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Historical background of Islamic psychology

Origins and History of Psychology:

The history of psychology was shaped by Ancient Greek wisdom for many centuries, until the Islamic scholars carried the Greek texts to the great Houses of Wisdom. Plato, Aristotle, Hippocrates and Glen were the early scholars who discussed the psychology and human mind. The base of psychology was set by Plato who used the idea of psyche, a word which described both the mind and the soul. Further his idea was purified by Aristotle, Hippocrates and Glen. If we examine the historical background under which Muslim scholarship developed, we will find that it arose under the umbrella of philosophy, which encompassed almost all areas of human enquiry. Philosophy, in most simplistic terms, refers to the knowledge of all things, both divine and human. It was during the 8th and 9th centuries that Alexandria and Syria became the center of philosophy influenced mainly by the Greek thought and also to some extent by Indian and Persian thought. Al-Mamun (813933), a caliph from the Abbassid dynasty, showed interest in getting Greek works translated into Arabic. He established a philosophical academy Baitul Hikmah that stimulated interest in and discussions among Muslim scholars on philosophical issues, resulting in translations of Greek philosophical works, commentaries and some original treatises in many areas of knowledge. Muslims were attracted to the field of philosophy for reasons including the Quran verses that exhort man to think about existence, nature, qualities of God, and the hereafter; the hadith of the Prophet emphasizing values of knowledge. The unique characteristic of Muslim philosophy is that it blended foreign philosophies with Islamic thought resulting in a change in the Hellenistic philosophy itself. As opposed to the Greeks who had revolted from the Christian religious dogmas, Muslims actually reconciled religion with philosophy. One might ask why it is necessary to explore the contributions of Muslim scholars who lived centuries ago and how such contributions are relevant for the present time. There are in fact, several benefits from this endeavor. Todays Muslims are generally oblivious of the rich legacy of their ancestors whose contributions were generally based on Islamic principles and relevant for all times and places. Most important of all and in majority of the cases, their Islamic knowledge was guided by Divine injunctions and thus believed to be free from human errors. In the area of psychology, we also find that it was the early Muslim scholars who originated many psychological theories and practices prevalent today. While a lot is written about their works, not much is readily available in the English language.

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Muslim And Islamic Philosophy: Muslim Philosophy:

It is also important here to make a distinction between Muslim and Islamic philosophy as the two are not necessarily the same. The term Muslim philosophy generally refers to the works of those Muslim thinkers who were highly influenced by Greek thought whether or not they liked it. It includes metaphysics and other philosophical concepts not only of the early scholars but of different schools of thought that emerged within Islam over the years.

Islamic Philosophy:
The term Islamic philosophy is narrower in approach and draws ideas mainly from Quran and Hadith. It is related to the external (Shariya) aspects of the Quran as well as the hidden meaning (Haqiqah) of its verses. Islamic philosophy is actually an endeavor to get to this Haqiqah, which is the sole reality and the only truth as well as the ultimate goal of Islamic philosophy.

Muslim Psychology:
Muslim philosophers wrote in areas such as: Relationship between religion and Philosophy. First Cause. Proofs of Gods existence. Theory of Creation and Evolution Theory of Soul

While in the beginning, Muslim philosophy concerned itself mainly with theological issues, its second phase led to the development of mysticism. In the third phase, which is characterized by philosophy proper, the Muslim scholars contributed significantly to the natural sciences as well. As far as psychology is concerned, we see the contributions of Muslim scholars at each stage, although the nature and extent of their contributions both varied and overlapped. Early Muslim scholars wrote extensively in the area of human psychology, although, the term psychology did not exist at that time and such endeavors were mostly a part of philosophical writings. , it is important to remember that the Muslim scholars did not have a specific term for

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psychology and did not identify themselves as psychologists. Islamic scholars did not practice the discipline in the modern sense of the word and wrapped it together with their standard, holistic approach to medical matters. In the writings of Muslim scholars, there were two terms were used: Nafs (Self or Soul) Fitrah (Human Nature)

The insightful views of the Islamic scholars towards mental issues saw a huge improvement upon the treatment of cases. The Islamic rulers set up specialist hospitals in Damascus, Cairo, Baghdad and other major centers across the Islamic world, by as early as the Eighth Century. Whilst this innovation did not mean that every single patient received treatment, and superstition still held sway across large swathes of the Islamic world, it was an improvement on the European ideas of demonic possession and witchs curses. Certainly, the Islamic scholars were instrumental in equating mental illness with physical ailments, understanding that mind and body shared a tangible link. This led to many advances in the study of the mind, with the setting up of hospitals and the recognition by Islamic physicians of a range of mental ailments. Whilst there is little doubt that this Islamic psychology was linked to Islamic theology and the religiosity of the soul, the Muslim scholars still removed the ideas of demonic possession or spiritual sickness from the canon of medicine. Their meticulous observations certainly created the foundations of the history of psychology and influenced modern thoughts and theories.

