Top Careers & You THE GUPTA AGE

Indian History
The Gupta Age

Ashokas death left a vacuum in India for the next 600 years, during which, several foreign tribes overran India. With the ascent of the Gupta power, the northern States were merged into a single empire. This national revival yielded an excellent administration and trade, all-round development with prevailing order and peace. The tax-burden was low compared to the Mauryan rule and the State provided for safe roads for trade. The period saw the revival of religion, Sanskrit literature, art and architecture too. The Gupta period has been described as the Golden Age of Indian history. The main centres of Gupta activity were Magadha (Pataliputra), Prayag (Allahabad), Ujjain (M.P. considered as their second capital), Saket (Ayodhya, U.P.), and Sarnath (Benaras, Varanasi, U.P.).

Sri Gupta and his son Ghatotkacha Gupta were the first definite rulers of this dynasty, who also used the term Maharaja. Chandragupta-I: The first famous king of the Gupta dynasty was Ghatotkacha's son Chandragupta I. He married Kumaradevi, the daughter of the chief of the Licchavis. This marriage was a turning point in the life of Chandragupta I. He got Pataliputra in dowry from the Lichhavis. From Pataliputra, he laid the foundation of his empire and started conquering many neighbouring states with the help of the Licchavis. He ruled over Magadha (Bihar), Prayaga and Saketa (east Uttar Pradesh). His kingdom extended from the river Ganges to Allahabad. Chandragupta I also got the title of Maharajadhiraja (King of Kings) and ruled for about fifteen years.

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Samudragupta: Succeeded his father in 335 AD, and ruled for about 45 years, till his death in 380 AD. He took the kingdoms of Ahichchhatra and Padmavati early in his reign. He then attacked the Malwas, the Yaudheyas, the Arjunayanas, the Maduras and the Abhiras, all of which were tribes in the area. By his death in 380 AD, he had incorporated over twenty kingdoms into his realm and his rule extended from the Himalayas to the river Narmada and from the Brahmaputra to the Yamuna. He gave himself the titles King of Kings and World Monarch. Historian Vincent Smith described him as the ["Indian Napoleon"]. He performed Ashwamedha yajna (horse sacrifice) to underline the importance of his conquest. The stone replica of the sacrificial horse, then prepared, is in the Lucknow Museum. The Samudragupta Prashasti inscribed on the Ashokan Pillar, now in Akbars Fort at Allahabad, is an authentic record of his exploits and his sway over most of the continent.

Samudragupta depicted on his coins Samudragupta was not only a talented military leader but also a great patron of art and literature. The important scholars present in his court were Harishena, Vasubandhu and Asanga. He was a poet and musician himself. He was a firm believer in Hinduism and is known to have worshipped Lord Vishnu. He was considerate of other religions and allowed Sri Lanka's Buddhist king Sirimeghvanna to build a monastery at Bodh Gaya. That monastery was called by Huen Tsang as the Mahabodhi Sangharama. Chandragupta- II: Chandra Gupta II, Vikramaditya (the Sun of Power), ruled from 380 AD until 413 AD. Chandra Gupta II also married to a Kadamba princess of Kuntala region and a princess of Naga lineage (Ngakulotpannn), Kuberanaga. His daughter Prabhavatigupta from this Naga queen was married to Rudrasena II, the Vakataka ruler of Deccan. His son Kumaragupta I was married to Kadamba princess of Karnatka region. Emperor Chandra Gupta II expanded his realm westwards, defeating the Saka Western Kshatrapas of Malwa, Gujarat and Saurashtra in a campaign lasting until 409 AD. This extended his control from coast-to-coast, estabilshed a second capital at Ujjain and was the high point of the empire. Despite the creation of the empire through war, the reign is remembered for its very influential style of Hindu art, literature, culture and science, especially during the reign of Chandra Gupta II. Some excellent works of Hindu art such as the panels at the Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh serve to illustrate the magnificence of Gupta art. Above all it was the synthesis of elements that gave Gupta art its distinctive flavour. During this period, the Guptas were supportive of thriving Buddhist and Jain cultures as well, and for this reason there is also a long history of non-Hindu Gupta period art. In particular, Gupta period Buddhist art was to be influential in most of East and Southeast Asia. Much of advances was recorded by the Chinese scholar and traveller Faxian (Fa-hien) in his diary and published afterwards.

