HOW TO WRITE AND PUBLISH A SCIENTIFIC PAPER

HOW TO WRITE AND PUBLISH A SCIENTIFIC PAPER

Science is basically a social activity. This implies that it depends on good communication. It is therefore right for our journals to insist on clarity and intelligence. A scientist becomes known by his publications, so he must posses an apt technique of successfully communicating himself to others. ORGANIZATION OF A SCIENTIFIC PAPER The most common labeling of the component parts in the basic sciences is Introduction, Methods, Results, And Discussions (Hence the acronym IMRAD).The logic of IMRAD can be defined in question form: What question (problem) was studied? The answer is the introduction. How was the problem studied? The answer is the methods. What were the findings? The answer is the Results. What do these findings mean? The answer is the Discussion. HOW TO PREPARE THE TITLE? paper LENGTH OF THE TITLE Title should neither be too long nor too short. Waste words should be avoided for example studies on , observation on , investigations on, etc. Also the opening A, AN and THE fall in the category of waste word. What is good title?

It may be defined as the fewest possible words that adequately describe the contents of the

THE TITLE AS A LABLE The title of the paper is a label, not a sentence. Since it is not a sentence with the usual subject- verb- object arrangement, it is really simpler than a sentence. ABBREVIATIONS AND JARGONS Title should almost never contain abbreviations and jargons. HOW TO PREPARE THE ABSTRACT? An abstract should be viewed as a version of the paper. The abstract should provide a brief summary of the main sections of the paper: introduction, methods, results and discussions.

Abstract

The abstract must include the following: 1. Objectives and Scope: Abstract should state the principal objectives and

scope of the investigations. It should state what the investigation is about, why was it necessitated and what it aims at. 2. Methods: An abstract should describe the methodology employed in the work

on the project. The description of the methods renders the findings trustworthy and hence more valuable. 3. Results: Results are the natural outcome of an investigation and the reader is

most interested in this outcome. It is this part that enables the reader to form his opinion about the importance of the whole paper. 4. Conclusion: It is the last touch to the abstract and it highlights the significance of the results discovered. The importance of the conclusion is indicated by the fact that it is often given three times: once in the abstract, then in the introduction and finally in the discussion (probably in more detail) The abstract must be written in past tense, because it refers to the work done. The abstract should never give any information or conclusion that is not stated in the paper. When writing the abstract, remember that it will be published by itself, so it should be self contained. It is preferable to write the paper before the abstract. An abstract should generally consist of about two hundred words.

HOW TO WRITE THE INTRODUCTION

1. Experienced writers prepare their title and abstract after the paper is written. While writing the paper, you must have in mind a provisional title and an outline of the paper that you propose to write. 2. It is wise policy to begin writing the paper while the work is still in progress so that no important details are left out. 3. It is very important to consider the audience you are writing for because your style of writing and the inclusion of details etc will change with the change in the level and type of the audience. The purpose of introduction should be to supply sufficient background information to allow the reader to understand and evaluate the results of the present study, without needing to refer to the previous publications on the topic. It should also provide the rationale for the present study. Above all you should briefly and clearly state your purpose in writing the paper. Much of the introduction should be written in the present tense.

What point should be presented first in the introduction ? The introduction should present first, with all possible clarity, the nature and scope of the problem investigated. This is necessary to avoid the wastage of the readers time. It should be clear and self-explanatory so as to enable the reader to decide whether to continue reading it or skip it if it is not of his interest. Note: This explanation of the problem should be much more detailed as compared to the one given in the abstract.

What should literature review include ? The purpose of literature review is to orient the reader. Often it should include or some may consist entirely of a review of the previous scientific papers, journal articles, books, and reports on the same subject (Literature Survey). How should literature review be presented? Rather than simply listing the pertinent documents you are expected to summarize the main findings of each and their relevance to your investigations. These documents should be cross- referenced to your list of references at the end of the paper. How should the method of investigation be stated? The method of investigation should be stated clearly. This is important to establish the credibility of the whole process. Besides, it enables the reader to verify the results independently. If deemed necessary, the reason for the choice of a particular method should also be stated. This rule explains how and why you attempted to resolve the problem the way you did. Are the results included in the introduction ? Results are the most important part of the introduction. The whole process, the objectives, the scope and methodology are described to indicate certain results found through investigation. However, the introduction should state the principal results of the investigation only.

How should the conclusion be included ? The results of the investigation lead to one or more important conclusions. This part should state only the principal conclusion suggested by the results as it evaluates the whole process and sums up the introduction.

Note: The last two rules act as a capstone of the introduction. This road map from problem to solution is so important that a bit of redundancy with the abstract is often desirable.

Abbreviations Keep in mind that your paper may well be read by people outside your narrow specialty. Therefore, the introduction is the proper place to define any specialized terms or abbreviations that you intend to use.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE

Introduction Solar energy systems for residential use are at present economical only in certain geographical use areas that have consistent solar radiation. Current efforts at cost reduction of solar heating systems are generally devoted to the development of low-cost components and to the improvement of thermal efficiency. Advances in component design have been mostly in the area of collector panel arrays. The pioneering efforts of Heath [1] in the invention of the parabolic trough collector array, and of Sonnenschein [2] in its further development, have shown that a combination of incident and reflected light will increase the efficiency of solar panels by 42 %. The initial cost of such collector, however, has limited their use and practical systems. This paper gives the theory of dual concentrate collector array and reports on its application in the design of prototype model of a high efficiency solar heating system. Unlike the parabolic concentrator, the new collector array uses a combination of mirrors and Fresnel lenses to provide successive concentration of solar energy on the surfaces of the absorber combination of solar energy on the surfaces of the absorber combination. The lens configuration occupies one-half the spatial volume required by the hyperbolic mirror design reported by Perrrier (3), (4) for successive light concentration. The energy gain of the new collector reported here was determined from the Holmes modification (5) of the Hottel- Whillier-Bliss equation(6). A second contribution to the understanding of system efficiency is analytic study of transport fluids which yielded an optimum ratio obtained in heat transfer from the collector to the storage tank.

