AU/AWC/DJH/2004-04

AIR WAR COLLEGE

AIR UNIVERSITY

PANDORAS BOX OPENED WIDE:

MICRO UNMANNED AIR VEHICLES CARRYING GENETIC WEAPONS

by

Daryl J. Hauck
Lieutenant Colonel, USAF

A Research Report Submitted to the Faculty

In Partial Fulfillment of the Graduation Requirements

Faculty Advisor: Colonel Steve Suddarth

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama

April 2004

Distribution A: Approved for Public Release; Distribution is Unlimited

 Disclaimer

The views expressed in this academic research paper are those of the author(s) and do not

reflect the official policy or position of the US government or the Department of Defense. In

accordance with Air Force Instruction 51-303, it is not copyrighted, but is the property of the

United States government.

ii
 Contents

Page

DISCLAIMER .. ii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS iv

LIST OF TABLES v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .. vi

ABSTRACT .. vii

INTRODUCTION .... 1

Paper Outline ... 3

General Technology Themes ... 3

Law of Unintended Consequences .. 5

AIR VEHICLE CHALLENGES/TECHNOLOGY ENABLERS 6

Biomimetics and Aerodynamic Forces 6

Biomimetics and Flight Control ... 11

Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) and Flight Control ... 12

Nanotechnology ... 14

Air Vehicle Conclusions .. 15

PAYLOAD CHALLENGES/TECHNOLOGY ENABLERS . 17

Biomimetics and Sensing 17

Genetic Research, Nanotechnology and Target Detection . 18

Targeting Databases 19

MEMS Weapons Delivery .. 21

Genetic Weapons 22

Payload Summary ... 26

RESPONSES 27

Applicability of Existing Legal Conventions .. 27

Deterrence 31

Defense/Consequence Management 31

Response Summary . 32

CONCLUSIONS/RECOMMENDATIONS 33

BIBLIOGRAPHY 36

NOTES . 40

iii
 Illustrations

Page

Figure 1. Micro UAVs .. 6

Figure 2. UC Berkeley Mechanical Flying Insect 8

Figure 3. MuscleSheet .. 10

Figure 4. Ocelli . 11

Figure 5. Halteres . 12

Figure 6. Draper Labs Tuning Fork Gyro 13

Figure 7. ADXRS150 Angular Rate Sensor 13

Figure 8. MEMS Gear and Chain Drive .. 14

Figure 9. Carbon Nanotubes 15

Figure 10. Sandia Laboratorys Microteeth 21

iv
 Tables

Page

Table 1. Key Enabling Technology Availability 34

 Acknowledgements

The seed for this research was planted in an elective course offered by the Air War

Colleges Center for Strategy and Technology, during which a fortunate group of students were

exposed to an exciting cross-section of emerging technologies in our National and Air Force

Laboratories. Our instructors goal was more than for us to simply be interested in progress, but

to ponder how these developments may change the strategic environment or the development

and execution of national/military strategy. Im grateful for the insights and inspiration provided

by the centers Director, Dr. Grant Hammond, and the Deputy Directors, Colonel (sel) John Geis

and Colonel (ret) Ted Hailes. Im especially grateful for the guidance of my advisor, Colonel

Steve Suddarth, who provided valuable insights into the direction and reporting of this research.

Ive never met a more creative, competent personhe is a national treasure. Speaking of

treasure, I have been richly blessed with a beautiful wife and two fine sons, and I would like to

thank Lesley, Nathan, and Jayson for their patience, love, energy and great senses of humor

given that were presently in the South, I should add Bless their hearts.

vi
 Abstract

Integration of emerging technologies in Micro Unmanned Air Vehicles (MAVs), Micro

Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS), Nanotechnology, Biomimetics, and genetic research may

enable the creation of very small (inch or less) MAVs carrying powerful and precise genetic

weapons, possibly within twenty years. The precision effect created by precise MAV delivery

and/or target-specific genetic weapons will challenge existing paradigms that currently ban

biological weapons. It is not clear whether such a weapon is banned by the 1972 Biological

Weapons Convention or violates self-defense doctrines. This hypothetical weapon may

represent an attractive asymmetric means for potential adversaries to counter conventionally

powerful nations. A review of open source material shows that the basic science of the required

enabling technologies already exists, and is likely to mature rapidly on its own merit for dual use

applications in commercial industry, medical therapy or conventional military systems, making

counter-proliferation difficult. Creating an effective and economically viable defense against

such a weapon is extremely challenging. The sum of these factors represents significant

potential for a technological surprise that may fundamentally shift current constructs of national

power and who possesses such power. From a Risk Management perspective, the high potential

consequence combined with even a low probability of occurrence demand risk avoidance and

mitigation planning be undertaken.

vii
 Pandoras Box1 Opened Wide:

Micro Unmanned Air Vehicles Carrying Genetic Weapons

I. Introduction

With progressive battlefield success in Operations Desert Storm, Allied Force, Enduring

Freedom, and Iraqi Freedom, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) are capturing the imagination

of militaries around the world. The specter of Iraqi UAVs with a 300+ mile range capability

carrying chemical/biological weapons was described by U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell in

his February 2003 remarks to the U.N. Security Council.2 The Rand report Chemical Biological

Weapons (CBW) as an Asymmetric Strategy identifies UAVs as a feasible CBW delivery means

by potential adversaries such as North Korea.3 With significant concern regarding the ability to

defend against a delivery vehicle several meters in size, imagine the difficulty in defending

against a future scenario involving swarms of Micro UAVs (MAVs) carrying genetic weapons

with the potential to create powerful and precise political, economical, and military effects from

a tiny payload. With a motivation towards avoiding Technological Surprise, this paper notes

emerging trends in several technology areas that collectively point towards this possibility. In

particular, biomimetics, micro electro-mechanical systems (MEMS), and nanotechnology offer

great promise in enabling feasible Micro UAVs (MAVs) as delivery platforms, while these same

technologies along with genetic research may enable the packaging of powerful and precise

weaponry (potentially target-specific) in a microscopic payload that could be carried by these

MAVs. The MAV/genetic weapon combination may offer a capability with enough power,

precision, discrimination, and military utility to challenge the notion of all biological weapons

being considered Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD), thus widening their potential use.

 At first glance, the premise above appears to border on fantasy, requiring the

accomplishment of several miracles in diverse fields. After digging deeper, one finds that the

basic science of key enabling technologies has already been invented. While not yet mature nor

integrated on the scale envisioned in the opening premise, its not unreasonable to predict this

may happen within 20 years. The accelerating pace and dual-use nature of the relevant

technologies coupled with the desire for an asymmetrical advantage over the U.S. may serve to

advance such a threat. The probability of occurrence is at least minimal to moderate (not zero),

and the potential consequence of such a development is severe; therefore, a prudent mix of risk

avoidance/mitigation measures are called for. To ignore this possibility fails to learn the lessons

of history. In 1945 Admiral Leahy advised President Truman The [atomic] bomb will never

go off, and I will speak as an expert in explosives.4 Circa 1949, acclaimed mathematician and

computer science pioneer Dr. John von Neumann stated it would appear that we have reached

the limits of what it is possible to achieve with computer technology, although one should be

careful with such statements, as they tend to sound pretty silly in 5 years.5 A failure to account

for the possibility of MAVs carrying genetic weapons and respond in a meaningful way may

result in a technological surprise that could add considerable cost (in lives and/or resources)

required to achieve a strategic objective, and ultimately may play a key role in the ultimate

outcome of a future contest. The goal is to avoid the fate of the French at the Battle of Crecy in

1346, where the English introduction of the Longbow kept a numerically superior French force

from penetrating English lines during sixteen cavalry charges, the first time in a thousand years

that an infantry force defeated a numerically superior cavalry force, which ultimately led to the

British capture of Calais and Englands advancement to international power status.6

 Paper Outline

This case begins with a discussion of general technological themes and the Law of

Unintended Consequencesthemes that are continually reinforced as specific enabling

technologies are encountered throughout the paper. Subsequent chapters build on this

foundation by investigating several technology challenges specific to the hypothetical threat

system, MAVs carrying genetic weapons. Chapters two and three more specifically address

technology challenges and enablers for the air vehicle and payloads. This paper concludes with a

discussion of existing or potential responses (chapter four), and offers recommendations on

technologies and information the U.S. should seek to ban, delay or control (chapter five).

General Technology Themes

While Science concerns itself with discovery, Technology focuses on the application of

scientific knowledge to solve specific problems. Physicist and futurist Michio Kaku predicts that

the weight of creative progress in this century will lie more in inventions involving inter

disciplinary synergies than it will in new discoveries within specific scientific disciplines.7 An

insightful example with specific relevance to this paper involves the mapping of the human

genome. Due to the sheer computational complexity and measurement expense, biologists

tended to believe that the human genome could not be mapped within a reasonable budget or

time horizon. Involvement by computer scientists, advances in computational power, and cost

reduction in type-matching processes enabled project completion in 2003, well in advance of

anyones predictions. The cost of gene sequencing dropped from ten dollars per base pair in

1990 to fifty cents per base pair by 1997.8 This is but one example of the impact of inter

disciplinary approachesthis theme continues to be prevalent in remaining chapters.

 The importance of intra-disciplinary innovation supports inventor Ray Kurzweils

theories involving his Law of Accelerating Returns. Kurzweil noted that Moores law on

integrated circuits (capacity and speed double every twenty-four months) applied not only to

integrated circuits, but to computing technology in general throughout the 20th century.9

Through the progression of mechanical devices, relay-based computers, vacuum-tube computers,

discrete transistors, and now integrated circuits, this rate of progress was continually realized...it

simply took an innovation from another technology applied to the problem of computation.