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Indian History
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Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh The court of Chandragupta II was made even more illustrious by the fact that it was graced by the Navaratna (Nine Jewels), a group of nine who excelled in the literary arts. Amongst these men was the immortal Kalidasa whose works dwarfed the works of many other literary geniuses, not only in his own age but in the ages to come. Kalidasa was particularly known for his fine exploitation of the shringara (romantic) element in his verse. Chandra Gupta II's campaigns against Foreign Tribes 4th century AD Sanskrit poet Kalidasa credits Chandragupta Vikramaditya with having conquered about twenty one kingdoms, both in and outside India. After finishing his campaign in the East and West India, Vikramaditya (Chandra Gupta II) proceeded northwards, subjugated the Parasikas (Persians), then the Hunas and the Kambojas tribes located in the west and east Oxus valleys respectively. Thereafter, the king proceeded across the Himalaya and decimated the Kinnaras, Kiratas etc. and merged their lands into India proper. Kumaragupta I (Mahendraditya) was the ruler of the Gupta Empire from 415-455 CE. Like his father and predecessor, Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta was an able ruler. He retained, intact, the vast empire, which extended from North Bengal to Kathiawar and from the Himalayas to the Narmada. He ruled efficiently for nearly forty years. However, the last days of his reign were not good. The Gupta Empire was threatened by the rebellion of Pushyamitras of central India and invasion of the white huns. However, Kumaragupta was successful in defeating both threats and performed Ashvamedha Yajna (horse sacrifice) to celebrate his victory. He issued new coins with images of Lord Kartikeya. After Kumargupta I, Skandagupta succeeded the Gupta Dynasty. When Skandagupta took over the Gupta Empire, he faced formidable enemies, the Huns. He successfully repelled their early invasions and proved to be able king and administrator in time of crisis. In spite of heroic efforts of Skandagupta, Gupta Empire did not survive long the shock it received from invasion of the Huns and internal uprising of Pushyamitras.

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The decline of the Gupta power in northern India between the close of 5 and the 6 century A.D. gave rise to various small independent kingdoms and attracted foreign invasions of Huns. Toramana was the leader of the Huns and was successful in annexing large parts of the Gupta Empire. His son, Mihirakula was a cruel barbarian and one of the worst tyrants known. Two native powerful princes, Yasodharman of Malwa and Baladitya of Magadha crushed his power and put an end to his reign in India. Art under Gupta Dynasty: Literature and intellectual progress also manifested unparalleled progress. Sanskrit was honoured as the State language. Some important scholars/works of the period are: (a) Vishnu sharma wrote Panchatantra, a collection of moral stories. (b) Harisena author of Prayag (Allahabad) prasasti (inscription)gives account of Samudraguptas (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) campaigns. Vishakhadutta wrote Mudra Rakshas (on Mauryas and Nandas) and Devichandragupta (on Chandragupta-II and Dhruva Devi). Shudraka wrote Mricchakatika (a drama on a Brahmin merchant Charudutt and a courtesan Vasantsena, portrays city life). Bharavi epic poem Kirtarjuneya (Arjuna and the disguised hunter Shiva). Dandin Dasakumaracharita (stories of 10 princes). Subandhu Vasavdatta (story of prince Kandarpketu and princess Vasavdatta). Banabhatta a later date writerwrote Harshacharita and Kadambari he was court poet of Harsha Vardhana. Amarsimha a lexicographerhe wrote Amarakosa, he listed various metals and alloys. Kamandaka Nitisara (on Chandragupta-Is polity and administration) is parallel to Kautilyas Arthasastra. Puranas religious literature was made more appealing. Puranas were finally written down. Kalidasa greatest literary scholarwrote the dramas Abhijnanasakuntalam (Shakuntala), Vikramorvasiya, Malvikagnimitra; The epics Raghuvamsa and Kumara Sambhava; The poetries Meghaduta and Ritusamhara. Nalanda (Rajagriha, Bihar) was founded by Kumaragupta (A.D. 450) and was famous for its tests. There was free education. It had 10,000 students, 1,500 teachers and 300 classrooms, and a big three-storey library. Huen Tsang who came later, during Harsha, studied here for five years. Itsing (A.D. 675) records a donation by Sri Gupta, for the University. Guptas started using bricks for temples (E.g. Bhitargaon temple, Kanpur). The Dasavatara temple, dedicated to Vishnu, at Deogarh, Jhansi shows a transitory State from flat roof temples to the shikhara style. In sculpture, purely indigenous patterns were adoptedinstead of the Kushana period Buddha with shaven head, we have the Buddha with curly hair now, and transparent drapery was used along with various mudras (postures). The main centres were Sarnath (Benaras), Mathura, Pataliputra (Patna).

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Indian History
The Gupta Age

The seated or preaching Buddha, giving his first sermon, discovered in sandstone, at Varanasi. The standing Buddha, at Mathura, in red sandstone. The great boaras Vishnus incarnationUdaigiri caves.

