Elementary Algebra Book

April 12, 2007 Version
David A. SANTOS
[email protected]
Free to photocopy and distribute
If there should be another ood Hither for refuge y Were the whole world to be submerged This book would still be dry.1
1 Anonymous annotation on the y leaf of an Algebra book.
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iii
First Impressions
1
2 2 3 4 5
1 Why Study Algebra? 1.1 Illiteracy and Innumeracy . . . . . . . . 1.2 Brief History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 What is Elementary Algebra All About? 1.4 Puzzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7
Negative Exponents . . . . . . Distributive Law . . . . . . . . Square of a Sum . . . . . . . . Difference of Squares . . . . . Cube of a Sum . . . . . . . . . Sum and Difference of Cubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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42 43 46 47 50 51 53 53 54 59 62 64 67
II
Arithmetic Review
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Numbers
8
9 9 12 18 20 24 30
2 Arithmetic Operations 2.1 Symbolical Expression . . . . 2.2 The Natural Numbers . . . . . 2.3 Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Operations with Fractions . . 2.5 The Integers . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 Rational, Irrational, and Real
5 Division 5.1 Term by Term Division 5.2 Long Division . . . . . . 5.3 Factoring I . . . . . . . . 5.4 Factoring II . . . . . . . 5.5 Special Factorisations 5.6 Rational Expressions .
IV Equations
69
III
Algebraic Operations
32
3 Addition and Subtraction 33 3.1 Terms and Algebraic Expressions . . . 33 3.2 Suppression of Parentheses . . . . . . . 35 4 Multiplication 39 4.1 Laws of Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6 Linear Equations in One Variable 70 6.1 Simple Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 6.2 Miscellaneous Linear Equations . . . . 74 6.3 Word Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 7 Quadratic Equations in One Variable 81 7.1 Quadratic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . 81 A Answers and Hints 83 Answers and Hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Preface
Mathematics knows no races or geographic boundaries; for mathematics, the cultural -David HILBERT world is one country. These notes started during the Spring of 2002. I would like to thank Jos Mason and John Majewicz for numerous suggestions. These notes have borrowed immensely from their work and suggestions. I have not had the time to revise, hence errors will abound, especially in the homework answers. I will be grateful to receive an email pointing out corrections. David A. SANTOS [email protected]
iv
Part I
First Impressions
Why Study Algebra?
The good Christian should beware of Mathematicians and all those who make empty prophesies. The danger already exists that the Mathematicians have made a covenant with the Devil to darken the spirit and to conne man in the bonds of Hell. -St. Augustine
his chapter is optional. It nevertheless tries to answer two important queries which are often heard:
Why am I learning this material? Where will I ever use this material again?
Mathematicians can givewhat they considerreasonable explanations to the questions above. But any reasonable explanation imposes duties on both the person asking the question and the mathematician answering it. To understand the given answer, you will need patience. If you dislike Mathematics at the outset, no amount of patience or reasonable explanations will do. Some of the concepts that we will mention in the history section might be unfamiliar to you. Do not worry. The purpose of the section is to give you a point of reference as to how old many of these ideas are.
1.1
Illiteracy and Innumeracy

No more impressive warning can be given to those who would conne knowledge and research to what is apparently useful, than the reection that conic sections were studied for eighteen hundred years merely as an abstract science, without regard to any utility other than to satisfy the craving for knowledge on the part of mathematicians, and that then at the end of this long period of abstract study, they were found to be the necessary with which to attain the knowledge of the most important laws of nature. -Alfred North WHITEHEAD
lliteracy is the lack of ability to read and write. Innumeracy is the lack of familiarity with mathematical concepts and methods. It is a truism that people would be embarrassed to admit their illiteracy, but no so to admit their innumeracy. Mathematicians like to assert the plurality of applications of their discipline to real world problems, by presenting modelisations from science, engineering, business, etc. For example, chemical compounds must obey certain geometric arrangements that in turn specify how they behave. By means of mathematical studies called Group Theory and Plya Theory of Counting, these geometric arrangements can be fully catalogued. Modern genetics relies much in two branches of mathematicsCombinatorics and Probability Theoryin order to explain the multiform combinations among genes. Some nancial rms utilise a mathematical theory called Brownian Motion to explain the long term behaviour of markets. By associating the way virus strands twist using Knot Theory, medical research is now better understanding the behaviour of viruses.1 These applications are perhaps too intricate for a novice to master, and many years of Mathematics beyond Algebra are required in order to comprehend them. Hence, why must a person who is not planning to become an engineer, a scientist, a business analyst, etc., learn Algebra? A brief answer is the following:
1 More such applications can be found in the popularisation by Keith Devlin [Devl].
Chapter 1 Algebra provides a rst example of an abstract system. Algebra strengthens deductive reasoning. Algebra is a gateway course, used by other disciplines as a hurdle for admission. Algebra is part of our cultural legacy, much like Art and Music, and its mastery is expected by all who want to be considered educated. What now, if you appreciate all the above reasons, but still claim that you cannot learn Algebra? That Algebra is not for you? That no grown adult needs Algebra, since after all, Algebra does not cure obesity, does not stop poverty, does not stop war, does not alleviate famine, etc.? Observe that all these reasons can also be given for learning how to read, or learning a foreign language. Unlike foreign languages, Algebra is a more universal language, much like Music, but to fully appreciate its power you must be willing to learn it. Most of your teachers will assert that any non mentally-challenged person can learn Algebra. Again, most of us will assert that the major difculties in learning Algebra stem from previous difculties with Arithmetic. Hence, if you are reasonably versed in Arithmetic, you should not confront much trouble with Algebra. All these so-called reasons against Algebra are balderdash, since lacking clairvoyance, how can one claim not to need a discipline in the future?
Homework
Problem 1.1.1 Comment on the following assertion: There is no need to learn Mathematics, since nowadays all calculations can be carried out by computers. Problem 1.1.2 Comment on the following assertion: I was never good at Maths. I will never pass this Algebra class. Problem 1.1.3 Comment on the following assertions: Only nutritionists should know about the basics of nutrition since that is their trade. Only medical doctors should know about the basics of health, since that is their trade. Only mathematicians should know about Algebra since that is their trade.
1.2
Brief History
I have no fault to nd with those who teach geometry. That science is the only one which has not produced sects; it is founded on analysis and on synthesis and on the calculus; it does not occupy itself with probable truth; moreover it has the same method in every country. -Fredrick the Great
lgebra is a very old discipline. Already by 2000 B.C. the ancient Babylonians were solving quadratic equations by completing squares [Eves, pp. 31-32]. 2 The early Egyptians and Babylonians developed arithmetic and geometry for purely practical reasonsessentially for the necessities of commerce and land surveying. Around 100 BC, in the Chinese mathematics book Jiuzhang suanshu (The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art), linear equations are solved using the method of regula falsa and systems of linear equations are solved by the equivalent of modern matrix methods. Around the same time in India, Bakhshali Manuscript introduces the use of letters and other signs in the resolution of problems. Cubic and quartic equations are treated, as well as linear equations with up to ve unknowns. The Greek civilisation assimilated the Egyptian and Babylonian practical knowledge and develops mathematics as an abstract and deductive eld. Geometry and Number Theory are extensively studied by Euclid, whose Elements (written approximately 300 BC) is perhaps the most successful textbook ever written, being one of the very rst works to be printed after the printing press was invented and used as the basic text on geometry throughout the Western world for about 2,000 years. A rst step in the construction of algebra as a formal body comes with the work of Diophantus of Alexandria,
2 Equations of the type ax 2 + bx + c = 0, where x is the unknown quantity and a , b , c are known constants.
What is Elementary Algebra All About? whose Arithmetic (written approximately 300 AD) studied what we now call diophantine equations. One of Diophantus innovations was to introduce symbolic notation for arithmetical quantities. For example, he denoted the square of a quantity by , the cube of a quantity by K , the fourth power of a quantity by , and the fth power by K . Before him, these quantities were treated rhetorically (verbally). Diophantus also knew how to manipulate positive and negative exponents, he represented addition of quantities by juxtaposition and subtraction with the symbol :. Diophantus methods were not geometrical, like the methods of most Greek mathematicians, but they used the properties of the numbers involved. For this and more, Diophantus is considered the father of algebra. In 628 AD the Indian mathematician Brahmagupta, in his treatise Brahma Sputa Siddhanta, gives rules for solving linear and quadratic equations. He also discovers that quadratic equations have two roots, including both negative as well as irrational roots. Inspired in the work of Brahmagupta, there appears in what is now Uzbekistan the mathematician Muhammad bin Musa al-Khuwarazmi (d. 847 AD), from whose book Kitab al-mukhasar hisab al-jabr wal muqabala (The Book of summary concerning calculating by transposition and reduction), the word algebra ( ) comes from. The word is roughly translated as rearranging or transposing.3 In a way, al-Khuwarazmis work was a regression from Diophantus, since his treatment was rhetorical rather than symbolical. al-Khuwarazmis however, treated quantities formally, much like Brhamagupta, rather than geometrically, like the Greeks. Relying on the work of al-Khuwarazmi, Abul Kamil introduces radicals, the use of irrational quantities, and systems of equations. Around 1072 AD the Persian mathematician Omar Khayyam in his Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra, gives a complete classication of cubic equations with general geometric solutions found by means of intersecting conic sections. With the advent of the Renaissance in Europe, the ancient Greek and Hindu works are known through Arabic translations. Algebra is then developed at a rapid pace by the Italian mathematicians Cardano, Tartaglia, Ferrari, and Bombelli. In 1557 Robert Recorde introduces the sign = for equality. In the same century Widmann introduces the + for addition and the sign for subtraction. William Oughtred in 1631 uses the letter x to denote the unknown of an equation.
Homework
Problem 1.2.1 Who is called the Father of Algebra and why? Problem 1.2.2 Is Algebra an Arab invention? Problem 1.2.3 What is the contraposition alluded to in the title of this book, Ossifrage and Algebra?
1.3
What is Elementary Algebra All About?

I was just going to say, when I was interrupted, that one of the many ways of classifying minds is under the heads of arithmetical and algebraical intellects. All economical and practical wisdom is an extension of the following arithmetical formula: 2 + 2 = 4. Every philosophical proposition has the more general character of the expression a + b = c . We are mere operatives, empirics, and egotists until we learn to think in letters instead of gures. -Oliver Wendell HOLMES
lementary algebra generalises arithmetic by treating quantities in the abstract. Thus where in an arithmetic problem you may assert that 2 + 3 = 3 + 2 and that 4 + 1 = 1 + 4, in elementary algebra you assert that for any two numbers a , b we have
a + b = b + a.
3 The word, of course, had a non-mathematical connotation before the popularity of al-Khuwarazmis book. In Moorish Spain
an algebrista was a bonesettera reuniter of broken bonesand so, many barbers of the time were called algebristas.
Chapter 1 It allows the formulation of problems and their resolution by treating an unknown quantity formally. For example, we will learn later on how to calculate
1234567892 (123456787)(123456791)
without using a calculator. But the power of algebra goes beyond these curiosities. Back in 1994, Thomas Nicely, a number theorist, found an error in the Intel Pentium chip.4 This means that computers with this chip were carrying out incorrect calculations. One example given at the time was the following:
4195835.0 3145727.0 = 1.333820449136241000 4195835.0 3145727.0 = 1.333739068902037589
(Correct value) (Flawed Pentium)
The lesson here: computers cannot be trusted!

Problem 1.3.1 You start with $100. You give 20% to your friend. But it turns out that you need the $100 after all in order to pay a debt. By what percent should you increase your current amount in order to restore the $100? The answer is not 20%! Problem 1.3.2 A bottle of wine and its cork cost $1. The bottle of wine costs 80 more than than the cork. What is the price of the cork, in cents?
1.4
Puzzles
Mathematics possesses not only truth, but supreme beautya beauty cold and austere, like that of a sculpture, and capable of stern perfection, such as only great art can show. -Bertrand RUSSELL
he purpose of the puzzles below is to evince some techniques of mathematical problem-solving: working backwards, search for patterns, case by case analysis, etc.
1 Example A frog is in a 10 ft well. At the end of each day, it has leaped 5 ft up and 4 down. After how many days, if at all, will the frog escape the well? Solution: The frog will escape after seven days. At the end of the sixth day, the frog has leaped 6 feet. Then at the beginning of the seventh day, the frog leaps 5 more feet and is out of the well. 2 Example Dale should have divided a number by 4, but instead he subtracted 4. He got the answer 48. What should his answer have been? Solution: We work backwards. He obtained 48 from 48 + 4 = 52. This means that he should have performed 52 4 = 13. 3 Example When a number is multiplied by 3 and then increased by 16, the result obtained is 37. What is the original number? Solution: We work backwards as follows. We obtained 37 by adding 16 to 37 16 = 21. We obtained this 21 by multiplying by 3 the number 21 3 = 7. Thus the original number was a 7. 4 Example You and I play the following game. I tell you to write down three 2-digit integers between 10 and 89. Then I write down three 2-digit integers of my choice. The answer comes to 297, no matter
4 One may nd more information here: http://www.trnicely.net/pentbug/pentbug.html .
Puzzles which three integers you choose (my choice always depends on yours). For example, suppose you choose 12,23,48. Then I choose 87,76,51. You add
12 + 23 + 48 + 87 + 76 + 51 = 297.
Again, suppose you chose 33,56,89. I then choose 66, 43, 10. Observe that
33 + 56 + 89 + 66 + 43 + 10 = 297.
Explain how I choose my numbers so that the answer always comes up to be 297 (!!!). Solution: Notice that I always choose my number so that when I add it to your number I get 99, therefore, I end up adding 99 three times and 3 99 = 297.5 5 Example What is the sum
1 + 2 + 3 + + 99 + 100
of all the positive integers from 1 to 100? Solution: Pair up the numbers into the fty pairs6
(100 + 1) = (99 + 2) = (98 + 3) = = (50 + 51).
Thus we have 50 pairs that add up to 101 and so the desired sum is 101 50 = 5050. Another solution will be given in example 247.
Homework
Problem 1.4.1 What could St. Augustine mean by mathematicians making prophecies? Could he have meant some other profession than mathematician? value of each missing digit.
5 5
6 7
6 5
Problem 1.4.2 Can we nd ve even integers whose sum is 25?
Problem 1.4.3 Iblis entered an elevator in a tall building. She went up 4 oors, down 6 oors, up 8 oors and down 10 oors. She then found herself on the 23rd oor. In what oor did she enter the elevator?
Problem 1.4.6 Is it possible to replace the letter a in the square below so that every row has the same sum of every column?
1 2 3 3 5 2 1
Problem 1.4.4 A natural number is called a palindrome if it is read forwards as backwards, e.g., 1221, 100010001, etc., are palindromes. The palindrome 10001 is strictly between two other palindromes. Which two?
3 a
Problem 1.4.5 Each square represents a digit.7 Find the
Problem 1.4.7 Fill each square with exactly one number
5 Using algebraic language, observe that if you choose x , y , z , then I choose (99 x ),(99 y ),(99 z ). This works because
x + (99 x ) + y + (99 y ) + z + (99 z ) = 3(99) = 297.

6 This trick is known as Gau trick, after the German mathematician Karl Friedrich Gau (1777-1855). Presumably, when Gau was in rst grade, his teacher gave this sum to the pupils in order to keep them busy. To the amazement of the teacher, Gau came up with the answer almost instantaneously. 7 A digit, from the Latin digitum (nger), is one of the ten numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
Chapter 1
from
{1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}
the end. How many cars has the train if the two friends got to one and the same car? Problem 1.4.9 Bilbo and Frodo have just consumed a plateful of cherries. Each repeats the rhyme Tinker, tailor, soldier, sailor, rich man, poor man, beggar man, thief over and over again as he runs through his own heap of cherry stones. Bilbo nishes on sailor, whereas Frodo nishes on poor man. What would they have nished on if they had run through both heaps together? Problem 1.4.10 A boy and a girl collected 24 nuts. The boy collected twice as many nuts as the girl. How many did each collect?
so that the square becomes a magic square, that is, a square where every row has the same sum as every column, and as every diagonal.
Is there more than one solution? Problem 1.4.8 Vintik and Shpuntik agreed to go to the fth car of a train. However, Vintik went to the fth car from the beginning, but Shpuntik went to the fth car from
Part II
Arithmetic Review
Arithmetic Operations
Reeling and Writhing, of course, to begin with, the Mock Turtle replied, and then the different branches of Arithmetic: Ambition, Distraction, Uglication, and Derision. -Lewis CARROLL
n this chapter we review the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of numbers. We also introduce exponentiation and root extraction. We expect that most of the material here will be familiar to the reader. We nevertheless will present arithmetic operations in such a way so that algebraic generalisations can be easily derived from them.
2.1
Symbolical Expression
Mathematicians are like Frenchmen: whatever you say to them they translate into their own language and forthwith it is something entirely different. -GOETHE
e begin our study of Algebra by interpreting the meaning of its symbols. We will use letters to denote arbitrary numbers. This will free us from a long enumeration of cases. For example, suppose we notice that
1 + 0 = 1, 2 + 0 = 2, 1 1 + 0 = ,... , 2 2
etc. Since numbers are innite, we could not possibly list all cases. Here abstraction provides some economy of thought: we could say that if x is a number, then
x + 0 = x,
with no necessity of knowing what the arbitrary number x is. We will normally associate the words increase, increment, augment, etc., with addition. Thus if x is an unknown number, the expression a number increased by seven is translated into symbols as x + 7. We will later see that we could have written the equivalent expression 7 + x . We will normally associate the words decrease, decrement, diminish, difference etc., with subtraction. Thus if x is an unknown number, the expression a certain number decreased by seven is translated into symbols as x 7. We will later see that this differs from 7 x , which is seven decreased by a certain number. We will normally associate the word product with multiplication. Thus if x is an unknown number, the expression the product of a certain number and seven is translated into symbols as 7x . Notice here that we use juxtaposition to denote the multiplication of a letter and a number, that is, we do not use the (times) symbol, or the (central dot) symbol. This will generally be the case, and hence the following are all equivalent,
7x ,
Notice again that a reason for not using when we use letters is so that we do not confuse this symbol with the letter x . We could have also have written x 7, but this usage is just plain weird.
7 x,
7(x ),
(7)(x ),
7 x.
We do need symbols in order to represent the product of two numbers. Thus we write the product
5 6 = 5 6 = (5)(6) = 30 so that we do not confuse this with the number 56.
Symbolical Expression A few other words are used for multiplication by a specic factor. If the unknown quantity is a , then twice the unknown quantity is represented by 2a . Thrice the unknown quantity is represented by 3a . To treble a quantity is to triple it, hence treble a is 3a . The square of a quantity is that quantity multiplied by itself, so for example, the square of a is aa , which is represented in short by a 2 . Here a is the base and 2 is the exponent. The cube of a quantity is that quantity multiplied by its square, so for example, the cube of a is aaa , which is represented in short by a 3 . Here a is the base and 3 is the exponent. The word quotient will generally be used to denote division. For example, the quotient of a number x and 7 is denoted by x 7, or equivalently by or x /7.
7
Here are some more examples. 6 Example If a number x is trebled and if to this new number we add ve, we obtain 3x + 5. 7 Example If x is the larger between x and y , the difference between x and y is x y . However, if y is the larger between x and y , the difference between x and y is y x . 8 Example If a and b are two numbers, then their product is ab , which we will later see that it is the same as ba . 9 Example The sum of the squares of x and y is x 2 + y 2 . However, the square of the sum of x and y is ( x + y )2 . 10 Example If n is an integer, its predecessor is n 1 and its successor is n + 1. 11 Example You begin the day with E eggs. During the course of the day, you fry O omelettes, each requiring A eggs. How many eggs are left? Solution:
E O A , since O A eggs are used in frying O omelettes.
12 Example An even natural number has the form 2a , where a is a natural number. An odd natural number has the form 2a + 1, where a is a natural number. 13 Example A natural number divisible by 3 has the form 3a , where a is a natural number. A natural number leaving remainder 1 upon division by 3 has the form 3a + 1, where a is a natural number. A natural number leaving remainder 2 upon division by 3 has the form 3a + 2, where a is a natural number. 14 Example Find a formula for the n -th term of the arithmetic progression
2,7,12,17,... .
Solution:
We start with 2, and then keep adding 5, thus

2 = 2 + 5 0, 7 = 2 + 5 1, 12 = 2 + 5 2, 17 = 2 + 5 3,... .
The general term is therefore of the form 2 + 5n , where n = 0,1,2,3,... is a natural number. 15 Example Find a formula for the n -th term of the geometric progression
6,12,24,48,... .
10
Chapter 2 Solution: We start with 6, and then keep multiplying by 2, thus

6 = 6 20 , 12 = 6 21 , 24 = 6 22 , 48 = 6 23 ,... .
The general term is therefore of the form 3 2n , where n = 0,1,2,3,... is a natural number. 16 Example Identify the law of formation and conjecture a general formula:
1 = 1, (2)(3) , 2 (3)(4) 1+2+3 = , 2 (4)(5) , 1+2+3+4 = 2 (5)(6) 1+2+3+4+5 = . 2 1+2 =
Solution: Notice that the right hand side consists of the last number on the left times its successor, and this is then divided by 2. Thus we are asserting that
1 + 2 + 3 + + (n 1) + n = (n )(n + 1) . 2
Homework
Problem 2.1.1 If a person is currently N years old, what was his age 20 years ago? Problem 2.1.2 If a person is currently N years old, what will his age be in 20 years? Problem 2.1.3 You start with x dollars. Then you treble this amount and nally you increase what you now have by 10 dollars. How many dollars do you now have? Problem 2.1.4 You start with x dollars. Then you add $10 to this amount and nally you treble what you now have. How many dollars do you now have? Problem 2.1.5 A knitted scarf uses three balls of wool. I start the day with b balls of wool and knit s scarves. How many balls of wool do I have at the end of the day? Problem 2.1.6 Think of a number. Double it. Add 10. Half your result. Subtract your original number. After these ve steps, your answer is 5 regardless of your original number! If x is the original number, explain by means of algebraic formul each step. Problem 2.1.7 What is the general form for a natural number divisible by 4? Leaving remainder 1 upon division by 4? Leaving remainder 2 upon division by 4? Leaving remainder 3 upon division by 4? Problem 2.1.8 Find a general formula for the n -th term of the arithmetic progression
1,7,13,19,25,. . . .
Problem 2.1.9 Identify the law of formation and conjecture a general formula:
12 = (1)(2)(3) , 6
(2)(3)(5) , 6 (3)(4)(7) 12 + 22 + 32 = , 6 (4)(5)(9) 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 = , 6 (5)(6)(11) 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + 52 = . 6 12 + 22 =
Problem 2.1.10 Identify the law of formation and conjecture a general formula.
1 = 12 , 1 + 3 + 5 = 32 , 1 + 3 = 22 ,
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = 52 .
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 42 ,
11
The Natural Numbers
2.2
The Natural Numbers