While many project Moores law to exhaust itself by 2020, Kurzweil notes that may be true with

respect to integrated circuits, but instead predicts the exponential computing growth will then

press ahead based on some other technology as it has for five technology generations.10 Similar

to Moores Law, Kaku observes DNA sequencing speed doubles roughly every two years.11

Accelerating Returns alone may not be sufficient for desired breakthroughs.

Complexity Theory demonstrates that exponential growth in computational power does not

translate into exponential growth in problem solving capability. Furthermore, physical

phenomena may approach true boundaries. As they get smaller, Micro UAVs based on fixed-

wing technology appear to be reaching aerodynamic limitsthe forces at this scale are compared

to a human swimming in honey.12 In this instance, however, Kakus prediction that cross-

discipline approaches are likely to bring solutions may be operativeChapter 2 contains an

example of researchers looking to insect flight for answers on small scale aerodynamic forces.

The discussion of these trends is more than academically interesting. It tells us that we

can and should expect others to look for multi-disciplinary approaches to improving UAV

technology, and that advancements may come faster than anticipated.

 Law of Unintended Consequences

Simply stated, this law highlights that the actions of peoplealways have effects that

are unanticipated and/or unintended.13 This law may operate in several important ways to bring

about the hypothetical threat system. The primary mechanism is the dual-use nature of the

technology involved. In gaining the knowledge to cure/repair disease, one also gains the

knowledge on how to create and spread it. As one reduces the cost to produce a therapy, one

also reduces the cost to produce a potential weapon. Leaders in genetic research may find

themselves under considerable moral pressure to share information rather than restrict its flow to

what they alone can pursue within their own resources. The information presented in subsequent

chapters shows that the technology required to bring about the envisioned threat system has and

will continue to rapidly progress largely on its own merits for peaceful purposes, thus reducing

the number of miracles required.

A second mechanism is the attempts by first world nations to limit Weapons of Mass

Destruction proliferation to other countries and non-state actors which may drive nations to seek

other asymmetrical responses, refuse to sign new conventions, and/or withdraw from existing

conventions. The U.S. may have unintentionally created a precedent with respect to the Anti-

Ballistic Missile treaty, the International Criminal Court, and Kyoto environmental protocols.14

With the aforementioned themes generally establishing the motivation and ability to

realize the hypothetical threat system, chapters two and three more specifically address

technology challenges and enablers for the air vehicle and payloads.

II. Air Vehicle Challenges/Technology Enablers

Micro UAVs (MAVs) are already a reality (Figure 1).15 The Wasp, for example, has a

13- inch wingspan (flying wing), weighs six ounces, is propeller driven via electric motor with a

lithium-ion battery, and is radio controlled.16

Figure 1. Micro UAVs17

Although micro UAVs clearly exist, they are difficult to make with a sufficient payload

and range within tight size/weight/power constraints. Less obvious are the challenges of

aerodynamics on this scale. As wing size gets smaller and flight speeds get slower, drag gets

large and lift gets smallconventional aerodynamics (airflow over curved wings) would predict

that insects cannot fly.18 To deal with this challenge, some researchers turn to nature for clues.

Biomimetics and Aerodynamic Forces

Biomimetics studies biological mechanisms for sensing, control, and propulsion19 with an

eye towards implementing those functions in an electro-mechanical device, potentially including

integration of biological materials with those devices.20 The airplane began as a biomimetics

experiment. The Wright Brothers used wing warping to assist in stability and control of the

Wright Flyeran idea that inspired Wilbur after he watched pigeons rotate their wings

independently through positive and negative angles of attack.21 To deal with the inability of

conventional steady-state aerodynamics to explain micro-scale lift forces, researchers today are

investigating insect flight.

The following abstract summarizes the progress made by Oxford university researchers

investigating butterfly flight: we trained red admiral butterfliesto fly freely to and from

artificial flowers in a wind tunnel, and used high-resolution, smoke-flow visualizations to obtain

qualitative, high-speed digital images of the air flow around their wings. The images show that

free-flying butterflies use a variety of unconventional aerodynamic mechanisms to generate

force: wake capture, two different types of leading-edge vortex, active and inactive upstrokes, in

addition to the use of rotational mechanisms and the Weis-Fogh clap-and-fling mechanism.

Free-flying butterflies often used different aerodynamic mechanisms on successive strokes.

There seems to be no one key to insect flight, instead insects rely on a wide array of

aerodynamic measures to take off, manoeuvre, maintain steady flight, and for landing.22

Under a $2.5M grant from the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA) and

the Office of Naval Research (ONR), researchers at the University of California at Berkeley have

established the Mechanical Flying Insect (MFI) project. The intent is to be able to mimic the

airborne prowess of the fruit fly, noting its ability to swerve into turns that would rip apart

aircraft, its ability to fly with a large part of a wing missing, and its ability to navigate with other

sensors if blinded.23 Figure 2 shows a prototype MFI that flaps its wings at 204 times per second

with sufficient force (500 N per wing) for a 100mg machine to lift itself off the ground.24

 Figure 2. UC Berkeley Mechanical Flying Insect25

Professor of Integrative Biology, Dr. Michael Dickinson, discovered the last of three

key ingredients necessary to make a fly flythese wing motions are delayed stallwing

rotationand wake capture...26 In delayed stall, the wing stroke uses a high angle of attack

that generates a large leading edge vortex, a large swirling vortex on the top surface of the wing

that generates a very low pressure and consequently pulls the wing upward.27 The backspin

involved in wing rotation pulls air over the top faster than the bottom and as a consequence

higher velocity means lower pressureand effectively the wing is being sucked upwards as it

rotates.28 In wake capture, an insect flaps its wings back and forth [instead of up and down]

and as a consequence the wing is always passing through the wake of a previous stroke and its

able to actually extract energy from the wake and this makes the wing beat rather efficient29

The forces from wing rotation and wake capture accounted for the majority of additional lift

that was not predicted/explained by conventional aerodynamics theories.30

The MFIs wing-drive consists of a thorax composed of thin sheets of stainless steel

that, when cut and folded into beams [under microscope], turn out be extremely strong. Two

hinged beams are attached as struts to each wing, with a piezoelectric motor driving them. When

they move together, the wing flaps; when they move out of sync, the wing rotates.31 The wings

[not shown in the picture as they are removed from the ladder-like horizontal structures] are

about half an inch long, 1/20 the thickness of a sheet of paper and made of lightweight

polyester, look like miniature paddles, and give the fly a wingspan of about one inch.32

The Berkeley MFI research team and laboratory is noteworthy from a couple of

perspectives. Whereas the Oxford butterfly research contributed to the theory of insect flight

from smoke-flow visualization, the Berkeley research used dynamic scaling, building large

insect wings to flap slowly in a two-ton tank of high viscosity mineral oil.33 This allows for

scaled measurement and modeling of forces not possible via smoke-flow visualization. Having

accomplished this measurement/modeling for a stationary hover, the Berkeley research is

moving on to a larger tank to translate the flapping device through the fluid to model

aerodynamic forces in flight.34

In addition to studying aerodynamic forces, the Berkeley team is able to study insect

flight control by tethering a fly inside a chamber upon which shapes and colors are projected to

study the insects flight control response to visual cues.35 The multidisciplinary nature of the

Berkeley team, a whole variety of engineersmechanical, electrical, computer and materials

scientistsall taking inspiration from our biology colleagues,36 is largely responsible for their

rapid accomplishments to date and is predictive of eventual success. The teams goals include:

MFI lift-off in 2004; autonomous indoor flight with integrated battery, sensors and electronics

in 2006; and commercial availability by 2012 for applications in search and rescue, building

surveillance/security, targeted pesticide application in agriculture, and entertainment.37

 Another promising biomimetic technology involves ionic polymer-metal composites

(IPMCs) as biometric sensor actuators and artificial muscles.38 Shahinpoor et al. report that strips

of these composites undergo large bending and flapping displacement if an electric field is

imposed across their thickness, making them large motion actuators. Conversely, when bent by

some other force (such as a gust), voltage is produced across the strip making it a large motion

sensor. They further report these composite muscles have been shown to work well in harsh

cryogenic environments (a few Torrs and -140 degrees Celsius). Figure 3 shows commercial

versions of this material available from Biomimetics, Inc. in the form of Musclesheet .39

Figure 3. MuscleSheet40

The Musclesheet can operate in the 0.1 to 3.5 volt range, can generate forces 10-50 times its

weight (voltage/size dependent), can bend 100% of effective length up to 90 degrees, and

varies in thickness from 0.008-0.020 inches.41 The advertised cycling rate is 100 Hz

size/weight dependent, which is substantially below the 204 Hz achieved in the MFIs

piezoelectric motor driven approach, so it may be more appropriate for crawling or swimming

devices. Even so, the future potential of similar technologies should not be discounted as

scientists at the University of British Columbia are specifically investigating the potential for

10

electro-active polymers to power a mechanical dragonflythe materials they are working with

can expand to twice their original length, while biological muscles such as the human bicep

contract by only twenty percent.42

Biomimetics and Flight Control

In addition to lift/thrust generation discussed in the previous section, biomimetics offers

several approaches to addressing flight control issues. Wu et al. describe three types of

biomimetic sensors to aid in flight control of the Berkeley Mechanical Flying Insect.43 An

insects Ocelli (Figure 4), photoreceptors that collect light from different regions in the sky to

help an insect maintain horizontal stabilization and avoid obstacles, are mimicked with four

photodiodes and accompanying control logic to detect changes in light intensity.

