Genetics and Parkinsons disease: an introduction

July 19, 2006

PD and heredity

The cause of Parkinsons disease has traditionally been associated to environmental factors
estimates of relative risk have tended to be low and varied widely between studies (2-15%)

twin studies have demonstrated a low concordance in monozygotic and dizygotic twins post-encephalitic PD variant showed convincing evidence of environmental susceptibility MPTP-induced parkinsonism further shifted viewpoints away from heredity familial aggregation has often been attributed to shared environmental factors Monogenic forms of PD do share similar characteristics to sporadic PD, however, including parkinsonism and selective SNc neurodegeneration; common pathway? Incomplete penetrance of some genetic components, and relatively high rates of risk factor mutations in sporadic PD points to a multifactoral explaination for neurodegeneration in PD Today there are at least 10 distinct genetic loci associated with PD

Useful Terms - thanks Sue!

polymorphism - a naturally occurring variation in the sequence of genetic information on a segment of DNA among individuals; a genetic characteristic with more than one common form in a population mutation - a variant allele that occurs in less than 1% of the population allele - each person inherits two alleles for each gene, one allele from each parent; these alleles may be the same or may be different from one another homozygous mutation: both alleles contain the same mutation heterozygous mutation: one allele contains the mutation compound heterozygous mutation: each allele has a different mutation protein domain - a region of conserved, specific functionality within a protein gain-of-function - when a mutation increases the rate of or propensity for protein function loss-of-function - when a mutation decreases the normal functioning of a protein

Genetic Primer

Central dogma of molecular biology: DNA -> RNA -> protein Eukaryotic genes contain both coding regions (exons) and non-coding regions (introns); introns are removed prior to translation Proteins are assembled based on sequential information in mRNA mRNA nucleotides (A, G, C, U) are read in codons - 3-nucleotide sequences that define an open reading frame (ORF)

National Human Genome Research Institute, NIH

Proteins

Protein function is dictated by protein structure and folding Mutations that change the primary structure of a protein can affect higher levels of protein structure (2nd, 3rd, 4th) Changes in protein structure will most likely lead to changes in protein function (either loss-offunction or gain-of-function) Protein function is inherently based on structure; structure is defined by mRNA and ORF Humans are diploid; often one allele is able to compensate for the other homozygous: both alleles are affected heterozygous: only one allele is affected compound heterozygous: each allele has a different mutation

National Human Genome Research Institute, NIH

Point mutations: missense and nonsense

Most common forms of mutation Missense mutations can lead to changes in protein function (detrimental or beneficial) Nonsense mutations almost invariably lead to protein dysfunction

mutations: insertion and deletion

DJ1 (PARK7) Typically more deleterious than missense/substitution mutations Insertion or deletion of 1 or 2 nucleotides will lead to a frameshift - a change of ORF - that will almost certainly be detrimental to protein function

Duplication mutations

SNCA (PARK1 and PARK4), parkin (PARK2) can occur at any level, from a single exon to entire portions of chromosomes

-synuclein (PARK1, PARK4)

First gene to be implicated in PD (SNCA) 140 AA soluble protein of unknown function; wild-type protein inhibits phospholipase D2 (signal transduction, membrane vesicle trafficking, cytoskeletal dynamics) and is a competitive inhibitor of TH Missense mutations identified in Italian-American (A53T), German (A30P), and Spanish (E46K) families with autosomal dominant PD; associated with toxic gain-of-function; these mutations are not present in sporadic PD or individuals without disease Duplications and triplications have been implicated in PDD and DLB; individuals with SNCA multiplications present symptoms similar to sporadic PD, but are prone to dementia and autonomic dysfunction Dosage of gene is directly related to age of onset of PD (38-65 years for duplications, 24-48 years for triplications) -synuclein binds preferentially to plasma membrane; cytosolic -synuclein (from overexpression or loss of affinity with membrane) can form aggregates, possibly Lewy bodies

A53T E46K A30P 61

KTKEGV repeats

95

140
Acidic region

-Synuclein
Moore et al., 2005 Figure by MIT OCW.

Parkin (PARK2)

First described in consangiuneous Japanese families with autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism (ARJP), in 1997 Most common known cause of early-onset PD; homozygous parkin mutations found in 49% of familial early-onset PD and 18% sporadic early-onset PD in European populations (early-onset < 45 years) Parkin mutations rare in late-onset PD (> 50 years) Asymptomatic heterozygous carriers show non-progressive decreased F-DOPA uptake; adaptation or predisposition? Parkin gene is the second-largest known (1.3 Mb with 12 exons); protein consists of 465 AA Wild-type protein is thought to be part of the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) as an E3ligase; tags proteins for degradation clinical phenotype (divergent from sporadic PD): symmetrical progression, dystonia, hyperreflexia, slow disease progression, L-DOPA reponsive; dementia is rare neuropathology: selective cell loss in nigrostriatal pathway and locus ceruleus, absence of Lewy bodies (compound heterozygous cases have shown LB and/or NFT)

R42P

79

D280N C212Y M192V C253W G284R R334C 238 293 314

377

G430D P437L 418 449 465

UBL
P37L A82E V15M A46P
Figure by MIT OCW.