Quran and Movement:

Hadith

The Holy Quran tackles the different aspects of the human character, whether physical, psychic, or spiritual, and deals with all the spheres of mans life. Tackling these aspects and describing how they should be in harmony with each other guides man to lead a balanced and hence a successful life in which he is motivated to be positive and active and play his vital role in daily life. Some of the aspects are as below:

Investigation. Taqwa. Courage and Hope. STRENGTHEN and FAITH in Allah.

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Investigation:
Man has curious nature so he is advised in Quran to explore the facts of things around him so he is left with no confusion in mind and has conceptual reasoning to what he follows. For instance, Allah Almighty draws mans attention to the fact that all things in the Heavens and the earth are indeed subjected to him, so that he may make use of them for his interests and reflect upon the truth behind their creation. Allah Almighty says [Al-Quran 45:13]:

Translation:
And He has subjected to you whatever is in the heavens and whatever is on the earth all from Him. Indeed in that are signs for a people who give thought.

Taqwah:
Allah also warns man against the consequences of yielding to the base desires and the temptations of this life and is advised not to loosen his connections with Allah. This is implied in His words [AlQuran 3:14]:

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Translation:
Beautified for people is the love of that which they desire of women and offspring, heaped-up sums of gold and silver, fine branded horses, and cattle and tilled land. That is the enjoyment of worldly life, but Allah has with Him the best return.

Our beloved Holy Prophet has said: "What I have forbidden to you, avoid; what I have ordered you [to do], do as much of it as you can. It was only their excessive questioning and their disagreeing with their prophets that destroyed those who were before you." Reference: Hadith # 9 An-Nawawi's Forty Hadiths

Courage and Hope:

Bring your potential into play. Success in Life is the thing that gives the Boost to personality. The successful person, according to the Holy Quran, is one marked by undertaking its responsibilities in this life within the available capabilities and potentials. Allah Almighty says: [Al-Quran 22:78]

Translation:

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And strive for Allah with the striving due to Him. He has chosen you and has not placed upon you in the religion any difficulty. [It is] the religion of your father, Abraham. Allah named you "Muslims" before [in former scriptures] and in this [revelation] that the Messenger may be a witness over you and you may be witnesses over the people. So establish prayer and give zakah and hold fast to Allah. He is your protector; and excellent is the protector, and excellent is the helper. And Quran tells us in the verses [Al-Quran 24:38]:

Translation:
That Allah may reward them [according to] the best of what they did and increase them from His bounty. And Allah gives provision to whom He wills without account. As The Prophet PBUH said, The bravest is one who overcomes his desires than him who conquers his enemies; for the hardest victory is over self. So a believer should never get frustrated by the ups and downs in the life as he knows he will not be burdened beyond his potential and verily Allah knows the Best.

Strengthen and Faith in llah:

True faith builds a persons character and gives it all lofty qualities. When we refer to the Quran we find true believers portrayed as truthful, truthful, worthy of others respect, forgiving, generous, honest, and so on. These noble qualities bring one peace of mind, enhance ones ability to give, and make one more active and positive in the life. Thus it is Allahs words that guide us to the perfection of personality as the Quran says [Al-Quran 67:14]:

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Translation:
Should He not know what He created? And He is the Subtle, the Aware As or beloved prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) said: Narrated by Umar ibn al-Khattab: Umar heard the Prophet (S.A.W) say: 'If you put your faith completely in Allah, He will arrange for your sustenance in the same way as He provides for the birds. They go out in the morning with their stomachs empty and return filled in the evening. Reference: (Tirmidhi, 79)

An other hadees states about the faith as follow: Umm al-Mu'minin, Umm Salama, whose name was Hind bint Abi Umayya Hudhayfa alMakhzumiyya reported that the Prophet (S.A.W), used to say when he left his house:

"In the name of Allah. I have relied on Allah. O Allah, I seek refuge with You from misguiding others or being misguided, or slipping or making others slip, or wronging others or being wronged, or being ignorant or being made ignorant.

If you are tensed and stressed then always refer Quran as he holds the solution of each and every problem and thus revealed for the Healing of Hearts:

Allah Almighty says [Al-Quran 17:82]:

Translation:

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And We send down of the Qur'an that which is healing and mercy for the believers, but it does not increase the wrongdoers except in loss.