Numbers are the beginning and end of thinking. With thoughts were numbers born. Beyond numbers thought does not reach. -Magnus Gustaf MITTAG-LEFFLER
his section gives an overview of the natural numbers. We start with two symbols, 0 and 1, and an operation +, adjoining the elements
1 + 1, 1 + 1 + 1, 1 + 1 + 1 + 1, 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1, ... .
Observe that this set is innite and ordered, that is, you can compare any two elements and tell whether one is larger than the other. We dene the symbols
2 = 1 + 1, 3 = 1 + 1 + 1, 4 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1, 5 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1, 6 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1,
Beyond 9 we reuse these symbols by also attaching a meaning to their place. Thus
10 = 1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1, 11 = 1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1,
7 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1,
8 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1,
9 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1. 12 = 1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1, etc.
17 Denition A positional notation or place-value notation system is a numeral system in which each position is related to the next by a constant multiplier of that numeral system. Each position is represented by a limited set of symbols. The resultant value of each position is the value of its symbol or symbols multiplied by a power of the base. As you know, we use base-10 positional notation. For example, in
1234 = 1 1000 + 2 100 + 3 10 + 4 1, 1 does not mean 1, but 1000; 2 does not mean 2, but 200, etc.
Before positional notation became standard, simple additive systems (sign-value notation) were used such as the value of the Hebrew letters, the value of the Greek letters, Roman Numerals, etc. Arithmetic with these systems was incredibly cumbersome.1 18 Denition The collection of all numbers dened by the recursion method above is called the set of natural numbers, and we represent them by the symbol N, that is,
N = {0,1,2,3,... }.
Natural numbers are used for two main reasons: 1. counting, as for example, there are 10 sheep in the herd, 2. or ordering, as for example, Los Angeles is the second largest city in the USA.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Figure 2.1: The Natural Numbers N.
We can interpret the natural numbers as a linearly ordered set of points, as in gure 2.1. This interpretation of the natural numbers induces an order relation as dened below.
1 Try multiplying 123 by 321, say, using Roman numerals!
12
Chapter 2 19 Denition Let a and b be two natural numbers. We say that a is (strictly) less than b , if a is to the left of b on the natural number line. We denote this by a < b .
negation of is . For example, 1 N because 1 is a natural number, but
In what follows, the symbol is used to indicate that a certain element belongs to a certain set. The
1 N. 2
D
ab
a + b = a +b O 1
b A a
B a
Figure 2.2: Addition in N.
Figure 2.3: Multiplication in N.
Figure 2.4: Multiplication in N.
We can think of addition of natural numbers as concatenation of segment lengths. For example, if we add a segment whose length is b units to a segment whose length is a units, we obtain a segment whose length is a + b units. See for example gure 2.2. Multiplication is somewhat harder to interpret. Form O AC with O A = 1 and OC = b . Extend the segment [O A ] to B , with AB = a . Through B draw a line parallel to [ AC ], meeting [OC ]-extended at D . By the similarity of O AC and OB D , C D = ab . Another possible interpretation of multiplication occurs in gure 2.4, where a rectangle of area ab (square units) is formed having sides of a units by b units. Observe that if we add or multiply any two natural numbers, the result is a natural numbers. We encode this observation in the following axiom. 20 Axiom (Closure) N is closed under addition, that is, if a N and b N then also a + b N. N is closed under multiplication, that is, if x N and y N then also x y N. If 0 is added to any natural number, the result is unchanged. Similarly, if a natural number is multiplied by 1, the result is also unchanged. This is encoded in the following axiom. 21 Axiom (Additive and Multiplicative Identity) 0 N is the additive identity of N, that it, it has the property that for all x N it follows that
x = 0 + x = x + 0. 1 N is the multiplicative identity of N, that it, it has the property that for all a N it follows that a = 1a = a 1.
Again, it is easy to see that when two natural numbers are added or multiply, the result does not depend on the order. This is encoded in the following axiom. 22 Axiom (Commutativity) Let a N and b N. Then a + b = b + a and ab = ba . Two other important axioms for the natural numbers are now given. Free to photocopy and distribute 13
The Natural Numbers 23 Axiom (Associativity) Let a , b , c be natural numbers. Then the order of parentheses when performing addition is irrelevant, that is, Similarly, the order of parentheses when performing addition is irrelevant,
a (bc ) = (ab )c = abc . a + (b + c ) = ( a + b ) + c = a + b + c .
24 Axiom (Distributive Law) Let a , b , c be natural numbers. Then

a (b + c ) = ab + ac ,
and
(a + b )c = ac + bc .
We now make some further remarks about addition and multiplication. The product mn is simply put, stenography for addition. That is, we have the equivalent expressions
mn = n + n + + n = m + m + + m .
m times n times
Thus when we write (3)(4) we mean

(3)(4) = 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 4 + 4 + 4 = 12.
Hence if we encounter an expression like we must clearly perform the multiplication rst and then the addition, obtaining
(3)(5) + (6)(4) = 5 + 5 + 5 + 6 + 6 + 6 + 6 = 39, (3)(5) + (6)(4)
or more succinctly In turn, a stenographic form for multiplication by the same number is exponentiation, which we will now dene. 25 Denition (Exponentiation) If n is a natural number greater than or equal to 1 then the n -th power of a is dened by
an = a a a
n times
(3)(5) + (6)(4) = 15 + 24 = 39.
Here, a is the base, and n is the exponent.. If a is any number different from 0 then we dene We do not attach any meaning to 00 .2
a 0 = 1.
26 Example Powers of 2 permeate computer culture. A bit is a binary digit taking a value of either 0 (electricity does not pass through a circuit) or 1 (electricity passes through a circuit). We have,
21 = 2 22 = 4, 23 = 8, 24 = 16, 25 = 32,
2 Much to the chagrin of logicians and other spawns of Satan.
26 = 64 27 = 128 28 = 256 29 = 512 210 = 1024
14
Chapter 2 Since 210 1000, we call 210 a kilobit.3 27 Example Notice that 23 = 8 and 32 = 9 are consecutive powers. A 150 year old problem, called Catalans Conjecture asserted that these were the only strictly positive consecutive powers. This conjecture was proved by the number theorist Preda Mihailescu on 18 April 2002. This is one more example that not everything has been discovered in Mathematics, that research still goes on today.
Notice that a b is not ab . Thus 23 = (2)(2)(2) = 8, and not (2)(3) = 6.
In any expression containing addition and exponentiation, we perform the exponentiation rst, since it is really a shortcut for writing multiplication. 28 Example We have
(2)(4) + 33 = 8 + 27 = 35, 32 + 23 = 9 + 8 = 17, (32 )(4)(5) = (9)(4)(5) = 180.
The order of operations can be coerced by means of grouping symbols, like parentheses ( ), brackets [ ], or braces { }. 29 Example We have
(3 + 2)(5 + 3) = (6)(8) = 48, (3 + 2)2 = (5)2 = 25, (5 + (3 + 2(4))2 )3 = (5 + (3 + 8)2 )3 = (5 + (11)2 )3 = (5 + 121)3 = 1263 = 2000376.
Observe that (3 + 2)2 = 25 but that 32 + 22 = 9 + 4 = 13. Thus exponentiation does not distribute over addition.
30 Example Each element of the set

{10,11,12,... ,19,20}
is multiplied by each element of the set

{21,22,23,... ,29,30}.
If all these products are added, what is the resulting sum? Solution: This is asking for the product (10 + 11 + + 20)(21 + 22 + + 30) after all the terms are multiplied. But 10+11+ +20 = 165 and 21+22+ +30 = 255. Therefore we want (165)(255) = 42075. 31 Denition To evaluate an expression with letters means to substitute the values of its letters by the equivalent values given. 32 Example Evaluate a 3 + b 3 + c 3 + 3abc when a = 1, b = 2, c = 3. Solution: Substituting,
13 + 23 + 33 + 3(1)(2)(3) = 1 + 8 + 27 + 18 = 54.
3 From the Greek kilo, meaning thousand.
15
The Natural Numbers We introduce now the operation of extracting roots. Notice that we will introduce this new operation by resorting to the reverse of an old operation. This is often the case in Mathematics. 33 Denition (Roots) Let m be a natural number greater than or equal to 2, and let a and b be any natural numbers. We write that m a = b if a = b m . In this case we say that b is the m -th root of a . The number m is called the index of the root.
In the special case when m = 2, we do not write the index. Thus we will write a rather than The number a is called the square root of a . The number 3 a is called the cubic root of a .
a.
34 Example We have
1=1 4=2 9=3 16 = 4 25 = 5 36 = 6
because because because because because because
12 = 1, 22 = 4, 32 = 9, 42 = 16, 52 = 25, 62 = 36.
35 Example We have
10
1=1
because because because because because because
110 = 1, 25 = 32, 33 = 27, 43 = 64, 53 = 125. 210 = 1024.
32 = 2 27 = 3 64 = 4 125 = 5 1024 = 2
10
Having now an idea of what it means to add and multiply natural numbers, we dene subtraction and division of natural numbers by means of those operations. This is often the case in Mathematics: we dene a new procedure in terms of old procedures. 36 Denition (Denition of Subtraction) Let m , n , x be natural numbers. Then the statement m n = x means that m = x + n . 37 Example To compute 15 3 we think of which number when added 3 gives 15. Clearly then 15 3 = 12 since 15 = 12 + 3. 38 Denition (Denition of Division) Let m , n , x be natural numbers, with n = 0. Then the statement m n = Free to photocopy and distribute 16
Chapter 2
x means that m = xn . 15 3 = 5 since 15 = 5 3.
39 Example Thus to compute 15 3 we think of which number when multiplied 3 gives 15. Clearly then
Neither subtraction nor division are closed in N. For example, 3 5 is not a natural number, and neither is 3 5. Again, the operations of subtraction and division misbehave in the natural numbers, they are not commutative. For example, 5 3 is not the same as 3 5 and 20 4 is not the same as 4 20.
Homework
Problem 2.2.1 Find the numerical value of 11 22 33 . Problem 2.2.2 Find the numerical value of
( 36 25)2 .
Problem 2.2.10 Oscar rides his bike, being able to cover 6 miles in 54 minutes. At that speed, how long does it take him to cover a mile? Problem 2.2.11 For which values of the natural number n is 36 n a natural number? Problem 2.2.12 Doing only one multiplication, prove that
(666)(222) + (1)(333) + (333)(222) +(666)(333) + (1)(445) + (333)(333) +(666)(445) + (333)(445) + (1)(222) = 1000000.
Problem 2.2.3 Find the numerical value of 3 4 + 42 . Problem 2.2.4 Evaluate (a + b )(a b ) when a = 5 and b = 2. Problem 2.2.5 Evaluate b = 1.
(a 2 + b 2 )(a 2 b 2 )
when a = 2 and
Problem 2.2.6 If today is Thursday, what day will it be 100 days from now? Problem 2.2.7 If the gure shewn is folded to form a cube, then three faces meet at every vertex. If for each vertex we take the product of the numbers on the three faces that meet there, what is the largest product we get?
Problem 2.2.13 A car with ve tyres (four road tyres and a spare tyre) travelled 30,000 miles. If all ve tyres were used equally, how many miles wear did each tyre receive? Problem 2.2.14 A quiz has 25 questions with four points awarded for each correct answer and one point deducted for each incorrect answer, with zero for each question omitted. Anna scores 77 points. How many questions did she omit?
Problem 2.2.15 A certain calculator gives as the result of the product

987654 745321
the number 7.36119E 11, which means 736,119,000,000. Explain how to nd the last six missing digits. Problem 2.2.8 A book publisher must bind 4500 books. One contractor can bind all these books in 30 days and another contractor in 45 days. How many days would be needed if both contractors are working simultaneously? Problem 2.2.9 For commencement exercises, the students of a school are arranged in nine rows of twenty eight students per row. How many rows could be made with thirty six students per row? Problem 2.2.16 How many digits does 416 525 have? Problem 2.2.17 As a publicity stunt, a camel merchant has decided to pose the following problem: If one gathers all of my camels into groups of 4, 5 or 6, there will be no remainder. But if one gathers them into groups of 7 camels, there will be 1 camel left in one group. The number of camels is the smallest positive integer satisfying these properties. How many camels are there?
17
Fractions
2.3
Fractions
I continued to do arithmetic with my father, passing proudly through fractions to decimals. I eventually arrived at the point where so many cows ate so much grass, and tanks lled with water in so many hours I found it quite enthralling. -Agatha CHRISTIE
n this section we review some of the arithmetic pertaining fractions.

m where m and n are natural n
numbers and n = 0. Here m is the numerator or the fraction and n is the denominator of the fraction.
40 Denition A (positive numerical) fraction is a number of the form m n =
Given a natural number n = 0, we divide the interval between consecutive natural numbers k and k +1 into n equal pieces. Figures 2.5 2.6, and 2.7, shew examples with n = 2, n = 3, and n = 4, respectively. Notice that the larger n is, the ner the partition.
0
0 2 1 2
1
2 2 3 2
2
4 2 5 2
3
6 2 7 2
4
8 2 9 2
5
10 2 11 2
6
12 2 13 2
7
14 2
Figure 2.5: Fractions with denominator 2.
0
0 3 1 3 2 3
1
3 3 4 3 5 3
2
6 3 7 3 8 3
3
9 3 10 3 11 3
4
12 3 13 3 14 3
5
15 3 16 3 17 3
6
18 3 19 3 20 3
0
0 4 1 4 2 4 3 4
1
4 4 5 4 6 4 7 4
2
8 4 9 4 10 4 11 4
3
12 4 13 4 14 4 15 4
4
16 4 17 4 18 4 19 4
5
20 4 21 4 22 4 23 4
6
24 4 25 4 26 4 27 4
You will notice that in many of the fractions written above, the numerator is larger than the denominator. In primary school vocabulary these fractions are commonly called improper, and perhaps, you were taught to convert them to a mixed number. For example, when we write teacher might have preferred to write 4 1 2 . We will, however, prefer to use improper fractions as this is the common usage in Algebra and in modern computer algebra programmes.
9 , your primary school 2
By doing more of the diagrams above you may have noticed that there are multiple names for, say, the natural number 2. For example
2= 2 4 6 8 10 12 = = = = = , 1 2 3 4 5 6
etc. This observation is a particular case of the following result. Free to photocopy and distribute 18
Chapter 2 41 Theorem (Cancellation Law) Let m , n , k be natural numbers with n = 0 and k = 0. Then
mk m = . nk n
Proof:
nk = 1, the nk -th nk marker has to be 1. Thus the n markers k -th, 2k -th, 3k -th, . . . , nk -th, form a division of [0;1] 1 k 1 2 into n equal spaces. It follows that the k -th marker is , that is, = , the 2k -th marker is , n nk n n 2k 2 m mk m = , etc., and so the mk -th marker is , that is, = , as we wanted to prove.u that is, nk n n nk n [0;1] into nk pieces. Consider the k -th, 2k -th, 3k -th, . . . , nk -th markers. Since
We will prove this for m n . For m > n the argument is similar. Divide the interval
Thus given a fraction, if the numerator and the denominator have any common factors greater than 1, that is, any non-trivial factors, we may reduce the fraction and get an equal fraction. 42 Denition Two fractions such that reduced form of
x . y a x a = are said to be equivalent. If b < y , then is said to be a b y b
It is possible to prove that any fraction has a unique reduced form with minimal denominator, the so called equivalent fraction in lowest terms. This depends on the fact that the natural numbers can be factored uniquely into primes, and hence, though we will accept this result, we will not prove it here.
43 Example To reduce
104 to lowest terms, observe that 120 104 104 4 26 2 13 = = = . 120 120 4 30 2 15
Since 13 and 15 do not have a non-trivial factor in common,
13 is the desired reduction. 15
The reduction steps above are not unique. For example, if we had seen right away that 8 was a
104 104 8 13 = = , obtaining the same result. Hence, no matter 120 120 8 15
common factor, we would have obtained
how many steps you take, as long as there is valid cancellation to do and you perform them all, you will always obtain the right result.
44 Example Find a fraction with denominator 120 equivalent to Solution: Observe that 120 24 = 5. Thus
11 11 5 55 = = . 24 24 5 120
11 . 24
Homework
Problem 2.3.1 Four comrades are racing side by side down a dusty staircase. Frodo goes down two steps at a time, Gimli three, Legolas four, and Aragorn ve. If the only steps with all fours footprints are at the top and the bottom, how many steps have just one footprint?
Problem 2.3.2 What fraction of an hour is 36 minutes?
19
Operations with Fractions

Problem 2.3.3 Express
102 in least terms. 210 102 with 210
Problem 2.3.4 Find an equivalent fraction to denominator 3990. Problem 2.3.5 Arrange in increasing order:
2 3 8 , , . 3 5 13
Problem 2.3.6 Four singers take part in a musical round of 4 equal lines, each nishing after singing the round through 3 times. The second singer begins when the rst singer begins the second line, the third singer begins when the rst singer begins the third line, the fourth singer begins when the rst singer begins the fourth line. What is the fraction of the total singing time when all the singers are singing simultaneously?
2.4
Operations with Fractions

A man is like a fraction whose numerator is what he is and whose denominator is what he thinks of himself. The larger the denominator the smaller the fraction. -Count Lev Nikolgevich TOLSTOY
e now dene addition of fractions. We would like this denition to agree with our denition of addition of natural numbers. Recall that we dened addition of natural numbers x and y as the a c concatenation of two segments of length x and y . We thus dene the addition of two fractions and as the concatenation of two segments of length etc., stem from this denition. The problem we now have is how to concretely apply this denition to nd the desired sum? From this concatenation denition it follows that natural numbers a and b = 0,
a 1 1 = + + . b b b
a times
b d a c and . The properties of associativity, commutativity, b d
(2.1)
It follows from the above property that
x y x+y + = . b b b
(2.2)
We now determine a general formula for adding fractions of different denominators. 45 Theorem (Sum of Fractions) Let a , b , c , d be natural numbers with b = 0 and d = 0. Then
a c ad + bc + = . b d bd
Proof:
From the Cancellation Law (Theorem 41),

a c ad bc ad + bc + = + = , b d bd bd bd
proving the theorem. u The formula obtained in the preceding theorem agrees with that of (2.2) when the denominators are equal. For, using the theorem,
x y xb yb xb + b y b (x + y ) x + y + = + = = = , b b b b b b b b b b b
where we have used the distributive law.
Observe that the trick for adding the fractions in the preceding theorem was to convert them to fractions of the same denominator. 46 Denition To express two fractions in a common denominator is to write them in the same denominator. The smallest possible common denominator is called the least common denominator. Free to photocopy and distribute 20
Chapter 2 47 Example Add: Solution:

3 4 + . 5 7
A common denominator is 5 7 = 35. We thus nd

3 4 3 7 4 5 21 20 41 + = + = + = . 5 7 5 7 7 5 35 35 35
In the preceding example, 35 is not the only denominator that we may have used. Observe that
3 42 4 40 = and = . Adding, 5 70 7 70 3 4 3 14 4 10 42 40 82 82 2 41 + = + = + = = = . 5 7 5 14 7 10 70 70 70 70 2 35
This shews that it is not necessary to nd the least common denominator in order to add fractions, simply a common denominator.
In fact, let us list the multiples of 5 and of 7 and let us circle the common multiples on these lists: The multiples of 5 are The multiples of 7 are The sequence
35,70,105,140,... , 5,10,15,20,25,30, 35 ,40,45,50,55,60,65, 70 ,75,... , 7,14,21,28, 35 ,42,49,56,63, 70 ,77,... .
is a sequence of common denominators for 5 and 7. 48 Example To perform the addition

2 1 3 + + , observe that 7 5 2 = 70 is a common denominator. Thus 7 5 2 = = = = 2 10 1 14 3 35 + + 7 10 5 14 2 35 20 14 105 + + 70 70 70 20 + 14 + 105 70 139 . 70
2 1 3 + + 7 5 2
a c . Observe that this means that ad bc , b d a b which in turns means that ad bc 0. Then from a segment of length we subtract one of . In much b d
A few words about subtraction of fractions. Suppose
the same manner of addition of fractions then
a c ad bc ad bc = = . b d bd bd bd
Now, since ad bc 0, ad bc is a natural number and hence
ad bc is a fraction. bd
We now approach multiplication of fractions. We saw that a possible interpretation for the product
x y of two natural numbers x and y is the area of a rectangle with sides of length x and y . We would like to extend this interpretation in the case when x and y are fractions. That is, given a rectangle of sides a c ac of length x = and y = , we would like to deduce that is the area of this rectangle. b d bd
21
Operations with Fractions 49 Theorem (Multiplication of Fractions) Let a , b , c , d be natural numbers with b = 0 and d = 0. Then
a c ac = . b d bd
Proof: First consider the case when a = c = 1. Start with a unit square and cut it horizontally into b equal segments. Then cut it vertically into d equal segments. We have now bd equal pieces, each one having an area of shewn that
1 1 1 . Since each piece is in dimension by , we have bd b d 1 1 1 = . b d bd
a c and width . Such a rectangle is obtained by concateb d 1 1 nating along its length a segments of length and along its width c segments of length . This b d a 1 partitions the large rectangle into ac sub-rectangles, each of area . Hence the area of the bd b c 1 by , from where rectangle is ab d bd
Construct now a rectangle of length
a c ac 1 = = ac , b d bd bd
proving the theorem. u 50 Example We have
2 3 6 2 = = . 3 7 21 7
Alternatively, we could have cancelled the common factors, as follows,

2 3 2 = . 7 7 3
51 Example Find the exact value of the product

1 2 5 1 2 7 1 2 2 1 9 99 1 2 . 101
Solution:
We have,
1 2 5 1 2 7 1 2 2 1 9 99 1 2 101 = = 3 5 7 9 97 99 5 7 9 11 99 101 3 . 101
We now tackle division of fractions. Recall that we dened division of natural numbers as follows. If n = 0 and m , x are natural numbers then m n = x means that m = xn . We would like a denition of fraction division compatible with this denition of natural number division. Hence we give the following denition. 52 Denition Let a , b , c , d be natural numbers with b = 0, c = 0, d = 0. We dene the fraction division
a c x a x c = = . b d y b y d
22
Chapter 2 We would like to know what theorem.

x above is in terms of a , b , c , d . For this purpose we have the following y
53 Theorem (Division of Fractions) Let a , b , c , d be natural numbers with b = 0, c = 0, d = 0. Then

a c a d ad = = , b d b c bc
that is,
x x ad in denition 52 is = . y y bc
Proof: that
Let us prove that
x ad = satises the denition of the denition of fractions. Observe y bc x c ad c ad c a = = = , y d bc d bcd b
x so chosen is the right result for the division of fractions. Could there be another y x fraction, say that satises denition 52? Suppose y
and hence
a x c = . b y d
Then
x a d x c d x = = = . y b c y d c y x a d = is the only fraction that satises the denition of fraction division. u y b c d c is the fraction . d c
Hence
54 Denition Let c = 0, d = 0 be natural numbers. The reciprocal of the fraction
Theorem 53 says that in order to divide two fractions we must simply multiply the rst one by the reciprocal of the other. 55 Example We have,
24 20 24 7 46 71 61 6 = = = = . 35 7 35 20 7 5 4 5 5 5 25
Homework
Problem 2.4.1 Complete the fraction puzzle below. Problem 2.4.2 Find the exact numerical value of
2 3 7 . 51 17 10
1 3
+ =
2 3
Problem 2.4.3 Find the exact numerical value of

4 2 75 . 4 2 7+5
+
3 4
Problem 2.4.4 Find the value of

= 10 + 102 . 1 1 + 10 100
23
The Integers
(1 + 2 + 3)(12 + 22 + 32 1 2 2 3 3 1) 13 + 23 + 33 3(1)(2)(3) .

