What are exploratory, descriptive & causal types of research?

Exploratory research is the broadest and least theoreticaly-grounded of the three types of research. Essentially, you have no starting theory or hypothesis about a probem. In fact, you don't even know if there is a problem to begin with. In exploratory research, you simply start collecting information about something. It is similar to data mining, and it does not always produce results that can be useful. However, it generally gives you a better idea about something. Descriptive research is, in a way, a higher level than exploratory research, because now we actually want to know something specific in nature and we then go about collecting that information (that is, we have a known set of parameters beforehand that we want to collect data about). Say we want to collect data about NASA astronauts' characteristics and we measure their height, weight, IQ, etc.. These measurements give us a clear idea or picture about the astronauts. We collect specific types of data that better describe an object, a person, or some phenomenon, but we know beforehand what we want to measure. We don't have a theory yet, however. For example, we don't theorize that NASA astronauts have higher IQ's than the rest of the population because they eat more cookies (a silly theory, of course). Causal research uses data that we know we want to measure beforehand, so it is similar to descriptive research in some ways. But now we're not only collecting specific data, we want to prove (or disprove) a theory. Say we feel that people who sleep longer at night have better productivity at work. We expect to find that there will be a correlation between longer sleep at night and better work performance. We will collect data and model it in such a way that our theory becomes the most likely, the most plausible explanation. The biggest danger of causal research is to assume that if we find two things that are correlated with each other, that one must cause the other. Always heed the warning that "Correlation isn't always causation". Good causal research involves a lot of controls, which are variables that we include in a model so that alternative explanations can be eliminated. Causal research can use either an experimental or an observational research design. That means we can either"observe" an item or person or population of interest and collect the data without modifying anything (a survey is a good example of observational research), or we can actually tinker with the item of interest by changing certain things. For example, in an experiment, we might give one group of people a sugar pill that has no effect (this is also known as a placebo) while another group would receive an actual drug. We have "tinkered" with our subjects here because we're not just collecting data- we are changing some aspect of the environment so that we obtain useful information. We might find that the experimental drug helps people reduce stomach acidty more so than does the sugar pill. Almost all experimental research involves an experimental group (the one, here, with the real drug) and a control group (the one with the fake "drug"). Experiments may have many control and experimental groups. After we obtain our observational or experimental data, we can model that data so we can evaluate a theory or hypothesis ("Drug X helps people reduce stomach acidity".) Even surveys can be used to evaluate a theory, although they are observational in nature.

Focus Group Research: Features, Advantages and Disadvantages

In the field of marketing research, focus groups are considered as a vital technique for acquiring feedback about new products and various other topics. A focus group is an interview conducted by an experienced and professional moderator among a group of respondents or participants. The interview will be conducted in a form of group discussion among 6 to 10 respondents in an unstructured and natural way where the participants are free to express ideas and concerns. A focus group is a type of qualitative research in which a group of people discuss their perceptions, opinions, beliefs, and attitudes towards a product, service, concept, advertisement, idea, or packaging.

The advantages of focus group research are as follows;

In a face to face interview, moderator can keep the discussion under control and focus on the areas of interest as described in the moderator discussion guide. Free and open discussion among the respondents results in generation of new ideas which can be very useful for business decision making. A focus group is not static. The moderator can bring any changes in order to better facilitate the discussion during the group discussion. This dynamism allows better results in terms of information derived by a focus group.

Fully equipped modern focus group facilities enables clients personnel to observe the discussion in order to better understand the research findings and also to quality control the whole process. Expressions other than those in verbal form such as gestures and stimulated activities can provide researcher with useful insights.

The disadvantages of focus group research are as follows;

Though moderator can control the discussion, the extent to which he/she can control the discussion depends on his/her experience. Inexperienced moderator may face problems in controlling some participants who try to dominate the group.

Respondents may be reluctant to share some sensitive ideas and concerns publicly. Due to small sample size and heterogeneity of individuals, focus groups findings may not be adequate to make projections. A focus group can be a very artificial set up which influence the respondents to express and act unnaturally. The findings may be far from the actual.

However, focus group research is a useful tool for qualitative research in various fields of study, from marketing to engineering and from finance to public administration.

