Som 2013

For 2013 ( I ES, GATE & PSUs)
St r engt h of Mat er i al s

Cont ent s
Chapt er 1: St r ess and St r ai n
Chapt er - 2 : Pr i nci pal St r ess and St r ai n
Chapt er - 3 : Moment of I ner t i a and Cent r oi d
Chapt er - 4 : Bendi ng Moment and Shear For ce Di agr am
Chapt er - 5 : Def l ect i on of Beam
Chapt er - 6 : Bendi ng St r ess i n Beam
Chapt er - 7 : Shear St r ess i n Beam
Chapt er - 8 : Fi x ed and Cont i nuous Beam
Chapt er - 9 : Tor si on
Chapt er - 10 : Thi n Cy l i nder
Chapt er - 11 : Thi ck Cy l i nder
Chapt er - 12 : Spr i ng
Chapt er - 13 : Theor i es of Col umn
Chapt er - 14 : St r ai n Ener gy Met hod
Chapt er - 15 : Theor i es of Fai l ur e
Chapt er - 16 : Ri v et ed and Wel ded Joi nt
S K Mondal
I ES Officer ( Railway) , GATE t opper, NTPC ET- 2003 bat ch,
12 years t eaching experienced, Aut hor of Hydro Power
Familiarizat ion ( NTPC Lt d)
For 2013 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 1 of 431

Not e
Ask ed Obj ect i v e Quest i ons i s t he t ot al col l ect i on of quest i ons f r om: -
21 y r s I ES ( 2012- 1992) [ Engi neer i ng Ser v i ce Ex ami nat i on]
21 y r s. GATE ( 2012- 1992)
and 14 y r s. I AS ( Pr el i m.) [ Ci vi l Ser v i ce Pr el i mi nar y]

Copyright 2007 S K Mondal

Every effort has been made to see that there are no errors (typographical or otherwise) in the
material presented. However, it is still possible that there are a few errors (serious or
otherwise). I would be thankful to the readers if they are brought to my attention at the
following e-mail address: [email protected]
S K Mondal

1. Stress and Strain
Theory at a Glance (for IES, GATE, PSU)
1.1 Stress ()
When a material is subjected to an external force, a resisting force is set up within the component.
The internal resistance force per unit area acting on a material or intensity of the forces distributed
over a given section is called the stress at a point.
- It uses original cross section area of the specimen and also known as engineering stress or
conventional stress.
Therefore,
P
A
T =
- P is expressed in Newton (N) and A, original area, in square meters (m
2
), the stress will be
expresses in N/ m
2
. This unit is called Pascal (Pa).
- As Pascal is a small quantity, in practice, multiples of this unit is used.
1 kPa = 10
3
Pa = 10
3
N/ m
2
(kPa = Kilo Pascal)
1 MPa = 10
6
Pa = 10
6
N/ m
2
= 1 N/mm
2
(MPa = Mega Pascal)
1 GPa = 10
9
Pa = 10
9
N/ m
2
(GPa = Giga Pascal)
Let us take an example: A rod 10 mm 10 mm cross-section is carrying an axial tensile load 10
kN. In this rod the tensile stress developed is given by
( )
( )
3
2
2
10 10 10
100N/mm 100MPa
10 10 100
t
P kN N
A mm mm mm
T

= = = = =
- The resultant of the internal forces for an axially loaded member is

normal to a section cut perpendicular to the member axis.
- The force intensity on the shown section is defined as the normal stress.
0
lim and
avg
A
F P
A A
T T
^
^
= =
^
- Tensile stress (
t
)
If > 0 the stress is tensile. i.e. The fibres of the component
tend to elongate due to the external force. A member
subjected to an external force tensile P and tensile stress
distribution due to the force is shown in the given figure.
Chapter-1 Stress and Strain S K Mondals
- Compressive stress (
c
)
If < 0 the stress is compressive. i.e. The fibres of the
component tend to shorten due to the external force. A
member subjected to an external compressive force P and
compressive stress distribution due to the force is shown in
the given figure.
- Shear stress ( U )
When forces are transmitted from one part of a body to other, the stresses
developed in a plane parallel to the applied force are the shear stress. Shear
stress acts parallel to plane of interest. Forces P is applied
transversely to the member AB as shown. The corresponding
internal forces act in the plane of section C and are called shearing
forces. The corresponding average shear stress ( )
P
Area
U =
1.2 Strain ()
The displacement per unit length (dimensionless) is
known as strain.
- Tensile strain ( F t)
The elongation per unit length as shown in the
figure is known as tensile strain.
t = L/ Lo
It is engineering strain or conventional strain.
Here we divide the elongation to original length
not actual length (Lo + ^L)
Let us take an example: A rod 100 mm in original length. When we apply an axial tensile load 10
kN the final length of the rod after application of the load is 100.1 mm. So in this rod tensile strain is
developed and is given by
( )
100.1 100 0.1
0.001 (Dimensionless) Tensile
100 100
o
t
o o
L L L mm mm mm
L L mm mm
F
^
= = = = =
- Compressive strain ( F
c
)
If the applied force is compressive then the reduction of length per unit length is known
as compressive strain. It is negative. Then
c
= (-L)/ L
o
Let us take an example: A rod 100 mm in original length. When we apply an axial compressive
load 10 kN the final length of the rod after application of the load is 99 mm. So in this rod a
compressive strain is developed and is given by
( )
99 100 1
0.01 (Dimensionless) compressive
100 100
o
c
o o
L L L mm mm mm
L L mm mm
F
^
= = = = =
- Shear Strain ( H ): When a
force P is applied tangentially to
the element shown. Its edge
displaced to dotted line. Where
E is the lateral displacement of
the upper face
of the element relative to the lower face and L is the distance between these faces.
Then the shear strain is ( )
L
E
H =
Let us take an example: A block 100 mm 100 mm base and 10 mm height. When we apply a
tangential force 10 kN to the upper edge it is displaced 1 mm relative to lower face.
Then the direct shear stress in the element
( U )
3
2
10 10 10
1N/mm 1MPa
100 100 100 100
kN N
mm mm mm mm
= = = =

And shear strain in the element ( H ) =
1
0.1
10
mm
mm
= = Dimensionless
1.3 True stress and True Strain
The true stress is defined as the ratio of the load to the cross section area at any instant.
( )
load
Instantaneous area
T
T =
( ) 1 T F =
Where
T
and
F
is the engineering stress and engineering strain respectively.
- True strain
( ) ( ) ln ln 1 ln 2ln
o
L
o o
T
o
L
A d dl L
l L A d
F F
1
1 1

= = = = =

( ) ( )
( )
]
or engineering strain (
F
) =
T
e
F
-1
The volume of the specimen is assumed to be constant during plastic deformation.
[
o o
A L AL = ' ] It is valid till the neck formation.
- Comparison of engineering and the true stress-strain curves shown below
- The true stress-strain curve is also known as
the flow curve.
- True stress-strain curve gives a true indication
of deformation characteristics because it is
based on the instantaneous dimension of
the specimen.
- In engineering stress-strain curve, stress drops
down after necking since it is based on the
original area.
- In true stress-strain curve, the stress however increases after necking since the cross-
sectional area of the specimen decreases rapidly after necking.
- The flow curve of many metals in the region of uniform plastic deformation can be
expressed by the simple power law.
T = K(T)
n
Where K is the strength coefficient
n is the strain hardening exponent
n = 0 perfectly plastic solid
n = 1 elastic solid
For most metals, 0.1< n < 0.5
- Relation between the ultimate tensile strength and true stress at maximum
load
The ultimate tensile strength ( )
max
u
o
P
A
T =
The true stress at maximum load ( )
max
u
T
P
A
T =
And true strain at maximum load ( ) ln
o
T
A
A
F
1

=

( )
or
T
o
A
e
A
F
=
Eliminating Pmax we get , ( )
max max
T
o
u u
T
o
P P A
e
A A A
F
T T = = =
Where Pmax = maximum force and Ao = Original cross section area
A = Instantaneous cross section area
Let us take two examples:
(I.) Only elongation no neck formation
In the tension test of a rod shown initially it was Ao
= 50 mm
2
and Lo = 100 mm. After the application of
load its A = 40 mm
2
and L = 125 mm.
Determine the true strain using changes in both
length and area.
Answer: First of all we have to check that does the
member forms neck or not? For that check =
o o
A L AL
or not?
Here 50 100 = 40 125 so no neck formation is
there. Therefore true strain
(If no neck formation
occurs both area and
gauge length can be used
for a strain calculation.)
( )
125
ln 0.223
100
o
L
T
L
dl
l
F
1

= = =

( )
]
( )
50
ln ln 0.223
40
o
T
A
A
F
1 1

= = =

( ) ( )
(II.) Elongation with neck formation
A ductile material is tested such and necking occurs
then the final gauge length is L=140 mm and the
final minimum cross sectional area is A = 35 mm
2
.
Though the rod shown initially it was Ao = 50 mm
2
and Lo = 100 mm. Determine the true strain using
changes in both length and area.
Answer: First of all we have to check that does the
member forms neck or not? For that check =
o o
A L AL
or not?
Here AoLo = 50 100 = 5000 mm
3
and AL=35 140
= 4200 mm
3.
So neck formation is there. Note here
AoLo > AL.
Therefore true strain
( )
50
ln ln 0.357
35
o
T
A
A
F
1 1

= = =

( ) ( )
But not ( )
140
ln 0.336
100
o
L
T
L
dl
l
F
1

= = =

( )
]
(it is wrong)
(After necking, gauge
length gives error but
area and diameter can
be used for the
calculation of true strain
at fracture and before
fracture also.)
1.4 Hooks law
According to Hooks law the stress is directly proportional to strain i.e. normal stress () B normal
strain () and shearing stress ( U ) B shearing strain ( H ).
= E and G U H =
The co-efficient E is called the modulus of elasticity i.e. its resistance to elastic strain. The co-
efficient G is called the shear modulus of elasticity or modulus of rigidity.
1.5 Volumetric strain( )
v
F
A relationship similar to that for length changes holds for three-dimensional (volume) change. For
volumetric strain, ( )
v
F , the relationship is ( )
v
F = (V-V0)/V0 or ( )
v
F = V/V0
P
K
=
- Where V is the final volume, V0 is the original volume, and V is the volume change.
- Volumetric strain is a ratio of values with the same units, so it also is a dimensionless
quantity.
- V/V= volumetric strain = x +y + z = 1 +2 + 3
- Dilation: The hydrostatic component of the total stress contributes to deformation by
changing the area (or volume, in three dimensions) of an object. Area or volume change is
called dilation and is positive or negative, as the volume increases or decreases,
respectively.
p
e
K
= Where p is pressure.
1.6 Youngs modulus or Modulus of elasticity (E) =
PL
=
A e
1.7 Modulus of rigidity or Shear modulus of elasticity (G) =
t
=
PL
Ao
=
1.8 Bulk Modulus or Volume modulus of elasticity (K) =
p p
v R
v R
A A
=
A A
1.10 Relationship between the elastic constants E, G, K,
( ) ( )
9KG
E 2G 1 3K 1 2
3K G
= + = =
+
[VIMP]
Where K = Bulk Modulus, N= Poissons Ratio, E= Youngs modulus, G= Modulus of rigidity
- For a linearly elastic, isotropic and homogeneous material, the number of elastic
constants required to relate stress and strain is two. i.e. any two of the four must be
known.
- If the material is non-isotropic (i.e. anisotropic), then the elastic modulii will vary with
additional stresses appearing since there is a coupling between shear stresses and
normal stresses for an anisotropic material.
Let us take an example: The modulus of elasticity and rigidity of a material are 200 GPa and 80
GPa, respectively. Find all other elastic modulus.
Answer: Using the relation ( ) ( ) = + = =
+
9KG
E 2G 1 3K 1 2
3K G
we may find all other elastic modulus
easily
Poissons Ratio + = = = =
E E 200
( ) : 1 1 1 0.25
2G 2G 2 80
Bulk Modulus (K) :
( ) ( )
= = = =

E E 200
3K K 133.33GPa
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 0.25
1.11 Poissons Ratio ()
=
Transverse strainor lateral strain
Longitudinal strain
=
y
x
e
e
(Under unidirectional stress in x-direction)
- The theory of isotropic elasticity allows Poisson's ratios in the range from -1 to 1/2.
- Poisson's ratio in various materials
Material Poisson's ratio Material Poisson's ratio
Steel 0.25 0.33 Rubber 0.48 0.5
C.I 0.23 0.27 Cork Nearly zero
Concrete 0.2 Novel foam negative
- We use cork in a bottle as the cork easily inserted and removed, yet it also withstand the
pressure from within the bottle. Cork with a Poisson's ratio of nearly zero, is ideal in this
application.
1.12 For bi-axial stretching of sheet
1
1 o
1
2
2
2
ln L length
ln L -Final length
f
o
f
f
o
L
Original
L
L
L
| |
e =
|
\ .
| |
e =
|
\ .
Final thickness (t
f
) =
1 2
thickness(t )
o
Initial
e e
e e
1.13 Elongation
- A prismatic bar loaded in tension by an axial force P
For a prismatic bar loaded in tension by
an axial force P. The elongation of the bar
can be determined as

o =
PL
AE
Let us take an example: A Mild Steel wire 5 mm in diameter and 1 m long. If the wire is subjected
to an axial tensile load 10 kN find its extension of the rod. (E = 200 GPa)
Answer: ( ) o = We know that
PL
AE
( ) t t
= =
=
= = =
2
2
2 5 2
Here given, Force(P) 10 10 1000N
Length(L) 1 m
0.005
Area(A) m 1.963 10 m
4 4
kN
d
( )
( ) ( )
o
= =

= =

= =
9 2
5 9
3
Modulous of Elasticity ( ) 200 200 10 N/m
10 1000 1
Therefore Elongation( ) m
1.963 10 200 10
2.55 10 m 2.55 mm
E GPa
PL
AE
- Elongation of composite body
Elongation of a bar of varying cross section A1, A2,----------,An of lengths l1, l2,--------ln respectively.

3 1 2 n
1 2 3
o
(
= + + +
(
n
l l l l P
E A A A A
Let us take an example: A composite rod is 1000 mm long, its two ends are 40 mm
2
and 30 mm
2
in
area and length are 300 mm and 200 mm respectively. The middle portion of the rod is 20 mm
2
in
area and 500 mm long. If the rod is subjected to an axial tensile load of 1000 N, find its total
elongation. (E = 200 GPa).
Answer: Consider the following figure
Given, Load (P) =1000 N
Area; (A1) = 40 mm
2
, A2 = 20 mm
2
, A3 = 30 mm
2
Length; (l1) = 300 mm, l2 = 500 mm, l3 = 200 mm
E = 200 GPa = 200 10
9
N/m
2
= 200 10
3
N/mm
2
Therefore Total extension of the rod

o
(
= + +
(

(
= + +
(

=
3 1 2
1 2 3
3 2 2 2 2
1000 300 500 200
200 10 / 40 20 30
0.196mm
l l l P
E A A A
N mm mm mm
N mm mm mm mm
- Elongation of a tapered body
Elongation of a tapering rod of length L due to load P at the end
1 2
4PL
=
Ed t d
(d1 and d2 are the diameters of smaller & larger ends)
You may remember this in this way,
1 2
PL PL
= . .
EA
E
4
t | |
|
\ .
eq
i e
d d
Let us take an example: A round bar, of length L, tapers uniformly from small diameter d1 at one
end to bigger diameter d2 at the other end. Show that the extension produced by a tensile axial load
P is ( )
1 2
4PL
=
E td d
.
If d2 = 2d1, compare this extension with that of a uniform cylindrical bar having a diameter equal to
the mean diameter of the tapered bar.
Answer: Consider the figure below d1 be the radius at the smaller end. Then at a X cross section XX
located at a distance from the smaller end, the value of diameter dx is equal to
( )
( )
| |
= +
|
\ .
= +
= + =
1 2 1
1 2 1
2 1
1
1
2 2 2 2
1
1
x
x
d d d d x
L
x
or d d d d
L
d d
d kx Where k
L d
( )
( ) { }
o
t
t
= = =
| |
+
|
\ .
x x
x
2 2
1
We now taking a small strip of diameter 'd 'and length 'd 'at section .
Elongation of this section 'd ' length
. 4 .
. 1
4
x
XX
PL P dx P dx
d
AE d
d kx E
E
( )
( )
o o
t
t
=
=
= =
+
=
) ) 2
2
0
1
1 2
Therefore total elongation of the taper bar
4
1
4
x L
x
P dx
d
Ed kx
PL
Ed d
Comparison: Case-I: Where d2 = 2d1
Elongation( ) o
t t
= =
2
1 1 1
4 2
2
I
PL PL
Ed d Ed
Case II: Where we use Mean diameter

( ) o
t
t
+ +
= = =
= =
| |
|
\ .
=
= =
1 2 1 1
1
2
1
2
1
2 3
2 2 2
.
Elongation of such bar
3
.
4 2
16
9
Extension of taper bar 2 9
16
Extension of uniform bar 8
9
m
II
d d d d
d d
PL P L
AE
d E
PL
Ed
- Elongation of a body due to its self weight
(i) Elongation of a uniform rod of length L due to its own weight W

WL
=
2AE
The deformation of a bar under its own weight as compared to that when subjected to
a direct axial load equal to its own weight will be half.
(ii) Total extension produced in rod of length L due to its own weight X per with
length.
2
=
2EA
eL
(iii) Elongation of a conical bar due to its self weight

2
max
=
6E 2
=
gL WL
A E
1.14 Structural members or machines must be designed such that the working stresses are less
than the ultimate strength of the material.
( )
1
1
Working stress n=1.5 to 2
factor of safety
n 2 to 3
Proof stress
y
w
ult
p
p
n
n
n
o
o
o
o
o
= =
)
= =
1.15 Factor of Safety: (n) =
y p ult
w
or or o o o
o
1.16 Thermal or Temperature stress and strain
- When a material undergoes a change in temperature, it either elongates or contracts
depending upon whether temperature is increased or decreased of the material.
- If the elongation or contraction is not restricted, i. e. free then the material does not
experience any stress despite the fact that it undergoes a strain.
- The strain due to temperature change is called thermal strain and is expressed as,
( )
T c o = A
- Where is co-efficient of thermal expansion, a material property, and T is the change in
temperature.
- The free expansion or contraction of materials, when restrained induces stress in the
material and it is referred to as thermal stress.
( )
o o = A
t
E T
Where, E = Modulus of elasticity
- Thermal stress produces the same effect in the material similar to that of mechanical
stress. A compressive stress will produce in the material with increase in temperature
and the stress developed is tensile stress with decrease in temperature.
Let us take an example: A rod consists of two parts that are made of steel and copper as shown in
figure below. The elastic modulus and coefficient of thermal expansion for steel are 200 GPa and
11.7 10
-6
per C respectively and for copper 70 GPa and 21.6 10
-6
per C respectively. If the
temperature of the rod is raised by 50C, determine the forces and stresses acting on the rod.
Answer: If we allow this rod to freely expand then free expansion

( )
( ) ( )
( )
o o

= A
= +
=
6 6
11.7 10 50 500 21.6 10 50 750
1.1025 mm Compressive
T
T L
But according to diagram only free expansion is 0.4 mm.
Therefore restrained deflection of rod =1.1025 mm 0.4 mm = 0.7025 mm
Let us assume the force required to make their elongation vanish be P which is the reaction force at
the ends.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
o
t t
| | | |
= +
| |
\ . \ .

= +

` `
) )
=
2 2
9 9
500 750
0.7025
0.075 200 10 0.050 70 10
4 4
116.6
Steel Cu
PL PL
AE AE
P P
or
or P kN
Therefore, compressive stress on steel rod

( )
o
t
= = =
3
2
2
116.6 10
N/m 26.39 MPa
0.075
4
Steel
Steel
P
A
And compressive stress on copper rod

( )
o
t
= = =
3
2
2
116.6 10
N/m 59.38 MPa
0.050
4
Cu
Cu
P
A
1.17 Thermal stress on Brass and Mild steel combination
A brass rod placed within a steel tube of exactly same length. The assembly is making in such a
way that elongation of the combination will be same. To calculate the stress induced in the brass
rod, steel tube when the combination is raised by t
o
C then the following analogy have to do.
(a) Original bar before heating.
(b) Expanded position if the members are allowed to
expand freely and independently after heating.
(c) Expanded position of the compound bar i.e. final
position after heating.
- Compatibility Equation:
o o o o o = + =
st sf Bt Bf
- Equilibrium Equation:
o o =
s s B B
A A
Assumption:
s
1. L = L
2.
3.
o o
=
>
B
b s
L
Steel Tension
Brass Compression
Where, o = Expansion of the compound bar = AD in the above figure.
st
o = Free expansion of the steel tube due to temperature rise t
o
C =
s
L t o
= AB in the above figure.
sf
o = Expansion of the steel tube due to internal force developed by the unequal expansion.
= BD in the above figure.
Bt
o = Free expansion of the brass rod due to temperature rise t
o
C =
b
L t o
= AC in the above figure.
Bf
o = Compression of the brass rod due to internal force developed by the unequal expansion.
= BD in the above figure.
And in the equilibrium equation
Tensile force in the steel tube = Compressive force in the brass rod
Where,
s
o = Tensile stress developed in the steel tube.

B
o = Compressive stress developed in the brass rod.

s
A = Cross section area of the steel tube.

B
A = Cross section area of the brass rod.
Let us take an example: See the Conventional Question Answer section of this chapter and the
question is Conventional Question IES-2008 and its answer.
1.18 Maximum stress and elongation due to rotation
(i)
2 2
max
8
L e
o = and ( )
2 3
12
L
L
E
e
o =
(ii)
2 2
max
2
L e
o = and ( )
2 3
3
L
L
E
e
o =
For remember: You will get (ii) by multiplying by 4 of (i)
1.18 Creep
When a member is subjected to a constant load over a long period of time it undergoes a slow
permanent deformation and this is termed as creep. This is dependent on temperature. Usually at
elevated temperatures creep is high.
- The materials have its own different melting point; each will creep when the homologous
temperature > 0.5. Homologous temp =
Testing temperature
Melting temperature
> 0.5
A typical creep curve shows three distinct stages
with different creep rates. After an initial rapid
elongation o, the creep rate decrease with time
until reaching the steady state.
1) Primary creep is a period of transient creep.
The creep resistance of the material increases
due to material deformation.
2) Secondary creep provides a nearly constant
creep rate. The average value of the creep rate
during this period is called the minimum creep
rate. A stage of balance between competing.
Strain hardening and recovery (softening) of the material.
3) Tertiary creep shows a rapid increase in the creep rate due to effectively reduced cross-
sectional area of the specimen leading to creep rupture or failure. In this stage intergranular
cracking and/or formation of voids and cavities occur.
Creep rate =c1
2
c
o
Creep strain at any time = zero time strain intercept + creep rate Time
=
2
0 1
c
c t o e +
Where,
1 2
, constants c c are stress o =
1.19 If a load P is applied suddenly to a bar then the stress & strain induced will be double
than those obtained by an equal load applied gradually.
1.20 Stress produced by a load P in falling from height h
2
1 1 ,
being stress & strain produced by static load P & L=length of bar.
d
h
L
o o
(
= + +
(`
e
(
)
e
2
1 1
A AEh
P PL
(
= + +
(

1.21 Loads shared by the materials of a compound bar made of bars x & y due to load W,

.
.
x x
x
x x y y
y y
y
x x y y
A E
P W
A E A E
A E
P W
A E A E
=
+
=
+
1.22 Elongation of a compound bar,
x x y y
PL
A E A E
o =
+
1.23 Tension Test
i) True elastic limit: based on micro-strain measurement at strains on order of 2 10
-6
. Very low
value and is related to the motion of a few hundred dislocations.
ii) Proportional limit: the highest stress at which stress is directly proportional to strain.
iii) Elastic limit: is the greatest stress the material can withstand without any measurable
permanent strain after unloading. Elastic limit > proportional limit.
iv) Yield strength is the stress required to produce a small specific amount of
deformation. The offset yield strength can be determined by the stress
corresponding to the intersection of the stress-strain curve and a line
parallel to the elastic line offset by a strain of 0.2 or 0.1%. ( c = 0.002 or
0.001).
- The offset yield stress is referred to proof stress either at 0.1 or 0.5% strain used for design
and specification purposes to avoid the practical difficulties of measuring the elastic limit or
proportional limit.
v) Tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength (UTS)
u
o is the maximum load Pmax divided
by the original cross-sectional area Ao of the specimen.
vi) % Elongation,
f o
o
L L
L
= , is chiefly influenced by uniform elongation, which is dependent on the

strain-hardening capacity of the material.
vii) Reduction of Area:
o f
o
A A
q
A
=
- Reduction of area is more a measure of the deformation required to produce failure and
its chief contribution results from the necking process.
- Because of the complicated state of stress state in the neck, values of reduction of area
are dependent on specimen geometry, and deformation behaviour, and they should not be
taken as true material properties.
- RA is the most structure-sensitive ductility parameter and is useful in detecting quality
changes in the materials.
viii) Stress-strain response
1.24 Elastic strain and Plastic strain
The strain present in the material after unloading is called the residual strain or plastic strain
and the strain disappears during unloading is termed as recoverable or elastic strain.
Equation of the straight line CB is given by
o =e e =e
total Plastic Elastic
E E E
Carefully observe the following figures and understand which one is Elastic strain and which one is
Plastic strain
Let us take an example: A 10 mm diameter tensile specimen has a 50 mm gauge length. The load
corresponding to the 0.2% offset is 55 kN and the maximum load is 70 kN. Fracture occurs at 60 kN.
The diameter after fracture is 8 mm and the gauge length at fracture is 65 mm. Calculate the
following properties of the material from the tension test.
(i) % Elongation
(ii) Reduction of Area (RA) %
(iii) Tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength (UTS)
(iv) Yield strength
(v) Fracture strength
(vi) If E = 200 GPa, the elastic recoverable strain at maximum load
(vii) If the elongation at maximum load (the uniform elongation) is 20%, what is the plastic strain
at maximum load?
Answer: Given, Original area ( ) ( )
t
= =
2
2 5 2
0
0.010 m 7.854 10 m
4
A
Area at fracture ( ) ( )
t
= =
2
2 5 2
0.008 m 5.027 10 m
4
f
A
Original gauge length (L0) = 50 mm
Gauge length at fracture (L) = 65 mm
Therefore
(i) % Elongation

= = =
0
0
65 50
100% 100 30%
50
L L
L
(ii) Reduction of area (RA) = q

= = =
0
0
7.854 5.027
100% 100% 36%
7.854
f
A A
A
(iii) Tensile strength or Ultimate tensile strength (UTS), o
= = =
3
2
5
70 10
N/m 891MPa
7.854 10
max
u
o
P
A
(iv) Yield strength
( )
o
= = =
3
2
5
55 10
N/m 700 MPa
7.854 10
y
y
o
P
A
(v) Fracture strength ( ) o
= = =
3
2
5
60 10
N/m 764MPa
7.854 10
Fracture
F
o
P
A
(vi) Elastic recoverable strain at maximum load ( ) c
= = =
6
max
9
/ 891 10
0.0045
200 10
o
E
P A
E
(vii) Plastic strain ( ) c c c = = = 0.2000 0.0045 0.1955
P total E
1.25 Elasticity
This is the property of a material to regain its original shape
after deformation when the external forces are removed. When
the material is in elastic region the strain disappears
completely after removal of the load, The stress-strain
relationship in elastic region need not be linear and can be
non-linear (example rubber). The maximum stress value below
which the strain is fully recoverable is called the elastic limit.
It is represented by point A in figure. All materials are elastic
to some extent but the degree varies, for example, both mild
steel and rubber are elastic materials but steel is more elastic
than rubber.
1.26 Plasticity
When the stress in the material exceeds the elastic limit, the
material enters into plastic phase where the strain can no
longer be completely removed. Under plastic conditions
materials ideally deform without any increase in stress. A
typical stress strain diagram for an elastic-perfectly plastic
material is shown in the figure. Mises-Henky criterion gives a
good starting point for plasticity analysis.
1.27 Strain hardening
If the material is reloaded from point C, it will follow the
previous unloading path and line CB becomes its new elastic
region with elastic limit defined by point B. Though the new
elastic region CB resembles that of the initial elastic region
OA, the internal structure of the material in the new state has
changed. The change in the microstructure of the material is
clear from the fact that the ductility of the material has come
down due to strain hardening. When the material is reloaded,
it follows the same path as that of a virgin material and fails
on reaching the ultimate strength which remains unaltered
due to the intermediate loading and unloading process.
1.28 Stress reversal and stress-strain hysteresis loop
We know that fatigue failure begins at a local discontinuity and when the stress at the discontinuity
exceeds elastic limit there is plastic strain. The cyclic plastic strain results crack propagation and
fracture.
When we plot the experimental data with reversed loading and the true stress strain hysteresis
loops is found as shown below.
True stress-strain plot with a number of stress reversals
Due to cyclic strain the elastic limit increases for annealed steel and decreases for cold drawn steel.
Here the stress range is . p and e are the plastic and elastic strain ranges, the total strain
range being . Considering that the total strain amplitude can be given as
= p+ e

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS (GATE, IES, IAS)

Previous 20-Years GATE Questions
Stress in a bar due to self-weight
GATE-1. Two identical circular rods of same diameter and same length are subjected to same magnitude
of axial tensile force. One of the rods is made out of mild steel having the modulus of elasticity
of 206 GPa. The other rod is made out of cast iron having the modulus of elasticity of 100 GPa.
Assume both the materials to be homogeneous and isotropic and the axial force causes the same
amount of uniform stress in both the rods. The stresses developed are within the proportional
limit of the respective materials. Which of the following observations is correct?[GATE-2003]
(a) Both rods elongate by the same amount
(b) Mild steel rod elongates more than the cast iron rod
(c) Cast iron rod elongates more than the mild steel rod
(d) As the stresses are equal strains are also equal in both the rods

GATE-2. A steel bar of 40 mm 40 mm square cross-section is subjected to an axial compressive load of
200 kN. If the length of the bar is 2 m and E = 200 GPa, the elongation of the bar will be:
[GATE-2006]
(a) 1.25 mm (b) 2.70 mm (c) 4.05 mm (d) 5.40 mm

True stress and true strain
GATE-3. The ultimate tensile strength of a material is 400 MPa and the elongation up to maximum load
is 35%. If the material obeys power law of hardening, then the true stress-true strain relation
(stress in MPa) in the plastic deformation range is: [GATE-2006]
(a)
0.30
540 o c = (b)
0.30
775 o c = (c)
0.35
540 o c = (d)
0.35
775 o c =
Elasticity and Plasticity
GATE-4. An axial residual compressive stress due to a manufacturing process is present on the outer
surface of a rotating shaft subjected to bending. Under a given bending load, the fatigue life of
the shaft in the presence of the residual compressive stress is: [GATE-2008]
(a) Decreased
(b) Increased or decreased, depending on the external bending load
(c) Neither decreased nor increased
(d) Increased

GATE-5. A static load is mounted at the centre of a shaft rotating at uniform angular velocity. This shaft
will be designed for [GATE-2002]
(a) The maximum compressive stress (static) (b) The maximum tensile stress (static)
(c) The maximum bending moment (static) (d) Fatigue loading

GATE-6. Fatigue strength of a rod subjected to cyclic axial force is less than that of a rotating beam of
the same dimensions subjected to steady lateral force because
(a) Axial stiffness is less than bending stiffness [GATE-1992]
(b) Of absence of centrifugal effects in the rod
(c) The number of discontinuities vulnerable to fatigue are more in the rod
(d) At a particular time the rod has only one type of stress whereas the beam has both the
tensile and compressive stresses.


Relation between the Elastic Modulii
GATE-7. A rod of length L and diameter D is subjected to a tensile load P. Which of the following is
sufficient to calculate the resulting change in diameter?
(a) Young's modulus (b) Shear modulus [GATE-2008]
(c) Poisson's ratio (d) Both Young's modulus and shear modulus

GATE-8. In terms of Poisson's ratio () the ratio of Young's Modulus (E) to Shear Modulus (G) of elastic
materials is [GATE-2004]

1 1
( ) 2(1 ) ( ) 2(1 ) ( ) (1 ) ( ) (1 )
2 2
a b c d + +

GATE-9. The relationship between Young's modulus (E), Bulk modulus (K) and Poisson's ratio () is
given by: [GATE-2002]
(a)
( ) E 3 K 1 2 = (b)
( ) K 3 E 1 2 =
(c)
( ) E 3 K 1 = (d)
( ) K 3 E 1 =
Stresses in compound strut
GATE-10. In a bolted joint two members are
connected with an axial tightening
force of 2200 N. If the bolt used has
metric threads of 4 mm pitch, then
torque required for achieving the
tightening force is
(a) 0.7Nm (b) 1.0 Nm
(c) 1.4Nm (d) 2.8Nm

[GATE-2004]

GATE-11. The figure below shows a steel rod of 25 mm
2
cross sectional area. It is loaded at four points, K,
L, M and N. [GATE-2004, IES 1995, 1997, 1998]

Assume Esteel = 200 GPa. The total change in length of the rod due to loading is:
(a) 1 m (b) -10 m (c) 16 m (d) -20 m

GATE-12. A bar having a cross-sectional area of 700mm
2
is subjected to axial loads at the positions
indicated. The value of stress in the segment QR is: [GATE-2006]

P Q R S
(a) 40 MPa (b) 50 MPa (c) 70 MPa (d) 120 MPa
F.B.D


GATE-13. An ejector mechanism consists of a
helical compression spring having a
spring constant of K = 981 10
3
N/m. It
is pre-compressed by 100 mm from its
free state. If it is used to eject a mass of
100 kg held on it, the mass will move up
through a distance of
(a) 100mm (b) 500mm
(c) 981 mm (d) 1000mm

[GATE-2004]

GATE-14. The figure shows a pair of pin-jointed
gripper-tongs holding an object weighing
2000 N. The co-efficient of friction () at
the gripping surface is 0.1 XX is the line
of action of the input force and YY is the
line of application of gripping force. If the
pin-joint is assumed to be frictionless,
then magnitude of force F required to hold
the weight is:
(a) 1000 N
(b) 2000 N
(c) 2500 N
(d) 5000 N

[GATE-2004]

GATE-15. A uniform, slender cylindrical rod is made of a homogeneous and isotropic material. The rod
rests on a frictionless surface. The rod is heated uniformly. If the radial and longitudinal
thermal stresses are represented by r and z, respectively, then [GATE-2005]
( ) 0, 0 ( ) 0, 0 ( ) 0, 0 ( ) 0, 0
r z r z r z r z
a b c d o o o o o o o o = = = = = = = =
Thermal Effect
GATE-15(i). A solid steel cube constrained on all six faces is heated so that the temperature
rises uniformly by T. If the thermal coefficient of the material is , Youngs
modulus is E and the Poissons ratio is u , the thermal stress developed in the cube
due to heating is
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 3
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2 1 2 3 1 2
T E T E T E T E
a b c d
o o o o
u u u u
A A A A

[GATE-2012]
Tensile Test
GATE-16. A test specimen is stressed slightly beyond the yield point and then unloaded. Its yield strength
will [GATE-1995]
(a) Decrease (b) Increase
(c) Remains same (d) Becomes equal to ultimate tensile strength


GATE-17. Under repeated loading a material
has the stress-strain curve shown
in figure, which of the following
statements is true?
(a) The smaller the shaded area,
the better the material damping
(b) The larger the shaded area, the
better the material damping
(c) Material damping is an
independent material property
and does not depend on this
curve
(d) None of these

[GATE-1999]
Previous 20-Years IES Questions
IES-1. A solid uniform metal bar of diameter D and length L is hanging vertically from its upper end.
The elongation of the bar due to self weight is: [IES-2005]
(a) Proportional to L and inversely proportional to D
2

(b) Proportional to L
2
and inversely proportional to D
2

(c) Proportional of L but independent of D
(d) Proportional of U but independent of D

IES-2. The deformation of a bar under its own weight as compared to that when subjected to a direct
axial load equal to its own weight will be: [IES-1998]
(a) The same (b) One-fourth (c) Half (d) Double

IES-3. A rigid beam of negligible weight is supported in a horizontal position by two rods of steel and
aluminum, 2 m and 1 m long having values of cross - sectional areas 1 cm
2
and 2 cm
2
and E of
200 GPa and 100 GPa respectively. A load P is applied as shown in the figure [IES-2002]

If the rigid beam is to remain horizontal then
(a) The forces on both sides should be equal
(b) The force on aluminum rod should be twice the force on steel
(c) The force on the steel rod should be twice the force on aluminum
(d) The force P must be applied at the centre of the beam
Bar of uniform strength
IES-4. Which one of the following statements is correct? [IES 2007]
A beam is said to be of uniform strength, if
(a) The bending moment is the same throughout the beam

(b) The shear stress is the same throughout the beam
(c) The deflection is the same throughout the beam
(d) The bending stress is the same at every section along its longitudinal axis

IES-5. Which one of the following statements is correct? [IES-2006]
Beams of uniform strength vary in section such that
(a) bending moment remains constant (b) deflection remains constant
(c) maximum bending stress remains constant (d) shear force remains constant

IES-6. For bolts of uniform strength, the shank diameter is made equal to [IES-2003]
(a) Major diameter of threads (b) Pitch diameter of threads
(c) Minor diameter of threads (d) Nominal diameter of threads

IES-7. A bolt of uniform strength can be developed by [IES-1995]
(a) Keeping the core diameter of threads equal to the diameter of unthreaded portion of the
bolt
(b) Keeping the core diameter smaller than the diameter of the unthreaded portion
(c) Keeping the nominal diameter of threads equal the diameter of unthreaded portion of the
bolt
(d) One end fixed and the other end free

IES-7a. In a bolt of uniform strength:
(a) Nominal diameter of thread is equal to the diameter of shank of the bolt
(b) Nominal diameter of thread is larger than the diameter of shank of the bolt
(c) Nominal diameter of thread is less than the diameter of shank of the bolt
(d) Core diameter of threads is equal to the diameter of shank of the bolt.
[IES-2011]
Elongation of a Taper Rod
IES-8. Two tapering bars of the same material are subjected to a tensile load P. The lengths of both the
bars are the same. The larger diameter of each of the bars is D. The diameter of the bar A at its
smaller end is D/2 and that of the bar B is D/3. What is the ratio of elongation of the bar A to
that of the bar B? [IES-2006]
(a) 3 : 2 (b) 2: 3 (c) 4 : 9 (d) 1: 3

IES-9. A bar of length L tapers uniformly from diameter 1.1 D at one end to 0.9 D at the other end. The
elongation due to axial pull is computed using mean diameter D. What is the approximate error
in computed elongation? [IES-2004]
(a) 10% (b) 5% (c) 1% (d) 0.5%

IES-10. The stretch in a steel rod of circular section, having a length 'l' subjected to a tensile load' P' and
tapering uniformly from a diameter d1 at one end to a diameter d2 at the other end, is given
[IES-1995]
(a)
1 2
4
Pl
Ed d
(b)
1 2
. pl
Ed d
t
(c)
1 2
.
4
pl
Ed d
t
(d)
1 2
4pl
Ed d t

IES-11. A tapering bar (diameters of end sections being d1 and d2 a bar of uniform cross-section d have
the same length and are subjected the same axial pull. Both the bars will have the same
extension ifd is equal to [IES-1998]
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2
a b c d
2 2 2
d d d d d d
d d
+ +

IES-11(i). A rod of length l tapers uniformly from a diameter D at one end to a diameter d at the other.
The Youngs modulus of the material is E. The extension caused by an axial load P is
[IES-2012]
()
)
()
)
()
()


Poissons ratio
IES-12. In the case of an engineering material under unidirectional stress in the x-direction, the
Poisson's ratio is equal to (symbols have the usual meanings)
[IAS 1994, IES-2000]
(a)
x
y
c
c
(b)
x
y
o
c
(c)
x
y
o
o
(d)
x
y
c
o

IES-13. Which one of the following is correct in respect of Poisson's ratio (v) limits for an isotropic elastic
solid? [IES-2004]
(a) v s s (b) 1/ 4 1/ 3 v s s (c) 1 1/ 2 v s s (d) 1/ 2 1/ 2 v s s

IES-14. Match List-I (Elastic properties of an isotropic elastic material) with List-II (Nature of strain
produced) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists: [IES-1997]
List-I List-II
A. Young's modulus 1. Shear strain
B. Modulus of rigidity 2. Normal strain
C. Bulk modulus 3. Transverse strain
D. Poisson's ratio 4. Volumetric strain
Codes: A B C D A B C D
(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 2 1 3 4
(c) 2 1 4 3 (d) 1 2 4 3

IES-15. If the value of Poisson's ratio is zero, then it means that [IES-1994]
(a) The material is rigid.
(b) The material is perfectly plastic.
(c) There is no longitudinal strain in the material
(d) The longitudinal strain in the material is infinite.

IES-16. Which of the following is true (= Poisson's ratio) [IES-1992]
(a) 0 1/ 2 < < (b) 1 0 < < (c) 1 1 < < (d) < <<

IES-16a. If a piece of material neither expands nor contracts in volume when subjected to stress, then the
Poissons ratio must be
(a) Zero (b) 0.25 (c) 0.33 (d) 0.5 [IES-2011]
IES-17. If the area of cross-section of a wire is circular and if the radius of this circle decreases to half
its original value due to the stretch of the wire by a load, then the modulus of elasticity of the
wire be: [IES-1993]
(a) One-fourth of its original value (b) Halved (c) Doubled (d) Unaffected

IES-18. The relationship between the Lames constant , Youngs modulus E and the Poissons ratio
[IES-1997]
( )
( )( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )
( )
a ( ) c d
1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1

= = = =
+ + +
E E E E
b

IES-19. Which of the following pairs are correctly matched? [IES-1994]
1. Resilience Resistance to deformation.
2. Malleability ..Shape change.
3. Creep ........................ Progressive deformation.
4. Plasticity .... .Permanent deformation.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
Codes: (a) 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4


IES-19a Match List I with List - II and select the correct answer using the code given below the lists:
[IES-2011]
List I List II
A. Elasticity 1. Deform non-elastically without fracture
B. Malleability 2. Undergo plastic deformation under tensile load
C. Ductility 3. Undergo plastic deformation under compressive load
D. Plasticity 4. Return to its original shape on unloading
Codes A B C D A B C D
(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 4 2 3 1
(c) 1 3 2 4 (d) 4 3 2 1

IES-19b. Assertion (A): Plastic deformation is a function of applied stress, temperature and strain rate.
[IES-2010]
Reason (R): Plastic deformation is accompanied by change in both the internal and external
state of the material.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
Creep and fatigue
IES-20. What is the phenomenon of progressive extension of the material i.e., strain increasing with the
time at a constant load, called? [IES 2007]
(a) Plasticity (b) Yielding (b) Creeping (d) Breaking

IES-21. The correct sequence of creep deformation in a creep curve in order of their elongation is:[IES-
2001]
(a) Steady state, transient, accelerated (b) Transient, steady state, accelerated
(c) Transient, accelerated, steady state (d) Accelerated, steady state, transient

IES-22. The highest stress that a material can withstand for a specified length of time without excessive
deformation is called [IES-1997]
(a) Fatigue strength (b) Endurance strength
(c) Creep strength (d) Creep rupture strength

IES-23. Which one of the following features improves the fatigue strength of a metallic material?[IES-
2000]
(a) Increasing the temperature (b) Scratching the surface
(c) Overstressing (d) Under stressing

IES-24. Consider the following statements: [IES-1993]
For increasing the fatigue strength of welded joints it is necessary to employ
1. Grinding 2. Coating 3. Hammer peening
Of the above statements
(a) 1 and 2 are correct (b) 2 and 3 are correct
(c) 1 and 3 are correct (d) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
IES-25. For a linearly elastic, isotropic and homogeneous material, the number of elastic constants
required to relate stress and strain is: [IAS 1994; IES-1998]
(a) Two (b) Three (c) Four (d) Six

IES-26. E, G, K and represent the elastic modulus, shear modulus, bulk modulus and Poisson's ratio
respectively of a linearly elastic, isotropic and homogeneous material. To express the stress-
strain relations completely for this material, at least [IES-2006]
(a) E, G and must be known (b) E, K and must be known
(c) Any two of the four must be known (d) All the four must be known


IES-27. The number of elastic constants for a completely anisotropic elastic material which follows
Hooke's law is: [IES-1999]
(a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 21 (d) 25

IES-28. What are the materials which show direction dependent properties, called?
(a) Homogeneous materials (b) Viscoelastic materials [IES 2007, IES-2011]
(c) Isotropic materials (d) Anisotropic materials

IES-29. An orthotropic material, under plane stress condition will have: [IES-2006]
(a) 15 independent elastic constants (b) 4 independent elastic constants
(c) 5 independent elastic constants (d) 9 independent elastic constants

IES-30. Match List-I (Properties) with List-II (Units) and select the correct answer using the codes
given below the lists: [IES-2001]
List I List II
A. Dynamic viscosity 1. Pa
B. Kinematic viscosity 2. m
2
/s
C. Torsional stiffness 3. Ns/m
2
D. Modulus of rigidity 4. N/m
(a) 3 2 4 1 (b) 5 2 4 3
(b) 3 4 2 3 (d) 5 4 2 1

IES-31. Young's modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio of a material are 1.25 10
5
MPa and 0.34
respectively. The modulus of rigidity of the material is:
[IAS 1994, IES-1995, 2001, 2002, 2007]
(a) 0.4025 10
5
Mpa (b) 0.4664 10
5
Mpa
(c) 0.8375 10
5
MPa (d) 0.9469 10
5
MPa

IES-32. In a homogenous, isotropic elastic material, the modulus of elasticity E in terms of G and K is
equal to [IAS-1995, IES - 1992]
(a)
3
9
G K
KG
+
(b)
3
9
G K
KG
+
(c)
9
3
KG
G K +
(d)
9
3
KG
K G +

IES-33. What is the relationship between the linear elastic properties Young's modulus (E), rigidity
modulus (G) and bulk modulus (K)? [IES-2008]

1 9 3 3 9 1 9 3 1 9 1 3
(a) (b) (c) (d)
E K G E K G E K G E K G
= + = + = + = +

IES-34. What is the relationship between the liner elastic properties Youngs modulus (E), rigidity
modulus (G) and bulk modulus (K)? [IES-2009]
(a)
9
KG
E
K G
=
+
(b)
9KG
E
K G
=
+
(c)
9
3
KG
E
K G
=
+
(d)
9
3
KG
E
K G
=
+

IES-35. If E, G and K denote Young's modulus, Modulus of rigidity and Bulk Modulus, respectively, for
an elastic material, then which one of the following can be possibly true? [IES-2005]
(a) G = 2K (b) G = E (c) K = E (d) G = K = E

IES-36. If a material had a modulus of elasticity of 2.1 10
6
kgf/cm
2
and a modulus of rigidity of 0.8
10
6
kgf/cm
2
then the approximate value of the Poisson's ratio of the material would be:[IES-
1993]
(a) 0.26 (b) 0.31 (c) 0.47 (d) 0.5
IES-37. The modulus of elasticity for a material is 200 GN/m
2
and Poisson's ratio is 0.25.
What is the modulus of rigidity? [IES-2004]
(a) 80 GN/m
2
(b) 125 GN/m
2
(c) 250 GN/m
2
(d) 320 GN/m
2


1. Two-dimensional stresses applied to a thin plate in its own plane represent the plane
stress condition.
2. Under plane stress condition, the strain in the direction perpendicular to the plane is
zero.
3. Normal and shear stresses may occur simultaneously on a plane.
Which of the above statements is /are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
IES-39. Eight bolts are to be selected for fixing the cover plate of a cylinder subjected to a maximum
load of 980175 kN. If the design stress for the bolt material is 315 N/mm
2
, what is the diameter
of each bolt? [IES-2008]
(a) 10 mm (b) 22 mm (c) 30 mm (d) 36 mm

IES-40. For a composite consisting of a bar enclosed inside a tube of another material when compressed
under a load 'w' as a whole through rigid collars at the end of the bar. The equation of
compatibility is given by (suffixes 1 and 2) refer to bar and tube respectively [IES-1998]

1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
1 1 2 2 1 2 2 1
( ) ( ) . ( ) ( )
W W W W
a W W W b W W Const c d
AE A E AE A E
+ = + = = =
IES-41. When a composite unit consisting of a steel rod surrounded by a cast iron tube is subjected to an
axial load. [IES-2000]
Assertion (A): The ratio of normal stresses induced in both the materials is equal to the ratio of
Young's moduli of respective materials.
Reason (R): The composite unit of these two materials is firmly fastened together at the ends to
ensure equal deformation in both the materials.
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A

IES-42. The figure below shows a steel rod of 25 mm
2
cross sectional area. It is loaded at four points, K,
L, M and N. [GATE-2004, IES 1995, 1997, 1998]

Assume Esteel = 200 GPa. The total change in length of the rod due to loading is
(a) 1 m (b) -10 m (c) 16 m (d) -20 m

IES-43. The reactions at the rigid
supports at A and B for the
bar loaded as shown in the
figure are respectively.
(a) 20/3 kN,10/3 kN
(b) 10/3 kN, 20/3 kN
(c) 5 kN, 5 kN
(d) 6 kN, 4 kN

[IES-2002, IES-2011; IAS-2003]

IES-44. Which one of the following is correct? [IES-2008]
When a nut is tightened by placing a washer below it, the bolt will be subjected to
(a) Compression only (b) Tension
(c) Shear only (d) Compression and shear

IES-45. Which of the following stresses are associated with the tightening of nut on a bolt?[IES-1998]
1. Tensile stress due to the stretching of bolt
2. Bending stress due to the bending of bolt
3. Crushing and shear stresses in threads
4. Torsional shear stress due to frictional resistance between the nut and the bolt.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below
Codes: (a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4
Thermal effect
IES-46. A 100 mm 5 mm 5 mm steel bar free to expand is heated from 15C to 40C. What shall be
developed? [IES-2008]
(a) Tensile stress (b) Compressive stress (c) Shear stress (d) No stress

IES-47. Which one of the following statements is correct? [GATE-1995; IES 2007, 2011]
If a material expands freely due to heating, it will develop
(a) Thermal stress (b) Tensile stress (c) Compressive stress (d) No stress

IES-48. A cube having each side of length a, is constrained in all directions and is heated uniformly so
that the temperature is raised to TC. If is the thermal coefficient of expansion of the cube
material and E the modulus of elasticity, the stress developed in the cube is: [IES-2003]
(a)
TE o
(b)
( ) 1 2
TE o

(c)
2
TE o
(d)
( ) 1 2
TE o
+

Thermal stress is induced in a component in general, when
1. A temperature gradient exists in the component
2. The component is free from any restraint
3. It is restrained to expand or contract freely
Which of the above statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 3 alone (d) 2 alone

IES-50. A steel rod 10 mm in diameter and 1m long is heated from 20C to 120C, E = 200 GPa and =
12 10
-6
per C. If the rod is not free to expand, the thermal stress developed is:[IAS-2003, IES-
1997, 2000, 2006]
(a) 120 MPa (tensile) (b) 240 MPa (tensile)
(c) 120 MPa (compressive) (d) 240 MPa (compressive)

IES-51. A cube with a side length of 1 cm is heated uniformly 1 C above the room temperature and all
the sides are free to expand. What will be the increase in volume of the cube? (Given coefficient
of thermal expansion is per C)
(a) 3 cm
3
(b) 2 cm
3
(c) cm
3
(d) zero [IES-2004]

IES-52. A bar of copper and steel form a composite system. [IES-2004, 2012]
They are heated to a temperature of 40 C. What type of stress is induced in the copper bar?
(a) Tensile (b) Compressive (c) Both tensile and compressive (d) Shear

IES-53.
-6 o
=12.510 / C, E= 200GPa If the rod fitted strongly between the supports as shown in the
figure, is heated, the stress induced in it due to 20
o
C rise in temperature will be:[IES-1999]
(a) 0.07945 MPa (b) -0.07945 MPa (c) -0.03972 MPa (d) 0.03972 MPa

IES-54. The temperature stress is a function of [IES-1992]
1. Coefficient of linear expansion 2. Temperature rise 3. Modulus of elasticity
The correct answer is:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Impact loading
IES-55. Assertion (A): Ductile materials generally absorb more impact loading than a brittle material
[IES-2004]
Reason (R): Ductile materials generally have higher ultimate strength than brittle materials

IES-56. Assertion (A): Specimens for impact testing are never notched. [IES-1999]
Reason (R): A notch introduces tri-axial tensile stresses which cause brittle fracture.
Tensile Test
IES-57. During tensile-testing of a specimen using a Universal Testing Machine, the parameters
actually measured include [IES-1996]
(a) True stress and true strain (b) Poissons ratio and Young's modulus
(c) Engineering stress and engineering strain (d) Load and elongation

IES-58. In a tensile test, near the elastic limit zone [IES-2006]
(a) Tensile stress increases at a faster rate
(b) Tensile stress decreases at a faster rate
(c) Tensile stress increases in linear proportion to the stress
(d) Tensile stress decreases in linear proportion to the stress

IES-59. Match List-I (Types of Tests and Materials) with List-II (Types of Fractures) and select the
correct answer using the codes given below the lists:
List I List-II [IES-2002; IAS-2004]
(Types of Tests and Materials) (Types of Fractures)
A. Tensile test on CI 1. Plain fracture on a transverse plane
B. Torsion test on MS 2. Granular helecoidal fracture
C. Tensile test on MS 3. Plain granular at 45 to the axis
D. Torsion test on CI 4. Cup and Cone
5. Granular fracture on a transverse plane
Codes:
A B C D A B C D
(a) 4 2 3 1 (c) 4 1 3 2
(b) 5 1 4 2 (d) 5 2 4 1


IES-60. Which of the following materials generally exhibits a yield point? [IES-2003]
(a) Cast iron (b) Annealed and hot-rolled mild steel
(c) Soft brass (d) Cold-rolled steel

IES-61. For most brittle materials, the ultimate strength in compression is much large then the
ultimate strength in tension. The is mainly due to [IES-1992]
(a) Presence of flaws and microscopic cracks or cavities
(b) Necking in tension
(c) Severity of tensile stress as compared to compressive stress
(d) Non-linearity of stress-strain diagram

IES-61(i). A copper rod 400 mm long is pulled in tension to a length of 401.2 mm by applying a tensile load
of 330 MPa. If the deformation is entirely elastic, the Youngs modulus of copper is
[IES-2012]
(a) 110 GPA (b) 110 MPa (c) 11 GPa (d) 11 MPa

IES-62. What is the safe static tensile load for a M36 4C bolt of mild steel having yield stress of 280
MPa and a factor of safety 1.5? [IES-2005]
(a) 285 kN (b) 190 kN (c) 142.5 kN (d) 95 kN

IES-63. Which one of the following properties is more sensitive to increase in strain rate?[IES-2000]
(a) Yield strength (b) Proportional limit (c) Elastic limit (d) Tensile strength

IES-64. A steel hub of 100 mm internal diameter and uniform thickness of 10 mm was heated to a
temperature of 300
o
C to shrink-fit it on a shaft. On cooling, a crack developed parallel to the
direction of the length of the hub. Consider the following factors in this regard:[IES-1994]
1. Tensile hoop stress 2. Tensile radial stress
3. Compressive hoop stress 4. Compressive radial stress
The cause of failure is attributable to
(a) 1 alone (b) 1 and 3 (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4

IES-65. If failure in shear along 45 planes is to be avoided, then a material subjected to uniaxial
tension should have its shear strength equal to at least [IES-1994]
(a) Tensile strength (b) Compressive strength
(c) Half the difference between the tensile and compressive strengths.
(d) Half the tensile strength.

IES-66. Select the proper sequence [IES-1992]
1. Proportional Limit 2. Elastic limit 3. Yielding 4. Failure
(a) 2, 3, 1, 4 (b) 2, 1, 3, 4 (c) 1, 3, 2, 4 (d) 1, 2, 3, 4

IES-67. Elastic limit of cast iron as compared to its ultimate breaking strength is
(a) Half (b) Double [IES-2012]
(c) Approximately (d) None of the above

IES-68. Statement (I): Steel reinforcing bars are used in reinforced cement concrete.
Statement (II): Concrete is weak in compression. [IES-2012]
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true and Statement (II) is the correct
explanation of Statement (I)
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true but Statement (II) is not the
correct explanation of Statement (I)
(c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is false
(d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is true

Previous 20-Years IAS Questions
IAS-1. A heavy uniform rod of length 'L' and material density '' is hung vertically with its top end
rigidly fixed. How is the total elongation of the bar under its own weight expressed?[IAS-2007]
(a)
2
2 L g
E
o
(b)
2
L g
E
o
(c)
2
2
L g
E
o
(d)
2
2
L g
E
o

IAS-2. A rod of length 'l' and cross-section area A rotates about an axis passing through one end of the
rod. The extension produced in the rod due to centrifugal forces is (w is the weight of the rod per
unit length and e is the angular velocity of rotation of the rod). [IAS 1994]
(a)
gE
wl
2
e
(b)
gE
wl
3
3 2
e
(c)
gE
wl
3 2
e
(d)
3 2
3
wl
gE
e

Elongation of a Taper Rod
IAS-3. A rod of length, "i " tapers uniformly from a diameter ''D1' to a diameter ''D2' and carries an
axial tensile load of "P". The extension of the rod is (E represents the modulus of elasticity of the
material of the rod) [IAS-1996]
(a)
1 2
4 1
t
P
ED D

1 2
4 1
( )
t
PE
b
D D
(c)
1 2
1
4
EP
D D
t
(d)
1 2
1
4
P
ED D
t

Poissons ratio
IAS-4. In the case of an engineering material under unidirectional stress in the x-direction, the
Poisson's ratio is equal to (symbols have the usual meanings)
[IAS 1994, IES-2000]
(a)
x
y
c
c
(b)
x
y
o
c
(c)
x
y
o
o
(d)
x
y
c
o

IAS-5. Assertion (A): Poisson's ratio of a material is a measure of its ductility.
Reason (R): For every linear strain in the direction of force, Poisson's ratio of the material gives
the lateral strain in directions perpendicular to the direction of force. [IAS-1999]

IAS-6. Assertion (A): Poisson's ratio is a measure of the lateral strain in all direction perpendicular to
and in terms of the linear strain. [IAS-1997]
Reason (R): The nature of lateral strain in a uni-axially loaded bar is opposite to that of the
linear strain.
IAS-7. A weight falls on a plunger fitted in a container filled with oil thereby producing a pressure of
1.5 N/mm
2
in the oil. The Bulk Modulus of oil is 2800 N/mm
2
. Given this situation, the
volumetric compressive strain produced in the oil will be: [IAS-1997]
(a) 400 10
-6
(b) 800 10
6
(c) 268 10
6
(d) 535 10
-6

IAS-8. For a linearly elastic, isotropic and homogeneous material, the number of elastic constants
required to relate stress and strain is: [IAS 1994; IES-1998]
(a) Two (b) Three (c) Four (d) Six

IAS-9. The independent elastic constants for a homogenous and isotropic material are
(a) E, G, K, v (b) E, G, K (c) E, G, v (d) E, G [IAS-1995]

IAS-10. The unit of elastic modulus is the same as those of [IAS 1994]
(a) Stress, shear modulus and pressure (b) Strain, shear modulus and force
(c) Shear modulus, stress and force (d) Stress, strain and pressure.

IAS-11. Young's modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio of a material are 1.25 10
5
MPa and 0.34
respectively. The modulus of rigidity of the material is:
[IAS 1994, IES-1995, 2001, 2002, 2007]
(a) 0.4025 10
5
MPa (b) 0.4664 10
5
MPa
(c) 0.8375 10
5
MPa (d) 0.9469 10
5
MPa

IAS-12. The Young's modulus of elasticity of a material is 2.5 times its modulus of rigidity. The Posson's
ratio for the material will be: [IAS-1997]
(a) 0.25 (b) 0.33 (c) 0.50 (d) 0.75

IAS-13. In a homogenous, isotropic elastic material, the modulus of elasticity E in terms of G and K is
equal to [IAS-1995, IES - 1992]
(a)
3
9
G K
KG
+
(b)
3
9
G K
KG
+
(c)
9
3
KG
G K +
(d)
9
3
KG
K G +

IAS-14. The Elastic Constants E and K are related as ( is the Poissons ratio) [IAS-1996]
(a) E = 2k (1 2 ) (b) E = 3k (1- 2 ) (c) E = 3k (1 + ) (d) E = 2K(1 + 2 )

IAS-15. For an isotropic, homogeneous and linearly elastic material, which obeys Hooke's law, the
number of independent elastic constant is: [IAS-2000]
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 6

IAS-16. The moduli of elasticity and rigidity of a material are 200 GPa and 80 GPa, respectively. What
is the value of the Poisson's ratio of the material? [IAS-2007]
(a) 030 (b) 026 (c) 025 (d) 024
IAS-17. The reactions at the rigid supports at A and B for the bar loaded as shown in the figure are
respectively. [IES-2002; IAS-2003]
(a) 20/3 kN,10/3 Kn (b) 10/3 kN, 20/3 kN (c) 5 kN, 5 kN (d) 6 kN, 4 kN


Thermal effect
IAS-18. A steel rod 10 mm in diameter and 1m long is heated from 20C to 120C, E = 200 GPa and =
12 10
-6
per C. If the rod is not free to expand, the thermal stress developed is:[IAS-2003, IES-
1997, 2000, 2006]
(a) 120 MPa (tensile) (b) 240 MPa (tensile)
(c) 120 MPa (compressive) (d) 240 MPa (compressive)

IAS-19. A. steel rod of diameter 1 cm and 1 m long is heated from 20C to 120C. Its
6
12 10 / K o

=
and E=200 GN/m
2
. If the rod is free to expand, the thermal stress developed in it is:[IAS-2002]
(a) 12 10
4
N/m
2
(b) 240 kN/m
2
(c) zero (d) infinity

IAS-20. Which one of the following pairs is NOT correctly matched? [IAS-1999]
(E = Young's modulus, = Coefficient of linear expansion, T = Temperature rise, A = Area of
cross-section, l= Original length)
(a) Temperature strain with permitted expansion o .. ( Tl o o )
(b) Temperature stress .. TE o
(c) Temperature thrust .. TEA o
(d) Temperature stress with permitted expansion ..
( ) E Tl
l
o o

Impact loading
IAS-21. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:
[IAS-1995]
List I (Property) List II (Testing Machine)
A. Tensile strength 1. Rotating Bending Machine
B. Impact strength 2. Three-Point Loading Machine
C. Bending strength 3. Universal Testing Machine
D. Fatigue strength 4. Izod Testing Machine
(a) 4 3 2 1 (b) 3 2 1 4
(c) 2 1 4 3 (d) 3 4 2 1
Tensile Test
IAS-22. A mild steel specimen is tested in tension up to fracture in a Universal Testing Machine. Which
of the following mechanical properties of the material can be evaluated from such a test?[IAS-
2007]
1. Modulus of elasticity 2. Yield stress 3. Ductility
4. Tensile strength 5. Modulus of rigidity
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 3, 5 and 6 (b) 2, 3, 4 and 6 (c) 1, 2, 5 and 6 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

IAS-23. In a simple tension test, Hooke's law is valid upto the [IAS-1998]
(a) Elastic limit (b) Limit of proportionality (c) Ultimate stress (d) Breaking point

IAS-24. Lueder' lines on steel specimen under simple tension test is a direct indication of yielding of
material due to slip along the plane [IAS-1997]
(a) Of maximum principal stress (b) Off maximum shear
(c) Of loading (d) Perpendicular to the direction of loading

IAS-25. The percentage elongation of a material as obtained from static tension test depends upon the
[IAS-1998]
(a) Diameter of the test specimen (b) Gauge length of the specimen
(c) Nature of end-grips of the testing machine (d) Geometry of the test specimen

IAS-26. Match List-I (Types of Tests and Materials) with List-II (Types of Fractures) and select the
correct answer using the codes given below the lists:

List I List-II [IES-2002; IAS-2004]
(Types of Tests and Materials) (Types of Fractures)
A. Tensile test on CI 1. Plain fracture on a transverse plane
B. Torsion test on MS 2. Granular helecoidal fracture
C. Tensile test on MS 3. Plain granular at 45 to the axis
D. Torsion test on CI 4. Cup and Cone
5. Granular fracture on a transverse plane
(a) 4 2 3 1 (c) 4 1 3 2
(b) 5 1 4 2 (d) 5 2 4 1

IAS-27. Assertion (A): For a ductile material stress-strain curve is a straight line up to the yield point.
[IAS-2003]
Reason (R): The material follows Hooke's law up to the point of proportionality.