Figure 4. Ocelli44

Halteres (Figure 5), small balls at the end of thin sticks that beat anti-phase to the wings at

wingbeat frequency in order to detect rotations around all three turning axes, are mimicked with

tiny beams and strain gauges that form piezo-actuated vibrating structures.

11

 Figure 5. Halteres45

Optical flow sensors consisting of linear arrays of elementary motion detectors mimic

optomotor responses whereby insects tend to turn in the direction of an optical stimulus in order

to reduce image motion on its eyes. A Micro-electromechanical (MEMS) compass that uses

three metal loops to detect changes in the earths magnetic field is added to the biomimetic flight

control suite to provide heading control.

Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) and Flight Control

MEMS technology facilitates the extreme systems integration required for micro UAVs.

As an example, the automotive industry integrated accelerometers and electronics for airbag

deployment on a single silicon chip while reducing costs by an order of magnitude ($50 for

discrete component system reduced to $5 per automobile using MEMS).46 Draper labs has

developed MEMS gyroscope technology (Figure 6) and licensed it to Rockwell, Boeing,

Honeywell, and others.47 Their tuning fork gyro contains a pair of masses that vibrate out of

plane when rotated, with the out of plane motion sensed capacitively.48

12

 Figure 6. Draper Labs Tuning Fork Gyro49

Samsung Corp has implemented gyro stabilization of camcorders for as little as $10.00 per

sensed axis.50 Analog Devices, Inc. offers a MEMS gyroscope (Figure 7) in an ultra small and

light package, less than 0.15 cubic centimeters and less than 0.5 grams.51

Figure 7. ADXRS150 Angular Rate Sensor52

MEMS technology allows integration of navigation and stability control system in the same

chip/packaging as the MAVs computational/control logic.

Recent advancements were made possible largely by the use of lithography processes

prevalent in semiconductor manufacturing, which builds up the parts in layers at their final

position, thus overcoming the problems inherent in assembly on such a small scale. Figure 8 is

13

an electron microscope view of a prototype gear and chain drive mechanism built using these

techniques at the micro-scale.

Figure 8. MEMS Gear and Chain Drive53

Use of semiconductor lithography techniques requires significant initial investment in design,

mask preparation, and process tuning to achieve suitable yield rates, but enables low cost

production at large quantitiesa model well-suited to building swarms of MAVs. Both the

Berkeley and University of British Columbia research teams have stated material cost goals at

one dollar or less per mechanical insect.54

Nanotechnology

Nanotechnologys promise includes: essentially every atom in the right place; make

almost any structure consistent with the laws of physics that we can specify in molecular detail;

[and] have manufacturing cost not greatly exceeding the cost of the required raw materials and

energy.55 The very idea of nanotechnology has been around at least since 1959 when physicist

Richard Feynman posited the question of arranging atoms one by one the way we want them.56

Today, the nanotechnology concept is being popularized as molecular manufacturing.57

In a general sense, nanotechnology can facilitate the extreme systems integration required

for increasingly smaller micro UAVsto achieve on an even smaller scale what MEMS has

already accomplished. A specific example applied to the air vehicle would be the potential to

14

integrate structure with power and control conductive paths using carbon nanotubes to replace

conventional wiring (Figure 9).58 Researchers at the University of Texas at Dallas have

manufactured fibers from nanotubes that are four times tougher than spider silk and 17 times

tougher than the Kevlar fiber used to make bulletproof vests.59 Researchers at the Technion-

Israel Institute of Technology demonstrated using DNA, metal particles and carbon nanotubes to

self-assemble a nanotube transistor, and are exploring techniques to assemble these into

components and complex systems.60 Additional nanotube applications include antennae,

batteries, and electromagnetic shields.61

Figure 9. Carbon Nanotubes62

Air Vehicle Conclusions

Though by no means exhaustive, the previous account illustrates the existence of several

enabling technologies that are being applied to the challenges of MAV propulsion and flight

control. Given the Berkeley MFIs technology push accomplishments to date (including the

ability to measure and model the complex aerodynamics of insect flight), the presence of several

critical enabling technologies, and the accelerating nature of technology trends in general, the

Berkeley teams goal of a commercially available system by 2012 does not seem unreasonable.

A mechanical insect based approach over a fixed wing approach is not farfetchedexperiments

15

show that insect power efficiencies are five times greater than fixed wing aircraft [stated as

30W/kg for insects, and 150W/kg for fixed wing].63

There is also a requirements pull aspect motivating the creation of operationally viable

MAVs, much of which is summarized nicely by Huber.64 Additionally, with 70% of the

worlds population living in urban environments, future conflict is likely to be primarily

urban,65 as the nation building stage of Operation Iraqi Freedom vividly demonstrates.

Furthermore, the lack of round-the-corner intelligence removes much of the advantage of

Western military technology.66 MAV-based reconnaissance could do much to service this gap.

These technology push and requirements pull aspects lend a sense of inevitability to the

attainment of MAVs on a scale approaching one inch. A potential unintended consequence is

that the pursuit of a commercially available product provides the delivery vehicle portion of one

hypothetical threat system, MAVs carrying genetic weapons.

16

III. Payload Challenges/Technology Enablers

With much of a MAVs weight and volume dedicated to propulsion, structure, and flight

control, carrying a meaningful sensor or weapons payload is a challenge. MAV literature tends

to focus on sensing payloads. This chapter will discuss payload enabling technologies stemming

from biomimetics, MEMS, nanotechnology, and genetic research.

Biomimetics and Sensing

The Black Widow in Figure 1 carries an off-the-shelf color camera chip with a

resolution of 510 x 492 pixels.67 Carrying an infrared or radar sensor would be especially

challenging given the formers need for additional weight/space/power for a cooling system, and

the latters need for substantial power and longer antenna length for angular resolution.

Biomimetics offers some opportunities in the sensing arena. Observing that if nature can

produce enzymes, receptors and antibodies by evolution, then molecular engineers should be

able to develop materials with similar properties by design, hundreds of research centers and

companies in Europe, USA, Japan, China, and Russia are pursuing new generations of stable

biomimetic sensors.68 As an example, the US Air Force Research Lab Materials Directorate has

developed a biomimetic thermal imaging sensor by embedding heat-radiant sensitive biological

material in a capacitive polymer substrate.69 When pointed at a heat source, the biological

material changes the capacitance of the polymer substrate resulting in a detectable signal. A

brassboard has been constructed that consists of a 9x9 array with a manufacturing cost of less

than one hundred dollars, an order of magnitude less than comparable IR sensors that rely on

cooled sensor heads. The biomimetic sensor works at ambient temperatures, avoiding the

weight/space/power penalty of carrying a cooling system. The lab presently predicts a five-year

shelf life of the embedded chemicals. Whether this technology progresses sufficiently to rival

17

the performance of semi-conductor based bolometers remains to be seen. Belgium-based

XenICs corporation offers thermal detection elements embedded in integrated circuits70; and

researchers at Delft University, The Netherlands, have demonstrated microbolometers at

3 x 3 m.71 The existence of competing technologies increases the potential availability of

MAV-suitable sensors.

Heat sensing on the envisioned threat MAV may not need to be as high-resolution as

weve become accustomed to with conventional IR sensors. In a swarm delivery mode, it may

be enough to sense heat in a particular range (98.6 +/- x degrees), land on the object, check for

DNA match, then deploy the genetic weapon (or directly deploy the genetic weapon if its effects

are only target specific, e.g. it doesnt matter who gets it as long as the intended target eventually

doesthis concept will be described more fully in the genetic weapons section later in the

paper).

Genetic Research, Nanotechnology and Target Detection

The Human Genome Project led by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) is one of the

most ambitious projects in medical history, a $3 billion crash program to locate all genes

[100,000 genes in 23 chromosomes] within the human body by 2005.72 Over a decade, gene

hunting has accelerated by a factor of several thousand times with the introduction of computers,

robotic laboratories, and neural networks. This acceleration led to actual mapping completion

in 2003.

Previous DNA sequencing technology, Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), used to take

days using fixed laboratory equipment.73 Researchers at Northwestern University invented a

handheld electrical detection technique that can spot the DNA of nasty diseases in minutes

instead of days and is ten times as sensitive and 100,000 times as selective as was PCR.74

18

Regarding sensitivity, the device only requires very few molecules to spot disease DNA; and

can easily differentiate DNA associated with anthrax from DNA thats very similar but

associated with something benign (selectivity).75 Nanosphere, inc. has licensed this technology,

is selling a benchtop version of the device and is prototyping a handheld version.76 NASA Ames

research Center is taking this further by developing a silicon chip with arrays of carbon

nanotubes:

Prototypes consist of arrays of 2- to 200-square micron chromium electrodes on a

silicon wafer. Multi-walled nanotubes ranging from 30 to 50 nanometers in diameter
about two orders of magnitude smaller than a red blood cellcover the electrodes and
are encased in a layer of silicon oxide. The nanotubes are packed onto the electrodes at
densities of anywhere from 100 million to 3 billion nanotubes per square centimeter.
The bottoms of the nanotubes are in contact with the electrode and their tops are
exposed at the surface of the silicon oxide layer. Strands of probe DNA are attached to
the ends of the nanotubes. When a liquid sample containing target DNA molecules
comes into contact with the detector, the target DNA attaches to the probe DNA, and
this increases the flow of electrons through the nanotubes to the electrodethe device
is sensitive enough to detect DNA in samples containing as few as 3.5 million
moleculesa drop of water contains trillions of water molecules.77

NASA Ames is projecting availability for practical applications by 2005. While the intent of

this research is to improve the speed and portability of medical assessments, the unintended

consequence of the latter nanotechnology-based product could be that it provides a MAV with a

sensitive and discriminating means of target recognition.