Sampling Methods:1) Probability Sampling Method 2) Non-Probability Sampling Method

Probability Sampling Methods

1) A simple random sample:- A simple random sample is obtained by choosing elementary units in such a way that each unit in the population has an equal chance of being selected. A simple random sample is free from sampling bias. However, using a random number table to choose the elementary units can be cumbersome. If the sample is to be collected by a person untrained in statistics, then instructions may be misinterpreted and selections may be made improperly. Instead of using a least of random numbers, data collection can be simplified by selecting say every 10th or 100th unit after the first unit has been chosen randomly as discussed below. Such a procedure is called systematic random sampling. 2) A stratified sample:- A stratified sample is obtained by independently selecting a separate simple random sample from each population stratum. A population can be divided into different groups may be based on some characteristic or variable like income of education. Like anybody with ten years of education will be in group A, between 10 and 20 group B and between 20 and 30 group C. These groups are referred to as strata. You can then randomly select from each stratum a given number of units which may be based on proportion like if group A has 100 persons while group B has 50, and C has 30 you may decide you will take 10% of each. So you end up with 10 from group A, 5 from group B and 3 from group C. 3) A cluster sample:- A cluster sample is obtained by selecting clusters from the population on the basis of simple random sampling. The sample comprises a census of each random cluster selected. For example, a cluster may be something like a village or a school, a state. So you decide all the elementary schools in New Delhi are clusters. You want 20 schools selected. You can use simple or systematic random sampling to select the schools, and then every school selected becomes a cluster.

Non Probability Sampling Methods

1) Convenience Sampling:- Where the researcher questions anyone who is available. This method is quick and cheap. However we do not know how representative the sample is and how reliable the result. 2) Quota Sampling:- Using this method the sample audience is made up of potential purchasers of your product. For example if you feel that your typical customers will be male between 18-23, female between 26-30, then some of the respondents you interview should be made up of this group, i.e. a quota is given. 3) The judgement sample:- A judgement sample is obtained according to the discretion of someone who is familiar with the relevant characteristics of the population.

JOB SATISFACTION QUESTIONAIRE: 1. Statement: The general institutional policies 2. 3. 4. 5. Statement: Statement: Statement: Statement: The ability to work independently and creatively You have the opportunity to voice your opinion. You are paid fairly for the amount of work you do. Institutional policies are constantly applied to all employees.

6. Statement: Institutional benefits are adequate. 7. Statement: Institutional changes affected your career. 8. Statement: The institution utilises individual talents by the institution. 9. Statement: Prompt feedback and communication are received from the management. 10. Statement: Clear, achievable job goals and standards are set. 11. Statement: Good work done is recognised 12. Statement: Relationship with immediate supervisor. 13. Statement: There are institutional awards for outstanding achievements. 14. Statement: Participative decision making exists. 15. Statement: Relation with co-workers from legacy institutions. 16. Statement: Institutional culture is supportive. 17. Statement: Technological changes affect your employability. 18. Statement: General social services are offered by the institution. 19. Statement: The physical conditions in your work environment.

Factor analysis
Factor analysis is a statistical method used to describe variability among observed, correlated variables in terms of a potentially lower number of unobserved variables called factors. In other words, it is possible, for example, that variations in three or four observed variables mainly reflect the variations in fewer unobserved variables. Factor analysis searches for such joint variations in response to unobserved latent variables. The observed variables are modeled as linear combinations of the potential factors, plus "error" terms. The information gained about the interdependencies between observed variables can be used later to reduce the set of variables in a dataset. Computationally this technique is equivalent to low rank approximation of the matrix of observed variables. Factor analysis originated in psychometrics, and is used in behavioral sciences, social sciences, marketing, product management, operations research, and other applied sciences that deal with large quantities of data.

Factor analysis is related to principal component analysis (PCA), but the two are not identical. Latent variable models, including factor analysis, use regression modelling techniques to test hypotheses producing error terms, while PCA is a descriptive statistical technique.[1]There has been significant controversy in the field over the equivalence or otherwise of the two techniques.

What is semantic differential scale?

