... 2
Namberg ........ 31,43,46, SO, 54, 62,66,67,74,88,
105

o
Oarkla (see Ouargla)
Ob River .................................................................
...... 116
Oberkirch .................................................
.... 52
Obermoschel ..............................................
.... 52
Obernai (France) ............................................................... 49
Obemai (Obemheim) (Germany) ........
... 105
Oberwesel .......................
............................... 51, 52
Oberzell .....................................................
. ..................... 35
Obock .......................................................................................... 91
OcaHa............
..... .41, 47, 57, 69
Occimiano ..........................
............................ 73a
Ochsenfurt ................. ........................................
.... SO
Odenburg (Sopron) ... .................................
.. 108
Oder River .............................
........... 56, 106, 11
Oderzo
........................... ............................ .... 73
Odolan6w ...........................................
...... 111
Oels (Olesnica) ...
......................... 106
Ofen (see also Buda) ...............
....... 77
Offenbach
................................. 52, 105
Offenburg ...........................................
............ 52
Offida ........................................................................
....... 73
Oghuz. .............................. ..................................
.... 16
Ohlau .......
....... 106
Ohrid ...... ................... ........................
.......... 63, 78
Ohringen ....
......................................................... SO
Olbia (Asia Minor) ............................................. 2
OIbia (on Black Sea coast) .......
. ................. 1,2
OIbia (Sardinia) ....... ......................
. .. 2
Olesko .'" .........................
................................... 111
Olevsk.
.................... 111
Olivenza ................
.. ....... ... ....................
..... 41
Olkusz .....................
.111
Olmedo .....
...................................................... 69, 70
OlmOtz (Olomouc) ............................................ 66, 67,106
Olot ...
.... 42
Olyka ........................
......................... 111, 112
Oman, Gulf of ....................................................................... 7
OHa .............................................................................................. 41
Onda..
.... 41
Opat6w...... ... ................... ........................
..111
Opoczno ................................................................................ 111
Oporto (see also Porto) ..............................
..... 76
Oppeln (Opole) .............................
.106
Oppenheim ........................................................................ 46, 52
Oppido............................... 40, 73
Oran .......................... 17, 22, 24, 75, 76, 77, 82, 83,101
Orange ......
...................................................... 47, 49, 54
Orciano (di Pesaro)
......... 73
Orense ............................................................................... 41, 76
.... 49
Orgelet ...
Orgiana
.................................................................... 73b
Oria ....................................... 2, 18,40
Orihuela .............................. .................................... 76
Orinoco River ..............................
.... 98
Orla.. . ..................................................................... 111
Orleans ...................... 2, 13, 14, 22,43, 45, 49, 55,92
Ombau ..................................................................................... SO
Omithopolis . ...................................................... ... 2
Orontes River ..
..... 61
Orte
.......................................................................... 73
Ortenburg ................................................................................... 51
Ortona
...................................... 73, 88
Orvieto ..............
.... 73
Osimo........
. ...... 73
OsnabrOck ..........
................ 51,67
Ospringe ..........
...........................................
.... 48
Ostia .................... .............................. 1,2, 18,40
Ostiglia ............................................................... ...... ..... 73b
Ostrog ................................................................ 56, 111, 112
Ostropol ................................................... 111, 112
Ostrzesz6w ...................................................................... 111
Ostuni..
.... 73

129

INDEX TO MAPS
Osuna ..................................................... 42, 69, 70a, 88, 101
111
Otranto ...................... 2,12,18,22,37,40,65, 69a, 73
Ottoman Empire .............................. 63, 74, 75, 113, 114
Ouargla (Oarkla) ................................................ 22, 24, 83
Oujda .............................................................................................. 83
Oulchy-Ie-Chateau ................................................................ 49
Overijssel ................... .......................................................... 96
Oviedo ................................................. 28,41,69,76, 101
Ovruch ......................................
............................. 111
Oxford ....................................
....................... 35, 48, 88
Oxyrhynchus ...... ................................
............ 2, 27
Ottingen ..................... ................ 50
O~im ...................................................................................

p
Pacific Ocean ................
............. 97,98,116
Paczkow .................................................................................... 106
Padua (Padova) ...................................... 40, 73, 82, 88, 89
Pagan .............................
........... 60
Pahma..........................................................
..................... 3
PakoSt ......................................................................................... 111
Palaestina Prima ..............................
......... 3
Palaestina Secunda ................................................................. 3
Palaestina Tertia ................................. ............................... 3
Pa1am6s.....................................................
...................... 91
Palazzolo (Acreide) .......................................................... 73
Palencia .................................... 28,41, 57,69, 70, 76, 101
Palenzuela ................................................................................... 41
Palermo ...... 1,2, 12, 18, 19,22,37,40,44,62, 69a,
73, 102
Palestrina ..................................................................................... 73
Palma (de Mallorca) ................. 28,29,41,42, 69, 101
Palma del Rio ............................................................................ 69
Palmanova ................................................................................... 73
Palmyra (see Tadmor)
Palos.............................................
........................ 76
Pamiers ......................................................................................... 49
Pamplona ....... 11, 28, 29,41,47,53,69,76,92,101
Pancorbo .................................................................................. 41
Panevezys ................................................................................... 87
Panias (see also Banias) ...................................................... 6
Panticapaeum ........................................................................ 1,2
Paola ............................................................................................... 73
Papal States (see also Church, States of the;
States of the Church) ...................................... 40, 69a
Pappenheim (eastern Germany) ................................. 51
Pappenheim (western Germany) ................................ 51
Para .............................................................................................. 98
Paralba .......................................................................................... 98
Paramaribo .................................................................. 98,116
Parana
...................................................................... 98, 116
Paredes ..................................................................................... 41
Paris (see also Lutetia) ...... 2, 13, 14,35, 39, 43, 46,
49,54,55,74,88,92,104,116
Parium ............................................................................................ 2
Parma ...................................................
.... 73
Parthian Empire ..................................................................... 1
Passau ................................................................................... 51, 67
Passavant..en-Argonne ........................................................ 49
Paszt6 .......................................................................................... 108
Patara ................................................................................................ 2
Paterno .......................................................................................... 73
Patras ........................................... 2, 37, 44, 63, 78, SO, 113
Pavia (see also Ticinum) ......... 12, 13, 18,40,44, 73
Pavoloch .................................................................................... 112
Pazardzhik .................................................................................. 78
Pechenegi (tribe) ..........................
..................... 16
Pedrola ..............................................
. ... 42
Pegnitz ........................................................................................... 51
Peki'in .................................................................................... 23,79
Pelusium ............................................................................ 1, 2, 27
Pef\afiel ......................................................................... 41,47,69
Penamacor ......................................................................... 41,59
Peiliscola ...................................................................................... 69
Pentapolis .................................................................................... 24
Perekop .......................................................
............ 110
Perelada ................................................................................ 42,47
Pereyaslav .............................................
............. 112
Pergamum ........................................................
.............. 2
Pergine Valsugana .....
......................... 73
Pergola ...................................
..... 73
Pernambuco (see also Recife) ............................ 98, 116

Perpignan ........ 11,39,41,42,45,47,49,57,69,76,

101
Persepolis .................................................................................... 10
Persia, Kingdom of (see also Persian-Sassanian
Empire) .......................................... 4, 17,60,62, 82, 85
Persian Gulf .............................................................. 4,5,7, 17
Persian-Sassanian Empire ............................................. 2, 5
Pertuis ............................................................................................ 49
Peru (see also New Castile) ........................ 97,98, 103
Perugia .................................................................................. 18, 73
Perusia .............................................................................................. 2
Pesaro .........................,................................................. 73, 88, 91
Pescara (see also Aterno) ................................................ 40
Peschiera ................................................................................... 73b
Pescia ......................................................................
.... 73
Pessinus ........................................................................................... 2
Pest (see also Buda, Budapest) ................................. 108
Petra .................................................................................................. 7
Petralia ........................................................................................... 73
Pezinok ....................................................................................... 108
Pfaffenhofen ............................................................................... 51
Pfalz .............................................................................................. 105
Pfarrkirchen ............................................................................... 51
Pfeffenhausen ........................................................................... 51
Pforzheirn
................................................ 35, 52, 66
Phanagoria ..................................................................................... 2
Phaselis ........................... .............................................................. 2
Phasis .......................................................................................... 1,5
Philadelphia (in America) .............................................. 98
Philadelphia (in Egypt) .. ..................................................... 27
Philadelphia (in Turkey) ....................................................... 2
Philippi .............................................................................................. 2
Philippines ................................................................................ 103
Philippopolis ................................................................. 2,44,78
Philomelium (Ak~hir) ....... ............................................... 35
Phocaea ........................................................................................... 2
Phoenicia ........................................................................................ 3
Piacenza ....................................................................................... 73
Piana (degli Albanesi) .......... ................... 73,88
Piazza Armerina ..................................................................... 73
Piedmont ...................................................................................... 89
Pieve di Cento ....................................................................... 73b
Plia ................................................................................................. III
Pllica ............................................................................................. III
Pilsen (plzen) ............................................................... lOS, 106
Pina .......................................................................................... 42, 47
Piflcz6w...............................
............................ III
Pinerolo ...................................................................................... 73a
Piney .........................................
............... 49
Pinsk ........................................... ............ 56, 110, Ill, 112
Piotrk6w .........................
.................... 111
Piove di Sacco
... 73, 88
Piraeus ................................. ................................................... 2
Piran .... ..........................
.................. 73
Plruz Shapur .............. ...........................
... 21
Piruzuku ................................................................................... 60
Piryatin ..........................................
.................... 112
Pisa . . . . . . . . ....... 35, 37, 40, 44, 73, SO, 102
Pistoia ...............................
............................................... 73
Piszczac ......... ........................................... ............................ 111
Plasencia ............................................... 41, 69, 70, 76, 101
Plauen ............................................................................................ 46
Pleven .
.......................................................................... 78
Plock ........................................................................................ 111
Pionsk .......................................................................................... III
Plosk . . . . . . .................................................. 56
Pniewy .....................
........................................... III
Po River .
................................................. 18, 40, 73
Podgaytsy .....................
............................. III
Podolia ...................................................................................... 111
Poggibonsi ................................................................................... 73
Pogrebishche .......................................................................... 111
Pohorelice ................................................................................... 46
Poirino ......................................................................................... 73a
Poitiers ............................................................ 2, 10, 13, 14, 49
Poitou .................
.............................................................. 49
Poland .......................... 15,56,74,82,86,92, 110, 111
Policastro
.............................. 73
PoIigny
.......................
...................... 46, 49
Polizzi ..
.................................................................. 73
PoBensa
.................................................... 42
Polotsk .............................
............................... 110

Polyana ................................... ....................................... 111,112

Pornar .................
.................................................. 42
Pomaro ..............................................................
............. 73a
Pomerania ...................................................
........ 66
Pompey .......................................................
.... 2, 40
Pomponesco ..................................................
....... 73b
Ponferrada .............................................................................. 76
Pons...........................
.................................................. 42
Pontarlier ......................................................................... 32, 49
Pont-Audemer ............................................................... 43, 49
Pont-du.. Chateau
............................ 49
Pontecorvo ........................
......................... 73
Pontestura ............... ....... .................... .......................... 73a
Pontoise .................................
................... 35, 43, 49
Pont-sur-Seine ..................
................................ 49
Ponzone ................................................................................. 73a
Pordenone .............................................................................. 73
Porec ....................................... .................................................... 73
Porrentruy ................................................................................... 68
Portaiegre ............................................................................ 41, 59
Porto (see also Oporto) .. 29, 41, 44, 47,59,69,92,
101
Portogruaru ............................................
........... 73
Porto Mantovano ................................................................ 73b
Portugal ...... 29, 41, 47, 59, 69, 69a, 74, 75, 76, 76a,
91,92,97,101,103
Portus Augusti ........................................................................ 2
Poviglio ................................................................................. 73b
Poznan ............................................................ 56, 62, 110, 111
Pozzuoli (see also Puteoli) ............................................... 73
Prague (Praha) .... 13,15,17,30,31,38,43,44,51,
66,62,82,86,88,106,107,108,109,115,116
Prato .....................................................................
....... 73
Prerov ...................................................................................... 106
Presles-et-Boves .................................................................... 49
Pressburg (Bratislava) ..............................
108
..... 63
Preveza ............................................
Prlbram ....................................................................................... 51
Pripyat River ...............................
. 56, Ill, 112
Priverno ................................................................................... 73
Prostejov ...................
........ .... ....... 106
Provence ....................
.......... 45,47,49,55
Provins ........................
................................. 49
Prussia ....................................................................................... 56
Pruzhany ................................................................................. 111
PrzemySi ................................................... 56, 110, 111, 112
Przeworsk .................................
.............. 111
Przysucha ................................................................................ 111
Ptolemais (in Egypt) ......
................. 27
Ptolemais (in Libya) .......
............... 2, 22, 24
Ptolemais (in Eretz Israel; see also Acre) ................ 6
Puebla de Alcocer..
............... 92,101
Puerto Rico ................
............................ 98
Puget-Theniers .... ..................................... ...................... 49
Puigcerda ........
........................................ 42
Pula ..............
...................... 2, 18,62, 73, 81
Pulkau .........................................
................................... 51
Pultusk...................................... ........................
..... 56
Pumbedita ................................................. 2, 4, 7, 21, 22, 60
Pum Nahara ......................................................................... 2,21
Puteoli (see also Pozzuoli) ......................................... 2, 40

Q
Qala'a ..................................................
.................. 83
Qalat Ajlun ......................................................
...... 61
Qalat Bani Abbas .........................
...... 83
Qalat Bani Hamrnad
..... 24
Qalyub .......................... ... 84
Qana'a, Wadi ................
........ 9
Qarne Hittirn ..............................
..... 39
Qasr-el-Kebir ..................... .......................
......... 25, 83
Qasr Hubeira ........................................................................ 21
Qaynuqa' , Banu
.......................
...... 9
Qift ............................. ........................
.. ......... 27
Qomisheh ............... ......................................
..... ..... 20
Quesada .......
........ 70a
QuisteDo ................................... .. 73b
Quito ............... ........................
....... 97,98, 116
Qulzum (see also Bilbeis)
... 17,37
Qunfidhah, AI- ....... . . . . . . . . . 91
Qura, AI- ......................................................................... 7, 8
Qurayza, Banu
........................... 9