As the electrical detection method requires a probe sample for matching, weaponeering

would require a targeting database.

Targeting Databases

As this paper envisions a threat to the US, this section focuses on DNA registration

activities that may make us vulnerable. The most obvious is that every military member submits

blood samples for potential DNA matching in remains recovery operations. Electronic

cataloging of this information, while seemingly useful to speed recovery operations (instead of

19

having to locate original sample cards or paper records), would present a lucrative hacking

opportunity for the genetic weaponeer. A second military specific concern would be whether

we are creating unique group signatures of military personnel by vaccination programs that are

specific to the military (either with respect to a single vaccination not easily available to the

general public such as the Anthrax vaccine, or with respect to extensive combinations of

vaccines given to world-wide deployable personnel that would not otherwise be given by default

to the civilian population).

Moving to the more general US population (but still specific to a US target database),

there are at least two additional potential targeting databases. Noting the profound effect of

DNA testing in law enforcement, President Clintons 1994 Crime Control Act contained a

provision for a national DNA data bank.78 Understanding the need to preserve genetic diversity

in crops, the US maintains germ-plasm banks in a cooperative federal-state program.79 More

general to anyone is a desire to know health risk or family histories. Kaku predicts that everyone

may have their own DNA sequence on a compact disc by 2020.80 By mailing $330 and a saliva

swath to Britains Roots for Real, a person may have their mitochondrial DNA analyzed to

determine a family continent of origin and potentially (for some customers) a town of origin.81

Three hundred and thirty customers have already signed upwho will control this database?

In every instance, the motivation for establishing these databases served a useful and

peaceful purpose. A potential unintended consequence is that they provide a genetic targeting

database of US military personnel, private citizens, and crops. Leaving the protection of this

information to the healthcare industry may be insufficient. A 2002 theft of computer equipment

from the Phoenix, AZ regional Tricare office compromised medical information of thousands of

20

military members and dependents. Information attacks may be attempted to ferret this

information if attached to networks.

Preceding sections focused on sensing and target detection. More problematic than

robust sensing is the packaging and delivery of a militarily useful weapon in such a small

vehicle.

MEMS Weapons Delivery

Delivering microscopic weapons off of the MAV, and getting those weapons into the

bloodstream and into cells is potentially understated as challenging. Adding levers and/or

needles to the MEMS devices pictured in Figure 8 could potentially create an injection

mechanism for weapons delivery. Devices such as Sandia Laboratories Microteeth (Figure 10)

have been created to manipulate blood cells.82 The left panel shows the microteeth device less

than the width of a human hair handling a blood cell. The right panel shows multiple microteeth

Figure 10. Sandia Laboratorys Microteeth.83

devices stacked five-across the width of a narrow chip that would fit inside of a straw. Single

microteeth-like devices could fit well within a blood vessel to carry and insert genetic material

21

into cells. Alternatively, the teeth could be used to puncture cells passing through or instead

push outwards to latch onto vessel walls forming blockages and strokes.

A complementary delivery technology involves microneedles developed at the Georgia

Institute of Technology. Researchers there have developed ways to manufacture solid and

hollow metal, silicon, plastic and glass microneedles that range in size from one millimeter to

one thousandth of a millimeter.84 An array of 400 microneedles can be used to pierce skin, and

such a micro array successfully delivered insulin to diabetic laboratory rats.85 An eventual goal

is to use these microneedles to deliver microliter quantities of drugs to very specific

locations.86 Devices based on this technology are projected to be marketed by 2008.87

Genetic Weapons88

While its difficult to envision conventional weaponry achieving meaningful effects in

this small payload scale, chemical and biological weapons delivered by MAVs may represent an

attractive asymmetric capability to governments and groups that do not feel bound by

international treaties governing their development, production, and use. The world observed the

effect of small amounts of anthrax contaminating east coast postal service centers and closing the

Hart Senate Office Building. Historical reasons for banning these classes of weapons have been

that they are indiscriminate, difficult to control with unintended effects, may cause

disproportionate civilian casualties for their military effect, and therefore do not possess military

utility. Delivery of a small, powerful, precise kill mechanism potentially changes the paradigm.

An injector equipped MAV with effective sensing may change the nature of this

equation. Sandia National Laboratories has demonstrated a microscopic machine that uses gears

to deploy a probe that engages another adjacent microscopic machine. Its not much of a stretch

to conclude that very small toxin injectors could be created with similar technology and carried

22

aboard a MAV. Hypothetically, a robust injector could also penetrate chemical/biological

protective suits that would otherwise filter agent that relied on atmospheric propagation or

contagion.

Biotech identification or discriminately effective weapons allow a brute force solution

to challenges of UAV autonomy and communications links. If an injector is deployed with

proper on-board ID, or the genetic weapon is effective only against an intended target, then the

notion that a UAV must search for only its intended target (and communicate with a network-

centric ISR constellation in order to do so) is no longer mandated. Swarms of mass-produced

MAVs could be delivered to the approximate target area in a parasitic mode, then rely on

modest propulsion and heat sensing to deliver the genetic weapon payload to any target

encountered. The effect of precision targeting could still be achieved by a target- specific

genetic weapon or selective (DNA sensing) injector.

Several scientists describe the plausibility of target or class-specific genetic weapons.

Dr. William Nierman, director for research at the Institute for Genomic Research projects one

possible concept: Load a common virus with a destructive gene, then release the bug into the

wild. Designed to activate only in the presence of a single host, the pathogen could flit

unnoticed through an entire city of unwitting carriers, a harmless propagation...before reaching

its target.89 Dr. George Church, director of the Lipper Center, presents a scenario involving a

pathogen that targeted people with shared lifestyle traits.90 While discussed in the context of

genetically modified organisms intended to activate in the presence of STDs, illegal drugs, or

even prescription drugs (RU-486 abortionists), their appears to be significant potential for class-

specific targeting.

Other effects besides targeting individuals and groups of people are possible as well.

23

Dr. Mark Wheelis, a microbial biochemist and geneticist at the University of Calfornia-Davis

sees anti-agricultural bioweapons as within the reach of states, corporations, organized crime,

terrorist groups, and individuals.91 According to Dr. Wheelis:

Since plant varieties are particularly inbred, and many domestic animals are very highly
inbred, although not to the extent that many plants are, this does mean that, unlike
humans, where there is a tremendous heterogeneity in any population, theres a very
high degree of genetic homogeneity. So you can travel for a hundred miles in the
Midwest and see thousands of square miles planted with exactly the same variety of
maize. And that means, using what one knows of the maize genome, and of this
particular variety of maize, it might be possible to develop a chemical agent that will
affect one variety of maize, but not another....And so this does raise the theoretical
possibility that one could tailor chemical or biological weapons to attack varieties of
domestic crops or animals that were used in certain parts of the world and yet these
chemicals or infectious agents would be harmless or much less harmful to other
varieties.92

Ramares notes the potential economic impact of such an attack by comparing it to a 2001

outbreak of foot and mouth disease in England during which 5.7 Million animals were

slaughtered at a cost of $2.7 billion pounds over nine months.

Given that the Human Genome has now been completely mapped, it is not inconceivable

that researchers will begin to understand the effects of sequence changes and other code

modifications during the next 10-20 years, especially factoring in technology acceleration trends

discussed earlier in this paper. There are several specific research thrusts already on such a path,

ostensibly intended for advancing medical treatment.

Corporations such as Genentech and AmGen have formed multidisciplinary research

teams to advance genomic research for new medical therapies. Genentech now markets 12

protein-based products for serious or life-threatening medical conditions. They have created a

Bioinformatics department consisting of professionals who possess an in-depth understanding

of molecular biology and are skilled in computational methods for mining genomic data and

software engineering.93 They have also made substantial investments in critical and innovative

24

biochemical and cell-based assay technologies that are fundamental for the discovery and

characterization of potential therapeutic molecules.94 Two research thrusts of particular interest

to this paper include Genentechs investigation of apoptosis, the mechanism by which cells self-

destruct, and HER pathways, the signal process by which cells are given their instructions to

divide, survive, die, or differentiate (i.e., turn into something else).95 Apoptosis is:

the mechanism by which cells self-destruct. This natural regulatory program

for suicide exists in all cells, including cancer cells, and may prove extremely
valuable in fighting the disease. Under normal conditions, apoptosis serves to
eliminate damaged or unneeded cells from the organism. However, in cancer
cells, this self-regulation program is silenced, allowing tumors to survive and
grow.96

Researchers at the University of Pennsylvania have isolated two proteins, Bax and Bak, that are

involved in disrupting mitochondria to trigger apoptosis.97 Overexpression of the HER2 gene is

involved in 25 to 30 percent of breast cancer patientsGenentechs Herceptin was developed

as a therapeutic antibody targeted to this cell surface protein.98 An unintended consequence of

this cancer research is that gaining an understanding of how to correct the regulation of these

processes may also provide the knowledge to interrupt these processes so that damaged or

unneeded cells are allowed to uncontrollably replicate, or that healthy cells are instructed to

dieboth potential forms of genetic weapons.