Semantic differential is a type of a rating scale designed to measure the connotative meaning of objects, events, and concepts. The connotations are used to derive the attitude towards the given object, event or concept. Osgood's semantic differential was designed to measure the connotative meaning of concepts. The respondent is asked to choose where his or her position lies, on a scale between two bipolar adjectives (for example: "AdequateInadequate", "Good-Evil" or "Valuable-Worthless"). Semantic differentials can be used to describe not only persons, but also the connotative meaning of abstract conceptsa capacity used extensively in affect control theory. The Semantic Differential (SD) measures people's reactions to stimulus words and concepts in terms of ratings on bipolar scales defined with contrasting adjectives at each end. An example of an SD scale is: Usually, the position marked 0 is labeled "neutral," the 1 positions are labeled "slightly," the 2 positions "quite," and the 3 positions "extremely." A scale like this one measures directionality of a reaction (e.g., good versus bad) and also intensity (slight through extreme). Typically, a person is presented with some concept of interest, e.g., Red China, and asked to rate it on a number of such scales. Ratings are combined in various ways to describe and analyze the person's feelings.

Projective Techniques
Projective Techniques are indirect and unstructured methods of investigation which have been developed by the psychologists and use projection of respondents for inferring about underline motives, urges or intentions which cannot be secure through direct questioning as the respondent either resists to reveal them or is unable to figure out himself. These techniques are useful in giving respondents opportunities to express their attitudes without personal embarrassment. These techniques helps the respondents to project his own attitude and feelings unconsciously on the subject under study. Thus Projective Techniques play a important role in motivational researches or in attitude surveys.

Important Projective Techniques

1. 2. 3. 4. 1. Word Association Test. Completion Test. Construction Techniques Expression Techniques Word Association Test: An individual is given a clue or hint and asked to respond to the first thing that comes to mind. The association can take the shape of a picture or a word. There can be many interpretations of the same thing. A list of words is given and you dont know in which word they are most interested. The interviewer records the responses which reveal the inner feeling of the respondents. The frequency with which any word is given a response and the amount of time that elapses before the response is given are important for the researcher. For eg: Out of 50 respondents 20 people associate the word Fair with Complexion. Completion Test: In this the respondents are asked to complete an incomplete sentence or story. The completion will reflect their attitude and state of mind. Construction Test: This is more or less like completion test. They can give you a picture and you are asked to write a story about it. The initial structure is limited and not detailed like the completion test. For eg: 2 cartoons are given and a dialogue is to written. Expression Techniques: In this the people are asked to express the feeling or attitude of other people.

2. 3.

4.

Disadvantages of Projective Techniques

1. 2. 3. 4. Highly trained interviewers and skilled interpreters are needed. Interpreters bias can be there. It is a costly method. The respondent selected may not be representative of the entire population.

Definition of 'Systematic Sampling'

A method of selecting sample members from a larger population according to a random starting point and a fixed, periodic interval. Typically, every "nth" member is selected from the total population for inclusion in the sample population. Systematic sampling is still thought of as being random, as long as the periodic interval is determined beforehand and the starting point is random.

Research design :
A research design encompasses the methodology and procedure employed to conduct scientific research. The design of a study defines the study type (descriptive, correlational, semi-experimental, experimental, review, meta-analytic) and sub-type (e.g.: descriptive-longitudinal case study), research

question and hypotheses, independent and dependent variables, experimental design if applicable, data collection methods and a statistical analysis plan. There are many ways to classify research designs, but sometimes the distinction is artificial and other times different designs are combined. Nonetheless, the list below offers a number of useful distinctions between possible research designs.

Descriptive (e.g.: case-study, naturalistic observation, survey) Correlational (e.g.: case-control study, observational study) Semi-experimental (e.g.: field experiment, quasi-experiment) Experimental (Experiment with random assignment) Review (Literature review, Systematic review) Meta-analytic (Meta-analysis)

Census Survey vs. Sample Survey

A survey is a commonly used method of sampling the population on various issues to find out what the majority of people think. This is often done by companies to find out how consumers feel about products or services. Surveys are carried out all over the world, with two of the most popular types being a census survey and a sample survey. Although both of these kinds of surveys are similar, they are done in a different manner and produce different results. The choice of which survey to use often depends on how much time is available, as well as on other circumstances. A sample is portion of the population of a specific location and a census is refers to everyone in the population. This means that a census survey is much larger in scope than a sample survey. It takes a lot more time to complete because information needs to be gathered about every single person. A sample survey is only done on a small number of the people and the results are then analyzed and extended to the population as a whole. Census surveys are usually carried out by governments. The process is expensive and time-consuming because a large number of people are involved in collecting the information and policies have to be formulated so that they apply to the general population. In order for the government to know how many people live in the country, it has to count every person. In this case a sample survey would not produce the desired results. However, if the government wanted to find out how many cancer patients would be interested in a specific program, a sample survey that uses a number of cancer patients would suffice and the result would be generalized according to the ratio of those surveyed to the total number of patients. Errors do occur in a sample survey and although they can be minimized, they cannot be eliminated entirely. A census survey is accurate because it involves everyone. A sample survey is used when it is not feasible to do a census survey. Summary 1. Two ways of gathering information from people is through a sample survey and a census survey.