IAS-28. Assertion (A): Stress-strain curves for brittle material do not exhibit yield point.[IAS-1996]
Reason (R): Brittle materials fail without yielding.

IAS-29. Match List I (Materials) with List II (Stress-Strain curves) and select the correct answer using
the codes given below the Lists: [IAS-2001]

(a) 3 1 4 1 (b) 3 2 4 2
(c) 2 4 3 1 (d) 4 1 3 2

IAS-30. The stress-strain curve of an ideal elastic strain hardening material will be as

[IAS-1998]
IAS-31. An idealised stress-strain curve for a perfectly plastic material is given by

[IAS-1996]

IAS-32. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists:
[IAS-2002]
List I List II
A. Ultimate strength 1. Internal structure
B. Natural strain 2. Change of length per unit instantaneous length
C. Conventional strain 3. Change of length per unit gauge length
D. Stress 4. Load per unit area
(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 4 3 2 1
(c) 1 3 2 4 (d) 4 2 3 1

IAS-33. What is the cause of failure of a short MS strut under an axial load? [IAS-2007]
(a) Fracture stress (b) Shear stress (c) Buckling (d) Yielding

IAS-34. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given the lists:[IAS-1995]
List I List II
A. Rigid-Perfectly plastic

B. Elastic-Perfectly plastic

C. Rigid-Strain hardening

D. Linearly elastic


(a) 3 1 4 2 (b) 1 3 2 4
(c) 3 1 2 4 (d) 1 3 4 2

IAS-35. Which one of the following materials is highly elastic? [IAS-1995]
(a) Rubber (b) Brass (c) Steel (d) Glass

IAS-36. Assertion (A): Hooke's law is the constitutive law for a linear elastic material.
Reason (R) Formulation of the theory of elasticity requires the hypothesis that there exists a
unique unstressed state of the body, to which the body returns whenever all the forces are
removed. [IAS-2002]

IAS-37. Consider the following statements: [IAS-2002]
1. There are only two independent elastic constants.
2. Elastic constants are different in orthogonal directions.
3. Material properties are same everywhere.
4. Elastic constants are same in all loading directions.
5. The material has ability to withstand shock loading.
Which of the above statements are true for a linearly elastic, homogeneous and isotropic
material?
(a) 1, 3, 4 and 5 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 2 and 5

IAS-38. Which one of the following pairs is NOT correctly matched? [IAS-1999]
(a) Uniformly distributed stress . Force passed through the centroid of the
cross-section
(b) Elastic deformation . Work done by external forces during
deformation is dissipated fully as heat
(c) Potential energy of strain . Body is in a state of elastic deformation
(d) Hooke's law . Relation between stress and strain

IAS-39. A tensile bar is stressed to 250 N/mm
2
which is beyond its elastic limit. At this stage the strain
produced in the bar is observed to be 0.0014. If the modulus of elasticity of the material of the
bar is 205000 N/mm
2
then the elastic component of the strain is very close to [IAS-1997]
(a) 0.0004 (b) 0.0002 (c) 0.0001 (d) 0.00005
OBJECTIVE ANSWERS
GATE-1. Ans. (c)
PL 1
L or L [AsP, L and A is same]
AE E
o o =

( )
( )
( ) ( )
mild steel
CI
CI MS
MS
C.I
L
E 100
L L
L E 206
o
o o
o
= = >
GATE-2. Ans. (a)
( )
( )
9
200 1000 2
PL
L m 1.25mm
AE 0.04 0.04 200 10
o

= = =

(a)
0.30
540 o c = (b)
0.30
775 o c = (c)
0.35
540 o c = (d)
0.35
775 o c =

GATE-3. Ans. (c)
A true stress true strain curve in
tension
n
k o c =
k = Strength co-efficient = 400
(1.35) = 540 MPa
n = Strain hardening exponent =
0.35

GATE-4. Ans. (d)

A cantilever-loaded rotating beam, showing the normal distribution of surface stresses. (i.e.,
tension at the top and compression at the bottom)

The residual compressive stresses induced.

Net stress pattern obtained when loading a surface treated beam. The reduced magnitude of the
tensile stresses contributes to increased fatigue life.
GATE-5. Ans. (d)
GATE-6. Ans. (d)
GATE-7. Ans. (d) For longitudinal strain we need Young's modulus and for calculating transverse strain we
need Poisson's ratio. We may calculate Poisson's ratio from ) 1 ( 2 + = G E for that we need
Shear modulus.
GATE-8. Ans. (a)
GATE-9. Ans. (a)
( ) ( )
9KG
Remember E 2G 1 3K 1 2
3K G
= + = =
+

GATE-10. Ans. (c)
0.004
T F r 2200 Nm 1.4Nm
2t
= = =
GATE-11. Ans. (b) First draw FBD of all parts separately then

Total change in length =
PL
AE

GATE-12. Ans. (a)

F.B.D

QR
P 28000
MPa 40MPa
A 700
o = = =

GATE-15. Ans. (a) Thermal stress will develop only when you prevent the material to contrast/elongate. As
here it is free no thermal stress will develop.
GATE-15(i). Ans. (a)
( )
3
3 3
3
1 a T a
V p
V K a
a + -
D
= =

( )
3
3 1 2
p
Or T
E
a
u
=
-

( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) . .
1 2 1 2
T E T E
Or p or stress p i e compressive
o o
o
u u
A A
= = =

Same question was asked in IES-2003 please refer question no. IES-48 in this chapter.
GATE-16. Ans. (b)

GATE-17. Ans. (a)
IES
IES-1. Ans. (a)
2 2
WL WL 1
L &
2AE D D
2 E
4
o o o
t
= =

IES-2. Ans. (c)
IES-3. Ans. (b)
IES-4. Ans. (d)
IES-5. Ans. (c)
IES-6. Ans. (c)
IES-7. Ans. (a)
IES-7a. Ans. (d)
IES-8. Ans. (b) Elongation of a taper rod ( )
1 2
PL
l
d d E
4
o
t
=

( )
( )
( )
( )
2
A B
2
B A
l d
D/ 3 2
or
l d D/ 2 3
o
o
| |
= = =
|
\ .


IES-9. Ans. (c)
( )
act
1 2
PL PL
Actual elongation of the bar l
d d E 1.1D 0.9D E
4 4
o
t t
= =
| | | |

| |
\ . \ .

( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
=
| |
= = =
|
\ .
2 Cal
2
act cal
cal
PL
Calculated elongation of the bar l
D
E
4
l l
D
Error % 100 1 100% 1%
l 1.1D 0.9D
o
t
o o
o

IES-10. Ans. (d)
( )
act
1 2
PL
Actual elongation of the bar l
d d E
4
o
t
=
| |
|
\ .

IES-11. Ans. (b)
IES-11(i). Ans. (c)
IES-12. Ans. (a)
IES-13. Ans. (c) Theoretically 1 1/ 2 but practically 0 1/ 2 < < < <
IES-14. Ans. (c)
IES-15. Ans. (a) If Poisson's ratio is zero, then material is rigid.
IES-16. Ans. (a)
IES-16a. Ans. (d)
IES-17. Ans. (d) Note: Modulus of elasticity is the property of material. It will remain same.
IES-18. Ans. (a)
IES-19. Ans. (a) Strain energy stored by a body within elastic limit is known as resilience.
IES-19a. Ans. (d)
IES-19b. Ans. (b) Plastic deformation
- Following the elastic deformation, material undergoes plastic deformation.
- Also characterized by relation between stress and strain at constant strain rate and temperature.
- Microscopicallyit involves breaking atomic bonds, moving atoms, then restoration of bonds.
- Stress-Strain relation here is complex because of atomic plane movement, dislocation movement,
and the obstacles they encounter.
- Crystalline solids deform by processes slip and twinning in particular directions.
- Amorphous solids deform by viscous flow mechanism without any directionality.
- Equations relating stress and strain are called constitutive equations.
- A true stress-strain curve is called flow curve as it gives the stress required to cause the material to
flow plastically to certain strain.
IES-20. Ans. (c)
IES-21. Ans. (b)
IES-22. Ans. (c)
IES-23. Ans. (d)
IES-24. Ans. (c) A polished surface by grinding can take more number of cycles than a part with rough
surface. In Hammer peening residual compressive stress lower the peak tensile stress
IES-25. Ans. (a)
IES-26. Ans. (c)
IES-27. Ans. (c)
IES-28. Ans. (d)
IES-29. Ans. (d)
IES-30. Ans. (a)
IES-31. Ans.(b) ) 1 ( 2 + = G E or 1.25x10
5
= 2G(1+0.34) or G = 0.4664 10
5
MPa
IES-32. Ans. (c)
IES-33. Ans. (d)
( ) ( )
9KG
E 2G 1 3K 1 2
3K G
= + = =
+

IES-34. Ans. (d)
( ) ( )
9KG
E 2G 1 3K 1 2
3K G
= + = =
+

IES-35. Ans.(c)
( ) ( )
9KG
E 2G 1 3K 1 2
3K G
= + = =
+


1
the value of must be between 0 to 0.5 so E never equal to Gbut if then
3
E k so ans. is c
=
=

IES-36. Ans. (b) Use
( ) 2 1 E G = +
IES-37. Ans. (a) ( )
( ) ( )
2
E 200
E 2G 1 or G 80GN/ m
2 1 2 1 0.25
= + = = =
+ +

IES-38. Ans. (d) Under plane stress condition, the strain in the direction perpendicular to the plane is not
zero. It has been found experimentally that when a body is stressed within elastic limit, the
lateral strain bears a constant ratio to the linear strain. [IES-2009]
IES-39. Ans. (b) ( )
2
d P 980175
Total load P 8 or d 22.25mm
4 2 2 315
t
o
to t
= = = =

IES-40. Ans. (c) Compatibility equation insists that the change in length of the bar must be compatible with
the boundary conditions. Here (a) is also correct but it is equilibrium equation.
IES-41. Ans. (a)
IES-42. Ans. (b) First draw FBD of all parts separately then

Total change in length =
PL
AE

IES-43. Ans. (a) Elongation in AC = length reduction in CB

A B
R 1 R 2
AE AE

=
And RA + RB = 10
IES-44. Ans. (b)
IES-45. Ans. (d)
IES-46. Ans. (d) If we resist to expand then only stress will develop.
IES-47. Ans. (d)
IES-48. Ans. (b)
( ) ( )
3
3 3
3
1 p a T a
V
V K a
s a = + -
D
= =

( )
3
3 1 2
p
Or T
E
a
g
=
-

IES-49. Ans. (c)
IES-50. Ans. (d)
( ) ( ) ( )
6 3
E t 12 10 200 10 120 20 240MPa o

A = =
It will be compressive as elongation restricted.
IES-51. Ans. (a) co-efficient of volume expansion( ) ( ) 3 co efficient of linear expansion o =
IES-52. Ans. (b)
IES-53. Ans. (b) Let compression of the spring = x m
Therefore spring force = kx kN
Expansion of the rod due to temperature rise = L t oA
Reduction in the length due to compression force =
( ) kx L
AE

Now
( ) kx L
L t x
AE
o

A =
Or
6
2
6
0.5 12.5 10 20
x 0.125mm
50 0.5
1
0.010
200 10
4
t

= =

+
`

)


Compressive stress =
2
kx 50 0.125
0.07945MPa
A 0.010
4
t

= =
| |
|
\ .

IES-54. Ans. (d) Stress in the rod due to temperature rise = ( ) t E oA
IES-55. Ans. (c)
IES-56. Ans. (d) A is false but R is correct.
IES-57. Ans. (d)
IES-58. Ans. (b)
IES-59. Ans. (d)
IES-60. Ans. (b)
IES-61. Ans. (a)
IES-61(i). Ans. (a)
IES-62. Ans. (b)
2
c c 2
W d
or W
4 d
4
t
o o
t
= = ;

2 2
c
safe
d W 280 36
W N 190kN
fos fos 4 1.5 4
o t t
= = = =

IES-63. Ans. (b)
IES-64. Ans. (a) A crack parallel to the direction of length of hub means the failure was due to tensile hoop
stress only.
IES-65. Ans. (d)
IES-66. Ans. (d)

IES-67. Ans. (c)
IES-68. Ans. (c)
IAS
IAS-1. Ans. (d) Elongation due to self weight =
( )
2
2 2 2
ALg L
WL L g
AE AE E
o
o
= =
IAS-2. Ans. (b)
IAS-3. Ans. (a) The extension of the taper rod =
1 2
Pl
DD .E
4
t | |
|
\ .

IAS-4. Ans. (a)
IAS-5. ans. (d)
IAS-6. Ans. (b)
IAS-7. Ans. (d) Bulk modulus of elasticity (K) =
6
v
v
P P 1.5
or 535 10
K 2800
c
c

= = =
IAS-8. Ans. (a)
IAS-9. Ans. (d)
IAS-10. Ans. (a)
IAS-11. Ans.(b) ) 1 ( 2 + = G E or 1.25x10
5
= 2G(1+0.34) or G = 0.4664 10
5
MPa

IAS-12. Ans. (a) ( )
E E 2.5
E 2G 1 1 1 1 0.25
2G 2G 2

| | | |
= + + = = = =
| |
\ . \ .

IAS-13. Ans. (c)
IAS-14. Ans. (b) E = 2G (1 + ) = 3k (1- 2 )
IAS-15. Ans. (b) E, G, K and represent the elastic modulus, shear modulus, bulk modulus and poisons
ratio respectively of a linearly elastic, isotropic and homogeneous material. To express the
stress strain relations completely for this material; at least any two of the four must be
known. ( ) ( )
9
2 1 3 1 3
3
KG
E G K
K G
= + = =
+

IAS-16. Ans. (c) E = 2G (1+ ) or =
200
1 1 0.25
2 2 80
E
G
= =

IAS-17. Ans. (a) Elongation in AC = length reduction in CB

A B
R 1 R 2
AE AE

=
And RA + RB = 10
IAS-18. Ans. (d)
( ) ( ) ( )
6 3
E t 12 10 200 10 120 20 240MPa o

A = =
It will be compressive as elongation restricted.
IAS-19. Ans. (c) Thermal stress will develop only if expansion is restricted.
IAS-20. Ans. (a) Dimensional analysis gives (a) is wrong
IAS-21. Ans. (d)
IAS-22. Ans. (d)
IAS-23. Ans. (b)
IAS-24. Ans. (b)
IAS-25. Ans. (b)
IAS-26. Ans. (d)
IAS-27. Ans. (d)
IAS-28. Ans. (a) Up to elastic limit.
IAS-29. Ans. (b)
IAS-30. Ans. (d)
IAS-31. Ans. (a)
IAS-32. Ans. (a)
IAS-33. Ans. (d) In compression tests of ductile materials fractures is seldom obtained. Compression is
accompanied by lateral expansion and a compressed cylinder ultimately assumes the shape of a
flat disc.
IAS-34. Ans. (a)
IAS-35. Ans. (c) Steel is the highly elastic material because it is deformed least on loading, and regains its
original from on removal of the load.
IAS-36. Ans. (a)
IAS-37. Ans. (a)
IAS-38. Ans. (b)
IAS-39. Ans. (b)


Previous Conventional Questions with Answers
Conventional Question IES-2010
Q. If a load of 60 kN is applied to a rigid bar
suspended by 3 wires as shown in the
above figure what force will be resisted
by each wire?

The outside wires are of Al, cross-
sectional area 300 mm
2
and length 4 m.
The central wire is steel with area 200
mm
2
and length 8 m
.
Initially there is no slack in the wires
5 2
E 2 10 N / mm = for Steel
5 2
0.667 10 N / mm = for Aluminum

[2 Marks]

Ans.
FA1
FSt
Al umi ni um wi r e
St eel wi r e
FA1
60kN

P 60 kN =

2
A1 A1
a 300mm l 4m = =

2
st st
a 200mm l 8m = =

5 2
A1
E 0.667 10 N / mm =

5 2
st
E 2 10 N / mm =
Force balance along vertical direction

A1 st
2F F 60 kN + = (1)
Elongation will be same in all wires because rod is rigid remain horizontal after loading

st st A1 A1
Al Al st st
F .l F l
a .E a .E
= (2)

st A1
5 5
F 8 F 4
300 0.667 10 200 2 10

=

A1 st
F 1.0005 F = (3)
From equation (1)
3
st
60 10
F 19.99 kN or 20 kN
3.001
= =

A1
F 20 kN =
A1
st
F 20 kN
F 20 kN
=
`
=
)
Answer.

Conventional Question GATE
Question: The diameters of the brass and steel segments of the axially loaded bar shown in figure are 30
mm and 12 mm respectively. The diameter of the hollow section of the brass segment is 20
mm.
Determine: (i) The maximum normal stress in the steel and brass (ii) The displacement of the free end ;
Take Es = 210 GN/m
2
and Eb = 105 GN/m
2

Answer:
( )
2
2 6 2
s
A 12 36 mm 36 10 m
4
t
t t

= = =
( ) ( )
2
2 6 2
b
BC
A 30 225 mm 225 10 m
4
t
t t

= = =
( ) ( )
2 2 2 6 2
b
CD
A 30 20 125 mm 125 10 m
4
t
t t

= = =

(i) The maximum normal stress in steel and brass:

( )
( )
3
6 2 2
s 6
3
6 2 2
b 6 BC
3
6 2 2
b 6 CD
10 10
10 MN/ m 88.42MN/ m
36 10
5 10
10 MN/ m 7.07MN/ m
225 10
5 10
10 MN/ m 12.73MN/ m
125 10
o
t
o
t
o
t
= =
= =
= =

(ii) The displacement of the free end:

( ) ( ) ( )
s b b
AB BC CD
9 6 9 6 9 6
5
l l l l
88.42 0.15 7.07 0.2 12.73 0.125 l
l
E 210 10 10 105 10 10 105 10 10
9.178 10 m 0.09178 mm
o o o o
o
o

= + +
| |
= + + =
|

\ .
= =

Question: Distinguish between fatigue strength and fatigue limit.
Answer: Fatigue strength as the value of cyclic stress at which failure occurs after N cycles. And
fatigue limit as the limiting value of stress at which failure occurs as N becomes very large
(sometimes called infinite cycle)

Question: List at least two factors that promote transition from ductile to brittle fracture.
Answer: (i) With the grooved specimens only a small reduction in area took place, and the
appearance of the facture was like that of brittle materials.

(ii) By internal cavities, thermal stresses and residual stresses may combine with the effect
of the stress concentration at the cavity to produce a crack. The resulting fracture will
have the characteristics of a brittle failure without appreciable plastic flow, although
the material may prove ductile in the usual tensile tests.

Question: Distinguish between creep and fatigue.
Answer: Fatigue is a phenomenon associated with variable loading or more precisely to cyclic stressing
or straining of a material, metallic, components subjected to variable loading get fatigue,
which leads to their premature failure under specific conditions.
When a member is subjected to a constant load over a long period of time it undergoes a slow
permanent deformation and this is termed as ''Creep''. This is dependent on temperature.

Question: What different stresses set-up in a bolt due to initial tightening, while used as a
fastener? Name all the stresses in detail.
Answer: (i) When the nut is initially tightened there will be some elongation in the bolt so tensile
stress will develop.
(ii) While it is tightening a torque across some shear stress. But when tightening will be
completed there should be no shear stress.

Question: A Copper rod 6 cm in diameter is placed within a steel tube, 8 cm external diameter
and 6 cm internal diameter, of exactly the same length. The two pieces are rigidly
fixed together by two transverse pins 20 mm in diameter, one at each end passing
through both rod and the tube.
Calculated the stresses induced in the copper rod, steel tube and the pins if the
temperature of the combination is raised by 50
o
C.
[Take ES=210 GPa, 0.0000115/
o
s
C = ; Ec=105 GPa, 0.000017 /
o
c
C = ]
Answer:

( )

+ =
c s
c s
c s
t
E E

2
2
2 3 2
c
6
Area of copper rod(A ) = 2.8274 10
4 4 100

= =

d
m m

2 2
2
2 3 2
8 6
Area of steel tube (A ) = 2.1991 10
4 4 100 100

= =

s
d
m m
in temperature, 50 =
o
Rise t C

c
Free expansion of copper bar= L t +
Free expansion of steel tube =
s
L t +
( ) Difference in free expansion =
c s
L t +
( )
6 -4
= 17-11.5 10 50=2.7510 L Lm

A compressive force (P) exerted by the steel tube on the copper rod opposed the extra
expansion of the copper rod and the copper rod exerts an equal tensile force P to pull the steel

Reduction in the length of copper rod due to force P Newton=
( )
( )( )
3 9
m
2.8275 10 105 10
C
c c
PL PL
L
A E
V
-
= =

Increase in lengt h of st eel t ube due t o force P
( )
( )( )
3 9
.
2.1991 10 210 10
S
s s
PL P L
L m
A E
V
-
= =

Difference in length is equated
( ) ( )
4
2.75 10
c s
L L L
-
+ = V V

( )( ) ( )( )
4
3 9 3 9
.
2.75 10
2.8275 10 105 10 2.1991 10 210 10
PL P L
L
-
- -
+ =

Or P = 49.695 kN

c 3
49695
Stress in copper rod, MPa=17.58MPa
2.8275 10
c
P
A
s
-
= =

3
49695
in steel tube, MPa 22.6MPa
2.1991 10
s
s
P
Stress
A
s
-
= = =

Since each of the pin is in double shear, shear stress in pins (
pin
t )
=
( )
2
49695
=79MPa
2
2 0.02
4
p
=

pin
P
A

Question: Why are the bolts, subjected to impact, made longer?
Answer: If we increase length its volume will increase so shock absorbing capacity will increased.

Question: Explain the following in brief:
(i) Effect of size on the tensile strength
(ii) Effect of surface finish on endurance limit.
Answer: (i) When size of the specimen increases tensile strength decrease. It is due to the reason
that if size increases there should be more change of defects (voids) into the material
which reduces the strength appreciably.
(ii) If the surface finish is poor, the endurance strength is reduced because of scratches
present in the specimen. From the scratch crack propagation will start.

Question: Mention the relationship between three elastic constants i.e. elastic modulus (E), rigidity
modulus (G), and bulk modulus (K) for any Elastic material. How is the Poisson's ratio ( )
related to these modulli?
Answer:
9
3
KG
E
K G
=
+

9KG
) = 2G(1+) =
3K+G
3 (1 2 E K = -

Question: The elastic and shear moduli of an elastic material are 210
11
Pa and 810
10
Pa respectively.
Determine Poisson's ratio of the material.
Answer: We know that E = 2G(1+ ) =
9KG
3K(1- 2) =
3K+ G


or
11
10
or,1
2
2 10
1 1 0.25
2 2 (8 10 )
E
G
E
G
=
+ =
= =

Question: A steel bolt of diameter 10 mm passes through a brass tube of internal diameter 15
mm and external diameter 25 mm. The bolt is tightened by a nut so that the length
of tube is reduced by 1.5 mm. If the temperature of the assembly is raised by 40
o
C,
estimate the axial stresses the bolt and the tube before and after heating. Material
properties for steel and brass are:

5 5
S
E 2 10 / 1.2 10 /

= =
o
S
C
2
N mm and Eb= 110
5
N/mm
2
b=1.910
-15
/
o
C
Answer:

2 2 5 2
s
2 2 4
b
of steel bolt (A )= (0.010) 7.854 10
4
of brass tube (A )= (0.025) (0.015) 3.1416 10
4
Area m m
Area
=

=

S

L
L
b
b. b
Stress due to tightening of the nut
Compressive force on brass tube= tensile fore on steel bolt
or,
( )
, E . E=
b s
b
s s
A A
l
or A A
=

= =

( )
3
5 6 4 -5
3
5
b.
assume total length ( )=1m
(1.5 10 )
Therefore (110 10 ) 3.1416 10 7.85410
1
600 ( )
( ) (1.5 10 )
and =E (110 ) 150 ( )
1
s
s
b
b
Let
or MPa tensile
l
MPa MPa Compressive
=
=

= =
b
s
before heating
Stress in brass tube ( ) 150 ( )
Stress in steel bolt( ) 600 (tensile)
So
MPa compressive
MPa
=
=

Stress due to rise of temperature
Let stress
' '
b
&
s
due to brass tube and steel bolt. are
If the two members had been free to expand,

Free expansion of steel =
s
1 t +
Free expansion of brass tube = 1 +
b
t
Since
b s
> free expansion of copper is greater than the free expansion of steel. But they
are rigidly fixed so final expansion of each members will be same. Let us assume this final
expansion is ' ', The free expansion of brass tube is grater than , while the free expansion of
steel is less than . Hence the steel rod will be subjected to a tensile stress while the brass
tube will be subjected to a compressive stress.

For the equilibrium of the whole system,

Total tension (Pull) in steel =Total compression (Push) in brass tube.

'
b

5
' ' ' ' '
b s 4
7.854 10
, 0.25
3.14 10
s
b s s S S
b
A
A A or
A
= = = =

( )
'
s
s
E

'
b
s
b
' '
5 5
5 6 5 6
Final expansion of steel =final expansion of brass tube
( ).1 1 ( ) 1 1
E
, 1.2 10 40 1 (1.9 10 ) 40 1 ( )
2 10 10 1 10 10
b
s b
t t
or ii

+ =
+ =

+ +

'
s
4
11 11
'
'
b
From(i) & (ii) we get
1 0.25
2.8 10
2 10 10
, 37.33 MPa (Tensile stress)
or, = 9.33MPa (compressive)
s
or

+ =

=

'
b b
'
s s
Therefore, the final stresses due to tightening and temperature rise
Stress in brass tube = + =150+9.33MPa=159.33MPa
Stress in steel bolt = + = 600 + 37.33 = 637.33MPa.

Question: A Solid right cone of axial length h is made of a material having density and
elasticity modulus E. It is suspended from its circular base. Determine its
elongation due to its self weight.
Answer: See in the figure MNH is a solid right cone of
length 'h' .
Let us assume its wider end of diameterd fixed
rigidly at MN.
Now consider a small strip of thickness dy at a
distance y from the lower end.
Let 'ds' is the diameter of the strip.

2
1
Weight of portion UVH= ( )
3 4
s
d
y g i

From the similar triangles MNH and UVH,
MN
UV
.
, ( )
s
s
d
d y
d y
or d ii
= =
=
A
A

2
force at UV Weight of UVH
Stress at section UV =
sec area at UV
4
s
cross tion d
=


2
2
1
. . .
1
3 4
=
3
4
s
s
d
y g
y g
d

h
2
0
1
.
3
, extension in dy=
1
3
Total extension of the bar =
6
y g dy
So
E
y gdy
gh
E E

d
From stress-strain relation ship
.
E= , or d
E
= =
A
A
A
A

Question: Which one of the three shafts listed hare has the highest ultimate tensile strength?
Which is the approximate carbon content in each steel?
(i) Mild Steel (ii) cast iron (iii) spring steel
Answer: Among three steel given, spring steel has the highest ultimate tensile strength.
Approximate carbon content in
(i) Mild steel is (0.3% to 0.8%)
(ii) Cost iron (2% to 4%)
(iii) Spring steel (0.4% to 1.1%)

Question: If a rod of brittle material is subjected to pure torsion, show with help of a sketch,
the plane along which it will fail and state the reason for its failure.
Answer: Brittle materials fail in tension. In a torsion test the maximum tensile test Occurs at 45

to
the axis of the shaft. So failure will occurs along a 45
o
to the axis of the shaft. So failure will
occurs along a 45 helix
X
X

So failures will occurs according to 45

plane.

Conventional Question IAS-1995
Question: The steel bolt shown in Figure has a thread pitch of 1.6 mm. If the nut is initially
tightened up by hand so as to cause no stress in the copper spacing tube, calculate
the stresses induced in the tube and in the bolt if a spanner is then used to turn the
nut through 90.Take Ec and Es as 100 GPa and 209 GPa respectively.
Answer: Given: p = 1.6 mm, Ec= 100 GPa ; Es = 209 CPa.


Stresses induced in the tube and the bolt,
c s
, : o o

2
5 2
s
2 2
5 2
s
10
A 7.584 10 m
4 1000
18 12
A 14.14 10 m
4 1000 1000
t
t
| |
= =
|
\ .
(
| | | |
= =
(
| |
\ . \ .
(

Tensile force on steel bolt, Ps = compressive force in copper tube, Pc = P
Also, Increase in length of bolt + decrease in length of tube = axial displacement of nut

( ) ( )
( )
3
s c
3
s c
s s c c
3
5 9 5 9
s c
90
i,e l l 1.6 0.4mm 0.4 10 m
360
Pl Pl
or 0.4 10 l l l
A E A E
100 1 1
or P 0.4 10
1000 7.854 10 209 10 14.14 10 100 10
or P 30386N
P P
386.88MPa and 214.89MPa
A A
o o

+ = = =
+ = = =
| | (
+ =
| (

\ .
=
= =

Conventional Question AMIE-1997
Question: A steel wire 2 m long and 3 mm in diameter is extended by 075 mm when a weight W is
suspended from the wire. If the same weight is suspended from a brass wire, 25 m long and 2
mm in diameter, it is elongated by 4 -64 mm. Determine the modulus of elasticity of brass if
that of steel be 2.0 10
5
N / mm
2
Answer: Given,
s
l = 2 m, ds = 3 mm,
s
l o = 075 mm; Es = 20 10
5
N / mm
2
;
b
l = 2.5 m, db
=2 mm
b
l 4.64m o = m and let modulus of elasticity of brass = Eb
Hooke's law gives,
Pl
l
AE
o = [Symbol has usual meaning]
Case I: For steel wire:

( )
s
s
s s
2 5
Pl
l
A E
P 2 1000
or 0.75
1
3 2.0 10
4 2000
o
t
=

=
| |

|
\ .
---- (i)
Case II: For bass wire:

( )
b
b
b b
2
b
2
b
Pl
l
A E
P 2.5 1000
4.64
2 E
4
1
or P 4.64 2 E
4 2500
o
t
t
=

=
| |

|
\ .
| |
=
|
\ .
---- (ii)
From (i) and (ii), we get

2 5 2
b
5 2
b
1 1
0.75 3 2.0 10 4.64 2 E
4 2000 4 2500
or E 0.909 10 N/ mm
t t | | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
=

Question: A steel bolt and sleeve assembly is shown in figure below. The nut is tightened up on the tube
through the rigid end blocks until the tensile force in the bolt is 40 kN. If an external load 30

kN is then applied to the end blocks, tending to pull them apart, estimate the resulting force
in the bolt and sleeve.

Answer: Area of steel bolt,
2
4 2
b
25
A 4.908 10 m
1000

| |
= =
|
\ .

Area of steel sleeve,
2 2
3 2
s
62.5 50
A 1.104 10 m
4 1000 1000
t

(
| | | |
= = (
| |
\ . \ .
(

Forces in the bolt and sleeve:
(i) Stresses due to tightening the nut:
Let
b
o = stress developed in steel bolt due to tightening the nut; and

s
o = stress developed in steel sleeve due to tightening the nut.
Tensile force in the steel bolt = 40 kN = 004 MN

( )
b b
4
b
2
b 4
A 0.04
or 4.908 10 0.04
0.04
81.5MN/ m tensile
4.908 10
o
o
o
=
=
= =

Compressive force in steel sleeve = 004 MN

( )
s s
3
s
2
s 3
A 0.04
or 1.104 10 0.04
0.04
36.23MN/ m compressive
1.104 10
o
o
o
=
=
= =

(ii) Stresses due to tensile force:
Let the stresses developed due to tensile force of 30 kN = 003 MN in steel bolt and sleeve be
b s
' and ' o o respectively.
Then,
b b s s
' A ' A 0.03 o o + =

4 3
b s
' 4.908 10 ' 1.104 10 0.03 (i) o o

+ =
In a compound system with an external tensile load, elongation caused in each will be the
same.

( )
( )
( )
b
b b
b
b
b b
b
s
s s
s
b s
b s
b s
b s b s
'
l l
E
'
or l 0.5 Given,l 500mm 0.5
E
'
and l 0.4 Given,l 400mm 0.4
E
But l
' '
0.5 0.4
E E
or ' 0.8 ' Given,E E (2)
o
o
o
o
o
o
o o
o o
o o
=
= = =
= = =
=
=
= =

Substituting this value in (1), we get

( )
( )
( )
( )
4 3
s s
2
s
2
b
2
b b b
r
s s s
r
0.8 ' 4.908 10 ' 1.104 10 0.03
gives ' 20MN/ m tensile
and ' 0.8 20 16MN/ m tensile
Resulting stress in steel bolt,
' 81.5 16 97.5MN/ m
Resulting stress in steel sleeve,
' 36.23 20 16.23MN/
o o
o
o
o o o
o o o

+ =
=
= =
= + = + =
= + = = ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
b b
r
4
b s
r
3
m compressive
Resulting force in steel bolt, A
97.5 4.908 10 0.0478MN tensile
Resulting force in steel sleeve A
16.23 1.104 10 0.0179MN compressive
o
o
=
= =
=
= =

2. Principal Stress and Strain
2.1 States of stress
- Uni-axial stress: only one non-zero
principal stress, i.e. 1
Right side figure represents Uni-axial state of
stress.
- Bi-axial stress: one principal stress
equals zero, two do not, i.e. 1 > 3 ; 2 = 0
Right side figure represents Bi-axial state of
stress.
- Tri-axial stress: three non-zero
principal stresses, i.e. 1 > 2 > 3
Right side figure represents Tri-axial state of
stress.
- Isotropic stress: three principal
stresses are equal, i.e. 1 = 2 = 3
Right side figure represents isotropic state of
stress.
- Axial stress: two of three principal
stresses are equal, i.e. 1 = 2 or 2 = 3
Right side figure represents axial state of
stress.
Chapter-2 Principal Stress and Strain S K Mondals
- Hydrostatic pressure: weight of column of
fluid in interconnected pore spaces.
Phydrostatic = fluid gh (density, gravity, depth)
- Hydrostatic stress: Hydrostatic stress is
used to describe a state of tensile or
compressive stress equal in all directions
within or external to a body. Hydrostatic
stress causes a change in volume of a
material. Shape of the body remains
unchanged i.e. no distortion occurs in the
body.
Right side figure represents Hydrostatic state of
stress.
Or
2.2 Uni-axial stress on oblique plane
Let us consider a bar of uniform cross sectional area A under direct tensile load P giving rise to axial
normal stress P/A acting on a cross section XX. Now consider another section given by the plane YY
inclined at u with the XX. This is depicted in following three ways.
Fig. (a)
Fig. (b)
Fig. (c)
Area of the YY Plane =
u cos
A
; Let us assume the normal stress in the YY plane is o
n
and there is
a shear stress t acting parallel to the YY plane.
Now resolve the force P in two perpendicular direction one normal to the plane YY = u cos P and
another parallel to the plane YY = Pcos
Therefore equilibrium gives, cos
cos
o u
u
=
n
A
P or
2
cos
n
P
A
o u =
and sin
cos
t u
u
=
A
P or sin cos t u u =
P
A
or
sin 2
2
P
A
t u =
- Note the variation of normal stress o
n
and shear stress t with the variation ofu .
When 0 u = , normal stress
n
o is maximum i.e. ( )
max
n
P
A
o = and shear stress 0 t = . As u is
increased, the normal stress
n
o diminishes, until when 0, 0
n
u o = = . But if angle
u increased shear stress t increases to a maximum value
max
2
P
A
t = at 45
4
o
t
u = = and then
diminishes to 0 t = at 90
o
u =
- The shear stress will be maximum when u u = = sin2 1 45
o
or
- And the maximum shear stress,
max
2
P
A
t =
- In ductile material failure in tension is initiated by shear stress i.e. the failure occurs across
the shear planes at 45
o
(where it is maximum) to the applied load.
Let us clear a concept about a common mistake: The angle u is not between the applied load
and the plane. It is between the planes XX and YY. But if in any question the angle between the
applied load and the plane is given dont take it asu . The angle between the applied load and the
plane is 90 - u . In this case you have to use the above formula as
o u t u = =
2
cos (90 ) and sin(180 2 )
2
n
P P
A A
where u is the angle between the applied load and the
plane. Carefully observe the following two figures it will be clear.
Let us take an example: A metal block of 100 mm
2
cross sectional area carries an axial tensile load
of 10 kN. For a plane inclined at 30
0
with the direction of applied load, calculate:
(a) Normal stress
(b) Shear stress
(c) Maximum shear stress.
Answer: Here u = = 90 30 60
o o o
(a) Normal stress ( ) o u
= = =
3
2 2
2
10 10
cos cos 60 25MPa
100
o
n
P N
A mm
(b) Shear stress ( ) t u
= = =
3
2
10 10
sin2 sin120 43.3MPa
2 2 100
o
P N
A mm
(c) Maximum shear stress ( ) t
= = =
3
max 2
10 10
50MPa
2 2 100
P N
A mm
- Complementary stresses
Now if we consider the stresses on an oblique plane YY which is perpendicular to the previous
plane YY. The stresses on this plane are known as complementary stresses. Complementary
normal stress is o'
n
and complementary shear stress ist ' . The following figure shows all
the four stresses. To obtain the stresses o'
n
and t ' we need only to replace u by
0
90 u + in the
previous equation. The angle
0
90 u + is known as aspect angle.
Therefore
( )
2 2
cos 90 sin
o
n
P P
A A
o u u ' = + =
( )
sin2 90 sin2
2 2
' = + = t u u
o
P P
A A
It is clear o o ' + =
n n
P
A
and t t ' =
i.e. Complementary shear stresses are always equal in magnitude but opposite in sign.
- Sign of Shear stress
For sign of shear stress following rule have to be followed:
The shear stress t on any face of the element will be considered positive when it has a
clockwise moment with respect to a centre inside the element. If the moment is counter-
clockwise with respect to a centre inside the element, the shear stress in negative.
Note: The convention is opposite to that of moment of force. Shear stress tending to turn clockwise is
positive and tending to turn counter clockwise is negative.
Let us take an example: A prismatic bar of 500 mm
2
cross sectional area is axially loaded with a
tensile force of 50 kN. Determine all the stresses acting on an element which makes 30
0
inclination
with the vertical plane.
Answer: Take an small element ABCD in 30
0
plane as shown in figure below,
Given, Area of cross-section, A = 500 mm
2
, Tensile force (P) = 50 kN
Normal stress on 30 inclined plane, ( )
3
2 2
n 2
P 5010 N
= cos = cos 30 =75MPa
A 500 mm
o
(+ive means tensile).
Shear stress on 30 planes, ( ) ( )
t u
= = =
3
2
50 10
sin2 sin 2 30 43.3MPa
2 2 500
o
P N
A mm
(+ive means clockwise)
Complementary stress on( ) u = + = 90 30 120
o
Normal stress on 120
0
inclined plane, ( ) o u
' = = =
3
2 2
2
50 10
cos cos 120 25MPa
500
o
n
P N
A mm
(+ ive means tensile)
Shear stress on 120
0
nclined plane, ( ) ( )
t u
' = = =
3
2
50 10
sin2 sin 2 120 43.3MPa
2 2 500
o
P N
A mm
(- ive means counter clockwise)
State of stress on the element ABCD is given below (magnifying)
2.3 Complex Stresses (2-D Stress system)
i.e. Material subjected to combined direct and shear stress
We now consider a complex stress system below. The given figure ABCD shows on small element of
material
Stresses in three dimensional element
Stresses in cross-section of the element
x
o and
y
o are normal stresses and may be tensile or compressive. We know that normal stress
may come from direct force or bending moment.
xy
t is shear stress. We know that shear stress may
comes from direct shear force or torsion and
xy
t and
yx
t are complementary and
xy
t =
yx
t
Let
n
o is the normal stress and t is the shear stress on a plane at angleu .
Considering the equilibrium of the element we can easily get
( )
Normal stress cos2 sin2
2 2
x y x y
n xy
o o o o
o u t u
+
= + +
and
( )

Shear stress 2 - cos2
2
x y
xy
sin t t
=
Above two equations are coming from considering equilibrium. They do not depend on material
properties and are valid for elastic and in elastic behavior.
- Location of planes of maximum stress
(a) Normal stress,
( )
max
n
o
For
n
o maximum or minimum
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
xy
x
0, where cos2 sin2
2 2
2
sin2 2 cos2 2 0 or tan2 =
2 ( )
x y x y
n
n xy
x y
xy p
y
or
o o o o
o
o u t u
u
o o t
u t u u
o o
+
c
= = + +
c
+ =
(b) Shear stress,

max
t
For t maximum or minimum
0, where sin2 cos2
2
x y
xy
o o
t
t u t u
u
c
= =
c
( ) ( ) cos2 2 sin2 2 0
2
cot 2
x y
xy
xy
x y
or
or
o o
u t u
t
u
o o
Let us take an example: At a point in a crank shaft the stresses on two mutually perpendicular
planes are 30 MPa (tensile) and 15 MPa (tensile). The shear stress across these planes is 10 MPa.
Find the normal and shear stress on a plane making an angle 30
0
with the plane of first stress. Find
also magnitude and direction of resultant stress on the plane.
Answer: Given ( ) ( ) o o t = + = + =
0
25MPa tensile , 15MPa tensile , 10MPa and 40
x y xy
( )
( ) ( )
o o o o
o u t u
+
= + +
+
= + + =
Therefore, Normal stress cos2 sin2
2 2
30 15 30 15
cos 2 30 10sin 2 30 34.91MPa
2 2
x y x y
n xy
o o
( )
( ) ( )
o o
t u t u
= =
Shear stress sin2 cos2
2
30 15
sin 2 30 10cos 2 30 1.5MPa
2
x y
xy
o o
( ) ( )
( )
o
t
| | |
o
= + =
= = =
2
2
0
Resultant stress 34.91 1.5 34.94MPa
1.5
and Obliquity , tan 2.46
34.91
r
n
2.4 Bi-axial stress
Let us now consider a stressed element ABCD where t
xy
=0, i.e. only o
x
and o
y
is there. This type
of stress is known as bi-axial stress. In the previous equation if you put t
xy
=0 we get Normal stress,
n
o and shear stress, t on a plane at angleu .
- Normal stress ,
n
2
2 2
x y x y
cos
o o o o
o u
+
= +
- Shear/Tangential stress, sin 2
2
x y
o o
t u
=
- For complementary stress, aspect angle =
0
90 u +
- Aspect angle varies from 0 to /2 t
- Normal stress varies between the values
n
o

y
( 0) & ( / 2)
x
o u o u t = =
Let us take an example: The principal tensile stresses at a point across two perpendicular planes
are 100 MPa and 50 MPa. Find the normal and tangential stresses and the resultant stress and its
obliquity on a plane at 20
0
with the major principal plane
Answer: Given ( ) ( ) o o u = = =
0
100MPa tensile , 50MPa tensile 20
x y
and
( ) ( )
o o o o
o u
+
+
= + = + =
100 50 100 50
Normal stress, cos2 cos 2 20 94MPa
2 2 2 2
x y x y o
n
( ) ( )
( )
o o
t u
o
= = =
= + =
0
2 2
100 50
Shear stress, sin2 sin 2 20 16MPa
2 2
Resultant stress 94 16 95.4MPa
x y
r
( )
t
|
o

| |
| |
= = =
| |
\ .
\ .
1 1 0
16
Therefore angle of obliquity, tan tan 9.7
94
n
- We may derive uni-axial stress on oblique plane from
cos2 sin2
2 2
x y x y
n xy
o o o o
o u t u
+
= + +
and

2 - cos 2
2
x y
xy
sin t t
=
Just put o = 0
y
and t
xy
=0
Therefore,
( )
o o
o u o u o u
+
= + = + =
2
0 0 1
cos2 1 cos2 cos
2 2 2
x x
n x x
and
o o
t u u
= =
0
sin2 sin2
2 2
x x
2.5 Pure Shear
- Pure shear is a particular case of bi-axial stress where
x y
o o =
Note: or
x y
o o which one is compressive that is immaterial but one should be tensile and
other should be compressive and equal magnitude. If 100MPa
x
o = then
must be 100MPa
y
o otherwise if 100MPa
y
o = then must be 100MPa
x
o .
- In case of pure shear on 45
o
planes

max x
t o = ; 0 and 0
n n
o o
'
= =
- We may depict the pure shear in an element by following two ways
(a) In a torsion member, as shown below, an element ABCD is in pure shear (only shear
stress is present in this element) in this member at 45
o
plane an element ' ' ' ' A B CD is also
in pure shear where o o =
x y
but in this element no shear stress is there.
(b) In a bi-axial state of stress a member, as shown below, an element ABCD in pure shear
where o o =
x y
but in this element no shear stress is there and an element ' ' ' ' A B CD at
45
o
plane is also in pure shear (only shear stress is present in this element).
Let us take an example: See the in the Conventional question answer section in this chapter and
the question is Conventional Question IES-2007
2.6 Stress Tensor
- State of stress at a point ( 3-D)
Stress acts on every surface that passes through the point. We can use three mutually
perpendicular planes to describe the stress state at the point, which we approximate as a cube
each of the three planes has one normal component & two shear components therefore, 9
components necessary to define stress at a point 3 normal and 6 shear stress.
Therefore, we need nine components, to define the state of stress at a point
o t t
o t t
o t t
x xy xz
y yx yz
z zx zy
For cube to be in equilibrium (at rest: not moving, not spinning)
t t
t t
t t
=
=
=
xy yx
xz zx
yz zy
If they dont offset, block spins therefore,
only six are independent.
The nine components (six of which are independent) can be written in matrix form
11 12 13
21 22 23
31 32 33
or
xx xy xz xx xy xz x xy xz
ij yx yy yz ij yx yy yz yx y yz
zx zy zz zx zy zz zx zy z
o o o t t t o t t o o o
o o o o t t t t t o t o o o
o o o t t t t t o o o o
| | | | | |
| |
| | |
|
= = = =
| | |
|
|
| | |
\ .
\ . \ . \ .
This is the stress tensor
Components on diagonal are normal stresses; off are shear stresses
- State of stress at an element (2-D)
2.7 Principal stress and Principal plane
- When examining stress at a point, it is possible to choose three mutually perpendicular
planes on which no shear stresses exist in three dimensions, one combination of
orientations for the three mutually perpendicular planes will cause the shear stresses on all
three planes to go to zero this is the state defined by the principal stresses.
- Principal stresses are normal stresses that are orthogonal to
each other
- Principal planes are the planes across which principal
stresses act (faces of the cube) for principal stresses (shear
stresses are zero)
- Major Principal Stress
2
2
1
2 2
x y x y
xy
o o o o
o t
| |
+
= + +
|
|
\ .
- Minor principal stress
2
2
2
2 2
x y x y
xy
o o o o
o t
| |
+
= +
|
|
\ .
- Position of principal planes
xy
x
2
tan2 =
( )
p
y
t
u
o o
- Maximum shear stress
2
2
1 2
max
2 2
x y
xy
o o
o o
t t
| |
= = +
|
|
\ .
Let us take an example: In the wall of a cylinder the state of stress is given by,
o = 85MPa
x
( ) compressive ,
( ) ( )
o t = = 25MPa tensile and shear stress 60MPa
y xy
Calculate the principal planes on which they act. Show it in a figure.
Answer: Given o o t = = = 85MPa, 25MPa, 60MPa
x y xy
( )
o o o o
o t
+ | |
= + +
|
\ .
+ | |
= + + =
|
\ .
2
2
1
2
2
Major principal stress
2 2
85 25 85 25
60 51.4MPa
2 2
x y x y
xy
( )
( )
o o o o
o t
+ | |
= +
|
\ .
+ | |
= +
|
\ .
=
2
2
2
2
2
Minor principal stress
2 2
85 25 85 25
60
2 2
111.4 MPa i.e. 111.4 MPa Compressive
x y x y
xy
t
u
o o
= =

For principal planes
2
2 60
tan2
85 25
xy
P
x y
u o
u u o
=
'
= + =
0
1
0
2
or 24 it is for
Complementary plane 90 66 it is for
The Figure showing state of stress and principal stresses is given below
P
P P
The direction of one principle plane and the principle stresses acting on this would be o 1 when is
acting normal to this plane, now the direction of other principal plane would be 90
0
+
p
u because the
principal planes are the two mutually perpendicular plane, hence rotate the another plane 90
0
+
p
u
in the same direction to get the another plane, now complete the material element as
p
u is negative
that means we are measuring the angles in the opposite direction to the reference plane BC. The
following figure gives clear idea about negative and positive
p
u .
2.8 Mohr's circle for plane stress
- The transformation equations of plane stress can be represented in a graphical form which is
popularly known as Mohr's circle.
- Though the transformation equations are sufficient to get the normal and shear stresses on
any plane at a point, with Mohr's circle one can easily visualize their variation with respect
to plane orientation .
- Equation of Mohr's circle
We know that normal stress, cos 2 sin 2
2 2
o o o o
o u t u
+
= + +
x y x y
n xy
And Tangential stress,

2 - cos 2
2
x y
xy
sin
=
Rearranging we get, cos 2 sin 2
2 2
o o o o
o u t u
| | +
= +
|
|
\ .
x y x y
n xy
(i)
and

2 - cos 2
2
x y
xy
sin
= (ii)
A little consideration will show that the above two equations are the equations of a circle with o
n
and U as its coordinates and 2 as its parameter.
If the parameter 2 is eliminated from the equations, (i) & (ii) then the significance of them will
become clear.
2
o o
o
+
=
x y
avg
and R =
2
2
2
o o
t
| |
+
|
|
\ .
x y
xy
Or
( )
2
2 2
o o t + =
n avg xy
R
It is the equation of a circle with centre,
( )
, 0 . . , 0
2
x y
avg
i e
o o
o
| | +
|
|
\ .
and radius,
2
2
2
x y
xy
R
o o
t
| |
= +
|
|
\ .
- Construction of Mohrs circle
Convention for drawing
- A
xy
t that is clockwise (positive) on a face resides above the o axis; a
xy
t
anticlockwise (negative) on a face resides below o axis.
- Tensile stress will be positive and plotted right of the origin O. Compressive stress
will be negative and will be plotted left to the origin O.
- An angle u on real plane transfers as an angle 2u on Mohrs circle plane.
We now construct Mohrs circle in the following stress conditions
I. Bi-axial stress when
x
o and
y
o known and
xy
t = 0
II. Complex state of stress ( ,
x y
o o and
xy
t known)
I. Constant of Mohrs circle for Bi-axial stress (when only
x
o and
y
o known)
If
x
o and
y
o both are tensile or both compressive sign of
x
o and
y
o will be same and this state of
stress is known as like stresses if one is tensile and other is compressive sign of
x
o and
y
o will
be opposite and this state of stress is known as unlike stress.
- Construction of Mohrs circle for like stresses (when
x
o and
y
o are same type of stress)
Step-I: Label the element ABCD and draw all stresses.
Step-II: Set up axes for the direct stress (as abscissa) i.e., in x-axis and shear stress (as
ordinate) i.e. in Y-axis
Step-III: Using sign convention and some suitable scale, plot the stresses on two adjacent faces
e.g. AB and BC on the graph. Let OL and OM equal to
x
o and
y
o respectively on the
axis Oo .
Step-IV: Bisect ML at C. With C as centre and CL or CM as radius, draw a circle. It is the
Mohrs circle.
Step-V: At the centre C draw a line CP at an angle 2u , in the same direction as the normal to
the plane makes with the direction of
x
o . The point P represents the state of
stress at plane ZB.
Step-VI: Calculation, Draw a perpendicular PQ and PR where PQ = t and PR = o
n
OC and MC = CL = CP =
2 2
PR = cos 2
2 2
PQ = = CPsin 2 = sin 2
2
x y x y
x y x y
x y
n
o o o o
o o o o
o u
o o
t u u
+
=
+
= +
[Note: In the examination you only draw final figure (which is in Step-V) and follow the
procedure step by step so that no mistakes occur.]
- Construction of Mohrs circle for unlike stresses (when
x
o and
y
o are opposite in sign)
Follow the same steps which we followed for construction for like stresses and finally will get
the figure shown below.
Note: For construction of Mohrs circle for principal stresses when (
1
o and
2
o is known) then follow
the same steps of Constant of Mohrs circle for Bi-axial stress (when only
x
o and
y
o known) just
change the
1 x
o o = and
2 y
o o =
II. Construction of Mohrs circle for complex state of stress (
x
o ,
y
o and
xy
t known)
Step-I: Label the element ABCD and draw all stresses.
Step-II: Set up axes for the direct stress (as abscissa) i.e., in x-axis and shear stress (as
ordinate) i.e. in Y-axis
Step-III: Using sign convention and some suitable scale, plot the stresses on two adjacent faces
e.g. AB and BC on the graph. Let OL and OM equal to
x
o and
y
o respectively on the
axis Oo . Draw LS perpendicular to oo axis and equal to
xy
t .i.e. LS=
xy
t . Here LS
is downward as
xy
t on AB face is ( ive) and draw MT perpendicular to oo axis and
equal to
xy
t i.e. MT=
xy
t . Here MT is upward as
xy
t BC face is (+ ive).
Step-IV: Join ST and it will cut o axis at C. With C as centre and CS or CT as radius, draw
circle. It is the Mohrs circle.
Step-V: At the centre draw a line CP at an angle 2 in the same direction as the normal to the
plane makes with the direction of
x
.
Step-VI: Calculation, Draw a perpendicular PQ and PR where PQ = and PR =
n
Centre, OC =
2
x y
+
Radius CS = ( ) ( )
2
2 2
2
CL LS CT= CP
2
y
x
xy

+ = + =

PR cos 2 sin 2
2 2
PQ sin2 cos2 .
2
x y x y
n xy
x y
xy

+
= = + +
= =
[Note: In the examination you only draw final figure (which is in Step-V) and follow the
procedure step by step so that no mistakes occur.]
PDF created with pdfFactory Pro trial version www.pdffactory.com
Note: The intersections of oo axis are two principal stresses, as shown below.
Let us take an example: See the in the Conventional question answer section in this chapter and
the question is Conventional Question IES-2000
2.9 Mohr's circle for some special cases:
i) Mohrs circle for axial loading:
; 0
x y xy
P
A
o o t = = =
ii) Mohrs circle for torsional loading:
; 0
xy x y
Tr
J
t o o = = =
It is a case of pure shear
iii) In the case of pure shear
(1 = - 2 and 3 = 0)
x y
o o =
max
t o =
x
iv) A shaft compressed all round by a hub
1 = 2 = 3 = Compressive (Pressure)
v) Thin spherical shell under internal pressure
1 2
2 4
o o = = =
pr pD
t t
(tensile)
vi) Thin cylinder under pressure
o = =
1
2
pD pr
t t
(tensile) and o = =
2
4 2
pd pr
t t
(tensile)
vii) Bending moment applied at the free end of a cantilever
Only bending stress, o =
1
My
I
and o t = =
2
0
xy
2.10 Strain
Normal strain
Let us consider an element AB of infinitesimal length x. After deformation of the actual body if
displacement of end A is u, that of end B is
u
u+ . x.
x
o
c
c
This gives an increase in length of element AB
is
u u
u+ . x - u x
x x
o o
c c | |
=
|
c c
\ .
and therefore the strain in x-direction is
x
u
x
c
c
=
c
Similarly, strains in y and z directions are
y
w
and .
x z
z
v
c c
c c
= =
c c
Therefore, we may write the three normal strain components
x y
u w
; ; and
x y z
z
v
c c c
c c c
= = =
c c c
.
Change in length of an infinitesimal element.
Shear strain
Let us consider an element ABCD in x-y plane and let the displaced position of the element be
A B CD ' ' ' ' .This gives shear strain in x-y plane as
xy
| = + where is the angle made by the
displaced live B C ' ' with the vertical and | is the angle made by the displaced line A D ' ' with the
horizontal. This gives
u
. y . x
u
x x
and =
y y x x
v
o o
v
|
o o
c c
c c
c c
= = =
c c
We may therefore write the three shear strain components as
xy
yz
u w
;
x z y y
v v
c c c c
= + = +
c c c c
and
zx
w u
x z
c c
= +
c c
Therefore the state of strain at a point can be completely described by the six strain components
and the strain components in their turns can be completely defined by the displacement components
u,v , and w.
Therefore, the complete strain matrix can be written as
0 0
0 0
u
0 0
0
w
0
0
x
y
z
xy
yz
zx
x
y
z
x y
y z
z x
c
c
c
u
c (
(
c
(
c
(

(
c

(
c
(

(
c
= (
` `
c c
(

)
(
c c
(

c c
(

)
(
c c
(
c c
(
(
c c
Shear strain associated with the distortion of an infinitesimal element.
Strain Tensor
The three normal strain components are
x xx y
u w
; and
x y z
yy z zz
v
c c c c c c
c c c
= = = = = =
c c c
.
The three shear strain components are
1 u 1 w 1 w
; and
2 2 x 2 2 z y 2 2 z
xy yz
zx
xy yz zx
u
y x

v v | | | | c c c c c c | |
e = = + e = = + e = = +
| | |
c c c c c c
\ . \ . \ .
Therefore the strain tensor is
2 2
2 2
2 2
xy
xz
xx
xx xy xz
yx yz
ij yx yy yz yy
zx zy zz
zy
zx
zz
(
e
(
( e e e (
( (
e = e e e = e
( (
( (
e e e

(
e
(

Constitutive Equation
The constitutive equations relate stresses and strains and in linear elasticity. We know from the
Hooks law ( ) E. o c =
Where E is modulus of elasticity
It is known that
x
o produces a strain of
E
x
o
in x-direction
and Poissons effect gives
E
x
o
in y-direction and
E
x
o
in z-direction.
Therefore we my write the generalized Hooks law as
( )
1
o o o
(
e = +

x x y z
E
,
( )
1
o o o
(
e = +

y y z x
E
and
( )
1
o o o
(
e = +

z z x y
E
It is also known that the shear stress, G t = , where G is the shear modulus and is shear strain.
We may thus write the three strain components as
xy yz
zx
xy yz zx
, and
G G G
t t
t
= = =
In general each strain is dependent on each stress and we may write
11 12 13 14 15 16
21 22 23 24 25 26
31 32 33 34 35 36
41 42 43 44 45 46
51 52 53 54 55 56
61 62 63 64 65 66
K K K K K K
K K K K K K
K K K K K K
K K K K K K
K K K K K K
K K K K K K
x x
y y
z z
xy xy
yz yz
zx zx
c o
c o
c o
t
t
t

(

(

(

(

( =
` `
(

(

(

(

) )
The number of elastic constant is 36 (For anisotropic materials)

For isotropic material
11 22 33
44 55 66
12 13 21 23 31 32
1
K K K
E
1
K K K
K K K K K K
E
G
= = =
= = =
= = = = = =
Rest of all elements in K matrix are zero.
For isotropic material only two independent elastic constant is there say E and G.
- 1-D Strain
Let us take an example: A rod of cross sectional area Ao is
loaded by a tensile force P.
Its stresses , 0, 0
A
x y z
o
P
and o o o = = =
1-D state of stress or Uni-axial state of stress
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 or 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
xx xx x
ij ij
o t o
o t
| | | | | |
| | |
= = =
| | |
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
Therefore strain components are
x
x
E
o
e =
;
x
y x
E
o
e = = e
; and
x
z x
E
o
e = = e
1-D state of strain or Uni-axial state of strain
0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0
x
x y
x
ij x y
x y
x
E
p
q
E
q
E
o
c
o
c c
c
o
| |
|
| | | | |
|
| |
= = =
|
| |
|
|
|
\ .
\ .
|
|
\ .
- 2-D Strain ( 0)
z
o =
(i)
1
x x y
E
o o
(
e =

1
y y x
E
o o
(
e =

o o ( e = +

z x y
E
[Where, , ,
x y z
e e e are strain component in X, Y, and Z axis respectively]
(ii)
2
1
x x y
E
o
(
= e + e

2
1
y y x
E
o
(
= e + e

- 3-D Strain
(i)
( )
1
x x y z
E
o o o
(
e = +

( )
1
y y z x
E
o o o
(
e = +

( )
1
z z x y
E
o o o
(
e = +

(ii)
( )( )
( ) ( )
1
1 1 2
x x y z
E
o

(
= e + e +e

+
( )( )
( ) ( )
( )( )
( ) ( )
1
1 1 2
1
1 1 2
y y z x
z z x y
E
E
o

o

( = e + e +e

+
(
= e + e +e

+
Let us take an example: At a point in a loaded member, a state of plane stress exists and the
strains are
6 6 6
x xy
270 10 ; 90 10 and 360 10 .
y
c c c

= = = If the elastic constants
E, and G are 200 GPa, 0.25 and 80 GPa respectively.
Determine the normal stress
x
o and
y
o and the shear stress
xy
t at the point.
Answer: We know that
.
{ }
{ }
c o o
c o o
t
c
=
=
=
x x
1
E
1
E
G
y
y y x
xy
xy
{ }
o c c
( = + = +

=
9
6 6
x x y 2 2
E 200 10
This gives 270 10 0.25 90 10 Pa
1 1 0.25
52.8 MPa (i.e. tensile)
o c c
t c

( = +

( = + =

= = =
x 2
9
6 6
2
6 9
xy xy
E
and
1
200 10
90 10 0.25 270 10 Pa 4.8 MPa (i.e.compressive)
1 0.25
and .G 360 10 80 10 Pa 28.8MPa
y y
2.12 An element subjected to strain components , &
2
xy
x y
e e
Consider an element as shown in the figure given. The strain component In X-direction is
x
e , the
strain component in Y-direction is
y
e and the shear strain component is
xy
.
Now consider a plane at an angle u with X- axis in this plane a normal strain
u
e and a shear
strain
u
. Then
- 2 sin 2
2 2 2
x y x y xy
cos
u
u u
e +e e e
e = + +
- 2 cos 2
2 2 2
x y xy
sin
u
u u
e e
= +
We may find principal strain and principal plane for strains in the same process which we
followed for stress analysis.
In the principal plane shear strain is zero.
Therefore principal strains are
2
2
1,2
2 2 2
| | e +e e e
| |
e = +
|
|
\ .
\ .
x y x y xy
The angle of principal plane
tan2
( )
=
e e
u
xy
p
x y
- Maximumshearing strain is equal to the difference between the 2 principal strains i.e
max 1 2
( )
xy
=e e
Mohr's Circle for circle for Plain Strain
We may draw Mohrs circle for strain following same procedure which we followed for drawing
Mohrs circle in stress. Everything will be same and in the place of
x
o write
x
e , the place of
y
o write
y
e and in place of
xy
t write
2
xy
.
2.15 Volumetric Strain (Dilation)
- Rectangular block,
0
x y z
V
V
A
=e +e +e
Proof: Volumetric strain
( ) ( ) ( )
0 0
3
3
1 1 1 c c c
A
=
+ + +
=
=e +e +e
o
x y z
x y z
V V V
V V
L L L L
L
(neglecting second and third order
term, as very small )
Before deformation,
Volume (Vo) = L
3
After deformation,
Volume (V)
= ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 1 1
x y z
L L L c c c + + +
- In case of prismatic bar,
Volumetric strain,
( )
dv
1 2
v
c =
Proof: Before deformation, the volume of the
bar, V = A.L
After deformation, the length ( ) ( ) L 1 L c ' = +
and the new cross-sectional area ( ) ( )
2
A A 1 c ' =
Therefore now volume( ) ( ) ( )
2
A L =AL 1 1 V c c ' ' ' = +
( ) ( )
( )
( )
2
AL 1 1 AL
V V -V
1 2
V V AL
V
1 2
V
c c
c
c
+ ' A
= = =
A
=
- Thin Cylindrical vessel
e1=Longitudinal strain = | |
1 2
1 2
2
pr
E E Et
o o
=
2
e =Circumferential strain = | |
2 1
2
2
=
o o

pr
E E Et

1 2
2 [5 4]
2
o
V pr
V Et
A
=e + e =
- Thin Spherical vessels
1 2
[1 ]
2
pr
Et
e=e =e =
0
3
3 [1 ]
2
V pr
V Et
A
= e=
- In case of pure shear
x y
o o t = =
Therefore
( )
( )
x
y
z
1
E
1
E
0
t
c
t
c
c
= +
= +
=

x y z
dv
Therefore 0
v
v
c c c c = = + + =
2.16 Measurement of Strain
Unlike stress, strain can be measured directly. The most common way of measuring strain is by use
of the Strain Gauge.
Strain Gauge
A strain gage is a simple device, comprising of a thin
electric wire attached to an insulating thin backing
material such as a bakelite foil. The foil is exposed to the
surface of the specimen on which the strain is to be
measured. The thin epoxy layer bonds the gauge to the
surface and forces the gauge to shorten or elongate as if it
were part of the specimen being strained.
A change in length of the gauge due to longitudinal strain
creates a proportional change in the electric resistance,
and since a constant current is maintained in the gauge, a
proportional change in voltage. (V = IR).
The voltage can be easily measured, and through
calibration, transformed into the change in length of the
original gauge length, i.e. the longitudinal strain along the
gauge length.
Strain Gauge factor (G.F)
The strain gauge factor relates a change in resistance with strain.
Strain Rosette
The strain rosette is a device used to measure the state of strain at a point in a plane.
It comprises three or more independent strain gauges, each of which is used to read normal strain
at the same point but in a different direction.
The relative orientation between the three gauges is known as o , | and o
The three measurements of normal strain provide sufficient information for the determination of the
complete state of strain at the measured point in 2-D.
We have to find out , ,
x y xy
and e e form measured value , ,
a b c
and e e e
General arrangement:
The orientation of strain gauges is given in the
figure. To relate strain we have to use the
following formula.
2 sin2
2 2 2
x y x y xy
cos
u
u u
e + e e e
e = + +
We get
2 sin2
2 2 2
x y x y xy
a
cos
o o
e + e e e
e = + +
( ) ( ) 2 sin2
2 2 2
x y x y xy
b
cos
o | o |
e + e e e
e = + + + +
( ) ( ) 2 sin2
2 2 2
x y x y xy
c
cos
o | o o | o
e + e e e
e = + + + + + +
From this three equations and three unknown we may solve , ,
x y xy
and e e
- Two standard arrangement of the of the strain rosette are as follows:
(i) 45 strain rosette or Rectangular strain rosette.
In the general arrangement above, put
0 ; 45 45
o o o
and o | o = = =
Putting the value we get
- e =e
a x
-
2 2
e +e
e = +
xy
x x
b
- e =e
c y
45
o
(ii) 60 strain rosette or Delta strain rosette
In the general arrangement above, put
0 ; 60 60
o o o
and o | o = = =
Putting the value we get
- e =e
a y
-
3
3
4 4
e + e
e = +
x y
b xy
-
3
3
4 4
e + e
e =
x y
c xy
Solving above three equation we get
60
o
120
0
or

Stresses at different angles and Pure Shear
GATE-1. A block of steel is loaded by a tangential force on its top surface while the bottom surface is held
rigidly. The deformation of the block is due to
[GATE-1992]
(a) Shear only (b) Bending only (c) Shear and bending (d) Torsion

GATE-2. A shaft subjected to torsion experiences a pure shear stress t on the surface. The maximum
principal stress on the surface which is at 45 to the axis will have a value [GATE-2003]
(a) t cos 45 (b) 2t cos 45 (c) t cos
2
45 (d) 2t sin 45 cos 45

GATE-3. The number of components in a stress tensor defining stress at a point in three dimensions is:
[GATE-2002]
(a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) 9
Principal Stress and Principal Plane
GATE-4. A body is subjected to a pure tensile stress of 100 units. What is the maximum shear produced
in the body at some oblique plane due to the above? [IES-2006]
(a) 100 units (b) 75 units (c) 50 units (d) 0 unit

GATE-5. In a strained material one of the principal stresses is twice the other. The maximum shear
stress in the same case is
max
t .Then, what is the value of the maximum principle stress?[IES
2007]
(a)
max
t (b) 2
max
t (c) 4
max
t (d) 8
max
t

GATE-6. A material element subjected to a plane state of stress such that the maximum shear stress is
equal to the maximum tensile stress, would correspond to
[IAS-1998]

GATE-7. A solid circular shaft is subjected to a maximum shearing stress of 140 MPs. The magnitude of
the maximum normal stress developed in the shaft is:
[IAS-1995]

GATE-8. The state of stress at a point in a loaded member is shown in the figure. The magnitude of
maximum shear stress is [1MPa = 10 kg/cm
2
] [IAS 1994]
(a) 10 MPa (b) 30 MPa (c) 50 MPa (d) 100MPa

GATE-9. A solid circular shaft of diameter 100 mm is subjected to an axial stress of 50 MPa. It is further
subjected to a torque of 10 kNm. The maximum principal stress experienced on the shaft is
closest to [GATE-2008]

GATE-10. In a bi-axial stress problem, the stresses in x and y directions are (x = 200 MPa and y =100
MPa. The maximum principal stress in MPa, is: [GATE-2000]
(a) 50 (b) 100 (c) 150 (d) 200

GATE-11. The maximum principle stress for the stress
state shown in the figure is
(a) (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 1.5

[GATE-2001]
GATE-12. The normal stresses at a point are x = 10 MPa and, y = 2 MPa; the shear stress at this point is
4MPa. The maximum principal stress at this point is:
[GATE-1998]

GATE-13. In a Mohr's circle, the radius of the circle is taken as: [IES-2006; GATE-1993]
(a)
( )
2
2
2
x y
xy
o o
t
| |
+
|
\ .
(b)
( )
( )
2
2
2
x y
xy
o o
t
+
(c)
( )
2
2
2
x y
xy
o o
t
| |
|
\ .
(d)
( ) ( )
2 2
x y xy
o o t +
Where, x and y are normal stresses along x and y directions respectively and xy is the shear
stress.