1 1+ 2+ 3+ 1 . 1 4
Problem 2.4.6 If
1 1 1+ 5 = a , b
where the fraction
a b
is in least terms, nd a 2 + b 2 .
Problem 2.4.12 At a certain college 99% of the 100 students are female, but only 98% of the students living on campus are female. If some females live on campus, how many students live off campus?
1 Problem 2.4.13 What would be the price of a 5 2 -mile trip with the following taxi-cab company?

1 1 2 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 4 99 1 1 . 100
Problem 2.4.8 John takes 2 hours to paint a room, whereas Bill takes 3 hours to paint the same room. How long would it take if both of them start and are working simultaneously? Problem 2.4.9 Naomi has 16 yards of gift-wrap in order to wrap the gifts for the Festival of Lights at the community centre. Each gift requires 1 7 8 yards of paper. How many gifts can she wrap? Problem 2.4.10 Evaluate
1 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 .
S MILING C AMEL T AXI S ERVICES First

1 4
mi
1 4
$ .85 mi $ .40
Additional
2.5
The Integers
God created the integers. Everything else is the work of Man. -Leopold KROENECKER
he introduction of fractions in the preceding section helped solve the problem that the natural numbers are not closed under division. We now solve the problem that the natural numbers are not closed under subtraction. 56 Denition A natural number not equal to 0 is said to be positive. The set
{1,2,3,4,5,... }
is called the set of positive integers. 57 Denition Given a natural number n , we dene its opposite n as the unique number n such that
n + (n ) = (n ) + n = 0.
The collection of all the opposites of the natural numbers is called the set of negative integers. The collection of natural numbers together with the negative integers is the set of integers, which we denote by the symbol4 Z.
4 From the German word for number: Zhlen.
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5,...}
24
Chapter 2 A graphical representation of the integers is given in gure 2.8.
Figure 2.8: The Integers Z. There seems to be no evidence of usage of negative numbers by the Babylonians, Pharaonic Egyptians, or the ancient Greeks. It seems that the earliest usage of them came from China and India. In the 7th Century, negative numbers were used for bookkeeping in India. The Hindu astronomer Brahmagupta, writing around A.D. 630, shews a clear understanding of the usage of negative numbers. Thus it took humans a few millennia to develop the idea of negative numbers. Since, perhaps, our lives are more complex now, it is not so difcult for us to accept their existence and understand the concept of negative numbers. Let a Z and b Z. If a > 0, then a < 0. If b < 0, then b > 0. Thus either the number, or its mirror reexion about 0 is positive, and in particular, for any a Z, (a ) = a . This leads to the following denition. 58 Denition Let a Z. The absolute value of a is dened and denoted by
a
|a | =
if a 0, if a < 0,
59 Example |5| = 5 since 5 > 0. | 5| = (5) = 5, since 5 < 0.

Letters have no idea of the sign of the numbers they represent. Thus it is a mistake to think, say, that +x is always positive and x is always negative.
We would like to dene addition, subtraction, multiplication and division in the integers in such a way that these operations are consistent with those operations over the natural numbers and so that they again closure, commutativity, associativity, and distributivity under addition and multiplication. We start with addition. Recall that we dened addition of two natural numbers and of two fractions as the concatenation of two segments. We would like this denition to extend to the integers, but we are confronted with the need to dene what a negative segment is. This we will do as follows. If a < 0, then a > 0. We associate with a a segment of length | a |, but to the left of 0 on the line, as in gure 2.9.
a a O a
Figure 2.9: A negative segment. Here a < 0. Hence we dene the addition of integers a , b , as the concatenation of segments. Depending on the sign of a and b , we have four cases. (We exclude the cases when at least one of a or b is zero, these cases being trivial.) Free to photocopy and distribute 25
The Integers 60 Example (Case a > 0, b > 0) To add b to a , we rst locate a on the line. From there, we move b units right (since b > 0), landing at a + b . Notice that this case reduces to addition of natural numbers, and hence, we should obtain the same result as for addition of natural numbers. This example is illustrated in gure 2.10. For a numerical example (with a = 3, b = 2), see gure 2.11.
a O b a
a +b a +b
Figure 2.10: a + b with a > 0, b > 0.
3 O 2 3
3+2 5
Figure 2.11: 3 + 2.
61 Example (Case a < 0, b < 0) To add b to a , we rst locate a on the line. From there, we move b units left (since b < 0), landing at a + b . This example is illustrated in gure 2.12. For a numerical example (with a = 3, b = 2), see gure 2.13.
a +b a +b a b a
b O
Figure 2.12: a + b with a < 0, b < 0.
3 + (2) 5 3 2 3
2 O
Figure 2.13: 3 + (2).
Examples 60 and 61 conform to the following intuitive idea. If we associate positive numbers to gains and negative numbers to losses then a gain plus a gain is a larger gain and a loss plus a loss is a larger loss.
62 Example We have, since we are adding three gains, and we thus obtain a larger gain. 63 Example We have, since we are adding three losses, and we thus obtain a larger loss. Free to photocopy and distribute 26
(11) + (13) + (15) = 39, (+1) + (+3) + (+5) = +9,
Chapter 2 We now tackle the cases when the summands have opposite signs. In this case, borrowing from the preceding remark, we have a gain plus a loss. In such a case it is impossible to know before hand whether the result is a gain or a loss. The only conclusion we could gather, again, intuitively, is that the result will be in a sense smaller, that is, we will have a smaller gain or a smaller loss. Some more thinking will make us see that if the gain is larger than the loss, then the result will be a smaller gain, and if the loss is larger than the gain then the result will be a smaller loss. 64 Example (Case a < 0, b > 0) To add b to a , we rst locate a on the line. Since a < 0, it is located to the left of O . From there, we move b units right (since b > 0), landing at a + b . This example is illustrated in gure 2.14. For a numerical example (with a = 3, b = 2), see gure 2.15. Again, we emphasise, in the sum (3) + (+2), the loss is larger than the gain. Hence when adding, we expect a smaller loss, xing the sign of the result to be minus.
a +b a a a +b O b b
Figure 2.14: a + b with a < 0, b > 0.
3 + 2 3 3 1 O 2 2
Figure 2.15: 3 + 2.
65 Example (Case a > 0, b < 0) To add b to a , we rst locate a on the line. From there, we move b units left (since b < 0), landing at a + b . This example is illustrated in gure 2.16. For a numerical example (with a = 3, b = 2), see gure 2.17.
a +b b b O a +b a a
Figure 2.16: a + b with a > 0, b < 0.
3 + (2) 2 2 O 1 3 3
Figure 2.17: 3 + (2).
66 Example We have,
(+19) + (21) = 2,
27
The Integers since the loss of 21 is larger than the gain of 19 and so we obtain a loss. 67 Example We have,
(100) + (+210) = +110,
since the loss of 100 is smaller than the gain of 210 and so we obtain a gain.
We now turn to subtraction. We dene subtraction in terms of addition. 68 Denition Subtraction is dened as
a b = a + (b ).
69 Example We have, (+8) (+5) = (+8) + (5) = 3. 70 Example We have, (8) (5) = (8) + (+5) = 3. 71 Example We have, (+8) (5) = (+8) + (+5) = 13. 72 Example We have, (8) (+5) = (8) + (5) = 13. We now explore multiplication. Again, we would like the multiplication rules to be consistent with those we have studied for natural numbers. This entails that, of course, that if we multiply two positive integers, the result will be a positive integer. What happens in other cases? Suppose a > 0 and b < 0. We would like to prove that ab < 0. Observe that
a (b b ) = 0 = ab ab = 0 = ab + a (b ) = 0 = ab = a (b ).
Since b < 0, a (b ) is the product of two positive integers, and hence positive. Thus a (b ) is negative, and so ab = a (b ) < 0. We have proved that the product of a positive integer and a negative integer is negative. Using the same trick we can prove that
(x )( y ) = x y .
If x < 0, y < 0, then both x > 0, y > 0, hence the product of two negative integers is the same as the product of two positive integers, and hence positive. We have thus proved the following rules:
(+)(+) = ()() = +, (+)() = ()(+) = .
Intuitively, you may think of a negative sign as a reversal of direction on the real line. Thus the product or quotient of two integers different sign is negative. Two negatives give two reversals, which is to say, no reversal at all, thus the product or quotient of two integers with the same sign is positive. The sign rules for division are obtained from and are identical from those of division. 73 Example We have,
(2)(5) = 10, (2)(5) = +10, (+2)(5) = 10, (+2)(+5) = +10.
74 Example We have,
(20) (5) = 4, (20) (5) = +4, (+20) (5) = 4, (+20) (+5) = +4.
The rules of operator precedence discussed in the section of natural numbers apply. Free to photocopy and distribute 28
Chapter 2 75 Example We have,

(8)(12) 30 + 3 ((2)(3)) = = = 96 30 + 3 (6) 32 + (5) 27.
76 Example We have,
(5 12)2 (3)3 = = = (7)2 (27) 49 + 27 76.
As a consequence of the rule of signs for multiplication, a product containing an odd number of minus signs will be negative and a product containing an even number of minus signs will be positive. 77 Example
(2)2 = 4, (2)3 = 8, (2)10 = 1024.
Notice the difference between, say, (a )2 and a 2 . (a )2 is the square of a , and hence it is always non-negative. On the other hand, a 2 is the opposite of a 2 , and therefore it is always non-positive.
78 Example We have,
5 + (4)2 = 5 + 16 = 21, 5 (4)2 = 5 16 = 11. 5 42 = 5 16 = 11,
Homework
Problem 2.5.1 Perform the following operations mentally. 1. (9) (17) 2. (17) (9) 3. (9) (17) 4. (1) (2) (3) 5. (100) (101) + (102) 6. | 2| | 2| 7. | 2| (|2|) 8. | 100| + (100) ((100)) Problem 2.5.2 Place the nine integers
{4, 3, 2, 1,0,1,2,3,4}
sum be the same.
exactly once in the diagram below so that every diagonal
29
Rational, Irrational, and Real Numbers

Problem 2.5.3 Place the nine integers {2, 1,0,1,2,3,4,5,6} Problem 2.5.4 Complete the crossword puzzle with 1s exactly once in the diagram below so that every diagonal or 1s. sum be the same.
1 =
= = = = 1
2.6
Rational, Irrational, and Real Numbers

Bridges would not be safer if only people who knew the proper denition of a real number were allowed to design them. -N. David MERMIN
79 Denition The set of negative fractions is the set

a : a N, a > 0, b N, b > 0 . b
The set of positive fractions together with the set of negative fractions and the number 0 form the set of rational numbers, which we denote by Q. The rules for operations with rational numbers derive from those of operations with fractions and with integers. Also, the rational numbers are closed under the four operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. A few examples follow. 80 Example We have
2 15 7 14 5 12 10 15 = = = = = 2 15 7 15 5 12 10 14 2 5 2 23 1 3 2 4 2 3 4 4 1 . 4 5 3 7 25 27 35
It can be proved that any rational number has a decimal expansion which is either periodic (repeats) or terminates, and that viceversa, any number with either a periodic or a terminating expansion is a rational number. For example,
0.09 has a repeating one. By long division you may also obtain 1 = 0.142857, 7 1 1 = 0.25 has a terminating decimal expansion, and = 0.0909090909 ... = 4 11 1 = 0.0588235294117647, 17
30
Chapter 2 and as you can see, the periods may be longer than what your calculator can handle. What about numbers whose decimal expansion is innite and does not repeat? This leads us to the following denition. 81 Denition A number whose decimal expansion is innite and does not repeat is called an irrational number. From the discussion above, an irrational number is one that cannot be expressed as a fraction of two integers. 82 Example Consider the number
0.1010010001000010000010000001 ...,
where the number of 0s between consecutive 1s grows in sequence: 1,2,3,4,5,... . Since the number of 0s is progressively growing, this innite decimal does not have a repeating period and hence must be an irrational number. Using my computer, when I enter
2 I obtain as an answer
1.4142135623730950488016887242097.
Is this answer exact? Does this decimal repeat? It can be proved that the number 2 is irrational, hence the above answer is only an approximation and the decimal does not repeat. The rst proof of the irrationality of 2 is attributed to Hippasus of Metapontum, one of the disciples of Pythagoras (c 580 BCc 500 BC).5 The Greek world view at that time was that all numbers where rational, and hence this discovery was anathema to the Pythagoreans who decided to drown Hipassus for his discovery.

Hence
It can be proved that if n is a natural number that is not a perfect square, then 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, etc., are all irrational.
n is irrational.
In 1760, Johann Heinrich Lambert (1728 - 1777) proved that is irrational.

etc.
355 22 , or = , etc., since is not 7 113 22 355 rational. All of these are simply approximations, and hence we must write 3.14, , or , 7 113
In particular, then, it would be incorrect to write = 3.14, or =
83 Denition The set of real numbers, denoted by R, is the collection of rational numbers together with the irrational numbers.
Homework
5 5 2 . 6 6 1 = 3
Problem 2.6.4 Use a calculator to round two decimal places. that Problem 2.6.5 Use a calculator to round two decimal places.
2 + 3 + 5 to
Problem 2.6.2 Suppose
that
you
know
5 to
0.333333... = 0.3. What should 0.1111... = 0.1 be?
Problem 2.6.3 Find the value of 121(0.09).
Problem 2.6.6 Let a , b be positive real numbers. Is it always true that a + b = a + b ?
5 The Pythagoreans were akin to religious cults of today. They forbade their members to eat beans, dedicated their lives to Mathematics and Music, and believed that the essence of everything in the world was number.
31
Part III
Algebraic Operations
32
Addition and Subtraction
3.1
Terms and Algebraic Expressions

The study of non-Euclidean Geometry brings nothing to students but fatigue, vanity, arrogance, and imbecility. Non-Euclidean space is the false invention of demons, who gladly furnish the dark understanding of the "non-Euclideans" with false knowledge. The Non-Euclideans, like the ancient sophists, seem unaware that their understandings have become obscured by the promptings of the evil spirits. -Matthew RYAN
f in one room we had a group of 7 Americans, 8 Britons, and 3 Canadians, and if in another room we had 4 Americans, 4 Britons and 1 Canadian, we could writein shorthandaddressing the total of people by nationality, that we have
(7 A + 8B + 3C ) + (4 A + 4B + 1C ) = 11 A + 12B + 4C .
The procedure of collecting like terms that will be shortly explained, draws essentially from the concept utilised in this example. Again, consider the following way of adding 731 and 695. Since
731 = 7 102 + 3 10 + 1, 6 102 + 9 10 + 5,
we could add in the following fashion, without worrying about carrying:

(7 102 + 3 10 + 1) + (6 102 + 9 10 + 5) = 13 102 + 12 10 + 6 = 1300 + 120 + 6 = 1426.
84 Denition An algebraic expression is a collection of symbols (letters and/or numbers). An algebraic expression may have one or more terms, which are separated from each other by the signs + (plus) or (minus). 85 Example The expression 18a + 3b 5 consists of three terms. 86 Example The expression 18ab 2 c consists of one term. Notice in this case that since no sign precedes 18ab 2 c , the + sign is tacitly understood. In other words, 18ab 2 c = +18ab 2 c . 87 Example The expression a + 3a 2 4a 3 8ab + 7 consists of ve terms. 88 Denition When one of the factors of a term is a number we call this number the numerical coefcient (or coefcient for short) of the term. In the expression a b , a is the base and b is the exponent. 89 Example In the expression 13a 2 b 3 , 13 is the numerical coefcient of the term, 2 is the exponent of a and 3 is the exponent of b . 90 Example In the expression a 2 b d , 1 is the numerical coefcient of the term, 2 is the exponent of a and d is the exponent of b . 91 Example In the expression a c , 1 is the numerical coefcient of the term, and c is the exponent of a . Notice then that the expression 1a c is equivalent to the expression a c . 33
Terms and Algebraic Expressions 92 Denition Two terms that have the same letters and have each letter has the same exponent, are called like terms. 93 Example The terms a ,7a ,5a , are all like terms. 94 Example The terms 4a 2 b 3 ,7b 3 a 2 ,5a 2 b 3 , are all like terms. Notice that by commutativity of multiplication, 7b 3 a 2 = 7a 2 b 3 . 95 Example The terms 4a and 4a 2 , are unlike terms, since the exponent of a in 4a is 1 and the exponent of a in 4a 2 is 2. 96 Example The terms 4ab 2 and 4ab 3 , are unlike terms, since the exponent of b in 4ab 2 is 2 and the exponent of a in 4ab 3 is 3. To add or collect like terms, we simply add the coefcients of the like terms. 97 Example We have,
( a + b ) + ( a + b ) + ( a + b ) = a + a + a + b + b + b = 3 a + 3b
By the commutative law, we may also write this as 3b + 3a .
98 Example We have,
(8a ) + 9a + (15a ) + 4a = = = a + (15a ) + 4a (14a ) + 4a 10a
99 Example We have,
(5 7) + (5 7) = = (5) + (5) + (7) + (7) 14.
100 Example We have,

5a (6a ) (18a ) 5a + (6a ) + (18a ) 19a + + = = . 7 7 7 7 7

5a 6a (18a ) 5a + 6a + (18a ) 7a + + = = = a . 7 7 7 7 7

(13a + 5b ) + (18a + (18b )) = = = 13a + 18a + 5b + (18b ) 6a + (13b ) 6a 13b
34
Chapter 3
By the commutative law, we may also write this as 13b + 6a .

(5 4x + 3x 2 ) + (1 8x 3x 2 ) = = = = 5 + (1) 4x + (8x ) + 3x 2 + (3x 2 ) 4 + (12x ) + 0 4 + (12x ) 4 12x .
By the commutative law, we may also write this as 12x + 4.