2. 3. 4. 5.

Every individual is surveyed in a census survey. A census survey is very broad, time consuming and expensive. A sample survey uses a portion of the population. There is a margin of error in a sample survey.

USES OF CENSUS:
Census information is used by a wide variety of government departments and agencies, regional and local authorities, non-Governmental organisations, academics, researchers, students, businesses and local groups for a wide variety of purposes, for example: Central and Local Government At national level census information is used to plan the provision of health care, education, employment, transport, etc. It is used to help determine where to build new schools, roads, health care facilities, childcare and senior centers. The Census is also an important economic tool. In particular, it is the only means of accurately measuring the exact extent of migration. By comparing the results of successive censuses, and taking account of the number of births and deaths that have occurred over the same period, we get an accurate measure of net migration (the difference between inward and outward migration). One of the greatest strengths of the census is the provision of detailed population figures at local level. It counts the number of people in each region, county, town and local area and this helps local authorities to make better decisions about the whole range of their activities including the provision of utilities, transport, healthcare requirements and education facilities. It counts the numbers of people living in each city, town and rural area. It tells us something about each local area and its population, including for the first time general health, what jobs they do, what education they have and the type of housing they live in. Knowing how many people work in different jobs and industries in particular areas provides the information required on skill shortages and training needs so that jobs for the future can be planned. It provides information about travel to work which is used to improve public transport and relieve traffic congestion. Information on general health will help predict the GP and other health services needed in your community in the future. Similarly, information on the amount of home carers will help to assess the contribution and needs of carers in society and to provide better supports. Interest and representative groups Census data is extensively used by interest and representative groups who have power to influence the authorities in campaigning for the interests of those whom they represent. The use of Census data in the reports and submissions of these groups is a convincing and powerful tool in influencing political and social leaders. Business

Census numbers can help bring new businesses to your community. When a company is looking for new locations in which to set up operations and conduct business, one of the first things they consider is people. Who lives in the area? Are there sufficient educated and skilled people to work for them? The Census provides this information. Businesses who want to know who their customers are can look to the census to ask Who are our customers? Who might be potential customers? Who needs our services and where are they? Which would be the best place to set up a new shopping centre, a sporting facility or a kids playcentre? If you are in business Census information is also available to you. It is free and easy to use so that you too can make better business decisions. Local communities The results of the census will directly affect people in your community. The information we gather will be used to plan a wide range of public services, many provided by local authorities, which should be there for everyone to use. These include: Schools: for children growing up now and in the future Social housing: for families who need an affordable place to live Transport: to and from work, and for going out and about in the area Healthcare: facilities that everyone can access easily Training: for people who want to learn new skills. The more we know about the people in your community, the better local authorities can understand and meet their needs. And its not just the local authorities who can use this information. There are many uses of Census data for people in the local community. For example local voluntary organisations can use the Census to help determine the requirements for services in local areas it can also help estimate the number of potential volunteers in the community. It can be used to plan services for people who do not speak English, for people who need to be cared for or for planning education requirements. Ethnic groups Ethnic groups make up an increasingly important part of the Irish population, each expressing a range of different needs. The census provides information which can be used to identify community initiatives and programs which are important to immigrants including education, English-language programs and enhanced legal services. The Media Census data is also used by the media in researching news stories, feature articles and documentaries. By participating in the census you can ensure that you are included in this data and that you can contribute to the knowledge which informs these reports. Students The Census is an important so urce of information for students. The use of Census data is an important component of our childrens education and features across a surprising number of aspects of the

curriculum including maths, history, geography and CSPE (Civil, Social and Political Education) at primary and 2nd level. It is also, of course, an important source of information for 3rd level students, researchers and academics across a broad range of economic and social disciplines.