GATE-14. A two dimensional fluid element rotates like a rigid body. At a point within the element, the
pressure is 1 unit. Radius of the Mohr's circle, characterizing the state of stress at that point, is:
[GATE-2008]
(a) 0.5 unit (b) 0 unit (c) 1 unit (d) 2 units

GATE-14(i). The state of stress at a point under plane stress condition is
xx = 40 MPa, yy = 100 MPa and xy = 40 MPa.
The radius of the Mohrs circle representing the given state of stress in MPa is
(a) 40 (b) 50 (c) 60 (d) 100 [GATE-2012]

GATE-15. The Mohr's circle of plane stress for a
point in a body is shown. The design
is to be done on the basis of the
maximum shear stress theory for
yielding. Then, yielding will just
begin if the designer chooses a
ductile material whose yield strength
is:
(a) 45 MPa (b) 50 MPa
(c) 90 MPa (d) 100 MPa

[GATE-2005]
GATE-16. The figure shows the state of stress
at a certain point in a stressed body.
The magnitudes of normal stresses in
the x and y direction are 100MPa and
20 MPa respectively. The radius of
Mohr's stress circle representing this
state of stress is:
(a) 120 (b) 80
(c) 60 (d) 40

[GATE-2004]
Data for Q17Q18 are given below. Solve the problems and choose correct answers.
[GATE-2003]
The state of stress at a point "P" in a two dimensional loading is such that the Mohr's circle is a point
located at 175 MPa on the positive normal stress axis.

GATE-17. Determine the maximum and minimum principal stresses respectively from the Mohr's circle
(a) + 175 MPa, 175MPa (b) +175 MPa, +175 MPa
(c) 0, 175 MPa (d) 0, 0

GATE-18. Determine the directions of maximum and minimum principal stresses at the point P from the
Mohr's circle [GATE-2003]
(a) 0, 90 (b) 90, 0 (c) 45, 135 (d) All directions
Principal strains
GATE-19. If the two principal strains at a point are 1000 10
-6
and -600 10
-6
, then the maximum shear
strain is: [GATE-1996]
(a) 800 10
-6
(b) 500 10
-6
(c) 1600 10
-6
(d) 200 10
-6
IES-1. If a prismatic bar be subjected to an axial tensile stress , then shear stress induced on a plane
inclined at with the axis will be: [IES-1992]
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
a sin 2 b cos 2 c cos d sin
2 2 2 2
o o o o
u u u u

IES-2. In the case of bi-axial state of normal stresses, the normal stress on 45 plane is equal to[IES-
1992]
(a) The sum of the normal stresses (b) Difference of the normal stresses
(c) Half the sum of the normal stresses (d) Half the difference of the normal stresses

IES-2a
A point in two-dimensional stress state, is
subjected to biaxial stress as shown in the above
figure. The shear stress acting on the plane AB
is
(a) Zero (b) o
(c) o cos
2
u (d) o sin u. cos u

o
o
o
o
B
A
u

[IES-2010]

IES-3. In a two-dimensional problem, the state of pure shear at a point is characterized by[IES-2001]
(a) 0
x y xy
and c c = = (b) 0
x y xy
and c c = =
(c) 2 0
x y xy
and c c = = (d) 0.5 0
x y xy
and c c = =

IES-3a. What are the normal and shear stresses on the
45
o
planes shown?
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
( ) 400 0
( ) 400 0
( ) 400 0
( ) 200
a MPa and
b MPa and
c MPa and
d MPa
o o t
o o t
o o t
o o t
= = =
= = =
= = =
= = =

IES-4. Which one of the following Mohrs circles represents the state of pure shear?
[IES-2000]

IES-5. For the state of stress of pure shear t the strain energy stored per unit volume in the elastic,
homogeneous isotropic material having elastic constants E and v will be: [IES-1998]
(a) ( )
2
1
E
t
v + (b) ( )
2
1
2E
t
v + (c) ( )
2
2
1
E
t
v + (d) ( )
2
2
2E
t
v +

IES-6. Assertion (A): If the state at a point is pure shear, then the principal planes through that point
making an angle of 45 with plane of shearing stress carries principal stresses whose magnitude
is equal to that of shearing stress.
Reason (R): Complementary shear stresses are equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction.
[IES-1996]

IES-7. Assertion (A): Circular shafts made of brittle material fail along a helicoidally surface inclined
at 45 to the axis (artery point) when subjected to twisting moment. [IES-1995]
Reason (R): The state of pure shear caused by torsion of the shaft is equivalent to one of tension
at 45 to the shaft axis and equal compression in the perpendicular direction.

IES-8. A state of pure shear in a biaxial state of stress is given by [IES-1994]
(a)
1
2
0
0
o
o
| |
|
\ .
(b)
1
1
0
0
o
o
| |
|
\ .
(c)
x xy
yx y
o t
t o
| |
|
\ .
(d) None of the above

IES-9. The state of plane stress in a plate of 100 mm thickness is given as [IES-2000]
xx = 100 N/mm
2
, yy = 200 N/mm
2
, Young's modulus = 300 N/mm
2
, Poisson's ratio = 0.3. The
stress developed in the direction of thickness is:
(a) Zero (b) 90 N/mm
2
(c) 100 N/mm
2
(d) 200 N/mm
2

IES-10. The state of plane stress at a point is described by and 0
x y xy
o o o t = = = . The normal stress
on the plane inclined at 45 to the x-plane will be: [IES-1998]

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) a b 2 c 3 d 2 o o o o

IES-10(i). An elastic material of Youngs modulus E and Poissons ratio is subjected to a compressive
stress of 1 in the longitudinal direction. Suitable lateral compressive stress 2 are also applied
along the other two each of the lateral directions to half of the magnitude that would be under
1 acting alone. The magnitude of 2 is
[IES-2012]
()
( )

()
( )

()
( )

()
( )

IES-11. Consider the following statements: [IES-1996, 1998]
State of stress in two dimensions at a point in a loaded component can be completely specified
by indicating the normal and shear stresses on
1. A plane containing the point
2. Any two planes passing through the point
3. Two mutually perpendicular planes passing through the point
Of these statements
(a) 1, and 3 are correct (b) 2 alone is correct
(c) 1 alone is correct (d) 3 alone is correct

IES-11a If the principal stresses and maximum shearing stresses are of equal numerical value at a point
in a stressed body, the state of stress can be termed as
(a) Isotropic (b) Uniaxial [IES-2010]
(c) Pure shear (d) Generalized plane state of stress

IES-12. A body is subjected to a pure tensile stress of 100 units. What is the maximum shear produced
in the body at some oblique plane due to the above? [IES-2006]
(a) 100 units (b) 75 units (c) 50 units (d) 0 unit

IES-13. In a strained material one of the principal stresses is twice the other. The maximum shear
stress in the same case is
max
. t Then, what is the value of the maximum principle stress?
[IES 2007]
(a)
max
t (b) 2
max
t (c) 4
max
t (d) 8
max
t

IES-14. In a strained material, normal stresses on two mutually perpendicular planes are x and y
(both alike) accompanied by a shear stress xy One of the principal stresses will be zero, only if
[IES-2006]
(a)
2
x y
xy
o o
t

= (b)
xy x y
t o o = (c)
xy x y
t o o = (d)
2 2
xy x y
t o o = +
IES-15. The principal stresses 1, 2 and 3 at a point respectively are 80 MPa, 30 MPa and 40 MPa.
The maximum shear stress is: [IES-2001]

IES-15(i). A piece of material is subjected, to two perpendicular tensile stresses of 70 MPa and 10 MPa.
The magnitude of the resultant stress on a plane in which the maximum shear stress occurs is
[IES-2012]

IES-16. Plane stress at a point in a body is defined by principal stresses 3 and . The ratio of the
normal stress to the maximum shear stresses on the plane of maximum shear stress is:[IES-
2000]
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
IES-17. Principal stresses at a point in plane stressed element are
2
500kg/cm
x y
o o = = . Normal
stress on the plane inclined at 45
o
to x-axis will be: [IES-1993]
(a) 0 (b) 500 kg/cm
2
(c) 707 kg/cm
2
(d) 1000 kg/cm
2

IES-18. If the principal stresses corresponding to a two-dimensional state of stress are
1
o and
2
o is
greater than
2
o and both are tensile, then which one of the following would be the correct
criterion for failure by yielding, according to the maximum shear stress criterion?[IES-1993]

( )
1 2 1 2
1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
yp yp yp
yp
a b c d
o o o o o o o
o o
= = = =
IES-19. For the state of plane stress.
Shown the maximum and minimum
principal stresses are:
(a) 60 MPa and 30 MPa
(b) 50 MPa and 10 MPa
(c) 40 MPa and 20 MPa
(d) 70 MPa and 30 MPa

[IES-1992]

IES-20. Normal stresses of equal magnitude p, but of opposite signs, act at a point of a strained material
in perpendicular direction. What is the magnitude of the resultant normal stress on a plane
inclined at 45 to the applied stresses? [IES-2005]
(a) 2 p (b) p/2 (c) p/4 (d) Zero

IES-21. A plane stressed element is subjected to the state of stress given by
2
100kgf/cm
x xy
o t = = and
y = 0. Maximum shear stress in the element is equal to [IES-1997]

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
a 50 3kgf/cm b 100kgf/cm c 50 5kgf/cm d 150kgf/cm
IES-22. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer, using the codes given below the lists:
[IES-1995]
List I(State of stress) List II(Kind of loading)

(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 2 3 4 1 (c)
2 4 3 1 (d) 3 4 1 2
Mohr's circle
IES-22(i). Statement (I): Mohrs circle of stress can be related to Mohrs circle of strain by some constant
of proportionality. [IES-2012]
Statement (II): The relationship is a function of yield strength of the material.

IES-23. Consider the Mohr's circle shown above:
What is the state of stress represented by
this circle?

x y xy
x y xy
x y xy
x y xy
(a) 0, 0
(b) 0, 0
(c) 0, 0
(d) 0, 0
o o t
o o t
o o t
o o t
= = =
+ = =
= = =
= = =

[IES-2008]

IES-24. For a general two dimensional stress system, what are the coordinates of the centre of Mohrs
circle?
[IES 2007]
(a)
2
y x
o o
, 0 (b) 0,
2
y x
o o +
(c)
2
y x
o o +
,0(d) 0,
2
y x
o o

IES-25. In a Mohr's circle, the radius of the circle is taken as: [IES-2006; GATE-1993]
(a)
( )
2
2
2
x y
xy
o o
t
| |
+
|
\ .
(b)
( )
( )
2
2
2
x y
xy
o o
t
+
(c)
( )
2
2
2
x y
xy
o o
t
| |
|
\ .
(d)
( ) ( )
2 2
x y xy
o o t +
Where, x and y are normal stresses along x and y directions respectively and xy is the shear
stress.

IES-26. Maximum shear stress in a Mohr's Circle [IES- 2008]
(a) Is equal to radius of Mohr's circle (b) Is greater than radius of Mohr's circle
(c) Is less than radius of Mohr's circle (d) Could be any of the above

IES-27. At a point in two-dimensional stress system x = 100 N/mm
2
, y = xy = 40 N/mm
2
. What is the
radius of the Mohr circle for stress drawn with a scale of: 1 cm = 10 N/mm
2
? [IES-2005]
(a) 3 cm (b) 4 cm (c) 5 cm (d) 6 cm

IES-28. Consider a two dimensional state of stress given for an element as shown in the diagram given
below: [IES-2004]

What are the coordinates of the centre of Mohr's circle?
(a) (0, 0) (b) (100, 200) (c) (200, 100) (d) (50, 0)

IES-29. Two-dimensional state of stress at a point in a plane stressed element is represented by a Mohr
circle of zero radius. Then both principal stresses
(a) Are equal to zero [IES-2003]
(b) Are equal to zero and shear stress is also equal to zero
(c) Are of equal magnitude but of opposite sign
(d) Are of equal magnitude and of same sign

IES-30. Assertion (A): Mohr's circle of stress can be related to Mohr's circle of strain by some constant of
proportionality. [IES-2002]
Reason (R): The relationship is a function of yield stress of the material.

IES-31. When two mutually perpendicular principal stresses are unequal but like, the maximum shear
stress is represented by [IES-1994]
(a) The diameter of the Mohr's circle
(b) Half the diameter of the Mohr's circle
(c) One-third the diameter of the Mohr's circle
(d) One-fourth the diameter of the Mohr's circle

IES-32. State of stress in a plane element is shown in figure I. Which one of the following figures-II is
the correct sketch of Mohr's circle of the state of stress?
[IES-1993, 1996]

Figure-I Figure-II
Strain
IES-33. A point in a two dimensional state of strain is subjected to pure shearing strain of magnitude
xy
radians. Which one of the following is the maximum principal strain? [IES-2008]
(a)
xy
(b)
xy
/ 2 (c)
xy
/2 (d) 2
xy

IES-34. Assertion (A): A plane state of stress does not necessarily result into a plane state of strain as
well. [IES-1996]
Reason (R): Normal stresses acting along X and Y directions will also result into normal strain
along the Z-direction.

IES-34a Assertion (A): A plane state of stress always results in a plane state of strain.
Reason (R): A uniaxial state of stress results in a three-dimensional state of strain.
(c) A is true but R is false [IES-2010]

IES-34b Assertion (A): A state of plane strain always results in plane stress conditions.
Reason (R): A thin sheet of metal stretched in its own plane results in plane strain conditions.
[IES-2010]
Principal strains
IES-35. Principal strains at a point are
6
100 10
and
6
200 10 .
What is the maximum shear strain

at the point? [IES-2006]
(a) 300 10
6
(b) 200 10
6
(c) 150 10
6
(d) 100 10
6

IES-36. The principal strains at a point in a body, under biaxial state of stress, are 100010
6
and 600
10
6
. What is the maximum shear strain at that point?
[IES-2009]
(a) 200 10
6
(b) 800 10
6
(c) 1000 10
6
(d) 1600 10
6

IES-37. The number of strain readings (using strain gauges) needed on a plane surface to determine the
principal strains and their directions is: [IES-1994]
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
Principal strain induced by principal stress
IES-38. The principal stresses at a point in two dimensional stress system are o 1 and o 2 and
corresponding principal strains are
1
c and
2
c . If E and v denote Young's modulus and Poisson's
ratio, respectively, then which one of the following is correct?
[IES-2008]

| |
| | | |
o c o c vc
v
o c vc o c vc
v
= = +
= =
1 1 1 1 2 2
1 1 2 1 1 2 2
E
(a) E (b)
1
E
(c) (d) E
1

IES-39. Assertion (A): Mohr's construction is possible for stresses, strains and area moment of
inertia. [IES-2009]
Reason (R): Mohr's circle represents the transformation of second-order tensor.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.

IES-40. A rectangular strain rosette, shown in
figure, gives following reading in a
strain measurement task, c
1
=100010
-
6
, c
2
=80010
-6
and c
3
=60010
-6
The direction of the major principal strain
with respect to gauge l is
(a) 0
o
(b) 15
o
(c) 30
o
(d) 45
o

[IES-2011]
IAS-1. On a plane, resultant stress is inclined at an angle of 45
o
to the plane. If the normal stress is
100 N /mm
2
, the shear stress on the plane is: [IAS-2003]
(a) 71.5 N/mm
2
(b) 100 N/mm
2
(c) 86.6 N/mm
2
(d) 120.8 N/mm
2

IAS-2. Biaxial stress system is correctly shown in [IAS-1999]

IAS-3. The complementary shear stresses of
intensity t are induced at a point in the
material, as shown in the figure. Which
one of the following is the correct set of
orientations of principal planes with
respect to AB?
(a) 30 and 120 (b) 45 and 135
(c) 60 and 150 (d) 75 and 165

[IAS-1998]

IAS-4. A uniform bar lying in the x-direction is subjected to pure bending. Which one of the following
tensors represents the strain variations when bending moment is about the z-axis (p, q and r
constants)? [IAS-2001]
(a)
0 0
0 0
0 0
py
qy
ry
| |
|
|
|
\ .
(b)
0 0
0 0
0 0 0
py
qy
| |
|
|
|
\ .

(c)
0 0
0 0
0 0
py
py
py
| |
|
|
|
\ .
(d)
0 0
0 0
0 0
py
qy
qy
| |
|
|
|
\ .

IAS-5. Assuming E = 160 GPa and G = 100 GPa for a material, a strain tensor is given as:[IAS-2001]
0.002 0.004 0.006
0.004 0.003 0
0.006 0 0
| |
|
|
|
\ .

The shear stress,
xy
t is:
IAS-6. A material element subjected to a plane state of stress such that the maximum shear stress is
equal to the maximum tensile stress, would correspond to
[IAS-1998]

IAS-7. A solid circular shaft is subjected to a maximum shearing stress of 140 MPs. The magnitude of
the maximum normal stress developed in the shaft is: [IAS-1995]

IAS-8. The state of stress at a point in a loaded member is shown in the figure. The magnitude of
maximum shear stress is [1MPa = 10 kg/cm
2
] [IAS 1994]
(a) 10 MPa (b) 30 MPa (c) 50 MPa (d) 100MPa

IAS-9. A horizontal beam under bending has a maximum bending stress of 100 MPa and a maximum
shear stress of 20 MPa. What is the maximum principal stress in the beam? [IAS-2004]
(a) 20 (b) 50 (c) 50 + 2900 (d) 100

IAS-10. When the two principal stresses are equal and like: the resultant stress on any plane is:[IAS-
2002]
(a) Equal to the principal stress (b) Zero
(c) One half the principal stress (d) One third of the principal stress

IAS-11. Assertion (A): When an isotropic, linearly elastic material is loaded biaxially, the directions of
principal stressed are different from those of principal strains.
Reason (R): For an isotropic, linearly elastic material the Hooke's law gives only two
independent material properties. [IAS-2001]

IAS-12. Principal stress at a point in a stressed solid are 400 MPa and 300 MPa respectively. The
normal stresses on planes inclined at 45 to the principal planes will be:
[IAS-2000]
(a) 200 MPa and 500 MPa (b) 350 MPa on both planes
(c) 100MPaand6ooMPa (d) 150 MPa and 550 MPa

IAS-13. The principal stresses at a point in an elastic material are 60N/mm
2
tensile, 20 N/mm
2
tensile
and 50 N/mm
2
compressive. If the material properties are: = 0.35 and E = 105 Nmm
2
, then the
volumetric strain of the material is: [IAS-1997]
(a) 9 10
5
(b) 3 10
-4
(c) 10.5 10
5
(d) 21 10
5
Mohr's circle
IAS-14. Match List-I (Mohr's Circles of stress) with List-II (Types of Loading) and select the correct
answer using the codes given below the lists: [IAS-2004]
List-I List-II
(Mohr's Circles of Stress) (Types of Loading)

1. A shaft compressed all round by a hub

2. Bending moment applied at the free
end of a cantilever

3. Shaft under torsion

4. Thin cylinder under pressure

5. Thin spherical shell under internal
pressure
(a) 5 4 3 2 (b) 2 4 1 3
(c) 4 3 2 5 (d) 2 3 1 5

IAS-15. The resultant stress on a certain plane makes an angle of 20 with the normal to the plane. On
the plane perpendicular to the above plane, the resultant stress makes an angle of with the
normal. The value of can be: [IAS-2001]
(a) 0 or 20 (b) Any value other than 0 or 90
(c) Any value between 0 and 20 (d) 20 only

IAS-16. The correct Mohr's stress-circle drawn for a point in a solid shaft compressed by a shrunk fit
hub is as (O-Origin and C-Centre of circle; OA = 1 and OB = 2)
[IAS-2001]

IAS-17. A Mohr's stress circle is drawn for a body subjected to tensile stress
x
f and
y
f in two
mutually perpendicular directions such that
x
f >
y
f . Which one of the following statements in
this regard is NOT correct? [IAS-2000]
(a) Normal stress on a plane at 45 to
x
f is equal to
2
x y
f f +

(b) Shear stress on a plane at 450 to
x
f is equal to
2
x y
f f

(c) Maximum normal stress is equal to
x
f .
(d) Maximum shear stress is equal to
2
x y
f f +

IAS-18. For the given stress condition
x
o =2 N/mm
2
,
x
o =0 and 0
xy
t = , the correct Mohrs circle is:
[IAS-1999]


IAS-19. For which one of the following two-dimensional states of stress will the Mohr's stress circle
degenerate into a point? [IAS-1996]

Principal strains
IAS-20. In an axi-symmetric plane strain problem, let u be the radial displacement at r. Then the strain
components , ,
r e u u
c c T are given by [IAS-1995]
(a)
2
, ,
r r
u u u
r r r
u u
c c
u
c c
= = T =
c c c
(b) , ,
r r
u u
o
r r
u u
c c
c
= = T =
c

(c) , , 0
r r
u u
r r
u u
c c
c
= = T =
c
(d)
2
, ,
r r
u u u
r r
u u
c c
u u
c c c
= = T =
c c c c

IAS-21. Assertion (A): Uniaxial stress normally gives rise to triaxial strain.
Reason (R): Magnitude of strains in the perpendicular directions of applied stress is smaller
than that in the direction of applied stress. [IAS-2004]

IAS-22. Assertion (A): A plane state of stress will, in general, not result in a plane state of strain.[IAS-
2002]
Reason (R): A thin plane lamina stretched in its own plane will result in a state of plane strain.


OBJECTIVE ANSWERS
GATE-1. Ans. (a) It is the definition of shear stress. The force is applied tangentially it is not a point load so
you cannot compare it with a cantilever with a point load at its free end.
GATE-2. Ans. (d)
x y x y
n xy
cos2 sin2
2 2
o o o o
o u t u
+
= + +
Here
o
x 2 xy
0, , 45 o o t t u = = = =
GATE-3. Ans. (d) It is well known that,

xy yx, xz zx yz zy
x y z xy yz zx
and
so that the state of stress at a point is given by six components , , and , ,
t t t t t t
o o o t t t
= = =

GATE-4. Ans. (c)
1 2
max
100 0
50 units.
2 2
o o
t

= = =
GATE-5. Ans. (c)
2
2 1
max
o o
t

= ,
2 1
2o o = or
2
2
max
o
t = or
max 2
2t o = or
2 1
2o o = =
max
4t
GATE-6. Ans. (d)
1 2 1 1
max 1
( )
2 2
o o o o
t o

= = =
GATE-7. Ans. (a)
1 2
max
2
o o
t

= Maximum normal stress will developed if
1 2
o o o = =

GATE-8. Ans. (c)
2
2
max
2
xy
y x
t
o o
t +
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
2
2
30
2
40 40
+
|
.
|
\
|
= 50 MPa
GATE-9. Ans. (b) Shear Stress (t )= MPa Pa
d
T
93 . 50
) 1 . 0 (
10000 16 16
3 3
=
=
t t

Maximum principal Stress =
2
2
2 2
t
o o
+
|
.
|
\
|
+
b b
=82 MPa
GATE-10. Ans. (d)
2
x y x y 2
1 xy xy
if 0
2 2
o o o o
o t t
+ | |
= + + =
|
\ .

2
x y x y
x
2 2
o o o o
o
+ | |
= + =
|
\ .

GATE-11. Ans. (b)
x y xy
, , o o o o t o = = =
( ) ( )
2
2 x y x y 2 2
1 xy
max
0 2
2 2 2
o o o o
o o
o t o o
+ | | +
= + + = + + =
|
\ .

GATE-12. Ans. (c)
2
x y x y 2
1 xy
2 2
o o o o
o t
+ | |
= + +
|
\ .

2
2
10 2 10 2
4 11.66 MPa
2 2
+ | |
= + + =
|
\ .

GATE-13. Ans. (a)

GATE-14. Ans. (b)
GATE-1(i). Ans. (b)
( )
2
2 40 100
40 50
2
MPa
| |
+ =
|
\ .

GATE-15. Ans. (c)

1 2
y
1 2
max
1 2 y y
Given 10 MPa, 100 MPa
Maximum shear stresstheory give
2 2
or 10 ( 100) 90MPa
o o
o
o o
t
o o o o
= =
= =
= = =

GATE-16. Ans. (c)

( )
o o
o o
= =

= = =
x y
x y
100MPa, 20MPa
100 20
Radius of Mohr ' scircle 60
2 2

GATE-17. Ans. (b)

1 2 x y
175 MPa o o o o = = = = +

GATE-18. Ans. (d) From the Mohrs circle it will give all directions.
GATE-19. Ans. (c) Shear strain ( ) { }
6 6
max min
e e 1000 600 10 1600 10

= =
IES
IES-1. Ans. (a)
IES-2. Ans. (c)
x y x y
n xy
cos2 sin2
2 2
o o o o
o u t u
+
= + +

x y o
xy n
At 45 and 0;
2
o o
u t o
+
= = =

IES-2a Ans. (a) ( ) t t
=

Shear stress 2 - cos2
2
x y
xy
sin
t = = = Here , 0
x y xy
and
IES-3. Ans. (b)
IES-3a. Ans. (a)
IES-4. Ans. (c)
IES-5. Ans. (a)
1 2 3
, , 0 o t o t o = = =

( ) ( )

t t t t t
+
(
= + =

2
2 2
1 1
U 2 V V
2E E

IES-6. Ans. (b)
IES-7. Ans. (a) Both A and R are true and R is correct explanation for A.
IES-8. Ans. (b)
1 2 3
, , 0 o t o t o = = =
IES-9. Ans. (a)
IES-10. Ans. (a)
x y x y
n xy
cos2 sin2
2 2
o o o o
o u t u
+
= + +

IES-10(i). Ans. (b)
IES-11. Ans. (d)
IES-11a Ans. (c)
IES-12. Ans. (c)
1 2
max
100 0
50 units.
2 2
o o
t

= = =
IES-13. Ans. (c)
2
2 1
max
o o
t

= ,
2 1
2o o = or
2
2
max
o
t = or
max 2
2t o = or
2 1
2o o = =
max
4t
IES-14. Ans. (c)
2
x y x y 2
1,2 xy
2 2
o o o o
o t
+ | |
= + +
|
\ .

2
x y x y 2
2 xy
2 2
x y x y 2
xy xy x y
if 0
2 2
or or
2 2
o o o o
o t
o o o o
t t o o
+ | |
= = +
|
\ .
+ | | | |
= + =
| |
\ . \ .

IES-15. Ans. (d)
1 2
max
80 ( 40)
60
2 2
o o
t

= = = MPa
IES-15(i). Ans. (c)
IES-16. Ans. (b)
xy
x y
2
tan2 0
t
u u
o o
= =

1 2
max
3
2 2
o o o o
t o

= = =
Major principal stress on the plane of maximum shear =
1
3
2
2
o o
o o
+
= =
IES-17. Ans. (b) When stresses are alike, then normal stress n on plane inclined at angle 45 is
2 2
2 2 2
1 1 1 1
cos sin 500 500kg/cm
2 2 2 2
n y x y x
o o u o u o o
| | | | (
= + = + = + =
| |
(
\ . \ .

IES-18. Ans. (a)
IES-19. Ans. (d)
2
x y x y 2
1,2 xy
2 2
o o o o
o t
+ | |
= + +
|
\ .

2
2
1,2
50 ( 10) 50 10
40
2 2
o
+ + | |
= + +
|
\ .

max min
70 and 30 o o = =
IES-20. Ans. (d)
x y x y
x
cos2
2 2
o o o o
o u
+
= +

n
P P P P
cos2 45 0
2 2
o
+
= + =
IES-21. Ans. (c) ( )
2
2
1,2
0 0
50 50 5
2 2
o o
o t
+ + | |
= + =
|
\ .
x x
xy

Maximum shear stress =
( ) ( )
1 2
50 5
2
o o
=
IES-22. Ans. (c)
IES-22(i). Ans. (c)
IES-23. Ans. (b) It is a case of pure shear.
1 2
Just put o o =
IES-24. Ans. (c)
IES-25. Ans. (a)

IES-26. Ans. (a)

2
2 2
x y x y
2 2
x x y xy
2
x y
2
xy
2
x y x y
2
t xy
2
x y x y
2
2 xy
x y
1 2
max max

2 2
Radius of the Mohr Circle
2
2 2
2 2
r
2 2
' ' '
| |
o + o o o | | | |
|
o + t = + t
| |
| | |
| \ . \ .
\ .
o o | |
+ t
|
|
\ .
o + o o o | |
o = + + t
|
|
\ .
o + o o o | |
o = + t
|
|
\ .
o o | | o o
t = = t =

\
2
2
xy
+ t
|
|
.

IES-27. Ans. (c) Radius of the Mohr circle

2
2
x y 2 2
xy
100 40
/ 10 40 / 10 50 / 10 5cm
2 2
o o
t
(
(
| | | |
(
(
= + = + = =
|
|
(
( \ .
\ .

IES-28. Ans. (d) Centre of Mohrs circle is ( )
x y
200 100
,0 ,0 50,0
2 2
o o + | | | |
= =
|
|
\ .
\ .

IES-29. Ans. (d)
IES-30. Ans. (c)
IES-31. Ans. (b)
IES-32. Ans. (c)
IES-33. Ans. (c)
IES-34. Ans. (a)
IES-34a. Ans. (d)
IES-34b. Ans. (d)
IES-35. Ans. (a) ( )
6 6
max 1 2
100 200 10 300 10 c c

= = =

( )
1 2
max
xy
1 2 1 2
max
don' t confusewithMaximumShear stress
2
in strain and that is the difference.
2 2 2
o o
t
c c o o
t
=

= =

IES-36. Ans. (d)

( )

e e |
= | = e e = =
x y xy 6 6 6
xy x y
1000 10 600 10 1600 10
2 2

IES-37. Ans. (c) Three strain gauges are needed on a plane surface to determine the principal strains and
their directions.
IES-38. Ans. (b)
1 2 2 1
1 2
and
E E E E
s s s s
e m e m = - = - From these two equation eliminate
2
s .
IES-39. Ans. (a)
IES-40. Ans. (a)
IAS
IAS-1. Ans. (b)
2
n
Weknow cos and sin cos o o u t o u u = =

2
100 cos 45 or 200
200sin45cos45 100
o o
t
= =
= =

IAS-2. Ans. (c)

IAS-3. Ans. (b) It is a case of pure shear so principal planes will be along the diagonal.
IAS-4. Ans. (d) Stress in x direction = x
Therefore
x x x
, ,
x y z
E E E
o o o
c c c = = =
IAS-5. Ans. (c)
and
2
c c c
c c c c
c c c
(
(
=
(
(

xx xy xz
xy
yx yy yz xy
zx zy zz

( )
3
100 10 0.004 2 MPa 800MPa t = = =
xy xy
G
IAS-6. Ans. (d)
1 2 1 1
max 1
( )
2 2
o o o o
t o

= = =
IAS-7. Ans. (a)
1 2
max
2
o o
t

= Maximum normal stress will developed if
1 2
o o o = =
IAS-8. Ans. (c)
2
2
max
2
xy
y x
t
o o
t +
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
2
2
30
2
40 40
+
|
.
|
\
|
= 50 MPa
IAS-9. Ans. (c) b=100MPa

t =20 mPa

1,2=
2
2
2 2
b b
o o
t
| |
+ +
|
\ .

( )
2 2
2 2
1,2
100 100
20 50 2900 MPa
2 2 2 2
o o
o t
| | | |
= + + = + + = +
| |
\ . \ .
b b

IAS-10. Ans. (a) cos 2
2 2
x y x y
n
o o o o
o u
+
= +
[We may consider this as 0
xy
t = ] ( )
x y
say o o o = = So for anyplane
n
o o =
IAS-11. Ans. (d) They are same.
IAS-12. Ans. (b)

400 300 400 300
cos 2 cos 2 45 350
2 2 2 2
x y x y o
n
MPa
o o o o
o u
+ | | | | +
= + = + =
| |
\ . \ .

IAS-13. Ans. (a)

o o o
o o o o o o

| | | |
| |
e = + e = + e = +
| |
|
\ .
\ . \ .
y y y
x z z x z x
x y z
, and
E E E E E E E E E

( )
( ) ( )
o o o

o o o
o o o

+ +
e =e + e + e = + +
+ + | | + | |
= = =
|
|
\ .
\ .
x y z
v x y z x y z
x y z 5
5
2
E E
60 20 50
1 2 1 2 0.35 9 10
E 10

IAS-14. Ans. (d)
IAS-15. Ans. (b)

IAS-16. Ans. (d)
IAS-17. Ans. (d) Maximum shear stress is
2
x y
f f

IAS-18. Ans. (d) ( )
x y
2 0
Centre ,0 ,0 1, 0
2 2
o o + | | + | |
= =
|
|
\ .
\ .

2
2
x y 2
x
2 0
radius 0 1
2 2
o o
t
| | | |
= + = + =
|
|
\ .
\ .

IAS-19. Ans. (c) Mohrs circle will be a point.
Radius of the Mohrs circle =
2
x y 2
xy xy x y
0 and
2
o o
t t o o o
| |
+ = = =
|
\ .

IAS-20. Ans. (b)

IAS-21. Ans. (b)
IAS-22. Ans. (c) R is false. Stress in one plane always induce a lateral strain with its orthogonal plane.

Pr evi ous Convent i onal Quest i ons w i t h Answ er s
Question: What are principal in planes?
Answer: The planes which pass through the point in such a manner that the resultant stress across
them is totally a normal stress are known as principal planes. No shear stress exists at the
principal planes.

Q. The Mohrs circle for a plane stress is a circle of radius R with its origin at + 2R on
axis. Sketch the Mohrs circle and determine , for this
situation. [2 Marks]

Ans. Here

Question: Direct tensile stresses of 120 MPa and 70 MPa act on a body on mutually
perpendicular planes. What is the magnitude of shearing stress that can be applied
so that the major principal stress at the point does not exceed 135 MPa? Determine
the value of minor principal stress and the maximum shear stress.
Answer: Let shearing stress is ' ' MPa.

2
2
1,2
The principal stresses are
120 70 120 70
2 2

+

= +

2
2
1
Major principal stress is
120 70 120 70
2 2
135(Given) , 31.2 . or MPa

+

= + +

= =

max
,
min
,
av
( )
xy
max
max
3R =
min
v
max min
xy
R
3R R
2R
2
3R R
and R
2 2
=
+
= =

= = =
R
(2R,0)
R
3R

2
2
2
1 2
max
Minor pr incipal st r ess is
120 70 120 70
31.2 55MPa
2 2
135 55
40 MPa
2 2
+ | |
= + =
|
\ .

= = =
o o
t


Q. The state of stress at a point in a loaded machine member is given by the principle stresses. [
2 Marks]
and .
(i) What is the magnitude of the maximum shear stress?
(ii) What is the inclination of the plane on which the maximum shear stress acts with respect
to the plane on which the maximum principle stress acts?
Ans. (i) Maximum shear stress,

(ii) At =45 max. shear stress occurs with
1
plane. Since
1
and
3
are principle stress
does not contains shear stress. Hence max. shear stress is at 45 with principle plane.

Question: A prismatic bar in compression has a cross- sectional area A = 900 mm
2
and carries an axial
load P = 90 kN. What are the stresses acts on
(i) A plane transverse to the loading axis;
(ii) A plane at = 60
o
to the loading axis?
Answer: (i) From figure it is clear A plane
transverse to loading axis, =0
o

2 2
n
2
90000
cos = /
900
100 /
P 90000
= 2= sin=0
2A 2900
s
t
\ =
=
P
N mm
A
N mm
and Sin

(iii) A plane at 60
o
to loading axis,
= 60- 30 = 30

2 2
n
2
90000
cos = cos 30
900
75 /
P
A
N mm
s =
=

2
90000
sin2 sin2 60
2 2 900
43.3 /
o
P
A
N mm
t q = =
=

Question: A tension member with a cross-sectional area of 30 mm
2
resists a load of 80 kN, Calculate the
normal and shear stresses on the plane of maximum shear stress.
Answer:
2
cos sin2
2
n
P P
A A
t = =
1
600 MPa, o =
2
0 o =
3
600 MPa o =
1
o
( )
1 3
600 600
2 2
600 MPa
o o
t = =
=

( )
o
For maximum shear stress sin2 =1, or, = 45
3 3
2
max
80 10 80 10
cos 45 1333 and 1333
30 2 30 2
n
P
MPa MPa
A
t

= = = = =

Question: At a point in a loaded structure, a pure shear stress state t = 400 MPa prevails on two
given planes at right angles.
(i) What would be the state of stress across the planes of an element taken at +45 to the
given planes?
(ii) What are the magnitudes of these stresses?
Answer: (i) For pure shear

max
; 400 t = - = =
x y x
MPa

(ii) Magnitude of these stresses
2 90 400 and ( cos2 ) 0
o
n xy xy xy xy
Sin Sin MPa t t t t t = = = = = - =
Conventional Question IAS-1997
Question: Draw Mohr's circle for a 2-dimensional stress field subjected to
(a) Pure shear (b) Pure biaxial tension (c) Pure uniaxial tension and (d) Pure uniaxial
compression
Answer: Mohr's circles for 2-dimensional stress field subjected to pure shear, pure biaxial tension, pure
uniaxial compression and pure uniaxial tension are shown in figure below:

Question: A Solid phosphor bronze shaft 60 mm in diameter is rotating at 800 rpm and transmitting
power. It is subjected torsion only. An electrical resistance strain gauge mounted on the
surface of the shaft with its axis at 45 to the shaft axis, gives the strain reading as 3.98 10

the strain reading as 3.98 10
4
. If the modulus of elasticity for bronze is 105 GN/m
2
and Poisson's ratio is 0.3, find the power being transmitted by the shaft. Bending
effect may be neglected.
Answer:

Let us assume maximum shear stress on the cross-sectional plane MU is . Then

2
2
1
Principal stress along, VM = - 4 = - (compressive)
2
1
Principal stress along, LU = 4 (tensile)
2

=

( )
( )
4
4 9
Thus magntude of the compressive strain along VM is
= (1 ) 3.98 10
E
3.98 10 105 10
= 32.15
1 0.3
or MPa
+ =

=
+

( )
3
6 3
Torque being transmitted (T) =
16
32.15 10 0.06 =1363.5 Nm
16
d
=

2 N 2 800
Power being transmitted, P =T. =T. =1363.5 114.23
60 60
W kW

=

Question: The magnitude of normal stress on two mutually perpendicular planes, at a point in
an elastic body are 60 MPa (compressive) and 80 MPa (tensile) respectively. Find
the magnitudes of shearing stresses on these planes if the magnitude of one of the
principal stresses is 100 MPa (tensile). Find also the magnitude of the other
principal stress at this point.
Answer: Above figure shows stress condition assuming
shear stress is ' xy'

Principal stresses

2
y 2
1,2

2 2

+

= +

x y x
xy

2
2
1,2
60 80 60 80
,
2 2

+

= +

xy
or

2
2
1,2
60 80 60 80
,
2 2

+

= +

xy
or
80Mpa
80Mpa
60Mpa 60Mpa
J
xy
J
xy
J
xy
J
xy

2 2
1
To make principal stress 100 MPa we have to consider '+' .
100MPa 10 70 ; or, 56.57MPa = = + + =
xy xy

2
2
2
Therefore other principal stress will be
60 80 60 80
(56.57)
2 2
. . 80MPa(compressive) i e

+

= +

Question: A steel tube of inner diameter 100 mm and wall thickness 5 mm is subjected to a
torsional moment of 1000 Nm. Calculate the principal stresses and orientations of
the principal planes on the outer surface of the tube.
Answer:
( ) ( )
4 4
6 4
Polar moment of Inertia (J)= 0.110 0.100 = 4.56 10
32
m

6
T . 1000 (0.055)
Now
4.56 10
12.07MPa
T R
or J
J R J
= = =
=

p
0 0
p
0
1
0
2
2
Now, tan2 ,
gives 45 135
2 12.07 sin90
12.07
12.07sin270
12.07
xy
x y
xy
or
Sin
MPa
and
MPa
= =
=
= =
=
=
=

50mm
5mm

Question: At a point in a two dimensional stress system the normal stresses on two mutually
perpendicular planes are
y
and
x
and the shear stress is xy. At what value of
shear stress, one of the principal stresses will become zero?
Answer: Two principal stressdes are

2
2
1,2
-
2 2

+

= +

x y x y
xy

Question: A solid shaft of diameter 30 mm is fixed at one end. It is subject to a tensile force of 10 kN and
a torque of 60 Nm. At a point on the surface of the shaft, determine the principle stresses and
the maximum shear stress.
Answer: Given: D = 30 mm = 0.03 m; P = 10 kN; T= 60 Nm

( ) ( )
1 2 max
3
6 2 2
t x
2
Pr incipal stresses , and maximum shear stress :
10 10
Tensile stress 14.15 10 N/ m or 14.15 MN/ m
0.03
4
o o t
o o
t

= = =

T
As per torsion equation,
J R
t
=
( )
6 2
4
4
2
TR TR 60 0.015
Shear stress, 11.32 10 N/ m
J
D 0.03
32 32
or 11.32 MN/ m
t
t t

= = = =

( )
2
x y x y 2
1 2 xy
2 2
x y xy
2
2
1 2
2
The principal stresses are calculated by using the relations :
,
2 2
Here 14.15MN/ m , 0; 11.32 MN/ m
14.15 14.15
, 11.32
2 2
7.07 13.35 20.425 MN/ m , 6.275M
o o o o
o t
o o t t
o
(
+ | | | |
( = +
| |
(
\ . \ .

= = = =
| |
= +
|
\ .
= =
( )
( )
( )
2
2
1
2
2
2 1 2
max
N/ m .
Hence,major principal stress, 20.425 MN/ m tensile
Minor principal stress, 6.275MN/ m compressive
24.425 6.275
Maximum shear stress, 13.35mm/ m
2 2
o
o
o o
t
=
=

= = =

Question: Two planes AB and BC which are at right angles are acted upon by tensile stress of 140
N/mm
2
and a compressive stress of 70 N/mm
2
respectively and also by stress 35 N/mm
2
.
Determine the principal stresses and principal planes. Find also the maximum shear stress
and planes on which they act.
Sketch the Mohr circle and mark the relevant data.
Answer: Given

x
y
=140MPa(tensile)
=-70MPa(compressive)
35MPa
xy
t =

1 2
Principal stresses; , ;
70N/mm
2
35Nmm
2
A
C
B
140N/mm
2

Answer: Given

x
y
=140MPa(tensile)
=-70MPa(compressive)
35MPa
xy
=

1 2
Principal stresses; , ;
70N/mm
2
35Nmm
2
A
C
B
140N/mm
2

x

2
2
1,2
2
2
1 2
We know that,
2 2
140 70 140 70
35 35 110.7
2 2
Therefore =145.7 MPa and 75.7MPa
x y y
xy

+

= +

+

= + =

=

y

-
1 2
1 2
max
Position of Principal planes ,
2
2 35
tan2 0.3333
140 70
145 75.7
Maximum shear stress, 110.7
2 2
xy
p
x
MPa
= = =
+
+
= = =

Mohr cirle:

x
OL= 140
70
35
Joining ST that cuts at 'N'
y
xy
MPa
OM MPa
SM LT MPa
=
= =
= = =

1
2
SN=NT=radius of Mohr circle =110.7 MPa
OV= 145.7
75.7
MPa
OV MPa
=
= =

T
V
L
2 =198.4
p
S
U
M
O 2=
78.4
140 =
Y
N

Q6. The data obtained from a rectangular strain gauge rosette attached to a stressed
steel member are , and . Given
that the value of E = and Poissons Ratio , calculate the values
of principal stresses acting at the point and their directions.
[10 Marks]
Ans. A rectangular strain gauge rosette strain

Find out principal stress and their direction.
Let
a o c 90 b 45
e e and e = = =
We know that principal strain are
( ) ( )
2 2
a b
12 a b b c
e e
e e e e
2
+
= +

( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
6 6
2 2
6 6
220 10 120 10
1
220 120 10 120 220 10
2
2

+
+ +

6 6
1
50 10 354.40 10
2

6 0 6
0 45
= 220 10 , 120 100

=
6
90
=220 10

5 2
2 10 N/ mm 0.3 =
0
6 6 6
0 90
45
11 2
220 10 120 10 220 10
E = 2 10 N/ m poisson ratio 0.3

= = =
=

240
0.55
440
=

p
2 28.81
e
=

0
p 1
14.45 clockwise form principal strain t
e
=
Principal stress:-

( )
( )
( )
11 4
1 2
1
2 2
2 10 2 0.3 3 10
E
1 1 0.3
+
e + e
=

5 2
241.78 10 N / m =

5 2
527.47 10 N / m =

Question: When using strain-gauge system for stress/force/displacement measurements how are in-built
magnification and temperature compensation achieved?
Answer: In-built magnification and temperature compensation are achieved by
(a) Through use of adjacent arm balancing of Wheat-stone bridge.
(b) By means of self temperature compensation by selected melt-gauge and dual element-
gauge.

Question: A cylinder (500 mm internal diameter and 20 mm wall thickness) with closed ends is
subjected simultaneously to an internal pressure of 0-60 MPa, bending moment 64000 Nm
and torque 16000 Nm. Determine the maximum tensile stress and shearing stress in the wall.
Answer: Given: d = 500 mm = 05 m; t = 20 mm = 002 m; p = 060 MPa = 0.6 MN/m
2
;
M = 64000 Nm = 0064 MNm; T= 16000 Nm = 0016 MNm.
Maximum tensile stress:
First let us determine the principle stresses
1 2
and o o assuming this as a thin cylinder.
We know,
2
1
pd 0.6 0.5
7.5MN/ m
2t 2 0.02
o

= = =

2
2
pd 0.6 0.5
and 3.75MN/ m
4t 4 0.02
o

= = =

Next consider effect of combined bending moment and torque on the walls of the cylinder.
Then the principal stresses
1 2
' and ' o o are given by

( )
( )
2 2
1 3
2 2
2 3
2 2 2
1 3
2 2 2
2 3
max
I II
max
II 2 2
16
' M M T
d
16
and ' M M T
d
16
' 0.064 0.064 0.016 5.29MN/ m
0.5
16
and ' 0.064 0.064 0.016 0.08MN/ m
0.5
Maximum shearing stress, :
We Know,
2
' 3.75
o
t
o
t
o
t
o
t
t
o o
t
o o o
(
= + +

(
= +

(
= + + =

(
= + =

=
= + = ( )
2
2
max
0.08 3.67MN/ m tensile
12.79 3.67
4.56MN/ m
2
t
=
= =

3. Moment of Inertia and Centroid
3.1 Centre of gravity
The centre of gravity of a body defined as the point through which the whole weight of a body may be
assumed to act.
3.2 Centroid or Centre of area
The centroid or centre of area is defined as the point where the whole area of the figure is assumed
to be concentrated.
3.3 Moment of Inertia (MOI)
- About any point the product of the force and the perpendicular distance between them is
known as moment of a force or first moment of force.
- This first moment is again multiplied by the perpendicular distance between them to obtain
second moment of force.
- In the same way if we consider the area of the figure it is called second moment of area or
area moment of inertia and if we consider the mass of a body it is called second moment of
mass or mass moment of Inertia.
- Mass moment of inertia is the measure of resistance of the body to rotation and forms the
basis of dynamics of rigid bodies.
- Area moment of Inertia is the measure of resistance to bending and forms the basis of
strength of materials.
3.4 Mass moment of Inertia (MOI)
2
i i
i
I mr =
_
- Notice that the moment of inertia I depends on the distribution of mass in the system.
- The furthest the mass is from the rotation axis, the bigger the moment of inertia.
- For a given object, the moment of inertia depends on where we choose the rotation axis.
- In rotational dynamics, the moment of inertia I appears in the same way that mass m does
in linear dynamics.
Chapter-3 Moment of Inertia and Centroid
- Solid disc or cylinder of mass M and radius R, about perpendicular axis through its
centre,
2
1
2
I MR =
- Solid sphere of mass Mand radius R, about an axis through its centre, I = 2/5 M R
2
- Thin rod of mass M and length L, about a perpendicular axis through
its centre.

2
1
12
I ML =
- Thin rod of mass M and length L, about a perpendicular axis through its
end.

2
1
3
I ML =
3.5 Area Moment of Inertia (MOI) or Second moment of area
- To find the centroid of an area by the first moment of the area
about an axis was determined ( x dA )
- Integral of the second moment of area is called moment of
inertia ( x
2
dA)
- Consider the area ( A )
- By definition, the moment of inertia of the differential area
about the x and y axes are dIxx and dIyy
- dIxx = y
2
dA Ixx = y
2
dA
- dIyy = x
2
dA Iyy = x
2
dA
3.6 Parallel axis theorem for an area
The rotational inertia about any axis is the sum of
second moment of inertia about a parallel axis
through the C.G and total area of the body times
square of the distance between the axes.
INN = ICG + Ah
2
3.7 Perpendicular axis theorem for an area
If x, y & z are mutually perpendicular axes as shown, then
( )
zz xx yy
I J I I = +
Z-axis is perpendicular to the plane of x y and vertical to this page as
shown in figure.
- To find the moment of inertia of the differential area about the pole (point of origin) or z-axis,
(r) is used. (r) is the perpendicular distance from the pole to dA for the entire area
J = r
2
dA = (x
2
+ y
2
)dA = Ixx + Iyy (since r
2
= x
2
+ y
2
)
Where, J = polar moment of inertia
3.8 Moments of Inertia (area) of some common area
(i) MOI of Rectangular area
Moment of inertia about axis XX which passes
through centroid.
Take an element of width dy at a distance y
from XX axis.
Area of the element (dA) = bdy.
and Moment of Inertia of the element about XX
axis
2 2
dA y b.y .dy = =
Total MOI about XX axis (Note it is area
moment of Inertia)

3 2 2
2 2
0
2
2
12
h h
xx
h
bh
I by dy by dy
+
= = =
) )
3
12
xx
bh
I =
Similarly, we may find,
3
12
yy
hb
I =
Polar moment of inertia (J) = Ixx + Iyy =
3 3
12 12
bh hb
+
If we want to know the MOI about an axis NN passing
through the bottom edge or top edge.
Axis XX and NN are parallel and at a distance h/2.
Therefore INN = Ixx + Area (distance)
2

2
3 3
12 2 3
bh h bh
b h
| |
= + =
|
\ .
Case-I: Square area
4
12
xx
a
I =
Case-II: Square area with diagonal as axis

4
12
xx
a
I =
Case-III: Rectangular area with a centrally
rectangular hole
Moment of inertia of the area = moment of inertia of BIG
rectangle moment of inertia of SMALL rectangle
3 3
12 12
xx
BH bh
I =
(ii) MOI of a Circular area
The moment of inertia about axis XX this passes through
the centroid. It is very easy to find polar moment of inertia
about point O. Take an element of width dr at a distance
r from centre. Therefore, the moment of inertia of this
element about polar axis
2
xx yy
2
d(J) = d(I + I ) = area of ring (radius)
or d(J) 2 rdr r t
=
4 4
3
0
4
Integrating both side we get
2
2 32
Due to summetry
Therefore,
2 64
R
xx yy
xx yy
R D
J r dr
I I
J D
I I
t t
t
t
= = =
=
= = =
)
4 4
and
64 32
xx yy
D D
I I J
t t
= = =
Case-I: Moment of inertia of a circular
area with a concentric hole.
Moment of inertia of the area = moment of inertia of
BIG circle moment of inertia of SMALL circle.
I
xx
= I
yy
=
4
64
D t

4
64
d t
4 4
4 4
( )
64
and ( )
32
D d
J D d
t
t
=
=
Case-II: Moment of inertia of a semi-
circular area.
4 4
1
of the momemt of total circular lamina
2
1
2 64 128
NN
I
D D t t
=
| |
= =
|
\ .
We know that distance of CG from base is
( )
4 2D
h say
3 3
r
t t
= =
i.e. distance of parallel axis XX and NN is (h)
According to parallel axis theory
( )
( )
2
4 2
2
4 2
Area distance
1
or
128 2 4
1 2
or
128 2 4 3
NN G
xx
xx
I I
D D
I h
D D D
I
t t
t t
t
= +
| |
= +
|
\ .
| |
| |
= +
|
|
\ .
\ .
or
4
0.11
xx
I R =
Case III: Quarter circle area
IXX = one half of the moment of Inertia of the Semi-
circular area about XX.
( )
4 4
1
0.11 0.055
2
XX
I R R = =

4
0.055
XX
I R =
INN = one half of the moment of Inertia of the Semi-
circular area about NN.
4 4
1
2 64 128
NN
D D
I
t t
= =
(iii) Moment of Inertia of a Triangular area
(a) Moment of Inertia of a Triangular area of
a axis XX parallel to base and passes through
C.G.
3
36
XX
bh
I =
(b) Moment of inertia of a triangle about an
axis passes through base
3
12
NN
bh
I =
(iv) Moment of inertia of a thin circular ring:
Polar moment of Inertia
( )
2
J R area of whole ring =

2 3
R 2 Rt 2 R t t t = =
3
2
XX YY
J
I I R t t = = =
(v) Moment of inertia of a elliptical area

3
4
XX
ab
I
t
=
Let us take an example: An I-section beam of 100 mm wide, 150 mm depth flange and web of
thickness 20 mm is used in a structure of length 5 m. Determine the Moment of Inertia (of area) of
cross-section of the beam.
Answer: Carefully observe the figure below. It has sections with symmetry about the neutral axis.
We may use standard value for a rectangle about an axis passes through centroid. i.e.
3
.
12
bh
I =
The section can thus be divided into convenient rectangles for each of which the neutral axis passes
the centroid.
( )
Re tan
3
3
4
-4 4
-
0.100 0.150
0.40 0.130
-2 m
12 12
1.183 10 m
Beam c gle Shaded area
I I I =
(
( =
(

=
3.9 Radius of gyration
Consider area A with moment of inertia Ixx. Imagine
that the area is concentrated in a thin strip parallel to
the x axis with equivalent Ixx.