130

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INDEX TO MAPS
R
Raabs ...................................................................
............... 51
Rabat (Mediterranean) .......................................................... 2
Rabat (Morocco) .................................................................... 17
Rabbath Ammon ................................................... 23, 33, 61
Rabbath Mo'av ........................................................................... 3
Racalmuto ............................................. ........................ ....... 73
Racconigi ................................................................................... 73a
Rachel's Tomb .................................................
.......... 38
Radolfzell ...................................................................................... 52
Radom ......................................................................................... 111
Radomyshl.............................................
................... 111
Ragusa (in Sicily) ........................................................... 65, 73
Ragusa (in Yugoslavia) ..... 54, 63, 65, 73, 78, SO, 81
Rahba, EI ..............................................
..... 21
Rai (see also Rhages) ............
..... 10,20
Rakka .............................................
... 37,60
Rama .................................................
.. 37, 62
Rama, EI- ........................................................................................ 3
Ramerupt .............................................................
. 35, 43
Ramla, EI .......
.................................................... 84
Ramie ...................... 17,20,23,33,37,61,62,79,81
.. ........... 73
Randazzo ......................
Randersacker ............
............................... SO
Ranuna, Wadi
........................................... 9
Rapperswil ............................................................................... 51
Rashid ...............
..... 62, 84, 85
Raskov...............
.......................
...... 111
Rastenfeld ....................
................................. 51
Ratibor ...............................
........ 106
Ratisbon (see Regensburg)
Ravenna.
........... 1,2, 12, 13, 18, 40, 73, 89
Ravensburg ........................................................................ 51,66
Rawa .......................................................................................... 111
Rawicz.
..................... 111
Recanati ........................ ...........
..... 44, 73, 86
Recife (see also Pernambuco) ..
.................. 98
Redondesco .....
....... 73b
Red Russia ....................................................................... 56
Red Sea. ........................
.................................... 4, 7, 17
Rees ............... ............................... ................
.......... 52
Regensburg ...... 2,13, 14, 17,30,31,32,35,38,43,
46, SO,54,66,67, 91, 105
Reggio (Reggio di Calabria) ........ 18, 40, 69a, 73, 88
Reggiolo .....................................
......................... 73b
Rehob ...
............. 3
Reichenbach.
....... 106
Reims .............................................................
.............. 35, 49
Reisen .....
.......................................... 111
Remagen ................................................................................ 52
Remedello
........................................ 73b
Rende
....... 73
Requena...
........... .............
........................... 76
Rethimnon ...
.......... 63
Retz
............................. 51
Reutlingen ..
.............. 66, 67
Revel.....
........................................ 47,49
................................................................ 73b
Revere ..........
Rhages (Rai)
...........................
........... 2
. ....... 52
Rheinberg ....
Rheinb6llen ... ..
. .......................................... 52
Rheinfelden
....................................... 52, 68
Rhinau ....................... ...................................
....................... 52
Rhine River (Rhenus) . 1, 15, 20, 30, 31, 32, 35, 49,
52,116
Rhodes ....... 2,37,44,62,63,77,78, SO, 81, 85,113
Rhodes Minor (see also Rodosto) ......................... 81
RhOne River ....
............................... 49
Rhuddlan .....
...................................... 48
Ribeauville ................... .............
................. 49, 52, 95
Ricla ................
.............................................. 42
Riedenburg ................. ..............
............................... SO
Rieneck ............................................................................... SO
Rieti ...
......... 73
Riez ..
...................................... ...........
......... 49
Riga........................................... ...... 110

~;=~~ ~I~~.i".iO

................... . ::.::::::.::.40:i3~ ~

Rimmon, Hurbat
Rio de Janeiro .....
Rio Grande ..

.................. 3
.................................. 97, 98
..... 116

Rio Libre ..........................................

................................... 59

Riom...............................................
............................... 49
Ripatransone
........................ ................................... 73
Riquewihr .................. .......................
.......................... 52
Rit ................................................................................................. 49
Riva di Trento .............................................................. 73, 88
Rivalta Bormida .............
...................... 73a
Rivarolo ........
........................
....................... 73b
Rivarolo Canavese ........ ................................................... 73a
Rivoli.
..............................
...................... 73a
Rixheim......................
........................................ 95
Rocca (di Neto) .......
....................... 73
Rocca d' Arazzo ......
........................................ 73a
Roccaverano .......
.......... 73a
Rockenhausen ......
.............................................. 52
Rodelsee ....
............................................................ 46
Rodez ............................... .................................
....... 49
Rodigo............................
......... 73b
Rodingen ..
.................................................. 52
Rodosto (see also Rhodes Minor) ........... 37,63, 78
Rogatin...
.................. 111
Rogozno
....................... 111
Romagna ... .......................................
......... 12, 18
Rome ...... 1,2, 12, 13, 17, 18,22,35,37,40,44,45,
54,62, 69a, 73, 74, 75,81,88,89,91,92,102,
114,116
ROmhild.........
........................ SO
Romsey......................
......................... 48
Roncesvalles ...
.. 13
Roncofreddo
............................................................... 73
Ronda. ........................
.. 28, 70, 70a, 76
Rosheim ..
........ .............
..... 49,52, 105
Rossano ........
......... .............
.... 18, 40, 73
Rostock .................. ...
.............. 67
Rotenburg (ob der Fulda) ........................................ 66
Rothenburg (ob der Tauber) .... 31,39,43,46, SO,
54,66,67
Rothenfels ........................................... ...................................... 51
Rotterdam .......
92, 96
ROttingen
................. SO, 51
Rottweil.............
.......... ...........
...................... 52
Roudnice ..
........... 106
Rouen ........................
...... 31, 35, 46, 49, 55
Rouffach .....
............... 46, 49, 52, 54
Rougemont.
........... ........... .............
...... 52
Rovereto
....................................................................... 73
Rovigo ................................................................................ 73
Rovinj ............................................................................ 73
Rovno ......
............................................................... 56, 111
Rozenwiller .....
..................................................... 95
Rubiera ..
.......... 73b
Ruesta .. ...................................................... 28, 41, 42
Ruhr River ............................................................................. 52
Russi .................................
............. 73
Russia .....
.... 82, 110, 111
Rutigliano ..
..................................................... 73
Rzesz6w .................................................................................. 111

S
Saalfeld ..................................................... 51
Saar River ...
............. 52
Saarburg ...
.............. ........................... 52
SaargemUnd (Sarreguemines) ..
......................... 52
Sabadell..............
....
..... 42
Sabbioneta ...
............................ 73b, 88
Sabugal ..
.... 41,59
Sacile
.................. 73
Slickingen .... .... .. .............................................. 52
Sacree ...
......................... 49
Sfldaba . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 41
Safed (Sanjak province) .................................................. 79
Safed .. 23, 37,38, 39, 44, 45,61, 62, 79,81,82,85,
86, 88, 113, 115, 116

~~es

::.~~: ~

..........................:..: .......... ::: . .::.::: ..::.: ...::::: ..

Sagunto (see also Saguntum) .............. 41, 57, 69, 76
Saguntum (see also Sagunto) .
............ 2
Sahagun..
. .............. 28, 29, 41, 101
Sahragt..
.............................................
.... 84
St.-Denis ......... .................
.......... 13,49
......... 49
Sainte-Menehould . ............................
Saintes ........
................................... 49
SaintFiacre ..................................... ...,.................................. 49

Saint-Florentin .......................................................................... 49
St. Gallen ..................................................................................... 68
St. Hippoiyte ............................................................................. 52
St.-Jean-d'Angely ................................................................... 49
St.-Julien ...............................................
.............. 49
St.-Mard-sur-Ie-Mont ........................................................... 49
St.-Pierre-surDives .............................................................. 49
St. POlten ......................................................
.... 51
Saint-Quentin (St. Quentin) ........
................ 49
St.-Remy ......................... ...............................
.... 49
St.-Savin ................................................................ ......... 49
St. Vith .......................................................
. ...... 51
St. Wendel .............................................................................. 52
Salamanca ..... 28, 29, 41, 47,57,69, 70, 76, 88, 101
Salamis ............................................................
..2
Salamiyeh.. ..................................... .......
... 61
Saldafla .......................................................
.... 70
Sale (SaIa) ........................................................... 2, 25, 83
Salemi .................................................................................. 73
Salerno .................................. 2, 12, 18, 35, 37,40,62,73
Salisbury .................................................................................. 48
Salon (-de-Provence) ................
............. 47,49,55
Salona ............................................................................................... 2
Salonika (ThessaIonica) ...... 1,2,20,22,32,37,44,
63, 65, 75, 77, 78, SO, 81, 82, 85, 86, 88, 113,
114, 115, 116
Salt> ....................................................... ........ .... 73
Saluzzi ....................................................................................... 73a
Salvador (see also Bahia) ......
......... 103
Salzburg .............................................................. 51,54,66,67
Salzungen (Bad Salzungen) ............................................ SO

=~:~:::

.: : :.: . .: . : .: . . . . .

. 1~: ~

Samaria .... ................ .................. ............................... ....... 62

Samarkand
........ ...................
... 10
Samarra ....
.............................. ............. 21
Samokov.....
................................................. 78
Samos ...
................... 2, 37, 63, 78
Samosata .. ........ ...............................
...... 2
............................. 62
Samsun (Amisus) .....
Sana .....
.................
............. 2,4,7, 10
S. Angelo in Vado ...
................ 73
S. Antioco .
.................... 2, 40
San Antonio.
... 40
S. Arcangelo
.............. 73
San Benedetto ...................................................................... 73b
San Damiano (d'Asti) .................................... 73a
San Daniele del Friuli ............................................. 73
Sandomierz (Sandomir) .............................. 56,111,112
San Felices de los Galiegos ............................................ 47
S. Felice s. Panaro ....... ..
.......... 73b
San Germano ...............................................................
.. 40
San Gimignano (Castel San Gimignano) ............. 73
San Giovanni ............................................................................ 73
San Giovanni in Persiceto .. ........... ........................ 73b
San Jorgo ....
.............................................
.. 83
San Lucido ...
... 73
San Marco (in Italy)
........................................ 73
San Marco (in Sicily)..
..73
S. Miniato ...................................... .... 73
San Pedro ................................................................................ 69
San Salvatore ......................................................................... 73a
San Sebastian
.. 92
San Secondo .
........................................................... 73
San Severino ...
.. 73
San Severino Lucano .. ... .
.. 73
San Severo ......... ..................................................................... 73
San Stefano Belbo ............................................... 73a
Santa Coloma de Queralt ............................... 41, 42, 69
Santa Lucia
.. 73
Santander ..............................
........... 75, 76, 92
Santa Olalla .. ....................................................... 41,47
Santarem ...
............................ 28,41,59,69,91
SanthiA.. ........................................
................. 73a
Santiago (Chile) ........................................................... 97
Santiago de Compostela ....... 17,28,29,41,65,69,
92, 101
Santiago do Cacem ..........
. ..................... 41,59
SaOne River .. .................................. .................... 35, 49
Slio Paulo ... ................................................. ...... 98
Silo Tome ......................................................................... 97,116
Saragossa (Zaragoza) ..... 10, 11, 14,22, 28, 29, 35,
37,41,42,44,45,47,54,69,76,101

131

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INDEX TO MAPS
Sarajevo .......................................................................... 2. 78. 80
Sarcles ...................................................................................... 2. 35
Sardinia ......................... 12. 18. 40. 65. 69a. 73. 89. 102
Sarento ............................................................................................ 2
Sarkel ..................................................................................... 15. 16
Sarnano ......................................................................................... 73
SArvar .......................................................................................... 108
Sasa .................................................................................................... 3
SasseUo ....................................................................................... 73a
Sassuolo .................................................................................... 73b
Satanov ........................................................................... 111. 112
Saulieu ........................................................................................... 49
Saumur .......................................................................................... 49
Sava River ................................................................................ 108
Saverne ........................................................................ 49. 52. 95
Savigliano .................................................................................. 73a
Savoy .............................................................................................. 89
Savran ......................................................................................... 111
Saxony ................................................................................ 66. 105
Sbeitla ............................................................................................ 26
Scalea ............................................................................................. 73
Scandiano ................................................................................. 73b
Schaffhausen .................................................................... 66. 68
Schedia ............................................................................................ 2
Schesslitz ..................................................................................... 51
Schleusingen ............................................................................. 50
Schlllsselfeid .............................................................................. 51
Schmalkalden ........................................................................... 50
Schriesheim ................................................................................ 52
Schwabach ................................................................................. 51
Schwabisch Hall ...................................................................... 51
Schwanberg ............................................................................... 66
Schwanfeld ................................................................................. 50
Schwarzenau ............................................................................. 46
Schweidnitz (Swidnica) .................................. 51. 66. 106
Schweinfurt ................................................................................ 50
Schwyz (canton) ..................................................................... 68
Sciacca .......................................................................................... 73
Scicli ................................................................................................ 73
Sclafani .......................................................................................... 73
Scotland ..................................................................................... 104
Scythopolis (see also Bet She'an) ................................. 6
Sebaste (see also Sebastia) ............................................... 6
Sebastia (see alsoSebaste) ............................................. 37
Sebenico ....................................................................................... 73
sees ................................................................................................. 49
Segni ............................................................................................... 73
Segovia .................... 29. 41. 44. 47. 57. 69. 70. 76.101
Seia .................................................................................................. 47
Seine River ................................................................. 31.35.49
Selestat ......................................................................... 49.52. 95
Seleucia (in Asia Minor) ....................................................... 2
Seleucia (in Babylon) .............................................................. 2
Seleucia (in Cilicia) .......................................................... 2. 35
Seleucia (in Pamphylia) ........................................................ 2
Seleucia (in Syria) ..................................................................... 2
Seleucia (in Yugoslavia) ....................................................... 2
Seligenstadt ................................................................................ 52
Selinus .............................................................................................. 2
Seljuks ............................................................................................ 63
Seltz ................................................................................................. 52
Seminara .............................................................................. 40. 73
Senigallia ...................................................................................... 73
Senlis ...................................................................................... 49.55
Sennar ............................................................................................ 91
Sens ............................................................... 31. 39. 43. 45. 49
Sentheim ...................................................................................... 52
SepUlveda .................................................................................... 41
Sera .................................................................................................... 2
Serbia ........................................................................................... 108
Serdica (see also Sofia) ........................................................ 2
Sered ............................................................................................ 108
Sermide ...................................................................................... 73b
Sennoneta ................................................................................... 73
Serpa .............................................................................. 41. 59. 92
Serra de' Conti ........................................................................ 73
serrai .............................................................................................. 78
SerravaDe ..................................................................................... 73
Sesso Aurunca ......................................................................... 73
Setubal ................................................................. 41.47.59.92
Seville (Sevilla) (province) ....................................... 28. 69

132

SeviDe (Sevilla) ....... 1. 11.28.29.41.44.47.54.57.