( x 2 + x y + y 2 + x y 2 ) + ( x 2 + 2 y x 3 y 2 x 2 y ) = 3x y 2 y 2 + x y 2 x 2 y.
This last expression is one of the many possible ways to write the nal result, thanks to the commutative law.
Homework
Problem 3.1.1 Collect like terms mentally. 2. (17a ) + (9a ) + 20a 1. (9a ) + (+17a ) 8a 7. (2x 3 2x 2 2) + (2x 3 2x 1) + (2x 3 x 2 x + 1) 8.
(5a ) 19a (23a ) + + 8 8 8
3. a 2a 3a 4a
Problem 3.1.4 Find the value of the expression

(2x 2 + x 2) + (x 2 x + 2)
5. 5a 3b 9a 10b + 10a + 17b Problem 3.1.2 Collect like terms:

(a +b 2 +c +d 2 )+(a 2 b c 2 d )+(a 2 b 2 +c d )+(a b c 2 d 2 ).
4. 10a 8a + 6a 4a + 2a
when x = 2. Problem 3.1.5 Is it always true that a + a = 2a ? Problem 3.1.6 Is it always true that a + a = 2a 2 ? Problem 3.1.7 Is it always true that a + a 2 = 2a 3 ? Problem 3.1.8 If
(8x 5)5 = Ax 5 + B x 4 + C x 3 + Dx 2 + E x + F,
Problem 3.1.3 Collect like terms. 2. (a + 2b + 3c ) + (3a 2b c ) 1. (a + 2b + 3c ) + (3a + 2b + c )
6. (x 3 x 2 + x 1) + (2x 2 x + 2)
5. (x 2 2x + 1) + (x 2 + 2x + 1)
4. (a + b + c ) + (a b + c ) + (a b c )
3. (a + 2b + 3c ) + (3a + 2b + c ) + (a + b + c )
nd A + B + C + D + E + F .
3.2
Suppression of Parentheses
He is unworthy of the name of Man who is ignorant of the fact that the diagonal of a square is incommensurable with its side. -Plato
A minus sign preceding an expression in parentheses negates every term of the expression. Thus
( a + b ) = a b .
35
Suppression of Parentheses

( a 2 b ) ( a + 5 b ) = = = a 2b + a 5b a + a 2b 5b 2 a 7b

(3 2x x 2 ) (5 6x 7x 2 ) = = = 3 2x x 2 5 + 6x + 7x 2 3 5 2x + 6x x 2 + 7x 2 2 + 4 x + 6 x 2

(a b ) (2a 3b ) (a + 3b ) = = = a b 2 a + 3b + a 3b a 2 a + a b + 3b 3b b

(x 2 x 1) (x 3x 2 ) + (2x 2 8) = = = x 2 x 1 + x + 3x 2 + 2x 2 8 x 2 + 3x 2 + 2x 2 x + x 1 8 6x 2 9.
Recall that the distributive law states that for real numbers a , b , c ,
a (b + c ) = ab + ac .
We now apply this to algebraic expressions. 109 Example Multiply term by term: Solution: We have,
2(a + 2b + 3c ) = 2a + 2(2b ) + 2(3c ) = 2a + 4b 6c . 2(a + 2b 3c ).
110 Example Multiply term by term: Free to photocopy and distribute
2(a + 2b 3c ).
36
Chapter 3 Solution: We have,

2(a + 2b + 3c ) = 2a + (2)(2b ) + (2)(3c ) = 2a 4b + 6c .
111 Example Divide term by term: Solution: We have,
2 a 4b + 7c . 2
2 a 4 b + 7 c 2 a 4 b 7 c 7c = + + = a 2b + . 2 2 2 2 2
We prefer to use improper fractions and write

7 7c c= . 2 2
7c 7 7c rather than 3 1 2 c . Also, the expressions 2 c and 2 2
are identical, that is,
We may combine the distributive law and combining like terms. 112 Example Combine like terms: Solution: We have,
2(a 2b ) + 3(a + 2b ) = = 2 a 4 b + ( 3 a ) + 6 b a + 2b . 2(a 2b ) + 3(a + 2b ).
113 Example Combine like terms: Solution: We have,
2(a 2b ) 3(a + 2b ).
2(a 2b ) 3(a + 2b )
= =
2 a 4b + 3 a 6b 5a 10b .
114 Example Combine like terms: Solution: We have,
3(1 2x + 4x 2 ) +
9x 2 3x + 6 . 3
3(1 2x + 4x 2 ) +
9x 2 3x + 6 3
= =
3 + 6x 12x 2 3x 2 + x 2 15x 2 + 7x 5.
115 Example Combine like terms: Free to photocopy and distribute
3 x x 2 2 +2 . 2 3 12
37
Suppression of Parentheses Solution: We have,

x 3 x 2 2 +2 2 3 12 = = = = 3x 6 2x 4 6 2 12 6x 2x 34 12 12 4x 7 12 x 7. 3
Homework
Problem 3.2.1 Suppress parentheses and collect like terms:
(a +b +c +d )(a b c d )+(a b +c d )(a b c d ).
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
5. (2x 3 2x 2 2) (2x 3 2x 1) (2x 3 x 2 x + 1) 6. (8.1a 9.2b ) (0.2a 3.1b ) (a + 3b ) 7. 8.

14b 15b 1 4b 5 8b + + a a a a a a
Problem 3.2.2 Expand and simplify:

2(a + b 2c ) 3(a b c ).
4 5 4 5 2 + 8 a a a a
9. (5 7) (5 7) Problem 3.2.4 Combine like terms. 1. 2(x + 2 y ) + 3(x 2 y ) (x + y ) + ( y 2x ) 2. 3.

14x 7 1 (3x + 12) 7 3 4x 12x 2 + 6 2(1 2x + x 2 ) 2
Problem 3.2.3 Suppress parentheses and collect like terms. 2. (a + 2b + 3c ) + (3a + 2b + c ) (a + b + c )

(x 3 x 2 + x 1) (2x 2 x + 2)
1. (a + 2b + 3c ) (3a + 2b + c )
4.
3. (a + b + c ) (a b + c ) (a b c )
38
Multiplication
4.1
Laws of Exponents
Anyone who cannot cope with mathematics is not fully human. At best he is a tolerable subhuman who has learned to wear shoes, bathe, and not make messes in the house. -Robert A. HEINLEIN
Recall that if a is a real number and if n is a natural number then

an = a a a,
n as
with the interpretation that a 0 = 1 if a = 0. Suppose we wanted to compute a 2 a 5 . We proceed as follows, using the fact that a 2 = aa and that a = aaaaa :
5
(a 2 )(a 5 ) = (aa )(aaaaa ) = aaaaaaa = a 7 ,
since the penultimate expression consists of seven a s. In general, we have the following. 116 Theorem (First Law of Exponents) Let a be a real number and m , n natural numbers. Then
a m a n = a m +n .
Proof:
We have
am an = = = a a a a a a
m as n as
a a a
m +n a s
a m +n .
u 117 Example (ab 2 c 3 )(a 3 b 2 c ) = a 1+3 b 2+3 c 3+1 = a 4 b 5 c 4 . 118 Example (a x )(b 2 y )(a 2x b 2 y ) = a x +2x b 2 y +2 y = a 3x b 4 y . 119 Example (a x 2 y +z )(a 2x y z )(a x + y +z ) = a x 2 y +z +2x y z +x + y +z = a 4x 2 y +3z . 120 Example
55 + 55 + 55 + 55 + 55 = 5(55 ) = 51+5 = 56 = 15625.
We may use associativity and commutativity in the case when the numerical coefcients are different from 1. 121 Example (5x 2 )(6x 3 ) = 30x 5 . 39
Laws of Exponents 122 Example (2ab 2 c 3 )(3abc 4 ) = 6a 2 b 3 c 7 . We now tackle division. As a particular case, observe that
a 5 aaaaa aaa a a = = = a 3, a2 aa aa
and, of course, a 3 = a 52 . This generalises as follows. 123 Theorem (Second Law of Exponents) Let a = 0 be a real number and m , n natural numbers, such that m n . Then m
a = a m n . an
Proof:
We have
am an =
a a a
m as n as
a a a a a a
m n a s
= =
a m n .
u 124 Example
29 = 294 = 25 = 32. 24
125 Example
24a 12 b 9 c 5 d 2 = 12a 126b 93 c 54 d 22 = 12a 6 b 6 c 1 d 0 = 12a 6 b 6 c . 2a 6 b 3 c 4 d 2
126 Example
(5a )(5b ) 5 a +b 2
= 5a +b (a +b 2) = 52 = 25.
127 Example
15x 5 y 7 z 4 = 3x 3 y 5 z 2 . 5x 2 y 2 z 2 16b 2 y x 2 = 8 b 2 x 2 x y 7a 2 bc = 1. 7a 2 bc (a + b )4 (2 + a + b )6 = (a + b )(2 + a + b )2 (a + b )3 (2 + a + b )4 a 5 b 4 ( a + b )3 = a 2 ( a + b )2 . a 3 b 4 (a + b )
128 Example
129 Example
130 Example
131 Example
Suppose we wanted to compute (a 2 )5 . Since a quantity raised to the fth power is simply the quantity multiplied by itself ve times, we have:
(a 2 )5 = (a 2 )(a 2 )(a 2 )(a 2 )(a 2 ) = a 2+2+2+2+2 = a 10 ,
40
Chapter 4 upon using the rst law of exponents. In general we have the following law dealing with exponents of exponents. 132 Theorem (Third Law of Exponents) Let a be a real number and m , n natural numbers. Then
(a m )n = a mn .
Proof:
We have
( a m )n = = = am am am a m +m + +m
n a s
n am s
a mn .
u 133 Theorem (Fourth Law of Exponents) Let a and b be a real numbers and let m be a natural number. Then
(ab )m = a m b m .
Proof:
We have
(ab )m = = = ab ab ab
m ab s
a a a b b b
m as m bs
am bm .
u 134 Example We have,

(2ab 2 c 3 )2 (3a 3 bc 2 )3 = = = (22 (a 1 )2 (b 2 )2 (c 3 )2 )((3)3 (b 1 )3 (c 2 )3 ) (4a 2 b 4 c 6 )(27a 9 b 3 c 6 ) 108a 11 b 7 c 12 .
135 Example (a x )2x = a (x
)(2x )
= a 2x
136 Example 253 43 = (25 4)3 = 1003 = 1000000.
Homework
Problem 4.1.1 Simplify:
24x y z 3 3z 2 168a 2 b 2 cx 2 7abx 2
Problem 4.1.3 Find the exact numerical value of:
206 255
Problem 4.1.2 Simplify:
41
Negative Exponents
Problem 4.1.4 Find the exact numerical value of:
252 + 252 + 252 + 252 254 .
Problem 4.1.8 Divide:
1 1 . x x2 1 x 1 x2
Problem 4.1.9 Multiply: Problem 4.1.5 If

45 + 45 + 45 + 45 35 + 35 + 35 65 + 65 + 65 + 65 + 65 + 65 25 + 25 = 2n ,
nd n . Problem 4.1.6 If
3
2001
1 1 . s 1 (s 1)2 1 s 1 1 (s 1)2
Problem 4.1.11 Multiply:

+3
2002
+3
2003
= a3
2001
nd a . Problem 4.1.12 Divide: Problem 4.1.7 Demonstrate that

(a x b y ) b 2x = a x + y b y +2 x . a y
a2 x 2. x a a2 x
Problem 4.1.13 Multiply:
x a2
4.2
Negative Exponents
One of the big misapprehensions about mathematics that we perpetrate in our classrooms is that the teacher always seems to know the answer to any problem that is discussed. This gives students the idea that there is a book somewhere with all the right answers to all of the interesting questions, and that teachers know those answers. And if one could get hold of the book, one would have everything settled. Thats so unlike the true nature of mathematics. -Leon HEINKIN
Let a = 0 be a real number and let n be a natural number. Then

1 = a 0 = a n n = a n a n 1 an = a n =
1 . an
This gives an interpretation to negative exponents. Observe also that taking reciprocals,
a n = = 1 1 = = an . 1 a n an
137 Example 23 = 138 Example
1 1 = . 23 8
24 1 1 = 24 9 = 25 = 5 = . 32 29 2
139 Example
23 32 9 = = . 32 23 8 24 53
2
140 Example
1 1 28 = = . 6 5 256 15625 4000000
141 Example Simplify, using positive exponents only:

x 6 y 8 y 9 x 12
42
Chapter 4 Solution:
x 6 y 8 x 6 y 8 x6 12 = 9 12 = x 6(12) y 89 = x 6 y 17 = 17 . 9 y x y x y
142 Example Simplify, using positive exponents only:

x 6 y9
3
y 1 x 2
Solution:
We have,
x 6 y9
3
y 1 x 2
x 18 y 2 = x 18(4) y 2(27) = x 22 y 25 . y 27 x 4
Homework
Problem 4.2.1 Simplify, using positive exponents only. 1. 2.
x 5 x4 x4 x 5
Problem 4.2.4 Simplify and express with positive exponents only:

x6 y9 x 2 3 y
3. x 5 x 4 4. (x 1 y 2 z 3 )3 5. 6.
a 3 b 2 a 6 b 4 (ab )(ab 2 ) (a 1 b 2 )2 (a 2 b 2 )
Problem 4.2.5 What is the exact numerical value of

220 610 411 310

2 2 1 1 1 ? 5 2
Problem 4.2.2 Demonstrate that

(a x +3 b y 4 )(a 2x 3 b 2 y +5 ) = a 3x b 1 y .

(24 )8 (48 )2
Problem 4.2.3 Demonstrate that
ax by a 2 x b 2 y
= a x b 3 y .
4.3
Distributive Law
You treat world history as a mathematician does mathematics, in which nothing but laws and formul exist, no reality, no good and evil, no time, no yesterday, no tomorrow, nothing but an eternal, shallow, mathematical present. -Hermann HESSE
Recall that the distributive law says that if a , b , and c are real numbers, then
a (b + c ) = ab + ac , (a + b )c = ac + bc .
We now apply the distributive law to multiplication of terms. 143 Example We have,
3x y 2 (2x 3 5x y 3 ) = = (3x y 2 )(2x 3 ) (3x y 2 )(5x y 3 ) 6x 4 y 2 + 15x 2 y 5 .
43
Distributive Law 144 Example We have,

(3a 2 b )(3ab 2 + 2b ) (a 2 3a 2 b )(ab 2 ) = = = 9a 3 b 3 6a 2 b 2 (a 3 b 2 3a 3 b 3 ). 9 a 3 b 3 6 a 2 b 2 + ( a 3 b 2 ) + 3 a 3 b 3 12a 3 b 3 6a 2 b 2 a 3 b 2 .
From the distributive law we deduce that

(a + b )(c + d ) = (a + b )c + (a + b )d = ac + bc + ad + bd .

(2x + 3)(5x + 7) = = = (2x + 3)(5x ) + (2x + 3)(7) 10x 2 + 15x + 14x + 21 10x 2 + 29x + 21.
Because of commutativity, we may also proceed as follows,
(2x + 3)(5x + 7)
= = =
(2x )(5x + 7) + 3(5x + 7) 10x 2 + 14x + 15x + 21 10x 2 + 29x + 21.

(2x 3)(x 4) = = = (2x 3)(x ) + (2x 3)(4) 2x 2 3x 8x + 12 2x 2 11x + 12.
Because of commutativity, we may also proceed as follows,

(2x 3)(x 4) (2x )(x 4) 3(x 4) 2x 2 8x 3x + 12 2x 2 11x + 12.
= = =
We also recall the meaning of exponentiation.
44

(x 4)2 = = = = (x 4)(x 4) x (x 4) 4(x 4) x 2 4x 4x + 16 x 2 8x + 16.
148 Example To expand (x + 1)3 , we rst nd

(x + 1)2 = (x + 1)(x + 1) = x (x + 1) + 1(x + 1) = x 2 + x + x + 1 = x 2 + 2x + 1.
We use this result and nd,

(x + 1)3 = = = = = (x + 1)(x + 1)2 (x + 1)(x 2 + 2x + 1) x (x 2 + 2x + 1) + 1(x 2 + 2x + 1) x 3 + 2x 2 + x + x 2 + 2x + 1 x 3 + 3x 2 + 3x + 1.
Homework
Problem 4.3.1 Expand and simplify. 1. 2. 2x (x 2 2x + 3) 3. (2x + 1)(2x + 1) 4. (2x + 1)(2x 1) 5. (2x 1)(2x 1) Problem 4.3.2 Expand and simplify:
(x 2 + 1) + 2x (x 2 + 2) 3x 3 (x 2 + 3). x (x 2 + x + 1)
Problem 4.3.6 Expand and collect like terms:

(x + 2)(x + 3) (x 2)(x 3).

(x 1)(x 2 + x + 1) (x + 1)(x 2 x + 1).

(x + y z )(x y + 2z ).
Problem 4.3.9 Expand the product

(a + b + c )(a 2 + b 2 + c 2 ab bc ca ).

4x 3 (x 2 2x + 2) 2x 2 (x 2 x 2 1).
Problem 4.3.10 Expand the product (a + b + c )(x + y + z ). Problem 4.3.11 Prove that the product of two even integers is even. Problem 4.3.12 Prove that the product of two odd integers is odd. Problem 4.3.13 Prove that the product of two integers that leave remainder 3 upon division by 4 leaves remainder 1 upon division by 4.
Problem 4.3.4 Multiply and collect like terms. 1. 2x (x + 1) + 3x 2 (x 3x 2 ) 2. 2x (x + 1)2 3.

a 2 c (ab ac ) + ac 2 (a 2 2b )
4. (x + 2 y + 3z )(x 2 y ) Problem 4.3.5 Expand the product (2x + 2 y + 1)(x y + 1).
45
Square of a Sum
Problem 4.3.14 Prove that the product of any two integers leaving remainder 2 upon division by 3 leaves remainder 1 upon division by 3. Problem 4.3.15 Prove that the product of two integers leaving remainder 2 upon division by 5 leaves remainder 4 upon division by 5. Problem 4.3.16 Prove that the product of two integers leaving remainder 3 upon division by 5 leaves remainder 4 upon division by 5. Problem 4.3.17 If x 2 + x 1 = 0, nd x 4 + 2x 3 + x 2 .
4.4
Square of a Sum
Galileo was no idiot. Only an idiot could believe that science requires martyrdom that may be necessary in religion, but in time a scientic result will establish itself. -David HILBERT
In this section we study some special products that often occur in algebra. 149 Theorem (Square of a Sum) For all real numbers a , b the following identity holds
(a b )2 = a 2 2ab + b 2 .
Proof:
Using the distributive law,

( a + b )2 = = = = (a + b )(a + b ) a (a + b ) + b (a + b ) a 2 + ab + ba + b 2 a 2 + 2ab + b 2 ,
and so (a + b )2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2 . Putting b instead of b in this last identity,

(a b )2 = (a + (b ))2 = a 2 + 2a (b ) + (b )2 = a 2 2ab + b 2 ,
proving both identities. u
a +b
Figure 4.1: (a + b )2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2 . The identity (a + b )2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2 has a pictorial justication in terms of areas of squares, as seen in gure 4.1. The area of the large (a + b ) (a + b ) square is (a + b )2 . In terms, this area can be decomposed into two square regions, one of area a 2 and the other of area b 2 , and two rectangular regions each of area ab . Free to photocopy and distribute 46

(2x + 3 y )2 = (2x )2 + 2(2x )(3 y ) + (3 y )2 = 4x 2 + 12x y + 9 y 2 .

(2 x 2 )2 = (2)2 2(2)(x 2 ) + (x 2 )2 = 4 4x 2 + x 4 .
The principle expounded here can be used to facilitate mental arithmetic. 152 Example One may compute mentally 522 as follows:
522 = (50 + 2)2 = 502 + 2(50)(2) + 22 = 2500 + 100 + 4 = 2604.
The formula (a + b )2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2 = a 2 + b 2 + 2ab gives the square of a sum in terms of the sum of squares and the product of the numbers. Thus knowing any two of them will determine the other. 153 Example If the sum of two numbers is 3 and their product 4, nd the sum of their squares. Solution: Let the two numbers be x , y . Then x + y = 3 and x y = 4. Hence
9 = (x + y )2 = x 2 + 2x y + y 2 = x 2 + 8 + y 2 = x 2 + y 2 = 1.
Homework
Problem 4.4.1 Expand and simplify: (3 y )2 . Problem 4.4.2 Expand and simplify: (5 2x 2 )2 . Problem 4.4.3 Expand and simplify: (2ab 2 3c 3 d 4 )2 . Problem 4.4.4 Expand and simplify: (x + 2 y )2 + 4x y . Problem 4.4.5 Expand and simplify: (x + 2 y )2 4x y . Problem 4.4.6 Expand (x y 4 y )2 . Problem 4.4.7 Expand (ax + by )2 . Problem 4.4.8 Expand and simplify: (a + 2)2 + (a 2)2 . Problem 4.4.9 Expand and simplify: (a + 2)2 (a 2)2 . Problem 4.4.10 Expand and simplify: (a + 2b + 3c )2 . Problem 4.4.11 Expand and simplify: (a + 2b c )2 . Problem 4.4.12 If x +
1 1 = 6, nd x 2 + 2 . x x 4x 2 + 9 y 2 .
Problem 4.4.13 Find the value of n in

(102002 + 25)2 (102002 25)2 = 10n .
Problem 4.4.14 Given that 2x + 3 y = 3 and x y = 4, nd
Problem 4.4.15 If the difference of two numbers is 3 and their product 4, nd the sum of their squares. Problem 4.4.16 Given that x + y = 4 and x y = 3, nd x 2 + y 2. Problem 4.4.17 Given that x + y = 4 and x y = 3, nd x 4 + y 4. Problem 4.4.18 Expand (x + y + z )2 . Problem 4.4.19 Demonstrate that
(x + y + z + w )2 = x2 + y 2 + z2 + w 2 +2x y + 2xz + 2xw + 2 y z + 2 y w + 2z w .
4.5
Difference of Squares
Science, being human enquiry, can hear no answer except an answer couched somehow in human tones. Primitive man stood in the mountains and shouted against a
47
Difference of Squares cliff; the echo brought back his own voice, and he believed in a disembodied spirit. The scientist of today stands counting out loud in the face of the unknown. Numbers come back to him - and he believes in the Great Mathematician. -Richard HUGHES
In this section we continue our study of special products. 154 Theorem (Difference of Squares) For all real numbers a , b the following identity holds
(a + b )(a b ) = a 2 b 2 .
Proof:

(a + b )(a b ) = = = a (a b ) + b (a b ) a 2 ab + ba b 2 a2 b2,
proving the identity. u 155 Example

(4x 5 y )(4x + 5 y ) = 16x 2 25 y 2 .
156 Example
(x y 5 y )(x y + 5 y ) = x 2 y 2 25 y 2 .
157 Example Shew that

(a b c )(a + b + c ) = a 2 b 2 c 2 2bc .
Solution:
We have
(a b c )(a + b + c ) = = = = (a (b + c ))(a + (b + c )) a 2 (b + c )2 a 2 (b 2 + 2bc + c 2 ) a 2 b 2 c 2 2bc ,
as we wanted to shew. 158 Example

(x + 1)2 (x 1)2 = = = ((x + 1) + (x 1))((x + 1) (x 1)) (2x )(2) 4x
48
Chapter 4 159 Example We have

(a 1)(a + 1)(a 2 + 1)(a 4 + 1)(a 8 + 1) = = = = (a 2 1)(a 2 + 1)(a 4 + 1)(a 8 + 1) (a 4 1)(a 4 + 1)(a 8 + 1) (a 8 1)(a 8 + 1) a 16 1.
160 Example We have

(x 2 x + 1)(x 2 + x + 1) = = = = ((x 2 + 1) x )((x 2 + 1) + x ) (x 2 + 1)2 x 2 x 4 + 2x 2 + 1 x 2 x 4 + x 2 + 1.
161 Example Prove that

x 2 (x + 2)(x 2) = 4.
Explain how to nd the exact value of

(987654321)(987654321) (987654323)(987654319),
mentally. Solution: We have

x 2 (x + 2)(x 2) = = = x 2 (x 2 4) x2 x2 + 4 4.
Now put x = 987654321. Then x + 2 = 987654323 and x 2 = 987654319, from where

(987654321)(987654321) (987654323)(987654319) = 4
follows.
Homework
Problem 4.5.1 Multiply and collect like terms:
(a + 4)2 (a + 2)2 .