2
xx xx
I k A = or
xx
xx
I
k
A
=
kxx =radius of gyration with respect to the x axis.
Similarly

2
yy yy
I k A = or
yy
yy
I
k
A
=
2
o
J k A = or o
J
k
A
=

2 2 2
o xx yy
k k k = +
Let us take an example: Find radius of gyration for a circular area of diameter d about central
axis.
Answer:
We know that,
2
xx xx
I K A =
or
4
2
64
4
4
XX
XX
d
I d
K
A d
t
t
= = =

Moment of Inertia (Second moment of an area)
GATE-1. The second moment of a circular area about the diameter is given by (D is the diameter)[GATE-
2003]
(a)
4
4
D t
(b)
4
16
D t
(c)
4
32
D t
(d)
4
64
D t

GATE-2. The area moment of inertia of a square of size 1 unit about its diagonal is:
[GATE-2001]
(a)
1
3
(b)
1
4
(c)
1
12
(d)
1
6

Radius of Gyration
Data for Q3Q4 are given below. Solve the problems and choose correct answers.
A reel of mass m and radius of gyration k is rolling down smoothly from rest with one end of the thread
wound on it held in the ceiling as depicted in the figure. Consider the thickness of the thread and its mass
negligible in comparison with the radius r of the hub and the reel mass m. Symbol g represents the
acceleration due to gravity. [GATE-2003]

GATE-3. The linear acceleration of the reel is:
(a)
( )
2
2 2
gr
r k +
(b)
( )
2
2 2
gk
r k +
(c)
( )
2 2
grk
r k +
(d)
( )
2
2 2
mgr
r k +

GATE-4. The tension in the thread is:
(a)
( )
2
2 2
mgr
r k +
(b)
( )
2 2
mgrk
r k +
(c)
( )
2
2 2
mgk
r k +
(d)
( )
2 2
mg
r k +

Centroid
IES-1. Assertion (A): Inertia force always acts through the centroid of the body and is directed opposite
to the acceleration of the centroid. [IES-2001]
Reason (R): It has always a tendency to retard the motion.
Radius of Gyration
IES-2. Figure shows a rigid body of mass m
having radius of gyration k about its
centre of gravity. It is to be replaced by
an equivalent dynamical system of two
masses placed at A and B. The mass at
A should be:
(a)
a m
a b
+
(b)
b m
a b
+

(c)
3
m a
b
(d)
2
m b
a

[IES-2003]
IES-3. Force required to accelerate a cylindrical body which rolls without slipping on a horizontal plane
(mass of cylindrical body is m, radius of the cylindrical surface in contact with plane is r, radius
of gyration of body is k and acceleration of the body is a) is: [IES-2001]
(a)
( )
2 2
/ 1 . m k r a + (b)
( )
2 2
/ . mk r a (c)
2
. mk a (d)
( )
2
/ 1 . mk r a +

IES-4. A body of mass m and radius of gyration k is to be replaced by two masses m1 and m2 located at
distances h1 and h2 from the CG of the original body. An equivalent dynamic system will result,
if [IES-2001]
(a)
1 2
h h k + = (b)
2 2 2
1 2
h h k + = (c)
2
1 2
h h k = (d)
2
1 2
hh k =
Radius of Gyration
IAS-1. A wheel of centroidal radius of gyration 'k' is rolling on a horizontal surface with constant
velocity. It comes across an obstruction of height 'h' Because of its rolling speed, it just
overcomes the obstruction. To determine v, one should use the principle (s) of conservation of
[IAS 1994]
(a) Energy (b) Linear momentum
(c) Energy and linear momentum (d) Energy and angular momentum

OBJECTIVE ANSWERS
GATE-1. Ans. (d)
GATE-2. Ans. (c)
( )
4
4
1
12 12
xx
a
I = =

GATE-3. Ans. (a) For downward linear motion mg T = mf, where f = linear tangential acceleration = r,
= rotational acceleration. Considering rotational motion . Tr Io =
or, T =
2
2
f
mk
r
therefore mg T = mf gives f =
( )
2
2 2
gr
r k +

GATE-4. Ans. (c)
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
f gr mgk
T mk mk
r r r k r k
= = =
+ +

IES-1. Ans. (c) It has always a tendency to oppose the motion not retard. If we want to retard a motion
then it will wand to accelerate.
IES-2. Ans. (b)
IES-3. Ans. (a)
IES-4. Ans. (c)
IAS-1. Ans. (a)

Question: When are I-sections preferred in engineering applications? Elaborate your answer.
Answer: I-section has large section modulus. It will reduce the stresses induced in the material. Since
I-section has the considerable area are far away from the natural so its section modulus
increased.

4. Bending Moment and Shear
Force Diagram
4.1 Shear Force and Bending Moment
At first we try to understand what shear force is and what is bending moment?
We will not introduce any other co-ordinate system.
We use general co-ordinate axis as shown in the
figure. This system will be followed in shear force and
bending moment diagram and in deflection of beam.
Here downward direction will be negative i.e.
negative Y-axis. Therefore downward deflection of the
beam will be treated as negative.
We use above Co-ordinate system
Some books fix a co-ordinate axis as shown in the
following figure. Here downward direction will be
positive i.e. positive Y-axis. Therefore downward
deflection of the beam will be treated as positive. As
beam is generally deflected in downward directions
and this co-ordinate system treats downward
deflection is positive deflection.
Some books use above co-ordinate system
Consider a cantilever beam as shown subjected to
external load P. If we imagine this beam to be cut by
a section X-X, we see that the applied force tend to
displace the left-hand portion of the beam relative to
the right hand portion, which is fixed in the wall.
This tendency is resisted by internal forces between
the two parts of the beam. At the cut section a
resistance shear force (Vx) and a bending moment
(Mx) is induced. This resistance shear force and the
bending moment at the cut section is shown in the
left hand and right hand portion of the cut beam.
Using the three equations of equilibrium
0 , 0 0
x y i
F F and M = = =
_ _ _
We find that
x
V P = and .
x
M P x =
In this chapter we want to show pictorially the
Chapter-4 Bending Moment and Shear Force Diagram S K Mondals
variation of shear force and bending moment in a
beam as a function of x' measured from one end of
the beam.

Shear Force (V) equal in magnitude but opposite in direction
to the algebraic sum (resultant) of the components in the
direction perpendicular to the axis of the beam of all external
loads and support reactions acting on either side of the section
being considered.
Bending Moment (M) equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction to the algebraic sum of the moments about (the
centroid of the cross section of the beam) the section of all
external loads and support reactions acting on either side of
the section being considered.
What are the benefits of drawing shear force and bending moment diagram?
The benefits of drawing a variation of shear force and bending moment in a beam as a function of x'
measured from one end of the beam is that it becomes easier to determine the maximum absolute
value of shear force and bending moment. The shear force and bending moment diagram gives a
clear picture in our mind about the variation of SF and BM throughout the entire section of the
beam.
Further, the determination of value of bending moment as a function of x' becomes very important
so as to determine the value of deflection of beam subjected to a given loading where we will use the
formula,
2
2 x
d y
EI M
dx
= .
4.2 Notation and sign convention
- Shear force (V)
Positive Shear Force
A shearing force having a downward direction to the right hand side of a section or upwards
to the left hand of the section will be taken as positive. It is the usual sign conventions to be
followed for the shear force. In some book followed totally opposite sign convention.
The upward direction shearing
force which is on the left hand
of the section XX is positive
shear force.
The downward direction
shearing force which is on the
right hand of the section XX is
positive shear force.
Negative Shear Force
A shearing force having an upward direction to the right hand side of a section or downwards
to the left hand of the section will be taken as negative.
The downward direction
shearing force which is on the
left hand of the section XX is
negative shear force.
The upward direction shearing
force which is on the right
hand of the section XX is
negative shear force.
- Bending Moment (M)
Positive Bending Moment
A bending moment causing concavity upwards will be taken as positive and called as
sagging bending moment.
Sagging
If the bending moment of
the left hand of the section
XX is clockwise then it is a
positive bending moment.
the right hand of the
section XX is anti-
clockwise then it is a
A bending moment causing
concavity upwards will be
taken as positive and
called as sagging bending
moment.
Negative Bending Moment
Hogging
the left hand of the
section XX is anti-
clockwise then it is a
the right hand of the
section XX is clockwise
then it is a positive
bending moment.
A bending moment causing
convexity upwards will be
taken as negative and called
as hogging bending moment.
Way to remember sign convention
- Remember in the Cantilever beam both Shear force and BM are negative (ive).
4.3 Relation between S.F (V
x
), B.M. (M
x
) & Load (w)
-
x
dV
= -w (load)
dx
The value of the distributed load at any point in the beam is
equal to the slope of the shear force curve. (Note that the sign of this rule may change
depending on the sign convention used for the external distributed load).
-
x
x
dM
= V
dx
The value of the shear force at any point in the beam is equal to the slope
of the bending moment curve.
4.4 Procedure for drawing shear force and bending moment diagram
Construction of shear force diagram
- From the loading diagram of the beam constructed shear force diagram.
- First determine the reactions.
- Then the vertical components of forces and reactions are successively summed from the left
end of the beam to preserve the mathematical sign conventions adopted. The shear at a
section is simply equal to the sum of all the vertical forces to the left of the section.
- The shear force curve is continuous unless there is a point force on the beam. The curve then
jumps by the magnitude of the point force (+ for upward force).
- When the successive summation process is used, the shear force diagram should end up with
the previously calculated shear (reaction at right end of the beam). No shear force acts
through the beam just beyond the last vertical force or reaction. If the shear force diagram
closes in this fashion, then it gives an important check on mathematical calculations. i.e. The
shear force will be zero at each end of the beam unless a point force is applied at the end.
Construction of bending moment diagram
- The bending moment diagram is obtained by proceeding continuously along the length of
beam from the left hand end and summing up the areas of shear force diagrams using proper
sign convention.
- The process of obtaining the moment diagram from the shear force diagram by summation is
exactly the same as that for drawing shear force diagram from load diagram.
- The bending moment curve is continuous unless there is a point moment on the beam. The
curve then jumps by the magnitude of the point moment (+ for CW moment).
- We know that a constant shear force produces a uniform change in the bending moment,
resulting in straight line in the moment diagram. If no shear force exists along a certain
portion of a beam, then it indicates that there is no change in moment takes place. We also
know that dM/dx= Vx therefore, from the fundamental theorem of calculus the maximum or
minimum moment occurs where the shear is zero.
- The bending moment will be zero at each free or pinned end of the beam. If the end is built
in, the moment computed by the summation must be equal to the one calculated initially for
the reaction.
4.5 Different types of Loading and their S.F & B.M Diagram
(i) A Cantilever beam with a concentrated load P at its free end.
Shear force:
At a section a distance x from free end consider the forces to
the left, then (Vx) = - P (for all values of x) negative in sign
i.e. the shear force to the left of the x-section are in downward
direction and therefore negative.
Bending Moment:
Taking moments about the section gives (obviously to the left
of the section) Mx = -P.x (negative sign means that the
moment on the left hand side of the portion is in the
anticlockwise direction and is therefore taken as negative
according to the sign convention) so that the maximum
bending moment occurs at the fixed end i.e. Mmax = - PL
(at x = L)
S.F and B.M diagram
(ii) A Cantilever beam with uniformly distributed load over the whole length
When a cantilever beam is subjected to a uniformly
distributed load whose intensity is given w /unit length.
Shear force:
Consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance of x from
the free end. If we just take the resultant of all the forces on
the left of the X-section, then
Vx = -w.x for all values of x'.
At x = 0, Vx = 0
At x = L, Vx = -wL (i.e. Maximum at fixed end)
Plotting the equation Vx = -w.x, we get a straight line
because it is a equation of a straight line y (Vx) = m(- w) .x
Bending Moment:
Bending Moment at XX is obtained by treating the load to the
left of XX as a concentrated load of the same value (w.x)
acting through the centre of gravity at x/2.
S.F and B.M diagram
Therefore, the bending moment at any cross-section XX is
( ) = =
2
.
. .
2 2
x
x w x
M w x
Therefore the variation of bending moment is according to parabolic law.
The extreme values of B.M would be
at x = 0, Mx = 0
and x = L, Mx =
2
2
wL

Maximum bending moment, =
2
max
wL
2
M at fixed end
Another way to describe a cantilever beam with uniformly distributed load (UDL) over its whole
length.
(iii) A Cantilever beam loaded as shown below draw its S.F and B.M diagram
In the region 0 < x < a
Following the same rule as followed previously, we get
x x
V =- P; and M = - P.x
In the region a < x < L
( )
x x
V =- P+P=0; and M = - P.x +P . x a P a =
S.F and B.M diagram
(iv) Let us take an example: Consider a cantilever bean of 5 m length. It carries a uniformly
distributed load 3 KN/m and a concentrated load of 7 kN at the free end and 10 kN at 3 meters from
the fixed end.
Draw SF and BM diagram.
Answer: In the region 0 < x < 2 m
Consider any cross section XX at a distance x from free end.
Shear force (Vx) = -7- 3x
So, the variation of shear force is linear.
at x = 0, Vx = -7 kN
at x = 2 m , Vx = -7 - 32 = -13 kN
at point Z Vx = -7 -32-10 = -23 kN
Bending moment (Mx) = -7x - (3x).
2
x 3x
7x
2 2
=
So, the variation of bending force is parabolic.
at x = 0, Mx = 0
at x = 2 m, Mx = -72 (32)
2
2
= - 20 kNm
In the region 2 m < x < 5 m
Consider any cross section YY at a distance x from free
end
Shear force (Vx) = -7 - 3x 10 = -17- 3x
So, the variation of shear force is linear.
at x = 2 m, Vx = - 23 kN
at x = 5 m, Vx = - 32 kN
Bending moment (Mx) = - 7x (3x)
x
2
| |
|
\ .
- 10 (x - 2)
2
3
x 17 20
2
x = +
So, the variation of bending force is parabolic.
at x = 2 m, Mx
2
3
2 17 2 20
2
= + = - 20 kNm
at x = 5 m, Mx = - 102.5 kNm
(v) A Cantilever beam carrying uniformly varying load from zero at free end and w/unit
length at the fixed end
Consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance of x from the free end.
At this point load (wx) =
w
.x
L
Therefore total load (W)
L L
x
0 0
wL
w dx .xdx =
L 2
w
= =
) )
( ) =
| |
= =
|
\ .
= =
2
max
area of ABC (load triangle)
1 w wx
. x .x
2 2L
The shear force variation is parabolic.
at x = 0, V 0
WL WL
at x = L, V i.e. Maximum Shear force (V ) at fi
2 2
x
x
L
x
Shear force V
xed end
( ) =
| |
= =
|
\ .
=
= =
2 3
2 2
max
load distance from centroid of triangle ABC
wx 2x wx
.
2L 3 6L
The bending moment variation is cubic.
at x= 0, M 0
wL wL
at x = L, M i.e. Maximum Bending moment (M ) at fi
6 6
x
x
x
Bending moment M
xed end.
( )
( )
= =
=
x
Integration method
d V
w
We know that load .x
dx L
w
or d(V ) .x .dx
L
x
Alternative way :
( )
V x
0 0
2
Integrating both side
w
d V . x .dx
L
w x
or V .
L 2
x
x
x
=
=
) )
( )
( )
2
x
x
2
x
Again we know that
d M
wx
V -
dx 2L
wx
or d M - dx
2L
= =
=
( )
x
M
2
x
0 0
3 3
x
Integrating both side we get at x=0,M =0
wx
d(M ) .dx
2L
w x wx
or M - -
2L 3 6L
x x
=
= =
) )
(vi) A Cantilever beam carrying gradually varying load from zero at fixed end and
w/unit length at the free end
Considering equilibrium we get, ( )
2
A A
wL wL
M and Reaction R
3 2
= =
Considering any cross-section XX which is at a distance of x from the fixed end.
At this point load
W
(W ) .x
L
x
=
Shear force ( ) =
A
R area of triangle ANM
x
V

2
x max
x
wL 1 w wL wx
- . .x .x = + -
2 2 L 2 2L
wL wL
at x 0, V i.e. Maximum shear force, V
2 2
at x L, V 0
| |
=
|
\ .
= = + = +
= =
Bending moment ( )
2
A A
wx 2x
=R .x - . - M
2L 3
x
M

( )
3 2
2 2
max
x
wL wx wL
= .x - -
2 6L 3
The bending moment variation is cubic
wL wL
at x = 0, M i.e.Maximum B.M. M .
3 3
at x L, M 0
x
= =
= =
(vii) A Cantilever beam carrying a moment M at free end
Consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance of x from the free end.
Shear force: Vx = 0 at any point.
Bending moment (Mx) = -M at any point, i.e. Bending moment is constant throughout the
length.
(viii) A Simply supported beam with a concentrated load P at its mid span.
Considering equilibrium we get,
A B
P
R = R =
2
Now consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance of x from left end A and section YY at
a distance from left end A, as shown in figure below.
Shear force: In the region 0 < x < L/2
Vx = RA = + P/2 (it is constant)
In the region L/2 < x < L
Vx = RA P =
2
P
- P = - P/2 (it is constant)
Bending moment: In the region 0 < x < L/2
Mx =
P
2
.x (its variation is linear)
at x = 0, Mx = 0 and at x = L/2 Mx =
PL
4
i.e. maximum
Maximum bending moment, =
max
PL
4
M at x = L/2 (at mid-point)
Mx =
2
P
.x P(x - L/2) =
PL
2
P
2
.x (its variation is linear)
at x = L/2 , Mx =
PL
4
and at x = L, Mx = 0
(ix) A Simply supported beam with a concentrated load P is not at its mid span.
Considering equilibrium we get, RA =
B
Pb Pa
and R =
L L
Now consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance x from left end A and another section
YY at a distance x from end A as shown in figure below.
Shear force: In the range 0 < x < a
Vx = RA = +
Pb
L
(it is constant)
In the range a < x < L
Vx = RA - P = -
Pa
L
(it is constant)
Bending moment: In the range 0 < x < a
Mx = +RA.x =
Pb
L
.x (it is variation is linear)
at x = 0, Mx = 0 and at x = a, Mx =
Pab
L
(i.e. maximum)
In the range a < x < L
Mx = RA.x P(x- a) =
Pb
L
.x P.x + Pa (Put b = L - a)
= Pa (1 -
x
1
L
Pa
| |
|
\ .
)
at x = a, Mx =
Pab
L
(x) A Simply supported beam with two concentrated load P from a distance a both end.
The loading is shown below diagram
Take a section at a distance x from the left support. This section is applicable for any value of x just
to the left of the applied force P. The shear, remains constant and is +P. The bending moment varies
linearly from the support, reaching a maximum of +Pa.
A section applicable anywhere between the two applied forces. Shear force is not necessary to
maintain equilibrium of a segment in this part of the beam. Only a constant bending moment of +Pa
must be resisted by the beam in this zone.
Such a state of bending or flexure is called pure bending.
Shear and bending-moment diagrams for this loading condition are shown below.
(xi) A Simply supported beam with a uniformly distributed load (UDL) through out its
length
We will solve this problem by following two alternative ways.
(a) By Method of Section
Considering equilibrium we get RA = RB =
wL
2
Now Consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance x from left end A.
Then the section view
Shear force: Vx =
wL
wx
2
(i.e. S.F. variation is linear)

at x = 0, Vx =
wL
2
at x = L/2, Vx = 0
at x = L, Vx = -
wL
2
Bending moment:
2
.
2 2
x
wL wx
M x =
(i.e. B.M. variation is parabolic)
at x = 0, Mx = 0
at x = L, Mx = 0
Now we have to determine maximum bending
moment and its position.
For maximum B.M:
( ) ( )
0 . . 0
x x
x x
d M d M
i e V V
dx dx
(
= = =
(

or 0
2 2
wL L
wx or x = =
Therefore, maximum bending moment, =
2
max
8
wL
M at x = L/2
(a) By Method of Integration
Shear force:
We know that,
( )
x
d V
w
dx
=
( )
x
or d V wdx =
Integrating both side we get (at x =0, Vx =
2
wL
)
( )
0
2
2
2
x
V x
x
wL
x
x
d V wdx
wL
or V wx
wL
or V wx
+
=
=
=
) )
Bending moment:
We know that,
( )
x
x
d M
V
dx
=
( )
2
x x
wL
or d M V dx wx dx
| |
= =
|
\ .
Integrating both side we get (at x =0, Vx =0)
( )
0
2
2
.
2 2
x
M x
x
o
x
wL
d M wx dx
wL wx
or M x
| |
=
|
\ .
=
) )
Let us take an example: A loaded beam as shown below. Draw its S.F and B.M diagram.
Considering equilibrium we get
( )
A
B
M 0 gives
- 200 4 2 3000 4 R 8 0
R 1700N
B
or
=
+ =
=
_
A B
A
R R 200 4 3000
R 2100N
And
or
+ = +
=
Now consider any cross-section which is at a distance 'x' from left end A and
as shown in figure
XX
In the region 0 < x < 4m
Shear force (Vx) = RA 200x = 2100 200 x
Bending moment (Mx) = RA .x 200 x .
x
2
| |
|
\ .
= 2100 x -100 x
2
at x = 0, Vx = 2100 N, Mx = 0
at x = 4m, Vx = 1300 N, Mx = 6800 N.m
In the region 4 m< x < 8 m
Shear force (Vx) = RA - 200 4 3000 = -1700
Bending moment (Mx) = RA. x - 2004 (x-2) 3000 (x- 4)
= 2100 x 800 x + 1600 3000x +12000 = 13600 -1700 x
at x = 4 m, Vx = -1700 N, Mx = 6800 Nm
at x = 8 m, Vx = -1700 N, Mx = 0
(xii) A Simply supported beam with a gradually varying load (GVL) zero at one end and
w/unit length at other span.
Consider equilibrium of the beam =
1
wL
2
acting at a point C at a distance 2L/3 to the left end A.
B
A
A
B
A
M 0 gives
wL L
R .L - . 0
2 3
wL
or R
6
wL
Similarly M 0 gives R
3
=
=
=
= =
_
_
The free body diagram of section A - XX as shown below, Load at section XX, (wx) =
w
x
L
The resulted of that part of the distributed load which acts on this free body is ( )
2
1 w wx
x . x
2 L 2L
= =
applied at a point Z, distance x/3 from XX section.
Shear force (Vx) =
2 2
A
wx wL wx
R - -
2L 6 2L
=
Therefore the variation of shear force is parabolic
at x = 0, Vx =
wL
6
at x = L, Vx = -
wL
3
= =
2 3
wL wx x wL wx
and .x . .x
6 2L 3 6 6L
x
Bending Moment (M )
The variation of BM is cubic
at x = 0, Mx = 0
at x = L, Mx = 0
For maximum BM;
( ) ( )
x x
x x
d M d M
0 i.e. V 0 V
dx dx
(
= = =
(

2
3
2
max
wL wx L
or - 0 or x
6 2L
3
wL L w L wL
and M
6 6L
3 3 9 3
= =
| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .
i.e. =
2
max
wL
M
9 3
L
at x
3
=
(xiii) A Simply supported beam with a gradually varying load (GVL) zero at each end and
w/unit length at mid span.
Consider equilibrium of the beam AB total load on the beam
1 L wL
2 w
2 2 2
| |
= =
|
\ .
A B
wL
Therefore R R
4
= =
The free body diagram of section A XX as shown below, load at section XX (wx)
2w
.x
L
=
The resultant of that part of the distributed load which acts on this free body is
2
1 2w wx
.x. .x
2 L L
= =
applied at a point, distance x/3 from section XX.
Shear force (Vx):
In the region 0 < x < L/2
( )
2 2
x A
wx wL wx
V R
L 4 L
= =
Therefore the variation of shear force is parabolic.
at x = 0, Vx =
wL
4
at x = L/4, Vx = 0
In the region of L/2 < x < L
The Diagram will be Mirror image of AC.
Bending moment (Mx):
( )
3
x
wL 1 2wx wL wx
M .x .x. . x / 3 -
4 2 L 4 3L
| |
= =
|
\ .
at x = 0, Mx = 0
at x = L/2, Mx =
2
wL
12
BM diagram will be mirror image of AC.
For maximum bending moment
( ) ( )
x x
x x
d M d M
0 i.e. V 0 V
dx dx
(
= = =
(

2
2
max
wL wx L
or - 0 or x
4 L 2
wL
and M
12
= =
=
i.e. =
2
max
wL
M
12
L
at x
2
=
(xiv) A Simply supported beam with a gradually varying load (GVL) zero at mid span and
w/unit length at each end.
We now superimpose two beams as
(1) Simply supported beam with a UDL
through at its length

( )
( )
x
1
2
x
1
wL
V wx
2
wL wx
M .x
2 2
=
=
And (2) a simply supported beam with a gradually varying load (GVL) zero at each end and w/unit
length at mind span.
In the range 0 < x < L/2
( )
( )
2
x
2
3
x
2
wL wx
V
4 L
wL wx
M .x
4 3L
=
=
Now superimposing we get
Shear force (Vx):
In the region of 0< x < L/2
( ) ( )
( )
2
x x x
1 2
2
wL wL wx
V V V -wx -
2 4 L
w
x - L/2
L
| |
| |
= =
| |
\ .
\ .
=
Therefore the variation of shear force is parabolic
at x = 0, Vx = +
wL
4
at x = L/2, Vx = 0
The diagram will be mirror image of AC
Bending moment (Mx) = ( )
x
1
M - ( )
x
2
M =
| | | |
= = +
| |
\ . \ .
2 3 3 2
wL wx wL wx wx wx wL
.x .x .x
2 2 4 3L 3L 2 4
x
2
x
at x 0, M 0
wx
at x L / 2, M
24
= =
= =
(xv) A simply supported beam with a gradually varying load (GVL) w1/unit length at one
end and w2/unit length at other end.
At first we will treat this problem by considering a UDL of identifying (w1)/unit length over the
whole length and a varying load of zero at one end to (w2- w1)/unit length at the other end. Then
superimpose the two loadings.
Consider a section XX at a distance x from left end A
(i) Simply supported beam with UDL (w1) over whole length
( )
( )
1
x 1
1
2 1
x 1
1
w L
V w x
2
w L 1
M .x w x
2 2
=
=
And (ii) simply supported beam with (GVL) zero at one end (w2- w1) at other end gives
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
2
2 1 2 1
2
3
2 1
2 1
2
6 2
. .
6 6
x
x
w w w w x
V
L
w w x
L
M w w x
L

=
=
Now superimposing we get
Shear force( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) = =
2
1 2
x x 1 2 1
1 2
w L w L x
V + V + w x w w
3 6 2L
x
V
The SF variation is parabolic
( )
( )
1 2
x 1 2
x 1 2
w L w L L
at x 0, V 2w w
3 6 6
L
at x L, V w 2w
6
= = + = +
= = +
Bending moment ( ) ( ) ( )
| |
= + = +
|
\ .
2 3 1 1 2 1
x x 1
1 2
w L w L w -w 1
M M .x .x w x .x
3 6 2 6L
x
M
The BM variation is cubic.
x
x
at x 0, M 0
at x L, M 0
= =
= =
(xvi) A Simply supported beam carrying a continuously distributed load. The intensity of
the load at any point is,
t | |
=
|
\ .
sin
x
x
w w
L
. Where x is the distance from each end of
the beam.
We will use Integration method as it is easier in this case.
We know that
( ) ( )
x x
x
d V d M
load and V
dx dx
= =
( )
( )
t
t
| |
=
|
\ .
| |
=
|
\ .
x
x
d V
Therefore sin
dx L
d V sin dx
L
x
w
x
w
( )
| |
t
t t
t
t
| |
|
| | | |
\ .
= = + + = + +
| |
\ . \ .
=
) ) x x
x
wcos
x wL x L
d V w sin dx or V A cos
L L
L
where, constant of Integration
A
A
( )
( )
t
t
t
t t
t
t
| |
= = = +
`
|
\ . )
| |
|
| |
\ .
= + = +
|
\ .
x
x x x
2
x 2
Again we know that
d M
wL x
V or d M V dx cos dx
dx L
Integrating both sidewe get
wL x
sin
wL x L
M x + B sin x + B
L
L
A
A A
[Where B = constant of Integration]
Now apply boundary conditions
At x = 0, Mx = 0 and at x = L, Mx = 0
This gives A = 0 and B = 0
( )
x max
2
x 2
2
max 2
wL x wL
Shear force V cos and V at x 0
L
wL x
And M sin
L
wL
M at x = L/2
t
t t
t
t
t
| |
= = =
|
\ .
| |
=
|
\ .
=
(xvii) A Simply supported beam with a couple or moment at a distance a from left end.
A
B B
B
A A
M 0 gives
M
R L+M 0 R
L
and M 0 gives
M
R L+M 0 R
L
or
or
=
= =
=
= =
_
_
Now consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance x from left end A and another section YY
at a distance x from left end A as shown in figure.
In the region 0 < x < a
Shear force (Vx) = RA =
M
L
Bending moment (Mx) = RA.x =
M
L
.x
In the region a< x < L
Shear force (Vx) = RA =
M
L
Bending moment (Mx) = RA.x M =
M
L
.x - M
(xviii) A Simply supported beam with an eccentric load
When the beam is subjected to an eccentric load, the eccentric load is to be changed into a couple =
Force(distance travel by force)
= P.a (in this case) and a force = P
Therefore equivalent load diagram will be
Considering equilibrium
A
M 0 gives =
_
-P.(L/2) + P.a + RB L = 0
or RB =
P P.a
2 L
and RA + RB = P gives RA =
P P.a
2 L
+
Now consider any cross-section XX which is at a distance x from left end A and another section YY
at a distance x from left end A as shown in figure.
Shear force (Vx) =
P P.a
2 L
+
Bending moment (Mx) = RA . x =
P Pa
2 L
| |
+
|
\ .
. x
Shear force (Vx) =
P Pa P Pa
P = -
2 L 2 L
+ +
Bending moment (Vx) = RA . x P.( x - L/2 ) M
=
PL P Pa
.x - Pa
2 2 L
| |

|
\ .
4.6 Bending Moment diagram of Statically Indeterminate beam
Beams for which reaction forces and internal forces cannot be found out from static equilibrium
equations alone are called statically indeterminate beam. This type of beam requires deformation
equation in addition to static equilibrium equations to solve for unknown forces.
Statically determinate - Equilibrium conditions sufficient to compute reactions.
Statically indeterminate - Deflections (Compatibility conditions) along with equilibrium equations
should be used to find out reactions.
Type of Loading & B.M Diagram Reaction Bending Moment
RA= RB =
P
2
MA = MB =
PL
-
8
RA = RB =
wL
2
MA= MB =
2
wL
-
12
2
A 3
2
3
R (3 )
(3 )
B
Pb
a b
L
Pa
R b a
L
= +
= +
MA = -
2
2
Pab
L
MB = -
2
2
Pa b
L
RA= RB =
3
16
wL
Rc =
5
8
wL
R
A
R
B
+
-
-
4.7 Load and Bending Moment diagram from Shear Force diagram
OR
Load and Shear Force diagram from Bending Moment diagram
If S.F. Diagram for a beam is given, then
(i) If S.F. diagram consists of rectangle then the load will be point load
(ii) If S.F diagram consists of inclined line then the load will be UDL on that portion
(iii) If S.F diagram consists of parabolic curve then the load will be GVL
(iv) If S.F diagram consists of cubic curve then the load distribute is parabolic.
After finding load diagram we can draw B.M diagram easily.
If B.M Diagram for a beam is given, then
(i) If B.M diagram consists of inclined line then the load will be free point load
(ii) If B.M diagram consists of parabolic curve then the load will be U.D.L.
(iii) If B.M diagram consists of cubic curve then the load will be G.V.L.
(iv) If B.M diagram consists of fourth degree polynomial then the load distribution is
parabolic.
Let us take an example: Following is the S.F diagram of a beam is given. Find its loading
diagram.
Answer: From A-E inclined straight line so load will be UDL and in AB = 2 m length load = 6 kN if
UDL is w N/m then w.x = 6 or w2 = 6 or w = 3 kN/m after that S.F is constant so no force is
there. At last a 6 kN for vertical force complete the diagram then the load diagram will be
As there is no support at left end it must be a cantilever beam.
4.8 Point of Contraflexure
In a beam if the bending moment changes sign at a point, the point itself having zero bending
moment, the beam changes curvature at this point of zero bending moment and this point is called
the point of contra flexure.
Consider a loaded beam as shown below along with the B.M diagrams and deflection diagram.
In this diagram we noticed that for the beam loaded as in this case, the bending moment diagram is
partly positive and partly negative. In the deflected shape of the beam just below the bending
moment diagram shows that left hand side of the beam is sagging' while the right hand side of the
beam is hogging.
The point C on the beam where the curvature changes from sagging to hogging is a point of
contraflexure.
- There can be more than one point of contraflexure in a beam.
4.9 General expression
- EI
4
2
e =
d y
dx
-
3
3 x
d y
EI V
dx
=
-
2
2 x
d y
EI M
dx
=
-
dy
= = slope
dx
- y=o = Deflection
- Flexural rigidity = EI

Shear Force (S.F.) and Bending Moment (B.M.)
GATE-1. A concentrated force, F is applied (perpendicular to
the plane of the figure) on the tip of the bent bar
shown in Figure. The equivalent load at a section
close to the fixed end is:
(a) Force F
(b) Force F and bending moment FL
(c) Force F and twisting moment FL
(d) Force F bending moment F L, and twisting
moment FL

[GATE-1999]

GATE-2. The shear force in a beam subjected to pure positive bending is (positive/zero/negative)
[GATE-1995]
Cantilever
GATE-3. Two identical cantilever beams are supported as shown, with their free ends in contact through
a rigid roller. After the load P is applied, the free ends will have [GATE-2005]

(a) Equal deflections but not equal slopes
(b) Equal slopes but not equal deflections
(c) Equal slopes as well as equal deflections
(d) Neither equal slopes nor equal deflections

GATE-4. A beam is made up of two identical
bars AB and BC, by hinging them
together at B. The end A is built-in
(cantilevered) and the end C is
simply-supported. With the load P
acting as shown, the bending
moment at A is:

[GATE-2005]
(a) Zero (b)
PL
2
(c)
3PL
2
(d) Indeterminate
Cantilever with Uniformly Distributed Load
GATE-5. The shapes of the bending moment diagram for a uniform cantilever beam carrying a uniformly
distributed load over its length is: [GATE-2001]
(a) A straight line (b) A hyperbola (c) An ellipse (d) A parabola
Cantilever Carrying load Whose Intensity varies
GATE-6. A cantilever beam carries the anti-
symmetric load shown, where o is the
peak intensity of the distributed load.
Qualitatively, the correct bending
moment diagram for this beam is:

[GATE-2005]

Simply Supported Beam Carrying Concentrated Load
GATE-7. A concentrated load of P acts on a simply supported beam of span L at a distance
3
L
from the
left support. The bending moment at the point of application of the load is given by[GATE-2003]

2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3 3 9 9
PL PL PL PL
a b c d

GATE-8. A simply supported beam carries a load 'P'
through a bracket, as shown in Figure. The
maximum bending moment in the beam is
(a) PI/2 (b) PI/2 + aP/2
(c) PI/2 + aP (d) PI/2 aP

[GATE-2000]
Simply Supported Beam Carrying a Uniformly Distributed
Load
Statement for Linked Answer and Questions Q9-Q10:
A mass less beam has a loading pattern as shown in the figure. The beam is of rectangular cross-section
with a width of 30 mm and height of 100 mm. [GATE-2010]

GATE-9. The maximum bending moment occurs at
(a) Location B (b) 2675 mm to the right of A
(c) 2500 mm to the right of A (d) 3225 mm to the right of A

GATE-10. The maximum magnitude of bending stress (in MPa) is given by
(a) 60.0 (b) 67.5 (c) 200.0 (d) 225.0

Data for Q11-Q12 are given below. Solve the problems and choose correct answers
A steel beam of breadth 120 mm and height
750 mm is loaded as shown in the figure.
Assume Esteel= 200 GPa.

[GATE-2004]
GATE-11. The beam is subjected to a maximum bending moment of
(a) 3375 kNm (b) 4750 kNm (c) 6750 kNm (d) 8750 kNm

GATE-12. The value of maximum deflection of the beam is:
(a) 93.75 mm (b) 83.75 mm (c) 73.75 mm (d) 63.75 mm

Statement for Linked Answer and Questions Q13-Q14:
A simply supported beam of span length 6m and 75mm diameter carries a uniformly distributed load of 1.5
kN/m [GATE-2006]

GATE-13. What is the maximum value of bending moment?
(a) 9 kNm (b) 13.5 kNm (c) 81 kNm (d) 125 kNm

GATE-14. What is the maximum value of bending stress?
(a) 162.98 MPa (b) 325.95 MPa (c) 625.95 Mpa (d) 651.90 Mpa
Simply Supported Beam Carrying a Load whose Intensity
varies Uniformly from Zero at each End to w per Unit Run
at the MiD Span
GATE-15. A simply supported beam is
subjected to a distributed loading
as shown in the diagram given
below:
What is the maximum shear force
in the beam?
(a) WL/3 (b) WL/2
(c) WL/3 (d) WL/6

[IES-2004]
GATE-16. A simply supported beam of length 'l' is subjected to a symmetrical uniformly varying load with
zero intensity at the ends and intensity w (load per unit length) at the mid span. What is the
maximum bending moment? [IAS-2004]
(a)
2
3
8
wl
(b)
2
12
wl
(c)
2
24
wl
(d)
2
5
12
wl

IES-1. A lever is supported on two hinges at
A and C. It carries a force of 3 kN as
shown in the above figure. The
bending moment at B will be
(a) 3 kN-m (b) 2 kN-m
(c) 1 kN-m (d) Zero

[IES-1998]
IES-2. A beam subjected to a load P is shown in the
given figure. The bending moment at the support
AA of the beam will be
(a) PL (b) PL/2
(c) 2PL (d) zero

[IES-1997]
IES-3. The bending moment (M) is constant over a length segment (I) of a beam. The shearing force
will also be constant over this length and is given by [IES-1996]
(a) M/l (b) M/2l (c) M/4l (d) None of the above

IES-4. A rectangular section beam subjected to a bending moment M varying along its length is
required to develop same maximum bending stress at any cross-section. If the depth of the
section is constant, then its width will vary as [IES-1995]
(a) M (b) M (c) M
2
(d) 1/M

If at a section distant from one of the ends of the beam, M represents the bending moment. V
the shear force and w the intensity of loading, then
1. dM/dx = V 2. dV/dx = w
3. dw/dx = y (the deflection of the beam at the section)
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

IES-5a Shear force and bending
moment diagrams for a
beam ABCD are shown
in figure. It can be
concluded that
(a) The beam has
three supports
(b) End A is fixed
(c) A couple of 2000
Nm acts at C
(d) A uniformly
distributed load
is confined to
portion BC only

300 N
200 N
10 m 25 m
A D
B C

3000 Nm
10 m 10 m 15 m
1000 Nm
3000 Nm
A
B C D

[IES-2010]
Cantilever
IES-6. The given figure shows a beam BC simply supported at C and hinged at B (free end) of a
cantilever AB. The beam and the cantilever carry forces of

100 kg and 200 kg respectively. The bending moment at B is: [IES-1995]
(a) Zero (b) 100 kg-m (c) 150 kg-m (d) 200 kg-m

IES-7. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:
[IES-1993, 2011]
List-I List-II
(Condition of beam) (Bending moment diagram)
A. Subjected to bending moment at the 1. Triangle
end of a cantilever
B. Cantilever carrying uniformly distributed 2. Cubic parabola
load over the whole length
C. Cantilever carrying linearly varying load 3. Parabola
from zero at the fixed end to maximum at
the support
D. A beam having load at the centre and 4. Rectangle
supported at the ends
(a) 4 1 2 3 (b) 4 3 2 1
(c) 3 4 2 1 (d) 3 4 1 2

IES-8. If the shear force acting at every section of a beam is of the same magnitude and of the same
direction then it represents a [IES-1996]
(a) Simply supported beam with a concentrated load at the centre.
(b) Overhung beam having equal overhang at both supports and carrying equal concentrated
loads acting in the same direction at the free ends.
(c) Cantilever subjected to concentrated load at the free end.
(d) Simply supported beam having concentrated loads of equal magnitude and in the same
direction acting at equal distances from the supports.
IES-9. A uniformly distributed load e (in kN/m) is acting over the entire length of a 3 m long
cantilever beam. If the shear force at the midpoint of cantilever is 6 kN, what is the value of e ?
[IES-2009]
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 5

IES-10. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the code given below the Lists:
[IES-2009]

Code: A B C D A B C D
(a) 1 5 2 4 (b) 4 5 2 3
(c) 1 3 4 5 (d) 4 2 5 3

IES-11. The shearing force diagram for a beam
is shown in the above figure. The
bending moment diagram is
represented by which one of the
following?

[IES-2008]

IES-12. A cantilever beam having 5 m length is so loaded that it develops a shearing force of 20T and a
bending moment of 20 T-m at a section 2m from the free end. Maximum shearing force and
maximum bending moment developed in the beam under this load are respectively 50 T and 125
T-m. The load on the beam is: [IES-1995]
(a) 25 T concentrated load at free end
(b) 20T concentrated load at free end
(c) 5T concentrated load at free end and 2 T/m load over entire length
(d) 10 T/m udl over entire length
Cantilever Carrying Uniformly Distributed Load for a Part
of its Length
IES-13. A vertical hanging bar of length L and weighing w N/ unit length carries a load W at the
bottom. The tensile force in the bar at a distance Y from the support will be given by[IES-1992]
( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( ) a b ( ) c / d ( )
W
W wL W w L y W w y L W L y
w
+ + + +
IES-14. A cantilever beam of 2m length supports a triangularly distributed load over its entire length,
the maximum of which is at the free end. The total load is 37.5 kN.What is the bending moment
at the fixed end? [IES 2007]
(a) 5010
6
N mm (b) 12.5 10
6
N mm (c) 100 10
6
N mm (d) 2510
6
N mm
IES-15. Assertion (A): If the bending moment along the length of a beam is constant, then the beam
cross section will not experience any shear stress. [IES-1998]
Reason (R): The shear force acting on the beam will be zero everywhere along the length.

IES-16. Assertion (A): If the bending moment diagram is a rectangle, it indicates that the beam is
loaded by a uniformly distributed moment all along the length.
Reason (R): The BMD is a representation of internal forces in the beam and not the moment
applied on the beam. [IES-2002]

IES-17. The maximum bending moment in a simply supported beam of length L loaded by a
concentrated load W at the midpoint is given by [IES-1996]
(a) WL (b)
2
WL
(c)
4
WL
(d)
8
WL

IES-18. A simply supported beam is loaded as
shown in the above figure. The
maximum shear force in the beam
will be
(a) Zero (b) W
(c) 2W (d) 4W

[IES-1998]
IES-19. If a beam is subjected to a constant bending moment along its length, then the shear force will
[IES-1997]
(a) Also have a constant value everywhere along its length
(b) Be zero at all sections along the beam
(c) Be maximum at the centre and zero at the ends (d) zero at the centre and maximum at
the ends

IES-20. A loaded beam is shown in the
figure. The bending moment
diagram of the beam is best
represented as:

[IES-2000]

IES-21. A simply supported beam has equal over-hanging lengths and carries equal concentrated loads
P at ends. Bending moment over the length between the supports [IES-2003]
(a) Is zero (b) Is a non-zero constant
(c) Varies uniformly from one support to the other (d) Is maximum at mid-span

IES-22. The bending moment diagram for the case shown below will be q as shown in

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

[IES-1992]
IES-23. Which one of the following
portions of the loaded beam
shown in the given figure is
subjected to pure bending?
(a) AB (b)DE
(c) AE (d) BD

[IES-1999]

IES-24. Constant bending moment over span "l" will occur in [IES-1995]

IES-25. For the beam shown in the above figure,
the elastic curve between the supports B
and C will be:
(a) Circular (b) Parabolic
(c) Elliptic (d) A straight line

[IES-1998]

IES-26. A beam is simply supported at its ends and is loaded by a couple at its mid-span as shown in
figure A. Shear force diagram for the beam is given by the figure.
[IES-1994]

(a) B (b) C (c) D (d) E

IES-27. A beam AB is hinged-supported at its ends and is loaded by couple P.c. as shown in the given
figure. The magnitude or shearing force at a section x of the beam is:
[IES-1993]

(a) 0 (b) P (c) P/2L (d) P.c./2L
Load
IES-28. A freely supported beam at its ends carries a central concentrated load, and maximum bending
moment is M. If the same load be uniformly distributed over the beam length, then what is the
maximum bending moment? [IES-2009]
(a) M (b)
2
M
(c)
3
M
(d) 2M

Simply Supported Beam Carrying a Load whos Intensity
varies uniformly from Zero at each End to w per
Unit Run at the MiD Span
IES-29. A simply supported beam is
subjected to a distributed loading
as shown in the diagram given
below:
What is the maximum shear force
in the beam?
(a) WL/3 (b) WL/2
(c) WL/3 (d) WL/6

[IES-2004]
Simply Supported Beam carrying a Load whos Intensity
varies
IES-30. A beam having uniform cross-section carries a uniformly distributed load of intensity q per unit
length over its entire span, and its mid-span deflection is .
The value of mid-span deflection of the same beam when the same load is distributed with
intensity varying from 2q unit length at one end to zero at the other end is: [IES-1995]
(a) 1/3 (b) 1/2 (c) 2/3 (d)
Simply Supported Beam with Equal Overhangs and
carrying a Uniformly Distributed Load
IES-31. A beam, built-in at both ends, carries a uniformly distributed load over its entire span as shown
in figure-I. Which one of the diagrams given below, represents bending moment distribution
along the length of the beam?
[IES-1996]

The Points of Contraflexure
IES-32. The point of contraflexure is a point where: [IES-2005]
(a) Shear force changes sign (b) Bending moment changes sign
(c) Shear force is maximum (d) Bending moment is maximum

IES-33. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists:
[IES-2000]
List-I List-II
A. Bending moment is constant 1. Point of contraflexure
B. Bending moment is maximum or minimum 2. Shear force changes sign
C. Bending moment is zero 3. Slope of shear force diagram is
zero over the portion of the beam
D. Loading is constant 4. Shear force is zero over the
portion of the beam
(a) 4 1 2 3 (b) 3 2 1 4
(c) 4 2 1 3 (d) 3 1 2 4
Loading and B.M. diagram from S.F. Diagram
IES-34. The bending moment diagram shown in Fig. I correspond to the shear force diagram in[IES-
1999]

IES-35. Bending moment distribution in a built be am is shown in the given

The shear force distribution in the beam is represented by [IES-2001]

IES-36. The given figure shows the shear
force diagram for the beam ABCD.
Bending moment in the portion BC
of the beam

[IES-1996]
(a) Is a non-zero constant (b) Is zero
(c) Varies linearly from B to C (d) Varies parabolically from B to C

IES-37. Figure shown above represents the BM
diagram for a simply supported beam.
The beam is subjected to which one of the
following?
(a) A concentrated load at its mid-
length
(b) A uniformly distributed load over
its length
(c) A couple at its mid-length
(d) Couple at 1/4 of the span from each
end

[IES-2006]

IES-38. If the bending moment diagram for a
simply supported beam is of the form
given below.
Then the load acting on the beam is:
(a) A concentrated force at C
(b) A uniformly distributed load over
the whole length of the beam
(c) Equal and opposite moments
applied at A and B
(d) A moment applied at C

[IES-1994]

IES-39. The figure given below shows a bending moment diagram for the beam CABD:

Load diagram for the above beam will be: [IES-1993]

IES-40. The shear force diagram shown in the following figure is that of a [IES-1994]
(a) Freely supported beam with symmetrical point load about mid-span.
(b) Freely supported beam with symmetrical uniformly distributed load about mid-span
(c) Simply supported beam with positive and negative point loads symmetrical about the mid-
span
(d) Simply supported beam with symmetrical varying load about mid-span

Statically Indeterminate beam
IES-41 Which one of the following is NOT a statically indeterminate structure?
A
C
B
T
(a)

P
B A
C
(b)

T
X
Y
Z
O
(c)

St eel
Aliminium
F
(d)

[IES-2010]
IAS-1. Assertion (A): A beam subjected only to end moments will be free from shearing force.[IAS-
2004]
Reason (R): The bending moment variation along the beam length is zero.

IAS-2. Assertion (A): The change in bending moment between two cross-sections of a beam is equal to
the area of the shearing force diagram between the two sections. [IAS-1998]
Reason (R): The change in the shearing force between two cross-sections of beam due to
distributed loading is equal to the area of the load intensity diagram between the two sections.

IAS-3. The ratio of the area under the bending moment diagram to the flexural rigidity between any
two points along a beam gives the change in [IAS-1998]
(a) Deflection (b) Slope (c) Shear force (d) Bending moment
Cantilever
IAS-4. A beam AB of length 2 L having a
concentrated load P at its mid-span is
hinge supported at its two ends A and B
on two identical cantilevers as shown in
the given figure. The correct value of
bending moment at A is
(a) Zero (b) PLl2
(c) PL (d) 2 PL

[IAS-1995]

IAS-5. A load perpendicular to the plane of the handle is applied at the free end as shown in the given
figure. The values of Shear Forces (S.F.), Bending Moment (B.M.) and torque at the fixed end of
the handle have been determined respectively as 400 N, 340 Nm and 100 by a student. Among
these values, those of [IAS-1999]
(a) S.F., B.M. and torque are correct
(b) S.F. and B.M. are correct
(c) B.M. and torque are correct
(d) S.F. and torque are correct

IAS-6. If the SF diagram for a beam is a triangle with length of the beam as its base, the beam is:
[IAS-2007]
(a) A cantilever with a concentrated load at its free end
(b) A cantilever with udl over its whole span
(c) Simply supported with a concentrated load at its mid-point
(d) Simply supported with a udl over its whole span

IAS-7. A cantilever carrying a uniformly distributed load is shown in Fig. I.
Select the correct R.M. diagram of the cantilever. [IAS-1999]

IAS-8. A structural member ABCD is loaded as
shown in the given figure. The shearing
force at any section on the length BC of
the member is:
(a) Zero (b) P
(c) Pa/k (d) Pk/a

[IAS-1996]
IAS-9. The beam is loaded as shown in Fig. I. Select the correct B.M. diagram
[IAS-1999]

IAS-10. Assertion (A): In a simply supported beam carrying a concentrated load at mid-span, both the
shear force and bending moment diagrams are triangular in nature without any change in sign.
[IAS-1999]
Reason (R): When the shear force at any section of a beam is either zero or changes sign, the
bending moment at that section is maximum.

IAS-11. For the shear force to be uniform throughout the span of a simply supported beam, it should
carry which one of the following loadings? [IAS-2007]
(a) A concentrated load at mid-span
(b) Udl over the entire span
(c) A couple anywhere within its span
(d) Two concentrated loads equal in magnitude and placed at equal distance from each
support

IAS-12. Which one of the following figures represents the correct shear force diagram for the loaded
beam shown in the given figure I? [IAS-1998; IAS-1995]

Load
IAS-13. For a simply supported beam of length fl' subjected to downward load of uniform intensity w,
match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists:
[IAS-1997]
List-I List-II
A. Slope of shear force diagram 1.
4
5
384
w
E I
i

B. Maximum shear force 2. w
C. Maximum deflection 3.
4
8
wi

D. Magnitude of maximum bending moment 4.
2
wi

(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 3 1 2 4
(c) 3 2 1 4 (d) 2 4 1 3
Simply Supported Beam Carrying a Load whose Intensity
varies Uniformly from Zero at each End to w per Unit Run
at the MiD Span
IAS-14. A simply supported beam of length 'l' is subjected to a symmetrical uniformly varying load with
zero intensity at the ends and intensity w (load per unit length) at the mid span. What is the
maximum bending moment? [IAS-2004]
(a)
2
3
8
wl
(b)
2
12
wl
(c)
2
24
wl
(d)
2
5
12
wl

Simply Supported Beam carrying a Load whose Intensity
varies
IAS-15. A simply supported beam of span l is subjected to a uniformly varying load having zero
intensity at the left support and w N/m at the right support. The reaction at the right support
is: [IAS-2003]
(a)
2
wl
(b)
5
wl
(c)
4
wl
(d)
3
wl

Simply Supported Beam with Equal Overhangs and
carrying a Uniformly Distributed Load
IAS-16. Consider the following statements for a simply supported beam subjected to a couple at its mid-
span: [IAS-2004]
1. Bending moment is zero at the ends and maximum at the centre
2. Bending moment is constant over the entire length of the beam
3. Shear force is constant over the entire length of the beam
4. Shear force is zero over the entire length of the beam
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1, 3 and 4 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 4

IAS-17. Match List-I (Beams) with List-II (Shear force diagrams) and select the correct answer using
the codes given below the Lists: [IAS-2001]

(a) 4 2 5 3 (b) 1 4 5 3
(c) 1 4 3 5 (d) 4 2 3 5
The Points of Contraflexure
IAS-18. A point, along the length of a beam subjected to loads, where bending moment changes its sign,
is known as the point of [IAS-1996]
(a) Inflexion (b) Maximum stress (c) Zero shear force (d) Contra flexure

IAS-19. Assertion (A): In a loaded beam, if the shear force diagram is a straight line parallel to the beam
axis, then the bending moment is a straight line inclined to the beam axis. [IAS 1994]
Reason (R): When shear force at any section of a beam is zero or changes sign, the bending
moment at that section is maximum.
Loading and B.M. diagram from S.F. Diagram
IAS-20. The shear force diagram of a loaded
beam is shown in the following figure:
The maximum Bending Moment of the
beam is:
(a) 16 kN-m (b) 11 kN-m

(c) 28 kN-m (d) 8 kN-m

[IAS-1997]
IAS-21. The bending moment for a loaded beam is shown below: [IAS-2003]

The loading on the beam is represented by which one of the followings diagrams?
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

IAS-22. Which one of the given bending moment diagrams correctly represents that of the loaded beam
shown in figure? [IAS-1997]

IAS-23.

The shear force diagram is shown above
for a loaded beam. The corresponding
bending moment diagram is represented
by

[IAS-2003]


IAS-24. The bending moment diagram for a simply supported beam is a rectangle over a larger portion
of the span except near the supports. What type of load does the beam carry? [IAS-2007]
(a) A uniformly distributed symmetrical load over a larger portion of the span except near the
supports
(b) A concentrated load at mid-span
(c) Two identical concentrated loads equidistant from the supports and close to mid-point of
the beam
(d) Two identical concentrated loads equidistant from the mid-span and close to supports

OBJECTIVE ANSWERS
GATE-1. Ans. (c)
GATE-2. Ans. Zero
GATE-3. Ans. (a) As it is rigid roller, deflection must be same, because after deflection they also will be in
contact. But slope unequal.
GATE-4. Ans. (b)
GATE-5. Ans. (d)

GATE-6. Ans. (d)

=
2 3
x
wx wx
M
2 6L

GATE-7. Ans. (d)

c
L 2L
P
Pab 2PL 3 3
M
l L 9
| | | |

| |
\ . \ .
= = =

GATE-8. Ans. (c)
Taking moment about Ra

b
l
P Pa R l 0
2
+ =

b a
P a P a
or R P R P
2 l 2 l
= + =
Maximum bending moment will be at centre C

c a b max
l l Pl
M R P a R or M Pa
2 2 2
= + + = +

GATE-9. Ans. (C)
R
1
R
2
3000 N/m

( ) {
+ = =
=
=
= >
=
1 2
1
1
n
1
R R 3000 2 6000N
R 4 3000 2 1 0
R 1500,
S.F. eq . at any section x from end A.
R 3000 x 2 0 for x 2m}
x 2.5 m.

GATE-10. Ans. (b)
Binding stress will be maximum at the outer surface
So taking 9 = 50 mm

3
3
2
3
x
6
2500
6
3
50
and &
12
12
m 1.5 10 [2000 ]
2
3.375 10
3.375 10 50 12
67.5
30 100
o
o
= =
= +
=

= =
ld m
I
d
l
x
x
m N mm
MPa

GATE-11. Ans. (a)
2 2
max
wl 120 15
M kNm 3375kNm
8 8
= = =
GATE-12. Ans. (a) Moment of inertia (I) =
( )
3
3
3 4
0.12 0.75
bh
4.22 10 m
12 12

= =

4 3 4
max 9 3
5 wl 5 120 10 15
m 93.75mm
384 EI 384 200 10 4.22 10
o

= = =

GATE-13. Ans. (a)
2 2
max
wl 1.5 6
M 6.75kNm
8 8
= = = But not in choice. Nearest choice (a)

GATE-14. Ans. (a)
( )
3
3 2
32M 32 6.75 10
Pa 162.98MPa
d
0.075
o
t
t

= = =

GATE-15. Ans. (d)

2
x
max at x 0
1 WL
Total load L W
2 2
WL 1 W WL Wx
S x. X
L
4 2 4 L
2
WL
S
4
=
= =
| |
|
= =
|
|
|
\ .
=

GATE-16. Ans. (b)
IES
IES-1. Ans. (a)
IES-2. Ans. (b) Load P at end produces moment
2
PL
in
anticlockwise direction. Load P at end
produces moment of PL in clockwise
direction. Net moment at AA is PL/2.

IES-3. Ans. (d) Dimensional analysis gives choice (d)
IES-4. Ans. (a) = =
3
M bh
const. and I
I 12

IES-5. Ans. (b)
IES-5a Ans. (c) A vertical increase in BM diagram entails there is a point moment similarly a vertical
increase in SF diagram entails there is a point shear force.
IES-6. Ans. (a)
IES-7. Ans. (b)
IES-8. Ans. (c)
IES-9. Ans. (c)

Shear force at mid point of cantilever

6
2
3
6
2
6 2
4 kN/ m
3
e
= =
e
=
e = =
l

IES-10. Ans. (b)
IES-11. Ans. (b) Uniformly distributed load on cantilever beam.

IES-12. Ans. (d)
IES-13. Ans. (b)
IES-14. Ans. (a)

M = 37.5
3
4
KNm = 5010
6
Nmm
IES-15. Ans. (a)
IES-16. Ans. (d)
IES-17. Ans. (c)
IES-18. Ans. (c)
IES-19. Ans. (b)
IES-20. Ans. (a)
IES-21. Ans. (b)

IES-22. Ans. (a)
IES-23. Ans. (d) Pure bending takes place in the section between two weights W
IES-24. Ans. (d)
IES-25. Ans. (b)
IES-26. Ans. (d)
IES-27. Ans. (d) If F be the shearing force at section x (at point A), then taking moments about B, F x 2L =
Pc
Thus shearing force in zone x
2 2
Pc Pc
or F
L L
= =
IES-28. Ans. (b)

Max
WL
B.M M
4
= =
Where the Load is U.D.L.
Maximum Bending Moment

2
W L
L 8
WL 1 WL M
8 2 4 2
| |
| |
=
| |
\ .
\ .
| |
= = =
|
\ .

IES-29. Ans. (d)

2
x
max at x 0
1 WL
Total load L W
2 2
WL 1 W WL Wx
S x. X
L
4 2 4 L
2
WL
S
4
=
= =
| |
|
= =
|
|
|
\ .
=

IES-30. Ans. (d)
IES-31. Ans. (d)
IES-32. Ans. (b)
IES-33. Ans. (b)
IES-34. Ans. (b) If shear force is zero, B.M. will also be zero. If shear force varies linearly with length, B.M.
diagram will be curved line.
IES-35. Ans. (a)
IES-36. Ans. (a)
IES-37. Ans. (c)
IES-38. Ans. (d) A vertical line in centre of B.M. diagram is possible when a moment is applied there.
IES-39. Ans. (a) Load diagram at (a) is correct because B.M. diagram between A and B is parabola which is
possible with uniformly distributed load in this region.
IES-40. Ans. (b) The shear force diagram is possible on simply supported beam with symmetrical varying
load about mid span.
IES-41 Ans. (c)
IAS
IAS-1. Ans. (a)
IAS-2. Ans. (b)
IAS-3. Ans. (b)
IAS-4. Ans. (a) Because of hinge support between beam AB and cantilevers, the bending moment can't be
transmitted to cantilever. Thus bending moment at points A and B is zero.
IAS-5. Ans. (d)

( ) S.F 400N and BM 400 0.4 0.2 240Nm
Torque 400 0.25 100Nm
= = + =
= =

IAS-6. Ans. (b)

IAS-7. Ans. (c)
2
x
x wx
M wx
2 2
= =

IAS-8. Ans. (a)
IAS-9. Ans. (d)
IAS-10. Ans. (d) A is false.

IAS-11. Ans. (d) It is a case of pure bending.