A genetic weapon would also require a means to insert itself into the targets genetic

codea process referred to as Gene Transfer.99 Present methods that study gene therapy in

clinical trials involve the modification of viruses to remove disease-causing agents and insert the

gene to be transferred, then take advantage of the viruss biology to deliver the gene to human

cells.100 This method carries risks such as toxicity, immune and inflammatory responses, and

gene control and targeting issues.101 To mitigate these risks, researchers are experimenting with

directly introducing DNA into human cells via Human Artificial Chromosomes (HAC)because

25

of their construction, the bodys immune system would not reject them.102 A potential

unintended consequence is that the use of HACs in genetic weapons may render the bodys

immune system defenseless against such weapons.

Payload Summary

Significant progress has been made in DNA detection and genetic research to enable

improved medical diagnosis and treatment methods. A potential unintended consequence of this

research is that it may provide the means to create the target detection, weapons delivery, and

genetic weapons components of the projected threat system. The 15-20 year timeline projected

in this paper is reasonable. A 1999 report by the British Medical Association predicted the

arrival of genetic ethnic-cleansing weapons within five or 10 years.103 Left unchecked,

allowing another 10-15 years for proliferation and integration with MAV delivery methods

presents this potential weapons system arriving within our existing planning horizon. Its

important to emphasize that rogue genetic weapons designers unconcerned with undesirable

side effects are not constrained by typical medical research schedule drivers such as establishing

and following extensive research protocols and receiving FDA approval to market.

Even with this assessment, trying to accurately forecast the arrival of this hypothetical

threat is not the crux of issue. Instead, it is important to understand the unintended potential of

these efforts and take direct steps to prevent/delay/mitigate negative outcomes. Even partial

progress in the described technology areas may become militarily significant.

26

IV. Responses

If one agrees with the premise of this paper that MAVs with genetic weapons represent a

paradigm-changing construct of military power, the next question becomes how to prevent or

delay its onset. The first step is to evaluate current counter-proliferation and defense

conventions, theories, and capabilities. This chapter will discuss the applicability of existing

legal conventions, the difficulty with non-proliferation, applicability of deterrence theory, and

defense/consequence management.

Applicability of Existing Legal Conventions

The 1972 Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention (BWC) is the current cornerstone of

non-proliferation; the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) and Self-Defense doctrines

also lend insight as to whether the hypothetical threat system is banned by existing legal

conventions. The first relevant convention was the Geneva Protocol of 1925 that prohibited the

use of both poison gas and bacteriological methods in warfare following extensive use of poison

gas in World War I.104 By the late 1960s, a desire to separate treatment of chemical and

biological weapons was favored in order to make faster progress on eliminating existing

stockpiles and stopping further research/production programs that were not banned by the 1925

conventionit was thought that parties would agree to the biological conventions well in

advance of ironing out differences on chemical stockpiles.105 These efforts resulted in the 1972

Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention. Article I of this convention states: Each State

Party to this Convention undertakes never in any circumstances to develop, produce, stockpile or

otherwise acquire or retain: 1) Microbial or other biological agents, or toxins whatever their

origin or method of production, of types and quantities that have no justification for prophylactic,

protective, or other peaceful purposes; and 2) Weapons, equipment or means of delivery

27

designed to use such agents or toxins for hostile purposes or in armed conflict.106 At first

glance, this seems like a fairly broad ban applying to the hypothetical threat system; however,

upon deeper examination, a few shortcomings are noted. The preamble and additional articles

continually use the word bacteriological and toxin to reinforce what is banned. Use of the

term bacteriological also reinforces the same term used in the 1925 Geneva convention. The

word toxin is defined to be a substance falling between biologicals and chemicals in that they

act like chemicals but are ordinarily produced by biological or microbic processes.107 This

language simply does not appear to cover the aforementioned potential application of artificial

chromosome insertion of modified genes that could affect apoptosis or HER pathway regulatory

processesno infectious bacteria, virus, or toxin (as defined by the convention) is involved. Is

this semantics or a legitimate case of novel discoveries presenting scenarios that could not

have been considered when the conventions were formed? One must also consider the example

of Germanys first use of asphyxiating gas in WWI. Though apparently banned by the Hague

conventions of 1899 and 1907 that prohibited asphyxiating gases delivered by projectiles,

Germany claimed they were not in technical violation since they delivered it by releasing it from

containers on the ground when wind conditions were favorable enough to blow it across enemy

lines.108 It would be prudent to address any emerging loopholes in the 1972 BWC Convention.

While genetic research holds the promise of advanced vaccines, treatment of disease, and

repair of damaged cell structures; the same knowledge has a dual-use dark side in that it could

be applied to selectively target crops, individuals, and groups of people with genetic

pathogens.109 The BWC convention permits peaceful research which, given the potential dual

use nature of genetic research may take you right to the point of actual weaponization, leaving

little time for inspection regimes to uncover any violations or for a response to nations exercising

28

their article XIII right to withdraw: each party to this convention shall in exercising its national

sovereignty have the right to withdraw from the Convention if it decides that extraordinary

events, related to the subject matter of the Convention, have jeopardized the supreme interests of

its country.110 Its important to note that the Peoples Republic of China has not signed this

important convention, using the rationale that it is a sham since it does not include chemical

weapons.111

Even if treaties banning such weapons applied, non-proliferation in this area is problematic.

Former Soviet biowarfare leader Ken Alibek concisely describes the non-proliferation challenge:

If somebody decides to develop biological weapons, youre not going to detect itmaybe our

only response is defenseall the information you need you can get from the scientific

journalsmuch genetic weapon research can pass as legitimate research.112

When the World Health Organization was preparing to eradicate smallpox, Alibeks team

sequenced the viruss genes for future studiesthe work was legal and open, but conducted for

the true purpose of engineering chimera viruses that could evade vaccines or treatments.113

Other investigators support that the existing conventions are unsatisfactory. The British

Medical Association published a 21 Jan 99 report stating that the Biological and Toxin Weapons

Convention of 1972 needs urgent strengthening. In Next Generation Bioweapons,

Ainscough summarizes the historical ineffectiveness of the 1972 BWC:

Several signatories of the 1972 BWC, including Iraq and the former Soviet Union,
have participated in activities outlawed by the convention. These events
demonstrate the ineffectiveness of the convention as the sole means for
eradicating biological weapons and preventing further proliferation. Ultimately,
the most effective deterrent to their use has turned out to be the fear of retaliation.
During the Gulf War, it is believed that Iraq was deterred from using biologicals
and chemicals because Saddam Hussein feared nuclear or otherwise
overwhelming retaliation. We cannot be sure that future enemies will be so
intimidated. Certainly, non-state terrorist actors will not be deterred as easily.
Biotechnology has made it possible to inflict mass casualties using only small

29

 scale special operations that can evade detection in attempt to avoid retribution.
In asymmetric warfare, biological weapons are seen as a great equalizer.114

To Ainscoughs conclusion we can add that pairing genetic weapons with MAVs and DNA

detectors may be precise enough to argue that these are not terror weapons at all, hence

increasing the potential for future use. This potential may be reinforced by considering whether

self-defense doctrines permit the envisioned threat system.

Self-defense doctrines typically include necessity, imminent threat, reasonably available

information, lawful purpose, and proportionality.115 With a published and operational US

National Security Strategy justifying at least pre-emptive war doctrine and potentially (as seen

by others) a preventive war doctrine, its not unreasonable to expect potential adversaries to

perceive a more imminent threat to their own security. Unable to match conventional power,

they may see the necessity for an asymmetric response. Precision effects made possible by

synergistic application of MAV and genetic weapon technology would allow proportional

responsesin their minds, the paradigm that these are terror weapons with no military utility

may no longer hold true.

As the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) has been determined to apply to larger

UAVs such as Global Hawk, its worth considering what might apply to restricting MAV

technology. The MTCR is an informal political arrangement to control the proliferation of

rocket and unmanned air vehicle systems capable of delivering weapons of mass destruction and

their associated equipment and technology.116 The increasing payloads, ranges, and

weaponization of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles are leading to assessments of whether they are

subject to this control regime. For example, the category I Annex of controlled technologies

applies to complete rocket and unmanned air vehicles systems capable of delivering a payload of

at least 500kg to a range of at least 300km.117 Equipment subject to the controls tends towards

30

reentry vehicles, boosters, cruise missiles, large UAVs, and the equipment needed to

manufacture, support and operate them. The majority of technologies described for the

hypothetical threat system in this paper would not be subject to the MTCR in its current form.

Precision navigation may be the only restricted area; however, commercial technologies and

swarm delivery methods would be sufficient to get systems close enough for a hand off to

onboard sensors.

Finally, several discussion fora on ethics in genetic research, including the DOEs Genome

Project web-site, omit the topic of genetic weapons, choosing instead to focus on ethical issues

of privacy rights, human test subjects, and designing traits in future generations.118

Deterrence

As Ainscough alluded, non-proliferation should not be our only policy optiondeterrence

should also be considered. One can look to nuclear deterrence theory for foundational concepts,

though much of it is not likely to apply directly in practice. Counterforce doctrines are

unlikelythe small size of these weapons and potential delivery methods (one example being

plain shipping containers of virtually any size) would preclude the existence of a sizable

signature that could be targeted by other means. Countervalue doctrines may also be ineffective

since the country of origin may not be initially obvious. If extended forensic and investigative

effort is required to determine country of origin, will the contest have already been decided?