And in another verses Allah Tala Say [Al-Quran 57:22]:

Translation:
No disaster strikes upon the earth or among yourselves except that it is in a register before We bring it into being indeed that, for Allah , is easy

Translation:
We do indeed know that your heart is distressed at what they say. But celebrate the praises of your Lord, and be of those who prostrate themselves in adoration. And serve your Lord until there come unto you the hour that is certain. [Al-Quran15:97-99]

Life is to identify its true meaning to have eternal contentment and Quran defines it clearly via all these above mentioned verses and many more. We as believers just need to stick to serving and obeying Allah in preparation for The HOUR that is certain, that is, death. Hence, adherence to

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glorifying Most High heart and soul throughout ones life is the way that brings one inner happiness and peace of mind and brings out one from distress and life pressures.

Thinkers:
Some of the Muslim thinkers who contributed towards the field of psychology are as below:

Al Ashath Bin Qais Al-Kindi Ali Ibn Sahl Rabban At-Tabari Abu Zaid Al-Balkhi Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya Al-Razi Abu Nasr Mohammad Ibn Al-Farakh (Al-Farabi) Abul Hasan Ali Abbas Al-majusi Ikhwan Al-Safa: The Bretheren of Purity Abu Ali Ahmad B. Muhammad B. Yakub Ibn Miskawayh Abu Ali Al-Husayn B. Abd Allah Ibn Sina Abu Hamid Muhammad Al-Ghazali Abu Bakr Mohammed Bin Yahya Al-Saigh Ibn Bajjah Ibn Al-Ayn Zarbi Abu Bakar Muhammad Bin Abdul Malik Ibn Tufayl Abul Walid Muhamad Bin Ahmad Ibn Rushd Fakhr Al-Din Muhammad Umar Al Razi Muhyid-Din Muhammad Ibn Ali (Ibn Arabi)

Al Ashath Bin Qais Al-Kindi (801866)

Al Kindi (Latin, Alchendius) from Baghdad is considered as the first Muslim philosopher. He wrote more than 239 titles including books and short treatises. Those related to psychology are: On Sleep and Dreams, First Philosophy, and the Eradication of Sorrow. Kindi explained Sorrow as a spiritual (Nafsani) grief caused by loss of loved ones or personal belongings, or by failure in obtaining what one lusts after. He then added, If causes of pain are discernable, the cures can be found (Hamarnah, 1984, p. 362). Kindi recommended that if we do not tolerate losing or dislike being deprived of what is dear to us, then we should seek after riches in the world of the intellect. In it we should treasure our precious and cherished gains where they can never be dispossessedfor that which is owned by our senses could easily be taken away from us. He said that sorrow is not within us we bring it upon ourselves. He used cognitive strategies to combat depression and discussed functions of the soul and intellectual operations in human beings. He reminded that the souls through the act of the will develop a good constitution. Commentators of Kindis works have indicated that he drew his observations and writings partly from Aristotle, e.g. his writings on Dreams and Intellect are taken from Aristotelian and Platonic ideas. Kindi writes in his epistle On

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the Soul that it is basically a synopsis of the larger works of both Aristotle and Plato. He also distinguished between the upper and the lower worlds. While the upper world consists of uncreated beings like the intellect, nature and the soul, the lower world comprises of created beings like Body, Creation, matter and Form that are finite. He mentioned that God cannot be understood by intellect that actually led to negative theology .
Ali Ibn Sahl Rabban At-Tabari (838870)

At-Tabari, a Persian and a Muslim convert, was a pioneer in the field of child development, which he elucidated in his book Firdaus al Hikmah. Firdaus is basically a medical text that is divided into 7 sections and 30 treatises (360 chapters). Tabari discusses ancient Indian texts in this book and refers to the contributions of Sushtra and Chanakya in relation to medicine including psychotherapy (Hamarnah, 1984). He also emphasized the need for psychotherapy and urged the physicians to be smart and witty to make their patients feel better. People frequently feel sick due to delusive imagination, at-Tabari explained, but the competent doctor can treat them by wise counseling. He relates the story of a practitioner who would ask his patient did you eat grapes or watermelon during the season of such fruits. Such intuitive questions would win the rapport and confidence of the patient and would lead to a positive therapeutic outcome. At-Tabari emphasized strong ties between psychology and medicine.
Abu Zaid Al-Balkhi (850934)

Abu Zaid al-Balkhi is probably the first cognitive and medical psychologist who was able to clearly differentiate between neuroses and psychoses, to classify neurotic disorders, and to show in detail how rational and spiritual cognitive therapies can be used to treat each one of his classified disorders. Al-Balkhi classified neuroses into four emotional disorders: fear and anxiety, anger and aggression, sadness and depression, and obsessions. He also compares physical with psychological disorders and showed their interaction in causing psychosomatic disorders. He suggested that just as a healthy person keeps some drugs and First Aid medicines nearby for unexpected physical emergencies, he should also keep healthy thoughts and feelings in his mind for unexpected emotional outbursts. Al-Balkhi said that it is the balance between the mind and body that brings about health and the imbalance will cause sickness. Furthermore, al-Balkhi said that the treatment of a body follows opposite and reciprocal approaches with respect to the imbalance, e.g., fevercold surface, chillheat. This approach is called al-ilaj bi al-did which is similar to the term reciprocal inhibition introduced by Joseph Wolpe in 1969. Al-Balkhi classified depression into three kinds: everyday normal huzn or sadness, which is today known as normal depression, endogenous depression and reactive depression. Endogenous depression originated within the body while reactive depression originated outside the body.
Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya Al-Razi (864932)