69. 70. 76. 101
sezanne ........................................................................................ 49
Sezze .............................................................................................. 73
Sfax .................................................................................................. 26
Sha'a1bim ........................................................................................ 3
Shabwah ......................................................................................... 7
Shargorodo ................................................................... 111. 112
Shaubak ........................................................................................ 33
Sheba .............................................................................................. 91
Shechem (Nablus; see also Neapolis) ........ 2. 6. 33.
37.39.61.62.79.81
Shefaram ............................................................................. 38. 79
Shema. Khirbet .......................................................................... 3
Shepetovka .............................................................................. 111
Shiloh ................................................................................................ 3
Shiraz ................................................................................................ 2
Siauliai ......................................................................................... 110
Sicily ............... 12. 18. 19. 40. 65. 69a. 73. 74.89. 102
Side ..................................................................................................... 2
Sidhirokastron .......................................................................... 78
Sidon ............................................... 2. 23. 33. 37. 61. SO. 81
Sieg River ..................................................................................... 52
Siegburg ........................................................................................ 52
Siegen ............................................................................................. 52
Siemiatycze ............................................................................. 111
Siena ............................................................................... 40. 73. 91
Sierck ............................................................................................. 51
Sierentz ......................................................................................... 95
Sierre .............................................................................................. 46
Siershahn ..................................................................................... 52
SigUenza ................................................... 28. 41. 69. 76. 101
Sijilmasa ...................................................... 22. 24. 25. 65. 83
Sikhni ................................................................................................ 3
Sikhra ................................................................................................ 2
Silesia ................................................................................... 66. 106
Snlarolo ......................................................................................... 73
Silves ...................................................................................... 41.59
Simeri (Soveria) .............................................................. 40.73
Simoniya ......................................................................................... 3
Sind .................................................................................................. 17
Sindringen ................................................................................... 50
Sineu ............................................................................................... 42
Sinope ................................................................ 1. 2. 15. 22. 77
Sinopoli ......................................................................................... 73
Sinyava ....................................................................................... 111
Sinzheim ....................................................................................... 52
Sinzig .............................................................................................. 52
Siponto .................................................................................. 18. 40
Siruela ............................................................................................ 92
Sissa ................................................................................................ 73
Sisteron ................................................................................ 47.49
Sitifis .................................................................................................. 2
Skalica ......................................................................................... 108
Skidel ........................................................................................... 111
Skole ............................................................................................ 111
Skopje ......................................................................... 78. SO. 114
Slavuto ........................................................................................ 111
Slawatycze ............................................................................... 111
Sliven .............................................................................................. 78
Sionim ......................................................................................... 111
Slutsk ................................................................................ 111. 112
Smela ........................................................................................... 111
Smolensk ................................................................................... 110
Smorgon .................................................................................... 111
Smyrna (see also Izmir) .............................. 2. 35. 65.77
Sobemheim ................................................................................ 52
Sobrado ........................................................................................ 41
Sochaczew .................................................................... 110. 111
Soden (Bad Soden) ........................................................... 50
Sofia (see also Serdica) .............. 2. 32. 35. 77. 78. 81
Soissons ........................................................................................ 49
SOkal ................................................................................. 111. 112
Soknopaiou Nesos ................................................................ 27
SoIiera ......................................................................................... 73b
Soliman ......................................................................................... 26
S6Der ............................................................................................... 42
Solothurn ............................................................................. 46. 68
Solsona ................................................................. 41. 42. 47. 69
Solva .................................................................................................. 2
Sommariva (d. Bosco) ..................................................... 73a
Soncino ................................................................................. 73. 88

Sonnino ......................................................................................... 73
Sora ................................................................................................. 73
SOragna ......................................................................................... 73
Soria ..................................... 28. 29. 41. 44. 47. 57. 69.76
50s ........................................................................................... 42.76
Souk el-Arba ............................................................................. 26
Soultz ..................................................................................... 52. 95
Sousse (Wadi) .......................................................................... 17
SOusse ............................................................................................ 26
Southampton .................................................................... 35. 48
Spain .... 17.41.44.45.47.74. 76a. 82. 92. 97.101.

103
Spalato (Split) .......................................................... 32. 35. 63
Spandau ..................................................................................... 105
Spello .............................................................................................. 73
Speyer ................ 14. 30.31.35. 43. 45. 52. 54. 66. 67
Spielberg ...................................................................................... 50
Spigno (Monferrato) .......................................................... 73a
Spnamberto ............................................................................. 73b
Spilimbergo ................................................................................ 73
Split (seeSpalato)
Spoleto .................................................................................. 18. 73
Spoleto (province) ................................................................. 18
Squntace ............................................................................... 40. 73
Srem ............................................................................................. 111
Srinagar ......................................................................................... 99
Sroda ............................................................................................ 111
Stade ............................................................................................... 51
Stamford .............................................................................. 35. 48
Stanislav ..................................................................................... 111
Starodub .................................................................................... 111
States of the Church (see also Church. States of
the; Papal States) .............................. 18.85.89.102
Stavishche ................................................................................ 111
Stawiski ...................................................................................... 111
Steinach ........................................................................................ 51
Steinheim ..................................................................................... 52
Stellata ........................................................................................ 73b
Stepan ......................................................................................... 111
Sternberg .................................................................................. 105
Sterzing ......................................................................................... 67
Stilo .................................................................................................. 73
Stip ................................................................................................... 78
Stobi ................................................................................................... 2
Stolin ............................................................................................ 111
Stommeln .................................................................................... 52
Strasbourg .......... 49.52.66.67.74.88.95. 105. 116
Straubing ...................................................................................... 51
Strevi ............................................................................................ 73a
Strongoli ....................................................................................... 73
Stryy ............................................................................................. 111
Strzegom ................................................................................... 106
Stuttgart ....................................................................................... 52
Styria ............................................................................................... 66
Suakin ............................................................................................ 91
Sudbury ........................................................................................ 48
Suebi (Sueves). Kingdom of the ............................ 2. 11
Suez ................................................................................................. 91
Sulci .................................................................................................... 2
Sully ................................................................................................. 35
Sulmona .................................................................................. 2. 73
Sulzbach .............................................................................. 52. 88
Sulzbach-Rosenberg ............................................................ 51
SulzbUrg ....................................................................................... 51
Sulzburg ....................................................................................... 51
Sumatra ........................................................................................ 97
Summaqa. Khirbet ................................................................... 3
Sura ............................................................... 1.2.7.21.22.37
Surat ............................................................................................... 99
Surinam (see also New Holland) ............. 97. 98. 100
Surinam River ........................................................................ 100
Susa ..................................................................... 1. 2. 21. 38. 73
Suseya. Khirbet .......................................................................... 3
Svitavy ......................................................................................... 106
Swabia (Schwaben) .............................................................. 51
Sweden .......................................................................................... 87
Switzerland ................................................................................. 68
Synnada ........................................................................................... 2
Syiacusa (see also Syracuse) ..................................... 1.2
Syracuse (Siracusa) ........... 12. 18. 19.37.40.65. 73
Syr Darya River .................................................................... 116
Syria ........................................................................................ 45.61

INDEX TO MAPS
S2:czawnica .............................................................................. 111
S2:c2:ebr2:eS2:Yll ............... .... ......... ........ ....................... 111, 112
S2:eged ......................................................................................... 108
S2:~esfehervflr ..................................................................... lOB

S2:ydIowiec ............................................................................... 111

T
Taanach .............................................................
............ 62
Tabarca ......................................................................................... 10
Tabri2: ................................................................. 20,44,77,116
Tabuk ....................................................................................... 7,10
Tadla (Kasta Tadla) ...........................
. ........ 25
Tadmor (Palmyra) ........................ ............. 2,5,7,37
Tagus (Tejo, Tajo) River ........................... 28, 29, 59
Taif (At Taif) ....................................................... 2,4,7,8
Taillebourg ...................................................................... 47,49
Tajara ........................................................................................... 70a
Ta'iaba, Banu ............................................................................... 9
Talas ...................................................................... ........................ 10
Talavera de Ia Reina ........................... 28, 41, 69,70,76
Talkha ............................................................................................ 84
Tallard ................................................................................... 47,49
Talsi ............................................................................................... 110
Tamarite ..................................................................................... 41
Tamatarkha .................................................
.. 15,16
Tamsweg ....... .........................................
................. 51
Tanais
................................................. 1
Tanaro River ..................................
............... 73a
Ta~r (see also lingis) ........ 10.17.22.24.25.65.
75.83,101
Taormina ................................................................................... 73
Taranto ........................................................ 12. 18.37.40.73
Tarascon ..................................................................... 47.49.55
Tara2:ona (de Arag6n) ........... 28. 41. 42. 47. 69.101
Tarentum ........................................................................................ 2
Tarifa ....................................................................................... 70a
Tarl6w ..... ....................................................
........... 111
Tarnogr6d .................................................................... Ill, 112
Tamopol ................................................................................... 111
Tarn6w ............................................................................... 56. III
Taroudannt ........................................................................ 25. 83
Tarqui,.a ...................................................................................... 73
Tarraco ............................................................................................ 2
Tarragona ........ 11. 13.28.29.37.41.42.47.69.76
Tarrega ......................................................................... 41.42.69
Tarsus ........................................................................ 1.2.35.37
Tata (in Hungary) ................................................................ lOB
Tata (in Morocco) ................................................................. 83
Tataouine ..................................................................................... 26
Tauberbischofsheim ................................................... SO. 51
Tauste ........................................................................... 42,47.69
Tavira ...................................................... ........... 41.59,91.92
Tayrna ............................................... .................... 2.7.8.37
Taza .... ................................................
................. 83
Tbilisi (see Tillis)
Teano ............................................................................ .......... 40
Tebessa ...................................................................................... 10
Tebtunis ........................................................................................ 27
Teggiano ......................................................................................... 2
Tehuda .......................................................................................... 10
Tela ................................................................................................ 2
Telc ............................................................................................... 106
Telouet .......................................
................................ 83
Tembleque .................................................................................. 69
Tenes .............................................................................................. 83
Terarno ........................................................
...... 40,73
Terliui ....................................................................................... 40
Termini ..................................................................... 40. 73
Terrnoli .......................................................................................... 73
Temi ......................................................................................... 2.73
Terracina ............................................................... 2.12.40.73
Teruel ....................... 28. 29.41.42,47.57.69.76.101
Tetford ......................................................................... ......... 35.48
Tetiyev .......................................................... .............. 111.112
ntouan ................................................................................ 25. 83
Teus ................................................................................................... 2
Thala ............................................................................................... 26
Thames River ............................................................. 48. ~
Thann .................... ............................. ......................... 49,52
Tharthar .......................................... .............................. 21
Thasos ...........................................
................... 78
Thebae (Thebes) (in Egypt) ........
....... 1. 2. 27

Thebes (in Greece) ............... . .............. 37.44.63.78

Thernar ........................................................................................ SO
ThessaIonica (see Salonika)
Thouars ......................................................................................... 49
Thuir ................................................ ............................................. 42
Thuringia .................................................................................... 51
Thurnau .................................................................................. SO
Thyatira ........................................................................................... 2
Tiaret ...................................................................................... 22. 24 .
Tiber River .................................................................................. 73
Tiberias ........ 2. 3. 6. 7, 23. 33. 37. 38. 39. 62. 79. 82
Ticineto ... ...... ................... ................... ... ........... ..... .............. ...... 73a
TlCinum (see also Pavia) ................................................... 18
Tillis ........................... ........................ 5. 20. 60. 116
Tigris River ....
............... 5. 7. 17. 21. 60. 116
Tmgis (see also Ta~r) ................................................ 1.2
Tipasa .....................
.. ......................... ............... 2
Tirat Zevi ................
................................................. 3
Tis2:a River ......................
............... 108
Tivoli .................
...................... 73
Tiznit ............................................................................................. 83
Tlemcen ................
....... 22. 24. 44. 74. 76. 83. 86
110s .................................................................................................. 2
Todi .........................
........................ 73
Tokat ................................................................................... 62.77
Toledo (city) ....... 1,2,10.11.22.28.29.37,38,39.
41.44.45.47.54.57.58,69.70.75.76. 101
Tolentino ....
.......................................................... 73
Tolosa (Toulouse) ....
......................................... 2
Tomar .........
............................................... ... 41.59
Tomashpol ............................................................................... III
Tomas2:6w (Lubelski)
.......................... .... 111.112
Tonco ..........
....................................................... 73a
Tonnerre .................... ............................................................. 49
Torino (Turin) ................ ...................................... 73a. 88
Toro ............................................................................... 41.57.70
Toron .........
.............................................................. 37
TOrre .............
........................................................... 96
TOrre de Moocorvo ... .................................................... 59
Torres Novas ................................................................. 41. 59
Torres Vedras .........
................................................... 47
Torrijos ...
.......................................... ....... 41.57
Torroella de Montgri ........................ ............................... 42
Tortona ................................................................................... 2.40
Tortosa (in Lebanon) .......................................................... 35
Tortosa (in Spain) ........ 2. 11.28.29.41.47.57.69.
76. 101
Torun .......................
...... 111
Tossignano ..........
.......................................... 73
Touggourt ....................................
..... 83
.......................
............. 43.49
Toul.........
Toulon .........

................................................ ............. 49

Toulouse ...................... 1. 13, 14.22.32.49.53.54.55

Toulouse (department)
................................. 49
Touques ...... ..................................................................... 43. 49
Tours .............
.......... 10. 13. 14.49.55
T02:eur ................
................................ 26
Trakai (see also Troki)
...... 111
Tralles ......................................................................................... 2
Trancoso .......
............ 41.59
Trani .......... ...........................
.37.40.73
Transoxiana .......
......................... 17
Trapani ...............
...................... ..... 37.73
Trape2:us .......... ..............................
.... 1.5.15.22
........ ..............
......................... 52
Trarbach
Ttas-os-Montes .................................................. ......... 59.92
Treble
......................... ........ 51. 106
Treocin
............................................... lOB
Trent River
....................................................... .... 48
Trest ............ ......................................
106
Trets .....
..................... 47.49
Treuchtlingen ............................................................................ 51
Treveri (see also Trier) ......................................................... 2
Trevi ................................................................................................ 73
Treviso .............. ...... .... ...................................... 18.40.73
Tr~lIOux ....................................................................................... 2
Tricarico ..
.......... ................................................... 73
Trient (Trento) ............................ ................. 35.66.67.73
Trier (see also Treveri) ........................... 30. 31. 46. 52
Trieste ...............
.. ............................................ 40. 66
Trifels .. ..............
........................................ 35
Trikkala ... .... ...... ............................ 78. 80

Trino ..........................................
.............................. 73a
Tripoli (County of) ................................................................ 33
Tripoli (in libya) ............. 1.2.10. 17.22.24.65. 115
Tripoli (Tripolis. in lebanon) ........ 2.22. 23. 33. 35.
37.62.65,80,81,85
Trnava (Tyrnau) ................................................................... lOS
Troki (see also Trakai) ................................... 56. 87. 110
Tropea ................................................................................... 40.73
Troppau (Opava) ................................................................. 106
Troyes .................................................. 30, 31, 35, 43, 49, 55
Trujillo ..................................... ............... 41. 47. 69. 70, 76
Trzebnica .......................................... .............................. 51.106
Tuchin .................................................
......... 111
Tudela ....... 11. 17,28,29.37,41.44.47.53,69. 76.
101
Tukums .................................................................................... 110
Tulchin (Tulcin) ...................... .............. ....... 111. 112
Tulln ........................................................................................ 51.66
Tunis ........ 17.18.22.24.26.54.63.65.77.83. 116
Tunisia .......................................................................... 26.85.83
Turckheim ................................................................................... 52
Turiysk ................ ......................... ..... .......... ...........
....... 111
Turkey ..... ...............................................
.............. 82.85
Turnovo .................................................
................ 63
Turobin .............................................................. ....................... 111
Turov .................................................. . ................................. 111
Tuscany ...............................
............ 18
T(Jy ...................................... ... ............. 28. fB. 76
Tykocin ................................................................ 110. 111. 112
Tykocin (provioce) ............................................................. 111
Tyre .......... 2.6.22.23.33.37.39.61.62,65.79.81
Tyrnau (Trnava) .................................................................. lOS
Tyrrha ................................................
....... 2. 78. 80
Tyrrhenian Sea ...........................
.............. 40.73
Tysmenitsa .....................
111
TYS2:owce ......................................
.......................... 111

U
Ubeda ............. .................. 41. 47. 57, 69, 70, 70a. 76
Ubulla ...................................... .... 17
Ucetiurn (see also U2:~) ...........