IAS-12. Ans. (a)
IAS-13. Ans. (d)

IAS-14. Ans. (b)
IAS-15. Ans. (d)
IAS-16. Ans. (c)

IAS-17. Ans. (d)
IAS-18. Ans. (d)
IAS-19. Ans. (b)
IAS-20. Ans. (a)

IAS-21. Ans. (d)
IAS-22. Ans. (c) Bending moment does not depends on moment of inertia.
IAS-23. Ans. (a)
IAS-24. Ans. (d)
Question: A simply supported beam of length 10 m carries a uniformly varying load whose intensity
varies from a maximum value of 5 kN/m at both ends to zero at the centre of the beam. It is
desired to replace the beam with another simply supported beam which will be subjected to
the same maximum 'bending moment and shear force' as in the case of the previous one.
Determine the length and rate of loading for the second beam if it is subjected to a uniformly
distributed load over its whole length. Draw the variation of 'SF' and 'BM' in both the cases.
Answer:
10m
R
A
R
B
5KN/m
5KN/m
X
X
B

10
Total load on beam =5 25
2
25
12.5
2
a section X-X from B at a distance x.
For 0 x 5 we get rate of loading
[ lineary varying]
at x=0, =5 /
at x = 5, 0
These two bounday con
A B
kN
R R kN
Take
m
a bx as
kN m
and
w
w
w
=
\ = = =

= +
=
dition gives a = 5 and b = -1
5 x w \ = -


2
1
B 1
2
dV
We know that shear force(V),
dx
or V= = (5 ) 5
2
x = 0, F =12.5 kN (R ) so c 12.5
x
= -5x + 12.5
2
It is clear that maximum S.F = 12.5 kN
x
dx x dx x c
at
V
=
= + +
=
+

2 2 3
2
2
2 3
dM
For a beam
dx
5x
, M = Vdx ( 5 12.5) = - 12.5
2 2 6
x = 0, M = 0 gives C 0
M = 12.5x - 2.5x / 6
V
x x
or x dx x C
at
x
=
= + + + + +
=
+

2
2
2 3
max
dM
for Maximum bending moment at 0
dx
x
or-5x+ 12.5 0
2
, 10 25 0
, 5 means at centre.
So, M 12.5 2.5 2.5 5 5 / 6 20.83 kNm
or x x
or x
=
+ =
+ =
=
= + =

A
B
R
A
R
B
L
X
X
KNm

A
Now we consider a simply supported beam carrying uniform distributed load
over whole length ( KN/m).
Here R
2
B
WL
R
= =

max
. . section X-X
2
12.5
x
S F at
W
V x
V kN
=+
=
A


2
x
2 2
. section X-X
M
2 2
20.83 ( )
2 2 2 8
( ) &( ) we get L=6.666m and =3.75kN/m
x
BMat
W Wx
x
dM WL L WL
ii
dx
Solving i ii
= +

= = =

A

Question: A Uniform beam of length L is carrying a uniformly distributed load w per unit
length and is simply supported at its ends. What would be the maximum bending
moment and where does it occur?
Answer: By symmetry each support
reaction is equal i.e. RA=RB=
2
WA

B.M at the section x-x is
Mx=+
2
2 2
W Wx
x
A

For the B.M to be maximum we
have to 0
x
dM
dx
= that gives.
+
0
2
or x= i.e. at mid point.
2
W
x =
A
A

Bending Moment Diagram
And Mmax=
2
2
2
2 2 2 8
w

= +

A A A
A

Question: Calculate the reactions at A and D for the beam shown in figure. Draw the bending
moment and shear force diagrams showing all important values.
10m
R
A
R
B
5KN/m
5KN/m
X
X
B
-12.5KN/m
12.5KN/m
20.83KNm
Cubic parabola
S.F.D
6.666m
S.F.D
12.5kN
12.5kN
B.M.D
3.75kN/m
Parabola
20.83kNm

Answer: Equivalent figure below shows an overhanging beam ABCDF supported by a roller support at
A and a hinged support at D. In the figure, a load of 4 kN is applied through a bracket 0.5 m
away from the point C. Now apply equal and opposite load of 4 kN at C. This will be
equivalent to a anticlockwise couple of the value of (4 x 0.5) = 2 kNm acting at C together with
a vertical downward load of 4 kN at C. Show U.D.L. (1 kN/m) over the port AB, a point load of
2 kN vertically downward at F, and a horizontal load of 2 3 kN as shown.

For reaction and A and D.
Let ue assume RA= reaction at roller A.
RDV vertically component of the reaction at the hinged support D, and
RDH horizontal component of the reaction at the hinged support D.
Obviously RDH=2 3 kN ( )
In order to determine RA, takings moments about D, we get

( )
A
A
A DV
2
R 6 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 4 2
2
or R 3kN
Also R R 1 2 4 2 8
| |
+ = + + + +
|
\ .
=
+ = + + =

( ) ( )
( )
DV
2
2
2 2
D DV DH
1 0
or R 5kNvetricallyupward
Reaction at D, R R R 5 2 3 6.08kN
5
Inclination with horizontal tan 55.3
2 3
u

=
= + = + =
= = =

( )
F
D
C
B
A
S.F.Calculation:
V 2kN
V 2 5 3kN
V 3 4 1kN
V 1kN
V 1 1 2 3kN
=
= + =
= =
=
= =

( )
F
D
C
B.M.Calculation:
M 0
M 2 1 2kNm
M 2 1 2 5 2 2 6kNm
=
= =
( = + + + =

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
+ +
= + + + + + =
| |
= + + + + + + + +
|
\ .
=
=
B
P
A
The bending moment increases from 4kNm in i,e., 2 1 2 5 2
to 6kNm as shown
M 2 1 2 2 5 2 4 2 2 4kNm
2 1
M 2 1 2 2 5 2 2 1 4 2 1 2 1 1
2 2
2.5kNm
M 0

Conventional Question GATE-1997
Question: Construct the bending moment and shearing force diagrams for the beam shown in the figure.

Answer:

Calculation: First find out reaction at B and E.
Taking moments, about B, we get

| |
E
E
B E
B E
0.5
R 4.5 20 0.5 100 50 3 40 5
2
or R 55kN
Also, R R 20 0.5 50 40
or R 45kN R 55kN
+ + = +
=
+ = + +
= =

F
E
D
B
S.F. Calculation: V 40kN
V 40 55 15kN
V 15 50 35kN
V 35 45 10kN
=
= + =
= =
= + =

G
F
E
D
C
B.M.Calculation: M 0
M 0
M 40 0.5 20kNm
M 40 2 55 1.5 2.5kNm
M 40 4 55 3.5 50 2 67.5kNm
=
=
= =
= + =
= + =

B
The bending moment increases from 62.5kNm to 100.
0.5
M 20 0.5 2.5kNm
2
= =

Question: Two bars AB and BC are connected by a frictionless hinge at B. The assembly is supported
and loaded as shown in figure below. Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for
the combined beam AC. clearly labelling the important values. Also indicate your sign
convention.

Answer: There shall be a vertical reaction at hinge B and we can split the problem in two parts. Then
the FBD of each part is shown below

Calculation: Referring the FBD, we get,

y 1 2
F 0, and R R 200kN = + =

B 2
2
From M 0,100 2 100 3 R 4 0
500
or R 125kN
4
= + =
= =

1
3 1
R 200 125 75kN
Again, R R 75kN
and M 75 1.5 112.5kNm.
= =
= =
= =

Question: A tube 40 mm outside diameter; 5 mm thick and 1.5 m long simply supported at 125 mm from
each end carries a concentrated load of 1 kN at each extreme end.
(i) Neglecting the weight of the tube, sketch the shearing force and bending moment
diagrams;
(ii) Calculate the radius of curvature and deflection at mid-span. Take the modulus of
elasticity of the material as 208 GN/m
2

Answer: (i) Given,
0 i 0
d 40mm 0.04m; d d 2t 40 2 5 30mm 0.03m; = = = = = =

2 2 2
W 1kN; E 208GN/ m 208 10 N/ m ; l 1.5; a 125mm 0.125m = = = = = =

Calculation:
(ii) Radius of coordinate R
As per bending equation:

( )
( )
( ) ( )
3
4 4
0 1
4 4
8 4
M E
I y R
EI
or R i
M
Here,M W a 1 10 0.125 125Nm
I d d
64
0.04 0.03 8.59 10 m
64
o
t
t

= =
=
= = =
=
(
= =

( )
( )
8 8
2
x 2
Substituting the values in equation i , we get
208 10 8.59 10
R 142.9m
125
Deflection at mid span:
d y
EI M Wx W x a Wx Wx Wa Wa
dx

= =
= = + = + =


1
1 1
Integrating, we get
dy
EI Wax C
dx
1 dy
When, x , 0
2 dx
1 Wal
0 Wa C or C
2 2
dy Wal
EI Wax
dx 2
= +
= =
= + =
= +

= + +
= =
= + +
=
2
2
3 2
2
3 2
2
Integrating again, we get
x Wal
EIy Wa x C
2 2
When x a, y 0
Wa Wa l
0 C
2 2
Wa Wa l
or C
2 2

(
= + +
(

(
= + +
(

2 3 2
2 2
Wax Walx Wa Wa l
EIy
2 2 2 2
Wa x lx a al
or y
EI 2 2 2 2

( ) ( )
2
2
2 2
2 2
9 8
At mid span,i,e., x l / 2
l / 2 l l / 2
Wa a al
y
EI 2 2 2 2
Wa l a al
EI 8 2 2
1 1000 0.125 1.5 0.125 0.125 1.5
8 2 2 208 10 8.59 10
0.001366m 1.366mm
=
(
( = + +
(

(
= +
(

(
= +
(

= =

It will be in upward direction

Question: What is meant by point of contraflexure or point of inflexion in a beam? Show the same for the
beam given below:
4M 4M
2m
A
C
B
D
20kN 17.5kN/m

Answer: In a beam if the bending moment changes sign at a point, the point itself having zero bending
moment, the beam changes curvature at this point of zero bending moment and this point is
called the point of contra flexure.
4M
4M
2M
A
C
B
D
20kN 17.5kN/m

BMD
From the bending moment diagram we have seen that it is between A & C.
[If marks are more we should calculate exact point.]
5. Deflection of Beam
5.1 Introduction
- We know that the axis of a beam deflects from its initial position under action of applied
forces.
- In this chapter we will learn how to determine the elastic deflections of a beam.
Selection of co-ordinate axes
We will not introduce any other co-ordinate system.
We use general co-ordinate axis as shown in the
figure. This system will be followed in deflection of
beam and in shear force and bending moment
diagram. Here downward direction will be negative
i.e. negative Y-axis. Therefore downward deflection of
the beam will be treated as negative.
To determine the value of deflection of beam
subjected to a given loading where we will use the
formula, =
2
2 x
d y
EI M
dx
.
We use above Co-ordinate system
Some books fix a co-ordinate axis as shown in the
following figure. Here downward direction will be
positive i.e. positive Y-axis. Therefore downward
deflection of the beam will be treated as positive. As
beam is generally deflected in downward directions
and this co-ordinate system treats downward
deflection is positive deflection.
To determine the value of deflection of beam
subjected to a given loading where we will use the
formula, =
2
2 x
d y
EI M
dx
.
Some books use above co-ordinate system
Why to calculate the deflections?
- To prevent cracking of attached brittle materials
- To make sure the structure not deflect severely and to appear safe for its occupants
- To help analyzing statically indeterminate structures
Chapter-5 Deflection of Beam S K Mondals
- Information on deformation characteristics of members is essential in the study of vibrations
of machines
Several methods to compute deflections in beam
- Double integration method (without the use of singularity functions)
- Macaulays Method (with the use of singularity functions)
- Moment area method
- Method of superposition
- Conjugate beam method
- Castiglianos theorem
- Work/Energy methods
Each of these methods has particular advantages or disadvantages.
Assumptions in Simple Bending Theory
- Beams are initially straight
- The material is homogenous and isotropic i.e. it has a uniform composition and its
mechanical properties are the same in all directions
- The stress-strain relationship is linear and elastic
- Youngs Modulus is the same in tension as in compression
- Sections are symmetrical about the plane of bending
- Sections which are plane before bending remain plane after bending
Non-Uniform Bending
- In the case of non-uniform bending of a beam, where bending moment varies from section to
section, there will be shear force at each cross section which will induce shearing stresses
- Also these shearing stresses cause warping (or out-of plane distortion) of the cross section so
that plane cross sections do not remain plane even after bending
Methods to find
deflection
Double integration Geometrical Energy Method
Moment area
method
Conjugate
beam method
Castiglians
theorem
Virtual
Work
5.2 Elastic line or Elastic curve
We have to remember that the differential equation of the elastic line is
2
2
d
=M
dx
x
y
EI
Proof: Consider the following simply supported beam with UDL over its length.
From elementary calculus we know that curvature of a line (at point Q in figure)
2
2
3/ 2
2
2
2
d y
1
dx
where R radius of curvature
R
dy
1
dx
dy
For small deflection, 0
dx
1 d y
or
R dx
= =

| |
+
`
|
\ .

)
~
~
( )
x
x
x
x
x
2
x
2
2
x 2
Bending stress of the beam (at point Q)
M .y

EI
From strain relation we get
1
and
R E
M 1
R EI
M d y
Therefore
EI dx
d y
or EI M
dx
x
y
o
c o
c
=
= =
=
=
=
5.3 General expression
From the equation
2
2 x
d y
EI M
dx
= we may easily find out the following relations.
-
4
4
e =
d y
EI
dx
Shear force density (Load)
-
3
3 x
d y
EI V
dx
= Shear force
-
2
2 x
d y
EI M
dx
= Bending moment
-
dy
= = slope
dx
- y = o = Deflection, Displacement
- Flexural rigidity = EI
5.4 Double integration method (without the use of singularity functions)
- Vx = e
)
dx
- Mx =
x
V dx
)
-
2
2 x
d y
EI M
dx
=
-
1
x
Slope M dx
EI
u = =
)
- Deflection dx o u = =
)
4-step procedure to solve deflection of beam problems by double integration method
Step 1: Write down boundary conditions (Slope boundary conditions and displacement boundary
conditions), analyze the problem to be solved
Step 2: Write governing equations for,
2
2 x
d y
EI M
dx
=
Step 3: Solve governing equations by integration, results in expression with unknown integration
constants
Step 4: Apply boundary conditions (determine integration constants)
Following table gives boundary conditions for different types of support.
Types of support and Boundary Conditions Figure
Clamped or Built in support or Fixed end :
( Point A)
( )
( )
, 0
, 0 u
=
=
Deflection y
Slope
( ) , 0 . . Afinite value = Moment M i e
Free end: (Point B)
( )
( )
, 0 . . Afinite value
, 0 . . Afinite value u
=
=
Deflection y i e
Slope i e
( ) , 0 = Moment M
Roller (Point B) or Pinned Support (Point A) or
Hinged or Simply supported.
( ) , 0 = Deflection y
( ) , 0 . . Afinite value u = Slope i e
( ) , 0 = Moment M
End restrained against rotation but free to
deflection
( ) , 0 . . Afinite value = Deflection y i e
( ) , 0 u = Slope
( ) , 0 = Shear force V
Flexible support
( ) , 0 . . Afinite value = Deflection y i e
( ) , 0 . . Afinitevalue Slope i e u =
( ) , =
r
dy
Moment M k
dx
( ) , . = Shear force V k y
Using double integration method we will find the
deflection and slope of the following loaded
beams one by one.
(i) A Cantilever beam with point load at the free end.
(ii) A Cantilever beam with UDL (uniformly distributed load)
(iii) A Cantilever beam with an applied moment at free end.
(iv) A simply supported beam with a point load at its midpoint.
(v) A simply supported beam with a point load NOT at its midpoint.
(vi) A simply supported beam with UDL (Uniformly distributed load)
(vii) A simply supported beam with triangular distributed load (GVL) gradually varied load.
(viii) A simply supported beam with a moment at mid span.
(ix) A simply supported beam with a continuously distributed load the intensity of which at
any point x along the beam is sin
x
x
w w
L
t | |
=
|
\ .
(i) A Cantilever beam with point load at the free end.
We will solve this problem by double integration method. For that at first we have to calculate (Mx).
Consider any section XX at a distance x from free end which is left end as shown in figure.
Mx = - P.x
We know that differential equation of elastic line
2
2
d y
EI .
dx
x
M P x = =
2
2
2
d y
EI P x dx
dx
dy x
or EI P. A .............(i)
dx 2
=
= +
) )
2
3
Again integrating both side we get
x
EI dy = P A dx
2
Px
or EIy = - Ax+B ..............(ii)
6
Where A and B is integration constants.
| |
+
|
\ .
+
) )
Now apply boundary condition at fixed end which is at a distance x = L from free end and we also
know that at fixed end
at x = L, y = 0
at x = L,
dy
0
dx
=
from equation (ii) EIL = -
3
PL
+AL+B ..........(iii)
6
from equation (i) EI.(0) = -
2
PL
2
+ A ..(iv)
Solving (iii) & (iv) we get A =
2
PL
2
and B = -
3
PL
3
Therefore, y = -
3 2 3
Px PL x PL
6EI 2EI 3EI
+
The slope as well as the deflection would be maximum at free end hence putting x = 0 we get
ymax = -
3
PL
3EI
(Negative sign indicates the deflection is downward)
(Slope)max = u max =
2
PL
2EI
Remember for a cantilever beam with a point load at free end.
Downward deflection at free end,
( )
o =
3
PL
3EI
And slope at free end,
( )
u =
2
PL
2EI
(ii) A Cantilever beam with UDL (uniformly distributed load)
We will now solve this problem by double integration method, for that at first we have to calculate
(Mx).
Consider any section XX at a distance x from free end which is left end as shown in figure.
( )
2
x
x wx
M w.x .
2 2
= =
2 2
2
d y wx
EI
dx 2
=
Integrating both sides we get
2 2
2
3
d y wx
EI dx
2 dx
dy wx
EI A ......(i)
dx 6
or
=
= +
) )
| |
3
4
wx
EI dy A dx
6
wx
or EIy = - Ax B.......(ii)
24
where A and B are integration constants
| |
= +
|
\ .
+ +
) )
Now apply boundary condition at fixed end which is at a distance x = L from free end and we also
know that at fixed end.
at x = L, y = 0
at x = L,
dy
dx
= 0
from equation (i) we get EI(0) =
3
-wL
6
+ A or A =
3
+wL
6
from equation (ii) we get EI.y = -
4
wL
24
+ A.L + B
or B = -
4
wL
8
The slope as well as the deflection would be maximum at the free end hence putting x = 0, we get
| |
( )
4
max
3
max
max
wL
y Negative sign indicates the deflection is downward
8EI
wL
slope
6EI
u
=
= =
Remember: For a cantilever beam with UDL over its whole length,
Maximum deflection at free end
( )
o =
4
wL
8EI
Maximum slope,
( )
u =
3
wL
6EI
(iii) A Cantilever beam of length L with an applied moment M at free end.
Consider a section XX at a distance x from free end, the bending moment at section XX is
(Mx) = -M
2
2
d y
or EI M
dx
=
2
2
d y
or EI M dx
dy
or EI Mx + A ...(i)
dx
dx
=
=
) )
( )
2
EI dy = M x +A dx
Mx
or EI y Ax + B ...(ii)
2
Where A and B are integration constants.
= +
) )
2 2
2
2 2
applying boundary conditions in equation (i) &(ii)
dy
at x = L, 0 gives A = ML
dx
ML ML
at x = L, y = 0 gives B = ML
2 2
Mx MLx ML
Therefore deflection equation is y = -
2EI EI 2EI
Which is the
=
=
+
equation of elastic curve.
Maximum deflection at free end
( )
o
2
ML
=
2EI
(It is downward)
Maximum slope at free end
( )
u =
ML
EI
Let us take a funny example: A cantilever beam AB of length L and uniform flexural rigidity EI
has a bracket BA (attached to its free end. A vertical downward force P is applied to free end C of the
bracket. Find the ratio a/L required in order that the deflection of point A is zero.
[ISRO 2008]
We may consider this force P and a moment (P.a) act on free end A of the cantilever beam.
Due to point load P at free end A downward deflection ( )
3
PL
3EI
o =
Due to moment M = P.a at free end A upward deflection ( )
2 2
ML (P.a)L
2EI 2EI
o = =
For zero deflection of free end A
3
PL
3EI
=
2
(P.a)L
2EI
or
a 2
L 3
=
(iv) A simply supported beam with a point load P at its midpoint.
A simply supported beam AB carries a concentrated load P at its midpoint as shown in the figure.
We want to locate the point of maximum deflection on the elastic curve and find its value.
Bending moment at any point x (According to the shown co-ordinate system)
Mx =
P
.x
2
| |
|
\ .
and In the region L/2 < x < L
Mx = ( )
P
x L / 2
2

( )
2
2
d y P
.x In the region 0 < x < L/2
2 dx
EI =
2
2
2
d y P
or EI x dx
2 dx
dy P x
or EI . A (i)
dx 2 2
=
= +
) )
| |
2
3
P
EI dy = x A dx
4
Px
or EI y = Ax + B (ii)
12
Where A and B are integrating constants
| |
+
|
\ .
+
) )
Now applying boundary conditions to equation (i) and (ii) we get
2
at x = 0, y = 0
dy
at x = L/2, 0
dx
PL
A = - and B = 0
16
=
3 12
Px PL
Equation of elastic line, y = - x
12 16
Maximum deflection at mid span (x = L/2)

( )
o
3
PL
=
48EI
and maximum slope at each end
( )
u =
2
PL
16EI
(v) A simply supported beam with a point load P NOT at its midpoint.
A simply supported beam AB carries a concentrated load P as shown in the figure.
We have to locate the point of maximum deflection on the elastic curve and find the value of this
deflection.
Taking co-ordinate axes x and y as shown below
For the bending moment we have
In the region
x
P.a
0 x a, M .x
L
| |
s s =
|
\ .
And, In the region a x L, s s ( )
x
P.a
M L - x
L
=
( )
2
2
2
2
So we obtain two differential equation for the elastic curve.
d y P.a
EI .x for 0 x a
L dx
d y P.a
and EI . L - x for a x L
L dx
= s s
= s s
Successive integration of these equations gives
2
1
2
2
3
1 1
2 3
2 2
dy P.a x
EI . +A ......(i) for o x a
dx L 2
dy P.a
EI P.a x - x A ......(ii) for a x L
dx L
P.a x
EI y . +A x+B ......(iii) for 0 x
L 6
x P.a x
EI y P.a . A x + B .....(iv) for a x L
2 L 6
a
= s s
= + s s
= s s
= + s s
Where A1, A2, B1, B2 are constants of Integration.
Now we have to use Boundary conditions for finding constants:
BC
S
(a) at x = 0, y = 0
(b) at x = L, y = 0
(c) at x = a,
dy
dx
| |
|
\ .
= Same for equation (i) & (ii)
(d) at x = a, y = same from equation (iii) & (iv)
We get
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
1 2
Pb P.a
A L b ; A 2L a
6L 6L
= = +
3
1 2
B 0; B Pa / 6EI and = =
Therefore we get two equations of elastic curve

( )
( ) ( )
2 2 2
3
2 2 3
Pbx
EI y = - L b x ..... (v) for 0 x a
6L
Pb L
EI y = x - a L b x - x . ...(vi) for a x L
6L b
s s
( | |
+ s s
| (
\ .
For a > b, the maximum deflection will occur in the left portion of the span, to which equation (v)
applies. Setting the derivative of this expression equal to zero gives
2 2
a(a+2b) (L-b)(L+b) L b
x =
3 3 3
= =
at that point a horizontal tangent and hence the point of maximum deflection substituting this value
of x into equation (v), we find,
2 2 3/2
max
P.b(L b )
y
9 3. EIL
=
Case I: if a = b = L/2 then
Maximum deflection will be at x =
( )
2
2
L L/2
L/2
3
=
i.e. at mid point
and ( )
( ) ( )
{ }
3/ 2
2
2
3
max
P. L/2 L L/2
PL
y
48EI
9 3EIL
o

= = =
(vi) A simply supported beam with UDL (Uniformly distributed load)
A simply supported beam AB carries a uniformly distributed load (UDL) of intensity w/unit length
over its whole span L as shown in figure. We want to develop the equation of the elastic curve and
find the maximum deflection o at the middle of the span.
Taking co-ordinate axes x and y as shown, we have for the bending moment at any point x
2
x
wL x
M .x - w.
2 2
=
Then the differential equation of deflection becomes
2 2
x 2
d y wL x
EI M .x - w.
2 2 dx
= =
2 3
dy wL x x
EI . . A .....(i)
dx 2 2 2 3
w
= +
Again Integrating both side we get
3 4
wL x x
EI y . . Ax + B .....(ii)
2 6 2 12
w
= +
Where A and B are integration constants. To evaluate these constants we have to use boundary
conditions.
at x = 0, y = 0 gives B = 0
at x = L/2, 0
dy
dx
= gives
3
24
wL
A =
Therefore the equation of the elastic curve
3
3 4 3 2 3
wL wL wx
y . . .x = 2 . x
12EI 24EI 12EI 24EI
w
x x L L x ( = +

The maximum deflection at the mid-span, we have to put x = L/2 in the equation and obtain
Maximum deflection at mid-span,
( )
o =
4
5
384
wL
EI
(It is downward)
And Maximum slope
A B
u u = at the left end A and at the right end b is same putting x = 0 or x = L
Therefore we get Maximum slope
( )
u =
3
24
wL
EI
(vii) A simply supported beam with triangular distributed load (GVL)
gradually varied load.
A simply supported beam carries a triangular distributed load (GVL) as shown in figure below. We
have to find equation of elastic curve and find maximum deflection( ) o .
In this (GVL) condition, we get
4
4
d y w
EI .x .....(i)
L dx
load = =
Separating variables and integrating we get
( )
3 2
x 3
d y wx
EI V +A .....(ii)
2L dx
= =
Again integrating thrice we get
2 3
x 2
d y wx
EI M +Ax+B .....(iii)
6L dx
= =
4 2
dy wx Ax
EI + +Bx+C .....(iv)
dx 24L 2
=
5 3 2
wx Ax Bx
EI y + + +Cx+D .....(v)
120L 6 2
=
Where A, B, C and D are integration constant.
Boundary conditions at x = 0, Mx = 0, y = 0
at x = L, Mx = 0, y = 0 gives
wL
A = ,
6
B = 0,
3
7wL
C = - ,
360
D = 0
Therefore
{ }
4 2 2 4
wx
y = - 7L 10L x 3x
360EIL
+ (negative sign indicates downward deflection)
To find maximum deflectiono , we have
dy
dx
= 0
And it gives x = 0.519 L and maximum deflection ( ) o = 0.00652
4
wL
EI
(viii) A simply supported beam with a moment at mid-span
A simply supported beam AB is acted upon by a couple M applied at an intermediate point distance
a from the equation of elastic curve and deflection at point where the moment acted.
A
M
R
L
= and
B
M
R
L
=
Taking co-ordinate axes x and y as shown, we have for bending moment
In the region
x
M
0 x a, M .x
L
s s =
In the region
x
M
a x L, M x - M
L
s s =
So we obtain the difference equation for the elastic curve
2
2
2
2
d y M
EI .x for 0 x a
L dx
d y M
and EI .x M for a x L
L dx
= s s
= s s
Successive integration of these equation gives
2
1
2
2
3
1 1
3 2
2 2
dy M x
EI . A ....(i) for 0 x a
dx L 2
dy M x
EI - Mx+ A .....(ii) for a x L
dx L 2
M x
and EI y = . A x + B ......(iii) for 0 x a
L
M x Mx
EI y = A x + B ......(iv) for a x L
L 2
o
o
= + s s
= = s s
+ s s
+ s s
Where A1, A2, B1 and B2 are integration constants.
To finding these constants boundary conditions
(a) at x = 0, y = 0
(b) at x = L, y = 0
(c) at x = a,
dy
dx
| |
|
\ .
= same form equation (i) & (ii)
(d) at x = a, y = same form equation (iii) & (iv)
2 2
1 2
2
1 2
ML Ma ML Ma
A M.a + + , A
3 2L 3 2L
Ma
B 0, B
2
= = +
= =
With this value we get the equation of elastic curve
{ }
{ }
2 2 2
2 2
Mx
y = - 6aL - 3a x 2L for 0 x a
6L
deflection of x = a,
Ma
y = 3aL - 2a L
3EIL
s s
(ix) A simply supported beam with a continuously distributed load the

intensity of which at any point x along the beam is
sin
x
x
w w
L
t | |
=
|
\ .
At first we have to find out the bending moment at any point x according to the shown co-ordinate
system.
We know that
( )
x
d V
x
wsin
dx L
t | |
=
|
\ .
( )
x
x
x
d V w sin dx +A
L
wL x
or V .cos A
L
t
t
t
| |
=
|
\ .
| |
= + +
|
\ .
) )
and we also know that
( )
x
x
d M
wL x
V cos A
dx L
t
t
| |
= = +
|
\ .
Again integrating both sides we get
( )
x
2
x 2
wL x
d M cos A dx
L
wL x
or M sin Ax+B
L
t
t
t
t
| |
= +
`
|
\ . )
| |
= +
|
\ .
) )
Where A and B are integration constants, to find out the values of A and B. We have to use boundary
conditions
at x = 0, Mx = 0
From these we get A = B = 0. Therefore
2
x 2
wL x
M sin
L
t
t
| |
=
|
\ .
So the differential equation of elastic curve
2 2
x 2 2
d y wL x
EI M sin
L dx
t
t
| |
= =
|
\ .
Successive integration gives
3
3
4
4
dy wL x
EI cos C .......(i)
dx L
wL x
EI y sin Cx D .....(ii)
L
t
t
t
t
| |
= +
|
\ .
| |
= + +
|
\ .
Where C and D are integration constants, to find out C and D we have to use boundary conditions
at x = 0, y = 0
at x = L, y = 0
and that give C = D = 0
Therefore slope equation
3
3
dy wL x
EI cos
dx L
t
t
| |
=
|
\ .
and Equation of elastic curve
4
4
wL x
y sin
L EI
t
t
| |
=
|
\ .
(-ive sign indicates deflection is downward)
Deflection will be maximum if
x
sin
L
t | |
|
\ .
is maximum

x
sin
L
t | |
|
\ .
= 1 or x = L/2
and Maximum downward deflection ( ) o =
4
4
WL
EI t
(downward).
5.5 Macaulay's Method (Use of singularity function)
- When the beam is subjected to point loads (but several loads) this is very convenient method
for determining the deflection of the beam.
- In this method we will write single moment equation in such a way that it becomes
continuous for entire length of the beam in spite of the discontinuity of loading.
- After integrating this equation we will find the integration constants which are valid for
entire length of the beam. This method is known as method of singularity constant.
Procedure to solve the problem by Macaulays method
Step I: Calculate all reactions and moments
Step II: Write down the moment equation which is valid for all values of x. This must contain
brackets.
Step III: Integrate the moment equation by a typical manner. Integration of (x-a) will be
( )
2
2
x-a
x
not ax
2 2
| |
|
\ .
and integration of (x-a)
2
will be
( )
3
x-a
3
so on.
Step IV: After first integration write the first integration constant (A) after first terms and after
second time integration write the second integration constant (B) after A.x . Constant A and B are
valid for all values of x.
Step V: Using Boundary condition find A and B at a point x = p if any term in Macaulays method,
(x-a) is negative (-ive) the term will be neglected.
(i) Let us take an example: A simply supported beam AB length 6m with a point load of 30 kN is
applied at a distance 4m from left end A. Determine the equations of the elastic curve between each
change of load point and the maximum deflection of the beam.
Answer: We solve this problem using Macaulays method, for that first writes the general
momentum equation for the last portion of beam BC of the loaded beam.
( )
2
x 2
d y
EI M 10x -30 x - 4 .m ....(i)
dx
N = =
By successive integration of this equation (using Macaulays integration rule
e.g ( )
( )
2
x a
a dx )
2
x
=
)
We get
( ) ( )
( )
2
2 2
3 3 3
dy
EI 5x A -15 x-4 N.m ..... ii
dx
5
and EI y = x Ax + B - 5 (x - 4) N.m ..... iii
3
= +
+
Where A and B are two integration constants. To evaluate its value we have to use following
boundary conditions.
at x = 0, y = 0
and at x = 6m, y = 0
Note: When we put x = 0, x - 4 is negativre (ive) and this term will not be considered for x = 0 , so
our equation will be EI y =
3
5
x Ax +B,
3
+ and at x = 0 , y = 0 gives B = 0
But when we put x = 6, x-4 is positive (+ive) and this term will be considered for x = 6, y = 0 so our
equation will be EI y =
3
5
x
3
+ Ax + 0 5 (x 4)
3
This gives
EI .(0) =
3 3
5
.6 A.6 0 5(6 4)
3
+ +
or A = - 53
So our slope and deflection equation will be
( )
( )
2
2
3
3
dy
EI 5x - 53 - 15 x - 4
dx
5
and EI y x - 53x + 0 - 5 x - 4
3
=
=
Now we have two equations for entire section of the beam and we have to understand how we use
these equations. Here if x < 4 then x 4 is negative so this term will be deleted. That so why in the
region o x 4m s s we will neglect (x 4) term and our slope and deflection equation will be
2
dy
EI 5x -53
dx
=
and
3
5
EI y x - 53x
3
=
But in the region4 x 6m m < s , (x 4) is positive so we include this term and our slope and
deflection equation will be
( )
2
2
dy
EI 5x - 53 - 15 x - 4
dx
=
( )
3
3
5
EI y x - 53x - 5 x - 4
3
=
Now we have to find out maximum deflection, but we dont know at what value of x it will be
maximum. For this assuming the value of x will be in the region0 x 4m s s .
Deflection (y) will be maximum for that
dy
dx
= 0 or
2
5x - 53 = 0 or x = 3.25 m as our calculated x is
in the region 0 x 4m s s ; at x = 3.25 m deflection will be maximum
or EI ymax =
5
3
3.25
3
53 3.25
or ymax = -
115
EI
(-ive sign indicates downward deflection)
But if you have any doubt that Maximum deflection may be in the range of 4 x 6m < s , use EIy =
5x
2
53x 5 (x 4)
3
and find out x. The value of x will be absurd that indicates the maximum
deflection will not occur in the region4 x 6m < s .
Deflection (y) will be maximum for that
dy
dx
= 0
or ( )
2
2
5x - 53 - 15 x - 4 = 0
or 10x
2
-120x + 293 = 0
or x = 3.41 m or 8.6 m
Both the value fall outside the region 4 x 6m < s and in this region 4 x 6m < s and in this region
maximum deflection will not occur.
(ii) Now take an example where Point load, UDL and Moment applied simultaneously in
a beam:
Let us consider a simply supported beam AB (see Figure) of length 3m is subjected to a point load 10
kN, UDL = 5 kN/m and a bending moment M = 25 kNm. Find the deflection of the beam at point D if
flexural rigidity (EI) = 50 KNm
2
.
Answer: Considering equilibrium
( ) ( )
A
B
B
A B A
M 0 gives
-10 1 - 25 - 5 1 1 1 1/ 2 R 3 0
or R 15.83kN
R R 10 5 1 gives R 0.83kN
=
+ + + =
=
+ = + =
_
We solve this problem using Macaulays method, for that first writing the general momentum
equation for the last portion of beam, DB of the loaded beam.
( ) ( )
( )
= = +
2
2
0
x 2
5 x-2
d y
EI M 0.83x -10 x-1 25 x-2
dx 2
By successive integration of this equation (using Macaulays integration rule
e.g ( )
( )
2
x a
a dx )
2
x
=
)
We get
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 3
2
3 2 4
3
dy 0.83 5
EI .x A -5 x 1 25 x 2 x 2
dx 2 6
0.83 5 25 5
and EIy = x Ax+B - x 1 x 2 x 2
6 3 2 24
= + +
+ +
Where A and B are integration constant we have to use following boundary conditions to find out A
& B.
at x = 0, y = 0
at x = 3m, y = 0
Therefore B = 0
3 3 2 4
0.83 5 5
and 0 = - 3 A 3 + 0 - 2 12.5 1 1
6 3 24
or A = 1.93
+ +
( ) ( ) ( )
3 2 4
3
EIy = - 0.138x 1.93x -1.67 x 1 12.5 x 2 0.21 x 2 + +
( )
( )
3 3
D
D 3
Deflextion at point D at x = 2m
EIy 0.138 2 1.93 2 1.67 1 8.85
8.85 8.85
or y m ive sign indicates deflection downward
EI 50 10
0.177mm downward .
= + =
= =
=
(iii) A simply supported beam with a couple M at a distance a from left end
If a couple acts we have to take the distance in
the bracket and this should be raised to the
power zero. i.e. M(x a)
0
. Power is zero because
(x a)
0
= 1 and unit of M(x a)
0
= M but we
introduced the distance which is needed for
Macaulays method.
( )
2
0
A. 2
d y
EI M R x M x-a
dx
= =
Successive integration gives
( )
( )
2
1
2
3
dy M x
EI . A - M x-a
dx L 2
M x-a
M
EI x Ax + B -
6L 2
y
= +
= +
Where A and B are integration constants, we have to use boundary conditions to find out A & B.
at x = 0, y = 0 gives B = 0
at x = L, y = 0 gives A =
( )
2
M L-a
ML
2L 6

8. Moment area method
- This method is used generally to obtain displacement and rotation at a single point on a
beam.
- The moment area method is convenient in case of beams acted upon with point loads in
which case bending moment area consist of triangle and rectangles.
A C B
MB
Loading
B.M.diag
Deflection
L
Mn
M
c
X
ymax
A
t
AB
AD
OA
A
B
tBA
C
D
- Angle between the tangents drawn at 2 points A&B on the elastic line,
AB
AB =
1
Area of the bending moment diagram between A&B
EI
i.e. slope
B.M.
A
EI
u =
AB
- Deflection of B related to 'A'
yBA = Moment of
M
EI
diagram between B&A taking about B (or w.r.t. B)
i.e. deflection
B.M
A
EI
=
BA
x
y
Important Note
If
1
A = Area of shear force (SF) diagram
2
A = Area of bending moment (BM) diagram,
Then, Change of slope over any portion of the loaded beam =
1 2
A A
EI

Some typical bending moment diagram and their area (A) and distance of
C.G from one edge
( )
x is shown in the following table. [Note the distance
will be different from other end]
Shape BM Diagram Area Distance from C.G
1. Rectangle
A bh =
2
b
x =
2. Triangle
=
3
b
x
3. Parabola
4
b
x =
4. Parabola
5.Cubic Parabola
6. y = k x
n
7. Sine curve
Determination of Maximum slope and deflection
by Moment Area- Method
(i) A Cantilever beam with a point load at free end
Area of BM (Bending moment diagram)
( )
( )
( )
2
2
2
3
1 PL
A L PL
2 2
Therefore
A PL
Maximum slope (at free end)
EI 2EI
Ax
Maximum deflection
EI
PL 2
L
2 3 PL
(at free end)
EI 3EI
u
o
= =
= =
=
| |
| |
| |
\ .
\ .
= =
(ii) A cantilever beam with a point load not at free end
Area of BM diagram ( )
2
1 Pa
A a Pa
2 2
= =
Therefore
( )
2
A Pa
Maximum slope
EI 2EI
u = = ( at free end)
( )
2
2
Ax
Maximum deflection
EI
Pa
L-
2 3 Pa
. L- (at free end)
EI 2EI 3
a
a
o =
| |
| |
| |
\ . | |
\ .
= =
|
\ .
(iii) A cantilever beam with UDL over its whole length
Area of BM diagram( )
| |
= =
|
\ .
2 3
1 wL wL
A L
3 2 6
Therefore
( )
3
A wL
Maximum slope
EI 6EI
u = = (at free end)
( )
Ax
Maximum deflection
EI
o =

3
4
wL 3
L
6 4 wL
EI 8EI
| |
| |
| |
\ .
\ .
= = (at free end)
(iv) A simply supported beam with point load at mid-spam
Area of shaded BM diagram
( )
2
1 L PL PL
A
2 2 4 16
= =
Therefore
( )
2
A PL
Maximum slope
EI 16EI
u = = (at each ends)
( )
Ax
Maximum deflection
EI
o =

2
3
PL L
16 3 PL
EI 48EI
| |
|
\ .
= = (at mid point)
(v) A simply supported beam with UDL over its whole length
Area of BM diagram (shaded)
( )
2 3
2 L wL wL
A
3 2 8 24
| |
| |
= =
| |
\ .
\ .
Therefore
( )
3
A wL
Maximum slope
EI 24EI
u = = (at each ends)
( )
Ax
Maximum deflection
EI
o =
3
4
wL 5 L
24 8 2 5 wL
EI 384 EI
| |
| |

| |
\ .
\ .
= = (at mid point)
9. Method of superposition
Assumptions:
- Structure should be linear
- Slope of elastic line should be very small.
- The deflection of the beam should be small such that the effect due to the shaft or rotation of
the line of action of the load is neglected.
Principle of Superposition:
Deformations of beams subjected to combinations of loadings may be obtained as the linear
combination of the deformations from the individual loadings
Procedure is facilitated by tables of solutions for common types of loadings and supports.
Example:
For the beam and loading shown, determine
the slope and deflection at point B.
Superpose the deformations due to Loading I and Loading II as shown.
10. Conjugate beam method
In the conjugate beam method, the length of the conjugate beam is the same as the length of the
actual beam, the loading diagram (showing the loads acting) on the conjugate beam is simply the
bending-moment diagram of the actual beam divided by the flexural rigidity EI of the actual beam,
and the corresponding support condition for the conjugate beam is given by the rules as shown
below.
Corresponding support condition for the conjugate beam
Conjugates of Common Types of Real Beams
Conjugate beams for statically determinate
real beams
Conjugate beams for Statically
indeterminate real beams
By the conjugate beam method, the slope and deflection of the actual beam can be found by
using the following two rules:
- The slope of the actual beam at any cross section is equal to the shearing force at the
corresponding cross section of the conjugate beam.
- The deflection of the actual beam at any point is equal to the bending moment of the
conjugate beam at the corresponding point.
Procedure for Analysis
- Construct the M / EI diagram for the given (real) beam subjected to the specified (real)
loading. If a combination of loading exists, you may use M-diagram by parts
- Determine the conjugate beam corresponding to the given real beam
- Apply the M / EI diagram as the load on the conjugate beam as per sign convention
- Calculate the reactions at the supports of the conjugate beam by applying equations of
equilibrium and conditions
- Determine the shears in the conjugate beam at locations where slopes is desired in the
real beam, Vconj = real
- Determine the bending moments in the conjugate beam at locations where deflections is
desired in the real beam, Mconj = yreal
The method of double integration, method of superposition, moment-area theorems, and
Castiglianos theorem are all well established methods for finding deflections of beams, but they
require that the boundary conditions of the beams be known or specified. If not, all of them
become helpless. However, the conjugate beam method is able to proceed and yield a solution for the
possible deflections of the beam based on the support conditions, rather than the boundary
conditions, of the beams.
(i) A Cantilever beam with a point load P at its free end.
For Real Beam: At a section a distance x from free end
consider the forces to the left. Taking moments about the
section gives (obviously to the left of the section) Mx = -P.x
(negative sign means that the moment on the left hand side
of the portion is in the anticlockwise direction and is
therefore taken as negative according to the sign convention)
so that the maximum bending moment occurs at the fixed
end i.e. Mmax = - PL ( at x = L)
Considering equilibrium we get, ( )
2
A A
wL wL
M and Reaction R
3 2
= =
Considering any cross-section XX which is at a distance of x from the fixed end.
At this point load
W
(W ) .x
L
x
=
Shear force ( ) =
A
R area of triangle ANM
x
V
2
x max
x
wL 1 w wL wx
- . .x .x = + -
2 2 L 2 2L
wL wL
at x 0, V i.e. Maximum shear force, V
2 2
at x L, V 0
| |
=
|
\ .
= = + = +
= =
Bending moment ( )
2
A A
wx 2x
= R .x - . - M
2L 3
x
M

( )
3 2
2 2
max
x
wL wx wL
= .x - -
2 6L 3
The bending moment variation is cubic
wL wL
at x = 0, M i.e.Maximum B.M. M .
3 3
at x L, M 0
x
= =
= =

Beam Deflection
GATE-1. A lean elastic beam of given flexural rigidity, EI,
is loaded by a single force F as shown in figure.
How many boundary conditions are necessary
to determine the deflected centre line of the
beam?
(a) 5 (b) 4
(c) 3 (d) 2
[GATE-1999]
Double Integration Method
GATE-2. A simply supported beam carrying a concentrated load W at mid-span deflects by 1 under the
load. If the same beam carries the load W such that it is distributed uniformly over entire
length and undergoes a deflection 2 at the mid span. The ratio 1: 2 is:[IES-1995; GATE-1994]
(a) 2: 1 (b) 2 : 1 (c) 1: 1 (d) 1: 2

GATE-3. A simply supported laterally loaded beam was found to deflect more than a specified value.
[GATE-2003]
Which of the following measures will reduce the deflection?
(a) Increase the area moment of inertia
(b) Increase the span of the beam
(c) Select a different material having lesser modulus of elasticity
(d) Magnitude of the load to be increased

GATE-4. A cantilever beam of length L is subjected to a moment M at the free end. The moment of
inertia of the beam cross section about the neutral axis is I and the Youngs modulus is E. The
magnitude of the maximum deflection is

2 2 2 2
2 4
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
ML ML ML ML
a b c d
EI EI EI EI
[GATE-2012]
Statement for Linked Answer Questions GATE-5 and GATE-6:
A triangular-shaped cantilever beam of uniform-
thickness is shown in the figure. The Youngs
modulus of the material of the beam is E. A
concentrated load P is applied at the free end of
the beam

t
l
P
x
o
o
b

[GATE-2011]
GATE-5. The area moment of inertia about the neutral axis of a cross-section at a distance x measure
from the free end is
(a)
3
61
bxt
(b)
3
121
bxt
(c)
3
241
bxt
(d)
3
12
xt

GATE-6. The maximum deflection of the beam is [GATE-2011]
(a)
3
3
24Pl
Ebt
(b)
3
3
12Pl
Ebt
(c)
3
3
8Pl
Ebt
(d)
3
3
6Pl
Ebt

In a cantilever subjected to a concentrated load at the free end
1. The bending stress is maximum at the free end
2. The maximum shear stress is constant along the length of the beam
3. The slope of the elastic curve is zero at the fixed end
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1 and 2

IES-2. A cantilever of length L, moment of inertia I. Young's modulus E carries a concentrated load W
at the middle of its length. The slope of cantilever at the free end is: [IES-2001]
(a)
2
2
WL
EI
(b)
2
4
WL
EI
(c)
2
8
WL
EI
(d)
2
16
WL
EI

IES-3. The two cantilevers A and
B shown in the figure have
the same uniform cross-
section and the same
material. Free end
deflection of cantilever 'A' is
.

[IES-2000]
The value of mid- span deflection of the cantilever B is:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2
a b c d 2
2 3
o o o o

IES-4. A cantilever beam of rectangular cross-section is subjected to a load W at its free end. If the
depth of the beam is doubled and the load is halved, the deflection of the free end as compared
to original deflection will be: [IES-1999]
(a) Half (b) One-eighth (c) One-sixteenth (d) Double

IES-5. A simply supported beam of constant flexural rigidity and length 2L carries a concentrated load
'P' at its mid-span and the deflection under the load iso . If a cantilever beam of the same
flexural rigidity and length 'L' is subjected to load 'P' at its free end, then the deflection at the
free end will be: [IES-1998]
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1
a b c 2 d 4
2
o o o o

IES-6. Two identical cantilevers are
loaded as shown in the respective
figures. If slope at the free end of
the cantilever in figure E is , the
slope at free and of the cantilever
in figure F will be:

Figure E Figure F
[IES-
1997]
(a)
1
3
u (b)
1
2
u (c)
2
3
u (d) u

IES-7. A cantilever beam carries a load W uniformly distributed over its entire length. If the same load
is placed at the free end of the same cantilever, then the ratio of maximum deflection in the first
case to that in the second case will be:
[IES-1996]
(a) 3/8 (b) 8/3 (c) 5/8 (d) 8/5

IES-8. The given figure shows a cantilever
of span 'L' subjected to a
concentrated load 'P' and a moment
'M' at the free end. Deflection at the
free end is given by

[IES-1996]
(a)
2 2
2 3
PL ML
EI EI
+ (b)
2 3
2 3
ML PL
EI EI
+ (c)
2 3
3 2
ML PL
EI EI
+ (d)
2 3
2 48
ML PL
EI EI
+

IES-9. For a cantilever beam of length 'L', flexural rigidity EI and loaded at its free end by a
concentrated load W, match List I with List II and select the correct answer.
List I List II
A. Maximum bending moment 1. Wl
B. Strain energy 2. Wl
2
/2EI
C. Maximum slope 3. Wl
3
/3EI
D. Maximum deflection 4. W
2
l
2
/6EI
(a) 1 4 3 2 (b) 1 4 2 3
(c) 4 2 1 3 (d) 4 3 1 2

IES-10. Maximum deflection of a cantilever beam of length l carrying uniformly distributed load w per
unit length will be: [IES- 2008]
(a) wl
4
/ (EI) (b) w l
4
/ (4 EI) (c) w l
4
/ (8 EI) (d) w l
4
/ (384 EI)
[Where E = modulus of elasticity of beam material and I = moment of inertia of beam cross-
section]

IES-11. A cantilever beam of length l is subjected to a concentrated load P at a distance of l/3 from the
free end. What is the deflection of the free end of the beam? (EI is the flexural rigidity)[IES-
2004]
(a)
3
2
81
Pl
EI
(b)
3
3
81
Pl
EI
(c)
3
14
81
Pl
EI
(d)
3
15
81
Pl
EI


IES-12. A 2 m long beam BC carries a single
concentrated load at its mid-span and is
simply supported at its ends by two
cantilevers AB = 1 m long and CD = 2 m
long as shown in the figure.
The shear force at end A of the cantilever
AB will be
(a) Zero (b) 40 kg
(c) 50 kg (d) 60 kg

[IES-1997]
IES-13. Assertion (A): In a simply supported beam subjected to a concentrated load P at mid-span, the
elastic curve slope becomes zero under the load. [IES-2003]
Reason (R): The deflection of the beam is maximum at mid-span.

IES-14. At a certain section at a distance 'x' from one of the supports of a simply supported beam, the
intensity of loading, bending moment and shear force arc Wx, Mx and Vx respectively. If the
intensity of loading is varying continuously along the length of the beam, then the invalid
relation is: [IES-2000]

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
a Slope b c d
x x x x
x x x x
x
M dM d M dV
Q V W W
V dx dx dx
= = = =
IES-15. The bending moment equation, as a function of distance x measured from the left end, for a
simply supported beam of span L m carrying a uniformly distributed load of intensity w N/m
will be given by [IES-1999]

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3 2
2 3 2
wL w wL w
a M= L-x - L-x Nm b M= x - x Nm
2 2 2 2
wL w wL wLx
c M= L-x - L-x Nm d M= x - Nm
2 2 2 2

IES-16. A simply supported beam with width 'b' and depth d carries a central load W and undergoes
deflection at the centre. If the width and depth are interchanged, the deflection at the centre
of the beam would attain the value [IES-1997]

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 3 3/ 2
a b c d
d d d d
b b b b
o o o o
| | | | | |
| | |
\ . \ . \ .

IES-17. A simply supported beam of rectangular section 4 cm by 6 cm carries a mid-span concentrated
load such that the 6 cm side lies parallel to line of action of loading; deflection under the load is
. If the beam is now supported with the 4 cm side parallel to line of action of loading, the
deflection under the load will be: [IES-1993]
(a) 0.44 (b) 0.67 (c) 1.5 (d) 2.25

IES-18. A simply supported beam carrying a concentrated load W at mid-span deflects by 1 under the
load. If the same beam carries the load W such that it is distributed uniformly over entire
length and undergoes a deflection 2 at the mid span. The ratio 1: 2 is:[IES-1995; GATE-1994]
(a) 2: 1 (b) 2 : 1 (c) 1: 1 (d) 1: 2
Moment Area Method
IES-19. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists:
[IES-1997]
List-I List-II
A. Toughness 1. Moment area method
B. Endurance strength 2. Hardness
C. Resistance to abrasion 3. Energy absorbed before fracture in a
tension test
D. Deflection in a beam 4. Fatigue loading
(a) 4 3 1 2 (b) 4 3 2 1
(c) 3 4 2 1 (d) 3 4 1 2
Slope and Deflection at a Section
IAS-1. Which one of the following is represented by the area of the S.F diagram from one end upto a
given location on the beam? [IAS-2004]
(a) B.M. at the location (b) Load at the location
(c) Slope at the location (d) Deflection at the location
IAS-2. Which one of the following is the correct statement? [IAS-2007]
If for a beam 0
dM
dx
= for its whole length, the beam is a cantilever:
(a) Free from any load (b) Subjected to a concentrated load at its free end
(c) Subjected to an end moment (d) Subjected to a udl over its whole span

IAS-3. In a cantilever beam, if the length is doubled while keeping the cross-section and the
concentrated load acting at the free end the same, the deflection at the free end will increase by
[IAS-1996]
(a) 2.66 times (b) 3 times (c) 6 times (d) 8 times
Conjugate Beam Method
IAS-4. By conjugate beam method, the slope at any section of an actual beam is equal to:[IAS-2002]
(a) EI times the S.F. of the conjugate beam (b) EI times the B.M. of the conjugate beam
(c) S.F. of conjugate beam (d) B.M. of the conjugate beam

IAS-5. I = 375 10
-6
m
4
; l = 0.5 m
E = 200 GPa
Determine the stiffness of the beam
shown in the above figure
(a) 12 10
10
N/m
(b) 10 10
10
N/m
(c) 4 10
10
N/m
(d) 8 10
10
N/m

[IES-2002]


OBJECTIVE ANSWERS
GATE-1. Ans. (d)
2
2
d y
EI M
dx
= . Since it is second order differential equation so we need two boundary
conditions to solve it.
GATE-2. Ans. (d)
3
1
Wl
48EI
o = = and
4
3
2
W
5 l
5Wl l
384EI 384EI
o
| |
|
\ .
= = Therefore 1: 2 = 5: 8
GATE-3. Ans. (a) Maximum deflection () =
3
Wl
48EI

To reduce, , increase the area moment of Inertia.
GATE-4. Ans. (a)
GATE-5. Ans. (b) At any distance x
X-Section at x distance
Area moment of inertia about
Neutral-axis of cross-section

3
3
12 121
x
b
t
bxt
l
I
= =

GATE-6. Ans. (d) From strain energy method

1 2
0
1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 2
3 3 3 3
0 0
[Here, ]
2
6 6 3
2
2
121
M dx
U M Px
EI
P x l P l P l l P
x dx
bxt Ebt Ebt Ebt
E dx
= =
= = = =
}
} }

Deflection at free end

3
3
6 U P l
P Ebt
o
c
= =
c

IES
IES-1. Ans. (b)
IES-2. Ans. (c)
2
2
2
2 8
L
W
WL
EI EI
q

= =
IES-3. Ans. (c)
3 2 3
WL WL 5WL
L
3EI 2EI 6EI
o
| |
= + =
|
\ .

2 3 3
mid
at x L
W 2Lx x 5WL
y
EI 2 6 6EI
o
=
| |
= = =
|
\ .

IES-4. Ans. (c)
3 3 3
3 3
12 4
Deflectionin cantilever
3 3
= = =
Wl Wl Wl
EI Eah Eah

b
x
l
P
h

( )
3 3
3 3
4 1 4
If h is doubled, and W is halved, New deflection =
16
2 2
=
Wl Wl
Eah
Ea h

IES-5. Ans. (c)
( )
3
3
2
for simply supportedbeam
48 6
o = =
W L
WL
EI EI

3
anddeflectionfor Cantilever 2
3
o = =
WL
EI

IES-6. Ans. (d) When a B. M is applied at the free end of cantilever,
( )
2
/ 2
2
PL L
ML PL
EI EI EI
u = = =
When a cantilever is subjected to a single concentrated load at free end, then
2
2
PL
EI
u =
IES-7. Ans. (a)
3 3
3
8 3 8
Wl Wl
EI EI
=
IES-8. Ans. (b)
IES-9. Ans. (b)
IES-10. Ans. (c)
IES-11. Ans. (d)

( )
o
| | | | | |
+
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
= =
= =
| |
|
\ .
= =
` `
) )
=
=
A
3 3
2
2
max
3
3
Moment Area method gives us
1 2Pl 2l l 4
l
Area 2 3 3 3 9
x
EI EI
Pl 2 7 14 Pl
EI 9 9 81 EI
2l
W
Wa l a l 2l / 3 3
Alternatively Y
EI 2 6 EI 2 6
9 2
Wl 4
EI 9 18
14 Wl
81 EI

IES-12. Ans. (c) Reaction force on B and C is same 100/2 = 50 kg. And we know that shear force is same
throughout its length and equal to load at free end.
IES-13. Ans. (a)
IES-14. Ans. (a)
IES-15. Ans. (b)
IES-16. Ans. (b) Deflection at center
3 3
3
Wl Wl
48EI bd
48E
12
o = =
| |
|
\ .

3 3 3 2 2
2 2 3 3
Insecondcase, deflection
48
48 48
12 12
o o ' = = = = =
' | | | |
| |
\ . \ .
Wl Wl Wl d d
EI b b db bd
E E

IES-17. Ans. (d) Use above explanation
IES-18. Ans. (d)
3
1
Wl
48EI
o = = and
4
3
2
W
5 l
5Wl l
384EI 384EI
o
| |
|
\ .
= = Therefore 1: 2 = 5: 8
IES-19. Ans. (c)
IAS
IAS-1. Ans. (a)
IAS-2. Ans. (c) udl or point load both vary with x. But
if we apply Bending Moment (M) = const.
and 0
dM
dx
=

IAS-3. Ans. (d)

3
3
3 2 2
1 1
L PL
L 8
3EI L
o
o o
o
| |
= = =
|
\ .

IAS-4. Ans. (c)
IAS-5. Ans. (c) Stiffness means required load for unit deformation. BMD of the given beam

Loading diagram of conjugate beam

The deflection at the free end of the actual beam = BM of the at fixed point of conjugate beam

3
1 2 1 2 3
2 3 2 2 2 2 3 2
ML L WL L WL L WL
y L L L L L
EI EI EI EI

= + + + + =

Or stiffness =
( ) ( )
( )
9 6
10
3 3
2 200 10 375 10
2
4 10 /
3
3 0.5
W EI
N m
y L
-

= = =

Question: Consider the signboard mounting shown in figure below. The wind load acting perpendicular
to the plane of the figure is F = 100 N. We wish to limit the deflection, due to bending, at point
A of the hollow cylindrical pole of outer diameter 150 mm to 5 mm. Find the wall thickness for
the pole. [Assume E = 2.0 X 10
11
N/m
2
]


Answer: Given: F = 100 N; d0 = 150 mm, 0.15 my = 5 mm; E = 2.0 X 1O
11
N/m
2

Thickness of pole, t
The system of signboard mounting can be considered as a cantilever loaded at A i.e. W = 100
N and also having anticlockwise moment of M = 100 x 1 = 100 Nm at the free end. Deflection
of cantilever having concentrated load at the free end,

3 2
3 3
3
11 11
3 3
6 4
3 11 11
WL ML
y
3EI 2EI
100 5 100 5
5 10
3 2.0 10 I 2 2.0 10 I
1 100 5 100 5
or I 5.417 10 m
5 10 3 2.0 10 2 2.0 10
= +

= +

(
= + =
(

( )
( )
4 4
0 i
6 4 4
i
But I d d
64
5.417 10 0.15 d
64
t
t
=
=

i
0 i
or d 0.141m or 141mm
d d 150 141
t 4.5mm
2 2
=

= = =

Question: Find the slope and deflection at the free end of a cantilever beam of length 6m as loaded
shown in figure below, using method of superposition. Evaluate their numerical value using E
= 200 GPa, I = 110
-4
m
4
and W = 1 kN.
Answer: We have to use superposition
theory.
1
st
consider

3 3
2 2
(3 ) 2 8
3 3
(3 ).2 6
2 2
c
c
W PL W
EI EI EI
PL W W
EI EI EI
= = =
= = =

1 c
8W 6 32
at A due to this load( ) = .(6 2) = 4
EI
c
W W
Deflection
EI EI
q + - + =


( )
2
nd
3
B
2
2 consider:
2 4
128
3 3
(2 ) 4 16
2
at A due to this load( )
224W
= (6 4)=
3EI
B
B B
W
W
EI EI
W W
EI EI
Deflection
q
q
= =
= =
+ -

.

3
3
2
A
6 72
( )
3
6 18

2
rd
3 consider :
A
W W
EI EI
W W
EI EI
q
= = =
= =

( )
( )
( )
1

3
A
9 4
2 3
3
9 4
Apply superpositioning formula
40 10
6 16 18 40
=
200 10 10
32 224 72 40 563W
=
3 3EI
563(10 )
= 8.93mm
3 (200 10 ) 10
B c
W W W W
EI EI EI EI
W W W W
EI EI EI EI
-
-
+ + = + + = =

= + + = + + =
=

Question: If two cantilever beams of identical dimensions but made of mild steel and grey cast iron are
subjected to same point load at the free end, within elastic limit, which one will deflect more
and why?

Answer: Grey cost iron will deflect more.