A Persian known as Rhazes in the West, Al-Razi promoted psychotherapy, just like his mentor, alTabari. He pointed out that hopeful comments from doctors encouraged patients, made them feel better, and promoted speedier recovery. Al-Razi believed that an unexpected high emotional outburst has a quick curative effect on psychological, psychosomatic and organic disorders. He was

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a master of prognosis and psychosomatic medicine and also anatomy. Al-Razi wrote a treatise on how to measure intelligence, although English translation of this work could not be found. His Kitab al-Hawi or al-Hawi fit-Tibb is the longest work ever written in Islamic medicine and he was recognized as a medical authority in the West up to the 18th century. In this compendium, Razi compares medical opinions of Greek and Arab scholars with his own and unlike certain other scholars of his time he criticized the works of Hippocrates and Galen, the celebrated Greek scholars. Some of the other works of al-Razi include Mujarabbat, a book on hospital experiences, al-Tibb alMansuri, a book on medicinal healing art, and al-Tibb al-Ruhani, where he discusses ways to treat the moral and psychological ills of the human spirit. He wrote that sound medical practice depends on independent thinking and treated soul as a substance and the brain as its Instrument. He also wrote that religious compulsions can be overcome by reason for better mental health.
Abu Nasr Mohammad Ibn Al-Farakh (Al-Farabi) (870950)

Al Farabi, also known as Alpharabius, Avenasser, or Abynazar was Turkish. He wrote his treatise on Social Psychology, most renowned of which is his Model City. Al Farabi stated that an isolated individual could not achieve all the perfections by himself, without the aid of other individuals. It is the innate disposition of every man to join another human being or other men in the labor he ought to perform. Therefore, to achieve what he can of that perfection, every man needs to stay in the neighborhood of others and associate with them. He also wrote on the cause of dreamsChapter 24 in the Book of Opinions of the people of the Ideal City and made distinction between dream interpretation and the nature and causes of dreams. Al Farabi also wrote a treatise on the Meanings of the Intellect and the therapeutic effects of music on the soul. Like other Muslim philosophers of his time, al-Farabi wrote commentaries on the Greeks, independent treatises, and refutations on the works of both philosophers and theologians. Many of his treatises on metaphysics are considered the crown of his intellectual works, e.g., Treatise on the aims of Aristotles Metaphysics, Bezels of Wisdom, The Book on the One and the Unity, Explanatory remarks on Wisdom, etc.
Abul Hasan Ali Abbas Al-majusi (D. 995)

Al-Majusi known in Europe, as Haly Abbas was Persian. His ancestors followed the Zoroastrian religion (majus) and star worship during the early Islamic period. He wrote Al-Kitab Al-Malaki (alKamil) or The Royal Notebook, which is one of the great classical works of Islamic medicine and has been able to maintain its frame alongside the Canon of Avicenna right through the middle ages and into modern times. He was an appointed physician of King Adud-ad-Dawlah when he wrote this book. In this book that was translated into Latin twice and called Liber Regius (later called The Complete Art of Medicine), Majusi writes about the entire health field including mental diseases and the brain. Majusi described the anatomy, physiology and diseases of the brain including sleeping sickness, loss of memory, hypochondria, coma, hot and cold meningitis, vertigo epilepsy, love sickness, and hemiplegia. He emphasized preserving health by preventing diseases and natural healing rather than medical treatment or drugs that should come as a last resort. The book comprises of 20 treatises covering entire field of medicine the first 10 treatises covers theory (399 chapters) and the last 10 covers practice in 644 chapters. Majusis true belief in Allah is evident in the worship and styles of expression throughout this compendium. A lot is also covered on doctorpatient relationship, especially the moral aspects of the medical professional. It is also

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interesting to note the details and importance of research methodology for any good book which is not much different to the modern-day research in the West.
Ikhwan Al-Safa: The Bretheren of Purity (10th century A.D.)