............................ 2

Udine ....................................... 66. 73

Uerdflgen ................................
........ 52
Uffenheim ........................................
SO. 51
Ulm ..................
............ 46. 51. 54. 66
Urnan ......................................
......... 111
Umm eI-Qanatir ..........................
........... 3
Uncastillo .....................................................
41.42.47
UngVar (U2:hgorod) ...............
lOS
Unterwalden ................
........ ... ................ .... 68
Uppsala ...........................................
..... 114
Ural River ..................
... 16
Urbino ........
......................... .. 73
Urgel.. ................... . . . . . . . . . . . .. 76
Uri (Swiss canton) .......
........................ ........ ..... 68
Urmia. Lake .....
............................. .............. 21
Ushah ......... ........................... .. .... 38
Utica ...... ..........................................
.. 1. 2. 26
Utrecht ................................................................. ........... 88
Utrera .................................................
........................ . 7Oa
U2:~ (see also Ucetium) ...
....................... 49
Uberlingen .....
...................................... 52

V
Valais ...........
....................... . . . ........... 68
VaIe~a ......................................................
................. 92
Valeocia ..... 2. 11. 15.22.28.29.41.54.57.65.69.
fBa. 75. 76.92.101
Valeocia (provioce) ......
........................ ...... 69
Valeocia de Don Juan ................... ....................... 41.47
Valensole .................................... . . ...... .... . . ......... 49
Valentia (see Valencia)
Valen2:a ....................................................................................... 73a
Valladolid ............... 41. 44. 47. 57. 69. 70. 76.88.101
Vallmoll................................ . . . . . .......... 42
Valls..................... ............ .... ...... .... ....... 42
Valmaseda ..................
.41,69.70
Valmontone .................
.................................... 73
Valona ................................... ............................. 63. 78, 81
VaiNas .....................
. ........ 35. 49
Vasto ..................................................................................... 73
Vaurneilh ...................
....................... 49
Velden ............................
............. 46.51
V&z de Ia Gornera
....................................... 83

133

dlqitalia
'/OWN Cgil"

u JG

INDEX TO MAPS
Velez Malaga ..................
.............................. 69,70
Vel\etri .. .. ..... ..... ..... .........
............................... 73
Venafru (see also Venafrum) ..
. ............ 40, 73
Venafrum (see also Venafru) ..
............ 2
Venaria . . ....................................... 73a
Vend6me..
................................. 35
Venephiris..
...................... 2
Venezuela..
................................ 97
Venice (Venezia) .. 18, 35, 39, 40, 44, 54, 62, 63,65,
73, 76a,80, 81,82, 85, 86, 88, 89,90,91, 102,
114, 115, 116
Venice, Republic of ........................................ 69a, 73, 102
Venosa (see also Venusia) .... 2, 12, 13, 18, 40, 73,
82
Venusia (see also Venosa) ............................................... 2
Venzone..
.......................................... 73
Vera..
............................................................................. 70a
Vercelli..
. ................................................. 73a
Verdu . . . ................................................. 42
Verdun (-sur-Meuse) (in northern France) ...... 14,
17,22,49
Verdun-sur-Garonne ......................................................... 53
Veroia .......
.............................................................. 78
Verolanuova..
... 73
Verolengo ............................................................................... 73b
Veroli..
........... 73
Verona.. .. ... I, 2, 12, 13, 18, 22, 40,43, 45, 73b, 88
Vesoul..
49
Vetralla..
73
Vevey.. ..
.. ........................... 68
Veyre-Monton ..
.. ................... 49
Vezelay.....
.. ........... 35
Viadana
........ 73b
Viana (do Castelo)..
.. 41, 92
Vibo Valentia .......................................................................... 40
Vicari ............................................................................................. 73
Vicenza
....................................................................... 73
Vich
...... 41,42,69
Vidin .............................................................. 78
Vienna (Wien; see alsoVindobona) ........ 17, 22, 32,
35,43,51,54,66,67,81,109,116
Vienne ..
...................... .. .. ... I, 2, 13, 49
Vieste .......
.. 73
Vievy-le-Raye ............
... 49
Vignale
.................................
73a
Vignola
..................................
... 73b
Vigone ..................................
.. ..... 73a
Vila Real.......................
.. ..................................... 41,59
Vilar Formoso
......................................... 76
Vila Vi~osa ..................
.. ................................ 41, 59
Villach .....................................
................................... 51
Villadiego .....................................
.... 41, 47, 57, 69,70
Villafranca (del Panades) .......................................... 41, 42
Villafranca di Verona ........................................................ 73b
Villal6n de Campos .............................................................. 47
Villanueva (de C6rdoba) ................................................... 41
Villanoya d'Asti ..................................................................... 73a
Villarreal ....................................................................................... 57
Villa San Secondo .................
........................... 73a
Ville .................................................................................................. 46
Villefranche (de Conflent) ................................................ 42
Villena ..........................................
......... 76
Villeneuve ................................
.. .............................. 68
Villengen (-Marbach) ........................................................... 52
Villers-en-Argonne ................................................................. 49
Villimpenta ............................................................................... 73b
Vilna (Vilnius, see also Wilno) ........ 56, 87, 110, 116
Vilsbiburg ..................................................................................... 51
Vilshofen ...................................................................................... 51
Viminacium ................................................................................... 2
Vindobona (see also Vienna) ............................................ 2
Vindonissa ..................................................................................... 2
Vinnitsa ........................................................................... Ill, 112
Visegrad ..................................................................................... 108
Viseu ....................................................................................... 41, 59
Visigoths, Kingdom of the .......................................... 2, 11
Visso ............................................................................................... 73
Vitebsk .................................................................................... 110
Viterbo................................................................
.. .. 73

134

Vitorchiano ......... ...

.. ........................................... 73
Vitoria ...............
.... ................... .. 41, 69, 70, 76
Vitry (-le-Fran~ois)
........................ 43, 49
Vizzini ..................................................................................... 73
Vladimir in Volhynia (see also Ludmir) ......... 56,110
Voghera .....
.............. 73
Vohburg. ........................................................
............... 50
Volga River .................................................. 15, 16, 17, 116
Volhynia ..................
...111
Volkach ...................................................................................... 50
VOlkermarkt ..........
.. ............................ 51
Volodarka ........................................................................... 111
V6los..
...78
Volpiano
................................... 73a
Volterra ...........
.. .. 62, 73
Voltri ......
........................
............. 73
Volubilis ..................................................................................... 25
Vrable..
.108
Vyskov ............................................................................. 106

W
Wachenheim ........................ .. .......................
..... 52
Waldenburg ............................................................................. 50
Waldkirch ..........
.... . ........ ..........
.. .............. 52
Waldshut ....
...................................................... 52
Wallachia ....
................ 62, 86
WalIdOrn ..
.. .... 50, 52
Wallingford ........ ..............................................
........ 48
Warendorf ............................
.. ... 46
Warsaw (Warszawa)
....... 56,110,111,112,115
Warwick ......................................................................... 35, 48
Wasilk6w .................................................................................. 111
Wasit ..
................................... 21, 60
Wassenberg .
.. .............................................. 52
Wasserburg ...
.. ......... 39
Wasserburg am Inn
...................................................... 51
Wlisserndorf .......
.. .. 50
WassertrOdingen ..
50
Wassy...
.......................................................... 49
Wasungen ...............................................
50
Wattwillwer ..
.............................................. 52
WF:gr6w......
.................................................. 111
WF:gr6w (province) ............................ ....
. ...... 111
Weiden ......
.. ...................................................... 46, 51
Weikersheim
50,51
Weil der Stadt
.. ................................. 52
Weilheim (in Baden-WOrttemberg) ..
.. .... 51
Weilheim (in Bavaria) ..... .
........ 51
Weilnau...................
...................................................... 52
Weinheim .....
.. ........ 52
Weinsberg ........
........ ... ...................... 35, 50, 52
Weissenburg .....
.. .......... 50, 51
Weiten.
.................. 51
Weobley ..
. .......... 35, 48
Wertheim ....... ...... ................................................
.. ...... 50
Wertingen ..
..................... 46
Wesel ...........
.. .. 52, 66
Weser River ............... .
.. ........ 51
Westerburg .............
.. ......... 52
Western Roman Empire ...
.. ......... 1
......... 95
Westhoffen .
Wetzlar ..........
.. ............... 52
Wevelinghoven ...
... 31, 52
Widdern ......................
.. .............. 50, 51
Wielefl........
................................. 111
Wiener Neustadt
....................... 51, 67
Wiesloch ..................................
.. ................................. 52
Wilno (Vilnius) (see also Vilna)
................ 111
Wilton..............................
.. ..................... 48
Winchelsea ........................
.. ..................... 48
Winchester ...................................................................... 35, 48
Windsbach .............................................................................. 50
Windsheim (Bad Windsheim) ........................................ 50
Windsor ........................................................................................ 48
Winterthur ...........
.. ............................................ 52, 68
Wintzenheim
............................................ 95
Wirsberg ...................................................................................... 50
Wisla River ............
.. ..... 56, Ill, 112, 116
Wissembourg ..
.. ................................... 49, 52, 95

Wittenberg ....... .. ......................................... 67,104,105

Wittlich ..
.............................. ........... 52
Wloclawek.. ....
. ... 56
Wlodawa...
..111,112
.. .................................................. 111
Wodzislaw..
Woerth..
.... 52
Wolfhagen ..
...... ............ 52
Wolfsberg ..
.. ... 66
Wolfsegg ..
......................... 50
Wolfsheim ..
.. .......... 52
Worcester..
.. ..... 35, 48
Worms .... 14,30,31,39,43,45,52,54,66,67,82,
105,115
Wronki ........
.. ...................................... 111
Wrzesnia ...
..................................... 111
Wschowa ............................................................................. 111
WOrzburg.. .. ......................... 13, 31, 35, 43, 50, 66, 67
Wycombe ...... ....................................................... ..... 48
Wysokie ................................................................................ 111
Wyszogrod ..................................................................... 56, 111

X
Xanten ............................................................ 30, 31, 52
Xanthus ........................................................................................... 2

y
Yahudiya ...................................................................................... 24
Yambol...
...... 78
Yampol ............................................................................. 111
Yangtze River ............................................................. 60, 116
Yanov.............................
.. .................................... 111
Yaroslaw (see also Jaroslaw) ............................. 56, 110
Yemen ................................................................................. 82,91
.. ..... 10
Yenbo ............................ .............
York .............................................................................. 35, 48, 54

z
Zabern (Rheinzabern) ..
. ... 52
Zabid .. ............
...... 2, 4, 7
Zablud6w ...
.. 111
Zabolotov
................................................ 111
Zafar
..................................
.. ............. 2, 4, 7
Zafran ......... ...
. ............ 20
Zafzufa.....
................... 3
Zagazig....
.......................... 84
Zagreb ................................................................................ 108
Zaidin..
.. .... 42
Zaleshchiki ..
..................................................... 111
Zalozhtsy ..
.. .......... 111
Zamora ... 11,28,29,41,44,47,57,69,70,88,101
Zamosc (Zamoste) ................................................ 111, 112
Zante .......................................................................................... 81
Zara ..
.. ....... 35, 73, 81
Zarephath ................................
......... 33
Zbarazh ...........
...........................
.111,112
Z~zyfl ..................
................... 111
Zborov..... .
.. ... 111,112
Zeila .........
........................................... 91
Zelech6w..
.........................
.. ... 111
Zemaymira, Khirbet ...
.. ............................................. 3
Zeugma ......
.......................
.. ..................... 2
Zhidachov ........................
...... 56
Zhitomir (Zitomir)
.. 110, 111
Zholkva (see Zolkiew)
Zifta ..........................
... .....................
...84
Zippori .......................................
... 3, 6, 33, 37, 38
Zitomir (see Zhitomir)
Znaim (seealsoZnojmo)..
.. .... 51
Znojmo (see also Znaim) ..
106
Zoan ........................
.. ...... 38
Zofingen .................................................
.. .................. 51, 68
Zolkiew (Zholkva) ..............
.. ... 111
Zolochev .............
....... .. ................ 111
Zolpich ..................................................................................... 52
..... 43,46,51,54,66,67,68,88
Zurich (ZOrich)
......... 51
Zwettl ..
........ 51
Zwolle

SUBJECT INDEX

SUBJECT INDEX
A
Abbasids,
in Baghdad, 34
rule, 34
Absentia, 77
Academies, 31
Palestinian (see Palestine)
Babylonian (see Babylonian)
Hatsevi Academy, 33
Agriculture, 57
Agricultural supplies, 77
Agricultural viUages, 90
Alan tribes, 24
Albigensian heretics, 55
Alcana, Jewish quarter, 65
A/jamas (communities),
Aragonese, 55, 81
AJiyah, 33, 46, 47
Allodium, 36

Almohads (Muwahhidun), 35
Almoravids (al-Murabitun), 35
AI-Murabitun (see Almoravids)
Ananites, 29
Ancona, boycott of port, 96
Andalusia (see Jewish communities)
Angevin invasion of italy, 48
Angle-Terre, 99
Annals of human history, 83
Annihilation of,
Christianity, 44
Jews, 42
Annual tax, 24
Anti-crown riots, 64
Anti-Jewish,
agitation, 77, 106
atmosphere, 67
feeling, 59, 64,70,77, 108
ideology, 76
laws, 21
literature, 75
outbreak, 64
polemic, 106
policy, 49, 65
propaganda,6O,106
public opinion, 21
riots, 108
Antipope, 74, 77
Apostasy, 67,109,114,115
Apostates, 74, 94, 106
Arab,
conquest, 29
emirates, 37
Arabs, 19,20
Arag6n, kingdom of, 62, 74, 76
Aragonese,
aljamas, 55
rule, 81
Arbaa Turim, 94
Arbitrators, 28
Archae (chirograph chests), 57
Archbishop, diocese, 73
Archdeacon of Ecija, 65
Architects, 95
Arians, 14
ArIes, Jews of, 64
Armenian army, 68
Armleder massacres of Jews, 60
Armor makers, 19
Arms, 77
Arrabi menors, 67