The art of painting reached its zenith during the Gupta period and is manifested at Bagh caves (Gwalior, M.P.) and Ajanta caves (Maharashtra). Aryabhatta mathematician and astronomer of Gupta periodwrote Aryabhattiya and Surya Siddhanta. He explained the eclipses, shape of earth, its rotation and revolution and gave important results in maths too. Brahmagupta of Ujjainhad an observatory. Varahmihir wrote Jyotishsastra and Pancha siddhantika on astronomy. Vagabhatta Physicianwrote Astangasangraha. Administration under Guptas: The central administrative system of the Gupta era comprised the Mantri/Sachiv (modern Chief Minister), Bhatasvapati (commander of infantry and cavalry), Kataka (commander of elephants), Dandapasadhikaran (police chief), Kumaramatyas and Ayuktas (provincial heads). Each province was called bhukti and was under such officials as uparikas, bhojikas, goptas, rajasthaniyas, etc. The provinces were divided into vishyas, under charge of Vishyapatis. The lowest division (village) was under the gramika (village headman). The empire was called by various names such as Rajya, Rashtra, Desha, Mandala, Prithvi and Avani. It was divided in to 26 provinces, which were styled as Bhukti, Pradesha and Bhoga. Provinces were also divided into Vishayas and put under the control of the Vishayapatis. A Vishayapati administered the Vishaya with the help of the Adhikarana (council of representatives), which comprised four representatives: Nagarasreshesthi, Sarthavaha, Prathamakulika and Prathama Kayastha. A part of the Vishaya was called Vithi. Land was properly classified into kshetra (cultivable), khila (wasteland), donations for Brahmins (agrahara grants), donations for religious purposes (Devagrahara land grants) and so on. The land revenue system was put in charge of Dhruvadhikaranika. The pustapala was an officer especially appointed to record various land transactions. The receivers of land grants had the right to enjoy land revenue from the farmers. They could even punish and try thieves. Thus, there was serfdom (forced work) and oppression of the peasantry. A number of taxes had to be paid to the king. These were: Bhaga (1/6th of produce); Bhoga (taxes in kind fruits, wood, flowers, etc.); Kara (periodic tax on farmers); Uparikara (extra taxes); Udianga (probably water tax); Sulka (modern customs tax); Klipta and Upaklipta (purchase and sales taxes). There were two classes of merchants settled (sresthi) and caravan traders (Sarthavaha). The group of merchants called as puga constituted the advisory council in cities. Its president was the Nagarsresthi. Town mayor was called Purupala. The Guptas spread Indian culture to the S.E. Asian countries, especially Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism.

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The Srenis (traders unions or guilds) had immense powers. Not only did they perform economic functions but also judicial and executive ones. Some of them even issued seals and coins and had their own militia (called Srenibala, in the Kalachuri inscriptions). Narada and Brihaspati Smritis lay down the rules for merchants. The normal rate of interest was 15% per annum. The most important metal of the Gupta age was iron. The blacksmith acquired the second most important place in the village economy. The iron pillar (of Chandra Gupta-II) is a fine example of iron workers of Gupta period. The term golden age can be applied mainly for the economically upper classes and that too in Northern India only. Though art and architecture flourished, it was confined as a State art. There was flourishing trade with the southeast, but, on the whole, there was decline of trade centres and towns. Sanskrit literature, undoubtedly, made immense progress, but it was more of a state language, limited to the learned ones. The caste-system became rigid during this period. Manu, for instance, had put several restrictions on the woman and the shudras. In no way was the tax-burden on the common man low. The flourishing money economy during their predecessors (Kushanas and Satvahanas)also slowly broke down. Fa- Hien mentions use of cowries (shells) as the common medium of exchange, indicating shortage of coins. The Post-Gupta Empires: After the downfall of the Gupta Empire in the middle of the sixth century AD, North India was split into several independent kingdoms. The Huns had established their supremacy over the Punjab and parts of central India. The northern and western regions of India passed into the hands of a dozen or more feudatory states. Vardhan Dynasty: Prabhakara Vardhana, the ruler of Sthanvisvara, who belonged to the Pushyabhuti family, extended his control over neighbouring states. Prabhakar Vardhan was the first king of the Vardhana dynasty with his capital at Thaneswar. After Prabhakar Vardhans death in 606 CE, his eldest son, Rajyavardhana, ascended the throne. Harshavardhana was Rajyavardhanas younger brother.