This group of scholars who kept their identities a secret, originated in Basra, Southern Iraq. Their 52 or 53 epistles or Rasail containing spiritual and philosophical knowledge became well known by the end of the 10th century. Their works are generally divided into mathematical and natural sciences, psychology, metaphysics, and theology. These scholars drew their knowledge from diverse sources including the Torah and the Gospels, earlier Greek philosophers, astronomy, nature, and other Divine Books. Consequently, their writing is often called syncretic. These scholars tried to work out a doctrine that would replace the historical religions as they believed that there is no compulsion in religion. However, they recommended that all men should follow a religion, by which they meant that laws are necessary for a civilized society. Yet they believed that the Quran is the final revelation and Muhammad is the Prophet of God. In their epistles, these scholars wrote about soul, the brain, and the process of thinking. They divided the soul into the vegetative, animal, and human (rational) soul. While the vegetative soul works on nutrition, growth and reproduction, the animal soul is concerned with movement and sensation (perception and emotion). The rational soul is restricted to man and possesses the faculty of thinking and talking. They considered brain as the most important organ where higher functions like perception and thought take place; the prevailing belief was that it is the heart that is the master organ. They viewed that the thinking process begins with the five external senses that send the messages through the fine nerves to the brain where actual processing occur in different locations. Their description of the metaphysical origin of life on earth and the fall of the individual soul from the heavens to the earth as well as their reunion with the world soul is most fascinating but outside the scope of this paper.
Abu Ali Ahmad B. Muhammad B. Yakub Ibn Miskawayh (9411030)

Ibn Miskawayh was a thinker who wrote on a wide variety of topics in cluding psychology. However, he is well-known for his works on a system of ethics, especially, the Taharat al-araq (Purity of Dispositions) also known as Tahdhib al-Akhlaq (Cultivation of Morals). In his book al-Fauz al-Asgar (The Lesser Victory), Ibn Miskawayh talked about the proof of the existence of God, of prophet hood and of the soul. Regarding development of virtues, he combined Platonic and Aristotelian ideas with a touch of Sufism and considered virtue as perfecting the aspect of soul representing humanity, i.e. reason that distinguishes humans from animals. He suggests that we need to control our emotions and develop traits to restraint ourselves from faults. His arguments on the futility of the fear of death is interesting, as he reminds that like reason itself the soul and morality cannot be taken away. The concept of morality preached by Ibn Miskawayh was closely related to problems with the soul. Ibn Miskawayh introduced what is now known as self reinforcement and response cost. Ibn Miskawayh narrated that a Muslim, who feels guilty about doing something pleasurable to his al-nafs al-ammarah, should learn to punish himself by psychological, physical or spiritual ways such as paying money to the poor, fasting, etc.
Abu Ali Al-Husayn B. Abd Allah Ibn Sina (9801037)

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Ibn Sina, known as Avecenna in the West was from Bukhara. He was known primarily as a philosopher and a physician, but he also contributed in the advancement of all sciences in his time. In the field of psychology, Ibn Sina wrote about mind, its existence, the mindbody relationship, sensation, perception, etc. in his famous book ash Shifa (Healing). At the most common level, the influence of the mind on the body can be seen in voluntary movements, i.e., whenever the mind wishes to move the body, the body obeys. The second level of the influence of mind on the body is from emotions and the will. Say for instance, if a plank of wood is placed as a bridge over a chasm, one can hardly creep over it without falling because one only pictures oneself in a possible fall so vividly that the natural power of limbs accord with it. Strong emotions can actually destroy the temperament of the individual and lead to death by influencing vegetative functions. On the other hand, a strong soul could create conditions in another person as wellbased on this phenomenon, he accepts the reality of hypnosis (al Wahm al-Amil). He divided human perceptions into the five external and five internal senses: (a) sensus communis or the seat of all senses that integrates sense data into percepts, (b) the imaginative faculty which conserves the perceptual images, (c) the sense of imagination, which acts upon these images by combining and separating them (by intellect in humans) and is therefore the seat of practical intellect, (d) Wahm or instinct that perceives qualities like good and bad, love and hate, etc. and it forms the basis of ones character whether or not influenced by reason, (e) intentions (mani) that conserves in memory all these notions. He wrote about the potential intellect (within man) and active intellect (outside man) and that cognition cannot be mechanically produced but involves intuition at every stage. According to him, ordinary human mind is like a mirror upon which a succession of ideas reflects from the active intellect. Before the acquisition of knowledge that emanates from the active intellect the mirror was rusty but when we think, the mirror is polished and it remains to direct it to the sun (active intellect) so that it could readily reflect light. Ibn Sina also gave psychological explanations of certain somatic illnesses. He considered philosophizing as a way of making the soul reach perfection. Ibn Sina always linked the physical and psychological illnesses together. He called melancholia (depression) a type of mood disorder in which the person may become suspicious and develop certain types of phobias. Anger he said heralded the transition of melancholia to mania. He explained that humidity inside the head can contribute to mood disorders. This happens when the amount of breath changes. Happiness increases the breath, which leads to increased moisture inside the brain but if this moisture goes beyond its limits the brain will lose control over its rational thought leading to mental disorders. He also used psychological methods to treat his patients. Ibn Sina also wrote about symptoms and treatment of love sickness (Ishq), nightmare, epilepsy, and weak memory.
Abu Hamid Muhammad Al-Ghazali (10581111)