Artisans, revolt of, 67

Artists, 95
Asceticism, 29
Ashkenaz, 37,38,39,69, 72, 73
Jewish emigrants from, 70
Jewish pilgrims from, 44
Ashkenazic,
center, 73
erudition, 110

Jews, 88
Ashkenazim, 114
Asia Minor, 82
Assembly of Estates, 64
Austria, Jews of, 106
Av, Ninth of, 113
Avelei Zion (Mourners of Zion), 29, 32
Avignon,62

B
Babylonian,
academies, 32
centers of learning, 32
gaonate, 31
geonim, 20, 27, 32,35
Jews, 31
sages, 27
Talmud (see Talmud, Babylonian)
Badges, Jewish, 67, 96, 108
Balkan Peninsula, 77, 88
Banking, 112
Banks,77
Banu Hud, 36
Banu Nadir, 19
Banu Tujib dynasty, 36
Barbarian invasions, 13
Barbarians, 13
Barons, feudal, 24
Bathhouse, 21
Bedouin, 19
Berber tribes, 14, 34
Bible, 13, 93
commentaries, 52, 94
commentators, 52
exegesis, 52
forty-two-line, 94
passages, 52
translation into Arabic, 31
BiDs of exchange, 77
Black Death, 60,62,65,72,74,77,81, 108, 115
Blood libel, 44,48, 49, 64, 108
Bodily harm, to a Jew, 37
Book of Travels (Sefer ha-Massa'ot), 44
Blasphemous pronouncements, 113
Bohemia, 73
Boycott of port of Ancona, 96
Brazil, conquest of, 102
Bubonic plague, 62
Bull of Protection (Sicut Judaeis), 44
Byzantine,
army, 14,20
Asia Minor, 82
emperors, 22, 24
empire, 70
Jews, 70
navy, 26
Palestine, 20
peace treaty with Muslims, 28
revolt against, 16
rule, 22, 70
wars with Persia, 16
Byzantines, 20, 70
Byzantium, 13,16,17,24,26,70

C
Caliphate, 21, 34
Campaigns, 49
Canon law, 50, 52
Carolingian, 23,
empire, 23,24
France, 23, 36
state, 23
Carolingians, 23
Castile, kingdom of, 62, 65, 76
Jews of, SO, 67, 74, 82
military campaigns, SO
union with Portugal, 76
Catholicism, 112
Catholic Monarchs, 75, 76,

rule of, 76
triumphal procession, 7, I
Cemeteries, 81, 84
Charter of privilege, 23
Check (sufatajiyya), 27
Chief justice (see Rabbi)
Chief rabbi, 67
Children, sold as slaves, 42
China, Jewish community, 102
Chirograph chests (archae), 42
Chmielnicki massacres, 111,114
Christian,
ancestry, 94
antagonism toward Jews, 74
army, 13
authorities, 96
Biblical exegesis, 52
boy allegedly murdered by Jews, 49
centers, 13
child born out of wedlock, 44
commentators, 52
community, 74
Converso ancestry, 94
debts to Jews, 57
eating in the company of Jews, 14
European countries, 52, 70
faith,24
festivals, 108
forces, 88
incursions, 36
Jewish military campaign, 97
massacred by Muslims,
merchants, 49, 72
monks, 13
neighbors, 38, 53
population, 18
princes, 36
propagandists, 13
rights, 65
rule, 36
soil, liberation of, 61
states, 24, 70
tradition, 13
world, 41, 88, 97, 98
Christianity, 13, 20, 44, 75,95,98,
annihilation of, 44
ascendancy over Judaism, 13
contemporary spirit of, 50
Jewish offences against, 73
protector of, 95
Florentine, 49
Venetian, 72
Christians, 20, 24, 47, 74,108,
jurisdiction over, 21
in Muslim captivity, 42
massacred, 47
rejection of converted Jews, 74
Chronicler, Jewish, 38
Church, 14,21,
English,53
heir of Judaism, 13
intervention, 42
leaders of, 14
militant, 13
policy, 49, SO
principles, 50
relationship with Jews, 14, 22, 38, 53
tithe to, 37
Church Council, 14,
of 633,21
of Blida, 108
of Gerona, 37
of Szabolcs, 108
of Ticino, 28
Cistercian,
monk,41
order, 41

135

SUBJECT INDEX
Clergy,
preaching forcible conversion of Jews, 24
riots, participation in, 65
Cloth dyeing, 28, 33, 46
Clothing,
distinctions in type and color, 21
Collecta (regional organization of Jewish
communities), 51
Cologne,
Jewish community, 38
trade fairs, 38
Colons, 22
Combat informers, 74
Commerce, 27, 36, 49,112
Commercial center, 33, 109
Communal leadership, 22
Communal organization, 81
Concessions from the sultan, 90
Condotta (privilege), n
Conspiracy, 61
Constantinople,
conquest of, 70, 71, 88
Jews (see Jewish, communities)
Controversy, 55
Conversion, 13, 18,21,24,38,50,57,64,67,68,
74,85
Converso,
anti Converso literature, 75
commercial ties in Far East, 102
community, 99
fidelity to Christians, 76
South American colonies, 102
tax farmers, 74
Conversos, 64,67,68, 69, 70, 74, 75, 76, 78, 82,
84,85,94,95,97,98,99,102,103,114,
Jewish heresies of, 76
riots against, 74, 75
Converted Jews, 57
Cori,90
Cossack,
army, 111
rebellion, 111
Cound of Elders, 111
Council of Four Lands (Council of the Lands),
106, 110, 111,
cooperation with Lithuanian council, 111
Council of Lithuania, 111,
Shelihim (emissaries) of, 111
Court administration, 49
Court jeweler, 44
Cracow,
anti-Jewish outbreaks, 64
expulsion of Jews, 65
Crafts, 57
Craftsmen, n, 94
Creation, 53
Credit,
facilities and finance, 72
problems, 27
Cross, take up the, 41
Crown,
administrator, 67
annual payment to, 78
revenues, 49
Crusade, Crusades, 32,33, 39, 52, 55, 59, 61,
115,
against Jews, 67
Children's, 42
First, 37, 38, 81,108
Second,41,42
Third,42
Fourth,42
Fifth,42
preaching of, 59
Crusader,
army, 108
Kingdom, 39
period,46
route, 42
rule, 44
Crusaders, 38,39,42
Crypto-Jews, 21,

136

jurisdiction over Christians, 21

Culture,
bridge between, 52
centers of, 95
Cum nimis absurdum, 96

D
David's Tower, 46
Debts to Jews, 42, 57
Decree postponements, 64
Defense measures, 38
Denmark, court jeweler to king of, 44
Desecration of the Host, 44, 60
Dhimmi, 21, 34
Diaspora, 31,32, 52, 54, 69, 71,91, 114,
assistance to Jews of Palestine, 91
communities, 33
Sephardic, 99
Dispersion, 29, 115
Disputation of Barcelona, 47, 49
Disputation of Paris, 47,53
Disputation of Tortosa, 74, 77
Disputations, religious, 13,22,47,49,52,74
Divine revelation, 39
Divorce, ban on, 29
Doenmeh, 115
Dominicans, 49, 76
Domus conversorum (home for converted Jews),
57
Druzes, 68, 90
Dutch colonial expansion, 102
Dyeing, 28, 33, 46

E
Earthquakes, 32
Eastern Orthodox, 112
Eastern Roman Empire,
Ecclesiastical heads of state, 41
Ecija, 65
Economic,
persecution, 22
sanctions, 96
Edicts of Expulsion, 64, 73, 76, 83, 85
Egypt,
immigration to, 33
independence, 31
Jews, 20,36
Mamluk,90
Elvira, Council of, 14
Emigration, Jewish,
from Ashkenaz (see Ashkenaz)
from Cori, 90
to Egypt, 33
to Spain, 31
Emissary to Egypt, 113
Emperor of All Spain, 37
England,
blood libel, 44
expulsion of, 57,59
Jews of, 57, 81, 99
massacre of Jews (London community), 42
population, 81
readmission of Jews, 99
English,
church,57
crusaders, 39
mercenary troops, 65
Epidemics, 84, 90
Episcopal diocese, 24
Epistles, 55
Eretz Israel, 11 (see also Palestinian) ;
immigrants to, 69
Eretz Hatsevi Academy, 33
Eschatological,
fervor, 98
literature, 18
Estates, leasing of, 112
Ethical teachings, 53
Ethiopia, emperor of, 97, 98
Ethiopians, war with Himyar kingdom, 16
Europe, 68, 70, 72,
eastern, 13

map of Jews in, 84

western, 13
European,
countries, 52
Jewish demography, 82
soil, 61, 76
Evidence, in court of law, 49
Exegesis, 31, 52
Exilarch,14
Exilarchate, 31
Expulsion of Jews, 64, 73, 75, 76, 77, 78, SO, 81,
82, 83, 84, 93, 95, 99, 108, 115 (see also under
names of countries),
from Andalusia, 76
edict of, 64, 73, 76, 85
from crown cities, 106
from France, 53
from Lithuania, 65, 83, 109
from Mainz, 38
from Spain (see Spain, expulsion of Jews)
order, 77,83,84
postponement of, 73
religious reason for, 76
Extortion, 47

F
Fairs, annual, 111
Far East, converso commercial ties in, 103
Farmers, 28, 64,
French,39
Farming, 36
Fatimid, 28, 32,
army, 32
in Cairo, 34
caliphate, 28
court, 28
period,32
rule, 32, 34
throne, 32
Feudal barons, 24
Fields,84
Flax, 36
Flemings (crusaders), 39
Forced conversion, 24
Four Lands (see Council of the Four Lands)
France, 53,64,
Carolingian, 23, 37
expulsion of Jews from, 42, 52, 53, 59, 64, 81
"group who came from France," 47
Jewish cultural center, 39
Jewish population statistics, 81
Jewish settlement, 64
Jews of, 38, 47, 58, 59, 62, 81
massacre of Jews, 42, 52
Merovingian (see Merovingian)
southern, 54
persecutions of, 52
return of Jews to, 59
Franciscan monks, 77
Franks, 22
Frankish communities, 47
French,
farmers, 39
Jewry (see France, Jews of)
mercenary troops, rioters, 65
Frontier areas (settlement of Jews), 49
Furriers, 36

G
Galilee, 46, 47
Galut (see Diaspora)
Gaon,
of Pumbedita, 31
of Sura, 31
Gaonate, 30,31, 32
Generation, chosen to be tested, 39
Genizah, 27, 32
Palestinian (see Palestine)
Geonirn, 27, 31,32,33,35,
Babylonian, 20,27,31,35
German,
cities, 73
emperors, 106
inhabitants of Lithuania, 109

SUBJECT INDEX
Germany,
emperors of, 64, 106
expulsion of Jews, 38, 73, 74, 106
Jewish emigrants from, 95
Jewish refugees from, 64
Jewish settlement, 106
Jewish urban population, 81
Jews of, 38, 73, 106
massacre of Jews, 73, 81
persecution of Jews, 73, 74
GermanyAustria, Jews of, 106
Gharnatat al Yahud (Granada of the Jews), 36
Ghetto, Jewish, 96 (see also Jewish, quarters)
Glass blowing, 33
Glass manufacture, 46
Glosses, 52
Good Friday, 24
Grammar, 31
Grammarians, 31
Granada,
conquest of, 76
crusade on, 61
of the Jews (see Gharnatat a1. Yahudj
vizier of, 36
war against, 76
Great Sanhedrin, 31
Great Yeshiva, 32
Greek, 14, 22, 24,
communities, 47
Guide 01 the Perplexed, 55

H
Hadith, 19
Haidamacks, 111
Hakham (scholar), 113
Hakkhah, 29, 31,36, 53, 55, 94

Halakhic,
consensus, 32
decisions, 53
doctrine, 32
Halakhists, 31, 53
Halakhot, 55

Hasid,53
Hasidic movement, 53
Hat, yellow, 96
Hatsevi Academy, 33
Head, of Jews,
regional, 67
single, 67
Heavenly mentor (maggic/), 93
Hebraeus meus dicit (A Jew told me), 52
Hebrew, 36,
faculty of, 94
letters, 94
liturgical poetry, 14
philologist, grammarian and lexicographer, 96
printing, 94
signature, 36
texts, 94
tombstones, 28
Hegira, 19
Hemda Genuzah, 30

Heresy, 95
Heretical ideas, 94
Heretics, Albigensian, 55
Hijaz Jews, 20
Himyar kingdom, 16,
war with Ethiopians, 16
History, human, 84
Hohenstaufen rule, 48
Holy Child of laguardia, 44
Holy Land, 72, 82, 114, 115,
immigration to, 88
Jewish communities in, 85
Jewish immigration to, 88, 90
Jewish population in, 88, 90
Holy Roman Empire, 27,28,73,88,108
Holy Sepulcher, 38
Host desecration libel, 60, 65
House oflsrael of the Four Lands, 111,
trustee (Ne'eman), 111
Houses, 84

Humanists, 106
Hundred Years War, 64
Hungary,
expulsion of Jews, 108
Jewish community, 109
Mongol invasion of, 108

I
Immigrants,
to Egypt, 33
from Spain, 33
Immigration, Jewish, 73, 90,
to Holy Land, 47,88, 90
to Jerusalem, 91
to Ottoman Empire, 108
Incunabula, 94
Informers, 74
Inquisition, 44, 55, 76, 78, 85, 94, 98,
annihilation of Christianity, 44
in New World, 103
papal,
Portuguese, 85, 103
Spanish, 75, 76, 103
tribunals, 76, 96, 103
in university, 94
Inquisitorgeneral, 76
Interest on loans, 49, 50, 64
International trade, 27
Intervention on behalf of Jews (see also Jews,
protection of),
church,42
conversos, 96
ecclesiastical and political heads, 41
Inventory of Jewish property, 64
Investiture Controversy, 38
Iran, 82
Iraq, 82
lsanians (Jewish sect), 29
Ishmaelites, 38
Islam, 20, 114, 115,
conversion to, 21, 68
rise of, 95
Islamic,
armies, 20
conqueror, 18
Italy, 77, 78, 81,
expulsion of Jews, 28, 77, 78, 82, 95
Jewish community, 77,82,95
Jewish emigration, 73, 77
Jewish settlement, 77, 81
Jews of, 95
Kabbalah in, 48
northern Italy, 77
Spanishruled territories, 95