Defense/Consequence Management

Assuming non-proliferation and deterrence are unsuccessful, defense is also problematic.

Economics do not favor the defense in this scenario. The cost ratio to defend against the V-1 in

WWII was almost 4 to 1.119 Though smaller, the V-1 was similar in scale to manned aircraft. In

a MAV scenario, we would be looking at how to defend against a delivery mechanism several

31

orders of magnitude smaller. Even if they had a measurable Radar Cross Section, increasing

surveillance radar sensitivity in order to detect MAVs would result in overwhelming clutter.

Even if detected, engaging high numbers of small MAVs is challenging. Since it would

presumably take some measure of time for a genetic weapon to achieve its intended effect, the

only effective response may be to develop a rapid assessment and antidote capability.

Response Summary

Sole reliance on existing bans is insufficient as there are emerging loopholes in the face

of novel technologies, and the historical record of nonproliferation conventions contains mixed

results. The BWC should be strengthened, but US policy options should also include a

deterrence component. The particular form of this deterrence component requires careful

thought. Counterforce doctrines are largely inapplicable, and countervalue strategies may be

difficult to implement if the country or party of origin is unclear or non-deterable. Defending

against swarms of such small systems is also problematic. A very comprehensive approach

involving experts from many functional disciplines is required to formulate this approach. This

recommendation is the focus of the next and final chapter.

32

V. Conclusions/Recommendations

This paper began with the premise that technology trends in multiple disciplines may

enable feasible low-cost, very small (inch or less) MAVs carrying powerful and precise genetic

weapons within 20 years, with the ability to create precision effects that may challenge existing

paradigms that ban existing biological weapons. Adversaries looking to asymmetrically counter

conventionally powerful nations may work within loopholes of existing international

conventions, outside of them, or withdraw from them entirely. Counter-proliferation of these

technologies will be problematic, as will defending against the envisioned threat, thus creating

significant potential for technological surprise that may fundamentally shift current constructs of

national power and who possesses such powerat a fraction of the budget required to create and

sustain large conventional forces.

The basic science for key enabling technologies has already been demonstrated. Applied

research and system demonstration of potential platforms and payloads are underway in response

to other requirements such as around the corner reconnaissance and novel medical diagnosis/

treatment. Advancement of the enabling technologies is accelerating in response to these

requirements and other industrial demand. Projected timelines for key enabling technologies are

listed in Table 1. There are multiple competing paths for many of the enabling technologies that

also increase the likelihood of success. The dual use nature of these enabling technologies and

the potential for moral claims to genomic research for the benefit of all nations are likely to make

these enabling technologies available to potential adversaries sooner than we might otherwise

expect. The totality of these observations provides strong support for the premise of this paper,

which justifies beginning to plan potential responses.

33

 Table 1. Key Enabling Technology Availability

Availability Timeline
Enabling Technology (ProjectedP; ActualA)
Map Human Genome 2003 (A)
Mechanical Flying Insect Characterize Insect Flt Dynamics1998(A)
Demonstrate sufficient lift forces2003(A)
Lift-off (off board battery)2004 (P)
Indoor Autonomous Controlled Flt2006(P)
(w/onboard batt, sensors, nav electronics)
Commercially Available2012 (P)
DNA Detection Chip Prototype2003 (A)
Practical Applications2005(P)
Microneedles Prototype2003(A)
Devices on the Market2008(P)
Artificial Chromosomes Prototype1997(A)
Cancer Cell Self-Destruct Code Proteins Bak and Bax determined to disrupt
mitochondria & trigger apoptosis2001 (A)

The principal recommendation of this paper is for NORTHCOM to engage the Joint Staff

and Department of Homeland Security representatives to the National Security Councils

functional Policy Coordination Committee on Proliferation, Counterproliferation, and Homeland

Defense, to begin a dialog in that committee on responses to this potentially emerging threat.

Due to its role in Homeland Security, NORTHCOM is well-suited to work across the many

military, government agency, and private sector participants that should be involved in these

discussions. The Defense Science Board should be tasked to support this activity through an

independent verification of the technical feasibility of MAVs carrying genetic weapons, and to

assist arranging appropriate scientific community participation in response planning. Initial

recommendations for the policy coordination committee to consider are:

1) Protect DNA databases as a matter of national security, not just personal privacy.

2) Consider championing granting of patents to genomic research in order to provide

some measure of additional counter-proliferation protection.

34

 3) Seek to strengthen the biological weapons ban treaty to specifically ban the
development, production, fielding and use of genetic weapons, including direct
injection and artificial chromosome delivery methods that do not require the use of
infectious vectors.

4) Deliberately include the need to prevent using genomic information for weapons
research in ethics materials related to genetic research. Work with the international
medical community to create and administer appropriate oaths to genetic researchers.

5) Place DNA detection technology under export control procedures.

6) Institutionalize a red team process to look across the broad spectrum of emerging
technologies to predict where interaction among them presents paradigm changing
asymmetric opportunities for potential adversaries. Today, what red teaming is
done tends to focus on advances to existing systems, or is stove-piped within a
technology area. Use the red team to independently assess the veracity of claims
made in this paper with panels of experts in related disciplines.

7) Task DARPA to investigate potential defenses against the envisioned threat, such as
evaluating the effectiveness of Radio Frequency (RF) weapons engaging swarms of
prototype MAVs or Berkeleys Mechanical Flying Insect (MFI), and evaluating the
potential effectiveness of existing chemical/biological protective gear against
microneedles. Investigate novel concepts such as equipping forces with bug
zappers that attract/trap/destroy MFIs.

The descriptions and research status of the enabling technologies described in this paper

are completely available in open source materialPandoras Box is opened wide. Given the

potential for technological surprise and the difficulty in defending against MAVs carrying

genetic weapons, it is not too early to begin considering ways to prevent the need to do so. The

recommendations made here are by no means exhaustive, but represent a reasonable point of

departure to begin formulating a response. Strategy consultant Peter Schwartz states almost

every time we get the future wrong, its not because we didnt have good informationits

because we didnt want to see the answer.120 Regarding the scenario presented here, we should

see it coming and make sure were wrong.

35

 Bibliography

Ainscough, Colonel Michael J. Next Generation Bioweapons: The Technology of Genetic

Engineering Applied to Biowarfare and Bioterrorism. Counterproliferation Papers,
Future Warfare Series No. 14, USAF Counterproliferation Center, Air War College, Air
University, Maxwell AFB, AL, April 2002.

Avadhanula, S., R.J. Wood, E. Steltz, J. Yan, and R.S. Fearing. Lift Force Improvements for the
Micromechanical Flying Insect. IEEE International Conference on Intelligent Robots
and Systems, Las Vegas, NV, Oct 28-30, 2003.

Baard, Erik. The DNA Bomb: Modified Crops Are In The Crosshairs Now--You May Be
Next. The Village Voice, 16-22 May 2001. Available from www.villagevoice.com.

Bernstein, Jonathan. An Overview of MEMS Inertial Sensing Technology. February 2003.

Available from www.sensormag.com/articles/0203/14/main.shtml.

Bridges, Andrew. Tiny Flying Robots: Future Masters of Espionage, Exploration. Kansas City
Star, 1 Aug 2002. Available from
siliconvalley.com/mld/siliconvalley/news/editorial/3780047.htm.

Cook, Michelle. The Future of Robots is Positively Buggy, University of British Columbia
Press Release, 4 Sep 2003. Available from
http://www.publicaffairs.ubc.ca/ubcreports/2003/03sep04/robofly.html.

CBW Threats as an Asymmetric Strategy. Rand Corporation, CA. Available from

http://www.rand.org/publications/DB/DB189.1.pdf/DB189.1.sec6.pdf.

Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of

Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and On Their Destruction. Signed at
Washington, London, and Moscow April 10, 1972, Ratification advised by U.S. Senate
December 16 1974, Ratified by U.S. President January 22, 1975, U.S. ratification
deposited at Washington, London, and Moscow March 26, 1975, Proclaimed by U.S.
President March 26, 1975, entered into force March 26, 1975. Available from
http://www.state.gov/www/global/arms/treaties/bwcl.html.

Dickinson, Michael. Transcript of interview on ABCs Quantum, 2 March 2000, produced by

Andrew Holland. Available from http://www.abc.net.au/quantum/stories/s103203.htm.

Ethnic-cleansing weapons. Agence France Presse, 23 January 1999. Available from

http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/27a/005.html.

36

Feynman, Richard P. Theres Plenty of Room at the Bottom, 1959 Talk delivered to annual
meeting of the American Physical Society at the California Institution of Technology,
transcript first published in 1960 issue of Caltechs Engineering and Science, published
on the Web with Caltechs permission at http://www.zyvex.com/nanotech/feynman.html.

Gene Transfer. Genetics Information, Washington DC: Genetics and Public Policy Center,
November 2002. Available from www.dnapolicy.org.

Ghianni, F., T.O. Klaassen, and W.Th. Wenckebach, Antenna Coupled Bi Microbolometers on
Thin Si3N4 Membranes for the Detection of THz Radiation, Department of Applied
Physics, Delft Institute for Microelectronics and Submicron Technology, Delft University
of Technology, The Netherlands. Available from
http://www.tn.tudelft.nl/ti/group/antenn.html.