Al-Ghazali was born in Tus, Khurasan, and later died in the same place. He was a philosopher, theologian, jurist, and mystic. While he was a renowned scholar and achieved great respect in Baghdad, he left Baghdad and retired in Damascus. Ghazali traveled in the holy lands and questioned his senses knowing that they could deceive. He is considered the architect of the latter development of Islam. It is said that with al Ghazali, an age came to an end and a new age began. After Ghazali, the voices of different schools were not stilled but a fresh measure of unity and harmony was achieved. Some of his great works include, Ihya Ulum ad Din (Revival of the Religious Sciences), Al- Munqid min ad-Dalal (the Savior from Error), Tahafut al-Fhalasifa (Destruction of the Philosophy), Kimiya as-Saadah (Alchemy of Felicity), Ya Ayyuhal walad (O Young Man), Mishkat al-Anwar (the Niche of the Lights). In all, he wrote about 70 books. Ghazalis

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description of human nature centered on discovering the self, its ultimate purpose, and causes of its misery and happiness. He described the concept of self by four terms: Qalb, Ruh, Nafs, and Aql, which all signify a spiritual entity. He prefers the term Qalb for self in all his writings. Self has an inherent yearning for an ideal, which it strives to realize and it is endowed with qualities to help realize it. For fulfilling bodily needs the self has motor and sensory motives. Motor motives comprise of propensities and impulses. Propensities are of two types, appetite and anger. Appetite urges hunger, thirst and sexual craving. Anger takes form in rage, indignation, and revenge. Impulse resides in the muscles, nerves and tissues and moves the organs to fulfill the propensities. Sensory motives (apprehension) include five external, i.e., sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch and five internal motives, i.e., common sense (Hiss Mushtarik)it synthesizes sensuous impressions carried to the brain while giving meaning to them, imagination (Takhayyul)enables man to retain image from experience, reflection (Tafakkur)brings together relevant thoughts and associates or dissociates them as it considers fit; it has no power to create anything new, which is not already present in the mind, recollection (Tadhakkur)remembers the outer form of objects as in memory; Tadhakkur recollects the meaning, and memory (Hafiza)impressions received through the senses that are stored in the memory. The internal senses have no special organs but are located in the different regions of the brain. For example, memory is located in the hinder lobe, imagination in the frontal lobe, and reflection in the middle folds of the brain. These inner senses help the person to learn from past experiences and foresee future situations. In Ihya, he asserts that animals share all the five internal senses with man. In Mizan al Amal, his later work, he clarifies that animals do not possess a well-developed reflective power. Animals think mostly in terms of pictorial ideas in a simple way and are incapable of complex association and dissociation of abstract ideas involved in reflection. The self carries two additional qualities, which distinguishes man from animals enabling man to attain spiritual perfection. These qualities are Aql (intellect) and Irada (will). Intellect is the fundamental rational faculty, which enables man to generalize and form concepts and gain knowledge. Will in man is different from animal. In man, the will is conditioned by the intellect while in animal; it is conditioned by anger and appetite. All these powers control and regulate the body. The Qalb (heart) controls and rules over them. The heart has six powers: appetite, anger, impulse, apprehension, intellect, and will. The last three depends on the other three and differentiates humans from animals. Only humans have all six, animals have first three. According to Ghazali, knowledge is either innate or acquired. Acquired knowledge is of two kinds: phenomenal (material world) and spiritual (God, soul, etc.). Knowledge can be acquired through imitation, logical reasoning, contemplation and/or intuition. There are four elements in mans nature: The sage (intellect and reason), the pig (lust and gluttony), the dog (anger) and the devil (brute character). The last three rebels against the first and consequently different people have such powers in different proportions. Ghazali divides Nafs into three categories based on the Quran: Nafs Ammarah (12:53) that exhorts one to freely indulge in gratifying passions and instigates to do evil. Nafs Lawammah (75:2) the conscience that directs man towards right or wrong, and Nafs Mutmainnah (89:27)a self that reaches the ultimate peace. The soul in the body is compared to the king in his kingdom. The members of ones body and faculties are like the artisans and workers and intellect is like a wise vizier, while desire is a wicked servant, and anger like the police in the city. If the king avails himself of his vizier in his administration and turns away from the counsel of wicked servant and keeps the servant and the police in their proper places then the affairs of the state are set right. Similarly, the powers of the soul become balanced if it keeps anger under control and makes the