J
Jaen, Jews of, 65
Jagiellon dynasty, 109
Jerusalem,
community, 69
pilgrimage to, 32
Talmud,53
Jesuit missionary, Italian, 103
Jesus, 13
Jewhater, 50
Jewish,
affairs, 14
agents, 72
agriculture, 19
antiJewish public opinion, 13
armor makers, 19
badge, 48,67,96,I08
bankers, 30, 77
baths, 21,83
bills of exchange, 77
blacksmiths, 19
calendar and its festivals, 31
captives, 47, 112
cargo, 28
casualties, 62
center, 71, 106
chief justice, 50

Christian military campaign, 97

chronicler, 38
citizens, 72
clans, 20
commerce, 19, 72
commercial status, 49
communal autonomy, 50
communal leadership, 22
communal organization, 99
communities, 13, 14, 16,36, 39,44, 46,47,49,
60,61, 62,64,65, 67, 69,70,72,76, 81, 85,
96, 99, 102, 106, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 115
(see also under names of countries; Jewish
communities)
court jeweler, 44
courts, 22
craftsmen, 77
cultural center, 39, 71, 106
diaspora, 31 (see also Oiaspora)
dispersion, 14
doctors, 74
economic activity, 72, 108
economic power, 96
educational system, 74
emigration (see Emigration)
halakhic consensus, 32
heresies, 76
historiography, 31
immigration (see Immigration)
inhabitants, 47
international trade, 27
interpreter, 99
inventory of possessions, 77
involvement in slave trade, 23
judges, 50
judiciary, 50
kingdom of Himyar, 16
leaders, 74, 110
life style, 74
loanbankers, 77
martyrdom, 111
means of livelihood, 30
merchants (see also Radhanites), 27, 28,72,
74, 103
mo~nders, 38, 41,57, 74
monopoly, 33, 46
moral decline, 54
neighborhood, 38
norms, 74
oath, 49, 50
orient, 29
passengers, 28 (see also Jewish travelers)
people, 52, 55
personalities, 67
phYSicians, 50
pilgrims,44,90
polemicist, 24
poll tax, 111
popwation, 18, 46, 48, 74, 80,81,82, 85, 90,
109
population in eastern Europe, 109
power, 49, 62, 96
printers, 94, (see also Printing)
privilege, 73
property, 64
quarters, 81, 96
refugees, 14,64,82, 88
religious matters, 55
religious sects, 29
residence, 72
revival,70
sages, 52
scholars, 34, 52
scribes,56
selfgovernment, 14
settlement, 19,35,37, 46,47,49, SO, 62, 64, 65,
70, 77, 102, 106, 1~ (see also under names of
countries)
settlers in North America, 102
silversmiths, 19
slavery, 65, 112
society, 54, 74
spiritual and cultural activity, 36
spiritual and cultural survival, 52, 55, 83, 96

137

dlqitalia
'Iil'lll'd

gila u J3

SUBJECT INDEX
Jewish,
state (in Arag6n), 24
temporary residence, 73
trade (see Trade)
travelers, 72
urban population, 80
urban settlement, 64
world,115
writings, 55
Jewish-Christian military campaign, 96
Jewish communities,
Andalusia, 67
Arag6n, 49, 74
Balearic Islands, 74
Bohemia, 73
Brazil, 102
Castile, 49, 62, 65,67,74, 76
China, 102
Collecta, 51
Constantinople, 70
conversion, (see Conversion)
Cori, 9O
destruction of, 35, 65, 106
diaspora (see Diaspora)
Eastern, 32
eastern Europe, 109
English (see England, Jews)
Egyptian (see Egypt, Jews)
Eretz Israel, 32, 46
expulsion of (see Expulsion of Jews)
French (see France , Jews)
Fustat, 47
Kaifeng, 103
Lithuania, 64, 65, 73, 112
London, 42
Mainz, 38
major, 51
Mediterranean basin, 99
Moravia, 73
new Jewish communities, 99
obligations imposed upon, 67
openly professing, 67
organization of, 51
passengers, 72
Podolia, 112
Portuguese (see Portugal, Jews)
protection of (see Jews, protection of)
re-established, 51
Reisen, 112
Sated,69
slaughter of, 39
Spanish (see Spain)
sparing of, 67
suffering of, 68
Trier, 39
Vilna, 109
Volhynia, 112
Western, 27, 32
(see also Jewish, communities)
Jewish property,
redeemed from German inhabitants, 109
restored, 109
confiscation of, 57
inherited by crown, 67
inventory of, 38, 64, 67
selling of, 83
Jewish quarter, 21,24,81,96
stoning of, 24
outside city walls, 28
New World, 102, 116
North America, 102
Jewish travelers, 28, 46, 47, 69, 72
forbidden to be transported to Holy Land, 69,
72
inns for, 72
captains' refusal to carry to Egypt, 72
Jewish residence
limited, 72, 109
privilege of, 73
Jews, 24,28, 73, 112
in administrative posts, 49, 50, 67
alleged murders by, 49

138

allegiance to pope, 81
animosity of townspeople to, lOB
annihilation of, 42
apostasy of, 67, 109
in Arag6n, 49
arbitrators between Jews and Christians, 28
assaults on, 59
asylum for, 68
attacks on, 64, 65
Babylon,
bridge between cultures, 52
bull of protection, 77
burned at the stake, 74, 96, lOB
in civil administration, 37
degrading of, 24
conversion of, 84
dispersion of, 115
driven off their land, 65
encouragement to settle, 48, lOB
excluded from administrative posts, 49
expulsion of, 73, 74, 95, 108 (see a/50
Expulsion of Jews)
extortion of money from , 47
forbidden to bless Christian fields, 14
forbidden to return after expulsion, 77
forcible transfer of, 70
granted land and property, 49
hatred of, 70 (see also Anti-Jewish, feeling)
Hijaz, 20
hostility to, 77
immigration to Ottoman Empire, lOB
intolerance of, 57
judges, rabbinical, 32
killing of, 37, 65, 67
local civil administration, 37
looting of, 64, 65
marrying Christian women, lOB
massacres of, 35, 38, 42, 47, 52, 60, 62, 64,
67, 72,73, SO, 114 (see also under names of
countries)
means of livelihood, 18, 19,2830,33,36,37,
38,46, 47,57,64,74,90;
occupations of (see Jews, means of livelihood)
participation in Dutch conquest of Brazil, 102
persecution of, SO, 64, 74, SO (see a/so under
names of countries)
positions at court, 49
privileges granted to, 23, 37, 38, 64, lOB
prohibition of Church Council, lOB
protection of, 23,39, 42, 44, 62, 64,65,77,111
property of, 37, 57
relationship with Christians, 14, 38, 53
removed from positions of influence, 50
representation before crown, lOB
restricted residence, 67
restriction on, lOB
rioting against, 42, 65,67
royal administration, SO
saving of, 42
segregation of, 96
seizure of property, 59
separate living areas, 21
settlement, 37, 106
slaughter of, 39, 60
spiritual fortitude, 84
status of, lOB
tax collectors, 28
testimony, 73
tolerance toward, 106
torture of, 62
in trade, 72
Tuscany, 28
violence against, 24, 37, 59, 62, 64, 65
Jews' house, 47
Judaica, 94
Judaism , 13, 20, 103, 114
Judge,28, 35
Judge-arbitrator, 73
"Judge of the Jews," lOB
Judges, assembly of, 111

K
Kabbalah, 48, 52, 54, 98, 110,

in Italy, 48
Lurianic, 53
theoretical, 93
Kabbalistic,
imagery, 93
literature, 54
thought, 93
works, 54
Kabbalists, 55, 93, 114,
Acre, 55
Polish, 115
Safed,93

Kaf ha-Ketoret, 93
Kahal Kadosh, 88
Kahinan, 19
Kaifeng Jewish community, 103
Kairouan community, 31
Karaites, 31,32,33,37,46,65,70,
law,29
movement, 29
personalities, 29
sect, 29
scholar, 33
Kazimierz,65
Khaybar,
community, 19
Jews, 19,20
Khazars, 24,25
king of, 24
kingdom, 24, 25
livelihood, 24
Khwarizmi Turks, 47
Kiddush ha-Shem (sanctification of God's name),
39
Kidnapping Christian children, 73
"Killers of Christ," 106
"Killers of God," 13
Killing a Jew, 37
King's,
estates, 37
tribunal, SO
Knesset al-Iraquiin, 33
Knesset aI-Shamiin, 33

L
Land,
Jewish farmers driven off, 37
tax (karga or khara)), 20
transactions, 37
Landholding (allodium), 36
Las siete partidas, 50
Lateran Council,
Third, 48
Fourth,48
Lawmaker, SO
Lease concessions, 65
Leasing,
fields and vineyards, 36
Leather industries, 36
Lebanon, Druzes of, 68, 90
Legal corroboration, 50
Lepanto, battle of, 88
Lepers, 61
Libels, 44, 48, 49,60, 61, 62, 64,65,74,77, lOB,
112
Licet Judaeis, 44
Literature,
Latin, 52
philosophical and ethical, 52
Lithuania, 64, 112 (see also Poland-Lithuania) ,
expulsion of Jews, 65,84, 109
Litigants, SO
Litigation, 27
Liturgical poetry, 14,32
Liturgy, 31
Loans, interest on, 49
London Jewish community, 42
Looting, 64, 65
Lotharingians (crusaders), 39
Lublin, trade fairs , 112
Lurrianic Kabbalah, 54
Lutheran Reformation, 88
Lutheranism, 73

SUBJECT INDEX
Lvov, commercial center, 109

M
Madrid, community in, 99
MaY!id,93
MaY!id Mesharim, 93
Magister Judaeorum, 23
Maimonidean controversies, 54,55
Mainz,
expulsion of Jews from, 38
Jewish community, 39,81
Mamluk,
armY, 68
Egypt, 90
regime, 69
rulers, 72
oppression of Jews, 72
Manic-depressive psychosis, 113
Maravedis, 65
Marca Hispanica, 36
Marriages, mixed, 21
Marseilles, Jews from, 49
Martyrdom, 111
Martyrology lists, SO
Martyrs, 64, 93
Masorah,29
Massacres, 72, 73, 80, 111 (see also Jews,
massacres of),
of 1449, 67
of French Jewry, 52
Massa'ot Eretz Israel, 44
Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems, The, 24
Medicine, 55, 94
Mediterranean, 26, 50
basin, 72, 85, 88, 90, 99
eastern, 70
flank, 88
Merchants, 26, 36, 49, 74,
association partnerships, 27
clerk, 33
Head of the Merchants, 33
the Merchants Clerk, 33
traveler, 44
Merovingian,
France, 14
period,14
rulers, 14
Messiah, 29, 44, 93, 98, 99, 113
pseudo-, 93
Messianic,
eschatology, 93
frustration, 93
hopes, 68,70
mission, 115
movements, 18, 115
period,18
phenomenon, 98
redemption, 18
revelation, 114
yearning, 93
Metal craftsmen, 74
Metaphysics, 55
Middle Ages, 13, 52, SO
Migdal Oz, 114
Migration, 65
Militant society, 21
Military campaigns, SO
Minyan (quorum), 47
Mishnah, 31, 52, 53
Mishneh Torah, 55
Mohar, 21
Moneylending, 38,41,57,74
Mongol,68,
advance, 68
campaigns, 68
conversion to Islam, 68
defeat, 68
devastations, 68
expansion in Europe, 68
invasion, 68, lOS
Monopoly, 33, 46
Morality, general increase in, 65

Moravia,73
Moroccan independence, 31
Mortatity, 65
Mosaic law, 29, 75
Moscow, 112
Mosques, 21, 37
Mulberry trees, 90
Mushkanites, 29
Muslims, 21, 24, 26, 29, 47, 68,
conquests, 27, 30
countries, 24, 26, 72
domination, 61
emmissary, 24
fleets, 26
foothold in Europe, 76
forced to leave their dwellings, 37
of Granada, 65
influence, 29
legislation, 21
massacre of Christians and Jews, 47
peace treaty with Byzantium, 28
population, 37
ports, 26
princes, 37
rule, 30,61
in Spain (see Spain)
Mutual alliance, 51
Muwahhidun (Almohads), 35
Mystical philosophies, 54

N
Nagid, 55, 90
Naples, Kingdom of, 77
Nasi (leader), 36, 37
Ne'eman (trustee), 111
New Christians, 74
New World, 102, 115,
Inquisition, 103
Jewish settlement in, 102
Ninth of Av, 113
Nobility, litles of, lOS
Nobles, lOS,
riots, 65
Non tolerandis Judaeis, 109
Normans, 24
invasions, 36
North Africa,
Jews, 49,82
persecution of Jews, 82
refugees to, 82
North America, Jewish settlers in, 102
Norwich, blood libel, 44
Novels (Novellae), 14
NUrnberg,
Jewish community, 81
memorbuch, 76

o
Oases, 20
"One flock and one sword," 76
Orchards, 74
Organization,
communal, 81
regional, 51
Ottoman, 70, 97,
conquest, 70
domination of Balkans, 77
domination of European territories, 88
Em~re, 70, 73, 77, 82, 85,88,97,99, lOS
incursions, 70
navy, 88
rule, 70,90
subjugation of Palestine, 71
Turks, 70,95

p
Pacification of population, 67
Pagans, 13,
slaves, 22
Palermo, municipality of, 77
Palestine, conquest of,
Palestinian,

academies, 32, 33
gaonate, 31
geonim, 32, 33
tradition, 32
Papacy, 22
Papal,
court (Avignon), 62
inquisitions, 55
kingdom, 77
seat (Rome), 27
Papal curia, vice chancellor of, 77
Parchment, manufacture of, 38
Parliament, English, 57
Pamas(community leader), 39, 111
Passover haggadot, 94
Pastoureaux (shepherds), 61
Patriarchate, 16
Pax Is/amica, 34
Paytan, 31
Peasants,
revolt of, 67
riots, 67
Pentateuch, 14, 93
People of Israel, 29
Persecution, 73, SO,
of 1391, SO, 82, 93
of French Jewry, 52
(see also Jews, persecution of)
Persia
independence, 31
conquest of Palestine, 18
Persian Gulf, 16
Persian-Jewish collaboration, 18
Persians, 18
Persian Sassanid Kingdom, 14
Personal matters, III
Philosophers, 95
Philosopy, 31, 55
Physical survival, 55
Physician, 37
Pilgrimage to Jerusalem, 32
Pilgrimages, 13
PilgrUns,Jewish,44,90
Pinkas (official minute book), 111
Piyyut, 31
Piyyut Lekhah Dodi, 93
Plague, 65, 72, 90 (see also Black Death)
Podolia, Jews of, 112
Poets, 31
Poisoning of drinking wells, 44, 61, 62, 74
Poland, 64, 109,
Ashkenazic center 73
dominance in economy, 112
expulsion of Jews, (Lithuania and Cracow), 65
Jews, 64, Ill, 112
massacres of, 111
persecution of, 64
privileges of, 64
Talmudic scholarship in, 109
Poland-Lithuania Jews, 73, 82, 109, 110
Polish,
army, 111
economy, 112
kabbalist, 115
nobles, 64, 111
Sejm, 111
territory, 111
townspeople, 64
Political heads of state, 41
Poll tax (jizya), 20
Pope, 98,
allegiance to, 81
Population, 81, 82,
estimation of, 81
migration, 65
pacification of, 67
Port of embarkation, 85
Postponement of decree of expulsion, 64
Portugal,
colonies, 85, 98, 102, 115
conquest of Brazil, 102
conversion of Jews, 84, 99