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With the commencement of the 7th century, Harshavardhana (606-647 A.D.) ascended the throne of Thaneshwar and Kannauj on the death of his brother, Rajyavardhana. By 612 Harshavardhana consolidated his kingdom in northern India. In 620 A.D. Harshavardhana invaded the Chalukya kingdom in the Deccan, which was then ruled by Pulakesin II. But the Chalukya resistance proved tough for Harshavardhana and he was defeated. Harshavardhana is well known for his religious toleration, able administration and diplomatic relations. He maintained diplomatic relations with China and sent envoys, who exchanged ideas of the Chinese rulers and developed their knowledge about each other. The Chinese traveller, Hiuen Tsang, who visited India during his reign, has given a vivid description of the social, economic and religious conditions, under the rule of Harsha spoke highly of the king. Harsha's death, once again, left India without any central paramount power. The Chalukyas of Badami: The Chalukyas were a great power in southern India between 6th and 8th century A.D. Pulakesin I, the first great ruler of this dynasty ascended the throne in 540 A.D. and having made many splendid victories, established a mighty empire. His sons Kirtivarman and Mangalesa further extended the kingdom by waging many successful wars against the neighbours including the Mauryans of the Konkans.

Chalukyan Empire Pulakesin II, the son of Kirtivarman, was one of the greatest rulers of the Chalukya dynasty. He ruled for almost 34 years. In this long reign, he consolidated his authority in Maharashtra and conquered large parts of the Deccan. His greatest achievement was his victory in the defensive war against Harshavardhana. However, Pulakesin was defeated and killed by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman in 642 A.D. His son Vikramaditya, who was also as great a ruler as his father, succeeded him. He renewed the struggle against his southern enemies. He recovered the former glory of the Chalukyas to a great extent. Even his great grandson, Vikramaditya II was also a great warrior. In 753 A.D., Vikramaditya and his son were overthrown by a chief named Dantidurga who laid the foundation of the next great empire of Karnataka and Maharashtra called Rashtrakutas.

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The Pallavas of Kanchi: th In the last quarter of the 6 century A.D. the Pallava king Simhavishnu rose to power and conquered the area between the rivers Krishna and Cauveri. His son and successor Mahendravarman was a versatile genius, who unfortunately lost the northern parts of his dominion to the Chalukya king, Pulekesin II. But his son, Narsinhavarman I, crushed the power of Chalukyas. The Pallava power reached its glorious heights during the reign of Narsinhavarman II, who is well known for his architectural achievements. He built many temples, and art and literature flourished in his times. Dandin, the great Sanskrit scholar, lived in his court. However, after his death, the Pallava Empire began to decline and in course of time they were reduced to a mere local tribal power. Ultimately, the Cholas defeated the Pallava king Aparajita and took over their kingdom towards the close of the 9 century A.D.
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Spread of the Pallavas From the 7th to the 9th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the Gurjara Pratiharas of Malwa, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan. The Sena dynasty would later assume control of the Pala Empire, and the Gurjara Pratiharas fragmented into various states. These were the first of the Rajput states, a series of kingdoms which managed to survive in some form for almost a millennium, until Indian independence from the British. The first recorded Rajput kingdoms emerged in Rajasthan in the 6th century, and small Rajput dynasties later ruled much of northern India. One Gurjar Rajput of the Chauhan clan, Prithvi Raj Chauhan, was known for bloody conflicts against the advancing Islamic sultanates. The Shahi dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-7th century to the early 11th century. The Chalukyan dynasty: The Chalukyas ruled parts of southern and central India from Badami in Karnataka between 550 and 750, and then again from Kalyani between 970 and 1190. The Pallavas of Kanchipuram were their contemporaries further to the south. With the decline of the Chalukya Empire, their feudatories, the Hoysalas of Halebidu, Kakatiyas of Warangal, Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, and a southern branch of the Kalachuri, divided the vast Chalukya Empire amongst themselves around the middle of 12th century.

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The Chola Empire at its peak covered much of the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Rajaraja Chola I conquered all of peninsular south India and parts of Sri Lanka. Rajendra Chola I's navies went even further, occupying coasts from Burma (now Myanmar) to Vietnam, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Lakshadweep (Laccadive) islands, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula in Southeast Asia and the Pegu islands. Later during the middle period, the Pandyan Empire emerged in Tamil Nadu, as well as the Chera Empire in Kerala. By 1343, all these dynasties had ceased to exist, giving rise to the Vijayanagar empire. The ports of south India were engaged in the Indian Ocean trade, chiefly involving spices, with the Roman Empire to the west and Southeast Asia to the east. Literature in local vernaculars and spectacular architecture flourished until about the beginning of the 14th century, when southern expeditions of the sultan of Delhi took their toll on these kingdoms. The Hindu Vijayanagar dynasty came into conflict with the Islamic Bahmani Sultanate, and the clashing of the two systems caused a mingling of the indigenous and foreign cultures that left lasting cultural influences on each other. The Vijaynagar Empire eventually declined due to pressure from the first Delhi sultanates that had managed to establish themselves in the north around the city of Delhi by that time.

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