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intellect dominate desire. A perfect soul has to pass through several stages, i.e., sensuous (man is like a moth, has no memory and beats again and again the candle), imaginative (lower animal), instinctive (higher animal), rational (transcends animal stage and apprehends objects beyond the scope of his senses) and divine (that apprehends reality of spiritual things). He explained that diseases are of two kinds, physical and spiritual. Spiritual diseases are more dangerous and result from ignorance and deviation from God. The different spiritual diseases are: self-centeredness, addiction to wealth, fame and status, ignorance, cowardice, cruelty, lust, doubt (waswas), malevolence, calumny, envy, deceit, avarice. Ghazali used the therapy of opposites, i.e., use of imagination in pursuing the opposite, e.g., ignorance/ learning, hate/love, etc. He described personality as an integration of spiritual and bodily forces. Ghazali believed that closeness to God is equivalent to normality whereas distance from God leads to abnormality. For Ghazali, man occupies a position midway between animals and angels and his distinguishing quality is knowledge. He can either rise of the level of the angels with the help of knowledge or fall to the levels of animals by letting his anger and lust dominate him. He also emphasized that knowledge of Ilm al Batin is Fard kifayah or incumbent on every person and asked people to do Tazkiya Nafs or purification of self. Good conduct can only develop from within and does not need total destruction of natural propensities.
Abu Bakr Mohammed Bin Yahya Al-Saigh Ibn Bajjah (10951138)

Ibn Bajjah or Avempace was from Spain. He based his psychological studies on physics. In his essay on Recognition of the Active Intelligence he explained that it is the most important ability of man and wrote many essays on sensations and imaginations. However, he concluded that knowledge cannot be acquired by senses alone but by active intelligence, which is the governing intelligence of nature. He begins his discussion of the soul with the definition that bodies are composed of matter and form and intelligence is the most important part of mansound knowledge is obtained through intelligence, which alone enables one to attain prosperity and build character. He writes on the unity of the rational soul as the principle of the individual identity, yet, by virtue of its contact with the Active Intelligence becomes one of those lights that gives glory to God. His definition of freedom is that when one can think and act rationally and the aim of life should be to seek spiritual knowledge and make contact with Active Intelligence and thus with the Divine.
Ibn Al-Ayn Zarbi (D. 1153)

Born in Ayn Zarbi (Anazarbos), a city southeast of Sicilia, Zarbi moved to Baghdad for education where he was recognized for his healing art. On top of being a physician, he was also acknowledged as in astronomy, astrology, logic, mathematics and natural sciences. Ibn Zarbi wrote seven treatises of which only two are extant. His book on healing art al-Kafi fit-Tibb describes physical and mental illnesses and their treatments. On his chapter on brain and mental infirmities the author describes physical basis for intellectual loss, mental confusion, amnesia, restlessness, lethargy, epilepsy, etc. It is important to note that he never referred to influences of evil spirits in his discussions of mental illnesshis approach remained objective and free of cultural influences of the time.
Abu Bakar Muhammad Bin Abdul Malik Ibn Tufayl (11101185)

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Ibn Tufayl or Abubacer came from Spain, served as a court physician and qazi to the Almohad Caliph Abu Yaqub Yusuf who took pride in assembling more scholars and thinkers than any other monarch in the Muslim West. Ibn Tufayl wrote two medical treatises and several works on natural philosophy including Treatment of the Soul. His philosophical tale gave a unique concept of man as Hayy bin Yaqzam (The Living, Son of the Awake), which shows that an individual has enough mystic and philosophical powers, even if he lived on an island, to reach the ultimate truth provided he has the desired aptitude to do so. This book was translated into Latin by Pococke as Philosophicus Autodidactus that inspired Daniel Defoe to write Robinson Crusoe. The allegory by Ibn Tufayl is actually based on the Floating Man thought experiment written by Ibn Sina while he was prisoned in the castle of Fardajan (near Hamadhan) and refers to the Active Intellect through which God communicated His Truth to human beings. In his allegory, Ibn Tufayl tries to show that not only language, culture and even religion may be unnecessary for the development of a perfect mindthey may even cause hindrance in such development. He distinguishes between philosophy and religion by saying that although they take to the same truth, philosophy is not meant for everybody. Religion on the other hand, takes an exoteric approach to understand the existence of God through symbols and the transgressing of religion and philosophy into each other is bound to fail. This argument of course, will not be acceptable to many scholars.
Abul Walid Muhamad Bin Ahmad Ibn Rushd (11261198)