139

dlqitalia
'/OWN Cgil"

u JG

SUBJECT INDEX
Portugal,
converso, 90
expulsion of Jews, 84, 85
fleeing of Jews, 85
haven for Spain's Jews, 84
independence, 67
inquisition tribunals, 103
Jews of, 67
massacre of Jews, 67
organizational structure of Jewish community,
67
overseas colonies, 98
permanent residence of Spain's Jews, 85
population, 85
refugees, 82, 95
regional heads (arrabi menors), 67
settlement commitments, 85
settlement of Jews, 83
throne of, 88
union with Castile, 76
voyages and discovery, 98
voyages around Africa, 98
Posek (rabbinical judge), 53
Pragmatic teachings, 53
Prayer,
prayer books, 94
seven times a day, 29
Price of possessions, 84
Principality of Galilee, 46
Printing, 94,
books, 94
craftsmen contribution to, 94
Hebrew letters, 94
Privileges, 38, 64, 77

Privi/egium immunitatis, 37
Prohibition of eating meat and drinking wine, 29
Promised Land, 99
Pronouncements, blasphemous, 113
Propaganda, anti-Jewish, 60
Property,
communal property restored, 109
community, 84
confiscation of, 57
granted to Jews, 49
inheritance of, 67
inventory of, 67
king's personal property, 49
seizure of, 59
Prophecy,renewalof,114
Prophetesses, 99
Protection, 77
Protection tax, 38
Protestantism, 106
Protestants, 91, 112,
support for the Jews of Palestine, 91
Psalms, book of, 93
Pumbedita,
gaon of, 31

R
Ra'aya Meheimna (The Faithful Shepherd), 54
Rabbanite,
examination of Biblical text, 29
Jews, 29
Rab de la Corte, 50
Rabbi as chief justice (Rab de la Corte), 50
Rabbinical,
candidates, 111
court, 111
judges, 32
leaders, 74, 110
Rabbis, 67, 74, 111
Radhanites, 26,27,72,
merchants, 27
trade, 27
Ransom, paid by Jews, 65, 112
Reburial,47
Reconquest, Reconquista, 37,49, 50
Redeemer, 44
Redemption, 18,29,44, 54, 70, 93, 114,
year of, 98
Red Sea 16

140

Reformation, Lutheran, 88
Refugees, 19,71,88,95,99
Reisen, Jews of, 111
Religious, 76,
compulsion, 22
law, 113
Renewed Zion, 115
Renovation of synagogue, 47

Reshit Hokhmah, 93
Residence, restriction of, 67
Responsa, 55
Resurrection, doctrine of, 29
Revolt, against lords, 67
Right of appeal, 50
Riots, 65, 67
Roman,
Empire, 13, 14
law, SO, 52
Romaniot (Byzantine Jews), 70, 71
Roman-Spanish community, 21
Rome,
Jewish center, 48,82
Jews of, 77
papal seat, 27
second fall of (Constantinople, 1453), 70
Tiber, flooding of, 98
Roshei ha-glilot, 111
Roshei ha-medinot, 111
Royal,
administrative posts, 50
expenditure, 49
pardon, 67
treasurer and bailiff, 49
Russians, 25
Russian tribes, 24

S
Sabbath, Ninth of Av, 113
Sacrament of repentance, 41
Safed's Jewish community (see Jewish
community)
Sages (see Babylonian)
Salt mines, 112
Samaritans, 46
Sandomierz (Sandomir) blood libel, 112
Sanhedrin, Great, 31
Saxons, 22

Scho/a peregrinorum, 22
Schools, 84
Science, 55
Scribes,56
Sea captains, 72
Second fall of Rome (Constantinople, 1453), 70
Secretary, 111
Secret practice of Judaism, 67
Sects (religious), 29, 115,
Isanian,29
believers of Shabbetai Zevi, 115

Sefer Dinim, 29
Sefer Gezerot, 39
Sefer ha-Madda, 55
Sefer ha-Massa'ot (Book of Travels), 44
Sefer ha-Meshiv, 93
Sefer Haredim, 93
Seier Hasidim, 53
Seier ha- Yashar, 53
Seier ha-Zohar, 54
Sefer Mitzvot, 29
Seier Mitzvot Gado/(Se Ma G), 53,
Katan (Semak), 74
Segregation, 21
Seljuks,33
Semak see Sefer Mitzvot Katan
Sephardic Jews, 70,99,114,
communities, 99
diaspora, 99
refugees from Spain, 70
Sephardischo~,33

Servi camerae regis ("servants of the royal

chamber'1, 64
SeviUe, confiscation of synagogues, 65
Sexual intercourse, 21

Sha'arei Kedushah, 93
Shabbatean messianic movement, 114, 115
Shabbateans, 114

Shadarim (she/uhei de-rabbanan), 91

She'ar Yashuv, 47
Shekhinah (Divine Presence), 54
She/ihim (emissaries), 111
Shepherds (Pastoureaux), 61
Shi'ite,32
Shop owners, 33
ShtadJan (intercessor), 73, 106

Shu/han Arukh, 93
~cutJudaei~22,44

Silk,
industry,90
weaving, 28
Silversmiths, 19
Slaves, 26, 108, 112
children as, 42
Sorcerous ritual, 44
South American colonies, 102,
Jewish settlement in, 102
Spain, 53,
armistice with Turks, 88
Castilian Jewish community, 82, 85
colonies, 102, 115
decline of Jewish community (in Castile and
Aragon),62
emigration to, 31
emperor of, 37
expulsion of Jews, 64, 71, 74, 77, 82,83,84, 93
Expulsion Order, 73, 76, 83, 85
exiles, 85
forcible conversion of Jews, 74
immigrants from, 33
Inquisition, 75, 76, 78
Islam, rise of, 95
Jewish community of, 74, 75, 84, 85, 103
Jewish pilgrims from, 44
Jewish refugees, 82, 95, 99
Jewish society, organization of, 50
Jews forbidden to return, 84
Jews leaving Spain, 85
Jews residing in Portugal, 85
Kingdom of, 76
massacre of Jews, 69
Muslim, 23, 36
northeastern, 54
persecution of Jews, 74, 93
ports, 82
property of Jews, 84
return of Jews, 84
separation from caliphate, 31
size of Jewish community, 82
survival of Jewish community, 74
union with Portugal, 95
Visigothic (see Visigothic Spain)
Spiritual,
creativity, 52
survival, 55
Spices, supply of, 16

Statutum de Judaismo, 57
Status of settlers, 49
Status quo, 22
Styria, Jews of, 73
Sulatajiyya (check-promissory note), 27,31
Sultan, concession to Jews, 90
Sunni,32
Sura academy,
gaonof,31
Switzerland, Jewish community, 74,
expulsion of, 74
reconstitution of life, 74
Symbols, 54
Synagogue, 14,16,21,22,32,47,50,65,68,83,
construction of, 38

T
Tabernacles, Feast of, 32
Tailors, 74
Talmud, 31, 52,
Babylonian, 31, 94

SUBJECT INDEX
Talmud,
burning of, 53
commentary, 52
glosses, 52
Jerusalem, 53
tractates, 52
Talmudic,
academy, 28
scholarship in Poland, 109
sophistry (piJpul), 110
Tatar prince, 68
Tatars, 111
Taxation, 35, 111
Taxes, 20, 24,38,50,57, 111,
annual, 24
annual upkeep payment, 109
burden of, 33, 57, 67
collection, 111
collectors (Jewish), 28
districts, 51
Jews exempted from, 49
Jewish poll, 111
payment, as a source of information, 82
policy toward Jews, 57
records, 80
travel, 38
Teachings, ethical, 53
Ten Lost Tribes, 68,99
Testimony, to live as, 73
Teutonic laws, 23
Theodosian ordinances, 23
Theosophy, 54
Thirty Years' War, 106
Tiberias, reconstruction of town walls, 90
Tiber, flooding of, 98
Tiflisites, 29
Tikkunei Zohar, 54
Tithe, to church, 37
Toledo, 75
Tombstones, 28
Tomer Devorah, 93
Torah, 33,50,53,93,99,
centers, 28, 34, 48
crowns, 65
education, 36
learning, 34
reading of Hebrew, 14
scholars, 36
scroll, 47, 77
study, 23,35,48,53, 110

Tosafists, 52, 53
Tosafot,52
Toulouse, 64,
dispute with archbishop, 73
expulsion of Jews, 64
initiating expulsions, 73
riots, participation in, 67
Town walls, reconstruction of, 90
Trade,
agreements with ship captains, 72
between Europe and Muslim countries, 72
fairs, 38, 112
Jewish, 27, 72,112
Jewish monopoly, see Jewish, monopoly
international, 27, 88, 112
maritime, 72
routes, 72
with Sicilians, 28
Trades, 33
Tradesmen, 46
Transactions,
with bishops or monasteries, 36
commercial, 72
Translation,
Arabic to Latin, 52
Bible, into Arabic, 31
Travelers, 53,69,72
Travel tax, 38
Treasurer, 111
Treasury,
special department to deal with Jews, 42
state, 38
Trent libel, 77
Triumphal procession, 76
Truce of Andrusovo, 112
Trustees, 111
Tunisian independence, 31
Turkish expansion, 88
Turkish-held territories, Jews in, 108
Turks, 70,88,108,
armistice with, 88
invasion of Hungary, 108
Jews in collaboration with, 95, 108
treaty with, 97
Tyrnau, blood libel case, 108

U
Umayyad,
armies, 35
dynasty, 34

United Christian Kingdom, 76

Universities, 94,
Converso admittance, 94
curriculum, 94
Hebrew and Judaica faculties, 94, 95
Inquistion watch on students, 94
medieval 94
students, 64
University of Padua, 94
Usatges, Book of (Book of Usages), 37
Usury, 57

V
Vandal kingdom, 14
Vandals, 14
Venetian,
edict, 69
merchants, 72
rule, 70
Verus Israel, 13
Villa nova de Judaeis, 37
ViOejuif, 81
Vineyards, 28,38, 74,84
Visigoths, 14,21
Visigothic Spain, 21
Viticulture, 36
Vizier of Granada, 36
Volhynia,
annexation of, 64
Jews of, 112

w
War tax, 50
Wills, 33
Wounding a Jew, 37
Writs of privilege, 37
Written and oral law, rejection of, 29

y
Yellow badge, 96
Yeshiva, 28,36,109,
Great, 32
Yeshivot, 33,36
in Palestine, 36
Yishuv, 46,47,82

z
Zion, renewed, 115
Zizat Novel Zevi, 114

141

INDEX TO PERSONS

INDEX TO PERSONS
A
Aaron b. Amram, 30
Aaron b. Meir (gaon), 31, 33
Abba Mari of Montpellier (b. Moses b. Joseph of
Lunel),55
'Abd aI-Rahman II, 36
'Abd aI-Rahman III, 37
Abelard, Peter, 52
Abenaes, Solomon (Ebn Yaish), 90
Abiathar (gaon), 33
Abrabanel, Isaac, 82, 84, 98
Abraham (Tanhum), 35
Abraham of Saragossa, 23
Abraham b. Samuel Zacuto, 85
Abravalia family, SO
Abu Imran, 29
Abu Isa, Isaac b. Jacob al-Isfahani, 29
Abu Ishaq Jekuthiel b. Isaac ibn Hasan, 36
Abu Jahl, 19
Abulafia, Meir b. Todros of Toledo, 53
Adolf (duke), 73
Afonso III (king of Portugal), 67
Afonso V (king of Portugal), 76
Agobard (archbishop of Lyons), 24,28
Ahimaaz,28
Ahmad ibn Tulun, 31
Alantansi, Eliezer, 94
Albert III (elector of Brandenburg), 73
Alebrand (bishop), 39
Alexander III (pope), 48
Alexander VI (Rodrigo Borgia) (pope), 77
Alfasi (R. Isaac b. Jacob), 34
Alfonso (crown prince), 61
Alfonso III (king of Arag6n), SO
Alfonso III (king of Asturias), 37
Alfonso VI, 37
Alfonso X "the Wise", SO
Alfonso de la Caballeria, 84
Alfonso de Espina, 75, 76
Alkabez, Solomon b. Moses ha-Levi, 93, 94
Amittai family, 28
Amulo (archbishop of Lyons), 24
Anan b. David, 29
Andreas (pupil of Abelard), 52
Anno (archibishop), 38
Asher b. Jehiel (Rosh), 53
Ashkenazi, Abraham Nathan b. Elisha Hayyim
(seeNathan of Gaza)
Astruc (see Abba Mari of Montpellier)
Aubriot, Hugues, 64
Augustine, 13
Azikri (see Eleazar b. Moses Azikri)
Aziz, aI- (caliph), 32
Aziz Mehmed Effendi (see Zevi, Shabbetai)

B
Badis (king), 36
Bahya A1constantini, 49
Baron, S.W., 81
Barrios, Daniel Levi, 99
Bathory, Stephen, 110
Baybars,68
Bela IV (king of Hungary), 108
Belisarius, 14
Benedict VIII (pope), 38
Benedict XIII (antipope), 77
Benedict XIII (pope), 74, 77
Ben Israel, Manasseh, 99
Benjamin of Tudela, 44,46, 47, 81
Benjamin b. Moses Nahawendi, 29
Ben Meir family, 33
Benveniste, Abraham (Rab de la Corte), 74
Berav, Jacob, 90
Bernaldez, Andres, 82
Bernard of Clairvaux, 41
Bertinoro (see Obadiah of Bertinoro)
Bloch, Mattathias, 114
Boleslav V (the Pious of Kalisz), 64
Boniface VIII (pope), 48

142

Boniface IX (pope), 77
Borgia, Rodrigo (see Alexander VI)

C
Cabron, Pedro, 84
Calixtus III (Alfonso de Borgia) (pope), 77
Cansino, Jacob, 99
Caro,Joseph,9O,93,98
Carol, Georg, 81
Casimir III (the Great), 64
Casimir IV (Jagiellon), 65
Cavalleria, Judah (ibn Lavi) de la, 49
Charlemagne, 23, 24, 28, 36
Charles I of Spain (see Cttarles V [emperor))
Charles IV (emperor), 62
Charles V (king), 64,97, 106
Charles V (Charles I of Spain) (emperor of Holy
Roman Empire), 73,98
Charles VIII (king), 64
Chmielnicki, Bogdan, 111, 114
Chrysostom, John, 13
Cidellus (Joseph Nasi Ferruziel), 37
Clement III (pope), 42
Clement VI (pope), 62
Clement VII (pope), 97, 98
Conrad III (king), 41
Constantine the Great, 13
Cordovero, Moses b. Jacob, 93
Cosmas (bishop), 39
Cromwell, Oliver, 99