RING 1
C289G K161N K211R T240R K211N T240M R275W R256C

IBR

RING 2

G328E T351P T415N C441R A398T C431F

Moore et al., 2005

Parkin

LRRK2 (PARK8)

First mapped in a large Japanese family with autosomal dominant inheritance; linkage was subsequently confirmed in several European families 2,572 AA protein; may be involved in multiple processes, including substrate binding, protein phosphorylation, and protein-protein interactions Gly2019Ser substitution is most common in Caucasians (0.5-2.0% sporadic and 5% familial parkinsonism; perhaps 18-30% for Ashkenazi Jews and North African Arab populations) penetrance is age-dependent, going from 17% at age 50 to 85% at age 70 clinical phenotype is similar to typical late-onset PD; asymmetrical onset of symptoms, L-DOPA responsive, no indication of dementia or autonomic dysfunction above that of sporadic PD neuropathology is mixed: most cases show typical LBD, some show tau-positive pathology, while others show only nigral degeneration without LB or NFT Unclear how LRRK2 substitutions result in neuropathology; possibly a sensor of cellular stress and/or involved in the initiation of cellular apoptosis

L1114L L1122V

R144IC R1441G

YI699C

G2019S I2020T

2425

31

35

41

LRR

ROC

COR

MAPKKK

WD4o WD4o

LRRK2
Gosal et al., 2006 Figure by MIT OCW.

DJ-1 (PARK7)

Other implicated genes

autosomal recessive large deletions and missense mutations associated with early-onset PD rare overall (accounts for < 1% of early-onset PD) primarily localized to mitochondria; possibly a molecular chaperone induced by oxidative stress no cases have come to autopsy compound heterozygote and homozygous mutations identified in 1-2% of early-onset PD wild-type protein believed to protect against mitochondrial dysfunction and stress-induced apoptosis prevalence of PINK1 in sporadic PD is higher than controls; risk factor? no cases have come to autopsy wild-type UCH-L1 functions in UBS (recycles ubiquitin monomers) UCH-L1-null mice show neurodegenerative changes, but not in the nigrostriatal pathway UCH-L1 is a prominent component of Lewy bodies found in two members of PD-affected family; further mutations have not been discovered despite extensive screening

PINK1 (PARK6)

UCH-L1 (PARK5)

COMT-Val158Met polymorphism
Serine/threonine protein kinase domain

metabolizes dopamine in neurons; associated with increased relative risk of PD

34 MTS

156

R246X

509

581

32 DJ-1/Pfp I Domain

173 189

C92F A168P Q239X

H271Q

W437X R492X G309D E417G R464H L347P

M26I

E64D

A104T

D149A

L166P

R246X

Figure by MIT OCW. Moore et al., 2005

PINK1

DJ-1

Figure by MIT OCW. Ferrer, 2006

-synuclein aggregation

wild-type -synuclein has an amphipathic association with plasma membrane, where it might mediate phospholipase D activity (implications in vesicular transport and exocytosis) membrane-bound and cytosolic -synuclein are normally in dynamic equilbirium cytosolic -synuclein binds to tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and inhibits cellular dopamine production missense mutations may alter lipid-soluble properties of synuclein, leading to increased cytosolic content and increased propensity for oligomerization duplications and triplications may increase cytosolic synuclein levels and lead to aggregation aggregation also occurs in sporadic PD, however; other synuclein modifications (alternative splicing, alterations in promoter regions, other interacting genes) may be involved

National Institutes of Health (NIH)

Ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS)

UPS is a clearing system for misfolded or damaged proteins Ubiquitin monomers (Ub) are activated by E1 enzymes and transferred to E2 enzymes Ubiquitin protein ligase (E3) enzymes (such as parkin) mediate the transfer of ubiquitin to target proteins multiple transfers result in poly-ubiquination; such proteins are targeted for degradation by the 26S proteasome poly-ubiquitin chains are recycled back into free Ub monomers by deubiquinating (DUB) enzymes (such as UCH-L1) Non-proteasomal functions of ubiquination include DNA repair, endocytosis, protein trafficking, and transcription parkin (an E3 ligase) has an unusually high number of substrates, some cytotoxic lack of LB in parkin-associated disease may point to a protective function for -synuclein aggregation
E1
Ub

+ ATP

E1

Ub

E2 DUB UCH-L1 E2
Ub

Mutant/Damaged/Misfolded
Ub

Abnormal Portein

E3 E2 Parkin

Normal Protein
Short-lived

26S Proteasome

Poly-ubiquitination

Mono-ubiquitination
Ub

Ub Ub

Normal Protein

Abnormal + ATP Normal K63 poly-Ub K29 or K48 poly-Ub Non-proteasomal functions

Moore et al., 2005

Figure by MIT OCW.

Mitochondrial dysfunction / oxidative stress

mtDNA Alterations DJ-1 Oxidative Stress PINK1 Parkin UCH-L1

There is evidence for extensive oxidative damage and decreased mitochondrial (complex-I) activity in SNc of sporadic PD patients Oxidative stress may arise from mitochondrial dysfunction, dopamine production, increase in reactive iron, environmental toxins, or impaired antioxidant defense pathways MPTP, Paraquat, and rotenone are all complex-I inhibitors, and all induce parkinsonian-like symptoms Inhibition of complex-I activity, both in vivo and in vitro, consistently leads to aggregation of -synuclein inclusions, and -synuclein knockout mice are resistant to MPTP; UPS dysfunction and LB pathology may be a downstream consequence of mitochondrial dysfunction

Complex-1 Inhibition (Toxins)

Mitochondrion
ATP Oxidative Stress -Synuclein Aggregation DA Oxidation

DA

-Synuclein

UPS

Moore et al., 2005

Figure by MIT OCW.

DJ-1 and PINK1 probably play protective roles in mitochondrial function, the loss of which may predispose to sporadic PD

Other factors

Pitx3, PKC, ATM, TFG, DRD2, Girk2, Ceruloplasmin, COX2 - roles found in transcription factors, DNA repair, neurotrophic factors, iron detoxifiers, neuronal inflammation, synaptic receptors, mitochondrial genes - its a rich tapestry.