We know that a cantilever beam of length 'L' end load 'P' will deflect at free end
( d) =
3
3
PL
EI

Mild steel
1
125 and E 200
Cast Iron
E
E GPa GPa
d \
; ;

Question: A uniform cantilever beam (EI = constant) of length L is carrying a concentrated load P at its
free end. What would be its slope at the (i) Free end and (ii) Built in end
Answer: (i) Free end, =
2
PL
2EI

(ii) Built-in end, 0 =

6. Bending Stress in Beam
6.1 Euler Bernoullis Equation or (Bending stress formula) or Bending
Equation
o
= =
M E
y I R
Where o = Bending Stress
M = Bending Moment
I = Moment of Inertia
E = Modulus of elasticity
R = Radius of curvature
y = Distance of the fibre from NA (Neutral axis)
6.2 Assumptions in Simple Bending Theory
All of the foregoing theory has been developed for the case of pure bending i.e. constant B.M along
the length of the beam. In such case
- The shear force at each c/s is zero.
- Normal stress due to bending is only produced.
- Beams are initially straight
- The material is homogenous and isotropic i.e. it has a uniform composition and its
mechanical properties are the same in all directions
- The stress-strain relationship is linear and elastic
- Youngs Modulus is the same in tension as in compression
- Sections are symmetrical about the plane of bending
- Sections which are plane before bending remain plane after bending
6.3
Chapter-6 Bending Stress in Beam S K Mondals
1
max
o o = =
t
Mc
I

2
min
o o = =
c
Mc
I
(Minimum in sense of sign)
6.4 Section Modulus (Z)
I
Z =
y
- Z is a function of beam c/s only
- Z is other name of the strength of the beam
- The strength of the beam sections depends mainly on the section modulus
- The flexural formula may be written as, o =
M
Z
- Rectangular c/s of width is "b" & depth "h" with sides horizontal, Z =
2
6
bh
- Square beam with sides horizontal, Z =
3
6
a
- Square c/s with diagonal horizontal, Z =
3
6 2
a
- Circular c/s of diameter "d", Z =
3
32
d t
A log diameter "d" is available. It is proposed to cut out a strongest beam
from it. Then
Z =
2 2
( )
6
b d b
Therefore, Zmax =
3
d
for b =
9 3
bd
6.5 Flexural Rigidity (EI)
Reflects both
- Stiffness of the material (measured by E)
- Proportions of the c/s area (measured by I )
6.6 Axial Rigidity = EA
6.7 Beam of uniform strength
It is one is which the maximum bending stress is same in every section along the longitudinal axis.
For it
2
bh M o
Where b = Width of beam
h = Height of beam
To make Beam of uniform strength the section of the beam may be varied by
- Keeping the width constant throughout the length and varying the depth, (Most widely used)
- Keeping the depth constant throughout the length and varying the width
- By varying both width and depth suitably.
6.8 Bending stress due to additional Axial thrust (P).
A shaft may be subjected to a combined bending and axial thrust. This type of situation arises in
various machine elements.
If P = Axial thrust
Then direct stress (
d
o ) = P / A (stress due to axial thrust)
This direct stress (
d
o ) may be tensile or compressive depending upon the load P is tensile or
compressive.
And the bending stress (
b
o ) =
My
I
is varying linearly from zero at centre and extremum (minimum
or maximum) at top and bottom fibres.
If P is compressive then
- At top fibre
P My
A I
o = + (compressive)
- At mid fibre
P
A
o = (compressive)
- At bottom fibre
P
A
o =
My
I
(compressive)
6.9 Load acting eccentrically to one axis
-
( )
max
o
= +
P e y
P
A I
where e is the eccentricity at which P is act.
-
( )
min
o
=
P e y
P
A I
Condition for No tension in any section
- For no tension in any section, the eccentricity must not exceed
2
2k
d
[Where d = depth of the section; k = radius of gyration of c/s]
- For rectangular section (b x h) ,
6
h
e s i.e load will be 2
3
h
e = of the middle section.
- For circular section of diameter d ,
8
d
e s i.e. diameter of the kernel, 2
4
d
e =
For hollow circular section of diameter d ,
2 2
8
D d
e
D
+
s i.e. diameter of the kernel,
+
s
2 2
2 .
4
D d
e
D

Bending equation
GATE-1. A cantilever beam has the square
cross section 10mm 10 mm. It
carries a transverse load of 10 N.
Considering only the bottom
fibres of the beam, the correct
representation of the longitudinal
variation of the bending stress is:

[GATE-2005]

GATE-2. Two beams, one having square cross section and another circular cross-section, are subjected to
the same amount of bending moment. If the cross sectional area as well as the material of both
the beams are the same then [GATE-2003]
(a) Maximum bending stress developed in both the beams is the same
(b) The circular beam experiences more bending stress than the square one
(c) The square beam experiences more bending stress than the circular one
(d) As the material is same both the beams will experience same deformation
Section Modulus
GATE-3. Match the items in Columns I and II. [GATE-2006]
Column-I Column-II
P. Addendum 1. Cam
Q. Instantaneous centre of velocity 2. Beam
R. Section modulus 3. Linkage
S. Prime circle 4. Gear
(a) P 4, Q 2, R 3, S l (b) P 4, Q 3, R 2, S 1
(c) P 3, Q 2, R 1, S 4 (d) P 3, Q 4, R 1, S 2
Combined direct and bending stress
GATE-4. For the component loaded with a force F as shown in the figure, the axial stress at the corner
point P is: [GATE-2008]

(a)
3
4
) 3 (
b
b L F
(b)
3
4
) 3 (
b
b L F +
(c)
3
4
) 4 3 (
b
b L F
(d)
3
4
) 2 3 (
b
b L F

Bending equation
IES-1. Beam A is simply supported at its ends and carries udl of intensity w over its entire length. It is
made of steel having Young's modulus E. Beam B is cantilever and carries a udl of intensity w/4
over its entire length. It is made of brass having Young's modulus E/2. The two beams are of
same length and have same cross-sectional area. If A and B denote the maximum bending
stresses developed in beams A and B, respectively, then which one of the following is correct?
[IES-2005]
(a) A/B (b) A/B < 1.0
(c) A/B > 1.0 (d) A/B depends on the shape of cross-section

IES-2. If the area of cross-section of a circular section beam is made four times, keeping the loads,
length, support conditions and material of the beam unchanged, then the qualities (List-I) will
change through different factors (List-II). Match the List-I with the List-II and select the correct
answer using the code given below the Lists: [IES-2005]
List-I List-II
A. Maximum BM 1. 8
B. Deflection 2. 1
C. Bending Stress 3. 1/8
D. Section Modulus 4. 1/16
(a) 3 1 2 4 (b) 2 4 3 1
(c) 3 4 2 1 (d) 2 1 3 4

IES-3. Consider the following statements in case of beams: [IES-2002]
1. Rate of change of shear force is equal to the rate of loading at a particular section
2. Rate of change of bending moment is equal to the shear force at a particular suction.
3. Maximum shear force in a beam occurs at a point where bending moment is either zero or
bending moment changes sign
Which of the above statements are correct?
(a) 1 alone (b) 2 alone (c) 1 and 2 (d) 1, 2 and 3

IES-4. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the code given below the Lists:
[IES-2006]
List-I (State of Stress) List-II (Kind of Loading)

1. Combined bending and torsion of circular
shaft

2. Torsion of circular shaft

3. Thin cylinder subjected to internal
pressure

4. Tie bar subjected to tensile force
(a) 2 1 3 4 (b) 3 4 2 1
(c) 2 4 3 1 (d) 3 1 2 4

IES-4a. A T-section beam is simply supported and subjected to a uniform distributed load over its whole
span. Maximum longitudinal stress at [IES-2011]
(a) Top fibre of the flange (b) The junction of web and flange
(c) The mid-section of the web (d) The bottom fibre of the web

Section Modulus
IES-5. Two beams of equal cross-sectional area are subjected to equal bending moment. If one beam
has square cross-section and the other has circular section, then [IES-1999]
(a) Both beams will be equally strong
(b) Circular section beam will be stronger
(c) Square section beam will be stronger
(d) The strength of the beam will depend on the nature of loading

IES-6. A beam cross-section is used in two
different orientations as shown in the
given figure:
Bending moments applied to the
beam in both cases are same. The
maximum bending stresses induced
in cases (A) and (B) are related as:
(a) 4
A B
o o = (b) 2
A B
o o =
(c)
2
B
A
o
o = (d)
4
B
A
o
o =

[IES-1997]

IES-6(i). A beam with a rectangular section of 120 mm 60 mm, designed to be placed vertically is
placed horizontally by mistake. If the maximum stress is to be limited, the reduction in load
carrying capacity would be [IES-2012]
()
()
()
()

IES-7. A horizontal beam with square cross-section is simply supported with sides of the square
horizontal and vertical and carries a distributed loading that produces maximum bending stress
a in the beam. When the beam is placed with one of the diagonals horizontal the maximum
bending stress will be:
[IES-1993]

1
(a) (b) (c) 2 (d) 2
2
o o o o

IES-7(i). The ratio of the moments of resistance of a square beam (Z) when square section is placed (i)
with two sides horizontal (Z1) and (ii) with a diagonal horizontal (Z2 ) as shown is
[IES-2012]
()
()
()
()

IES-8. Which one of the following combinations of angles will carry the maximum load as a column?
[IES-1994]

IES-9. Assertion (A): For structures steel I-beams preferred to other shapes. [IES-1992]
Reason (R): In I-beams a large portion of their cross-section is located far from the neutral axis.
IES-10. Assertion (A): A column subjected to eccentric load will have its stress at centroid independent
of the eccentricity. [IES-1994]
Reason (R): Eccentric loads in columns produce torsion.
IES-11. For the configuration of loading shown in the given figure, the stress in fibre AB is given by:
[IES-1995]
(a) P/A (tensile) (b)
. .5
xx
P Pe
A I
| |
|
\ .
(Compressive)
(c)
. .5
xx
P Pe
A I
| |
+
|
\ .
(Compressive) (d) P/A (Compressive)

IES-12. A column of square section 40 mm 40 mm,
fixed to the ground carries an eccentric load
P of 1600 N as shown in the figure.
If the stress developed along the edge CD is
1.2 N/mm
2
, the stress along the edge AB will
be:

(a) 1.2 N/mm
2

(b) +1 N/mm
2

(c) +0.8 N/mm
2

(d) 0.8 N/mm
2

[IES-1999]

IES-13. A short column of symmetric cross-section
made of a brittle material is subjected to an
eccentric vertical load P at an eccentricity e. To
avoid tensile stress in the short column, the
eccentricity e should be less than or equal to:
(a) h/12 (b) h/6
(c) h/3 (d) h/2

[IES-2001]
IES-14. A short column of external diameter D and internal diameter d carries an eccentric load W. Toe
greatest eccentricity which the load can have without producing tension on the cross-section of
the column would be: [IES-1999]

2 2 2 2 2 2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
8 8 8 8
+ + + + D d D d D d D d
d D

IES-15 The ratio of the core of a rectangular section to the area of the rectangular section when used as
a short column is [IES-2010]
(a)
1
9
(b)
1
36

(c)
1
18
(d)
1
24

Bending equation
IAS-1. Consider the cantilever loaded as shown below: [IAS-2004]

What is the ratio of the maximum compressive to the maximum tensile stress?
(a) 1.0 (b) 2.0 (c) 2.5 (d) 3.0

IAS-2. A 0.2 mm thick tape goes over a frictionless pulley of 25 mm diameter. If E of the material is
100 GPa, then the maximum stress induced in the tape is: [IAS 1994]

Section Modulus
IAS-3. A pipe of external diameter 3 cm and internal diameter 2 cm and of length 4 m is supported at
its ends. It carries a point load of 65 N at its centre. The sectional modulus of the pipe will be:
[IAS-2002]
(a)
3
65
64
cm
t
(b)
3
65
32
cm
t
(c)
3
65
96
cm
t
(d)
3
65
128
cm
t

IAS-4. A Cantilever beam of rectangular cross-section is 1m deep and 0.6 m thick. If the beam were to
be 0.6 m deep and 1m thick, then the beam would. [IAS-1999]
(a) Be weakened 0.5 times
(b) Be weakened 0.6 times
(c) Be strengthened 0.6 times
(d) Have the same strength as the original beam because the cross-sectional area remains the
same

IAS-5. A T-beam shown in the given figure is
subjected to a bending moment such that
plastic hinge forms. The distance of the neutral
axis from D is (all dimensions are in mm)
(a) Zero
(b) 109 mm
(c) 125 mm
(d) 170 mm

[IAS-2001]
IAS-6. Assertion (A): I, T and channel sections are preferred for beams. [IAS-2000]
Reason(R): A beam cross-section should be such that the greatest possible amount of area is as
far away from the neutral axis as possible.

IAS-7. If the T-beam cross-section shown in
the given figure has bending stress of
30 MPa in the top fiber, then the
stress in the bottom fiber would be (G
is centroid)
(a) Zero
(b) 30 MPa
(c) 80 MPa
(d) 50 Mpa

[IAS-2000]
IAS-8. Assertion (A): A square section is more economical in bending than the circular section of same
area of cross-section. [IAS-1999]
Reason (R): The modulus of the square section is less than of circular section of same area of
cross-section.
Bimetallic Strip
IAS-9. A straight bimetallic strip of copper and steel is heated. It is free at ends. The strip, will:[IAS-
2002]
(a) Expand and remain straight (b) Will not expand but will bend
(c) Will expand and bend also (d) Twist only
IAS-10. A short vertical column having a
square cross-section is subjected to an
axial compressive force, centre of
pressure of which passes through point
R as shown in the above figure.
Maximum compressive stress occurs at
point
(a) S
(b) Q
(c) R
(d) P

[IAS-2002]
IAS-11. A strut's cross-sectional area A is subjected to load P a point S (h, k) as shown in the given
figure. The stress at the point Q (x, y) is: [IAS-2000]
(a)
x y
P Phy Pkx
A I I
+ +
(b)
y x
P Phx Pky
A I I

(c)
y x
P Phy Pkx
A I I
+ +
(d)
y x
P Phx Pky
A I I
+

OBJECTIVE ANSWERS
GATE-1. Ans. (a)
( )
( )
x 4
10 x 0.005
M My
M P.x or 60.(x) MPa
I y I
0.01
12
o
o

= = = = =

At x 0; 0
At x 1m; 60MPa
o
o
= =
= =

And it is linear as x o
GATE-2. Ans. (b)
M E My
; or ;
I y I
o
o
= = =

2
2
sq cir 3 4 3 3 3
3
a d
M M
6M 32M 4 M 22.27M d 2 2
; a
1
4 a d d a a
a.a
12
64
t t t
o o
t t
| | | |
| |
(
\ . \ .
= = = = = = =
(

sq cir
o o <
GATE-3. Ans. (b)
GATE-4. Ans. (d) Total Stress = Direct stress + Stress due to Moment
=
2 3
( )
4 2 ( )
12
P My F F L b b
A I b b b
-
+ = +

IES
IES-1. Ans. (d) Bending stress ( )
My
, y and I both depends on the
I
o =

A
B
Shape of cross section so depends on the shape of cross section
o
o

IES-2. Ans. (b) Diameter will be double, D = 2d.
A. Maximum BM will be unaffected
B. deflection ratio
4
1
2
EI d 1
EI 4 16
| |
= =
|
\ .

C. Bending stress
( )
3
2
4
1
M d / 2
My d 1
or Bending stress ratio
I D 8 d
64
o
o
o t
| |
= = = = =
|
\ .

D. Selection Modulus ratio
3
2 2 1
1 1 1
Z I y D
8
Z y I d
| |
= = = =
|
\ .

IES-3. Ans. (c)
IES-4. Ans. (c)
IES-4a. Ans. (d)
IES-5. Ans. (b) If D is diameter of circle and 'a' the side of square section,
2 2
4
4
d a or d a
t
t
= =
Z for circular section =
2 3 3
; and Z for square section =
32 6 4
d a a t
t
=
IES-6. Ans. (b) Z for rectangular section is
2
6
bd
,
2
2
3 3
2
2
,
6 24 6 12
| |
|
\ .
= = = =
A B
b
b
b
b
b b
Z Z

3 3
. . , 2
24 12
= = = = o o o o o o
A A B B A B A B
b b
M Z Z or or

IES-6(i). Ans. (c)
IES-7. Ans. (c) Bending stress =
M
Z

For rectangular beam with sides horizontal and vertical, Z =
3
6
a

For same section with diagonal horizontal, Z =
3
6 2
a

Ratio of two stresses = 2

IES-7(i). Ans. (c)
IES-8. Ans. (a)
IES-9. Ans. (a)
IES-10. Ans. (c) A is true and R is false.
IES-11. Ans. (b) (compressive), (tensile) o o = = =
d x
x x
P My Pky
A I I

IES-12. Ans. (d) Compressive stress at CD = 1.2 N/mm
2
=
6 1600 6
1 1
1600 20
| | | |
+ = +
| |
\ . \ .
P e e
A b

( )
2
6 1600
or 0.2. Sostressat 1 0.2 0.8 N/mm (com)
20 1600
= = =
e
AB
IES-13. Ans. (b)
IES-14. Ans. (c)
IES-15 Ans. (c)
1
4
2 6 6 18
b h bh
A = =
IAS
IAS-1. Ans. (b) =
compressive, Max
2
at lower endof A.
3
o
| |
=
|
\ .
My M h
I I

tensile, max = at upper endof
3
| |
|
\ .
M h
B
I

IAS-2. Ans. (d)
R
E
y
=
o
Here y = 1 . 0
2
2 . 0
= mm = 0.1 x 10
-3
m, R =
2
25
mm = 12.5 x 10
-3
m
or
3
3 3
10 5 . 12
10 1 . 0 10 100

= o MPa = 800MPa
IAS-3. Ans. (c)
( )
4 4
3
3 2
64
Section modulus(z) cm
3
2
I
y
t

= = =
3
65
96
cm
t

IAS-4. Ans. (b)
= = =
3
3
1
I 0.6 1
z 1.2m
y 0.5

= = =
3
3
2
I 1 0.6
and z 0.72m
y 0.3

2
1
z 0.72
0.6times
z 1.2
= =

IAS-5. Ans. (b)

IAS-6. Ans. (a) Because it will increase area moment of inertia, i.e. strength of the beam.
IAS-7. Ans. (c)
( )
1 1
1 2 1
2 2
2
30
110 30 80
30
M
or y MPa
I y y y
o o o
o = = = = =
As top fibre in tension so bottom fibre will be in compression.
IAS-8. ans. (c)
IAS-9. Ans. (c) As expansion of copper will be more than steel.
IAS-10. Ans. (a) As direct and bending both the stress is compressive here.
IAS-11. Ans. (b) All stress are compressive, direct stress,
(compressive), (compressive) o o = = =
d x
x x
P My Pky
A I I

and (compressive) o = =
y
y y
Mx Phx
I I


Pr evi ous Convent i onal Quest i ons w i t h Answ er s
Question: A Simply supported beam AB of span length 4 m supports a uniformly distributed
load of intensity q = 4 kN/m spread over the entire span and a concentrated load P =
2 kN placed at a distance of 1.5 m from left end A. The beam is constructed of a
rectangular cross-section with width b = 10 cm and depth d = 20 cm. Determine the
maximum tensile and compressive stresses developed in the beam to bending.
Answer:

A B
R + R = 2 + 44.........(i)

A
-R 4 + 2(4-1.5) + (44)2=0.......(ii)

A B A
or R = 9.25 kN, R =18-R = 8.75 kN
if 0 x 2.5 m

( )
x B
x
M =R x - 4x. -2(x-2.5)
2

2 2
=8.75x - 2x - 2x + 5 = 6.75x - 2x + 5 ...(ii)

From (i) & (ii) we find out that bending movment at x = 2.1875 m in(i)
gives maximum bending movement

2
max
dM
[Just find for both the casses]
dx
M 8.25 2.1875 2 1875 9.57 7 K kNm = =

Area movement of Inertia (I) =
3 3
5 4
0.1 0.2
6.6667 10
12 12
bh
m
= =
Maximum distance from NA is y = 10 cm = 0.1m

3
2 max 5
(9.57 10 ) 0.1
14.355
6.6667 10

= = =
My
N
MPa
m
I

Therefore maximum tensile stress in the lowest point in the beam is 14.355 MPa and
maximum compressive stress in the topmost fiber of the beam is -14.355 MPa.

Question: A simply supported beam made of rolled steel joist (I-section: 450mm 200mm) has
a span of 5 m and it carriers a central concentrated load W. The flanges are
strengthened by two 300mm 20mm plates, one riveted to each flange over the
entire length of the flanges. The second moment of area of the joist about the
principal bending axis is 35060 cm
4
. Calculate
(i) The greatest central load the beam will carry if the bending stress in the
300mm/20mm plates is not to exceed 125 MPa.
A
B
R
A
R
B
X
1.5
4m
2KN
4kN/M
X
C/s
B=10cm
NA
(ii) The minimum length of the 300 mm plates required to restrict the maximum
bending stress is the flanges of the joist to 125 MPa.
Answer:

Moment of Inertia of the total section about X-X
(I) = moment of inertia of I section + moment of inertia of the plates about X-X axis.

2
3
30 2 45 2
35060 2 30 2
12 2 2

= + + +

4
101370 cm =

( ) ( )
6 8
(i) Greatest central point load(W):
For a simply supported beam a concentrated load at centre.
WL 5
M= 1.25
4 4
125 10 101370 10
.
517194
0.245
1.25W = 517194 or W = 413.76 kN
W
W
I
M Nm
y
= =

= = =

(ii) Suppose the cover plates are absent for a distance of x-meters from each support. Then at
these points the bending moment must not exceed moment of resistance of I section alone
i.e

( )
( )
8
6
35060 10
.
125 10 178878
0.245
I
Nm
y
= =
moment at x metres from each support Bending

W
= 178878
2
41760
, 178878
2
0.86464
leaving 0.86464 m from each support, for the
middle 5 - 20.86464 = 3.27 m the cover plate should be
provided.
x
or x
or x m
Hence
=
=
=

Question: A beam of rectangular cross-section 50 mm wide and 100 mm deep is simply
supported over a span of 1500 mm. It carries a concentrated load of 50 kN, 500 mm
from the left support.
Calculate: (i) The maximum tensile stress in the beam and indicate where it occurs:
(ii) The vertical deflection of the beam at a point 500 mm from the right support.
E for the material of the beam = 2 10
5
MPa.
Answer: Taking moment about L

R
R 1500 50 500
, 16.667
, 50
50 16.667=33.333 kN
R
L R
L
or R kN
or R R
R
=
=
+ =
=

Take a section from right R,
x-xat a distance x.

x
Bending moment (M ) .
R
R x = +

Therefore maximum bending moment will occur at 'c' Mmax=16.6671 KNm
(i) Moment of Inertia of beam cross-section

3 3
4 6 4
0.050 (0.100)
( ) = 4.166710
12 12

= =
bh
I m m

( )
3
2
max 6
Applying bending equation
0.001
16.67 10
M 2
or, / 200MPa
I 4.1667 10
E My
N m
y I

= = = = =

It will occure where M is maximum at point 'C'

2
x 2
(ii) Macaulay's method for determing the deflection
of the beam will be convenient as there is point load.
M 33.333 50 ( 0.5) = =
d y
EI x x
dx


2 2
2
1 2 2
2
3 3
1
1
Integrate both side we get
d 50
EI 33.333 ( 0.5)
2 2
x=0, y=0 gives c 0
x=1.5, y=0 gives
0=5.556(1.5) 8.333 1 1.5
, 6.945
= + +
=
+
=
y x
x c x c
dx
at
at
c
or c

3 3
5 6 6
5.556 8.333( 0.5) 6.945 1 2.43
2.43
, m = -2.9167mm[downward so -ive]
(210 10 ) (4.1667 10 )
EIy x x
or y
= =
=

Question: If the beam cross-section is rectangular having a width of 75 mm, determine the
required depth such that maximum bending stress induced in the beam does not
exceed 40 MN/m
2
Answer: Given: b =75 mm =0075 m,
max
=40 MN/m
2
Depth of the beam, d: Figure below shows a rectangular section of width b = 0075 m and
depth d metres. The bending is considered to take place about the horizontal neutral axis N.A.
shown in the figure. The maximum bending stress occurs at the outer fibres of the rectangular
section at a distance
d
2
above or below the neutral axis. Any fibre at a distance y from N.A. is
subjected to a bending stress,
My
I
= , where I denotes the second moment of area of the
rectangular section about the N.A. i.e.
3
bd
12
.
At the outer fibres, y =
d
2
, the maximum bending stress there becomes

( )
max 3 2
2
max
d
M
M 2
i
bd bd
12 6
bd
or M . (ii)
6

= =
=

For the condition of maximum strength i.e. maximum moment M, the product bd
2
must be a
maximum, since
max
is constant for a given material. To maximize the quantity bd
2
we
realise that it must be expressed in terms of one independent variable, say, b, and we may do
this from the right angle triangle relationship.
Multiplying both sides by b, we get
2 2 3
bd bD b =
To maximize bd
2
we take the first derivative of expression with respect to b and set it equal to
zero, as follows:

( ) ( )
= = = + = =
2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
d d
bd bD b D 3b b d 3b d 2b 0
db db

Solving, we have, depth d 2 b ...(iii)
This is the desired radio in order that the beam will carry a maximum moment M.
It is to be noted that the expression appearing in the denominator of the right side of eqn. (i) i.
e.
2
bd
6
is the section modulus (Z) of a rectangular bar. Thus, it follows; the section modulus is
actually the quantity to be maximized for greatest strength of the beam.
Using the relation (iii), we have
d = 2 x 0075 = 00106 m
Now, M =
max
o x Z =
max
o x
2
bd
6

Substituting the values, we get
M = 40
( )
2
0.075 0.106
6
= 0.005618 MNm

( ) ( )
2
max
M 0.005618
40MN/ m
Z 0.075 0.106 2 / 6
o = = =

Hence, the required depth d = 0106 m = 106 mm

7. Shear Stress in Beam
1. Shear stress in bending (t )
t =
vQ
Ib
Where, V = Shear force =
dM
dx
Q = Statical moment =
1
1
c
y
ydA
)
I = Moment of inertia
b = Width of beam c/s.
2. Statical Moment (Q)
Q=
1
1
c
y
ydA
)
= Shaded Area distance of the centroid of the shaded area from the neutral axis of
the c/s.
3. Variation of shear stress
Section Diagram Position of
max
t
max
t
Rectangular N.A
max
t =
3
2
V
A
max
1.5 t t =
mean

NA
t =
Circular N.A
max
4
3
t t =
mean
Chapter-7 Shear Stress in Beam S K Mondals
Triangular
6
h
from N.A
max
t 1.5t =
mean
NA
t = 1.33t
mean
Trapezoidal
6
h
from N.A
Section Diagram
max
t
Uni form
I-Section
In Flange,
( max t ) ( )
2
1
1
2 1
max
2 8
h
h
y
V
h
I
t
=
(
=

( )
1 2
max h
y
o t
=
=
In Web
( )
1
2 2 2
max 1 1 1
( )
8
y o
v
b h h th
It
t
=
(
= +

( )
1
2 2
1
m 1
2 8
h
im
y
vb
h h
It
t
=
(
=

4. Variation of shear stress for some more section [Asked in different examinations]
Non uniform I-Section Diagonally placed square section
L-section Hollow circle
T-section Cross
5. Rectangular section
- Maximum shear stress for rectangular beam:
max
t =
3
2
V
A
- For this, A is the area of the entire cross section
- Maximum shear occurs at the neutral axis
- Shear is zero at the top and bottom of beam
6. Shear stress in beams of thin walled profile section.
- Shear stress at any point in the wall distance "s" from the free edge
B
Shearing occurs here
A
V
x
O

force
= Thickness of the section
I = Moment of inrertia about NA
s
x
o
x
V
ydA
It
where V Shear
t
t
=
=
)
- Shear Flow (q)
q =
s
x
NA o
V
t ydA
I
t =
)
- Shear Force (F)
F=
)
qds
- Shear Centre (e)
Point of application of shear stress resultant

Shear Stress Variation
GATE-1. The transverse shear stress acting in a
beam of rectangular cross-section,
subjected to a transverse shear load, is:
(a) Variable with maximum at the
bottom of the beam
(b) Variable with maximum at the
top of the beam
(c) Uniform
(d) Variable with maximum on the
neutral axis

[IES-1995, GATE-2008]
GATE-2. The ratio of average shear stress to the maximum shear stress in a beam with a square cross-
section is: [GATE-1994, 1998]

2 3
(a) 1 (b) (c) (d) 2
3 2

IES-1. At a section of a beam, shear force is F with zero BM. The cross-section is square with side a.
Point A lies on neutral axis and point B is mid way between neutral axis and top edge, i.e. at
distance a/4 above the neutral axis. If t A and t B denote shear stresses at points A and B, then
what is the value of t A / t B? [IES-2005]
(a) 0 (b) (c) 4/3 (d) None of above

IES-2. A wooden beam of rectangular cross-section 10 cm deep by 5 cm wide carries maximum shear
force of 2000 kg. Shear stress at neutral axis of the beam section is: [IES-1997]
(a) Zero (b) 40 kgf/cm
2
(c) 60 kgf/cm
2
(d) 80 kgf/cm
2

IES-3. In case of a beam of circular cross-section subjected to transverse loading, the maximum shear
stress developed in the beam is greater than the average shear stress by:[IES-2006; 2008]
(a) 50% (b) 33% (c) 25% (d) 10%

IES-4. What is the nature of distribution of shear stress in a rectangular beam?
[IES-1993, 2004; 2008]
(a) Linear (b) Parabolic (c) Hyperbolic (d) Elliptic

IES-5. Which one of the following statements is correct? [IES 2007]
When a rectangular section beam is loaded transversely along the length, shear stress develops
on
(a) Top fibre of rectangular beam (b) Middle fibre of rectangular beam
(c) Bottom fibre of rectangular beam (d) Every horizontal plane

IES-6. A beam having rectangular cross-section is subjected to an external loading. The average shear
stress developed due to the external loading at a particular cross-section is
avg
t . What is the
maximum shear stress developed at the same cross-section due to the same loading?[IES-2009]
(a)
1
2
avg
t (b)
avg
t (c)
3
2
avg
t (d) 2
avg
t

IES-7. The transverse shear stress acting
in a beam of rectangular cross-
section, subjected to a transverse
shear load, is:
(a) Variable with maximum at the
bottom of the beam
(b) Variable with maximum at the
top of the beam
(c) Uniform
(d) Variable with maximum on the
neutral axis

[IES-1995, GATE-2008]
IES-8.

A cantilever is loaded by a concentrated load P at the free end as shown. The shear stress in the
element LMNOPQRS is under consideration. Which of the following figures represents the
shear stress directions in the cantilever?
[IES-2002]

IES-9. In I-Section of a beam subjected to transverse shear force, the maximum shear stress is
developed. [IES- 2008]
(a) At the centre of the web (b) At the top edge of the top flange
(c) At the bottom edge of the top flange (d) None of the above

IES-10. The given figure (all dimensions
are in mm) shows an I-Section of
the beam. The shear stress at point
P (very close to the bottom of the
flange) is 12 MPa. The stress at
point Q in the web (very close to
the flange) is:
(a) Indeterminable due to
incomplete data
(b) 60MPa
(c) 18 MPa
(d) 12 MPa

[IES-2001]
IES-11. Assertion (A): In an I-Section beam subjected to concentrated loads, the shearing force at any
section of the beam is resisted mainly by the web portion.
Reason (R): Average value of the shearing stress in the web is equal to the value of shearing
stress in the flange. [IES-1995]

IES-11(i). Statement (I): If the bending moment along the length of a beam is constant, then the beam
cross-section will not experience any shear stress. [IES-2012]
Statement (II): The shear force acting on the beam will be zero everywhere along its length.
Shear stress distribution for different section
IES-12. The shear stress distribution over a beam cross-section is
shown in the figure above. The beam is of
(a) Equal flange I-Section
(b) Unequal flange I-Section
(c) Circular cross-section
(d) T-section

[IES-2003]
Two beams of identical cross-section but of different materials carry same bending moment at a
particular section, then
1. The maximum bending stress at that section in the two beams will be same.
2. The maximum shearing stress at that section in the two beams will be same.
3. Maximum bending stress at that section will depend upon the elastic modulus of the beam
material.
4. Curvature of the beam having greater value of E will be larger.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 2, 3 and 4

IAS-2. In a loaded beam under bending [IAS-2003]
(a) Both the maximum normal and the maximum shear stresses occur at the skin fibres
(b) Both the maximum normal and the maximum shear stresses occur the neutral axis
(c) The maximum normal stress occurs at the skin fibres while the maximum shear stress
occurs at the neutral axis
(d) The maximum normal stress occurs at the neutral axis while the maximum shear stress
occurs at the skin fibres
Shear stress distribution for different section
IAS-3. Select the correct shear stress distribution diagram for a square beam with a diagonal in a
vertical position: [IAS-2002]

IAS-4. The distribution of shear stress of a beam is shown in the given figure. The cross-section of the
beam is: [IAS-2000]

IAS-5. A channel-section of the beam shown in the given figure carries a uniformly distributed load.
[IAS-2000]


Assertion (A): The line of action of the load passes through the centroid of the cross-section. The
beam twists besides bending.
Reason (R): Twisting occurs since the line of action of the load does not pass through the web of
the beam.

OBJECTIVE ANSWERS
GATE-1. Ans (d)
GATE-2. Ans. (b)

IES-1. Ans. (c)
IES-2. Ans. (c) Shear stress at neutral axis =
IES-3. Ans. (b) In the case of beams with circular cross-section, the ratio of the maximum shear stress to
average shear stress 4:3

IES-4. Ans. (b)

indicating a parabolic distribution of shear stress across the cross-section.
IES-5. Ans. (b)

IES-6. Ans. (c)
mean
t t
2
3
max
=
max mean
3
2
t t =
( )
2
2
2
3
2 2 A
4 3
2
B
2
3
a a
3 V
V y
.a
2 4 VAy 3 V 4
2 a
a 4y or
Ib 2 3 a a
3 V a
a
. . a 4
12
2 4 a
t
t
t
| |

|
\ .
= = = = =
| |
| |
|
`
|
|
\ .
\ . )
2
3 3 2000
60kg/cm
2 2 10 5
F
bd
= =
2
2
1
V h
y
4I 4
t
| |
=
|
\ .

Shear stress in a rectangular
beam, maximum shear stress,

Shear stress in a circular beam, the maximum
shear stress,

IES-7. Ans (d)

IES-8. Ans. (d)
IES-9. Ans. (a)
IES-10. Ans. (b)
IES-11. Ans. (c)
IES-11(i). Ans. (a)
IES-12. Ans. (b)

IAS-1. Ans. (a) Bending stress = and shear stress ( ) = both of them does not depends on
material of beam.

IAS-2. Ans. (c)

indicating a parabolic distribution of shear stress across the cross-section.
IAS-3. Ans. (d)
IAS-4. Ans. (b)
IAS-5. Ans. (c) Twisting occurs since the line of action of the load does not pass through the shear.

t = = t
max (average)
3F
1.5
2b. h
t = = t
t
max (average)
2
4F 4
3
3 d
4
mean
t t
2
3
max
=
o
My
I
t
VAy
Ib
2
2
1
V h
y
4I 4
t
| |
=
|
\ .
Q. (i)A cantilever of circular solid cross-section is fixed at one end and carries a concentrated load P
at the free end. The diameter at the free end is 200 mm and increases uniformly to 400 mm at
the fixed end over a length of 2 m. At what distance from the free end will the bending stresses
in the cantilever be maximum? Also calculate the value of the maximum bending stress if the
concentrated load P = 30 kN [15-Marks]

Ans. We have
M
.... (i )
y I
o
=
Taking distance x from the free end we have

( )
3
4
M = 30x kN.m = 30x 10 N.m
x
y = 100 + 200 100
2
100 50x mm
d
and I =
64
= +
t

Let d be the diameter at x from free end.

From equation (i), we have

- 300x + 200 + 100x = 0
x = 1m

( )
( )
4
4
4
400 200
200 x
2
64
200 100x
mm
64
(
t +
(

=
t +
=
( )
( )
( )
3
3
4
12
3
12
100 50x 10
30x 10
200 100x 10
64
960x
200 100x 10 ...... (i i )
o
+
=
t
+
o = +
t
( )
3
12
960x
200 100x 10
d
For max , 0
dx
= +
t
o
o =
12
10 960

t
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
4 3
x 3 100 200 100x 1. 200 100x 0

(
+ + + =
(

30kN
2000mm
(2m)
200
400

Hence maximum bending stress occurs at the midway and from equation (ii), maximum bending
stress

( ) ( )
( )
3
12
12
3
960
1 200 100 10
960 10
11.32 MPa
300
o = +
t
= =
t

Question: A timber beam 15 cm wide and 20 cm deep carries uniformly distributed load over a span of 4
m and is simply supported.
If the permissible stresses are 30 N/mm
2
longitudinally and 3 N/mm
2
transverse shear,
calculate the maximum load which can be carried by the timber beam.

Answer:
( ) ( )
3
3
4 4
0.15 0.20
Moment of inert ia (I) 10 m
12 12
bh

= = =

2 2
20
Dist ance of neut r al axis fr om t he t op sur face 10 cm 0.1 m
2
We know t hat or
Wher e maximum bending moment due t o unifor mly
4
dist r ibut ed load in simply suppor t ed bea m ( ) 2
8 8
Cons
y
M My
I y I
M
o
o
e e
e
= = =
= =
= = =
( )
6
4
ider ing longit udinal st r ess
2 0.1
30 10
10
or , 15 kN/m
e
e

=
=


mean
max
6
Now consideng Shear
. .4
Maximum shear for ce 2
2 2
2
Ther efor e aver age shear st r ess ( ) 66.67
0.15 0.2
For r ect angular cr oss-sect ion
3 3
Maximum shear st r ess( ) . 66.67 100
2 2
Now 3 10 100 ;
L e e
e
e
t e
t t e e
e e
= = =
= =
= = =
= 30 kN/m
So maximum load car r ing capacit y of t he beam = 15 kN/m (wit hout fail).
=


8. Fixed and Continuous Beam
What is a beam?
A (usually) horizontal structural member that is subjected to a load that tends to bend it.

Types of Beams

Simply supported beam

Cantilever beam

Simply Supported Beams

Cantilever Beam

Continuous Beam

Single Overhang Beam

Double Overhang Beam

Single Overhang Beam with internal hinge

Fixed Beam

Continuous beam

Continuous beams
Beams placed on more than 2 supports are called continuous beams. Continuous beams are used when
the span of the beam is very large, deflection under each rigid support will be equal zero.

Analysis of Continuous Beams
(Using 3-moment equation)
Stability of structure
If the equilibrium and geometry of structure is maintained under the action of forces than the structure
is said to be stable.
Chapter-8 Fixed and Continuous Beam Page-266

External stability of the structure is provided by the reaction at the supports. Internal stability is
provided by proper design and geometry of the member of the structure.

Statically determinate and indeterminate structures
Beams for which reaction forces and internal forces can be found out from static equilibrium equations
alone are called statically determinate beam.

Example:

i A .
0, 0 and M 0 is sufficient to calculate R &
i i B
X Y R = = =

Beams for which reaction forces and internal forces cannot be found out from static equilibrium
equations alone are called statically indeterminate beam. This type of beam requires deformation
equation in addition to static equilibrium equations to solve for unknown forces.

Example:
R
A
R
B R
c
R
D
P
P


Advantages of fixed ends or fixed supports
- Slope at the ends is zero.
- Fixed beams are stiffer, stronger and more stable than SSB.
- In case of fixed beams, fixed end moments will reduce the BM in each section.
- The maximum deflection is reduced.

Bending moment diagram for fixed beam
Example:

BMD for Continuous beams
BMD for continuous beams can be obtained by superimposing the fixed end moments diagram over the
free bending moment diagram.

Three - moment Equation for continuous beams OR
Clapeyrons Three Moment Equation


Overhanging Beam
IES-1. An overhanging beam ABC is supported at points A and B, as shown in the above figure.
Find the maximum bending moment and the point where it occurs.
[IES-2009]

(a) 6 kN-m at the right support
(b) 6 kN-m at the left support
(c) 4.5 kN-m at the right support
(d) 4.5 kN-m at the midpoint
between the supports

IES-2. A beam of length 4 L is simply supported on two supports with equal overhangs of L on
either sides and carries three equal loads, one each at free ends and the third at the mid-
span. Which one of the following diagrams represents correct distribution of shearing force
on the beam? [IES-2004]

IES-3. A horizontal beam carrying
uniformly distributed load is
supported with equal overhangs
as shown in the given figure

The resultant bending moment at the mid-span shall be zero if a/b is: [IES-2001]
(a) 3/4 (b) 2/3 (c) 1/2 (d) 1/3
Overhanging Beam
IAS-1.

If the beam shown in the given figure is to have zero bending moment at its middle point,
the overhang x should be: [IAS-2000]
(a)
2
/ 4 wl P (b)
2
/ 6 wl P (c)
2
/ 8 wl P (d)
2
/ 12 wl P

IAS-2. A beam carrying a uniformly distributed load rests on two supports 'b' apart with equal
overhangs 'a' at each end. The ratio b/a for zero bending moment at mid-span is:[IAS-1997]
(a)
1
2
(b) 1 (c)
3
2
(d) 2
IAS-3. A beam carries a uniformly distributed load and is supported with two equal overhangs as
shown in figure 'A'. Which one of the following correctly shows the bending moment diagram
of the beam? [IAS 1994]


OBJECTIVE ANSWERS

IES-1. Ans. (a) Taking moment about A

Maximum Bending Moment = 6
kN-m at the right support

IES-2. Ans. (d)

They use opposite sign conversions but for correct sign remember S.F & B.M of cantilever is
(-) ive.
IES-3. Ans. (c)
IAS-1. Ans. (c)
Bending moment at mid point (M) =
IAS-2. Ans. (d)

(i) By similarity in the B.M diagram a must be b/2
(ii) By formula gives a = b/2
IAS-3. Ans. (a)

( ) ( )
B
B
B
A B
A
V 2 = 2 1 6 3
2V 2 18
V 10 kN
V V 2 6 8kN
V 8 10 2 kN
+
= +
=
+ = + =
= =
2
c D
wl
R R P = = +
2
0
2 4 2 2 8
D
wl l l l wl
R P x gives x
P
| |
+ + = =
|
\ .
2
2
b
M a 0
2 4
e (
= =
(

Question: What are statically determinate and in determinate beams? Illustrate each case through
examples.
Answer: Beams for which reaction forces and internal forces can be found out from static
equilibrium equations alone are called statically determinate beam.
Example:

i
A .
0, 0 and M 0 is sufficient
to calculate R &
i i
B
X Y
R
= = =

Beams for which reaction forces and internal forces cannot be found out from static
equilibrium equations alone are called statically indeterminate beam. This type of beam
requires deformation equation in addition to static equilibrium equations to solve for
unknown forces.
Example:

R
A
R
B R
c
R
D
P
P


9. Tor si on
Theor y at a Gl anc e (f or I ES, GATE, PSU)
In machinery, the general term shaft refers to a member, usually of circular cross-
section, which supports gears, sprockets, wheels, rotors, etc., and which is subjected to
torsion and to transverse or axial loads acting singly or in combination.
An axle is a rotating/non-rotating member that supports wheels, pulleys, and
carries no torque.
A spindle is a short shaft. Terms such as lineshaft, headshaft, stub shaft, transmission
shaft, countershaft, and flexible shaft are names associated with special usage.

Torsion of circular shafts
1. Equation for shafts subjected to torsion "T"
T G
= =
J L

R
Torsion Equation
Where J = Polar moment of inertia
= Shear stress induced due to torsion T.
G = Modulus of rigidity
= Angular deflection of shaft
R, L = Shaft radius & length respectively
Assumptions
The bar is acted upon by a pure torque.
The section under consideration is remote from the point of application of the load and from
a change in diameter.
Adjacent cross sections originally plane and parallel remain plane and parallel after
twisting, and any radial line remains straight.
The material obeys Hookes law
Cross-sections rotate as if rigid, i.e. every diameter rotates through the same angle

Chapter-9 Torsion S K Mondals

2. Polar moment of inertia

Solid shaft J =
4
d
32

Hollow shaft, "J =
4 4
( )
32

o i
d d

3. The polar section modulus
Zp= J / c, where c = r = D/2
For a solid circular cross-section, Zp = D
3
/ 16
For a hollow circular cross-section, Zp = (Do
4
- Di
4
) / (16Do)
Then,
max
= T / Zp
If design shears stress,
d
is known, required polar section modulus can be calculated from:
Zp = T /
d

4. Power Transmission (P)
P (in Watt ) =
2
60
NT

As stated above, the polar second moment of area, J is defined as

J = 2
3
0
r dr
R
z

For a solid shaft J = 2
4
2
4 32
4
0
4 4
r R D
R
L
N
M
O
Q
P
= = (6)

For a hollow shaft of internal radius r:

J = 2
3
0
r dr
R
z
= 2
4 2 32
4
4 4 4 4
r
R r D d
r
R
L
N
M
O
Q
P
= = ( )
c h
(7)

Where D is the external and d is the internal diameter.


P (in hp) =
2
4500
NT
(1 hp = 75 Kgm/sec).
[Where N = rpm; T = Torque in N-m.]
5. Safe diameter of Shaft (d)
Stiffness consideration

=
T G
J L

Shear Stress consideration

T
J R
=
We take higher value of diameter of both cases above for overall safety if other parameters are given.

6. In twisting
Solid shaft,
max
=
3
16T
d

Hollow shaft,
max
=
o
4 4
16Td
( )
o i
d d

Diameter of a shaft to have a maximum deflection " " d = 4.9
4
TL
G

[Where T in N-mm, L in mm, G in N/mm
2
]

7. Comparison of solid and hollow shaft
A Hollow shaft will transmit a greater torque than a solid shaft of the same weight & same
material because the average shear stress in the hollow shaft is smaller than the average
shear stress in the solid shaft

max
max
( ) shaft 16
( ) shaft 15
=
holloow
solid

o i
If solid shaft dia = D
D
Hollow shaft, d = D, d =
2

Strength comparison (same weight, material, length and
max
)

2
2
1
1
h
s
T n
T
n n
+
=

External diameter of hollowshaft
Where, n=
Internal diameter of hollowshaft
[ONGC-2005]
Weight comparison (same Torque, material, length and
max
)

( )
( )
2 2/3
2/3
4
1
1
h
s
n n
W
W
n

External diameter of hollowshaft
Where, n=
Internal diameter of hollowshaft
[WBPSC-2003]
Strain energy comparison (same weight, material, length and
max
)

2
2
1
h
s
U n
U n
+
=
2
1
1
n
= +

8. Shaft in series
1 2
= +
Torque (T) is same in all section
Electrical analogy gives torque(T) = Current (I)

9. Shaft in parallel
1 2
= and
1 2
T T T = +
Electrical analogy gives torque(T) = Current (I)

10. Combined Bending and Torsion
In most practical transmission situations shafts which carry torque are also subjected to
bending, if only by virtue of the self-weight of the gears they carry. Many other practical
applications occur where bending and torsion arise simultaneously so that this type of
loading represents one of the major sources of complex stress situations.

In the case of shafts, bending gives rise to tensile stress on one surface and compressive
stress on the opposite surface while torsion gives rise to pure shear throughout the shaft.

For shafts subjected to the simultaneous application of a bending moment M and torque T
the principal stresses set up in the shaft can be shown to be equal to those produced by an
equivalent bending moment, of a certain value Me acting alone.

Figure

Maximum direct stress (
x
) & Shear stress ( ( )
xy
in element A

3
3
32
16
= +
=
x
xy
M P
d A
T
d

Principal normal stresses (
1,2
) & Maximum shearing stress (
max
)

1,2
=
2
2
2 2

+

x x
xy

2
2 1 2
max
( )
2 2

= = +

x
xy

Maximum Principal Stress (
max
) & Maximum shear stress (
max
)

max
=
2 2
3
16

+ +

M M T
d

max
=
2 2
3
16
+ M T
d

Location of Principal plane ( )
=
1
1
tan
2

T
M

Equivalent bending moment (Me) & Equivalent torsion (Te).

2 2
2

+ +
=

e
M M T
M

2 2
= +
e
T M T
Important Note
o Uses of the formulas are limited to cases in which both M & T are known. Under any
other condition Mohrs circle is used.

Safe diameter of shaft (d) on the basis of an allowable working stress.
o
w
in tension , d = 3
32
e
w
M

o
w
in shear , d= 3
16
e
w
T

11. Shaft subjected to twisting moment only
Figure


Normal force (
n
F ) & Tangential for (
t
F ) on inclined plane AB

[ ]
[ ]
sin + AC cos
BC cos - AC sin

=
=
n
t
F BC
F

Normal stress (
n
) & Tangential stress (shear stress) (
t
) on inclined plane AB.

n
= sin 2

t
= 2 cos

Maximum normal & shear stress on AB
(
n
)max max
0 0 +
45 0
90 0
135 + 0

Important Note
Principal stresses at a point on the surface of the shaft = + , - , 0
i.e
1,2
sin2 =

Principal strains

1 2 3
(1 ); (1 ); 0

= + = + =
E E

Volumetric strain,

1 2 3
0 = + + =
v

No change in volume for a shaft subjected to pure torque.

12. Torsional Stresses in Non-Circular Cross-section Members
There are some applications in machinery for non-circular cross-section members and shafts
where a regular polygonal cross-section is useful in transmitting torque to a gear or pulley
that can have an axial change in position. Because no key or keyway is needed, the
possibility of a lost key is avoided.

Saint Venant (1855) showed that
max
in a rectangular b c section bar occurs in the middle
of the longest side b and is of magnitude formula
max 2 2
1.8
3
/
T T
b c bc bc

= = +

Where b is the longer side and factor that is function of the ratio b/c.
The angle of twist is given by

3
Tl
bc G
=

Where is a function of the ratio b/c

Shear stress distribution in different cross-section

Rectangular c/s Elliptical c/s Triangular c/s

13. Torsion of thin walled tube
For a thin walled tube
Shear stress,
0
2
=
T
A t

Angle of twist,
2
O
sL
A G
=
[Where S = length of mean centre line,
O
A = Area enclosed by mean centre line]
Special Cases
o For circular c/s

3 2
2 ; ; 2 = = =
o
J r t A r S r
[r = radius of mean Centre line and t = wall thickness]

2
.
=
2 r 2
= =
o
T T r T
t J A t

3
2
= = =
o
TL L TL
GJ A JG r tG

o For square c/s of length of each side b and thickness t

2
0
=4b
A b
S
=

o For elliptical c/s a and b are the half axis lengths.

0
3
( )
2
A ab
S a b ab
=

+



Torsion Equation
GATE-1. A solid circular shaft of 60 mm diameter transmits a torque of 1600 N.m. The value of
maximum shear stress developed is: [GATE-2004]
(a) 37.72 MPa (b) 47.72 MPa (c) 57.72 MPa (d) 67.72 MPa

GATE-2. Maximum shear stress developed on the surface of a solid circular shaft under pure
torsion is 240 MPa. If the shaft diameter is doubled then the maximum shear stress
developed corresponding to the same torque will be: [GATE-2003]

GATE-3. A steel shaft 'A' of diameter 'd' and length 'l' is subjected to a torque T Another shaft 'B'
made of aluminium of the same diameter 'd' and length 0.5l is also subjected to the same
torque 'T'. The shear modulus of steel is 2.5 times the shear modulus of aluminium. The
shear stress in the steel shaft is 100 MPa. The shear stress in the aluminium shaft, in
MPa, is: [GATE-2000]
(a) 40 (b) 50 (c) 100 (d) 250

GATE-4. For a circular shaft of diameter d subjected to torque T, the maximum value of the shear
stress is: [GATE-2006]

3 3 3 3
64 32 16 8
(a) (b) (c) (d)
T T T T
d d d d t t t t

GATE-4a. A torque T is applied at
the free end of a
stopped rod of circular
cross-sections as shown
in the figure. The shear
modulus of the material
of the rod is G. The
expression for d to
produce an angular
twist u at the free end
is
d
2d
L L/2
T

[GATE-2011]
(a)
1
4
32 TL
G tu
| |
|
\ .
(b)
1
4
18 TL
G tu
| |
|
\ .
(c)
1
4
16 TL
G tu
| |
|
\ .
(d)
1
4
2 TL
G tu
| |
|
\ .

Power Transmitted by Shaft
GATE-5. The diameter of shaft A is twice the diameter or shaft B and both are made of the same
material. Assuming both the shafts to rotate at the same speed, the maximum power
transmitted by B is: [IES-2001; GATE-1994]
(a) The same as that of A (b) Half of A (c) 1/8
th
of A (d) 1/4
th
of A
Combined Bending and Torsion
GATE-6. A solid shaft can resist a bending moment of 3.0 kNm and a twisting moment of 4.0 kNm
together, then the maximum torque that can be applied is: [GATE-1996]

(a) 7.0 kNm (b) 3.5 kNm (c)4.5 kNm (d) 5.0 kNm
Comparison of Solid and Hollow Shafts
GATE-7. The outside diameter of a hollow shaft is twice its inside diameter. The ratio of its torque
carrying capacity to that of a solid shaft of the same material and the same outside
diameter is: [GATE-1993; IES-2001]
(a)
15
16
(b)
3
4
(c)
1
2
(d)
1
16

Shafts in Series
GATE-8. A torque of 10 Nm is transmitted through a stepped shaft as shown in figure. The
torsional stiffness of individual sections of lengths MN, NO and OP are 20 Nm/rad, 30
Nm/rad and 60 Nm/rad respectively. The angular deflection between the ends M and P of
the shaft is: [GATE-2004]

(a) 0.5 rad (b) 1.0 rad (c) 5.0 rad (d) 10.0 rad
Shafts in Parallel
GATE-9. The two shafts AB and BC, of equal length
and diameters d and 2d, are made of the
same material. They are joined at B
through a shaft coupling, while the ends A
and C are built-in (cantilevered). A
twisting moment T is applied to the
coupling. If TA and TC represent the
twisting moments at the ends A and C,
respectively, then

[GATE-2005]
(a) TC = TA (b) TC =8 TA (c) TC =16 TA (d) TA=16 TC
Torsion Equation
IES-1. Consider the following statements: [IES- 2008]
Maximum shear stress induced in a power transmitting shaft is:
1. Directly proportional to torque being transmitted.
2. Inversely proportional to the cube of its diameter.
3. Directly proportional to its polar moment of inertia.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1 and 2 only

IES-2. A solid shaft transmits a torque T. The allowable shearing stress is t . What is the
diameter of the shaft? [IES-2008]

3 3 3 3
16T 32T 16T T
(a) (b) (c) (d)
tt tt t t

IES-2(i). If a solid circular shaft of steel 2 cm in diameter is subjected to a permissible shear stress
10 kN/cm
2
, then the value of the twisting moment (Tr ) will be
-cm -cm -cm -cm [IES-2012]

IES-3. Maximum shear stress developed on the surface of a solid circular shaft under pure
torsion is 240 MPa. If the shaft diameter is doubled, then what is the maximum shear
stress developed corresponding to the same torque? [IES-2009]

IES-4. The diameter of a shaft is increased from 30 mm to 60 mm, all other conditions
remaining unchanged. How many times is its torque carrying capacity increased?[IES-1995; 2004]
(a) 2 times (b) 4 times (c) 8 times (d) 16 times

IES-5. A circular shaft subjected to twisting moment results in maximum shear stress of 60
MPa. Then the maximum compressive stress in the material is: [IES-2003]

IES-5(i). The boring bar of a boring machine is 25 mm in diameter. During operation, the bar gets
twisted though 0.01 radians and is subjected to a shear stress of 42 N/mm
2
. The length of
the bar is (Taking G = 0.84 10
5
N/mm
2
) [IES-2012]
(a) 500 mm (b) 250 mm (c) 625 mm (d) 375 mm

IES-5(ii). The magnitude of stress induced in a shaft due to applied torque varies
(a) From maximum at the centre to zero at the circumference
(b) From zero at the centre to maximum at the circumference [IES-2012]
(c) From maximum at the centre to minimum but not zero at the circumference
(d) From minimum but not zero at the centre, to maximum at the circumference

IES-6. Angle of twist of a shaft of diameter d is inversely proportional to [IES-2000]
(a) d (b) d
2
(c) d
3
(d) d
4

IES-6a A solid steel shaft of diameter d and length l is subjected to twisting moment T.
Another shaft B of brass having same diameter d, but length l/2 is also subjected to
the same moment. If shear modulus of steel is two times that of brass, the ratio of
the angular twist of steel to that of brass shaft is:
(a) 1:2 (b) 1:1 (c) 2:1 (d) 4:1 [IES-2011]

IES-7. A solid circular shaft is subjected to pure torsion. The ratio of maximum shear to
maximum normal stress at any point would be: [IES-1999]
(a) 1 : 1 (b) 1: 2 (c) 2: 1 (d) 2: 3

IES-8. Assertion (A): In a composite shaft having two concentric shafts of different materials,
the torque shared by each shaft is directly proportional to its polar moment of inertia.[IES-1999]
Reason (R): In a composite shaft having concentric shafts of different materials, the
angle of twist for each shaft depends upon its polar moment of inertia.

IES-9. A shaft is subjected to torsion as shown. [IES-2002]

Which of the following figures represents the shear stress on the element LMNOPQRS ?


IES-10. A round shaft of diameter 'd' and length
'l' fixed at both ends 'A' and 'B' is
subjected to a twisting moment 'T at 'C',
at a distance of 1/4 from A (see figure).
The torsional stresses in the parts AC
and CB will be:
(a) Equal
(b) In the ratio 1:3
(c) In the ratio 3 :1
(d) Indeterminate

[IES-1997]
Hollow Circular Shafts
IES-11. One-half length of 50 mm diameter steel rod is solid while the remaining half is hollow
having a bore of 25 mm. The rod is subjected to equal and opposite torque at its ends. If
the maximum shear stress in solid portion is or, the maximum shear stress in the
hollow portion is: [IES-2003]
(a)
15
16
t (b) t (c)
4
3
t (d)
16
15
t
Power Transmitted by Shaft
IES-12. In power transmission shafts, if the polar moment of inertia of a shaft is doubled, then
what is the torque required to produce the same angle of twist?
[IES-2006]
(a) 1/4 of the original value (b) 1/2 of the original value
(c) Same as the original value (d) Double the original value

IES-13. While transmitting the same power by a shaft, if its speed is doubled, what should be its
new diameter if the maximum shear stress induced in the shaft remains same?[IES-2006]
(a)
1
2
of the original diameter (b)
1
2
of the original diameter
(c) 2 of the original diameter (d)
( )
1
3
1
2
of the original diameter
IES-14. For a power transmission shaft transmitting power P at N rpm, its diameter is
proportional to: [IES-2005]
(a)
1/3
P
N
| |
|
\ .
(b)
1/ 2
P
N
| |
|
\ .
(c)
2/3
P
N
| |
|
\ .
(d)
P
N
| |
|
\ .


IES-15. A shaft can safely transmit 90 kW while rotating at a given speed. If this shaft is
replaced by a shaft of diameter double of the previous one and rotated at half the speed
of the previous, the power that can be transmitted by the new shaft is: [IES-2002]
(a) 90 kW (b) 180 kW (c) 360 kW (d) 720 kW

IES-16. The diameter of shaft A is twice the diameter or shaft B and both are made of the same
material. Assuming both the shafts to rotate at the same speed, the maximum power
transmitted by B is: [IES-2001; GATE-1994]
(a) The same as that of A (b) Half of A (c) 1/8
th
of A (d) 1/4
th
of A

IES-17. When a shaft transmits power through gears, the shaft experiences [IES-1997]
(a) Torsional stresses alone
(b) Bending stresses alone
(c) Constant bending and varying torsional stresses
(d) Varying bending and constant torsional stresses
IES-18. The equivalent bending moment under combined action of bending moment M and
torque T is: [IES-1996; 2008; IAS-1996]
(a)
2 2
M T + (b)
2 2
1
2
M M T
(
+ +

(c)
| |
1
2
M T + (d)
2 2
1
4
M T
(
+

IES-19. A solid circular shaft is subjected to a bending moment M and twisting moment T. What
is the equivalent twisting moment Te which will produce the same maximum shear
stress as the above combination? [IES-1992; 2007]
(a) M
2
+ T
2
(b) M + T (c) +
2 2
M T (d) M T

IES-20. A shaft is subjected to fluctuating loads for which the normal torque (T) and bending
moment (M) are 1000 N-m and 500 N-m respectively. If the combined shock and fatigue
factor for bending is 1.5 and combined shock and fatigue factor for torsion is 2, then the
equivalent twisting moment for the shaft is:
[IES-1994]
(a) 2000N-m (b) 2050N-m (c) 2100N-m (d) 2136 N-m

IES-21. A member is subjected to the combined action of bending moment 400 Nm and torque
300 Nm. What respectively are the equivalent bending moment and equivalent torque?[IES-1994; 2004]
(a) 450 Nm and 500 Nm (b) 900 Nm and 350 Nm
(c) 900 Nm and 500 Nm (d) 400 Nm and 500 Nm

IES-22. A shaft was initially subjected to bending moment and then was subjected to torsion. If
the magnitude of bending moment is found to be the same as that of the torque, then the
ratio of maximum bending stress to shear stress would be:
[IES-1993]
(a) 0.25 (b) 0.50 (c) 2.0 (d) 4.0

IES-23. A shaft is subjected to simultaneous action of a torque T, bending moment M and an
axial thrust F. Which one of the following statements is correct for this situation?[IES-2004]
(a) One extreme end of the vertical diametral fibre is subjected to maximum
compressive stress only
(b) The opposite extreme end of the vertical diametral fibre is subjected to
tensile/compressive stress only

(c) Every point on the surface of the shaft is subjected to maximum shear stress only
(d) Axial longitudinal fibre of the shaft is subjected to compressive stress only

IES-24. For obtaining the maximum
shear stress induced in
the shaft shown in the
given figure, the torque
should be equal to

( )
1
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
(a) (b)
(c)
2
(d)
2
T Wl T
wL
Wl
wL
Wl T
+
(
| |
+
(
|
\ .
(

(

( + +
`
(
)

[IES-1999]

IES-25. Bending moment M and torque is applied on a solid circular shaft. If the maximum
bending stress equals to maximum shear stress developed, them M is equal to: [IES-1992]
(a) (b) (c) 2 (d) 4
2
T
T T T

IES-26. A circular shaft is subjected to the combined action of bending, twisting and direct axial
loading. The maximum bending stress , maximum shearing force 3o and a uniform
axial stress (compressive) are produced. The maximum compressive normal stress
produced in the shaft will be: [IES-1998]
(a) 3 (b) 2 (c) (d) Zero

IES-27. Which one of the following statements is correct? Shafts used in heavy duty speed
reducers are generally subjected to: [IES-2004]
(a) Bending stress only
(b) Shearing stress only
(c) Combined bending and shearing stresses
(d) Bending, shearing and axial thrust simultaneously
IES-28. The ratio of torque carrying capacity of a solid shaft to that of a hollow shaft is given by:[IES-2008]

( ) ( )
1
4 4 4 4
(a) 1 K (b) 1 K (c)K (d)1/ K

Where K =
i
o
D
D
; Di = Inside diameter of hollow shaft and Do = Outside diameter of hollow
shaft. Shaft material is the same.

IES-29. A hollow shaft of outer dia 40 mm and inner dia of 20 mm is to be replaced by a solid
shaft to transmit the same torque at the same maximum stress. What should be the
diameter of the solid shaft? [IES 2007]
(a) 30 mm (b) 35 mm (c) 10(60)
1/3
mm (d) 10(20)
1/3
mm

IES-30. The diameter of a solid shaft is D. The inside and outside diameters of a hollow shaft of
same material and length are
3
D
and
3
2D
respectively. What is the ratio of the weight
of the hollow shaft to that of the solid shaft? [IES 2007]

(a) 1:1 (b) 1: 3 (c) 1:2 (d) 1:3

IES-31. What is the maximum torque transmitted by a hollow shaft of external radius R and
internal radius r? [IES-2006]
(a)
( )
3 3
16
s
R r f
t
(b)
( )
4 4
2
s
R r f
R
t
(c)
( )
4 4
8
s
R r f
R
t
(d)
4 4
32
s
R r
f
R
t | |
|
\ .