D
Daniel b. Azariah (gaon), 33
Daniel b. Moses al-Qumisi, 29
David of Lyons, 23
David b. Abraham, 55
David b. Saul, 55
David b. Zakkai, 31, 33
David b. Zakkai II (exilarch in Mosul), 47
David Kimhi, 55
Du Nuas (king of Himyar), 16, 17,19

E
Edward I (king), 57
Eleanor (queen), 57
Eleazer b. Moses Azikri, 93
Eliezer b. Isaac, 53
Eliezer b. Joel ha-Levi (Ravyah), 53
Elijah, the prophet, 99
Elijah b. Solomon, 33
Emanuel (Manuel) I (king of Portugal), 84, 85
Emich (Emicho) of Leiningen (count), 39
Escapa,Joseph,113
Esteban, Ines, 99
Esteban, Juan, 99
Eugenius III (pope), 41
Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus (Jerome), 13

F
Ferdinand 1,37
Ferdinand II (king of Arag6n) (Ferdinand V, of
Castile) and Isabella, SO, 73, 75, 76, 77
Ferdinand III "the Saint", 50
FeroreUi, Nicolo, 81
Ferruziel (see Joseph Ha-Nasi Ferruziel)
Foscari, Marco, 98
Fragosso (Genoese pirate), 84
Francis I (king of France), 97
Francisco d'Aranda, 67
Frederick of Swabia (duke), 42
Frederick I Barbarossa (emperor), 42
Frederick II (emperor), 42,44

G
Gabirol, Solomon ben Judah Ibn, 36
Gamliel the Sixth, Rabbi, 16
Genghis Khan, 68
Ghazan, II-khan, 68
Godfrey of Bouillon, 39

Goldschmidt, Meyer (court jeweler), 44

G6mez, Maria (of Chill6n), 99
Gonzalez, Fernan (count of Castile), 37
Graetz, Heinrich, 81
Gregory I (pope), 22
Gregory VIII (pope), 42
Gregory IX (pope), 49, 59
Gregory X (pope), 44
Gregory XIII (pope), 96
Gutenberg, Johann, 94

H
Ha-Ari (see Luria, Isaac b. Solomon)
Habbus (king), 36
Hai, Rav, 31,35
Hai Gaon, Rav, 30, 31, 36
Hakim, a1- (caliph), 32, 38
Harun aI-Rashid (caliph), 23, 24
Hasdai Crescas, Rabbi, 67
Ha-Shelah ha-Kadosh (see Horowitz, Isaiah ben
Abraham ha-Levi)
Henry of Albano (monk), 42
Henry of Trastamara, 65
Henry II (emperor), 38
Henry III of Valois, 109
Henry IV (emperor), 38, 39
Henry IV of Castile, 76
Hillel b. Samuel of Verona, 55
Hisdai ibn Shaprut, 25, 36, 37
Hiwi al-Balkhi, 29
Hohenstaufen rulers, 81
Horowitz, Isaiah b. Abraham ha-Levi, 90
HOlegO, Khan, 68

I
Ibn Gabirol (see Gabirol, Solomon ben Judah Ibn)
Ibn Hasan, Jekuthiel b. Ishaq,
Ibn Jau, Jacob, 36
Ibn Jau Joseph, 36
Ibn Khalfun, Isaac, 36
Ibn Nahmias, David, 94
Ibn Nahmias, Samuel, 94
Ibn Rustam, 34
Innocent III (pope), 42, 49
InnocentlV(pope),44
Isaac (member of Charlemagne's delegation), 23
Isaac of Vienna, 53
Isaac b. Abraham (Rizba), 53
Isaac b. Jacob, Rabbi (see A1fasi)
Isaac b. Jacob al-Isfahani (Abu Isa), 29
Isaac b. Jacob ha-Lavan, 53
Isaac b. Meir, 52
Isaac b. Samuel of Acre, Rabbi, 47, 54
Isaac b. Samuel of Dampierre (Ha-Zaken), 53
Isabella I (queen of Castile), SO, 73, 75, 76, 77

J
Jacob a1-Kirkisani, 29
Jacob b. Asher, 94
Jacob b. Jekuthiel, Rabbi, 38
Jacob b. Meir Tam (Rabbenu Tam), 42,52,53
Jacob b. Nissim b. Shahin, 31
Jagiellon, Alexander (prince of Lithuania), 109
James I (king of Arag6n), 49, SO
James II (king of Arag6n), 61
Jawhar (Fatimid general), 32
Jehiel of Paris, Rabbi, 47, 53
Jehiel Anav, 48
Jehiel b. Isaac ha-Zarefati, 47
Jehoseph (son of Samuel Ha-Nagid), 36
Jerome, 13
Jer6nimo de Santa Fe (Joshua ha-Lorki), 74
Jesus, 39
Joachim of Fiore, 42
Joana (daughter of Henry IV of Castile), 76
Joel b. Isaac ha-Levi, 53
Johann (bishop), 38, 39
John (king of England), 42
John of Austria, 88

INDEX TO PERSONS
John of Brienne, 47
John of Capistrano, 73
John I (king of Arag6n), 67
John II (king of Portugal), 74, 85
John III (king of Portugal), 97
John III Sobieski, 112
John XXII (pope), 61
Jonah b. Abraham Gerondi, 55
Jonathan b. David ha-Kohen of Lunel, 53
Joseph (king of Khazars), 24,25
Joseph from Lyons, 23
Joseph b. Baruch of Clisson, Rabbi, 47
Joseph b. Ephraim Caro, 93
Joseph b. Gershon of Rosheim , 73, 106
Joseph b. Phineas, 30
Joseph Caro, 90, 93, 98
Joseph ibn Abitur, 33
Joseph Nasi Ferruzie1, 37
Joshua ha-Lorki (see Jer6nimo de Santa Fe)
Juan de San Martin, 76
Judah al-Harizi, 44,47
Judah b. Isaac (Sir Leon of Paris), 53
Judah b. Nathan (Rivan), 52
Judah Halevi, Rabbi, 33,45, 46
Judah Hasid (Segal) ha-Levi, 115
Judah (ibn Lavi) de la Cavelleria, 49
Judah ibn Quraysh (Koreish), 34
Jutius II (pope), 95
Julius III (pope), 95
Justinian I (emperor), 14, 16

K
Kalman (king of Hungary), 108
Kalonymus, 28, 38, 39
Karo, Joseph (see Joseph Carol
Koreish (R. Judah ibn Quraysh), 34

L
Ladislaus (Wladyslaw) II Jagiellon (king), 64
Leo X (Giovanni de'Medici) (pope), 95
Leon of Paris (see Judah b. Isaac)
Levita, Elijah (Bahur), 95
Lopez de Ayala, Pedro, 65
Lorki, Joshua (seeJer6nimo de Santa Fe)
Louis the Pious, 23
Louis II (king of Hungary), 108
Louis VII (king of France), 41, 42
Louis IX (SI. Louis) (king of France), 42
Luria, Isaac b. Solomon (Ha-Ari), 93
Luther, Martin, 106

M
Maharam (see Meir b. Baruch of Rothenburg)
Maimonides (Rambam), 47, 49, 55
Manasseh b. Israel, 94
Mansur, ai- (catiph), 30
Manuel (Emanuel) I (king of Portugal), 84, 85
Margarita, Antonius, 106
Marquis of Villena, 76
Martin V (pope), 77
Martinez, Ferrant (archdeacon of ECija), 65
Mas'udi,24
Matthias Corvinus (king of Hungary), 108
Maximilian I (emperor), 73
Mazliah b. Elijah al-Bazak, 28
Medici, Giovanni de' (Leo X), 95
Mehmed (Muhammad) II, 70
Meir b. Baruch, 47
Meir b. Baruch of Rothenburg (Maharam), Rabbi,
47
Meir b. Samuel of Ramerupt, 52
Meir b. Todros Abulafia of Toledo, 53
Mendes-Nasi, Gracia (see Nasi, Gracia)
Meshullam of Volterra, 69
Miguel de Morillo, 76
Milano, Attilio, 81
Molcho, Solomon (Diogo Pires), 98
Mordecai b. Hillel, 60
Moses (Spanish court Jew), 28
Moses Alconstantini, 50
Moses b. Jacob Cordovero, 93
Moses b. Jacob of Coucy, 53

Moses b. Maimon (see Maimonides)

Moses de Le6n, 54
Moses Haparsi, 29
Moses of Zurich, 74
Moshe Gaon, Rav, 30
Mstislav the Brave, 25
Muhammad, 19,20,21
Muhammad (Mehmed) II, 70
Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Yahya (caliph), 31
Mu'izz, ai- (caliph), 32
Mundhir II (king), 36
Muqtadir, ai- (see Muhammad ibn AbduUah ibn
Yahya)
Mushka,29

N
Naharay b. Nissim, Rabbi, 27
Nahawendi, Benjamin b. Moses, 29
Nahmanides (see Ramban)
Najara, Israel b. Moses, 93
Najara, Jacob, 117
Nasi, Don Joseph, 90, 96
Nasi (Mendes), Dona Gracia, 90, 96
Nathan of Gaza, 113, 115
Nathan b. Jehiel, 28, 48
Nehemiah haKohen, 114
Netira,31
Nifoci, Isaac, 69
Nissim, Hayyim, 28
Nissim of Kairouan, Rabbi, 36

o
Obadiah (see Abu Isa)
Obadiah of Bertinoro, 69
01eg,25
Olivares (count duke), 99
Omar, caliph, 19,20
Ordono I (king), 37
Orobio de Castro, Isaac, 99
Otto I, the Great (emperor), 38
Otto" (emperor), 38

p
Pablo de Santa Maria, 74
Paltiel I, 28, 32
Paul IV (pope), 95, 96
Paul VI (pope), 44
Pavoloch, 111
Pedro (Peter) III (king of Arag6n), 50
Pedro (Peter) IV (king of Arag6n), 62
Pedro Lopez de Ayala, 65
Pehthahiah of Regensburg, 47, 53
Peter the Cruel, 65
Peter the Hermit, 38
Peter the Venerable (abbot of Cluny), 42
Peter b. Joseph of Carinthia, 53
Pfefferkorn, Johannes, 106
Philip II Augustus (king of France), 42, 53, 59
Philip II (king of Spain), 88, 95
Philip IV the Fair (king of France), 59,81,99
Pires, Diogo, 98
Pollack, Jacob b. Joseph, 109
Prado, Juan, 99
Primo, Samuel, 114

Q
Qumisi, Daniel b. Moses al, 29

R
Rabbenu Tam (see Jacob b. Meir Tam)
Rambam (see Maimonides)
Ramban (Nahmanides), 44,47,49,55
Ramiro III (king of Castile), 37
Rashba (Solomon b. Abraham Adret), 55
Rashbam (Samuel b. Meir), 52
Rashi, 52, 81
Ratherius (bishop of Verona), 28
Reccared, 21
Reuchlin, Johannes, 106
Reuveni, David, 97,98
Ricci, Matteo, 103
Richard I (the Lion Hearted), 42

Rindfleisch (German knight), 60, 81 .

Rizba (see Isaac b. Abraham)
Robert (king), 81
Romanus I Lecapenus, 24
Rothard (archbishop), 39
Rudolph (monk), 41
Rudolph I (king of Germany), 47
Ruediger (bishop), 38

S
Saadiah, Rav, 31
Sahl ben Mazliah, 33
Saladin, 42, 46
Salmon b. Jerohim, 29
Samson b. Abraham of Sens, Rabbi, 47,53
Samson b. Joseph of Falaise, 53
Samuel b. Adaya, 20
Samuel b. Hofni, Rav, 31,34, 35
Samuel b. Joseph Halevi ibn Nagrela (see Samuel
Ha-Nagid)
Samuel b. Kalonymus he-Hasid of Speyer, 53
Samuel b. Meir (Rashbam), Rabbi, 52
Samuel d'Ortas, 94
Samuel Ha-Nagid (Rabbi Samuel b. Joseph Halevi
ibn Nagrela), 36
Sancho III the Great, 37
Sarmiento, Pedro, 74
Sasportas, Jacob, 114
Selim (sultan), 97
Severus (bishop), 13
Shabbetai Donnolo, 28
Shalom Shakhna b. Joseph, 109
Sharaf, Judah, 114
Shemaiah of Troyes, 52
Shephatiah b. Shabbetai, 28
Sherira b. Hanina Gaon, Rav, 31, 34, 35
Sholal, Isaac ha-Kohen (Solal), 90
Sigismund of Germany, 73
Sigismund II Augustus (King of Poland),
109
Sigisrnund III Vasa (King of Poland), 110
Simhah b. Samuel of Vitry, 52
Simon of Sens, Rabbi, 47
Simon of Trent, 44
Sisebut (king), 21
Sisenand (king), 21
Sixtus IV (pope), 76, 77
Solomon, Rabbi (grandson of Simon of Sens),
47
Solomon Alconstantini, 49
Solomon b. Abraham of Montpellier, 55
Solomon b. Abraham Adret (Rashba), 55
Solomon b. Judah (gaon), 33
Solomon b. Moses Alkabez, 94
Solomon b. Moses ha-Levi A1kabez, 93, 94
Solomon b. Samson, 38
Solomon b. Samuel (Petit), 55
Solomon ha-Levi (rabbi of Burgos) (Pablo de
Santa Maria), 74
Spinoza Baruch, 99
Stephen (king of England), 42
Sviatoslav, 25

T
Taitazak, Joseph, 93
Tam (Rabbenu Tam) (see Jacob b.
Meir Tam)
Tarnerlane (Timur), 68
Tanhum, Abraham, 35
Theodoric (king), 22
Timur (Tamerlane), 68
Titus (Roman emperor), 13
Toledano, E1iezer, 94
Torquernada, Tomas de, 44, 76
Tota (queen of Navarre), 37
Trani, Moses, 90
Tsamtsam a-DuUah, 28
Tzevi, Shabbetai (see levi)

U
Urban V (pope), 77

V
Vespasian, 13

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INDEX TO PERSONS
Vincent Ferrer (friar), 67, 74
Vi told (grand duke), 64
Volkmar, 39
Vratislav II, 39

W
Wecelinus,38
William (Christian child), 44
William (viscount of Melun), 39

y
Yaari, A., 44
Yaqub ibn Killis, 32
Yaroslav the Wize, 25
Yitshaki, David, 114
Yudghan,29
Yusuf ibn Tashfin, 35
Yusuf ibn Ziri, 34

z
Zacuto (see Abraham b. Samuel Zacuto)
Zahir, al (caliph), 32
Zeno (emperor), 16
Zevi, Mordecai, 113
Zevi, Sarah, 113
Zevi, Shabbetai, 111,113,114,115
Zimberlin, John, 60

144

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