Goebel, Greg. Miniature UAVs, v 1.2, 1 Jan 03. Available from [email protected].

Huber, Arthur F. Death by A Thousand Paper Cuts, Occasional Paper No. 29, Center for
Strategy and Technology, Air University, Maxwell AFB, AL, July 2002.

Iraqi Drones May Target U.S. Cities, Prophetic Times, Oakland, CA, 1 Mar 2003. Available
from http://treybig.org/PropheticTimes/2003-0301-PT.pdf.

Jana, Michelle. Genealogy Goes High Tech. Newsweek, 3 Nov 2003: 66.

Kaku, Michio. Visions: How Science Will Revolutionize the 21st Century. New York: Anchor
Books, 1997.

Kurzweil, Ray. The Age of Spiritual Machines. New York: Penguin Books, 1999.

Lerner, Eric J. Insect Flight Elucidated. The Industrial Physicist, American Institute of
Physics, October 1999.

Lester, Greg. Chemo, Radiation Trick Cancer Cells to Self-Destruct. UniSci Daily University
Science News, 18 Jun 2001. Available from http://unisci.com/stories/20012/0618011.htm.

Levin, Carol. Health Care: Handheld DNA Detector. PC Magazine, 3 Sep 2002.

Lorber, Azriel. Misguided Weapons: Technological Failure and Surprise on the Battlefield.
Dulles, VA: Brasseys, Inc., 2002.

Microneedles Give Painless Shots. Technology Research News, December 3/10, 2003.
Available from www.trnmag.com.

Newton, Tony. Insect Flight Has Provided The Inspiration For Research Into a Miniature Air
Vehicle. Flight International.com, London, 4 Oct 2002. Available at
http://www.byline.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk.

37

Pae, Peter. Fly On Wall May Have An Engine. Los Angeles Times, 21 June 2002.

Peterson, Christine. Molecular Manufacturing: Societal Implications of Advanced

Nanotechnology, 9 Apr 2003 Testimony to U.S. House of Representatives Committee
on Science.

Practical Nanotube Fiber Near. Technology Research News, June 18/25, 2003. Available from
www.trnmag.com.

Ramares, Kellia. Unholy Grail: The Quest for Genetic Weapons. 11 Mar 2003. Available from
http://www.fromthewilderness.com.

Sanders, Robert. Robotic Fly Gets Its Buzz. UC Berkeley News Release, June 2002.

Sandia National Laboratories. Pac-Man-like microstructure Interacts With Red Blood Cells,
News Release, 15 Aug 2001. Available from http://www.sandia.gov/news-center/news-
releases.

Sandia National Laboratories. Worlds Smallest Microchain Drive Fabricated at Sandia, News
Release, 14 Jan 2002. Available from http://www.sandia.gov/news-center/news-releases.

Schwartz, Peter, Peter Leyden, and Joel Hyatt. The Long Boom: A Vision for the Coming Age of
Prosperity, Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing, 2000.

Shahinpoor, M., Y Bar-Cohen, J.O. Simpson, and J. Smith. Ionic Polymer-Metal Composites
(IPMCs) as Biometric Sensors, Actuators and Artificial Muscles - A Review, Abstract,
IoP Electronic Journals, 1998. Available from http://stacks.iop.org/0964-1726/7/R15.

Smalley, Eric. Chip Senses Trace DNA, Technology Research News, July 30/August 6, 2003.
Available from www.trnmag.com.

Summary of Facts, Coalition Investigation Board (CIB) Report: Tarnak Farms Friendly Fire
Incident Near Kandahar, Afghanistan, 17 Apr 2002. United States Central Command,
MacDill Air Force Base, FL, 14 June 2002.

Syrgley, R.B., and A.L.R. Thomas. Unconventional Lift-Generating Mechanisms in Free-

Flying Butterflies. Nature, 420, 12 Dec 2002.

Tobin, James. To Conquer the Air: The Wright Brothers and the Great Race for Flight. New
York: Free Press, 2003.

Turner, A.P.F, and S.A. Piletsky, Biomimetic SensorsCurrent Status and Future Perspectives,
Cranfield University, UK. Available from
http://www.synthetic-receptors2003.com/2b.01.pdf.

38

Werrell, Kenneth P. Evolution of the Cruise Missile. Air University Press, Maxwell AFB, AL,
1985.

Williams, Ian. The Law of Unintended Consequences: Will the War in Iraq Spur
Proliferation? Global Affairs Commentary, Foreign Policy in Focus. Available from
http://www.fpif.org/commentary/2003/0304syria_body.html.

Wu, W.C., L. Schenato, R.J. Wood, and R.S. Fearing. Biomimetic Sensor Suite for Flight
Control of a Micromechanical Flight Insect: Design and Experimental Results.
Available from http://robotics.eecs.berkeley.edu/~lusche/PAPERS/ICRA03_Sensors.pdf.

39

 Notes

1
The following description of Pandora is from the 1989 Lexicon Universal Encyclopedia: In Greek Mythology,

Pandora (meaning all gifted) was the first woman on Earth, created by Zeus to plague mankind. The gods

bestowed on her such gifts as beauty and charm but also gave her great curiosity. Zeus, seeking to punish man for

accepting the gift of fire that Prometheus stole from heaven, gave Pandora a box containing all the troubles and

diseases that the world now knows. She was warned not to open the box, but her curiosity overcame her. Only

Hope remained inside the box as she quickly closed the lid again.

2
Iraqi Drones May Target U.S. Cities, Prophetic Times, Oakland, CA, 1 Mar 2003, available at

http://treybig.org/PropheticTimes/2003-0301-PT.pdf.

3
CBW Threats as an Asymmetric Strategy, Rand Corp, CA, p. 121, available at

http://www.rand.org/publications/DB/DB189.1.pdf/DB189.1.sec6.pdf.

4
Kaku, Michio. Visions: How Science Will Revolutionize the 21st Century, Anchor Books, New York, 1997, p. 5.

5
From Rand Lindslys Quotations, result of keyword search on technology at http://www.quotationspage.com.

6
Lorber, Azriel. Misguided Weapons: Technological Failure and Surprise on the Battlefield, Brasseys, Inc., Dulles,

VA, 2002, p. 2.

7
Kaku, p. 12.

8
Kaku, p. 151.

9
Kurzweil, Ray. The Age of Spiritual Machines, Penguin Books, New York, 1999, p. 22.

10
Kurzweil, p. 25.

11
Kaku, p. 14.

12
Huber, Arthur F. Death by A Thousand Paper Cuts, Occasional Paper No. 29, Center for Strategy and

Technology, Air University, Maxwell AFB, AL, July 2002, p. 16.

13
Norton, Rob, Unintended Consequences, in the Concise Encyclopedia of Economics, available at

http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/UnintendedConsequences.html .

14
Williams, Ian. The Law of Unintended Consequences: Will the War in Iraq Spur Proliferation? in Global

Affairs Commentary, Foreign Policy in Focus, http://www.fpif.org/commentary/2003/0304syria_body.html.

15
For an assessment of MAV applications in support of Air Force Missions, see Huber, Arthur F. Death by A

Thousand Paper Cuts, Occasional Paper No. 29, Center for Strategy and Technology, Air University, Maxwell

AFB, AL, July 2002; and Kloeppel, Kirk M., Pesky Little Critters, Professional Studies Paper

AU/AWC/KMK/2004-04, Mawell AFB, AL: Air War College, 2004.

16
Goebel, Greg. Miniature UAVs, [email protected] / public domain, v 1.2, 1 Jan 03.

17
Excerpt from Goebel, Greg. Miniature UAVs, [email protected] / public domain, v 1.2, 1 Jan 03.

18
Lerner, Eric J. Insect Flight Elucidated, in The Industrial Physicist news briefs, American Institute of Physics,

October 1999, p. 6.

19
Physical Sciences, Inc. http://psicorp.com/aerospace_biomimetic.shtml.

20
Stone, Morley, Demonstration at Air Force Research Lab Materials Directorate, AFRL/MN, Wright-Patterson

AFB, OH, Sep 2003.

21
Tobin, James, To Conquer the Air: The Wright Brothers and the Great Race for Flight, New York: Free Press,

2003, p. 54.

22
Syrgley, R.B., and A.L.R. Thomas, Unconventional Lift-Generating Mechanisms in Free-Flying Butterflies, in

Nature, 420, 12 Dec 2002, pp. 660-664.

23
Pae, Peter, Fly On Wall May Have An Engine, Los Angeles Times, 21 June 2002.

24
Avadhanula, S., R.J. Wood, E. Steltz, J. Yan, and R.S. Fearing, Lift Force Improvements for the Micromechanical

Flying Insect, IEEE Int. Conf. on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Las Vegas, NV, Oct 28-30, 2003, p. 1.

25
Excerpt from http://www.robotics.eecs.berkeley.edu/~ronf/mfi.html .

26
Sanders, Robert, Robotic Fly Gets Its Buzz, UC Berkeley News Release, June 2002.

27
Dickinson, Michael, transcript of interview on ABCs Quantum, 2 March 2000, produced by Andrew Holland.

Available at http://www.abc.net.au/quantum/stories/s103203.htm .

28
Ibid.

29
Ibid.

30
Ibid.

31
Sanders.

32
Sanders.

40

33
Dickinson.

34
Dickinson

35
Pae.

36
Sanders.

37
Interview with Ron Fearing, Principal Investigator, Micromechanical Flying Insect project, Department of

Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, 6 Feb 2004.