(
s
f = maximum shear stress in the shaft material)

IES-32. A hollow shaft of the same cross-sectional area and material as that of a solid shaft
transmits: [IES-2005]
(a) Same torque (b) Lesser torque
(c) More torque (d) Cannot be predicted without more data

IES-33. The outside diameter of a hollow shaft is twice its inside diameter. The ratio of its torque
carrying capacity to that of a solid shaft of the same material and the same outside
diameter is: [GATE-1993; IES-2001]
(a)
15
16
(b)
3
4
(c)
1
2
(d)
1
16

IES-34. Two hollow shafts of the same material have the same length and outside diameter.
Shaft 1 has internal diameter equal to one-third of the outer diameter and shaft 2 has
internal diameter equal to half of the outer diameter. If both the shafts are subjected to
the same torque, the ratio of their twists
1 2
/ u u will be equal to: [IES-1998]
(a) 16/81 (b) 8/27 (c) 19/27 (d) 243/256

IES-35. Maximum shear stress in a solid shaft of diameter D and length L twisted through an
angle is . A hollow shaft of same material and length having outside and inside
diameters of D and D/2 respectively is also twisted through the same angle of twist .
The value of maximum shear stress in the hollow shaft will be: [IES-1994; 1997]

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
16 8 4
a b c d
15 7 3
t t t t

IES-36. A solid shaft of diameter 'D' carries a twisting moment that develops maximum shear
stress . If the shaft is replaced by a hollow one of outside diameter 'D' and inside
diameter D/2, then the maximum shear stress will be: [IES-1994]
(a) 1.067 (b) 1.143 (c) 1.333 (d) 2

IES-37. A solid shaft of diameter 100 mm, length 1000 mm is subjected to a twisting moment 'T
The maximum shear stress developed in the shaft is 60 N/mm
2
. A hole of 50 mm
diameter is now drilled throughout the length of the shaft. To develop a maximum shear
stress of 60 N/mm
2
in the hollow shaft, the torque 'T must be reduced by:[IES-1998, 2012]
(a) T/4 (b) T/8 (c) T/12 (d)T/16

IES-38. Assertion (A): A hollow shaft will transmit a greater torque than a solid shaft of the
same weight and same material. [IES-1994]
Reason (R): The average shear stress in the hollow shaft is smaller than the average
shear stress in the solid shaft.

IES-39. A hollow shaft is subjected to torsion. The shear stress variation in the shaft along the
radius is given by: [IES-1996]

Shafts in Series
IES-40. What is the total angle of
twist of the stepped shaft
subject to torque T shown
in figure given above?
(a)
4
16
l
T
Gd t
(b)
4
38
l
T
Gd t

(c)
4
64
l
T
Gd t
(d)
4
66
l
T
Gd t

[IES-2005]
Shafts in Parallel
IES-41. For the two shafts connected in parallel, find which statement is true?
(a) Torque in each shaft is the same [IES-1992, 2011]
(b) Shear stress in each shaft is the same
(c) Angle of twist of each shaft is the same
(d) Torsional stiffness of each shaft is the same

IES-42. A circular section rod ABC is fixed at ends A and C. It is subjected to torque T at B. AB =
BC = L and the polar moment of inertia of portions AB and BC are 2 J and J
respectively. If G is the modulus of rigidity, what is the angle of twist at point B?[IES-2005]
(a)
3
TL
GJ
(b)
2
TL
GJ
(c)
TL
GJ
(d)
2TL
GJ

IES-43. A solid circular rod AB of diameter D and length L is fixed at both ends. A torque T is
applied at a section X such that AX = L/4 and BX = 3L/4. What is the maximum shear
stress developed in the rod? [IES-2004]
(a)
3
16T
D t
(b)
3
12T
D t
(c)
3
8T
D t
(d)
3
4T
D t

IES-44. Two shafts are shown in the
above figure. These two
shafts will be torsionally
equivalent to each other if
their
(a) Polar moment of inertias
are the same
(b) Total angle of twists are
the same
(c) Lengths are the same
(d) Strain energies are the

[IES-1998]

same
Torsion Equation
IAS-1. Assertion (A): In theory of torsion, shearing strains increase radically away from the
longitudinal axis of the bar. [IAS-2001]
Reason (R): Plane transverse sections before loading remain plane after the torque is
applied.

IAS-2. The shear stress at a point in a shaft subjected to a torque is: [IAS-1995]
(a) Directly proportional to the polar moment of inertia and to the distance of the point
form the axis
(b) Directly proportional to the applied torque and inversely proportional to the polar
moment of inertia.
(c) Directly proportional to the applied torque and polar moment of inertia
(d) inversely proportional to the applied torque and the polar moment of inertia

IAS-3. If two shafts of the same length, one of which is hollow, transmit equal torque and have
equal maximum stress, then they should have equal. [IAS-1994]
(a) Polar moment of inertia (b) Polar modulus of section
(c) Polar moment of inertia (d) Angle of twist
Hollow Circular Shafts
IAS-4. A hollow circular shaft having outside diameter 'D' and inside diameter d subjected to a
constant twisting moment 'T' along its length. If the maximum shear stress produced in
the shaft is
s
s then the twisting moment 'T' is given by: [IAS-1999]
(a)
4 4
4
8
s
D d
D
t
o

(b)
4 4
4
16
s
D d
D
t
o

(c)
4 4
4
32
s
D d
D
t
o

(d)
4 4
4
64
s
D d
D
t
o

Torsional Rigidity
IAS-5. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the
lists: [IAS-1996]
List-I (Mechanical Properties) List-II ( Characteristics)
A. Torsional rigidity 1. Product of young's modulus and second
moment of area about the plane of
bending
B. Modulus of resilience 2. Strain energy per unit volume
C. Bauschinger effect 3. Torque unit angle of twist
D. Flexural rigidity 4. Loss of mechanical energy due to local
yielding
(a) 1 3 4 2 (b) 3 2 4 1
(c) 2 4 1 3 (d) 3 1 4 2

IAS-6. Assertion (A): Angle of twist per unit length of a uniform diameter shaft depends upon
its torsional rigidity. [IAS-2004]
Reason (R): The shafts are subjected to torque only.


IAS-7. A shaft is subjected to a bending moment M = 400 N.m alld torque T = 300 N.m The
equivalent bending moment is: [IAS-2002]
(a) 900 N.m (b) 700 N.m (c) 500 N.m (d) 450 N.m

IAS-8. A hollow shaft of length L is fixed at its both ends. It is subjected to torque T at a
distance of
3
L
from one end. What is the reaction torque at the other end of the shaft?[IAS-2007]
(a)
2
3
T
(b)
2
T
(c)
3
T
(d)
4
T

IAS-9. A solid shaft of diameter d is replaced by a hollow shaft of the same material and length.
The outside diameter of hollow shaft
2
3
d
while the inside diameter is
3
d
. What is the
ratio of the torsional stiffness of the hollow shaft to that of the solid shaft? [IAS-2007]
(a)
2
3
(b)
3
5
(c)
5
3
(d) 2

IAS-10. Two steel shafts, one solid of diameter D and the other hollow of outside diameter D and
inside diameter D/2, are twisted to the same angle of twist per unit length. The ratio of
maximum shear stress in solid shaft to that in the hollow shaft is: [IAS-1998]
(a)
4
9
t (b)
8
7
t (c)
16
15
t (d) t
Shafts in Series
IAS-11. Two shafts having the same length and material are joined in series. If the ratio of the
diameter of the first shaft to that of the second shaft is 2, then the ratio of the angle of
twist of the first shaft to that of the second shaft is:
[IAS-1995; 2003]
(a) 16 (b) 8 (c) 4 (d) 2

IAS-12. A circular shaft fixed at A has diameter D for half of its length and diameter D/2 over the
other half. What is the rotation of C relative of B if the rotation of B relative to A is 0.1
radian? [IAS-1994]
(a) 0.4 radian (b) 0.8 radian (c) 1.6 radian (d) 3.2 radian

(T, L and C remaining same in both cases)


Shafts in Parallel
IAS-13. A stepped solid circular shaft shown in the given figure is built-in at its ends and is
subjected to a torque To at the shoulder section. The ratio of reactive torque T1 and T2 at
the ends is (J1 and J2 are polar moments of inertia):
(a)
2 2
1 1
J l
J l
(b)
2 1
1 2
J l
J l

(c)
1 2
2 1
J l
J l
(d)
1 1
2 2
J l
J l

[IAS-2001]
IAS-14. Steel shaft and brass shaft of same length and diameter are connected by a flange
coupling. The assembly is rigidity held at its ends and is twisted by a torque through the
coupling. Modulus of rigidity of steel is twice that of brass. If torque of the steel shaft is
500 Nm, then the value of the torque in brass shaft will be: [IAS-2001]
(a) 250 Nm (b) 354 Nm (c) 500 Nm (d) 708 Nm

IAS-15. A steel shaft with bult-in ends is subjected to the action of a torque Mt applied at an
intermediate cross-section 'mn' as shown in the given figure. [IAS-1997]

Assertion (A): The magnitude of the twisting moment to which the portion BC is
subjected is
+
t
M a
a b

Reason(R): For geometric compatibility, angle of twist at 'mn' is the same for the portions
AB and BC.

IAS-16. A steel shaft of outside diameter 100 mm is solid over one half of its length and hollow
over the other half. Inside diameter of hollow portion is 50 mm. The shaft if held rigidly
at two ends and a pulley is mounted at its midsection i.e., at the junction of solid and
hollow portions. The shaft is twisted by applying torque on the pulley. If the torque
carried by the solid portion of the shaft is 16000kg-m, then the torque carried by the
hollow portion of the shaft will be:
[IAS-1997]
(a) 16000 kg-m (b) 15000 kg-m (c) 14000 kg-m (d) 12000 kg-m


OBJECTIVE ANSWERS
GATE-1. Ans. (a)
3
16T
d
t
t
=
GATE-2. Ans. (c)
( )
3 3 3
16T 16T 16T 240
, 240 if diameter doubled d 2d, then 30MPa
8 d d
2d
t t
t t
t
' ' = = = = = =
GATE-3. Ans. (c)
3
16T
d
t
t
= as T & d both are same is same
GATE-4. Ans. (c)
GATE-4a. Ans. (b) Angular twist at the
free end

1 2
4 4
4 4 4
1
4
2
(2 ) ( )
32 32
2 16 18
18
L
T
T L
G d G d
TL TL TL
G d G d G d
TL
d
G
u u u
t t
t t t
tu
= +
= +

= + =
| |
=
|
\ .

GATE-5. Ans. (c)
3
3
2 N 16T d
Power, P T and or T
60 16 d
t tt
t
t
= = =

3
3
d 2 N
or P or P d
16 60
tt t
o =
GATE-6. Ans. (d) Equivalent torque
( )
2 2 2 2
e
T M T 3 4 5kNm = + = + =
GATE-7. Ans. (a)
T G J
or T if is const. T J
J L R R
u t t
t o = = =

4
4
h h
4
D
D
32 2
T J 15
T J 16
D
32
t
t
(
| |
(
|
\ .
(

= = =
GATE-8. Ans. (b)
TL
We know that or T k. [let k tortional stiffness]
GJ
u u = = =

NO OP MN
MN NO OP
MN NO OP
T T T 10 10 10
1.0 rad
k k k 20 30 60
u u u u = + + = + + = + + =
GATE-9. Ans. (c)
( )
C C C C A A A
AB BC A 4 4
A A C C
T L T T T L T
or or or T
G J G J 16 d
2d
32
32
u u
t
t
= = = =
IES
IES-1. Ans. (d)
3
T r 16T
J d
t
t
= =

IES-2. Ans. (a)
IES-2(i). Ans. (d)
IES-3. Ans. (c) Maximum shear stress =
3
16T
d t
= 240 MPa = t
d
2d
L L/2
T
u
1
u
2

Maximum shear stress developed when diameter is doubled

( )
t t | |
= = = = =
|
t
\ . t
3 3
16 1 16T 240
30MPa
8 d 8 8
2d

IES-4. Ans. (c)
3
3
16T d
or T for same material const.
16 d
tt
t t
t
= = =

3
3
3 2 2
1 1
T d 60
T d or 8
T d 30
o
| |
| |
= = =
|
|
\ .
\ .

IES-5. Ans. (b)
IES-5(i). Ans. (b)
IES-5(ii). Ans. (b)
IES-6. Ans. (d)
IES-6a Ans. (b)
IES-7. Ans. (a)
3 3
16 32
Shear stress and normal stress
T T
d d t t
= =
Ratio of shear stress and normal stress = 1: 2
IES-8. Ans. (c)
IES-9. Ans. (d)
IES-10. Ans. (c)
T G GR 1
or
J R L L L
t u u
t t = = =
IES-11. Ans. (d)
t t
= =
T J
or T
J r r

;
2
t t
(
= = =
(

s h h
s h
s h
J J D
or r r
r r

( )
4
4 4
32
32
t
t t t
t
= =
s
h
h
D
J
or
J
D d
4 4
1 1 16
15
25
1 1
50
t t t
| |
= = =
|
( (
\ .
| | | |

( (
| |
\ . \ .
( (

d
D

IES-12. Ans. (d)

T G T.L
or Q if is const. T J if J is doubled then T is also doubled.
J L R G.J
u t
u o = = =
IES-13. Ans. (d) ( ) ( ) Power (P) torque T angular speed e =

( )
( )
( )
3 3
3
1 T 1
if P is const.T if or T T / 2
T 2
16 T / 2
16T d 1
or
d d
2 d
e
o
e e
o
t
t
'
' = = =
'
'
| |
= = =
|
' \ .

IES-14. Ans. (a)
3
3
2 N 16T d
Power, P T and or T
60 16 d
t tt
t
t
= = =

1/ 3
3
3
2
d 2 N 480 P P
or P or d or d
16 60 N J N
tt t
o
t
| |
= =
|
\ .

IES-15. Ans. (c)
IES-16. Ans. (c)
3
3
2 N 16T d
Power, P T and or T
60 16 d
t tt
t
t
= = =

3
3
d 2 N
or P or P d
16 60
tt t
o =
IES-17. Ans. (d)
IES-18. Ans. (b)
IES-19. Ans. (c) Te =
2 2
T M +
IES-20. Ans. (d) ( ) ( )
2 2
1.5 500 2 1000 2136Nm = + =
eq
T

IES-21. Ans. (a) ( )
2 2 2 2
e
M M T 400 400 300
Equivalent Bending Moment M 450N.m
2 2
+ + + +
= = =

( )
2 2 2 2
e
Equivalent torque T M T 400 300 500N.m = + = + =
IES-22. Ans. (c) Use equivalent bending moment formula,
1
st
case: Equivalent bending moment (Me) = M
2
nd
case: Equivalent bending moment (Me) =
2 2
0 0
2 2
T T + +
=
IES-23. Ans. (a)
IES-24. Ans. (d) Bending Moment, M =
2
2
+
wL
Wl
IES-25. Ans. (a)
3
32 M
d
o
t
= and
3
16T
d
t
t
=
IES-26. Ans. (a) Maximum normal stress = bending stress + axial stress () = 2
We have to take maximum bending stress is (compressive)
The maximum compressive normal stress =
2
2
2 2
o o
t
| |
+
|
\ .
b b
xy

( )
2
2
2 2
3 3
2 2
o o
o o
| |
= + =
|
\ .

IES-27. Ans. (c)
IES-28. Ans. (b) t should be same for both hollow and solid shaft

( )
( )
1
4
4
s s o s h i
4 4
4 4 4
h h o
o i
o o i
1
4 s
h
T T D T T D
1
T T D
D D
D D D
32 32
T
1 k
T
| |
| |
|
= = =
|
t t
|
\ .
\ .

IES-29. Ans. (c) Section modules will be same

H
H
J
R
=
s
s
J
R
or
2
40
) 20 40 (
64
4 4
t
=
64
t

2
4
d
d

or, d
3
= (10)
3
60 or d = 10
3
60 mm
IES-30. Ans. (a)
S
H
W
W
= 1
4
3 3
4
4
2
2 2
=

|
|
.
|
\
|
g L D
g L
D D
t

IES-31. Ans. (b)
( )
( )
4 4
4 4 s
s s s
R r
f T J
2
or T f f R r .f .
J R R R 2R
t
t
= = = =
IES-32. Ans. (c)
2
H H
2
S H
T D n 1
, Where n
T d
n n 1
+
= =

IES-33. Ans. (a)
T G J
or T if is const. T J
J L R R
u t t
t o = = =

4
4
h h
4
D
D
32 2
T J 15
T J 16
D
32
t
t
(
| |
(
|
\ .
(

= = =

IES-34. Ans. (d)
4
4
1
1
1
4
4 2
1
1
2
1 243
256
3
d
d
Q
Q
J Q
d
d
| |
|
\ .
= =
| |
|
\ .

IES-35. Ans. (d)
T G G.R.
or if is const. R
J L R L
u t u
t u t o = = = and outer diameter is same in both
the cases.
Note: Required torque will be different.
IES-36. Ans. (a)
T G TR 1
or if T is const.
J L R J J
u t
t t o = = =

4
h
4
h 4
J D 16
1.06666
J 15
D
D
2
t
t
= = = =
| |
|
\ .

IES-37. Ans. (d)
( )
4 3
4
16 32( / 2) 15
or
16
/ 2
s
Tr T T d T
J d T
d d
t
t
' '
= = = =

1
Reduction
16
=
IES-38. Ans. (a)
IES-39. Ans. (c)
IES-40. Ans. (d)
( )
| |
1 2 4 4 4
4
T 2l T l Tl 66Tl
64 2
d Gd Gd
G 2d
G.
32
32
u u u
t
t

= + = + = + =

IES-41. Ans. (c)
IES-42. Ans. (a)

AB BC
u u =
BC. AB
AB BC
AB BC BC
B AB
T L T L
or or T 2T
G.2J G.J
T T T or T T / 3
T L TL
or Q Q .
3 GJ 3GJ
= =
+ = =
= = =

IES-43. Ans. (b)

AX XB A B
B
A.
A B A
A
max 4
3
&T T T
3L
T
T L / 4
4
or
GJ GJ
3T
or T 3T or T ,
4
3
16 T
16T 12T
4
D3 D3 D
u u
t
t t t
= + =
=
= =

= = =

IES-44. Ans. (b)
IAS
IAS-1. Ans. (b)
IAS-2. Ans. (b)
R J
T t
=
IAS-3. Ans. (b)
R J
T t
= Here T & t are same, so
J
R
should be same i.e. polar modulus of section will
be same.

IAS-4. Ans. (b)
( )
( )
4 4
4 4
s
s
D d
D d
T G J
32
gives T
D
J L R R 16 D
2
t
o
u t t t
o

= = = = =
IAS-5. Ans. (b)
IAS-6. Ans. (c)
IAS-7. Ans. (d)
2 2 2 2
400 400 300
450
2 2
M M T
Me Nm
+ + + +
= = =
IAS-8. Ans. (c)

IAS-9. Ans. (c) Torsional stiffness =
4 4
4
2
32 3 3
5
3
.
32
H
S
d d
K T GJ
or
L K
d
t
t
u

| | | |
`
| |
\ . \ .
| |
)
= = =
|
\ .

IAS-10. Ans. (d)
T G G R
or
J R L L
t u u
t = = = as outside diameter of both the shaft is D so t is
same for both the cases.
IAS-11. Ans. (a) Angle of twist is proportional to
4
1 1
J d

IAS-12. Ans. (c)
L
G
J
T u
= or
J
1
u or
4
1
d
u
32
4
d
J
t
=
Here
( )
4
4
2 / 1 . 0 d
d
=
u
or 6 . 1 = u radian.
IAS-13. Ans. (c)
1 1 2 2 1 1 2
1 2
1 2 2 2 1
or or
Tl T l T J l
GJ GJ T J l
u u
| |
= = =
|
\ .

IAS-14. Ans. (a)

1 2
1
250 Nm
2 2
s s b b s b b b s
b
s s b b s b s s
T l T l T T T G T
or or or or T
G J G J G G T G
u u = = = = = = =
IAS-15. Ans. (a)
IAS-16. Ans.(b)
( )
( )
4 4
s H H
s H H S
4
s H s
100 50
T L T L J
32
or or T T 16000 15000kgm
GJ GJ J
100
32
t
u u
t

= = = = =


Conventional Question IES 2010
Q. A hollow steel rod 200 mm long is to be used as torsional spring. The ratio of inside to
outside diameter is 1 : 2. The required stiffness of this spring is 100 N.m /degree.
Determine the outside diameter of the rod.
Value of G is
4 2
8 10 N/mm . [10 Marks]

Ans. Length of a hollow steel rod = 200mm
Ratio of inside to outside diameter = 1 : 2
Stiffness of torsional spring = 100 Nm /degree. = 5729.578 N m/rad
Rigidity of modulus (G) =
4 2
8 10 N / mm
Find outside diameter of rod : -
We know that

T G.
=
J L
u
Where T = Torque

T N M
Sti ffness
rad
| |
=
|
\ .

J = polar moment
Stiffness =
T G.J
=
L u
= twist angle in rad
L = length of rod.

2 1
d 2d =

( )
( )
t

t

t

t

t
4 4
2 1
4 4 1
1 1
2
4
1
4 6 2
4
1
4
1
10
3
1
1
2
J = d - d
32
d 1
J = 16 d - d =
32 d 2
J = d 15
32
8 10 10 N / m
5729.578 Nm / r ad = d 15
0.2 32
5729.578 .2 32
= d
8 10 15
d = 9.93 10 m.
d = 9.93mm.
d = 2 9.93 = 19.86 mm Ans.

Conventional Question GATE - 1998
Question: A component used in the Mars pathfinder can be idealized as a circular bar clamped at
its ends. The bar should withstand a torque of 1000 Nm. The component is assembled
on earth when the temperature is 30C. Temperature on Mars at the site of landing is -
70C. The material of the bar has an allowable shear stress of 300 MPa and its young's
modulus is 200 GPa. Design the diameter of the bar taking a factor of safety of 1.5 and
assuming a coefficient of thermal expansion for the material of the bar as 12 10
6
/C.
Answer: Given:

( )
0 0
max E m allowable
6 0
6 4
T 1000Nm; t 30 C; t 70 C; 300MPa
E 200GPa; F.O.S. 1.5; 12 10 / C
Diameter of the bar,D:
Change in length, L L t, where L original length,m.
Change in lengthat Mars L 12 10 30 70 12 10 L meters
t
o
o

= = = =
= = =
= A =
( = =

2
4
4
9 4 8
a
2 2
a
max 3
max
Change in length 12 10 L
Linear strain 12 10
original length L
axial stress E linear strain 200 10 12 10 2.4 10 N/ m
From maximum shear stress equation, we have
16T
D 2
where,
o
o
t
t
t
= = =
= = = =
(
| | | |
= +
(
| |
\ . \ .
(

( )
allowable
2
2
16 8
3
8
3
1/3
8
300
200MPa
F.O.S 1.5
Substituting thevalues, we get
16 1000
4 10 1.2 10
D
16 1000
or 1.6 10
D
16 1000
or D 0.03169 m 31.69 mm
1.6 10
t
t
t
t
= = =
| |
= +
|
\ .
=
| |
= = =
|

\ .

Q. In a torsion test, the specimen is a hollow shaft with 50 mm external and 30 mm internal
diameter. An applied torque of 1.6 kN-m is found to produce an angular twist of 0.4
measured on a length of 0.2 m of the shaft. The Youngs modulus of elasticity obtained
from a tensile test has been found to be 200 GPa. Find the values of
(i) Modulus of rigidity.
(ii) Poissons ratio. [10-Marks]
Ans. We have

T G
......... (i)
J r L
t u
= =
Where J = polar moment of inertia

( )
( )
4 4
4 4 12
7
3
J = D d
32
50 30 10
32
5.338 10
T 1.6 kN m 1.6 10 N-m
= 0.4
l = 0.2 m
t

t
=
=
= =
u

9 2
E = 200 10 N/m
T G
From equati on (i )
J L
u
=


We also have

Conventional Question IAS - 1996
Question: A solid circular uniformly tapered shaft of length I, with a small angle of taper is
subjected to a torque T. The diameter at the two ends of the shaft are D and 1.2 D.
Determine the error introduced of its angular twist for a given length is determined on
the uniform mean diameter of the shaft.
Answer: For shaft of tapering's section, we have

2 2 2 2
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
3 3 3 3
1 2 1 2
R R R R D DD D 2TL 32TL
3G R R 3G D D
u
t t
( ( + + + +
= =
( (

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
| |
2 2
1 2 3 3 4
4
1.2 1.2 1 1
32TL
D D and D 1.2D
3G D
1.2 1
32TL
2.1065
3G D
t
t
(
+ +
= = = (
(

=

avg
1.2D D
Now, D 1.1D
2
+
= =

( )
( ) ( )
2
6 4 4
4
3 1.1D
32TL 32TL 3 32TL
' 2.049
3G 3G 3G D
1.1D 1.2 .D
u
t t t
(
= = = (
(

' 2.1065 2.049
Error 0.0273 or 2.73%
2.1065
u u
u

= = =

Conventional Question ESE-2008
Question: A hollow shaft and a solid shaft construction of the same material have the same
length and the same outside radius. The inside radius of the hollow shaft is 0.6 times
of the outside radius. Both the shafts are subjected to the same torque.
(i) What is the ratio of maximum shear stress in the hollow shaft to that of solid
shaft?
(ii) What is the ratio of angle of twist in the hollow shaft to that of solid shaft?
Solution: Using
T G
= =
J R L
t

Given,
Inside radius (r)
0.6 and T
Out side (R)
= = =
h s
T T
(i) t =
( )
h
4 4
. .
gives ; For hollow shaft ( )
2
t
p
=
-
T R T R
J
R r

3
7
3
7
G 0.4
1.6 10 180
0.2
5.338 10
1.6 0.2 10 180
G =
0.4 5.338 10
85.92 GPa
t (

(
t
=
( )
E = 2 G (1 + v)
200 = 2 85.92 1 v
1 + v = 1.164
v = 0.164
+


and for solid shaft ( s)=
4
.
.
2
T R
R

Therefore
4
4 4 4 4
1 1
1.15
1 0.6
1
= = = =

n
s
R
R r
r
R

(ii)
( )
4 4 4
TL . .
= gives
GJ
. . .
2 2

= =

h s
T L T L
and
G R r G R

4
4 4 4 4
1 1
Therefore 1.15
1 0.6
1
= = = =

h
s
R
R r
r
R

Conventional Question ESE-2006:
Question: Two hollow shafts of same diameter are used to transmit same power. One
shaft is rotating at 1000 rpm while the other at 1200 rpm. What will be the
nature and magnitude of the stress on the surfaces of these shafts? Will it be
the same in two cases of different? Justify your answer.
Answer: We know power transmitted (P) = Torque (T) rotation speed ( )
And shear stress ( ) =
( )
4 4
.
.
2
2
60 32

= =

D
P
T R PR
N J J
D d

Therefore
1
N
as P, D and d are constant.
So the shaft rotating at 1000 rpm will experience greater stress then 1200 rpm shaft.

Question: A 5 cm diameter solid shaft is welded to a flat plate by 1 cm filled weld. What
will be the maximum torque that the welded joint can sustain if the
permissible shear stress in the weld material is not to exceed 8 kN/cm
2
?
Deduce the expression for the shear stress at the throat from the basic
theory.
Answer: Consider a circular shaft connected to a
plate by means of a fillet joint as shown in
figure. If the shaft is subjected to a torque,
shear stress develops in the weld.
Assuming that the weld thickness is very
small compared to the diameter of the
shaft, the maximum shear stress occurs in
the throat area. Thus, for a given torque
the maximum shear stress in the weld is

max
2
d
T t
J

=
Where T = Torque applied.
d = outer diameter of the shaft
t = throat thickness
J = polar moment of area of the throat
section
= ( )
4
4 3
2
32 4
d t d d t

+ =


[As t <<d] then
max
3
2
4
d
T
d t
t
p
= =
2
2
T
td

( )

2 6 2
max
4 2
2 2 6
max
Given
d = 5 cm = 0.05 m & t = 1cm = 0.1 m
8000
8 / 80 80 10 /
10
0.05 0.01 80 10
3.142
2 2
N
kN cm MPa N m
m
d t
T kNm
t
t
-
= = = =

\ = = =

Question: The ratio of inside to outside diameter of a hollow shaft is 0.6. If there is a solid shaft
with same torsional strength, what is the ratio of the outside diameter of hollow shaft
to the diameter of the equivalent solid shaft.
Answer: Let D = external diameter of hollow shaft
So d = 0.6D internal diameter of hollow shaft
And Ds=diameter of solid shaft
From torsion equation

( )
32
D D
4 4
4
3 3
4
3
4
{ (0.6 ) }
32
, for hollowshaft
/ 2
J
T= for solidshaft
R
2
{1 (0.6) }
16 16
1
, 1.072
1 (0.6)
s
s
s
s
T
J R
D D
J
or T
R D
D
and J
D
D
or
D
t
t
t
t
t t
=
-
= =
=
- =
= =
-

Question: A cantilever tube of length 120 mm is subjected to an axial tension P = 9.0 kN, A
torsional moment T = 72.0 Nm and a pending Load F = 1.75 kN at the free end. The
material is aluminum alloy with an yield strength 276 MPa. Find the thickness of the
tube limiting the outside diameter to 50 mm so as to ensure a factor of safety of 4.
Answer:
3
R
3
Polar moment of inertia (J) =2
4
D t
t =

3 2 2
1
2
T.R 2 2 72 18335
or, =
2 (0.050)
2
4
9000 9000 57296
Direct stress ( )
(0.050)
2
Maximum bending stress ( ) [ 2 ]
1750

T TD TD T
J R J J t D t D t t
P
A dt t t
d
M
My Md
J I
I I J

= = = = = =

= = = =
= = = =
=
( )
3
b 1 2
2 2 2
6
2 b
1
0.120 0.050 4 106952
(0.050)
164248
Total longitudinal stress ( )
Maximum principal stress
164248 164248 18335 276 10
2 2 2 2 4
, 2
b
t t
t
t t t
or t
= + =

= + + = + + =

=
3
.4 10 2.4 m mm
=

Conventional Question ESE-2000 & ESE 2001
Question: A hollow shaft of diameter ratio 3/8 required to transmit 600 kW at 110 rpm,
the maximum torque being 20% greater than the mean. The shear stress is
not to exceed 63 MPa and the twist in a length of 3 m not to exceed 1.4
degrees. Determine the diameter of the shaft. Assume modulus of rigidity for
the shaft material as 84 GN/m
2
.
Answer: Let d = internal diameter of the hollow shaft
And D = external diameter of the hollow shaft
(given) d = 3/8 D = 0.375D
Power (P)= 600 kW, speed (N) =110 rpm, Shear stress( )= 63 MPa. Angle of twist (
)=1.4, Length ( A ) =3m , modulus of rigidity (G) = 84GPa
We know that, (P) = T. = T.
2N
60
[T is average torque]
or T=
60
2
P
N
=
3
60 (600 10 )
52087Nm
2 110

=

max
1.2 1.2 52087 =62504 Nm = = T T
First we consider that shear stress is not to exceed 63 MPa
=
T
J R

4 4
6
. .
2
62504
(0.375 )
32 2 (63 10 )
0.1727 172.7 ( )

= =

=

= =
T R T D
or J
D
or D D
or D m mm i

0
17 1.4
Second we consider angle of twist is not exceed 1.4 radian
180
=

4 4
9
T
62504 3
(0.375 )
1.5 32
(84 10 )
180
0.1755 175.5 ( )
=
=

= =
A
A
G
J
T G
or
J
or D D
or D m mm ii

both the condition will satisfy if greater of the two value is adopted
so D=175.5 mm
So

Question: Determine the torsional stiffness of a hollow shaft of length L and having
outside diameter equal to 1.5 times inside diameter d. The shear modulus of
the material is G.
Answer: Outside diameter (D) =1.5 d
Polar modulus of the shaft (J) =
( )
4 4 4 4

(1.5 1)
32 32
D d d =

4 4
4
T
We know that
J
. (1.5 1)
0.4
32
G
R L
G d
G J G d
or T
L L L

= =
= = =

Question: The maximum normal stress and the maximum shear stress analysed for a
shaft of 150 mm diameter under combined bending and torsion, were found
to be 120 MN/m
2
and 80 MN/m
2
respectively. Find the bending moment and
torque to which the shaft is subjected.

If the maximum shear stress be limited to 100 MN/m
2
, find by how much the
torque can be

increased if the bending moment is kept constant.

Answer: Given:
2 2
max max
120MN/ m ; 80MN/ m ;d 150mm 0.15m = = = =
Part 1: M; T
We know that for combined bending and torsion, we have the following expressions:

( )
( )
2 2
max 3
2 2
max 3
16
M M T i
d
16
and M T ii
d

= + +

= +

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2
3
2 2
3
3
2 2
Substituting the given values in the above equations, we have
16
120 M M T iii
0.15
16
80 M T iv
0.15
80 0.15
or M T 0.053 v
16

= + +

= +

+ = =


( )
( )
| |
3
Substituting this values in equation iii , we get
16
120 M 0.053
0.150
M 0.0265MNm
t
= +
=

( )
( )
2
2
Substituting for M in equation v , we have
0.0265 T 0.053
or T 0.0459MNm
+ =
=

( )
2
max
Part II : [ 100MN/ m ]
Increase in torque:
Bending moment M to be kept constant 0.0265MNm
t =
=

( )
( )
2
3
2
2
100 0.15
or 0.0265 T 0.004391
16
t
(

( + = =
(

T 0.0607 MNm
The increased torque 0.0607 0.0459 0.0148MNm
=
= =

Question: A solid shaft is to transmit 300 kW at 120 rpm. If the shear stress is not to exceed 100
MPa, Find the diameter of the shaft, What percent saving in weight would be obtained
if this shaft were replaced by a hollow one whose internal diameter equals 0.6 of the
external diameter, the length, material and maximum allowable shear stress being the
same?
Answer: Given P= 300 kW, N = 120 rpm, t =100 MPa, 0.6
H H
d D =
Diameter of solid shaft, Ds:
We know that P =
2
60 1000
NT
or 300 =
2 120
or T=23873 Nm
60 1000

T

We know that
t
=
T
J R

or, T=
. t J
R
or, 23873 =
6 4
100 10
32
2

s
s
D
D

or, Ds= 0.1067 m =106.7mm

Percentage saving in weight:

H s
T T =

( )
4 4 4 4
3 3
3 4
3
H
S
2 2
2
2 2
2
2

{ } (0.6 )
, ,
106.7
, 111.8 mm
1 0.64
(1 0.6 )
W
Again
W
(1 0.6 ) 111.8
4
1
106.7
4
H s
H H H H
s s
H H
s
H
H H H H
s s s s
H H
H H
s s
s
J J
R R
D d D D
or D or D
D D
D
or D
A L g A
A L g A
D d
A D
A D
D

=

= =
= = =
= =

= = =

( )
2
H
s
0.6 0.702
W
Percentage savings in weight = 1- 100
W
= (1-0.702)100 = 29.8%
=


10. Thi n Cyl i nder
1. Thin Rings
Uniformly distributed loading (radial) may be due to
either
Internal pressure or external pressure
Centrifugal force as in the case of a rotating ring

Case-I: Internal pressure or external pressure
s = qr Where q = Intensity of loading in kg/cm of O
ce

r = Mean centreline of radius
s = circumferential tension or hoops
tension
(Radial loading ducted outward)

Unit stress, = =
s qr
A A

Circumferential strain,
E
c
qr
AE
= =
Diametral strain, (
d
) = Circumferential strain, (
c
)

Case-II: Centrifugal force
Hoop's Tension,
2 2
=
w r
s
g
Where w = wt. per unit length of circumferential element
= Angular velocity
Radial loading, q =
2
=
w r s
r g

Hoop's stress,
2 2
. = =
s w
r
A Ag

2. Thin Walled Pressure Vessels
For thin cylinders whose thickness may be considered small compared to their diameter.
i
Inner dia of the cylinder (d )
15 or 20
wall thickness (t)
>
Chapter-10 Thin Cylinder S K Mondals

3. General Formula

1 2
1 2

+ =
p
r r t

Where
1
=Meridional stress at A

2
=Circumferential / Hoop's stress
P = Intensity of internal gas pressure/ fluid pressure
t = Thickness of pressure vessel.

4. Some cases:
Cylindrical vessel

1 2
=
2 4 2
= = =
pr pD pr pD
t t t t
1 2
, r r r =

1 2
max
2 4 8

= = =
pr pD
t t

Spherical vessel

1 2
2 4
= = =
pr pD
t t
[r1 = r2 = r]
Conical vessel

1 1
tan
[ ]
2 cos
py
r
t
= and
2
tan
cos
py
t
=
Notes:
Volume 'V' of the spherical shell,
3
V=
6
i
D
1/3
6

=

i
V
D
Design of thin cylindrical shells is based on hoop's stress

5. Volumetric Strain (Dilation)
Rectangular block,
0
x y z
V
V
= + +
Cylindrical pressure vessel
1=Longitudinal strain = [ ]
1 2
1 2
2
pr
E E Et

=

2
=Circumferential strain = [ ]
2 1
1 2
2

=
pr
E E Et

Volumetric Strain,
1 2
2 [5 4] [5 4]
2 4
= + = =
o
V pr pD
V Et Et

i.e. ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2
, 2
v
Volumetric strain longitudinal strain circumferential strain = +
Spherical vessels

1 2
[1 ]
2
pr
Et
= = =


0
3
3 [1 ]
2
V pr
V Et

= =

6. Thin cylindrical shell with hemispherical end
Condition for no distortion at the junction of cylindrical and hemispherical portion

2
1
1
2
t
t
Where, t1= wall thickness of cylindrical portion

t2 = wall thickness of hemispherical portion

7. Alternative method
Consider the equilibrium of forces in the z-direction acting on the part
cylinder shown in figure.
Force due to internal pressure p acting on area D
2
/4 = p. D
2
/4
Force due to longitudinal stress sL acting on area Dt =
1
Dt
Equating: p. D
2
/4 =
1
Dt
or
1
4 2
pd pr
t t
= =

Now consider the equilibrium of forces in the x-direction acting on the
sectioned cylinder shown in figure. It is assumed that the
circumferential stress
2
is constant through the thickness of the
cylinder.
Force due to internal pressure p acting on area Dz = pDz
Force due to circumferential stress
2
acting on area 2tz =
2
2tz
Equating: pDz =
2
2tz
or
2
2
pD pr
t t
= =



Longitudinal stress

GATE-1. A thin cylinder of inner radius 500 mm and thickness 10 mm is subjected to an internal
pressure of 5 MPa. The average circumferential (hoop) stress in MPa is
[GATE-2011]
(a) 100 (b) 250 (c) 500 (d) 1000
GATE-2. The maximum principal strain in a thin cylindrical tank, having a radius of 25 cm and
wall thickness of 5 mm when subjected to an internal pressure of 1MPa, is (taking
Young's modulus as 200 GPa and Poisson's ratio as 0.2) [GATE-1998]
(a) 2.25 10
4
(b) 2.25 (c) 2.25 10
6
(d) 22.5

GATE-3.A thin walled spherical shell is subjected to an internal pressure. If the radius of the shell is
increased by 1% and the thickness is reduced by 1%, with the internal pressure remaining
the same, the percentage change in the circumferential (hoop) stress is
[GATE-2012]
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 1.08 (d) 2.02
Maximum shear stress
GATE-4. A thin walled cylindrical vessel of well thickness, t and diameter d is fitted with gas to a
gauge pressure of p. The maximum shear stress on the vessel wall will then be:[GATE-1999]
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 4 8
pd pd pd pd
t t t t

Change in dimensions of a thin cylindrical shell due to an internal pressure
Statement for Linked Answers and Questions 5 and 6
A cylindrical container of radius R = 1 m, wall
thickness 1 mm is filled with water up to a depth of 2
m and suspended along its upper rim. The density of
water is 1000 kg/m
3
and acceleration due to gravity is
10 m/s
2
. The self-weight of the cylinder is negligible.
The formula for hoop stress in a thin-walled cylinder
can be used at all points along the height of the
cylindrical container.

[GATE-2008]
GATE-5. The axial and circumferential stress ( ) ,
c a
o o experienced by the cylinder wall at mid-
depth (1 m as shown) are
(a) (10,10) MPa (b) (5,10) MPa (c) (10,5) MPa (d) (5,5)MPa

GATE-6. If the Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio of the container material are 100 GPa and
0.3, respectively, the axial strain in the cylinder wall at mid-depth is:
(a) 2 10
5
(b) 6 10
5
(c) 7 10
5
(d) 1.2 10
5


Circumferential or hoop stress
IES-1. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer: [IES-2002]
List-I List-II
(2-D Stress system loading) (Ratio of principal stresses)
A. Thin cylinder under internal pressure 1. 3.0
B. Thin sphere under internal pressure 2. 1.0
C. Shaft subjected to torsion 3. 1.0
4. 2.0
Codes: A B C A B C
(a) 4 2 3 (b) 1 3 2
(c) 4 3 2 (d) 1 2 3

IES-2. A thin cylinder of radius r and thickness t when subjected to an internal hydrostatic
pressure P causes a radial displacement u, then the tangential strain caused is:[IES-2002]
(a)
du
dr
(b)
1
.
du
r dr
(c)
u
r
(d)
2u
r

IES-3. A thin cylindrical shell is subjected to internal pressure p. The Poisson's ratio of the
material of the shell is 0.3. Due to internal pressure, the shell is subjected to
circumferential strain and axial strain. The ratio of circumferential strain to axial strain
is: [IES-2001]
(a) 0.425 (b) 2.25 (c) 0.225 (d) 4.25

IES-4. A thin cylindrical shell of diameter d, length l and thickness t is subjected to an internal
pressure p. What is the ratio of longitudinal strain to hoop strain in terms of Poisson's
ratio (1/m)? [IES-2004]
(a)
2
2 1
m
m
+
(b)
2
2 1
m
m
(c)
2 1
2
m
m
(d)
2 2
1
m
m
+

IES-5. When a thin cylinder of diameter 'd' and thickness 't' is pressurized with an internal
pressure of 'p', (1/m = is the Poisson's ratio and E is the modulus of elasticity), then[IES-1998]
(a) The circumferential strain will be equal to
1 1
2 2
pd
tE m
| |
|
\ .

(b) The longitudinal strain will be equal to
1
1
2 2
pd
tE m
| |
|
\ .

(c) The longitudinal stress will be equal to
2
pd
t

(d) The ratio of the longitudinal strain to circumferential strain will be equal to
2
2 1
m
m

IES-6. A thin cylinder contains fluid at a pressure of 500 N/m
2
, the internal diameter of the
shell is 0.6 m and the tensile stress in the material is to be limited to 9000 N/m
2
. The
shell must have a minimum wall thickness of nearly [IES-2000]
(a) 9 mm (b) 11 mm (c) 17 mm (d) 21 mm

IES-7. A thin cylinder with closed lids
is subjected to internal
pressure and supported at the
ends as shown in figure.
The state of stress at point X is
as represented in

[IES-1999]

IES-8. A thin cylinder with both ends closed is subjected to internal pressure p. The
longitudinal stress at the surface has been calculated as o. Maximum shear stress at the
surface will be equal to: [IES-1999]

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) a 2 b 1.5 c d 0.5
o o o o
o o o o

IES-9. A metal pipe of 1m diameter contains a fluid having a pressure of 10 kgf/cm
2
. lf the
permissible tensile stress in the metal is 200 kgf/cm
2
, then the thickness of the metal
required for making the pipe would be: [IES-1993]
(a) 5 mm (b) 10 mm (c) 20 mm (d) 25 mm

IES-10. Circumferential stress in a cylindrical steel boiler shell under internal pressure is 80
MPa. Young's modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio are respectively 2 10
5
MPa and
0.28. The magnitude of circumferential strain in the boiler shell will be: [IES-1999]
(a) 3.44 10
4
(b) 3.84 10
4
(c) 4 10
4
(d) 4.56 10
4

IES-11. A penstock pipe of 10m diameter carries water under a pressure head of 100 m. If the
wall thickness is 9 mm, what is the tensile stress in the pipe wall in MPa?
[IES-2009]
(a) 2725 (b) 5450 (c) 2725 (d) 1090

IES-12. A water main of 1 m diameter contains water at a pressure head of 100 metres. The
permissible tensile stress in the material of the water main is 25 MPa. What is the
minimum thickness of the water main? (Take g = 10 m/
2
s ).
[IES-2009]
(a) 10 mm (b) 20mm (c) 50 mm (d) 60 mm

IES-12(i). A seamless pipe of diameter d m is to carry fluid under a pressure of p kN/cm
2
. The
necessary thickness t of metal in cm, if the maximum stress is not to exceed kN/cm
2
, is
[IES-2012]
()
()
()
()

Longitudinal stress
IES-13. Hoop stress and longitudinal stress in a boiler shell under internal pressure are 100
MN/m
2
and 50 MN/m
2
respectively. Young's modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio of
the shell material are 200 GN/m
2
and 0.3 respectively. The hoop strain in boiler shell is:[IES-1995]
(a) 0.425
3
10
(b) 0.5
3
10
(c) 0.585
3
10
(d) 0.75
3
10

IES-14. In strain gauge dynamometers, the use of how many active gauge makes the
dynamometer more effective? [IES 2007]
(a) Four (b) Three (c) Two (d) One

Volumetric strain
IES-15. Circumferential and longitudinal strains in a cylindrical boiler under internal steam
pressure are
1
c and
2
c respectively. Change in volume of the boiler cylinder per unit
volume will be: [IES-1993; IAS 2003]

2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
(a) 2 (b) (c) 2 (d) c c c c c c c c + +

IES-16. The volumetric strain in case of a thin cylindrical shell of diameter d, thickness t,
subjected to internal pressure p is: [IES-2003; IAS 1997]
(a)
( ) . 3 2
2
pd
tE
(b)
( ) . 4 3
3
pd
tE
(c)
( ) . 5 4
4
pd
tE
(d)
( ) . 4 5
4
pd
tE

(Where E = Modulus of elasticity, = Poisson's ratio for the shell material)
Spherical Vessel
IES-17. For the same internal diameter, wall thickness, material and internal pressure, the ratio
of maximum stress, induced in a thin cylindrical and in a thin spherical pressure vessel
will be: [IES-2001]
(a) 2 (b) 1/2 (c) 4 (d) 1/4

IES-18. From design point of view, spherical pressure vessels are preferred over cylindrical
pressure vessels because they [IES-1997]
(a) Are cost effective in fabrication
(b) Have uniform higher circumferential stress
(c) Uniform lower circumferential stress
(d) Have a larger volume for the same quantity of material used
Circumferential or hoop stress
IAS-1. The ratio of circumferential stress to longitudinal stress in a thin cylinder subjected to
internal hydrostatic pressure is: [IAS 1994]
(a) 1/2 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 4

IAS-2. A thin walled water pipe carries water under a pressure of 2 N/mm
2
and discharges
water into a tank. Diameter of the pipe is 25 mm and thickness is 25 mm. What is the
longitudinal stress induced in the pipe? [IAS-2007]
(a) 0 (b) 2 N/mm
2
(c) 5 N/mm
2
(d) 10 N/mm
2

IAS-3. A thin cylindrical shell of mean diameter 750 mm and wall thickness 10 mm has its ends
rigidly closed by flat steel plates. The shell is subjected to internal fluid pressure of 10
N/mm
2
and an axial external pressure P1. If the longitudinal stress in the shell is to be
zero, what should be the approximate value of P1? [IAS-2007]
(a) 8 N/mm
2
(b) 9 N/mm
2
(c) 10 N/mm
2
(d) 12 N/mm
2

IAS-4. Assertion (A): A thin cylindrical shell is subjected to internal fluid pressure that induces
a 2-D stress state in the material along the longitudinal and circumferential directions.[IAS-2000]
Reason(R): The circumferential stress in the thin cylindrical shell is two times the
magnitude of longitudinal stress.


IAS-5. Match List-I (Terms used in thin cylinder stress analysis) with List-II (Mathematical
expressions) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:[IAS-1998]
List-I List-II
A. Hoop stress 1. pd/4t
B. Maximum shear stress 2. pd/2t
C. Longitudinal stress 3. pd/2
D. Cylinder thickness 4. pd/8t
(a) 2 3 1 4 (b) 2 3 4 1
(c) 2 4 3 1 (d) 2 4 1 3
Longitudinal stress
IAS-6. Assertion (A): For a thin cylinder under internal pressure, At least three strain gauges
is needed to know the stress state completely at any point on the shell.
Reason (R): If the principal stresses directions are not know, the minimum number of
strain gauges needed is three in a biaxial field. [IAS-2001]
Maximum shear stress
IAS-7. The maximum shear stress is induced in a thin-walled cylindrical shell having an
internal diameter 'D' and thicknesst when subject to an internal pressure 'p' is equal to:[IAS-1996]
(a) pD/t (b) pD/2t (c) pD/4t (d) pD/8t
Volumetric strain
IAS-8. Circumferential and longitudinal strains in a cylindrical boiler under internal steam
pressure are
1
c and
2
c respectively. Change in volume of the boiler cylinder per unit
volume will be: [IES-1993; IAS 2003]

2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
(a) 2 (b) (c) 2 (d) c c c c c c c c + +

IAS-9. The volumetric strain in case of a thin cylindrical shell of diameter d, thickness t,
subjected to internal pressure p is: [IES-2003; IAS 1997]
(a) ( ) . 3 2
2
pd
tE
(b) ( ) . 4 3
3
pd
tE
(c) ( ) . 5 4
4
pd
tE
(d) ( ) . 4 5
4
pd
tE


IAS-10. A thin cylinder of diameter d and thickness 't' is subjected to an internal pressure 'p' the
change in diameter is (where E is the modulus of elasticity and is the Poisson's ratio)[IAS-1998]
(a)
2
(2 )
4
pd
tE
(b)
2
(1 )
2
pd
tE
+ (c)
2
(2 )
pd
tE
+ (d)
2
(2 )
4
pd
tE
+

IAS-11. The percentage change in volume of a thin cylinder under internal pressure having hoop
stress = 200 MPa, E = 200 GPa and Poisson's ratio = 025 is:
[IAS-2002]
(a) 0.40 (b) 030 (c) 025 (d) 020

IAS-12. A round bar of length l, elastic modulus E and Poisson's ratio is subjected to an axial
pull 'P'. What would be the change in volume of the bar? [IAS-2007]
(a)
(1 2 )
Pl
E
(b)
(1 2 ) Pl
E

(c)
Pl
E
(d)
Pl
E

IAS-13. If a block of material of length 25 cm. breadth 10 cm and height 5 cm undergoes a
volumetric strain of 1/5000, then change in volume will be: [IAS-2000]
(a) 0.50 cm
3
(b) 0.25 cm
3
(c) 0.20 cm
3
(d) 0.75 cm
3

OBJECTIVE ANSWERS
GATE-1. Ans. (b) Inner radius (r) = 500 mm
Thickness (t) = 10 mm
Internal pressure (p) = 5 MPa
Hoop stress,
6
5 10 500
250
10
c
pr
Pa Mpa
t
o

= = =
GATE-2. Ans. (a) Circumferential or Hoop stress
( )
c
pr 1 250
50MPa
t 5
o

= = =
Longitudinal stress
( )
l
pr
25MPa
2t
o = =

6 6
4 c l
c 9 9
50 10 25 10
e 0.2 2.25 10
E E 200 10 200 10
o o

= = =

GATE-3. Ans. (d)
GATE-4. Ans. (d)
c l
c l
pd pd pd
, , Maximum shear stress
2t 4t 2 8t
o o
o o

= = = =
GATE-5. Ans. (a) Pressure (P) = h g = 1100010 = 10 kPa
Axial Stress (
a
o ) L R g Rt
a
2
2 t t o =
or
o

= = =
3
1000 10 1 1
10 MPa
1 10
a
gRL
t

Circumferential Stress(
c
o )=

= =
3
10 1
10 MPa
1 10
PR
t

GATE-6. Ans. (c)
5
3 3
10 7
10 100
10
3 . 0
10 100
10

=
= =
E E
c a
a
o
o
c
IES
IES-1. Ans. (a)
IES-2. Ans. (c)
IES-3. Ans. (d) Circumferential strain, ( )
c l
c
pr
e 2
E E 2Et
o o
= =

Longitudinal strain,
( )
c l
l
pr
e 1 2
E E 2Et
o o
= =
IES-4. Ans. (b)
( )
l
Pr
longitudinal stress
2t
o =

( )
c
c l
l
c l
c
Pr
hoop stress
t
1 1 1
m 2
E m E 2 m
1 1 2m 1
1
2m E m E
o
o o
o o
=

e
= = =
e

IES-5. Ans. (d) Ratio of longitudinal strain to circumferential strain
=
{ }
{ }
1 1
2
2
1 1 2 1
2
l c l l
c l l l
m m m
m
m m
o o o o
o o o o
| | | |

| |

\ . \ .
= =
| | | |

| |
\ . \ .

Circumferential strain,
( )
c l
c
pr
e 2
E E 2Et
o o
= =
Longitudinal strain,
( )
c l
l
pr
e 1 2
E E 2Et
o o
= =
IES-6. Ans. (c)
IES-7. Ans. (a) Point 'X' is subjected to circumferential and longitudinal stress, i.e. tension on all
faces, but there is no shear stress because vessel is supported freely outside.
IES-8. Ans. (d)

2
Longitudinal stress hoop stress 2 Max. shear stress
2 2
o o o
o o
and
o o o
o o

= = = =
IES-9. Ans. (d)
10 100 1000
Hoop stress 200 2.5
2 2 400
pd
or or t cm
t t
= = = =

IES-10. Ans. (a) Circumferential strain =
( )
1 2
1
E
o o

| |
1 2
6 4
5 6
Since circumferential stress 80 MPa and longitudinal stress 40 MPa
1
Circumferential strain 80 0.28 40 10 3.44 x10
2 10 10
o o
= =
= =

IES-11. Ans. (b) Tensile stress in the pipe wall = Circumferential stress in pipe wall =
Pd
2t

2
6 2 2
3
Where, P gH 980000N/ m
980000 10
Tensile stress 544.44 10 N/ m 544.44MN/ m 544.44MPa
2 9 10
= =
= = = =

IES-12. Ans. (b) Pressure in the main
6 2
gh 1000 10 1000 = 10 N/ mm 1000 KPa = = =

( ) ( )
c
6
6
c
Pd
Hoop stress
2t
10 1
Pd 1
t m 20 mm
2 50 2 25 10
= o =
= = = =
o

IES-12(i). Ans. (b)
IES-13. Ans. (a) ( ) | |
3
1 1
Hoopstrain = 100 0.3 50 0.425 10
200 1000
h l
E
o o

= =

IES-14. Ans. (b)
IES-15. Ans. (c) Volumetric stream = 2 circumferential strain + longitudinal strain

IES-16. Ans. (c) Remember it.
IES-17. Ans. (a)
IES-18. Ans. (d)
IAS
IAS-1. Ans. (c)
IAS-2. Ans. (c)
2
Pr 2 12.5
5N/mm
2 2 2.5 t
o

= = =

IAS-3. Ans. (c) Tensile longitudinal stress due to internal fluid pressure ( o 1) t =
2
750
10
4
750 10
t
t
| |
|
\ .

tensile. Compressive longitudinal stress due to external pressure p1 ( o l)c =
2
1
750
4
750 10
P
t
t
| |
|
\ .

compressive. For zero longitudinal stress ( o l) t = ( o l)c.
IAS-4. Ans. (b) For thin cell
Pr Pr
2
c l
t t
o o = =
IAS-5. Ans. (d)
IAS-6. Ans. (d) For thin cylinder, variation of radial strain is zero. So only circumferential and
longitudinal strain has to measurer so only two strain gauges are needed.
IAS-7. Ans. (d)
c l
c l max
PD PD PD
Hoop stress( ) and Longitudinal stress( )
2t 4t 2 8t
o o
o o t

= = = =
IAS-8. Ans. (c) Volumetric stream = 2 x circumferential strain + longitudinal strain.
IAS-9. Ans. (c) Remember it.
IAS-10. Ans. (a)
IAS-11. Ans. (d)
( )
6
Pr
Hoop stress 200 10
t a
P
t
o = =

( ) ( )
( )
6
9
Pr
Volumetric strain ( ) 5 4 5 4
2 2
200 10 2
5 4 0.25
2 200 10 1000
t
v
e
Et E
o
= =
= =

IAS-12. Ans. (b)

, 0 and 0
or ,
x y z
x x
x y
P
A
E E
o o o
o o
c c
= = =
= =

( ) ( )
( )
and
or 1 2 1 2
. 1 2
x
z
x
v x y z
v v
E
P
E AE
Pl
V V Al
E
o
c
o
c c c c
o c c
=
= + + = =
= = =

IAS-13. Ans. (b)

3
Volumechange(V)
Volumetricstrain( )
Initial volume(V)
1
or ( ) 25 10 5 0.25
5000
v
v
V V cm
c
o c
=
= = =

Question: A thin cylinder of 100 mm internal diameter and 5 mm thickness is subjected to an
internal pressure of 10 MPa and a torque of 2000 Nm. Calculate the magnitudes of the
principal stresses.
Answer: Given: d = 100 mm = 0.1 m; t = 5 mm = 0.005 m; D = d + 2t = 0.1 + 2 x 0.005 =
0.11 m p = 10 MPa, 10 x 10
6
N/m
2
; T= 2000 Nm.
Longitudinal stress,
6
6 2 2
l x
pd 10 10 0.1
50 10 N/ m 50MN/ m
4t 4 0.005
o o

= = = = =

Circumferential stress,
c y
pd
2t
o o = = =
6
2
10 10 0.1
100MN/ m
2 0.005

=

To find the shear stress, using Torsional equation,

( )
( )
( )
2
xy
4 4 4 4
T
, we have
J R
2000 0.05 0.005
TR T R
24.14MN/ m
J
D d 0.11 0.1
32 32
t
t t
t t
=
+
= = = = =

Principal stresses are:

( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2
x y x y
1 2 xy
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
,
2 2
50 100 50 100
24.14
2 2
75 34.75 109.75 and 40.25MN/ m
Major principal stress 109.75MN/ m ;
minor principal stress 40.25MN/ m ;
o o o o
o t
o
o
+ | |
= +
|
\ .
+ | |
= +
|
\ .
= =
=
=

Question: A thin cylindrical pressure vessel of inside radius r and thickness of metal t is subject
to an internal fluid pressure p. What are the values of
(i) Maximum normal stress?
(ii) Maximum shear stress?
Answer: Circumferential (Hoop) stress( )
c
s =
. p r
t

Longitudinal stress( ) s
l
=
.
2
=
p r
t

Therefore (ii) Maximum shear stress, ( t max) =
.r
2 4
s s -
=
l c
p
t


Question: A thin cylindrical vessel of internal diameter d and thickness t is closed at both ends is
subjected to an internal pressure P. How much would be the hoop and longitudinal
stress in the material?
Answer: For thin cylinder we know that
Hoop or circumferential stress ( )
2
c
Pd
t
=
And longitudinal stress( )
l
=
4
Pd
t

Therefore 2
c
=
l

Q. A cylindrical shell has the following dimensions:
Length = 3 m
Inside diameter = 1 m
Thickness of metal = 10 mm
Internal pressure = 1.5 MPa
Calculate the change in dimensions of the shell and the maximum intensity of shear
stress induced. Take E = 200 GPa and Poissons ratio =0.3 [15-Marks]

Ans. We can consider this as a thin cylinder.
Hoop stresses,
Longitudinal stresses,
Shear stress =

Hence from the given data

6
8
1
3
1.5 10 1
0.75 10
2 10 10

o = =

6
6
2
3
1.5 10 1
37.5 10
4 10 10
37.5 MPa

o = =

=

( )
( )
( )
( )
1
1 1 2
6
3 9
6
9
3
3
Hoop strai n
1
v
E
Pd
2 v
4tE
1.5 10 1
2 0.3
4 10 10 200 10
37.5 10
2 0.3
200 10
0.31875 10
d
0.3187 10
d
c
c = o o
=

=

=
A
=

1
pd
2t
o =
2
pd
4t
o =
1 2
2
o o
pd
8t
=
75 MPa =

3
change i n di ameter,
d = 1 0.31875 10 m
= 0.31875 mm
A

( )
( )
2
2
6
9
5
5
5
4
Logi tudi nal strai n,
pd
1 2v
4tE
37.5 10
1 2 0.3
200 10
7.5 10
l
7.5 10
l
or l 7.5 10 3
2.25 10 m 0.225mm
c
e =
=
A
=
A =
= =

Change in length = 0.225 mm and maximum shear stress,

Question: A thin cylinder with closed ends has an internal diameter of 50 mm and a wall
thickness of 2.5 mm. It is subjected to an axial pull of 10 kN and a torque of 500 Nm
while under an internal pressure of 6 MN/m
2
(i) Determine the principal stresses in the tube and the maximum shear stress.
(ii) Represent the stress configuration on a square element taken in the load direction
with direction and magnitude indicated; (schematic).
Answer: Given: d = 50 mm = 0.05 m D = d + 2t = 50 + 2 x 2.5 = 55 mm = 0.055 m;
Axial pull, P = 10 kN; T= 500 Nm; p = 6MN/m
2
(i) Principal stresses (
1 2
, o ) in the tube and the maximum shear stress (
max
t ):

6 3
x 3 3
6 6 6 2
6
6
y 3
pd P 6 10 0.05 10 10
4t dt 4 2.5 10 0.05 2.5 10
30 10 25.5 10 55.5 10 N/ m
pd 6 10 0.05
60 10
2t 2 2.5 10
o
t t
o

= + = +

= + =

= = =

Principal stresses are:

( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
x y x y 2
1 2 xy
4 4
4 4 7 4
, 1
2 2
T
UseTorsional equation, i
J R
where J D d 0.055 0.05 2.848 10 m
32 32
J polar moment of inertia
o o o o
o t
t
t t

+ | | | |
= +
| |
\ . \ .
=
(
= = =

=

( ) Substituting the values in i , we get
6
3
pd 1.5 10 1
8t
8 10 10
18.75 MPa

o = =

=

( )
( )
7
6 2
7
500
0.055 / 2 2.848 10
500 0.055 / 2
or 48.28 10 N/ m
2.848 10
t
t
= =

Now, substituting the various values in eqn. (i), we have

( )
6 6 6 6
2
6
1 2
6
12 12
6 6 2 2
2 2
1 2
55.5 10 60 10 55.5 10 60 10
, 48.28 10
2 2
(55.5 60) 10
4.84 10 2330.96 10
2
57.75 10 48.33 10 106.08MN/ m ,9.42MN/ m
Principal stresses are : 106.08MN/ m ; 9.42MN/ m
Maximum shea
o
o o
| | | | +
= +
| |
\ . \ .
+
= +
= =
= =
2 1 2
max
106.08 9.42
r stress, 48.33MN/ m
2 2
o o
t

= = =

( ) ii Stress configuration on a square element :


11. Thi ck Cyl i nder
1. Thick cylinder

i
Inner dia of the cylinder (d )
15 or 20
wall thickness (t)
<

2. General Expression

3. Difference between the analysis of stresses in thin & thick cylinders
In thin cylinders, it is assumed that the tangential stress
t
is uniformly distributed over
the cylinder wall thickness.
In thick cylinder, the tangential stress
t
has the highest magnitude at the inner surface of
the cylinder & gradually decreases towards the outer surface.
The radial stress
r
is neglected in thin cylinders while it is of significant magnitude in case
of thick cylinders.