(a + 1)4 (a 1)4 .
Problem 4.5.2 Prove that

(x y )(x + y )(x + y ) = x y .
2 2 4 4
Problem 4.5.4 Shew, without expressly computing any power of 2, that

(2 + 1)(22 + 1)(24 + 1)(28 + 1)(216 + 1) = 232 1.
49
Cube of a Sum
Problem 4.5.5 Find
12 22 + 32 42 + + 992 1002 .
exact numerical value of

(123456789)2 (123456787)(123456791) ?
Problem 4.5.6 Without using a calculator, what is the
Problem 4.5.7 Without using a calculator, what is the exact numerical value of (666 666 666)2 (333 333 333)2 ?
4.6
Cube of a Sum
If we take in our hand any volume; of divinity or school metaphysics, for instance; let us ask, Does it contain any abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number? No. Does it contain any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence? No. Commit it then to the ames: for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion. -David HUME
We introduce now a special product formula for the cube of a sum. 162 Theorem Let a and b be real numbers. Then
(a + b )3 = a 3 + 3a 2 b + 3ab 2 + b 3 .
Proof:
Using the distributive law and the square of a sum identity,

( a + b )3 = = = = = ( a + b )2 ( a + b ) (a 2 + 2ab + b 2 )(a + b ) a 2 (a + b ) + 2ab (a + b ) + b 2 (a + b ) a 3 + a 2 b + 2a 2 b + 2ab 2 + b 2 a + b 3 a 3 + 3a 2 b + 3ab 2 + b 3 ,
as claimed. u 163 Corollary Let a and b be real numbers. Then

(a b )3 = a 3 3a 2 b + 3ab 2 b 3 .
Proof: Replace b by b in Theorem 162, obtaining

( a b )3 = = = (a + (b ))3 a 3 + 3 a 2 ( b ) + 3 a ( b ) 2 + ( b ) 3 a 3 3a 2 b + 3ab 2 b 3 ,
as claimed. u 164 Example We have,

(x + 2 y )3 = x 3 + 3x 2 (2 y ) + 3x (2 y )2 + (2 y )3 = x 3 + 6x 2 y + 12x y 2 + 8 y 3 .
50

(3x 2 y )3 = (3x )3 3(3x )2 (2 y ) + 3(3x )(2 y )2 (2 y )3 = 27x 3 54x 2 y + 36x y 2 8 y 3 .
Observe that
3ab (a + b ) = 3a 2 b + 3ab 2 ,
hence we may write the cube of a sum identity as

(a + b )3 = a 3 + b 3 + 3ab (a + b ).
(4.1)
166 Example Given that a + b = 2 and ab = 3, nd a 3 + b 3 . Solution: We have

a 3 + b 3 = (a + b )3 3ab (a + b ) = 23 3(3)(2) = 8 18 = 10.
Homework
Problem 4.6.1 Expand and simplify: (5x + 1)3 . Problem 4.6.2 Multiply and collect like terms:
(x + 1)3 + (x + 1)2 .

(x 2)3 (x 2)2 .
Problem 4.6.5 Given that a b = 6 and ab = 3, nd a 3 b3. Problem 4.6.6 Given that a + 2b = 6 and ab = 3, nd a 3 + 8b 3 .

(x 1)3 (x + 2)2 .
4.7
Sum and Difference of Cubes

Take from all things their number and all shall perish. -Saint Isidore of Seville
In this section we study our last special product. 167 Theorem (Sum and Difference of Cubes) For all real numbers a , b the following identity holds
(a b )(a 2 ab + b 2 ) = a 3 b 3 .
Proof:

(a + b )(a 2 ab + b 2 ) = = a 3 a 2 b + ab 2 + ba 2 ab 2 + b 3 a3 + b3,
from where the sum of cubes identity is deduced. We obtain

(a b )(a 2 + ab + b 2 ) = a 3 b 3
upon replacing b by b in the above sum of cubes identity. u Free to photocopy and distribute 51
Sum and Difference of Cubes 168 Example

(a 2b )(a 2 + 2ab + 4b 2 ) = a 3 8b 3 .
169 Example
(5a + 2b )(25a 2 10ab + 4b 2 ) = 125a 3 8b 3 .
Homework
(x 2)(x + 2x + 4).
2
Problem 4.7.3 Given that a b = 6 and ab = 3, nd a 3 b3.

(x + 8)(x 2 8x + 64).
52
Division
From the intrinsic evidence of his creation, the Great Architect of the Universe now begins to appear as a pure mathematician. -Sir James JEANS
5.1
Term by Term Division

The science of mathematics presents the most brilliant example of how pure reason may successfully enlarge its domain without the aid of experience. -Emmanuel KANT
From the distributive law we deduce

b +c 1 b c = (b + c ) = + . a a a a
170 Example
x 2 2x y x 2 2x y = = x 2 y. x x x
a +b ab with one of the form . We also remark c c
Be careful not to confuse an expression of the form
ab can be evaluated in various ways, for example, one may evaluate rst c the product ab and then divide this by c , or, one may divide a by c and then multiply this by b , etc.
that an expression of the form

(x 2 )(2x y ) 2x 3 y = = 2 x 2 y . x x
This may also be evaluated in the following manner,

(x 2 )(2x y ) x 2 = ( 2 x y ) = x ( 2 x y ) = 2 x 2 y , x x
as before. 172 Example

24x 6 32x 4 24x 6 32x 4 = = 3 x 3 ( 4 x ) = 3 x 3 + 4 x . 8 x 3 8 x 3 8 x 3 (24x 6 )(32x 4 ) 768x 10 = = 96x 7 . 8 x 3 8 x 3
We may also proceed as follows,
(24x 6 )(32x 4 ) 24x 6 = (32x 4 ) = (3x 3 )(32x 4 ) = 96x 7 . 8 x 3 8 x 3
When a negative exponent arises in a term, we prefer to express the term with positive exponents. 53
Long Division 174 Example

12x 2 y 3 + 6x 4 y 2 3x 3 y 3 = = = 12x 2 y 3 6x 4 y 2 + 3 3 3x 3 y 3 3x y 4 x 1 + 2 x y 1 4 2x + . x y
Homework
Problem 5.1.1 Perform the division:
q 2 p q p qr . q
(6aaaaxxx )(4aaax x x ) . 2aaxx x 2 x y xz . x 5a 2 b 7ab 3 . ab
34x 3 y 2 + 51x 2 y 3 Problem 5.1.2 Divide term by term: . 17x y (34x 3 y 2 )(51x 2 y 3 ) Problem 5.1.3 Divide: . 17x y
Problem 5.1.6 Divide term by term:

6aaaaxxx + 4aaaxxx . 2aaxx
(5a 2 b )(7ab 3 ) . ab (x 2 )(x y )(xz ) . x
5.2
Long Division
Medicine makes people ill, mathematics make them sad and theology makes them sinful. -Martin LUTHER
We must now conform the problem when the divisor consists of more than one term. The algorithm for algebraic long division resembles that for long division of natural numbers. 175 Example Find
(x + x 2 6) (x + 2).
Solution: First, we rewrite x + x 2 6 so that the exponents of each of the terms are listed in decreasing order: x 2 x 6. Next display dividend and divisor as follows.
x +2 x2 x 6 x2 = x, x
Now, think, by what must x (the term with the largest degree in the divisor) must be multiplied to give x 2 (the term with the largest degree in the dividend? The answer is of course and so we write x in the quotient,
x x +2 x
2
x 6
Multiply this x of the quotient by the divisor, obtaining x (x + 2) = x 2 + 2x and change all signs:
x x +2 x x 6 x 2 2x
2
54
Chapter 5 Add, and obtain

x x +2 x x 6 x 2 2x 3x 6
2
The new dividend is now 3x 6. Again, think, by what must x (the term with the largest degree in the divisor) must be multiplied to give 3x (the term with the largest degree in the dividend? The answer is of course
3 x = 3, and so we write 3 in the quotient, x x +2 x x 6 x 2 2x 3x 6 x 3
2
x 3
Multiply this 3 of the quotient by the divisor, obtaining 3(x + 2) = 3x 6 and change all signs:
x +2 x x 6 x 2 2x 3x 6 3x + 6 x 3
2
Add, and obtain

x +2 x2 x 6 x 2 2x 3x 6 3x + 6 0
Since the remainder is 0, the division ends and we conclude that

(x + x 2 6) (x + 2) = x2 x 6 = x + 3. x +2
176 Example Find
(3x 4 2x 3 9x 2 + 5x 6) (x 2).
Solution: The terms of 3x 4 2x 3 9x 2 +5x 6 are already written with exponents in decreasing order. Next display dividend and divisor as follows.
x 2 3x 4 2x 3 9x 2 + 5x 6 3x 4 = 3x 3 , x
Now, think, by what must x (the term with the largest degree in the divisor) must be multiplied to give 3x 4 (the term with the largest degree in the dividend? The answer is of course and so we write x in the quotient,
3x 3 x 2 3x 4 2x 3 9x 2 + 5x 6
Multiply this 3x 3 of the quotient by the divisor, obtaining 3x 3 (x 2) = 3x 4 6x 3 and change all signs:
3x 3 x 2 3x 4 2x 3 9x 2 + 5x 6 3x 4 + 6x 3
55
Long Division Add, and obtain

3x 3 x 2 3x 4 2x 3 9x 2 + 5x 6 3x 4 + 6x 3 4x 3 9x 2
The new dividend is now 4x 3 9x 2 . Again, think, by what must x (the term with the largest degree in the divisor) must be multiplied to give 4x 3 (the term with the largest degree in the dividend? The answer is of course
4x 3 = 4x 2 , and so we write +4x 2 in the quotient, x 3x 3 + 4x 2
x 2
3x 4 2x 3 9x 2 + 5x 6 3x 4 + 6x 3 4x 3 9x 2
Multiply this +4x 2 of the quotient by the divisor, obtaining +4x 2 (x 2) = 4x 3 8x 2 and change all signs:
x 2 3x 2x 3 9x 2 + 5x 6 3x 4 + 6x 3 4x 3 9x 2 4x 3 + 8x 2 3x 3 + 4x 2
4
3x 3 + 4x 2
Add, and obtain

x 2 3x 4 2x 3 9x 2 + 5x 6 3x 4 + 6x 3 4x 3 9x 2 4x 3 + 8x 2
x 2 + 5x
The new dividend is now x 2 + 5x . Again, think, by what must x (the term with the largest degree in the divisor) must be multiplied to give x 2 (the term with the largest degree in the dividend? The answer is of course
x 2 = x , and so we write x in the quotient, x 3x 3 + 4x 2 x
x 2
3x 2x 3 9x 2 + 5x 6 3x 4 + 6x 3 4x 3 9x 2 4x 3 + 8x 2
x 2 + 5x
Multiply this x of the quotient by the divisor, obtaining x (x 2) = x 2 + 2x and change all signs:
x 2 3x 4 2x 3 9x 2 + 5x 6 3x 4 + 6x 3 4x 3 9x 2 4x 3 + 8x 2 3x 3 + 4x 2 x
x 2 + 5x x 2 2x
56
Chapter 5 Add, and obtain

x 2 3x 4 2x 3 9x 2 + 5x 6 3x 4 + 6x 3 4x 3 9x 2 4x 3 + 8x 2 3x 3 + 4x 2 x
x 2 + 5x x 2 2x
3x 6
The new dividend is now 3x 6. Again, think, by what must x (the term with the largest degree in the divisor) must be multiplied to give 3x (the term with the largest degree in the dividend? The answer is of course
3x = 3, and so we write 3 in the quotient, x 3x 2x 3 9x 2 + 5x 6 3x 4 + 6x 3 4x 3 9x 2 4x 3 + 8x 2
4
x 2
3x 3 + 4x 2 x + 3
x 2 + 5x x 2 2x
3x 6
Multiply this 3 of the quotient by the divisor, obtaining 3(x 2) = 3x 6 and change all signs:
x 2 3x 4 2x 3 9x 2 + 5x 6 3x 4 + 6x 3 4x 3 9x 2 4x 3 + 8x 2 3x 3 + 4x 2 x + 3
x 2 + 5x x 2 2x
3x 6 3x + 6
Add, and obtain

x 2 3x 2x 3 9x 2 + 5x 6 3x 4 + 6x 3 4x 3 9x 2 4x 3 + 8x 2
4
3x 3 + 4x 2 x + 3
x 2 + 5x x 2 2x
3x 6 3x + 6 0
Since the remainder is 0, the division ends and we conclude that

(3x 4 2x 3 9x 2 + 5x 6) (x 2) = 3x 4 2x 3 9x 2 + 5x 6 = 3x 3 + 4x 2 x + 3. x 2
We now give an example where there is a remainder. Free to photocopy and distribute 57
Long Division 177 Example Find Solution:

(2x 2 + 1) (x + 1).
Display dividend and divisor as follows.

2x 2
x +1
+1 2x 2 = 2x , x
Now, think, by what must x (the term with the largest degree in the divisor) must be multiplied to give 2x 2 (the term with the largest degree in the dividend? The answer is of course and so we write 2x in the quotient,
2x x +1 2x
2
+1
Multiply this 2x of the quotient by the divisor, obtaining 2x (x + 1) = 2x 2 + 2x and change all signs:
2x x +1 2x +1 2x 2 2x 2x x +1 2x 2 +1 2x 2 2x 2x + 1
2
Add, and obtain
The new dividend is now 2x + 1. Again, think, by what must x (the term with the largest degree in the divisor) must be multiplied to give 2x (the term with the largest degree in the dividend? The answer is of course
2 x = 2, and so we write 2 in the quotient, x 2x 2 +1 2x 2 2x 2x + 1 2x 2
x +1
Multiply this 2 of the quotient by the divisor, obtaining 2(x + 1) = 2x 2 and change all signs:
x +1 2x +1 2x 2 2x
2
2x 2
2x + 1 2x + 2 2x 2
Add, and obtain

x +1 2x +1 2x 2 2x
2
2x + 1 2x + 2 3
Now, the remainder is 3, which has lower degree than the divisor x + 1, hence the division ends. We write
(2x 2 + 1) (x + 1) = 2x 2 + 1 3 = 2x 2 + . x +1 x +1
58
Chapter 5 We provide below some assorted examples, without explanations. 178 Example We have,
x +3 x 2 3x + 9 + 27
x3 x 3 3x 2
3x 2 3x 2 + 9x
9x + 27 9x 27

x 2
x4 x 4 + 2x 3
x 3 + 2x 2 + 4x + 8 16
2x 3 2x 3 + 4x 2
4x 2 4x 2 + 8x
8x 16 8x + 16

x x 2
2
x + 3x 2x 2 + x 1 x 4 + x 3 + 2x 2 4x 3 +x 4x 3 + 4x 2 + 8x
x 2 + 4x + 4
4x 2 + 9x 1 4x 2 + 4x + 8 13x + 7
and hence we write
x 4 + 3x 3 2x 2 + x 1 13x + 7 = x 2 + 4x + 4 + 2 . 2 x x 2 x x 2
Homework
(x 2 2x + 1) (x 1). (x 2 + 5x + 6) (x + 2). (x 3 + 1) (x + 1).

x3 8 x2. x 2
Problem 5.2.5 Expand and collect like terms: Problem 5.2.3 Perform the division:
6x 3 x 2 4x 1 3x 3 + 3x x 2 1 . 2x + 1 3x 1
5.3
Factoring I
Even fairly good students, when they have obtained the solution of the problem and written down neatly the argument, shut their books and look for something else. Doing so, they miss an important and instructive phase of the work. . . . A good teacher
59
Factoring I should understand and impress on his students the view that no problem whatever is completely exhausted. One of the rst and foremost duties of the teacher is not to give his students the impression that mathematical problems have little connection with each other, and no connection at all with anything else. We have a natural opportunity to investigate the connections of a problem when looking back at its solution. -George PLYA
181 Denition To factor an algebraic expression is to express it as a product. The idea behind factoring is essentially that of using the distributive law backwards,
ab + ac = a (b + c ),
where the dextral quantity is a decomposition into factors of the sinistral quantity. We will begin by giving examples where the greatest common divisor of the terms is different from 1 and hence it may be removed. Thus an expressions with two terms will be factored as
a + b = (
1+ 2 ),
one with three terms will be factored as

a + b + c = (
1+ 2+ 3 ),
etc. 182 Example Factor 20a 2 b 3 + 24a 3 b 2 . Solution: The greatest common divisor of 20 and 24 is 4, hence it can be removed. Also for the two expressions a 2 and a 3 , their greatest common divisor is the one with the least exponent, that is a 2 . Similarly, the greatest common divisor of b 2 and b 3 is b 2 . Thus 4a 2 b 2 is a common factor of both terms and the desired factorisation has the form,
20a 2 b 3 + 24a 3 b 2 = 4a 2 b 2 (
1+ 2 ).
We need to determine
and
2.
We have
1
20a 2 b 3 = 4a 2 b 2
= =
= 5b , = 6a .
and
24a 3 b 2 = 4a 2 b 2
2 1
The desired factorisation is thus

20a 2 b 3 + 24a 3 b 2 = 4a 2 b 2 (5b + 6a ).
Multiplying, 4a 2 b 2 (5b + 6a ) = 20a 2 b 3 + 24a 3 b 2 .
183 Example Factor 30x 2 y z a 2 b + 36x y 2 z a + 16x 3 y 2 z 2 b . Solution: The greatest common divisor of 30,36,16 is 2. The letters x , y , z appear in all three terms, but not so for a and b . The least power of x appearing in all three terms is 1, and same for y and z . Thus the greatest common divisor of the three terms is 2x y z and the desired factorisation is thus
2x y z (15xa 2 b + 18 y a + 8x 2 y zb ).
60
Chapter 5 184 Example Factor ab + a 2 b + ab 2 . Solution: The desired factorisation is clearly

ab + a 2 b + ab 2 = ab (1 + a + b ).
185 Example Prove that the sum of two even integers is even. Solution: Let 2a and 2b be two even integers. Then
2a + 2b = 2(a + b ),
that is, twice the integer a + b , and hence an even integer. 186 Example Factor 14a 3 b 2 (x + y )2 (x y )3 + 20ab 3 (x + y )3 (x y )4 . Solution: The desired factorisation is clearly
14a 3 b 2 (x + y )2 (x y )3 + 20ab 3 (x + y )3 (x y )4 = 2ab 2 (x + y )2 (x y )3 (7a 2 + 10b (x + y )(x y )).
187 Example Resolve into factors: ax 2 + a + bx 2 + b . Solution: In this case, no factor greater than 1 is common to all terms. We have, however,
ax 2 + a + bx 2 + b = a (x 2 + 1) + b (x 2 + 1).
Notice now that x 2 + 1 is a common factor of both summands, and nally,

ax 2 + a + bx 2 + b = a (x 2 + 1) + b (x 2 + 1) = (x 2 + 1)(a + b ).
188 Example Resolve into factors: x 3 + x 2 + x + 1. Solution: Like in the preceding problem, we have no factor greater than 1 being common to all terms. Observe that
x 3 + x 2 + x + 1 = x 2 (x + 1) + 1(x + 1).
Notice now that x + 1 is a common factor of both summands, and nally,

x 3 + x 2 + x + 1 = x 2 (x + 1) + 1(x + 1) = (x + 1)(x 2 + 1).
189 Example Resolve into factors: x 2 ax + bx ab . Solution: We have,

x 2 ax + bx ab = x (x a ) + b (x a ) = (x a )(x + b ).
Sometimes it is necessary to rearrange the summands. Free to photocopy and distribute 61
Factoring II 190 Example Resolve into factors: 12a 2 4ab 3ax 2 + bx 2 . Solution: We have,
12a 2 4ab 3ax 2 + bx 2 = (12a 2 3ax 2 ) (4ab bx 2 ) = 3a (4a x 2 ) b (4a x 2 ) = (4a x 2 )(3a b ).
Homework
Problem 5.3.1 Prove that the sum of two odd integers is even. Problem 5.3.2 Resolve into factors: Problem 5.3.3 Factor
125a 4 b 5 c 5 45a 5 b 3 c 4 + 5a 3 b 2 c 4 300a 4 b 2 c 8 10a 3 b 2 c 5 . x3 x2.
Problem 5.3.7 Resolve into factors: 38a 2 x 5 + 57a 4 x 2 . Problem 5.3.8 Decompose into factors: a 2 + ab + ac + bc . Problem 5.3.9 Decompose into factors: a 2 ab + ac bc . Problem 5.3.10 Decompose into factors: y 3 y 2 + y 1. Problem 5.3.11 Decompose into factors: 2x 3 +3x 2 +2x +3. Problem 5.3.12 Decompose into factors:
a 2 x + abx + ac + aby + b 2 y + bc .
Problem 5.3.4 Resolve into factors: 15a 3 x 3 .
5x 5 10a 7 x 3
Problem 5.3.5 Factor 3x 3 y + 4x 2 y 3 6x 6 10x 4 . Problem 5.3.6 Factor