As shown recently by Arras (7) static performance data for solar systems is not directly related to dynamic performance. Therefore a comparative study was made in Phoenix, Arizona of your prototype model and the operational Soltherm system, which was described in this Journal by Holtzman. The data give comparisons of cost efficiency, as well as thermal performance.

Material and Methods

Purpose of the Section This section requires full details. The main purpose of this section is to describe (and, if necessary, defend) the experimental design and then provide enough details so that a competent worker can repeat the experiments. Since the section deals with the description of material and methods employed during work on the project, most of it should be written in the past tense.

Material For materials, the inclusion of exact technical specifications, quantities and source or method of preparation is of utmost importance. The use of generic or chemical names instead of trade names is usually preferable. Measurement and Analysis This section calls for being precise. Methods are like cookbook recipes. If a reaction mixture is heated, the temperature must be given. Questions like how and how much should be precisely answered and not left for the reviewer or the reader to puzzle over. Statistical analyses are often necessary but you should feature and discuss the data, not the statistics. Need for References

The description of the methods of an investigation should be supported by details sufficient for a competent worker to repeat the experiments. However, if the method has previously been published in a standard journal, only the literature references would suffice.

Components of the Results The Results should be presented in the past tense. Most importantly, the manuscript should present representative data and not the endlessly repetitive data. One must remember that the compulsion to include every thing, leaving nothing out, does not prove that one has unlimited information; it proves that one lacks discrimination. How to Handle Numbers? If only a few determinations are to be presented, they should be treated descriptively in the text. Repetitive determinations should be given in tables or graphs. Strive for Clarity Although the results section is the most important part of a paper, it is often the shortest part, particularly if it is preceded by a well-written materials and Methods section and followed by a well-written discussion. Because of their significance, the results need to be stated simply and clearly. It must be remembered that it is the result that constitutes the new knowledge that you are contributing to the world. The earlier parts of the paper (introduction, Materials and Methods) are designed to tell why and how you got these results. The later part i.e. Discussion is designed to tell what they mean. Therefore, the results must be presented with utmost clarity as the whole paper stands or falls on the basis of results. How to Write Discussion a. How should the principles and generalizations be discussed at this stage ? The discussion contains the principles and generalizations shown by the results. We must remember that in this part we discuss and not recapitulate the results.

b. Should the unsettled points be discussed ? Here we need to point out any exceptions or any lack of correlation and define the unsettled points. We should never resort to taking the high-risk alternative of trying to cover up or fudge data that dont quite fit. c. What else should be mentioned in the discussion ? One should not feel shy of discussing the theoretical implications or any possible practical applications of the work under-discussion. The discussion needs a frank and honest analysis of the investigations. d. What should be the manner of presenting conclusions in the discussion ? Conclusions must be stated as clearly as possible as they are the final outcome of the discussion and provide a summing up to the paper. Each conclusion must be supported by your summarized evidence, or, as the wise old scientist will tell you, Never assume anything except a 4% mortgage. Good writing, like good music, has a fitting climax. Many a paper loses much of its effect because a clear stream of discussion ends in a swampy delta. So, care must be taken in this regard while heading towards the end.

CONCLUSION What does the conclusion identify ? The conclusion in fact, conveys how you have responded to the problem stated at the start of the introduction and identifies what your investigation, test and analyses show. The most effective conclusion serves as candid critique of your own work in which you point out what is important and why the results are valid. In a way, it projects and solidifies the impact of the investigation process and its results. Should the negative aspects also be included in the conclusion ? The inclusion of some negative aspects, showing the gaps in your work and the limitations of your findings or your design etc adds credibility to the manuscript and makes it more convincing. Should it also refer to future applications ? Many development papers also point out directions for future work and applications because, after all, research is considered valuable if it has relevance to the practical life.

How to prepare effective illustrations Illustrations serve various purposes and have a universal appeal as they help to learn and understand the argument. According to Mary Helen Briscoe, A good illustration can help the scientist to be heard when speaking, to be read when writing. It can help in the sharing of information with other scientists. It can help to convince granting agencies to fund the research. It can help in the teaching of students. It can help to inform the public of the value of the work. When to use Graphs The results of many experiments can be presented either as tables or as graphs. How to decide which is preferable? A good rule might be this: If the data show pronounced trends, use a graph. If the numbers just sit there, with no exciting trend in evidence, a table should be satisfactory. Tables are also preferred for presenting exact numbers. Examine table 9 figure 2, both of which record exactly the same data. Either of the two formats would be acceptable for publication, but figure 2 is clearly superior to table 9. In the figure, the synergistic action of the two-drug combinations is immediately apparent. Thus, the reader can grasp the significance of the data. It is also obvious in the graph that streptomycin is more effective than isoniazid, although its action is somewhat slower; this aspect of the result is not readily apparent from the table. How to prepare Graphs ? The techniques of producing graphs may vary from program to program. However, the principles of producing good graphs, whether hand drawn or computer drawn, do not vary. The size of the letters or symbols, for example, must be chosen so that the final printed graph in the journal is clear and readable. Also, avoid including excessive information in one figure. This only increases the risk of confusing and discouraging the reviewer.