Ibn Rushd or Averroes was from Spain but established himself in Morocco. He maintained that thought is passive, and abstraction is active. There is existence of faculty of the mind, which is designed to receive intelligible forms, from the active intellect. This faculty or disposition is referred to as the passive intellect or the imagination, and since it is partially constituted by the body, it perishes with it. For Ibn Rushd, if an individual is to understand something, the active intellect must be connected with his mind in some way.The active intellect is the efficient cause of the forms in the imagination, and is the form of human beings in that it specifies for them as their proper function and production of abstract idea and contemplation. He argues that there are three types of intellect. They are the receiving intellect, the producing intellect, and the produced intellect. The first two of these intellects are eternal, but the third is generable and corruptible in one sense, and eternal in another sense. He believed that we cannot use sensation alone as the object of our thought, but must also employ imagination to detach us sufficiently from the sense data, for objectivity to be possible. In Fasl al Maqal (The Decisive Treatise) Ibn Rushd described three-fold hierarchy of learning. The nature of man is on different levels with respect to their path to assent. One of them comes to assent through dialectical argument (Jadali). Another comes to assent through demonstration (Burhan). The third comes to assent through rhetorical argument (Khatabi). He believes that the reason why we received a scripture with both apparent (zahir) meaning and the inner meaning (Batin) lies in the diversity of peoples natural capacities and the difference of their innate predisposition with regard to assent. The reason why we have received in scripture texts whose apparent meaning contradict each other is to draw attention of those who are well grounded in science to the interpretation, which reconciles them.
Fakhr Al-Din Muhammad Umar Al Razi (1149/501209)

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Al-Razi was from Persia. According to him, human soul differs in nature; some are noble, some are mean and debased. Some are kind and tender and some despotic, dominating; some do not like the body and some desire to rule and achieve position. They never deviate from their nature and disposition but by training and caution they may change their manners and habits. Al Razi in his book, Kitab al Nafs Wal Ruh analyzes the different types of pleasures as sensuous and intellectual and explains their comparative relations with each other. The nature of sensuous pleasure for both man and animals does not constitute the distinctive goal of human bliss of perfection. In fact, al Razi asserts that a careful scrutiny of pleasure would reveal that it consists essentially in the elimination of pain. For instance, the hungrier a man is, the greater is his enjoyment of pleasure of eating. Moreover, the gratification of pleasure is proportionate to the need or desire of the animal. When these needs are satisfied or desires fulfilled, the pleasure actually turns into revulsion, excess of food or sex results not in more pleasure, but in pain. In addition, the excessive quest for bodily pleasure amount to a repudiation of humanity. Man is not created in order to occupy himself with the satisfaction of his bodily pleasures, but rather to achieve intellectual apprehensions and contemplate the Divine Presence and gaze on the Divine Lights. Human needs and desires are endless, and according to Al Razi, their satisfaction is by definition impossible. Thus, the important matter of this world is not accomplished through constant improvement and fulfillment but rather through abandoning and avoiding them. He concludes that the mental pleasure is noble and perfect than the sensual pleasure and suggests that the excellence and perfection of a man is only realized by means of the science, knowledge, and excellent manners and not by eating, drinking, and mating.
Muhyid-Din Muhammad Ibn Ali (Ibn Arabi) (11641240)

Ibn Arabi was born in Murcia (Spain), studied in Lisbob and then moved to Seville where he met his early spiritual masters. He wrote a lot but only about 150 of his works are extant. There seems to be an uncertainty on the exact number of treatises he wrote. It is believed that most of his works were written while he was in Mecca and in Damascushis style is known to be difficult and ambiguous. In the area of psychology, Ibn Arabi wrote on the theory of soul, perception, the nature of desire, imaginations and dreams. His Sufi interpretation of the heart is that it is an instrument where esoteric knowledge is revealed. Heart is not eh cone-shaped piece of flesh in the chest but it is connected with it physically as well as spiritually but also different from it. Heart is the symbol for the rational aspect of Man but not same as intellectit is part of the Universal Reason. The heart has an inner eye that can perceive Reality. However, the evil thoughts of the animal soul and needs of the material world can easily blind this inner eye. Like Aristotle, Ibn Arabi recognized three elements in Manbody, soul, and the spirit and classified the human soul into three aspects, vegetative, animal, and rational. However, he did not equate the rational soul with the intellect. Human soul for him is a mode of the Universal Soul and spirit a mode of Universal Reason. The spirit is also the rational principle meant for seeking true knowledge. While the vegetative soul seeks food for the organism, the animal soul is a subtle vapor in the physical heart. The rational soul which is eternal is a pure spirit born free of sins but sins accumulates as a result of conflict between rational and animal soul. Intellect is one of the powers of the rational soul that functions during its association with the body. The rational soul is absolutely independent of the body and can exist independently as it did before joining it and will exist after leaving it as in death. He explains that Khayal or imagination is always active, even in sleep resulting in dreams that are an association of images desired by the individual. However, the individual soul may also reveal itself in dreams, although the symbols that must be interpreted correctly.

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