3m 6 p 4 q 2 9m 5 p 2 qx + 3m 7 p 3 qx + 3m 4 p 2 q 6m 5 p 4 qx 2 y .
5.4
Factoring II
The simplest schoolboy is now familiar with facts for which Archimedes would have sacriced his life. -Ernst RENAN
In this section we study factorisations of expressions of the form ax 2 + bx + c , the so-called quadratic trinomials . Let us start with expressions of the form x 2 + bx + c . Suppose that
x 2 + bx + c = (x + p )(x + q ).
Then, upon multiplying, Thus c = p q and b = p + q , that is, the constant term is the product of two numbers, and the coefcient of x is the sum of these two numbers. 191 Example To factor x 2 + 5x + 6 we look for two numbers whose product is 6 and whose sum is 5. Clearly 2 and 3 are these two numbers and so,
x 2 + 5x + 6 = (x + 2)(x + 3). x 2 + bx + c = (x + p )(x + q ) = x 2 + (p + q )x + p q .
You should multiply the last product to verify the equality. 192 Example To factor x 2 + 7x + 6 we look for two numbers whose product is 6 and whose sum is 7. Clearly 1 and 6 are these two numbers and so,
x 2 + 7x + 6 = (x + 1)(x + 6).
You should multiply the last product to verify the equality. Free to photocopy and distribute 62
Chapter 5 193 Example To factor x 2 5x + 6 we look for two numbers whose product is 6 and whose sum is 5. Clearly 2 and 3 are these two numbers and so,
x 2 5x + 6 = (x 2)(x 3).
194 Example To factor x 2 x 6 we look for two numbers whose product is 6 and whose sum is 1. Clearly 3 and +2 are these two numbers and so,
x 2 x 6 = (x 3)(x + 2).
195 Example To factor x 2 + x 6 we look for two numbers whose product is 6 and whose sum is +1. Clearly +3 and 2 are these two numbers and so,
x 2 + x 6 = (x + 3)(x 2).
196 Example Here are some more examples which you should inspect:
x 2 + 10x + 24 = (x + 4)(x + 6), x 2 + 11x + 24 = (x + 3)(x + 8), x 2 + 14x + 24 = (x + 2)(x + 12), x 2 + 25x + 24 = (x + 1)(x + 24).
x 2 10x + 24 = (x 4)(x 6), x 2 11x + 24 = (x 3)(x 8), x 2 14x + 24 = (x 2)(x 12), x 2 25x + 24 = (x 1)(x 24).
x 2 + 2x 24 = (x 4)(x + 6), x 2 5x 24 = (x + 3)(x 8), x 2 + 10x 24 = (x 2)(x + 12), x 2 10x 24 = (x + 2)(x 12).
In the case when the coefcient of the x 2 is different from 1, more cases must be considered. The problem is more difcult, but the method is essentially the same. 199 Example By inspection,
5x 2 + 22x + 8 = (5x + 2)(x + 4), 5x 2 22x + 8 = (5x 2)(x 4), 5x 2 18x 8 = (5x + 2)(x 4), 5x 2 + 18x 8 = (5x 2)(x + 4), 5x 2 + 39x 8 = (5x 1)(x + 8).
63
Special Factorisations 200 Example By inspection,

20x 2 + 43x + 21 = (5x + 7)(4x + 3), 20x 2 + 47x + 21 = (5x + 3)(4x + 7),
20x 2 + 76x + 21 = (10x + 3)(2x + 7),
20x 2 + 143x + 21 = (20x + 3)(x + 7).
The inquiring reader may wonder whether all quadratic trinomials ax 2 + bx + c factor in the manner above, that is, into linear factors all whose coefcients are integers. The answer is no. For example if x 2 2 does not factor into linear factors whose coefcients are integers, since there are no two integers whose product is 2 and that add up to 0. If we augment our choice for the coefcients for linear factors, then we may write but we will not consider these cases in this course.
x 2 2 = (x 2)(x + 2),
Homework
Problem 5.4.1 Decompose into factors: a 2 11a + 30. Problem 5.4.2 Decompose into factors: a 2 38a + 361. Problem 5.4.3 Decompose into factors: a 4 b 4 + 37a 2 b 2 + 300. Problem 5.4.4 Decompose into factors: x 2 23x + 132. Problem 5.4.5 Decompose into factors: x 4 29x 2 + 204. Problem 5.4.6 Decompose into factors: x 2 + 35x + 216. Problem 5.4.7 Resolve into factors: Problem 5.4.8 Resolve into factors:
5x 2 + 17x + 6. 14x 2 + 29x 15.
5.5
Special Factorisations
At the age of eleven, I began Euclid, with my brother as my tutor. This was one of the great events of my life, as dazzling as rst love. I had not imagined there was anything so delicious in the world. From that moment until I was thirty-eight, mathematics was my chief interest and my chief source of happiness. -Bertrand RUSSELL
Recall the special products we studied in the Multiplication chapter. We list them here for easy reference. Difference of Squares
x 2 y 2 = (x y )(x + y ).
(5.1)
Difference of Cubes
x 3 y 3 = (x y )(x 2 + x y + y 2 ).
(5.2)
Sum of Cubes
x 3 + y 3 = (x + y )(x 2 x y + y 2 ).
(5.3)
Square of a Sum
x 2 + 2 x y + y 2 = ( x + y )2 .
(5.4)
Square of a Difference
x 2 2 x y + y 2 = ( x y )2 .
(5.5)
We will use these special factorisations and the methods of the preceding sections in order to treat more complicated factorisation problems. Free to photocopy and distribute 64
Chapter 5 201 Example To factor x 4 9 y 2 observe that it is a difference of squares, and so x 4 9 y 2 = (x 2 3 y )(x 2 + 3 y ). 202 Example To factor x 3 1 observe that it is a difference of cubes, and so x 3 1 = (x 1)(x 2 + x + 1). Sometimes we need to use more than one method. 203 Example To factor x 3 4x factor a common factor and then the difference of squares:
x 3 4x = x (x 2 4) = x (x 2)(x + 2).
204 Example To factor x 4 81, observe that there are two difference of squares:
x 4 81 = (x 2 9)(x 2 + 9) = (x 3)(x + 3)(x 2 + 9).
205 Example To factor x 6 1, observe that there is a difference of squares and then a sum and a difference of cubes:
x 6 1 = (x 3 1)(x 3 + 1) = (x 1)(x 2 + x + 1)(x + 1)(x 2 x + 1).
The following method, called Sophie Germains trick1 is useful to convert some expressions into differences of squares. 206 Example We have
x4 + x2 + 1 = = = x 4 + 2x 2 + 1 x 2 (x 2 + 1)2 x 2 (x 2 + 1 x )(x 2 + 1 + x ).
207 Example We have

x4 + 4 = = = x 4 + 4x 2 + 4 4x 2 (x 2 + 2)2 4x 2 (x 2 + 2 2x )(x 2 + 2 + 2x ).
Sophie Germains trick is often used in factoring quadratic trinomials, where it is often referred to as the technique of completing the square. We will give some examples of factorisations that we may also obtain with the trial an error method of the preceding section.
1 Sophie Germain (17761831) was an important French mathematician of the French Revolution. She pretended to be a man in order to study Mathematics. At the time, women were not allowed to matriculate at the cole Polytechnique, but she posed as a M. Leblanc in order to obtain lessons from Lagrange.
65
Special Factorisations 208 Example We have

x 2 8x 9 = = = = = x 2 8x + 16 9 16 (x 4)2 25 (x 4)2 52 (x 4 5)(x 4 + 5) (x 9)(x + 1).
209 Example We have

x 2 + 4x 117 = = = = x 2 + 4x + 4 117 4 (x + 2)2 112 (x + 2 11)(x + 2 + 11) (x 9)(x + 13).
The techniques learned may be used to solve some purely arithmetic problems. 210 Example Given that
1, 000, 002, 000, 001
has a prime factor greater than 9000, nd it. Solution: We have

1, 000, 002, 000, 001 = = = = = 1012 + 2 106 + 1 (106 + 1)2 ((102 )3 + 1)2 (102 + 1)2 ((102 )2 102 + 1)2 1012 99012 ,
whence the prime sought is 9901.
Homework
Problem 5.5.1 Given that x + 2 y = 3 and x 2 y = 1, nd x 2 4y 2. Problem 5.5.2 Resolve into factors: Problem 5.5.3 Resolve into factors:
x 4 16. (a + b )2 c 2
Problem 5.5.4 Resolve into factors:
x3 x.
Problem 5.5.5 Find all positive primes of the form n 3 8, where n is a positive integer.
66
Chapter 5
5.6
Rational Expressions
For all their wealth of content, for all the sum of history and social institution invested in them, music, mathematics, and chess are resplendently useless (applied mathematics is a higher plumbing, a kind of music for the police band). They are metaphysically trivial, irresponsible. They refuse to relate outward, to take reality -G. STEINER for arbiter. This is the source of their witchery.
Similarly to the situation for numerical fractions, we may add and subtract algebraic fractions by nding a common denominator. 211 Example We have,
1 1 + 2 x x = x 1 x +1 + 2= 2 . 2 x x x
1 1 s 1 1 s 2 = = . s 1 (s 1)2 (s 1)2 (s 1)2 (s 1)2 a2 x a4 x2 a4 + x2 + 2= + = . x a xa 2 xa 2 xa 2

1 1 s 2 s 1 2s 3 + = + = . s 1 s 2 (s 1)(s 2) (s 1)(s 2) (s 1)(s 2)

s s 2 s (s + 3) (s 2)(s + 2) s 2 + 3s + s 2 4 2s 2 + 3s 4 + = + = = . s + 2 s + 3 (s + 2)(s + 3) (s + 2)(s + 3) (s + 2)(s + 3) (s + 2)(s + 3)

x x +1 x2 (x + 1)2 x 2 (x 2 + 2x + 1) 2x 1 = = = . x +1 x x (x + 1) x (x + 1) x (x + 1) x (x + 1)

2 2s 2s 2 2t 2 3st 6s 2 2t 2 3st + 6s 2 2 = 2 2 2= . 3 t t 3t 3t 3t 3t 2
218 Example The sum of two numbers is 7 and their product 21. What is the sum of their reciprocals? Solution: Let x , y be the numbers. One has x + y = 7, x y = 21 whence
1 1 y +x 7 1 + = = = . x y xy 21 3
67
Rational Expressions
Homework
Problem 5.6.1 Gather the fractions:
3x 3x 4x + . 2 2a 8a 2 s 1 . s 1 (s 1)(s + 1)
2s 3 . s +2 s 2 2x 3x 4x + 2 2. a a a
Problem 5.6.2 Gather the fractions: Problem 5.6.3 Gather the fractions:
x2 x y x2 y
y z 2z 2 xz . yz z2x
Problem 5.6.6 The sum of two numbers is 7 and their product 21. What is the sum of the squares of their reciprocals?
68
Part IV
Equations
69
Linear Equations in One Variable
Mathematics is an obscure eld, an abstruse science, complicated and exact; yet so many have attained perfection in it that we might conclude almost anyone who seriously applied himself would achieve a measure of success. -Cicero
6.1
Simple Equations
The mathematician is entirely free, within the limits of his imagination, to construct what worlds he pleases. What he is to imagine is a matter for his own caprice; he is not thereby discovering the fundamental principles of the universe nor becoming acquainted with the ideas of God. If he can nd, in experience, sets of entities which obey the same logical scheme as his mathematical entities, then he has applied his mathematics to the external world; he has created a branch of science. -John William Navin SULLIVAN
219 Denition An identity is an assertion that is true for all values of the variables involved. 220 Example From the square of the sum formula we get (x + 1)2 = x 2 + 2x + 1. Since this is valid for all real values of x , this is an identity. 221 Example The assertion 4 + x = 6 x is not an identity. For example, if x = 0 we have 4 + 0 = 6 0, which is patently false. For x = 1 we have, however, 4 + 1 = 6 1, which is true. Thus the assertion is sometimes true and sometimes false. 222 Example The assertion x = x + 1 is never true. How could a real number be equal to itself plus 1? 223 Denition An equation of condition or equation for short, is an assertion that is true for only particular values of the variables employed. Example 221 is an example of an equation. 224 Denition The variable whose value is required to nd is called the unknown variable. The process of nding a value that satises the equation is called solving the equation. In this section our main preoccupation will be linear equations in one unknown. 225 Denition A linear equation in the unknown x is an equation of the form ax + b = c , where a = 0, b , c are real numbers. In order to solve simple equations, we will appeal to the following axioms. 226 Axiom If to equals we add equals, the sums are equal. 227 Axiom If equals are multiplied by equals, the products are equal. 70
Chapter 6 In what follows we will use the symbol = , which is read implies. 228 Example Solve for x : x 3 = 9 Solution:
x 3 = 9 = = x = 9 + 3 x = 6.
Verication: x 3 = 6 3 = 9. 229 Example Solve for x : x + 3 = 9 Solution:

x + 3 = 9 = = x = 9 3 x = 12.
Verication: x + 3 = 12 + 3 = 9. 230 Example Solve for x : x + 3a = 9a Solution:

x + 3 a = 9 a = = x = 3 a 9 a x = 12a .
Verication: x + 3a = 12a + 3a = 9a . 231 Example Solve for x : x a + b = 2a + 3b Solution:

x a + b = 2 a + 3b = = x = 2 a + 3b + a b x = 3 a + 2b .
Verication: x a + b = 3a + 2b a + b = 2a + 3b . 232 Example Solve for x : 2x = 88 Solution:

2x = 88 = = x= 88 2
x = 44.
71
Simple Equations Verication: 2x = 2(44) = 88. 233 Example Solve for x : 2ax = 4a Solution:
2ax = 4a = = x= 4a 2a
x = 2.
Verication: 2ax = 2a (2) = 4a . 234 Example Solve for x : 2ax = 4a 2 Solution:

2ax = 4a 2 = = x= 4a 2 2a
x = 2a .
Verication: 2ax = 2a (2a ) = 4a 2 . 235 Example Solve for x : Solution:

x = 9 3 = = x = 9(3) x = 27. x = 9 3
Verication:
x 27 = = 9 . 3 3 x = a4 a
236 Example Solve for x : Solution:
x = a4 a
= =
x = a 4 (a ) x = a 5.
Verication:
x a5 = = a 4. a a ax b = b a
ax b = b a
= =
x= x=
b b a a b2 . a2
72
Chapter 6
ax a b 2 b = 2= . b b a a ax = a 2b3 b
Verication:
ax = a 2b3 b
= =
x = (a 2 b 3 ) x = ab 4 .
b a
Verication:
ax a = (ab 4 ) = a 2 b 3 . b b
239 Example Solve for x : 0 = 12x Solution:

0 = 12x = = 0 =x 12 x = 0.
Verication: 12x = 12(0) = 0. 240 Example Solve for x : 3x 5 = 28 Solution:

3x 5 = 28 = = = 3x = 28 + 5 x= 33 3
x = 11.
Verication: 3x 5 = 3(11) 5 = 33 5 = 28. 241 Example Solve for x : ax 2a = 2ab a Solution:

ax 2a = 2ab a = = = ax = 2ab a + 2a x= 2ab + a a
x = 2b + 1.
Verication: ax 2a = a (2b + 1) 2a = 2ab + a 2a = 2ab a .
73
Miscellaneous Linear Equations
Homework
Problem 6.1.1 Solve for the variable z : z + 4 = 4. Problem 6.1.2 Solve for the variable z : z 4 = 4. Problem 6.1.3 Solve for the variable z : 4z = 44. Problem 6.1.4 Solve for the variable z : 4z = 3. Problem 6.1.5 Solve for the variable z :
z = 4. 4 2z = 22. 3 2z + 2 = 22. 3 z = a + 1. 3
Problem 6.1.11 Solve for the variable N : 3N = 3 A . Problem 6.1.12 Solve for the variable N : Problem 6.1.13 Solve for the variable N :
XN Y = . Y X N = A 2 + 1. A
Problem 6.1.14 Solve for the variable N : N 5 A = 7 A + A 2 . Problem 6.1.15 Solve for the variable N : N + 8 X = 9 X . Problem 6.1.16 Solve for the variable N :
N = A + 1. A +2
Problem 6.1.6 Solve for the variable z :
Problem 6.1.17 Solve for the variable N :

A2 N B3 = A2 B 4 . 14 7N = 2. A A
Problem 6.1.9 Solve for the variable z : 5z 3 = 22. Problem 6.1.10 Solve for the variable z :
bz b 3 = ab . a +1
Problem 6.1.18 Solve for the variable N :
Problem 6.1.19 Solve for the variable N : N + 2 = A + 14.
6.2
Miscellaneous Linear Equations

If they would, for Example, praise the Beauty of a Woman, or any other Animal, they describe it by Rhombs, Circles, Parallelograms, Ellipses, and other geometrical terms -Jonathan SWIFT ....
x x x 1 = + 2 3 4 2
242 Example Solve for x :
Solution: The denominators are 3,4 and 2, and their least common multiple is LCM3,4,2 = 12. We multiply both sides of the equation by this least common multiple, and so
x x x 1 = + 2 3 4 2 = = = = = = 12 x x x 1 = 12 + 2 3 4 2
6x 4x = 3x + 6 2x = 3x + 6 2x 3x = 6 x = 6 x = 6
74
Chapter 6 243 Example Solve for a :

ba ba = b. 6 15
Solution: The denominators are 6 and 15, and their least common multiple is LCM6,15 = 30. We multiply both sides of the equation by this least common multiple, and so
ba ba = b 6 15 = = = = = = 30 ba ba = 30 b 6 15
5(b a ) = 2(b a ) 30b 5b 5a = 2b 2a 30b 5a + 2a = 2b 5b 30b 3a = 33b a = 11b .
2x 1 1 3x = . 3 2
Cross-multiplying,
2x 1 1 3x = 3 2 = = = = = 2(2x 1) = 3(1 3x ) 4x 2 = 3 9x 4x + 9x = 3 + 2 13x = 5 x= 5 . 13
245 Example Write the innitely repeating decimal 0.345 = 0.345454545 ... as the quotient of two natural numbers. Solution: The trick is to obtain multiples of x = 0.345454545 ... so that they have the same innite tail, and then subtract these tails, cancelling them out.1 So observe that
10x = 3.45454545 ...; 1000x = 345.454545 ... = 1000x 10x = 342 = x= 342 19 = . 990 55
246 Example Find the fraction that represents the repeating decimal
4.321 = 4.32121212121 ....
1 That this cancellation is meaningful depends on the concept of convergence, which will be studied in later courses.
75
Miscellaneous Linear Equations Solution: Hence Finally

x= 4278 2139 713 = = . 990 495 165
Put x = 4.32121212121 .... Then 10x = 43.21212121 ... and 1000x = 4321.2121212121 ....
1000x 10x = 4321.2121212121 ... 43.212121212121 ...4278.
247 Example Find the sum of the rst hundred positive integers, that is, nd
1 + 2 + 3 + + 99 + 100.
Solution:
Notice that this is example 5. Put

x = 1 + 2 + 3 + + 99 + 100.
The crucial observation is that adding the sum forwards is the same as adding the sum backwards, hence
x = 100 + 99 + + 3 + 2 + 1.
Adding,
x x 2x = = = = 1 100 101 100 101, x= 100 101 = 50 101 = 5050. 2 + + + 2 99 101 + + + + + + 99 2 101 + + + 100 1 101
whence
248 Example Consider the arithmetic progression

2,7,12,17,... .
Is 302 in this progression? Is 303 in this progression? Solution: Observe that we start with 2 and keep adding 5. Thus
2 = 2 + 5 0, 7 = 2 + 5 1, 12 = 2 + 5 2, 17 = 2 + 5 3, ...
so the general term has the form 5n + 2, which are the numbers leaving remainder 2 when divided by 5. Since
5n + 2 = 302 = 5n = 300 = n = 60,
is an integer, 302 is in this progression. Since

5n + 2 = 303 = 5n = 301 = n = 301 , 5
is an not integer, 303 is not in this progression. Some equations which are in appearance not linear, may be reduced to a linear equation. Sometimes it is necessary to do some simplication of the expressions involved before solving an equation. In the examples that follow, we leave verication to the reader. Free to photocopy and distribute 76
Chapter 6 249 Example Solve for x : (3x + 1)2 + 6 + 18(x + 1)2 = 9x (3x 2) + 65 Solution:
(3x + 1)2 + 6 + 18(x + 1)2 = 9x (3x 2) + 65 = 9x 2 + 6x + 1 + 6 + 18x 2 + 36x + 18 = 27x 2 18x + 65 = = = = 27x 2 + 42x + 25 = 27x 2 18x + 65 27x 2 + 42x 27x 2 + 18x = 65 25 60x = 40 x= 2 . 3
250 Example Solve for x : (2x + 1)(2x + 6) 7(x 2) = 4(x + 1)(x 1) 9x Solution:
(2x + 1)(2x + 6) 7(x 2) = 4(x + 1)(x 1) 9x = 4x 2 + 14x + 6 7x + 14 = 4x 2 4 9x = = = = 4x 2 + 7x + 20 = 4x 2 9x 4 4x 2 + 7x 4x 2 + 9x = 4 20 16x = 24 3 x = . 2
2 3 = . x +1 x
Cross-multiplying,
2 3 = = 2x = 3(x + 1) = 2x = 3x + 3 = 2x 3x = 3 = x = 3 = x = 3. x +1 x
Homework
Problem 6.2.1 Solve for x :
2(3x 4) 4(2 3x ) = 1. x x = 1. 2 3
x 2 3x = . 2 3 x 1 = 2. a
77
Word Problems
Problem 6.2.5 Solve for x : Problem 6.2.6 Solve for x : Problem 6.2.7 Solve for x :
ax = a. b ax + b = c . x +a = 2x + 1. 2 x +1 x +2 x 1 = . 2 3 4 a = b. x ab = d. cx 3 = 1. x 2
3 2 = . x 2 x +3
Problem 6.2.13 Solve for x : 2(3 x ) = 3x 4 Problem 6.2.14 Solve for x : (2 x )(x + 3) = x (x 4) Problem 6.2.15 Solve for x : (x a )b = (b x )a . Problem 6.2.16 Solve for x :
x 3 x 2 = 6. 3 2
Problem 6.2.17 Write the innitely repeating decimal 0.123 = 0.123123123... as the quotient of two positive integers.
6.3
Word Problems
When I use a word, Humpty Dumpty said in rather a scornful tone, it means just what I choose it to mean - neither more nor less. -Lewis CARROLL
252 Example Find two numbers whose sum is 28, and whose difference is 4. Solution: Let x be one of the numbers, then the other number is 28 x . Then we have
x (28 x ) = 4 = = 2x 28 = 4 x = 16.
The numbers are x = 16 and 28 x = 28 16 = 12. 253 Example Divide $47 between Peter, Paul, and Mary, so that Peter may have $10 more than Paul, and Paul $8 more than Mary. Solution: Let p be Pauls amount in dollars. Then Peter has p + 10 dollars and Mary has p 8 dollars. Then we have
p + (p + 10) + (p 8) = 47 = = = 3p = 45 p = 15. 3p + 2 = 47
Thus Paul has $15, Peter has $25 and Mary has $7. 254 Example The sum of three consecutive odd integers is 609. Find the numbers. Free to photocopy and distribute 78
Chapter 6 Solution: Let the numbers be x 2, x , x + 2. Then