38
Shahinpoor, M., Y Bar-Cohen, J.O. Simpson, and J. Smith (1998). Ionic Polymer-Metal Composites (IPMCs) as

Biometric Sensors, Actuators and Artificial Muscles - A Review, Abstract, IoP Electronic Journals, URL:

stacks.iop.org/0964-1726/7/R15.

39
http://www.biomimetic.com/musclesh.html .

40
Ibid.

41
Ibid.

42
Cook, Michelle, The Future of Robots is Positively Buggy, University of British Columbia Press Release, 4 Sep

2003, http://www.publicaffairs.ubc.ca/ubcreports/2003/03sep04/robofly.html .

43
Wu, W.C., L. Schenato, R.J. Wood, and R.S. Fearing. Biomimetic Sensor Suite for Flight Control of a

Micromechanical Flight Insect: Design and Experimental Results, available at

http://robotics.eecs.berkeley.edu/~lusche/PAPERS/ICRA03_Sensors.pdf.

44
www.acad.carleton.edu/.../ant/Formicinae5.html .

45
http://casswww.edu/personal/ron/CVNC/bug-pics/crane_fly.jpg .

46
MEMS Clearinghouse, http://www.memsnet.org/mems/applications.html.

47
Bernstein, Jonathan. An Overview of MEMS Inertial Sensing Technology, available at

www.sensormag.com/articles/0203/14/main.shtml, February 2003.

48
Ibid.

49
Ibid.

50
Ibid.

51
Analog Devices, Inc., Norwood Massachusetts, http://www.analog.com .

52
Ibid.

53
Worlds Smallest Microchain Drive Fabricated at Sandia, News Release, Sandia National Laboratories, NM,

14 Jan 2002, www.sandia.gov/news-center/news-releases .

54
Bridges, Andrew, Tiny Flying Robots: Future Masters of Espionage, Exploration, Associated Press article run

in the Kansas City Star, 1 Aug 2002, posted at siliconvalley.com/mld/siliconvalley/news/editorial/3780047.htm .

Bridges reports the Berkely MFI uses about a dimes worth of raw materials and that a single penny weighs more

than two dozen of the devices. Cook (cited earlier) reports the UBC dragonfly would cost about $1 in raw

materials.

55
Merkle, Ralph C. http://www.zyvex.com/nano/.

56
Feynman, Richard P. (1959). Theres Plenty of Room at the Bottom, Talk delivered to annual meeting of the

American Physical Society at the California Institution of Technology, transcript first published in 1960 issue of

Caltechs Engineering and Science, published on the Web with Caltechs permission at

http://www.zyvex.com/nanotech/feynman.html
57
Peterson, Christine (2003). Molecular Manufacturing: Societal Implications of Advanced Nanotechnology, 9

Apr Testimony to U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science. Christine Peterson is President, Foresight

Institute.

58
Tour of Air Force Research Laboratory Materials Directorate, Sep 2003.

59
Practical Nanotube Fiber Near, in Technology Research News, www.trnmag.com, June 18/25, 2003.

60
Patch, Kimberly, DNA Assembles Nanotube Transistor, in Technology Research News, www.trnmag.com,

November 20, 2003.

61
Practical Nanotube Fiber Near, in Technology Research News, www.trnmag.com, June 18/25, 2003.
62
http://www.spacedaily.com/news/carbon-01b.html
63
Newton, Tony, Insect Flight Has Provided The Inspiration For Research Into a Miniature Air Vehicle, Flight
International.com, London, http://www.byline.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk , 4 Oct 2002.
64
Huber.
65
Newton.
66
Newton.
67
Goebel.

41

68
Turner, A.P.F, and S.A. Piletsky, Biomimetic SensorsCurrent Status and Future Perspectives, Cranfield

University, UK, available at http://www.synthetic-receptors2003.com/2b.01.pdf.

69
Stone, Morley, Demonstration at Air Force Research Lab Materials Directorate, AFRL/MN, Wright-Patterson

AFB, OH, Sep 2003.

70
SiGe Bolometer Basics, http://www.xenics.com/Products/Sige.php

71
Ghianni, F., T.O. Klaassen, W.Th. Wenckebach, Antenna Coupled Bi Microbolometers on Thin Si3N4 Membranes

for the Detection of THz Radiation, Department of Applied Physics, Delft Institute for Microelectronics and

Submicron Technology, Delft University of Technology, P.O. Box 5046, 2600GA Delft, The Netherlands,

http://www.tn.tudelft.nl/ti/group/antenn.html.

72
Kaku, p. 139.

73
Levin, Carol, Health Care: Handheld DNA Detector, PC Magazine, 3 Sep 2002.

74
Ibid.

75
Ibid.

76
Ibid.

77
Smalley, Eric, Chip Senses Trace DNA, Technology Research News, July 30/August 6, 2003,

www.trnmag.com .

78
Kaku, p. 155

79
Gene Bank article, in Lexicon Universal Encyclopedia, New York, 1989.

80
Kaku, p. 143.

81
Jana, Michelle, Genealogy Goes High Tech, in Newsweek, 3 Nov 2003, p. 66.

82
Sandia National Laboratories, Pac-Man-like microstructure Interacts With Red Blood Cells, News Release, 15

Aug 2001.

83
Sandia National Laboratories.

84
Microneedles Give Painless Shots, in Technology Research News, www.trnmag.com, December 3/10, 2003.

85
Ibid.

86
Ibid.

87
Ibid.

88
This section focuses on potential military utility and the status of technology enablersfor a primer on Genomics,

see the U.S. Department of Energys Genome Program web site, www.ornl.gov/hgmis/pulicat/primer/, or the

Genentech Corporations research web site, www.gene.com/gene/research.

89
Baard, Erik. The DNA Bomb: Modified Crops Are In The Crosshairs Now--You May Be Next, The Village

Voice, 16-22 May 2001, available at www.villagevoice.com .

90
Baard.

91
Ramares, Kellia. Unholy Grail: The Quest for Genetic Weapons, 11 Mar 2003, available at

http://www.fromthewilderness.com.

92
Ramares.

93
Bioinformatics, Genentech Corp, www.gene.com/gene/research/biotechnology/bioinformatics.jsp.

94
Assay and Automation Technology, Genentech Corp, www.gene.com/gene/research/biotechnology/assay.jsp.

95
Apoptosis, and HER Pathway Expertise, Genentech Corp, available at

www.gene.com/gene/research/focusareas/oncology/.

96
Apoptosis, Genentech Corp, www.gene.com/research/focusareas/oncology/apoptosis.jsp.

97
Lester, Greg, Chemo, Radiation Trick Cancer Cells to Self-Destruct, in UniSci Daily University Science News,

18 Jun 2001, available at http://unisci.com/stories/20012/0618011.htm.

98
HER Pathway Expertise, Genentech Corp, available at

www.gene.com/research/focusareas/oncology/herpathwayexpertise.jsp.

99
Gene Transfer, in Genetics Information, www.dnapolicy.org, Genetics and Public Policy Center, Washington

DC, posted November, 2002. Additionally, the first Human Artificial Chromosome was demonstrated at the Case

Western Reserve University School of Medicine in 1997see Harrington, J.J., G. van Bokkelen, R. W. Mays, K.

Gustashaw, and H.F. Willard, Nat. Genet., 15, 345-355.

100
Gene Transfer, in Genetics Information, Genetics and Public Policy Center, Washington DC, November 2002

available at www.dnapolicy.org.

101
Ibid.

102
Ibid.

103
Ethnic-cleansing weapons, Agence France Presse, 23 January 1999. Available at

www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/27a/005.html.

42

104
Opening narrative of the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of

Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and On Their Destruction, Signed at Washington, London, and

Moscow April 10, 1972, Ratification advised by U.S. Senate December 16 1974, Ratified by U.S. President January

22, 1975, U.S. ratification deposited at Washington, London, and Moscow March 26, 1975, Proclaimed by U.S.

President March 26, 1975, entered into force March 26, 1975, posted on U.S. State Dept web site:

www.state.gov/www/global/arms/treaties/bwcl.html. Hereafter referred to as BWC.

105
Ibid.

106
BWC text, article I.

107
BWC State Dept narrative.

108
Lorber, pp 86-88.

109
Baard.

110
BWC text, article XIII.

111
BWC State Dept narrative.

112
Baard.

113
Ibid.

114
Ainscough, Colonel Michael J., Next Generation Bioweapons: The Technology of Genetic Engineering Applied

to Biowarfare and Bioterrorism, Counterproliferation Papers, Future Warfare Series No. 14, USAF

Counterproliferation Center, Air War College, Air University, Maxwell AFB, AL, April 2002.

115
Summary of Facts, Coalition Investigation Board (CIB) Report: Tarnak Farms Friendly Fire Incident Near

Kandahar, Afghanistan, 17 Apr 2002. United States Central Command, MacDill Air Force Base, FL, 14 June 2002,

p. 20.

116
Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) Handbook Annex, p. i.

117
Ibid.

118
Human Genome Project Information, Ethical, Legal, and Social Issues, U.S. Department of Energy, available at

www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/elsi.shtml.

119
Werrell, Kenneth P. Evolution of the Cruise Missile, Air University Press, Maxwell AFB, AL, 1985. p. 61.

120
Schwartz, Peter, Peter Leyden, and Joel Hyatt, The Long Boom: A Vision for the Coming Age of Prosperity,

Perseus Publishing, Cambridge, MA, 2000.

43