(x 2) + x + (x + 2) = 609 = = 3x = 609 x = 203
The numbers are x 2 = 201, x = 203, and x + 2 = 205. 255 Example A glass of beer costs 40 cents more than a loaf of bread but 50 cents less than a glass of wine. If the cost of the three items, in cents, is 730, what is the price of each item, in cents? Solution: Let b be the price of a glass of beer in cents. Then bread costs b 40 cents and wine costs b + 50 cents. This gives
b + (b 40) + (b + 50) = 730 = 3b + 10 = 730 = b = 240.
Thus beer costs 240 cents, bread costs 200 cents and wine costs 290 cents. 256 Example Currently, the age of a father is four times the age of his son, but in 24 years from now it will only be double. Find their ages. Solution: Let s be the current age of the son. Then the current age of the father is 4s . In 24 years the son will be s + 24 and the father will be 4s + 24 and we will have
4s + 24 = 2(s + 24).
This give
4s + 24 = 2s + 48 = 4s 2s = 48 24 = s = 12.
Thus the son is currently 12 years-old and the father is currently 48 years-old.
Homework
Problem 6.3.1 Six times a number increased by 11 is equal to 65. Find it. Problem 6.3.2 Find a number which when multiplied by
11 and then diminished by 18 is equal to 15.
Problem 6.3.8 Janes age is twice Bobs age increased by 3. Bills age is Bobs age decreased by 4. If the sum of their ages is 27, how old is Bill? Problem 6.3.9 The average of six numbers is 4. A seventh number is added and the new average increases to 5. What was the seventh number? Problem 6.3.10 John and Mary are betting and they start with $60 among themselves. If they play until Johns amount is twice of that won by Mary, how much money does each one have at the end? Problem 6.3.11 Bill currently has ve times as much money as Bob. If he gives $20 to Bob, then Bill will only have four times as much. Find their current amounts. Problem 6.3.12 Find a number so that six sevenths of it exceed four fths of it by 2. Problem 6.3.13 The difference between two numbers is 8. If we add 2 to the largest we obtain 3 times the smaller
Problem 6.3.3 If 3 is added to a number, and the sum multiplied by 12, the result is 84. Find the number. Problem 6.3.4 The sum of eleven consecutive integers is 2002. Find them. Problem 6.3.5 One number exceeds another by 3, and their sum is 27; nd them. Problem 6.3.6 Find two numbers whose sum is 19, such that one shall exceed twice the other by 1. Problem 6.3.7 Split $380 among Peter, Paul and Mary, so that Paul has $30 more than Peter, and Mary has $20 more than Paul.
79
Word Problems
one. Find the numbers. Problem 6.3.14 Find two numbers whose difference is 10, and whose sum equals twice their difference. Problem 6.3.15 I bought a certain amount of avocados at four for $2; I kept a fth of them, and then sold the rest at three for $2. If I made a prot of $2, how many avocados did I originally buy? Problem 6.3.16 Find a number whose fourth, sixth, and eighth add up to 13. Problem 6.3.17 A fth of the larger of two consecutive integers exceeds a seventh of the smaller by 3. Find the integers. Problem 6.3.18 I bought a certain number of oranges at three for a dollar and ve sixths of that number at four for a dollar. If I sold all my oranges at sixteen for six dollars, I would make a prot of three and a half dollars. How many oranges did I buy? Problem 6.3.19 In how many different ways can one change 50 cents using nickels, dimes or quarters?
80
Quadratic Equations in One Variable
7.1
Quadratic Equations
ax 2 + bx + c = 0,
257 Denition A quadratic equation in the unknown x is an equation of the form
where a = 0, b , c are real numbers. We will circumscribe ourselves to the study of quadratic trinomials ax 2 + bx + c that are amenable to the factorisations studied earlier. The crucial observation here is that if the product of two real numbers is zero, then at least one of them must be zero. In symbols,
ab = 0 = a = 0 or b = 0.
258 Example Solve the quadratic equation x 2 x = 0 for x . Solution: We rst factor the expression x 2 x = x (x 1). Now, x (x 1) = 0 is the product of two real numbers giving 0, hence either x = 0 or x 1 = 0. Thus either x = 0 or x = 1. One can easily verify now that 02 0 = 0 and 12 1 = 0. 259 Example Solve the quadratic equation x 2 + 2x 3 = 0 for x . Solution: Factoring,
x 2 + 2x 3 = 0 = = = (x + 3)(x 1) = 0 x +3 = 0 x = 3 or or x 1 = 0 x = 1.
260 Example Solve the quadratic equation 8x 2 2x = 15 for x . Solution: First, transform the equation into 8x 2 2x 15 = 0. Now, factoring,
8x 2 2x 15 = = = (2x 3)(4x + 5) = 0 2x 3 = 0 x= 3 2 or or 4x + 5 = 0
5 x = . 4
Some equations can be reduced to quadratic equations after proper massaging. 81
Quadratic Equations 261 Example Solve for x : Solution:

x 4 4 = . 3 x
Cross-multiplying,
x 4 4 = 3 x = = = = x (x 4) = 12 x 2 4x 12 = 0 (x 6)(x + 2) = 0 x =6 or x = 2.
The argument that a product of real numbers is zero if and only if at least one of its factors can be used with equations of higher degree. 262 Example Solve for x : x 3 4x = 0. Solution: Factoring a common factor and then a difference of squares,
x 3 4x = 0 = = = x (x 2 4) = 0 x (x 2)(x + 2) = 0 x =0 or x = +2 or x = 2.
Homework
Problem 7.1.1 Solve for x : x 2 4 = 0. Problem 7.1.2 Solve for
x : x 2 x 6 = 0.
Problem 7.1.7 Let

x = 6+ 1 6+ 1 6+ 1 6+ 1 6+ 1 ,
Problem 7.1.3 Solve for x : x 2 + x 6 = 0. Problem 7.1.4 Solve for x : x 2 4x = 5. Problem 7.1.5 Solve for
x: x2 = 1
. . .
where there are an innite number of fractions. Prove that

x 2 6x 1 = 0.
Problem 7.1.6 If eggs had cost x cents less per dozen, it would have cost 3 cents less for x + 3 eggs than if they had cost x cents more per dozen. What is x ?
Problem 7.1.8 Assume that there is a positive real number x such that ..
xx
x.
= 2,
where there is an innite number of x s. What is the value of x ?
82
Answers and Hints
1.2.1 The Alexandrian mathematician Diophantus, for the introduction of syncopation (symbols to express abstract quantities and procedures on them) in Algebra. 1.2.2 The word algebra is Arabic, but Algebra was studiend long before the Arabs had any prominent rle in History. 1.2.3 Ossifrage is Latin for breaking bones. Algebra is Arabic for bone setting. 1.3.1 You need to increase $20, and $20 is 25% of $80, and so you need to increase by 25%. 1.3.2 10. The cork costs 10 and the bottle 90. 1.4.1 St. Augustine is using the word mathematician in lieu of the word astrologer. 1.4.2 No. When we add an even integer to another even integer the result is an even integer. Thus the sum of ve even integers is even, but 25 is odd. 1.4.3 27th oor. 1.4.4 Between 9999 and 10101. 1.4.5 2 75 3 6 2 56 1 = 24 9 75. 1.4.6 Observe that the rst and second rows, and the second and third columns add up to 8. Thus a = 4 works. 1.4.7 There are multiple solutions. They can be obtained by permuting the entries of one another. Here are two:
8 3 4 1 5 9 6 7 2 4 3 8 9 5 1 2 7 6
1.4.8 Nine. This problem is from [Toom]. 1.4.9 This problem is from [Gard]. At tailor. 1.4.10 We can represent the boys and girls amounts by boxes, each box having an equal amount of nuts, and there being two boxes for the boy and one for the girl:
B B G
Then clearly, each box must have 8 nuts. The boy has 16 and the girl 8. This problem was taken from [Toom]. 2.1.1 N 20. 2.1.2 N + 20. 2.1.3 3x + 10. 2.1.4 3(x + 10). 2.1.5 In knitting s scarves, I need 3s balls of wool, and hence, at the end of the day I have b 3s balls of wool. This problem is taken from [Gard].
83
Answers and Hints

2.1.6 On the rst step you have x . On the second step you have 2x . On the third step you have 2x + 10. On the four step you have equal to 5.
2x + 10 2x + 10 2x + 10 . On the fth step you have x . You are asserting that x is identically 2 2 2
2.1.7 4n ;4n + 1;4n + 2;4n + 3, where n is a natural number. 2.1.8 6n + 1 where n = 0,1,2,3,... . 2.1.9 First observe that
3 = 2 1 + 1, 5 = 2 2 + 1, 7 = 2 3 + 1,
etc. Then it becomes clear that if the last number on the left is n , then the right hand side is n (n + 1)(2n + 1) divided by 6. Hence we are asserting that
12 + 22 + 32 + + (n 1)2 + n 2 = (n )(n + 1)(2n + 1) . 6
2.1.10 The general formula is 2.2.1 108. 2.2.2 1. 2.2.3 28. 2.2.4 21 2.2.5 15
1 + 3 + + (2n 1) = n 2 .
2.2.6 Since 100 = 7 14 + 2, 98 days from today will be a Thursday, and 100 days from today will be a Saturday. 2.2.7 Observe that 4 and 5 are on opposite sides, so they never meet. The largest product is 3 5 6 = 90. 2.2.8 The rst contractor binds 4500 30 = 150 books per day, and the second, 4500 45 = 100 books per day. Therefore, if they worked simultaneously, they could bind 150 + 100 = 250 books per day, and it would take them 4500 250 = 18 days to bind all books. This problem is taken from [Toom]. 2.2.9 Seven. 2.2.10 9 minutes. 2.2.11 If 36 n is a natural number, then n must evenly divide 36, which means that n is a divisor of 36. Thus n can be any one of the values in {1,2,3,4,6,9,12, 18,36}. 2.2.12 From the distributive law,
(666)(222) + (1)(333) + (333)(222) +(666)(333) + (1)(445) + (333)(333) +(666)(445) + (333)(445) + (1)(222) = = = (666 + 333 + 1)(445 + 333 + 222) (1000)(1000) 1000000.
2.2.13 Travelling 30,000 miles with 4 tyres is as travelling 120,000 miles on one tyre. The average wear of each of the 5 tyres is thus 120000 5 = 24000 miles. This problem is taken from [Gard].
84
Appendix A
2.2.14 Anna answered 20 questions correctly (She could not answer less than 20, because then her score would have been less than 19 4 = 76 < 77; She could not answer more than 20, because her score would have been at least 21 4 3 = 81.77). To get exactly 77 points Anna had to answer exactly 3 questions wrong, which means she omitted 2 questions. 2.2.15 The trick is to use a technique analogous to the one for multiplying, but this time three-digits at a time:
321 654 = 209934, 321 987 = 316827, 745 654 = 487230, 745 987 = 735315.
Thus
987 745 209 316 487 735 736 315 119 266 934 827 230 654 321 934
2.2.16 There are 28 digits, since

416 525 = 232 525 = 27 225 525 = 128 1025 ,
which is the 3 digits of 128 followed by 25 zeroes. 2.2.17 The least common multiple of 4,5 and 6 is 60, hence we want the smallest positive multiple of 60 leaving remainder 1 upon division by 7. This is easily seen to be 120. 2.3.1 60. This problem is from [Gard]. 2.3.2
36 3 = of an hour. 60 5 17 . 35 102 102 19 1938 = = . 210 210 19 3990
2.3.3
2.3.4 Observe that 3990 = 210 19. Thus
2.3.5 Observe that 3 5 13 = 195 is a common denominator. Now

2 130 = ; 3 195 3 117 = ; 5 195 8 120 = , 13 195
whence
3 8 2 is the smallest, is in the middle, and is the largest. 5 13 3
2.3.6 Three lines have been sung before the fourth singer starts, and after that he sings 12 more lines. So the total span of lines is 15. They start singing simultaneously from line 4, and the rst singer is the rst to end, in 9 = 3. line 12. Thus 12 4 + 1 = 9 lines out of 15 are sung simultaneously and the fraction sought is 15 5
85
Answers and Hints

2.4.1 Here are the solutions.
1 3
5 3
+
3 4
1 =
2 3
3 4
=
13 12
13 8
2.4.2 2.4.3
7 . 45 3 . 17 10 + 102 103 + 104 11000 = = = 1000. 1 1 10 + 1 11 + 10 100
2.4.4 We have,
2.4.5 1. 2.4.6 We have,

1 1+ 1 5 = 5 a 1 = = , 6 6 b 5
whence a 2 + b 2 = 52 + 62 = 61. 2.4.7

1 . 100
2.4.8 In one hour John does
them to nish the job.

7 = 2.4.9 We have 1 8
1 1 of the job. In one hour Bill does . Thus in one hour they together accomplish 2 3 1 1 5 6 6 + = of the job. Thus in of an hour they accomplish the job. Since 60 = 72, it takes them 72 minutes for 2 3 6 5 5 15 and 8 16
128 15 16 8 8 = = = 8 15 , 8 1 15 15
so she is able to wrap 8 gifts. 2.4.10 Proceeding from the innermost fraction one easily sees that
1 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 = 1 2 1 2 2 3 = 1 3 2 4 = 4 . 5
2.4.11
43 30
2.4.12 Of the 100 students, only one is male. He is 2% of the on-campus population. Thus the whole on-campus population consists of 50 students, so there are 100 50 = 50 off-campus students. 2.4.13 Observe that 5 1 2 = 2 = 4 . Hence 4 miles are at the rate of 40. The trip costs $0.85 + $.40 21 = $.85 + $8.40 = $9.25. 2.5.1 1. +8
11 22 21
86
Appendix A
2. 25 3. 25 4. 0 6. 0 5. 303 7. +4
8. 100 2.5.2 Here is one possible answer.
1 4 3
3 4 1
2.5.3 Here is one possible answer.
0 1 6 5 4 2 3 1 2
2.5.4 Here are two answers.

1 1 = +1 +1 1 = 1 = = = 1 +1 = 1 1 +1 = 1 1 1 = +1 = = = +1 1 = 1
2.6.1
5 36 1 1 1 1 (0.333333...) = = . 3 3 3 9 1 1 , and hence 121(0.09) = 121 = 11. 11 11
2.6.2 0.1111... = 0.1 =
2.6.3 From the text, we know that 0.09 = 2.6.4 2.6.5

2 + 3 + 5 5.38 2 3 5 5.48
87
Answers and Hints

2.6.6 No, this is not always true. For example, 1 + 3 = 1 + 3 2.73, but 1 + 3 = 4 = 2. But, is it ever true? For a = 0, a + b = 0 + b = b and a + b = 0 + b = b , so it is true in this occasion. 3.1.1 1. 0 2. 6a 4. 6a 3. 10a 5. 4a + 4b 3.1.2 2a 2b + 2c 2d + 2a 2 2c 2 . 3.1.3 1. 4a + 4b + 4c 2. 4a + 2c 3. 5a + 5b + 5c 4. a b + c 5. 2x 2 + 2
7. 6x 3 3x 2 3x 2 8.
9a 8
6. x 3 + x 2 + 1
3.1.4 Since (2x 2 + x 2) + (x 2 x + 2) = x 2 , the value is 22 = 4. 3.1.5 Yes, this is always true. 3.1.6 No, this is not always true. For example, if a = 10, then a + a = 10 + 10 = 20, but 2a 2 = 2(10)2 = 2 100 = 200. Observe, however, that 0 + 0 = 2 02 and that 1 + 1 = 2 12 , so the assertion is true in these two cases. That is it only true in these two cases is more difcult to prove, and we will have to wait till we study quadratic equations. 3.1.7 No, this is not always true. For example, if a = 10, then a + a 2 = 10 + 100 = 110, but 2a 3 = 2(10)3 = 2 1000 = 2000.
2 3
1 1 Observe, however, that 0 + 02 = 2 03 , that 1 + 12 = 2 13 , and that 1 = 2 2 so the assertion is true in these 2 + 2 three cases. That is it only true in these three cases is more difcult to prove, and we will have to wait till we study quadratic equations.
3.1.8 Letting x = 1 one gathers that

243 = 35 = (8(1) 5)5 = A + B + C + D + E + F.
3.2.1 2a + 2c + 2c 2 + 2d 2 3.2.2 a + 5b c 3.2.3 1. 2a + 2c 2. 3a + 3b + 3c 3. a + 3b + c 4. x 3 3x 2 + 2x 3 6. 9.3a 9.1b
5. 2x 3 x 2 + 3x 2
18a 4 7b b a a 8 8. 10 a 9. 10
7.
88
Appendix A
3.2.4 1. 2x 2 y 2. 3x 5 3. 4x 2 + 2x 5 4.1.1 8x y z 4.1.2 24abc 4.1.3 4.1.4
4096 625 4 625 4(45 ) 6(65 ) = 4(45 ) = 212 , 3(35 ) 2(25 )
4.1.5 The product equals
so n = 12. 4.1.6 We have whence a = 13. 4.1.7 (a x b y ) 4.1.8 x 4.1.9

1 x3 32001 + 32002 + 32003 = 32001 (1 + 3 + 32 ) = (13)32001 ,
b 2x = a x ( y ) b y +2x = a x + y b y +2x a y
4.1.10 s 1 4.1.11
1 (s 1)3 a4 x2
4.1.12
4.1.13 1 4.2.1 1.
1 x9 1 x y 6z 9 x3 a9 b6
2. x 9 3. 4. 5.
6. a 2 b 5 4.2.2 We have, 4.2 We have,

(a x +3 b y 4 )(a 2x 3 b 2 y +5 ) = a x +3+2x 3 b y 42 y +5 = a 3x b 1 y . ax by a 2 x b 2 y = a x 2x b y (2 y ) = a x b 3 y .
4.2.4
x8 y 12
89
Answers and Hints

4.2.5 28 = 128 4.2.6 4 4.2.7 4.3.1 1. x 3 + x 2 + x 2. 2x 3 4x 2 + 6x 3. 4x 2 + 4x + 1 4. 4x 2 1 5. 4x 2 4x + 1 4.3.2 x 2 + 1 7x 3 + 4x 3x 5 4.3.3 4x 5 8x 4 + 8x 3 + 2x 2 4.3.4 1. 9x 4 + 3x 3 2x 2 2x 2. 2x 3 4x 2 2x 3. a 3 cb 2ac 2 b
(24 )8 (48 )2 = 232 ((22 )8 )2 232 = 32 = 1. 2
4. x 2 4 y 2 + 3z x 6z y 4.3.5 We have,
(2x + 2 y + 1)(x y + 1) = = = (2x + 2 y + 1)(x ) + (2x + 2 y + 1)( y ) + (2x + 2 y + 1)(1) 2x 2 + 2x y + x 2x y 2 y 2 y + 2x + 2 y + 1 2x 2 + 3x 2 y 2 + y + 1.
4.3.6 10x . 4.3.7 2x 3 . 4.3.8 x 2 + z x y 2 + 3z y 2z 2 4.3.9 We have,

(a + b + c )(a 2 + b 2 + c 2 ab bc ca ) = a 3 + ab 2 + ac 2 a 2 b abc ca 2 +ba 2 + b 3 + bc 2 ab 2 b 2 c bca +a 2 c + b 2 c + c 3 abc bc 2 c 2 a = a 3 + b 3 + c 3 3abc
4.3.10 From the distributive law we deduce that

(a + b + c )(x + y + z ) = ax + a y + az + bx + by + bz + cx + c y + cz .
4.3.11 Let 2a be one of the integers and let 2b be the other integer. Then (2a )(2b ) = 2(2ab ), is twice the integer 2ab and hence it is even.
90
Appendix A
4.3.12 Let 2a + 1 be one of the integers and let 2b + 1 be the other integer. Then
(2a + 1)(2b + 1) = = = = 4ab + 2a + 2b + 1 2(2ab ) + 2a + 2b + 1 2(2ab + a + b ) + 1 2m + 1,
where m = 2ab + a + b . Since m is an integer, the equality (2a + 1)(2b + 1) = 2m + 1 shews that the product (2a + 1)(2b + 1) leaves remainder 1 upon remainder by 2, that is, the product is odd. 4.3.13 Let 4a + 3 be one of the integers and let 4b + 3 be the other integer. Then
(4a + 3)(4b + 3) = = = = = 16ab + 12a + 12b + 9 16ab + 12a + 12b + 8 + 1 4(4ab ) + 4(3a ) + 4(3b ) + 4(2) + 1 4(4ab + 3a + 3b + 2) + 1 4m + 1,
where m = 4ab + 3a + 3b + 1. Since m is an integer, the equality (4a + 3)(4b + 3) = 4m + 1 shews that the product (4a + 3)(4b + 3) leaves remainder 1 upon remainder by 4. 4.3.14 Let 3a + 2 and 3b + 2 be two numbers leaving remainder 2 upon division by 3. Then
(3a + 2)(3b + 2) = 9ab + 6a + 6b + 4 = 3(3ab + 2a + 2b + 1) + 1,
which is a number leaving remainder 1 upon division by 3. 4.3.15 Let 5a + 2 and 5b + 2 be two numbers leaving remainder 2 upon division by 5. Then
(5a + 2)(5b + 2) = 25ab + 10a + 10b + 4 = 5(5ab + 2a + 2b ) + 4,
which is a number leaving remainder 4 upon division by 5. 4.3.16 Let 5a + 3 and 5b + 3 be two numbers leaving remainder 3 upon division by 5. Then
(5a + 3)(5b + 3) = 25ab + 15a + 15b + 9 = 5(5ab + 2a + 2b + 1) + 4,
which is a number leaving remainder 4 upon division by 5. 4.3.17 Observe that x 2 + x = 1. Hence x 4 + x 3 = x 2 and x 3 + x 2 = x . Thus
x 4 + 2x 3 + x 2 = x 4 + x 3 + x 3 + x 2 = x 2 + x = 1.
4.4.1 9 6 y + y 2 4.4.2 25 20x 2 + 4x 4 4.4.3 4a 2 b 4 12ab 2 c 3 d 4 + 9c 6 d 8 4.4.4 x 2 + 8x y + 4 y 2 4.4.5 x 2 + 4 y 2 4.4.6 We have,

(x y 4 y )2 = (x y )2 2(x y )(4 y ) + (4 y )2 = x 2 y 2 8x y 2 + 16 y 2 .
91
Answers and Hints

4.4.7 We have,
(ax + by )2 = (ax )2 + 2(ax )(by ) + (by )2 = a 2 x 2 + 2abx y + b 2 y 2 .
4.4.8 2a 2 + 8 4.4.9 8a 4.4.10 a 2 + 4ab + 6ac + 4b 2 + 12bc + 9c 2 4.4.11 a 2 + 4ab 2ac + 4b 2 4bc + c 2 . 4.4.12 Observe that
36 = x + 1 2 1 1 = x 2 + 2 + 2 = x 2 + 2 = 36 2 = 34. x x x
4.4.13 We have,
(102002 + 25)2 (102002 25)2 = 104004 + 2 25 102002 + 252 (104004 2 25 102002 + 252 ) = = 4 25 102002 100 102002 = 102004 ,
whence n = 2004. 4.4.14 We have

4x 2 + 9 y 2 = = = = = 4x 2 + 12x y + 9 y 2 12x y (2x + 3 y )2 12x y 32 12(4) 9 48 39.
4.4.15 Let the two numbers be x , y . Then x y = 3 and x y = 4. Hence

9 = (x y )2 = x 2 2x y + y 2 = x 2 8 + y 2 = x 2 + y 2 = 17.
4.4.16 We have
16 = (x + y )2 = x 2 + 2x y + y 2 = x 2 6 + y 2 = x 2 + y 2 = 22.
4.4.17 From problem 4.4.16, x 2 + y 2 = 22. Observe that 2x 2 y 2 = 2(x y )2 = 2(3)2 = 18. Hence
484 = (x 2 + y 2 )2 = x 4 + 2x 2 y 2 + y 4 = x 4 + 18 + y 4 = x 4 + y 4 = 466.
4.4.18 We have,
(x + y + z )2 = = = = ((x + y ) + z )2 (x + y )2 + 2(x + y )z + z 2 x 2 + 2x y + y 2 + 2xz + 2 y z + z 2 x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2x y + 2 y z + 2z x .
92
Appendix A
4.4.19 We have
(x + y + z + w )2 = = = (x + y )2 + 2(x + y )(z + w ) + (z + w )2 x 2 + 2x y + y 2 + 2xz + 2xw + 2 y z + 2 y w + z 2 + 2z w + w 2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + w 2 + 2x y + 2xz + 2xw + 2 y z + 2 y w + 2z w .
4.5.1 We have
(a + 4)2 (a + 2)2 = = = ((a + 4) (a + 2))((a + 4) + (a + 2)) (2)(2a + 6) 4a + 12.
We may also use the square of a sum identity:

(a + 4)2 (a + 2)2 (a 2 + 8a + 16) (a 2 + 4a + 4) 4a + 12,
= =
like before. 4.5.2 We have,

(x y )(x + y )(x 2 + y 2 ) = = (x 2 y 2 )(x 2 + y 2 ) x 4 y 4.
4.5.3 We have
(a + 1)4 (a 1)4 = = = = = ((a + 1)2 (a 1)2 )((a + 1)2 + (a 1)2 ) ((a + 1) (a 1))((a + 1) + (a 1))((a + 1)2 + (a 1)2 ) (2)(2a )((a 2 + 2a + 1) + (a 2 2a + 1)) 4a (2a 2 + 2) 8a 3 + 8a .
4.5.4 Multiplying by 1 = 2 1 does not alter the product, and so,

(2 1)(2 + 1)(22 + 1)(24 + 1)(28 + 1)(216 + 1) = = = = = (22 1)(22 + 1)(24 + 1)(28 + 1)(216 + 1) (24 1)(24 + 1)(28 + 1)(216 + 1) (28 1)(28 + 1)(216 + 1) (216 1)(216 + 1) 232 1
93
Answers and Hints

4.5.5 We have,
(12 22 ) + (32 42 ) + + (992 1002 ) = = = = (1 2)(1 + 2) + (3 4)(3 + 4) + + (99 100)(99 + 100) 1(1 + 2) 1(3 + 4) + + 1(99 + 100) (1 + 2 + 3 + + 100) 5050,
using the result of Example 5. 4.5.6 Put x = 123456789. Then

(123456789)2 (123456787)(123456791) = x 2 (x 2)(x + 2) = x 2 (x 2 4) = 4.
4.5.7 Using x 2 y 2 = (x y )(x + y ),

(666 666 666)2 (333 333 333)2 = = = = = (666 666 666 333 333 333)(666 666 666 + 333 333 333) (333 333 333)(999 999 999) (333 333 333)(109 1) 333 333 333 000 000 000 333 333 333 333 333 332 666 666 667
4.6.1 125x 3 + 75x 2 + 15x + 1 4.6.2 x 3 + 4x 2 + 5x + 2 4.6.3 x 3 4x 2 x 5 4.6.4 x 3 7x 2 + 16x 12 4.6.5 We have,
216 = (a b )3 = a 3 3a 2 b + 3ab 2 b 3 = a 3 b 3 3ab (a b ) = a 3 b 3 3(3)(6) = a 3 b 3 = 270.
4.6.6 We have,
216 = (a + 2b )3 = a 3 + 6a 2 b + 12ab 2 + 8b 3 = a 3 + 8b 3 + 6ab (a + 2b ) = a 3 + 8b 3 + 6(3)(6) = a 3 + 8b 3 = 108.
4.7.1 x 3 8 4.7.2 x 3 + 512 4.7.3 Notice that this is problem 4.6.5. We will solve it here in a different way. We have
a 3 b 3 = (a b )(a 2 + ab + b 2 ) = 6(a 2 + 3 + b 2 ),
so the problem bois down to nding a 2 + b 2 . Now,

36 = (a b )2 = a 2 2ab + b 2 = a 2 6 + b 2 = a 2 + b 2 = 42,
whence as was obtained in the solution of problem 4.6.5.

a 3 b 3 = 6(a 2 + 3 + b 2 ) = 6(42 + 3) = 270,
94
Appendix A
5.1.1
q 2 p q p qr q = = = q 2 p q p qr q q q q + p + pr q + p + pr .
5.1.2 2x 2 y + 3x y 2 5.1.3 102x 4 y 4 5.1.4 3a 2 x + 2ax 5.1.5 12a 5 b 4 5.1.6 x + y + z 5.1.7 5a + 7b 2 5.1.8 35a 2 b 3 5.1.9 x 3 y z 5.2.1 x 1 5.2.2 x + 3 5.2.3 x 2 x + 1 5.2.4 2x + 4. 5.2.5 2x 2 2x 2. 5.3.1 Let 2a + 1 and 2b + 1 be odd integers. Then
2a + 1 + 2b + 1 = 2a + 2b + 2 = 2(a + b + 1),
that is, twice the integer a + b + 1, and hence even. 5.3.2 x 2 (x 1) 5.3.3 5a 3 b 2 c 4 (25cb 3 a 9ba 2 + 1 60c 4 a 2c ) 5.3.4 5x 3 (x 2 2a 7 3a 3 ) 5.3.5 x 2 (3x y + 4 y 3 6x 4 10x 2 ) 5.3.6 3m 4 p 2 q (m 2 p 2 q 2p 2 x 2 y m + m 3 p x 3mx + 1) 5.3.7 19a 2 x 2 (2x 3 + 3a 2 ) 5.3.8 (a + c )(a + b ) 5.3.9 (a + c )(a b ) 5.3.10 ( y 1)(1 + y 2 ) 5.3.11 (2x + 3)(x 2 + 1) 5.3.12 (a + b )(xa + c + by ) 5.4.1 (a 5)(a 6) 5.4.2 (a 19)2
95
Answers and Hints

5.4.3 (a 2 b 2 + 25)(a 2 b 2 + 12) 5.4.4 (x 11)(x 12) 5.4.5 (x 2 12)(x 2 17) 5.4.6 (x + 27)(x + 8) 5.4.7 (5x + 2)(x + 3) 5.4.8 (7x 3)(2x + 5) 5.5.1 We have 5.5.2 (x 2)(x + 2)(x 2 + 4) 5.5.3 (a + b c )(a + b + c ) 5.5.4 x (x 1)(x + 1) 5.5.5 Since n 3 8 = (n 2)(n 2 + 2n + 2) and since n 2 < n 2 + 2n + 4, we must have n 2 = 1 = n = 3 and n 3 8 = 19. 5.6.1 5.6.2 5.6.3
3a 2 x + 3ax x 2a 2 1 s2 1 2x 3 y xy 2s 2 7s 6 s2 4 a2 x (2 a 1) x 2 4 y 2 = (x + 2 y )(x 2 y ) = (3)(1) = 3.
5.6.4 5.6.5
5.6.6 We have,
Observe also that x 2 y 2 = (x y )2 = 212 . Hence
x + y = 7 = x 2 + 2x y + y 2 = 49 = x 2 + y 2 = 49 2x y = 49 2(21) = 7. 1 y2 + y2 7 1 + = = 2= . 63 x2 y 2 x2 y 2 21 1
6.1.1 z = 8 6.1.2 z = 0 6.1.3 z = 11 6.1.4 z =

3 4
6.1.5 z = 14 6.1.6 z = 33 6.1.7 z = 36 6.1.8 z = 3a + 3 6.1.9 z = 5 6.1.10 z = (b 2 + a )(a + 1) = b 2 a + b 2 + a 2 + a 6.1.11 N = A
96
Appendix A
6.1.12 N = A 3 + A 6.1.13 N =
Y2 X2
6.1.14 N = 12 A + A 2 6.1.15 N = 17 X 6.1.16 N = A 2 + 3 A + 2 6.1.17 N = 6.1.18 N =

1 B 2 A
6.1.19 N = A + 12 6.2.1 x =
17 18
6.2.2 x = 6 6.2.3 x =
12 5
6.2.4 x = 3a 6.2.5 x = b 6.2.6 x = 6.2.7 x =

c b a a 2 3
6.2.8 x = 1 6.2.9 x =
a b cd ab
6.2.10 x =
6.2.11 x = 5 6.2.12 x = 13 6.2.15 We have,

(x a )b = (b x )a = bx ab = ab ax = bx = ax = (a + b )x = 0 = x = 0.
6.2.17 If x = 0.123123123.. . then 1000x = 0.123123123.. . giving 1000x x = 123, since the tails cancel out. This results in x =
123 41 = . 999 333
6.3.1 If x is the number, then so the number is 9. 6.3.2 If x is the number, then so the number is 3. 6.3.3 If x is the number, then
12(x + 3) = 84 = 12x + 36 = 84 = 12x = 48 = x = 4, 11x 18 = 15 = 11x = 33 = x = 3, 6x + 11 = 65 = 6x = 54 = x = 9,
so the number is 4.
97
Answers and Hints

6.3.4 Let be the eleven consecutive integers. Then
x 5, x 4, x 3, x 2, x 1, x , x + 1, x + 2, x + 3, x + 4, x + 5,
x 5 + x 4 + x 3 + x 2 + x 1 + x + x + 1 + x + 2 + x + 3 + x + 4 + x + 5 = 2002 = 11x = 2002 = x = 182.
The numbers are

177,178,179,180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187.
6.3.6 If x is one number, the other is 19 x . If x exceeds twice 19 x by 1, then

x 2(19 x ) = 1 = 3x 38 = 1 = 3x = 39 = x = 13.
Thus one number is 13 and the other is 6. 6.3.7 If Paul has x dollars, then Mary has x + 20 and Peter has x 30. Therefore
x + x + 20 + x 30 = 380 = 3x 10 = 380 = 3x = 390 = x = 130.
Hence Paul has $130, Mary $150 and Peter $100. 6.3.8 If Bobs age is x , then Bills age is x 4 and Janes 2x + 3. Therefore
2x + 3 + x 4 + x = 27 = 4x 1 = 27 = 4x = 28 = x = 7.
Thus Bob is 7, Bill is 3, and Jane is 17. 6.3.9 The sum of the original 6 numbers is S = 6 4 = 24. If the 7th number is x , then
24 + x = 5, 7
whence x = 11. 6.3.10 If Johns amount at the beginning is x , then Marys amount is 60 x . At the end we have
x = 2(60 x ) = x = 120 2x = 3x = 120 = x = 40.
Hence John has $40 at the beginning and Mary has $20 at the beginning. 6.3.11 If Bob currently has b dollars, then Bill has 5b dollars. After giving $20 to Bob, Bill now has 5b 20 and Bob now has b + 20. We are given that
5b 20 = 4(b + 20) = 5b 20 = 4b + 80 = b = 100.
So currently, Bill has $500 and Bob has $100. 6.3.12 If x is the number then
4x 6x = 2. 5 7
Multiplying both sides of this equation by 35 we obtain

35 4x 6x = 2(35) = 28x 30x = 70 = 2x = 70 = x = 35. 5 7
6.3.13 If one number is x , the larger is x + 8. Thus

x + 8 + 2 = 3x = x + 10 = 3x = 10 = 2x = 5 = x ,
so the smallest number is 5 and the larger is 13. 6.3.14 If one of the numbers is x , the other is x + 10. Thus
x + x + 10 = 2(10) = 2x + 10 = 20 = 2x = 10 = x = 5.
The smaller number is 5 and the larger is 15.
98
Appendix A
6.3.15 If x is the amount originally bought, then I spent 2
x x x 4x = dollars. Since I kept , I must have sold of 4 2 5 5
4x 8x them, making 2 5 = dollars on this sale. My net gain is thus 3 15
8x x = 2. 15 2
Multiplying both sides by 30, we have

8x x = 2(30) = 16x 15x = 60. 15 2
30
I originally bought sixty avocados.
6.3.16 If x is the number, then

x x x + + = 13. 4 6 8
Multiplying both sides by 24, we have

x x x + + = 13(24) = 6x + 4x + 3x = 312 = 13x = 312 = x = 24, 4 6 8
24
whence the number is 24.
6.3.17 Let x and x + 1 be the integers. Then

x +1 x x +1 x = 3 = 35 = 3(35) = 3(x + 1) 5x = 105 = 3 2x = 105 = 2x = 102 = x = 51. 5 7 5 7
The integers are 51 and 52.
6.3.18 Let x be total amount of oranges bought at three for a dollar. On these I spent
x 1 x 1 = dollars. I bought 3 3 5x 1 5x 5x 5x 11x oranges at four for a dollar, thus spending dollars. Notice that I have bought a total of x + = 1 = 6 4 6 24 6 6 11x 1 11x oranges. If I sell all of them at sixteen for six dollars, I make 6 = dollars. Thus 6 16 16 11x x 5x 7 + = = x = 24. 16 3 24 2 11 24 = 44 oranges. 6
Hence I bought
6.3.19 There are ten different ways. We want the number of solutions of
5x + 10 y + 25z = 50,
that is, of
x + 2 y + 5z = 10,
99
Answers and Hints

with integer 0 x 10, 0 y 5, 0 z 2. The table below exhausts all ten possibilities.
z 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 y 0 2 1 0 5 4 3 2 1 0 x 0 1 3 5 0 2 4 6 8 10
7.1.1 x = 2 or x = 2 7.1.2 x = 3 or x = 2 7.1.3 x = 3 or x = 2 7.1.4 x = 5 or x = 1 7.1.5 x = 1 or x = 1

x 7.1.6 If eggs had cost x cents less per dozen, I would have saved 12 cents per egg. If eggs had cost x cents more x x ) per egg. Thus if I per dozen, I would have lost 12 cents per egg. The difference between these two prices is 2( 12 buy x + 3 eggs and the total difference is 3 cents, I can write
(x + 3)2
x = 3, 12
which is to say x 2 3x 18 = (x 3)(x + 6) = 0. Since x has to be a positive number, x = 3. 7.1.7 One has x = 6 +
1 or x 2 6x 1 = 0. Later on you will learn how to solve this equation and see that x = 3 + 10. x
There is some deep mathematics going on here. That the innite expression makes sense depends on the concept of convergence, which will be dealt with in Calculus courses.
7.1.8 We have x 2 = 2, and since x is positive, x = 2. Like problem 7.1.7, this problem is deep and depends on the concept of convergence.
100
Bibliography
[Aha] [Chen] [Devl] [Eves] [HaKn] [Gard] [GeSh] [Penn] [Toom] [Woo] [Wu1] [Wu2] [Wu3]
Ron AHARONI, http://www.math.technion.ac.il/ ra/education.html, Education Papers William CHEN, http://www.maths.mq.edu.au/ wchen/lnemfolder/lnem.html, Elementary Mathematics Notes. Keith DEVLIN, Life by the Numbers, Wiley, 1998. Howard EVES, An Introduction to the History of Mathematics, 3rd ed., 1969. H.S. HALL, and S.R. KNIGHT, Algebra for Beginners, Macmillan, 1st ed., 1893. Tony GARDINER, Mathematical Challenge, Cambridge, 1996. I.M. GELFAND and A. SHEN, Algebra, Birkhauser, 1993. Philip PENNANCE, Matemtica I para maestros. http://math.uprrp.edu/profs/pennance/courses/3041.php,
Andrei TOOM, http://www.de.ufpe.br/ toom/articles/index.htm, Teaching Articles. Mark R. WOODARD, http://math.furman.edu/ mwoodard/data.html, Quotes from the Mathematical Quotations Server. Hung-Hsi WU, http://math.berkeley.edu/ wu/Algebrasummary.pdf, Introduction to School Algebra. Hung-Hsi WU, http://math.berkeley.edu/ wu/EMI1c.pdf, Whole Numbers. Hung-Hsi WU, http://math.berkeley.edu/ wu/EMI2a.pdf, Fractions.
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April 12, 2007 Version

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1 Anonymous annotation on the y leaf of an Algebra book.

4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7

Why Study Algebra?

Illiteracy and Innumeracy

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What is Elementary Algebra All About?

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(Correct value) (Flawed Pentium)

The lesson here: computers cannot be trusted!

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Problem 1.4.2 Can we nd ve even integers whose sum is 25?

Problem 1.4.5 Each square represents a digit.7 Find the

Problem 1.4.7 Fill each square with exactly one number

x + (99 x ) + y + (99 y ) + z + (99 z ) = 3(99) = 297.

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5 6 = 5 6 = (5)(6) = 30 so that we do not confuse this with the number 56.

We start with 2, and then keep adding 5, thus

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Chapter 2 Solution: We start with 6, and then keep multiplying by 2, thus

(2)(3)(5) , 6 (3)(4)(7) 12 + 22 + 32 = , 6 (4)(5)(9) 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 = , 6 (5)(6)(11) 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + 52 = . 6 12 + 22 =

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The Natural Numbers

The Natural Numbers

Figure 2.1: The Natural Numbers N.

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negation of is . For example, 1 N because 1 is a natural number, but

Figure 2.2: Addition in N.

Figure 2.3: Multiplication in N.

Figure 2.4: Multiplication in N.

24 Axiom (Distributive Law) Let a , b , c be natural numbers. Then

Thus when we write (3)(4) we mean

(3)(5) + (6)(4) = 15 + 24 = 39.

26 = 64 27 = 128 28 = 256 29 = 512 210 = 1024

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Notice that a b is not ab . Thus 23 = (2)(2)(2) = 8, and not (2)(3) = 6.

30 Example Each element of the set

is multiplied by each element of the set

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because because because because because because

12 = 1, 22 = 4, 32 = 9, 42 = 16, 52 = 25, 62 = 36.

because because because because because because

110 = 1, 25 = 32, 33 = 27, 43 = 64, 53 = 125. 210 = 1024.

Problem 2.2.15 A certain calculator gives as the result of the product

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n this section we review some of the arithmetic pertaining fractions.

40 Denition A (positive numerical) fraction is a number of the form m n =

Figure 2.5: Fractions with denominator 2.

Figure 2.6: Fractions with denominator 3.

Figure 2.7: Fractions with denominator 4.

Since 13 and 15 do not have a non-trivial factor in common,

13 is the desired reduction. 15

common factor, we would have obtained

Problem 2.3.2 What fraction of an hour is 36 minutes?

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Operations with Fractions

Operations with Fractions

b d a c and . The properties of associativity, commutativity, b d