4. Strain
Radial strain, .
r
du
dr
=
Circumferential /Tangential strain
t
u
r
=
Axial strain,
t z r
z
E E E

= +

Chapter-11 Thick Cylinder S K Mondals

5. Stress
Axial stress,
2
2 2
0
=
i i
z
i
p r
r r

Radial stress,
2
r
B
A
r
=
Circumferential /Tangential stress,
2
t
B
A
r
= +
[Note: Radial stress always compressive so its magnitude always ive. But in some books they
assume that compressive radial stress is positive and they use,
2
=
r
B
A
r
]

6. Boundary Conditions
At =
i
r r , =
r i
p
At =
o
r r
r o
p =

7.
2 2
2 2
i i o o
o i
p r p r
A
r r
and
2 2
2 2
( )
( )
=
i o
i o
o i
r r
B p p
r r

8. Cylinders with internal pressure (p
i
) i.e. 0
o
p =

2
2 2
0
=
i i
z
i
p r
r r

2 2
0
2 2 2
0
1

=

i i
r
i
p r r
r r r
[ -ive means compressive stress]

2 2
0
2 2 2
0
1

= + +

i i
t
i
p r r
r r r

(a) At the inner surface of the cylinder

r
2 2
t 2 2
2
max 2 2
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) .
i
i
i o i
o i
o
i
o i
i r r
ii p
p r r
iii
r r
r
iv p
r r
=
=
+
= +

(b) At the outer surface of the cylinder

2
i
2 2
( ) r = r
( ) 0
2p r
( ) =
o
r
i
t
o i
i
ii
iii
r r

(c) Radial and circumferential stress distribution within the cylinder wall when only
internal pressure acts.

9. Cylinders with External Pressure (p
o
) i.e. 0
i
p =

2 2
r 2 2 2

o o i
o i
p r r
i
r r r

2 2
2 2 2

= +

o o i
t
o i
p r r
i
r r r

(a) At the inner surface of the cylinder
(i) r =
i
r
(ii)
r
o =
(iii)
2
2 2
2
=
o o
t
o i
p r
r r

(b) At the outer surface of the cylinder
(i) r = ro
(ii)
r o
p =
(iii)
2 2
2 2
( )
+
=
o o i
t
o i
p r r
r r

(c) Distribution of radial and circumferential stresses within the cylinder wall when
only external pressure acts

10. Lame's Equation [for Brittle Material, open or closed end]
There is a no of equations for the design of thick cylinders. The choice of equation depends upon two
parameters.
Cylinder Material (Whether brittle or ductile)
Condition of Cylinder ends (open or closed)

When the material of the cylinder is brittle, such as cast iron or cast steel, Lame's Equation is used to
determine the wall thickness. Condition of cylinder ends may open or closed.

It is based on maximum principal stress theory of failure.

There principal stresses at the inner surface of the cylinder are as follows: (i) (ii) & (iii)

2 2
0
t 2 2
0
2
z 2 2
( )
( )
( )
( )
=
+
= +
= +
r i
i i
i
i i
o i
i p
p r r
ii
r r
p r
iii
r r

t
> >
z r

t
is the criterion of design
o
i

+
=
t i
t i
r p
r p

For
o i
r r t = +
t 1

+
=

t i
i
t i
p
r
p
( ' ) Lame s Equation

t

=
ult
fos

11. Clavarino's Equation [for cylinders with closed end & made of ductile material]
When the material of a cylinder is ductile, such as mild steel or alloy steel, maximum strain theory
of failure is used (St. Venant's theory) is used.

Three principal stresses at the inner surface of the cylinder are as follows (i) (ii) & (iii)

r
2 2
2 2
2
2 2
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
=
+
= +
= +
i
i o i
t
o i
i i
z
o i
i p
p r r
ii
r r
p r
iii
r r

( )
1

= +

t t r z
E

/
= =
yld
t
fos
E E

Or
yld
( ). Where =
fos
= +
t r z


(1 2 )
(1 )

+
=
+
o i
i i
r p
r p

For ro = ri + t

(1 2 )
1
(1 )

+
=

+

i
i
i
p
t r
p
( ) Clavarion's Equation

12. Birne's Equation [for cylinders with open end & made of ductile material]
When the material of a cylinder is ductile, such as mild steel or alloy steel, maximum strain theory
of failure is used (St. Venant's theory) is used.

Three principal stresses at the inner surface of the cylinder are as follows (i) (ii) & (iii)

r
2 2
2 2
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) 0
=
+
= +
=
i
i o i
t
o i
z
i p
p r r
ii
r r
iii

yld
where =
fos
=
t r


(1 )
(1 )

+
=
+
o i
i i
r p
r p

For ro = ri + t

(1 )
1
(1 )

+
=

+

i
i
i
p
t r
p
(Birnie's Equation)

13. Barlows equation: [for high pressure gas pipe brittle or ductile material]

i
o
t
p
t r
= [GAIL exam 2004]

Where
y
t
for ductilematerial
fos
=

ult
for brittlematerial
fos
=

14. Compound Cylinder (A cylinder & A Jacket)
When two cylindrical parts are assembled by shrinking or press-fitting, a contact pressure is
created between the two parts. If the radii of the inner cylinder are a and c and that of the
outer cylinder are (c- ) and b, being the radial interference the contact pressure is given
by:

( )
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
( )
2 ( )
b c c a
E
P
c c b a

Where E is the Young's modulus of the material
The inner diameter of the jacket is slightly smaller than the outer diameter of cylinder
When the jacket is heated, it expands sufficiently to move over the cylinder
As the jacket cools, it tends to contract onto the inner cylinder, which induces residual
compressive stress.
There is a shrinkage pressure 'P' between the cylinder and the jacket.
The pressure 'P' tends to contract the cylinder and expand the jacket
The shrinkage pressure 'P' can be evaluated from the above equation for a given amount of
interference
The resultant stresses in a compound cylinder are found by supervision losing the 2- stresses
stresses due to shrink fit
stresses due to internal pressure
Derivation:

j

j
c
c
Due to interference let us assume increase in inner diameter
of jacket and decrease in outer diameter of cylinder.
so = + i.e. without sign.
=
=

[ ]
( )
( )
j

t
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
r
Now tangential strain
1
=
=circumferential stress
cP p(b +c )
= ( ) +
E b -c
=-p radial stress
j j
t r
c
c
E
b c
i
b c

= =

+
+

[ ] ( )
-
2 2
t
2 2
2 2
2 2
( )
1
And in similar way =
cP
=- ( ) Here -ivesignrepresentscontraction
E
c c t r
r
p c a
c a c c
E
p
c a
ii
c a

+

=

=

=

+

2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Adding ( ) & ( )
2 ( ) ( )( )
or
( )( ) 2 ( )
j c
i ii
Pc c b a E b c c a
P
E c b c c a c b a

= + = =

15. Autofrettage
Autofrettage is a process of pre-stressing the cylinder before using it in operation.

We know that when the cylinder is subjected to internal pressure, the circumferential stress at the
inner surface limits the pressure carrying capacity of the cylinder.

In autofrettage pre-stressing develops a residual compressive stresses at the inner surface. When
the cylinder is actually loaded in operation, the residual compressive stresses at the inner surface
begin to decrease, become zero and finally become tensile as the pressure is gradually increased.
Thus autofrettage increases the pressure carrying capacity of the cylinder.

16. Rotating Disc
The radial & circumferential (tangential) stresses in a rotating disc of uniform thickness are given
by

( )
2 2 2
2 2 2 0
0 2
3
8

= + +

i
r i
R R
R R r
r

( )
2 2 2
2 2 2 0
0 2
1 3
3 .
8 3

+
= + + +

+

i
t i
R R
R R r
r

Where Ri = Internal radius
Ro = External radius
= Density of the disc material
= Angular speed
= Poisson's ratio.

Or, Hoops stress,
2 2 2
0
3 1
. .
4 3
+
= +

+

t i
R R
Radial stress,
2 2 2
0
3
.
8

+
=

r i
R R



Lame's theory
GATE-1. A thick cylinder is subjected to an internal pressure of 60 MPa. If the hoop stress on the
outer surface is 150 MPa, then the hoop stress on the internal surface is:[GATE-1996; IES-2001]
Thick cylinder
IES-1. If a thick cylindrical shell is subjected to internal pressure, then hoop stress, radial
stress and longitudinal stress at a point in the thickness will be:
(a) Tensile, compressive and compressive respectively [IES-1999]
(b) All compressive
(c) All tensile
(d) Tensile, compressive and tensile respectively

IES-2. Where does the maximum hoop stress in a thick cylinder under external pressure occur?[IES-2008]
(a) At the outer surface (b) At the inner surface
(c) At the mid-thickness (d) At the 2/3
rd
outer radius

IES-3. In a thick cylinder pressurized from inside, the hoop stress is maximum at
(a) The centre of the wall thickness (b) The outer radius [IES-1998]
(c) The inner radius (d) Both the inner and the outer radii

IES-4. Where does the maximum hoop stress in a thick cylinder under external pressure occur?[IES-2008]
(a) At the outer surface (b) At the inner surface
(c) At the mid-thickness (d) At the 2/3
rd
outer radius

IES-5. A thick-walled hollow cylinder having outside and inside radii of 90 mm and 40 mm
respectively is subjected to an external pressure of 800 MN/m
2
. The maximum
circumferential stress in the cylinder will occur at a radius of
[IES-1998]
(a) 40 mm (b) 60 mm (c) 65 mm (d) 90 mm

IES-6. In a thick cylinder, subjected to internal and external pressures, let r1 and r2 be the
internal and external radii respectively. Let u be the radial displacement of a material
element at radius r,
2 1
r r r > > . Identifying the cylinder axis as z axis, the radial strain
component
rr
c is: [IES-1996]
(a) u/r (b) / u u (c) du/dr (d) du/d
Lame's theory
IES-7. A thick cylinder is subjected to an internal pressure of 60 MPa. If the hoop stress on the
outer surface is 150 MPa, then the hoop stress on the internal surface is:[GATE-1996; IES-2001]

IES-8. A hollow pressure vessel is subject to internal pressure. [IES-2005]
Consider the following statements:

1. Radial stress at inner radius is always zero.
2. Radial stress at outer radius is always zero.
3. The tangential stress is always higher than other stresses.
4. The tangential stress is always lower than other stresses.
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 4

IES-9. A thick open ended cylinder as shown in the figure is
made of a material with permissible normal and
shear stresses 200 MPa and 100 MPa respectively.
The ratio of permissible pressure based on the normal
and shear stress is:
[di = 10 cm; do = 20 cm]
(a) 9/5 (b) 8/5
(c) 7/5 (d) 4/5

[IES-2002]
Longitudinal and shear stress
IES-10. A thick cylinder of internal radius and external radius a and b is subjected to internal
pressure p as well as external pressure p. Which one of the following statements is
correct? [IES-2004]
The magnitude of circumferential stress developed is:
(a) Maximum at radius r = a (b) Maximum at radius r = b
(c) Maximum at radius r = ab (d) Constant

In a thick walled cylindrical pressure vessel subjected to internal pressure, the
Tangential and radial stresses are:
1. Minimum at outer side
2. Minimum at inner side
3. Maximum at inner side and both reduce to zero at outer wall
4. Maximum at inner wall but the radial stress reduces to zero at outer wall
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 4 only

IES-12. Consider the following statements at given point in the case of thick cylinder subjected to
fluid pressure: [IES-2006]
1. Radial stress is compressive
2. Hoop stress is tensile
3. Hoop stress is compressive
4. Longitudinal stress is tensile and it varies along the length
5. Longitudinal stress is tensile and remains constant along the length of the cylinder
(a) Only 1, 2 and 4 (b) Only 3 and 4 (c) Only 1,2 and 5 (d) Only 1,3 and 5

IES-13. A thick cylinder with internal diameter d and outside diameter 2d is subjected to
internal pressure p. Then the maximum hoop stress developed in the cylinder is:[IES-2003]
(a) p (b)
2
3
p (c)
5
3
p (d) 2p
Compound or shrunk cylinder
IES-14. Autofrettage is a method of: [IES-1996; 2005; 2006]
(a) Joining thick cylinders (b) Relieving stresses from thick cylinders
(c) Pre-stressing thick cylinders (d) Increasing the life of thick cylinders

IES-15. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the
Lists: [IES-2004]

List-I List-II
A. Wire winding 1. Hydrostatic stress
B. Lame's theory 2. Strengthening of thin cylindrical shell
C. Solid sphere subjected to uniform 3. Strengthening of thick cylindrical shell
pressure on the surface
D. Autofrettage 4. Thick cylinders
Coeds: A B C D A B C D
(a) 4 2 1 3 (b) 4 2 3 1
(c) 2 4 3 1 (d) 2 4 1 3

IES-16. If the total radial interference between two cylinders forming a compound cylinder is
and Young's modulus of the materials of the cylinders is E, then the interface pressure
developed at the interface between two cylinders of the same material and same length
is: [IES-2005]
(a) Directly proportional of E x (b) Inversely proportional of E/
(c) Directly proportional of E/ (d) Inversely proportional of E /

IES-17. A compound cylinder with inner radius 5 cm and outer radius 7 cm is made by shrinking
one cylinder on to the other cylinder. The junction radius is 6 cm and the junction
pressure is 11 kgf/cm
2
. The maximum hoop stress developed in the inner cylinder is:[IES-1994]
(a) 36 kgf/cm
2
compression (b) 36 kgf/cm
2
tension
(c) 72 kgf/cm
2
compression (d) 72 kgf/cm
2
tension.
Thick Spherical Shell
IES-18. The hemispherical end of a pressure vessel is fastened to the cylindrical portion of the
pressure vessel with the help of gasket, bolts and lock nuts. The bolts are subjected to:[IES-2003]
(a) Tensile stress (b) Compressive stress (c) Shear stress (d) Bearing stress
Longitudinal and shear stress
IAS-1. A solid thick cylinder is subjected to an external hydrostatic pressure p. The state of
stress in the material of the cylinder is represented as: [IAS-1995]

OBJECTIVE ANSWERS
GATE-1. Ans. (c) If internal pressure = pi; External pressure = zero

Circumferential or hoop stress (c) =
2 2
o i i
2 2 2
o i
r pr
1
r r r
(
+
(

At
i c o
p 60MPa, 150MPa and r r o = = =

2
2 2 2 2
o o i i i
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
i o i o o i o i
i
2 2
o i
c 2 2 2
o i i
r r r r r 150 5 9
150 60 1 120 or or
120 4 r 5 r r r r r r r
at r r
r r 5 9
60 1 60 1 210 MPa
4 5 r r r
o
( | |
= + = = = =
| (

\ .
=
(
| |
= + = + =
( |
\ .

IES-1. Ans. (d) Hoop stress tensile, radial stress compressive and longitudinal stress tensile.

Radial and circumferential stress
distribution within the cylinder wall
when only internal pressure acts.

Distribution of radial and circumferential
stresses within the cylinder wall when only
external pressure acts.
IES-2. Ans. (b)
Circumferential or hoop stress =
t
o

IES-3. Ans. (c)
IES-4. Ans. (a) Maximum hoop stress in thick cylinder under external pressure occur at the outer
surface.

IES-5. Ans. (a)
IES-6. Ans. (c) The strains r and may be given by

( )
u
u u
c o o o
u u
c o o
u
c
= = = (

c
+ A A
= = = (

A
1
since 0
1
r
r r z
r r
r
u
v
r E
r u r u
v
r r E

Representation of radial and
circumferential strain.
IES-7. Ans. (c) If internal pressure = pi; External pressure = zero
Circumferential or hoop stress (c) =
2 2
o i i
2 2 2
o i
r pr
1
r r r
(
+
(

At
i c o
p 60MPa, 150MPa and r r o = = =

2
2 2 2 2
o o i i i
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
i o i o o i o i
i
2 2
o i
c 2 2 2
o i i
r r r r r 150 5 9
150 60 1 120 or or
120 4 r 5 r r r r r r r
at r r
r r 5 9
60 1 60 1 210 MPa
4 5 r r r
o
( | |
= + = = = =
| (

\ .
=
(
| |
= + = + =
( |
\ .

IES-8. Ans. (c)
IES-9. Ans. (b)
IES-10. Ans. (d)

( )
2 2 2 2
i i o o
c 2 2 2 2 2
o i
2 2
i o o i
c 2 2
o i
Pr P r B Pa Pb
A A P
r r r b a
P P r r
P B o
r r
o
o

= + = = =

= = =

IES-11. Ans. (c)
IES-12. Ans. (c) 3. For internal fluid pressure Hoop or circumferential stress is tensile.
4. Longitudinal stress is tensile and remains constant along the length of the cylinder.
IES-13. Ans. (c) In thick cylinder, maximum hoop stress
2
2
2 2
2 1
2 2 2
2 1 2
5 2
3
2
hoop
d
d
r r
p p p
r r
d
d
o
| |
+
|
+
\ .
= = =
| |
|
\ .

IES-14. Ans. (c)
IES-15. Ans. (d)
IES-16. Ans. (a)
( )
( )( )
2 2 2
2 3 1
2
2 2 2 2
3 2 2 1
2D D D
PD
E
D D D D
P E.
o
o o
(
(
=
(
(

Alternatively : if E then P
and if then P so P E o o o
| |
| |


IES-17. Ans. (c)
IES-18. Ans. (a)
IAS-1. Ans. (c)

Distribution of radial and circumferential stresses within the cylinder wall when only
external pressure acts.

Question: The pressure within the cylinder of a hydraulic press is 9 MPa. The inside diameter of
the cylinder is 25 mm. Determine the thickness of the cylinder wall, if the permissible
tensile stress is 18 N/mm
2
Answer: Given: P = 9 MPa = 9 N/mm
2
, Inside radius, r1 = 12.5 mm;

t
o = 18 N/mm
2
Thickness of the cylinder:

2 2
2 1
t 2 2
2 1
2 2
2
2 2
2
2
2 1
r r
Using the equation; p , we have
r r
r 12.5
18 9
r 12.5
or r 21.65mm
Thickness of the cylinder r r 21.65 12.5 9.15mm
o
( +
=
(

( +
=
(

=
= = =


Q. A spherical shell of 150 mm internal diameter has to withstand an internal pressure of
30 MN/m
2
. Calculate the thickness of the shell if the allowable stress is 80 MN/m
2
.
Assume the stress distribution in the shell to follow the law
[10 Marks]

Ans. A spherical shell of 150 mm internal diameter internal pressure = 30 MPa.
Allowable stress = 80 MN/m
2

Assume radial stress =
Circumference stress =
At internal diameter (r)

r
2
2
3
3
n
3
3
3
3
30N / mm
80N / mm
2b
30 a .............. (i )
(75)
b
80 a .................(ii )
(75)
Soluing eq (i )&(ii )
110 75 130
b a
3 3
At out er Radius (R) r adial st r ess should be zer o
2b
o a
R
2b 2 110 75
R 713
130
a
3
3
u
o
o
=
=
=
= +
= =
=

= = =
942.3077
R 89.376mm
Ther e for e t hickness of cylinder = (R r )
89.376 75 14.376 mm
=
= =

Question: A thick spherical vessel of inner 'radius 150 mm is subjected to an internal pressure of
80 MPa. Calculate its wall thickness based upon the
(i) Maximum principal stress theory, and
(ii) Total strain energy theory.
Poisson's ratio = 0.30, yield strength = 300 MPa
Answer: Given:

( )
6 2
1 r
6 2
1
r 150mm; p 80MPa 80 10 N/ m ; 0.30;
m
300MPa 300 10 N/ m
Wall thickness t :
o
o
= = = = =
= =
o = o = +
r 0
3 3
2b b
a and a .
r r
r
3
2b
a
r
o =
3
b
a
r
u
o = +

( )
2
2
r 2
1
2
6 6
2
i Maximum principal stress theory :
r K 1
We know that, Where K
r K 1
K 1
or 80 10 300 10
K 1
o o
| | | | +
s =
| |
\ . \ .
| | +
s
|
\ .

2
2 1
1
2 1
or K 1.314
or K 1.314
r
i.e. 1.314 or r r 1.314 150 1.314 197.1mm
r
Metal thickness, t r r 197.1 150 47.1mm
>
=
= = = =
= = =

(ii) Total strain energy theory:

2 2 2
1 2 1 2 y
Use o o o o o + s

( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
2 4
r
2
2
2
2
6 4
2
6
2
2
2
2 2 2 4
2
2
1
2 1
2 K 1 1
K 1
2 80 10 K 1 03 1 0.3
300 10
K 1
or 300 K 1 2 80 1.3K 0.7
gives K 1.86 or 0.59
It is clear that K 1
K 1.364
r
or 1.364 or r 150 1.364 204.6 mm
r
t r r 204.6 150 54.6 mm
o
o
( + +

>
( + +

>
= +
=
>
=
= = =
= = =

Question: What is the difference in the analysis of think tubes compared to that for thin tubes?
State the basic equations describing stress distribution in a thick tube.
Answer: The difference in the analysis of stresses in thin and thick cylinder:
(i) In thin cylinder, it is assumed that the tangential stress is uniformly distributed
over the cylinder wall thickness. In thick cylinder, the tangential stress has highest
magnitude at the inner surface of the cylinder and gradually decreases towards the
outer surface.
(ii) The radial stress is neglected in thin cylinders, while it is of significant magnitude
in case of thick cylinders.
Basic equation for describing stress distribution in thick tube is Lame's equation.

2 2
and
r t
B B
A A
r r
s s = - = +

Question: What is auto frettage?
How does it help in increasing the pressure carrying capacity of a thick cylinder?
Answer: Autofrettage is a process of pre-stressing the cylinder before using it in operation.
We know that when the cylinder is subjected to internal pressure, the circumferential
stress at the inner surface limits the pressure carrying capacity of the cylinder.
In autofrettage pre-stressing develops a residual compressive stresses at the inner
surface. When the cylinder is actually loaded in operation, the residual compressive

In autofrettage pre-stressing develops a residual compressive stresses at the inner
surface. When the cylinder is actually loaded in operation, the residual compressive
stresses at the inner surface begin to decrease, become zero and finally become tensile
as the pressure is gradually increased. Thus autofrettage increases the pressure
carrying capacity of the cylinder.

Question: When two cylindrical parts are assembled by shrinking or press-fitting, a
contact pressure is created between the two parts. If the radii of the inner
cylinder are a and c and that of the outer cylinder are (c- ) and b, being
the radial interference the contact pressure is given by:
( )
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
( )
2 ( )
b c c a
E
P
c c b a

Where E is the Young's modulus of the material, Can you outline the steps
involved in developing this important design equation?
Answer:

j

j
c
c
Due to interference let us assume increase in inner diameter
of jacket and decrease in outer diameter of cylinder.
so = + i.e. without sign.
=
=

[ ]
( )
( )
j

t
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
r
Now tangential strain
1
=
=circumferential stress
cP p(b +c )
= ( ) +
E b -c
=-p radial stress
j j
t r
c
c
E
b c
i
b c

= =

+
+

[ ] ( )
-
2 2
t
2 2
2 2
2 2
And in similar way
( )
1
=
cP
=- ( ) Here -ivesignrepresentscontraction
E
c c
t r
r
c
p c a
c a c
E
p
c a
ii
c a
=

+

=

=

+

2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
Adding ( ) &( )
2 ( )
( )( )
( )( )
Proved.
2 ( )
j c
i ii
Pc c b a
E b c c a
E b c c a
or P
c c b a

= + =

=

Question: A steel rod of diameter 50 mm is forced into a bronze casing of outside
diameter 90 mm, producing a tensile hoop stress of 30 MPa at the outside
diameter of the casing.
Find (i) The radial pressure between the rod and the casing
(ii) The shrinkage allowance and
(iii) The rise in temperature which would just eliminate the force fit.
Assume the following material properties:
Es = 210
5
MPa, 0.25
S
= ,
5
1.2 10 /
o
s
C

=
Eb = 110
5
MPa ,
5
0.3, 1.9 10 /
o
b b
C

= =
Answer:

There is a shrinkage pressure P between the steel rod and the bronze casing. The
pressure P tends to contract the steel rod and expand the bronze casing.
(i) Consider Bronze casing, According to Lames theory

2 2
i 0 0
2 2 2
0
2 2
i 0 0
2 2
0
P
Where A =
(P )
and B =
i
t
i
i
i
r P r B
A
r r r
P r r
r r
= +


0
2 2 2 2
0 i
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0 0
, P 0 and
Pr Pr 2Pr
A= , B=
r
i
i i
i i i
P P
r
r r r r r
= =
=

2 2 2
i i i
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0 0
2
2 2 2
0 0
2 2
Pr Pr 2Pr
30
r r r
30(r ) 90
, P= 15 1 15 1 MPa=33.6MPa
50 2
Therefore the radial pressure between the rod and the casing is P=
o i i i
i
i i
B
A
r r r r
r r
or
r r
= + = + =

= =

33.6 MPa.

(ii) The shrinkage allowance:
Let j = increase in inert diameter of bronze casing

C= decrease in outer diameter of steel rod
1
st
consider bronze casing:

( )
t 2
2
2 2 2 2
0 0 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0 0
Tangential stress at the inner surface( )
90
1
Pr ( ) Pr 50
= 33.6 = 63.6MPa
r
90
1
50
j
i
i
i i i
B
A
r
P r r
r r r r r
= +

+

+

+ = =

r
and radial stress( ) 33.6
longitudial stress( ) 0
j
j
P MPa = =
=
A

( )
-4
5
4
1
Therefore tangential strain ( ) ( )
1
= [63.6 0.3 33.6] =7.36810
110
( ) 7.368 10 0.050 0.03684mm
t j t r j
j
j t j i
E
d

=

+
= = =

2
nd
Consider steel rod:
( )
[ ]
t
r
5
j c
Circumferential stress ( )
radial stress ( )
1
( ) ( )
33.6 0.050
(1 ) 1 0.3 0.00588mm [reduction]
2 10
Total shrinkage = + =0.04272mm[it is diametral] =
s
s
c t s i t r s i
S
s
i
s
P
and P
d d
E
Pd
E
=
=

= =

= = =
0.02136mm [radial]

(iii) Let us temperature rise is ( t )
As
b s
> due to same temperature rise steel not will expand less than bronze
casing. When their difference of expansion will be equal to the shrinkage then
force fit will eliminate.

9 2
1
E 72GPa 72 10 N/ m ; 0.33
m
= = = =
Principal stress and maximum shear stress:
Using the condition in Lames equation:

r 2
2
2
2
b
a
r
At r 0.1m, p 150MN/ m
r 0.4m, 0
o
o
o
=
= = + =
= =

Substituting the values in the above equation we have

( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
2
2
b
150 a i
0.1
b
0 a ii
0.4
From i and ii , weget
a 10 and b 1.6
=
=
= =

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
c 2
2
c 1 2 max
2
c 2 2 min
2 2
The circumferential or hoop stress by Lame' s equation,is given by
b
a
r
1.6
,at r r 0.1m 10 170MN/ m tensile , and
0.1
1.6
,at r r 0.4m 10 20MN/ m tensile .
0.4
Pr incipal stresses are 170 MN/ m and 20MN/ m
Maxi
o
o
o
= +
= = = + =
= = = + =
( ) ( )
c c 2 max min
max
170 20
mum shear stress, 75MN/ m
2 2
o o
t

= = =

( )
( )
( ) ( )
o
o

= = =

1
2
2
2
1
l 2 2 2 2
2 1
Increase in inside diameter, d :
150 0.1
pr
We know,longitudinal or axial stress, 10MN/ m
r r
0.4 0.1


( )
( ) ( )
6 6
1 c r l 9
Circumferential or hoop strain at the inner radius,is given by :
1 1
170 10 0.33 150 10 10 0.003
E 72 10
o o o ( ( e = + = + =

1
1
1
d
Also,
d
o
e =

1
d
or 0.003
0.1
o
=

1
d 0.003 0.1 0.003m or 0.3 mm o = =


12. Spr i ng
1. A spring is a mechanical device which is used for the efficient storage
and release of energy.

2. Helical spring stress equation
Let us a close-coiled helical spring has coil diameter D, wire diameter d and number of turn n. The
spring material has a shearing modulus G. The spring index,
D
C
d
= . If a force P is exerted in both
ends as shown.

The work done by the axial
force 'P' is converted into
strain energy and stored in
the spring.
( )
( )
U= average torque
angular displacement
T
=
2

TL
From the figure we get, =
GJ
PD
Torque (T)=
2

4
2 3
4
length of wire (L)=Dn
d
Polar moment of Inertia(J)=
32
4P D n
Therefore U=
Gd

According to Castigliano's theorem, the displacement corresponding to force P is obtained by
partially differentiating strain energy with respect to that force.
2 3 3
4 4
4 8 U
Therefore =
p D n PD n
P P Gd Gd

= =

Axial deflection
3
4
8
=
PD n
Gd

Spring stiffness or spring constant ( )
4
3
P
k =
8
Gd
D n
=
Chapter-12 Spring S K Mondals

The torsional shear stress in the bar,
( )
1 3 3 3
16 / 2
16 8
PD
T PD
d d d

= = =
The direct shear stress in the bar,
2 2 3 2
4 8 0.5
4
P P PD d
D d d d

= = =

Therefore the total shear stress,
1 2 3 3
8 0.5 8
1
s
PD d PD
K
D d d

= + = + =

3
8
s
PD
K
d
=

Where
0.5
1
s
d
K
D
= + is correction factor for direct shear stress.

3. Wahls stress correction factor

3
8PD
K
d
=

Where
4 1 0.615
4 4
C
K
C C

= +

is known as Wahls stress correction factor
Here K = KsKc; Where
s
K is correction factor for direct shear stress and Kc is correction
factor for stress concentration due to curvature.

Note: When the spring is subjected to a static force, the effect of stress concentration is neglected
due to localized yielding. So we will use,
3
8
s
PD
K
d
=
4. Equivalent stiffness (k
eq
)
Spring in series
1 2
( )
e
= + Spring in Parallel
1 2
( = ) =
e

eq 1 2
1 1 1

K K K
= + or
1 2
1 2
=
+
eq
K K
K
K K

eq 1 2
K = + K K

Shaft in series (
1 2
= + ) Shaft in Parallel (
1 2
= =
eq
)


eq 1 2
1 1 1

K K K
= + or
1 2
1 2
=
+
eq
K K
K
K K

eq 1 2
K = + K K

5. Important note
If a spring is cut into n equal lengths then spring constant of each new spring = nk
When a closed coiled spring is subjected to an axial couple M then the rotation,
4
64
=
c
MDn
Ed

6. Laminated Leaf or Carriage Springs
Central deflection,
3
3
3
8
=
PL
Enbt

Maximum bending stress,
max 2
3
2
=
PL
nbt

Where P = load on spring
b = width of each plate
n = no of plates
L= total length between 2 points
t =thickness of one plate.

7. Belleville Springs
3
2 2
0
4
Load, ( )
(1 ) 2

= +

f
E
P h h t t
k D

= Linear deflection
=Poissons Ratio
kf =factor for Belleville spring
Do = outside diamerer
h = Deflection required to flatten Belleville spring
t = thickness

Note:
Total stiffness of the springs kror = stiffness per spring No of springs
In a leaf spring ratio of stress between full length and graduated leaves = 1.5
Conical spring- For application requiring variable stiffness
Belleville Springs -For application requiring high capacity springs into small space

Do
t
P
ho


Helical spring
GATE-1. If the wire diameter of a closed coil helical spring subjected to compressive load is
increased from 1 cm to 2 cm, other parameters remaining same, then deflection will
decrease by a factor of: [GATE-2002]
(a) 16 (b) 8 (c) 4 (d) 2

GATE-2. A compression spring is made of music wire of 2 mm diameter having a shear strength
and shear modulus of 800 MPa and 80 GPa respectively. The mean coil diameter is 20
mm, free length is 40 mm and the number of active coils is 10. If the mean coil diameter
is reduced to 10 mm, the stiffness of the spring is approximately [GATE-2008]
(a) Decreased by 8 times (b) Decreased by 2 times
(c) Increased by 2 times (d) Increased by 8 times

GATE-3. Two helical tensile springs of the same material and also having identical mean coil
diameter and weight, have wire diameters d and d/2. The ratio of their stiffness is:[GATE-2001]
(a) 1 (b) 4 (c) 64 (d) 128

GATE-4. A uniform stiff rod of length 300 mm and
having a weight of 300 N is pivoted at
one end and connected to a spring at the
other end. For keeping the rod vertical in
a stable position the minimum value of
spring constant K needed is:
(a) 300 N/m (b) 400N/m
(c) 500N/m (d) 1000 N/m

[GATE-2004]

GATE-5. A weighing machine consists of a 2 kg pan resting on spring. In this condition, with the
pan resting on the spring, the length of the spring is 200 mm. When a mass of 20 kg is
placed on the pan, the length of the spring becomes 100 mm. For the spring, the un-
deformed length lo and the spring constant k (stiffness) are: [GATE-2005]
(a) lo = 220 mm, k = 1862 N/m (b) lo = 210 mm, k = 1960 N/m
(c) lo = 200 mm, k = 1960 N/m (d) lo = 200 mm, k = 2156 N/m
Springs in Series
GATE-6. The deflection of a spring with 20 active turns under a load of 1000 N is 10 mm. The
spring is made into two pieces each of 10 active coils and placed in parallel under the
same load. The deflection of this system is: [GATE-1995]
(a) 20 mm (b) 10 mm (c) 5 mm (d) 2.5 mm

Helical spring
IES-1. A helical coil spring with wire diameter d and coil diameter 'D' is subjected to external
load. A constant ratio of d and D has to be maintained, such that the extension of spring
is independent of d and D. What is this ratio? [IES-2008]

4/3 4/3
3 4 3 4
3 3
D d
(a)D / d (b)d / D (c) (d)
d D

IES-1(i). If both the mean coil diameter and wire diameter of a helical compression or tension
spring be doubled, then the deflection of the spring close coiled under same applied load
will [IES-2012]
(a) be doubled (b) be halved
(c) increase four times (d) get reduced to one fourth

IES-2. Assertion (A): Concentric cylindrical helical springs are used to have greater spring force
in a limited space. [IES-2006]
Reason (R): Concentric helical springs are wound in opposite directions to prevent
locking of coils under heavy dynamic loading.

IES-3. Assertion (A): Two concentric helical springs used to provide greater spring force are
wound in opposite directions. [IES-1995; IAS-2004]
Reason (R): The winding in opposite directions in the case of helical springs prevents
buckling.

IES-4. Which one of the following statements is correct? [IES-1996; 2007; IAS-1997]
If a helical spring is halved in length, its spring stiffness
(a) Remains same (b) Halves (c) Doubles (d) Triples

IES-5. A body having weight of 1000 N is dropped from a height of 10 cm over a close-coiled
helical spring of stiffness 200 N/cm. The resulting deflection of spring is nearly[IES-2001]
(a) 5 cm (b) 16 cm (c) 35 cm (d) 100 cm

IES-6. A close-coiled helical spring is made of 5 mm diameter wire coiled to 50 mm mean
diameter. Maximum shear stress in the spring under the action of an axial force is 20
N/mm
2
. The maximum shear stress in a spring made of 3 mm diameter wire coiled to 30
mm mean diameter, under the action of the same force will be nearly [IES-2001]
(a) 20 N/mm
2
(b) 33.3 N/mm
2
(c) 55.6 N/mm
2
(d) 92.6 N/mm
2

IES-7. A closely-coiled helical spring is acted upon by an axial force. The maximum shear stress
developed in the spring is t . Half of the length of the spring is cut off and the remaining
spring is acted upon by the same axial force. The maximum shear stress in the spring
the new condition will be: [IES-1995]
(a) t (b) t (c) 2 t (d) 4 t

IES-8. The maximum shear stress occurs on the outermost fibers of a circular shaft under
torsion. In a close coiled helical spring, the maximum shear stress occurs on the[IES-1999]
(a) Outermost fibres (b) Fibres at mean diameter (c) Innermost fibres (d) End coils


IES-9. A helical spring has N turns of coil of diameter D, and a second spring, made of same
wire diameter and of same material, has N/2 turns of coil of diameter 2D. If the stiffness
of the first spring is k, then the stiffness of the second spring will be: [IES-1999]
(a) k/4 (b) k/2 (c) 2k (d) 4k

IES-10. A closed-coil helical spring is subjected to a torque about its axis. The spring wire would
experience a [IES-1996; 1998]
(a) Bending stress
(b) Direct tensile stress of uniform intensity at its cross-section
(c) Direct shear stress
(d) Torsional shearing stress

IES-11. Given that: [IES-1996]
d = diameter of spring, R = mean radius of coils, n = number of coils and G = modulus of
rigidity, the stiffness of the close-coiled helical spring subject to an axial load W is equal
to
(a)
4
3
64
Gd
R n
(b)
3
3
64
Gd
R n
(c)
4
3
32
Gd
R n
(d)
4
2
64
Gd
R n

IES-12. A closely coiled helical spring of 20 cm mean diameter is having 25 coils of 2 cm diameter
rod. The modulus of rigidity of the material if 10
7
N/cm
2
. What is the stiffness for the
spring in N/cm? [IES-2004]
(a) 50 (b) 100 (c) 250 (d) 500

IES-13. Which one of the following expresses the stress factor K used for design of closed coiled
helical spring? [IES-2008]

4C 4 4C 1 0.615 4C 4 0.615 4C 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4C 1 4C 4 C 4C 1 C 4C 4

+ +

Where C = spring index

IES-14. In the calculation of induced shear stress in helical springs, the Wahl's correction factor
is used to take care of [IES-1995; 1997]
(a) Combined effect of transverse shear stress and bending stresses in the wire.
(b) Combined effect of bending stress and curvature of the wire.
(c) Combined effect of transverse shear stress and curvature of the wire.
(d) Combined effect of torsional shear stress and transverse shear stress in the wire.

IES-15. While calculating the stress induced in a closed coil helical spring, Wahl's factor must be
considered to account for [IES-2002]
(a) The curvature and stress concentration effect (b) Shock loading
(c) Poor service conditions (d) Fatigue loading

IES-16. Cracks in helical springs used in Railway carriages usually start on the inner side of the
coil because of the fact that [IES-1994]
(a) It is subjected to the higher stress than the outer side.
(b) It is subjected to a higher cyclic loading than the outer side.
(c) It is more stretched than the outer side during the manufacturing process.
(d) It has a lower curvature than the outer side.

IES-17. Two helical springs of the same material and of equal circular cross-section and length
and number of turns, but having radii 20 mm and 40 mm, kept concentrically (smaller
radius spring within the larger radius spring), are compressed between two parallel
planes with a load P. The inner spring will carry a load equal to [IES-1994]
(a) P/2 (b) 2P/3 (c) P/9 (d) 8P/9

IES-18. A length of 10 mm diameter steel wire is coiled to a close coiled helical spring having 8
coils of 75 mm mean diameter, and the spring has a stiffness K. If the same length of
wire is coiled to 10 coils of 60 mm mean diameter, then the spring stiffness will be:[IES-1993]
(a) K (b) 1.25 K (c) 1.56 K (d) 1.95 K


IES-18a. Two equal lengths of steel wires of the same diameter are made into two springs S1 and
S2 of mean diameters 75 mm and 60 mm respectively. The stiffness ratio of S1 to S2 is
[IES-2011]
2 3 2 3
60 60 75 75
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
75 75 60 60
a b c d
| | | | | | | |
| | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ .

IES-19. A spring with 25 active coils cannot be accommodated within a given space. Hence 5 coils
of the spring are cut. What is the stiffness of the new spring?
(a) Same as the original spring (b) 1.25 times the original spring [IES-2004, 2012]
(c) 0.8 times the original spring (d) 0.5 times the original spring

IES-20. Wire diameter, mean coil diameter and number of turns of a closely-coiled steel spring
are d, D and N respectively and stiffness of the spring is K. A second spring is made of
same steel but with wire diameter, mean coil diameter and number of turns 2d, 2D and
2N respectively. The stiffness of the new spring is:
[IES-1998; 2001]
(a) K (b) 2K (c) 4K (d) 8K

IES-21. When two springs of equal lengths are arranged to form cluster springs which of the
following statements are the: [IES-1992]
1. Angle of twist in both the springs will be equal
2. Deflection of both the springs will be equal
3. Load taken by each spring will be half the total load
4. Shear stress in each spring will be equal
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2 and 4 only

When two springs of equal lengths are arranged to form a cluster spring
1. Angle of twist in both the springs will be equal
2. Deflection of both the springs will be equal
3. Load taken by each spring will be half the total load
4. Shear stress in each spring will be equal
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 3 and 4 (c)2 only (d) 4 only

Close-coiled helical spring with axial load
IES-23. Under axial load, each section of a close-coiled helical spring is subjected to
(a) Tensile stress and shear stress due to load [IES-2003]
(b) Compressive stress and shear stress due to torque
(c) Tensile stress and shear stress due to torque
(d) Torsional and direct shear stresses

IES-24. When a weight of 100 N falls on a spring of stiffness 1 kN/m from a height of 2 m, the
deflection caused in the first fall is: [IES-2000]
(a) Equal to 0.1 m (b) Between 0.1 and 0.2 m
(c) Equal to 0.2 m (d) More than 0.2 m
Subjected to 'Axial twist'
IES-25. A closed coil helical spring of mean coil diameter 'D' and made from a wire of diameter 'd'
is subjected to a torque 'T' about the axis of the spring. What is the maximum stress
developed in the spring wire? [IES-2008]

t t t t
3 3 3 3
8T 16T 32T 64T
(a) (b) (c) (d)
d d d d


Springs in Series
IES-26. When a helical compression spring is cut into two equal halves, the stiffness of each of
the result in springs will be: [IES-2002; IAS-2002]
(a) Unaltered (b) Double (c) One-half (d) One-fourth

IES-27. If a compression coil spring is cut into two equal parts and the parts are then used in
parallel, the ratio of the spring rate to its initial value will be: [IES-1999]
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 4 (d) Indeterminable for want of sufficient data
Springs in Parallel
IES-28. The equivalent spring stiffness for the
system shown in the given figure (S is the
spring stiffness of each of the three springs)
is:
(a) S/2 (b) S/3
(c) 2S/3 (d) S

[IES-1997; IAS-2001]
IES-29. Two coiled springs, each having stiffness K, are placed in parallel. The stiffness of the
combination will be: [IES-2000]

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) a 4 b 2 c d
2 4
K K
K K

IES-30. A mass is suspended at the bottom of two springs in series having stiffness 10 N/mm and
5 N/mm. The equivalent spring stiffness of the two springs is nearly
[IES-2000]
(a) 0.3 N/mm (b) 3.3 N/mm (c) 5 N/mm (d) 15 N/mm

IES-31. Figure given above shows a spring-
mass system where the mass m is fixed
in between two springs of stiffness S1
and S2. What is the equivalent spring
stiffness?
(a) S1- S2 (b) S1+ S2

(c) (S1+ S2)/ S1 S2 (d) (S1- S2)/
S1 S2

[IES-2005]
IES-32. Two identical springs
labelled as 1 and 2 are
arranged in series and
subjected to force F as
shown in the given figure.

Assume that each spring constant is K. The strain energy stored in spring 1 is:

[IES-2001]
(a)
2
2
F
K
(b)
2
4
F
K
(c)
2
8
F
K
(d)
2
16
F
K

IES-33. What is the equivalent stiffness (i.e. spring constant) of
the system shown in the given figure?
(a) 24 N/mm (b) 16 N/mm
(c) 4 N/mm (d) 5.3 N/mm

[IES-1997]
Helical spring
IAS-1. Assertion (A): Concentric cylindrical helical springs which are used to have greater
spring force in a limited space is wound in opposite directions.
Reason (R): Winding in opposite directions prevents locking of the two coils in case of
misalignment or buckling. [IAS-1996]

IAS-2. An open-coiled helical spring of mean diameter D, number of coils N and wire diameter d
is subjected to an axial force' P. The wire of the spring is subject to:
[IAS-1995]
(a) direct shear only (b) combined shear and bending only
(c) combined shear, bending and twisting (d) combined shear and twisting only

IAS-3. Assertion (A): Two concentric helical springs used to provide greater spring force are
wound in opposite directions. [IES-1995; IAS-2004]
Reason (R): The winding in opposite directions in the case of helical springs prevents
buckling.

IAS-4. Which one of the following statements is correct? [IES-1996; 2007; IAS-1997]
If a helical spring is halved in length, its spring stiffness
(a) Remains same (b) Halves (c) Doubles (d) Triples

IAS-5. A closed coil helical spring has 15 coils. If five coils of this spring are removed by cutting,
the stiffness of the modified spring will: [IAS-2004]
(a) Increase to 2.5 times (b) Increase to 1.5 times
(c) Reduce to 0.66 times (d) Remain unaffected

IAS-6. A close-coiled helical spring has wire diameter 10 mm and spring index 5. If the spring
contains 10 turns, then the length of the spring wire would be: [IAS-2000]
(a) 100 mm (b) 157 mm (c) 500 mm (d) 1570 mm


IAS-7. Consider the following types of stresses: [IAS-1996]
1. torsional shear 2. Transverse direct shear 3. Bending stress
The stresses, that are produced in the wire of a close-coiled helical spring subjected to an
axial load, would include
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

IAS-8. Two close-coiled springs are subjected to the same axial force. If the second spring has
four times the coil diameter, double the wire diameter and double the number of coils of
the first spring, then the ratio of deflection of the second spring to that of the first will
be: [IAS-1998]
(a) 8 (b) 2 (c)
1
2
(d) 1/16
IAS-9. A block of weight 2 N falls from a height of 1m on the top of a spring If the spring gets
compressed by 0.1 m to bring the weight momentarily to rest, then the spring constant
would be: [IAS-2000]
(a) 50 N/m (b) 100 N/m (c) 200N/m (d) 400N/m

IAS-10. The springs of a chest expander are 60 cm long when unstretched. Their stiffness is 10
N/mm. The work done in stretching them to 100 cm is: [IAS-1996]
(a) 600 Nm (b) 800 Nm (c) 1000 Nm (d) 1600 Nm

IAS-11. A spring of stiffness 'k' is extended from a displacement x1 to a displacement x2 the work
done by the spring is: [IAS-1999]
(a)
2 2
1 2
1 1
2 2
k x k x (b)
2
1 2
1
( )
2
k x x (c)
2
1 2
1
( )
2
+ k x x (d)
2
1 2
2
x x
k
+ | |
|
\ .

IAS-12. A spring of stiffness 1000 N/m is stretched initially by 10 cm from the undeformed
position. The work required to stretch it by another 10 cm is:
[IAS-1995]
(a) 5 Nm (b) 7 Nm (c) 10 Nm (d) 15 Nm.
Springs in Series
IAS-13. When a helical compression spring is cut into two equal halves, the stiffness of each of
the result in springs will be: [IES-2002; IAS-2002]
(a) Unaltered (b) Double (c) One-half (d) One-fourth

IAS-14. The length of the chest-expander spring when it is un-stretched, is 0.6 m and its stiffness
is 10 N/mm. The work done in stretching it to 1m will be: [IAS-2001]
(a) 800 J (b) 1600 J (c) 3200 J (d) 6400 J
Springs in Parallel
IAS-15. The equivalent spring stiffness for the
system shown in the given figure (S is the
spring stiffness of each of the three springs)
is:
(a) S/2 (b) S/3
(c) 2S/3 (d) S

[IES-1997; IAS-2001]


IAS-16. Two identical springs, each of stiffness K, are
assembled as shown in the given figure. The
combined stiffness of the assembly is:
(a) K
2
(b) 2K
(c) K (d) (1/2)K

[IAS-1998]
Flat spiral Spring
IAS-17. Mach List-I (Type of spring) with List-II (Application) and select the correct answer:[IAS-2000]
List-I List-II
A. Leaf/Helical springs 1. Automobiles/Railways coachers
B. Spiral springs 2. Shearing machines
C. Belleville springs 3. Watches
Codes: A B C A B C
(a) 1 2 3 (b) 1 3 2
(c) 3 1 2 (d) 2 3 1
Semi-elliptical spring
IAS-18. The ends of the leaves of a semi-elliptical leaf spring are made triangular in plain in
order to: [IAS 1994]
(a) Obtain variable I in each leaf
(b) Permit each leaf to act as a overhanging beam
(c) Have variable bending moment in each leaf
(d) Make Mil constant throughout the length of the leaf.

OBJECTIVE ANSWERS

GATE-1. Ans. (a)
3
4
8PD N
G.d
o =
GATE-2. Ans. (d) Spring constant (K) =
N D
d G P
3
4
8
.
=
o
or K
3
1
D

8
10
20
3
3
2
1
1
2
=
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
D
D
K
K

GATE-3. Ans. (c) Spring constant (K) =
N D
d G P
3
4
8
.
=
o
Therefore
4
d
k
n

GATE-4. Ans. (c) Inclined it to a very low angle, du
For equilibrium taking moment about hinge
( )
l W 300
W d k ld l 0 or k 500N/ m
2 2l 2 0.3
u u
| |
= = = =
|

\ .

GATE-5. Ans. (b) Initial length = lo m and stiffness = k N/m

( )
( )
o
o
2 g k l 0.2
2 g 20 g k l 0.1
=
+ =

Just solve the above equations.
GATE-6. Ans. (d) When a spring is cut into two, no. of coils gets halved.
Stiffness of each half gets doubled.
When these are connected in parallel, stiffness = 2k + 2k = 4k
Therefore deflection will be times. = 2.5 mm
IES
IES-1. Ans. (a)
3
4
8PD N
Gd
o =

= = u
u =
= t
| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .
c
o = =
c
2
2 3
4
3
4
D 1
T F ; U T
2 2
FD TL
= ;
2 GJ
L DN
1 FD L 4F D N
U
2 2 GJ
Gd
U 8FD N
F
Gd

IES-1(i). Ans. (b)

IES-2. Ans. (b)
IES-3. Ans. (c) It is for preventing locking not for buckling.
IES-4. Ans. (c) ( )
4
3
Gd 1
Stiffness of sprin k so k andnwiil behalf
n 8D n
=
IES-5. Ans. (b)
2
1
mg(h x) kx
2
+ =
IES-6. Ans. (c)
s 3
8PD
Use k
d
t
t
=
IES-7. Ans. (b)
s 3
8PD
Use k
d
t
t
= it is independent of number of turn
IES-8. Ans. (c)
IES-9. Ans. (a)
( )
4 4
2 3
3
Stiffness (k) ; econd spring, stiffness (k ) =
64 4
64 2
2
Gd Gd k
S
N
R N
R
= =

IES-10. Ans. (a)
IES-11. Ans. (a)
IES-12. Ans. (b)
( )
( ) ( )
( )
7 2 4 4
4
3 3 3
10 N/ cm 2 cm
Gd
Stiffness of sprin k 100N/ cm
8D n 8 20 cm 25
= = =

IES-13. Ans. (b)
IES-14. Ans. (c)
IES-15. Ans. (a)
IES-16. Ans. (a)
IES-17. Ans. (d)
3
3
3
20 1 8
;
40 8 8 8 9
o i i i
o i i
i o
W R W W
W So W P or W P
W R
| |
= = = = + = =
|
\ .


IES-18. Ans. (c)
4
3
Stiffness of spring (k) Where G and d issame
64
=
Gd
R n

3 3
2
2 2
1 1 1
Therefore
1.56
75 8
60 10
= = =
| | | | | | | |
| |
| |
\ . \ .
\ . \ .
k
k
R n
R n

IES-18a. Ans. (a) But most of the students think answer will be (b). If your calculated answer is
also (b) then read the question again and see Two equal lengths of steel wires is written
that means number of turns are different. And
2 1
1 1 2 2
1 2
75
60
n D
L Dn D n
n D
t t = = = =

4
3
Stiffnessof spring (S) Where G and d issame
64
Gd
R n
=

3 3
3 2
1 2 2 2 2
2 1 1 1 1
60 75 60
Therefore
75 60 75
S R n D n
S R n D n
| | | | | | | |
| | | | | |
= = = =
| | | | | | |
\ . \ . \ .
\ . \ . \ . \ .

IES-19. Ans. (b) ( )
4
3
Gd
Stiffness of spring k
8D n
=
2 1
1 2
k n 1 25
k or 1.25
n k n 20
o = = =
IES-20. Ans. (a) ( )
4
3
Gd
Stiffness of spring k
8D n
=
IES-21. Ans. (a)
IES-22. Ans. (a) Same as [IES-1992]

IES-23. Ans. (d)
IES-24. Ans. (d) use ( )
2
1
mg h x kx
2
+ =
IES-25. Ans. (b)
IES-26. Ans. (b)
IES-27. Ans. (c) When a spring is cut into two, no. of coils gets halved.
Stiffness of each half gets doubled.
When these are connected in parallel, stiffness = 2k + 2k = 4k

IES-28. Ans. (c)
1 1 1 2
2 3
e
e
or S S
S S S
= + =

IES-29. Ans. (b)
1 2
W k k k o o o = = +

IES-30. Ans. (b)
1 1 1 10
10 5 3
= + =
e
e
or S
S

IES-31. Ans. (b)
IES-32. Ans. (c) The strain energy stored per spring =
2
2
1 1
. / 2 / 2
2 2
eq
eq
F
k x k
k
| |
=
|
|
\ .
and here total
force F is supported by both the spring 1 and 2 therefore keq = k + k =2k
IES-33. Ans. (a) Stiffness K1 of 10 coils spring = 8 N/mm
Stiffness K2 of 5 coils spring = 16 N/mm
Though it looks like in series but they are in parallel combination. They are not subjected
to same force. Equivalent stiffness (k) = k1 + k2 = 24 N/mm
IAS
IAS-1. Ans. (a)
IAS-2. Ans. (d)
IAS-3. Ans. (c) It is for preventing locking not for buckling.
IAS-4. Ans. (c) ( )
4
3
Gd 1
Stiffness of sprin k so k andnwiil behalf
n 8D n
=
IAS-5. Ans. (b) K=
4
2 1
3
1 2
1 15
1.5
8 10
K N Gd
or K or
D N N K N
o = = =
IAS-6. Ans. (d)
( ) ( ) 5 10 10 1570 l Dn cd n mm t t t = = = =
IAS-7. Ans. (b)
IAS-8. Ans. (a)
2 2
3 3
1 1 2
4 4 4
1
2
1
D N
D N
8PD N 4 2
or 8
Gd 2
d
d
o
o
o
| || |
| |
\ .\ .
= = = =
| |
|
\ .


IAS-9. Ans. (d) Kinetic energy of block = potential energy of spring
or
2
2 2
1 2 2 2 1
. / 400 /
2 0.1
Wh
W h k x or k N m N m
x

= = = =
IAS-10. Ans. (b) { }
2
2 2
1 1 10N
E kx 1 0.6 m 800Nm
1 2 2
m
1000

= = =
`
| |

|

\ . )

IAS-11. Ans. (a) Work done by the spring is =
2 2
1 2
1 1
k x k x
2 2

IAS-12. Ans. (d)
( ) { }
2 2 2 2
2 1
1 1
E k x x 1000 0.20 0.10 15Nm
2 2
= = =
IAS-13. Ans. (b)
IAS-14. Ans. (a)
Work done =
( )
2
2 2 2 2
1 1 10N 1 10
k.x 1 0.6 m 0.4 800
1 2 2 1mm 2
1000
| |
= = =
|
| |
\ .
|
\ .
N
m J
m

IAS-15. Ans. (c)
1 1 1 2
2 3
e
e
or S S
S S S
= + =

IAS-16. Ans. (b) Effective stiffness = 2K. Due to applied force one spring will be under tension and
another one under compression so total resistance force will double.
IAS-17. Ans. (b)
IAS-18. Ans. (d) The ends of the leaves of a semi-elliptical leaf spring are made rectangular in plan
in order to make M/I constant throughout the length of the leaf.

Question: A close-coiled helical spring has coil diameter D, wire diameter d and number of turn
n. The spring material has a shearing modulus G. Derive an expression for the
stiffness k of the spring.

Answer: The work done by the
axial force 'P' is
converted into strain
energy and stored in
the spring.
( )
( )
U= average torque
angular displacement
T
=
2

TL
From the figure we get, =
GJ
PD
Torque (T)=
2

4
2 3
4
length of wire (L)=Dn
d
Polar moment of Inertia(J)=
32
4P D n
Therefore U=
Gd

According to Castigliano's theorem, the displacement corresponding to force P is
obtained by partially differentiating strain energy with respect to that force.

( )
2 3 3
4 4
4
3
4 8 U
Therefore =
P
So Spring stiffness, k =
8
p D n PD n
P P Gd Gd
Gd
D n

= =

=

Q. A stiff bar of negligible weight transfers a load P to a combination of three
helical springs arranged in parallel as shown in the above figure. The springs
are made up of the same material and out of rods of equal diameters. They are
of same free length before loading. The number of coils in those three springs
are 10, 12 and 15 respectively, while the mean coil diameters are in ratio of 1 :
1.2 : 1.4 respectively. Find the distance x as shown in figure, such that the stiff
bar remains horizontal after the application of load P. [10 Marks]
l l
x
P

Ans. Same free length of spring before loading
The number of coils in the spring 1,2 and 3 is 10, 12 and 15 mean diameter of spring 1,2
and 3 in the ratio of 1 : 1.2 : 1.4 Find out distance x so that rod remains horizontal
after loading.
Since the rod is rigid and remains horizontal after the load p is applied therefore the
deflection of each spring will be same

1 2 3
(say) = = =
Spring are made of same material and out of the rods of equal diameter

= = = = = =
1 2 3 1 2 3
G G G G and d d d d
Load in spring 1

o o o
= = =
4 4 4
1
3 3 3
1 1 1 1
Gd Gd Gd
P .....(1)
64R n 64R 10 640R

Load in spring 2

o o o
= = =

4 4 4
2
3 3 3 3
2 2 1 1
Gd Gd Gd
P .....(2)
64 R n 64 (1.2) 12R 1327.10R

Load in spring 3

o o o
= = =

4 4 4
3
3 3 3 3
3 3 1 1
Gd Gd Gd
P .....(3)
64R n 64 (1.4) 15R 2634.2R

From eq
n
(1) & (2)

2 1
2 1
640
P P
1327.1
P 0.482 P
=
=

( )
= =
+ =
+ =
+
=
= + +
n
3 1 1
1
2 3
1 1
1
1 2 3
1 1
fr om eq (1) & (3)
640
P P 0.2430 P
2634.2
Taking moment about t he line of act ion P
P L P 2L P.x
0.4823 P L 0.2430 P 2L P.x.
0.4823 0.486 P L
x ........(4)
P
t ot al load in t he r od is
P=P +P +P
P P .4823P 0.24
=
= = =
=
1
1
1 1
30P
P 1.725 P ......(5)
Equat ion (4) & (5)
0.9683 L 0.9683 L
x 0.5613 L
1.725 P / P 1.725
x 0.5613 L

Question: A close-coiled helical spring has coil diameter to wire diameter ratio of 6. The spring
deflects 3 cm under an axial load of 500N and the maximum shear stress is not to
exceed 300 MPa. Find the diameter and the length of the spring wire required.
Shearing modulus of wire material = 80 GPa.
Answer:
4
3
,
8
Gd P
Stiffness K
D n
= =

( )
9
3
4
80 10
500 D
, [ c= 6]
0.03 8 6 d
, 3.6 10 ( )
d
or given
n
or d n i
-

= =

= - - -


static loading correcting factor(k)
0.5 0.5
k= 1+ 1 1.0833
c 6
For

= + =

( )
3
2
8PD
know that =k
d
8
6
We
kPC D
C
d

= = =

3
6
1.0833 8 500 6
5.252 10 5.252
300 10
D=cd=65.252mm=31.513mm
d m mm
So

= = =

From, equation (i) n=14.59 15
Now length of spring wire(L) = Dn = 31.51315 mm =1.485 m

Question: A coil spring of stiffness 'k' is cut to two halves and these two springs are
assembled in parallel to support a heavy machine. What is the combined
stiffness provided by these two springs in the modified arrangement?
Answer: When it cut to two halves stiffness of
each half will be 2k. Springs in parallel.
Total load will be shared so
Total load = W+W

. .(2 ) .(2 )
4 .
eq
eq
or K k k
or K k
= +
=

Question: A helical spring B is placed inside the coils of a second helical spring A ,
having the same number of coils and free axial length and of same material.
The two springs are compressed by an axial load of 210 N which is shared
between them. The mean coil diameters of A and B are 90 mm and 60 mm and
the wire diameters are 12 mm and 7 mm respectively. Calculate the load
shared by individual springs and the maximum stress in each spring.
Answer:
4
3
Gd
The stiffness of the spring (k) =
8D N

= = =

e A B
4 3
4 3
A A
A
B B A
Here load shared the springs are arranged in parallel
Equivalent stiffness(k )=k +k
K d 12 60
Hear = [As N ] 2.559
K d 7 90
N
D
N
D
B

= =
+
Total load 210
Let total deflection is 'x' m x
Equivalet stiffness
A B
N
K K


( )
A
210 210
Load shared by spring 'A' (F ) =151N
1
1
1
2.559
Load shared by spring 'A' (F ) 210 151 59 N
= = =

+
+

= = =
A
B
A
B B
K x
k
k
K x

3
0.5 8
For static load: = 1+
C

PD
d

( )
( )
3 max
0.5 8 151 0.090
1 21.362MPa
90
0.012
12

= + =

A

( )
( )
3 max
0.5 8 59 0.060
1 27.816 MPa
60
0.007
7

= + =

B

Question: A close-coiled spring has mean diameter of 75 mm and spring constant of 90
kN/m. It has 8 coils. What is the suitable diameter of the spring wire if
maximum shear stress is not to exceed 250 MN/m
2
? Modulus of rigidity of the
spring wire material is 80 GN/m
2
. What is the maximum axial load the spring
can carry?
Answer: Given D 75mm; k 80kN/ m; n 8 = = =
= = =
2 2 9 2
250MN/ m ; G 80GN/ m 80 10 N/ m
Diameter of the spring wire, d:
We know,
( )
( ) ( )
( )
= =
=
=
=
3
6 3
3
T d whereT P R
16
P 0.0375 250 10 d i
16
Also P k
or P 80 10 ii

Using the relation:

( )

= = =

= =
3
3
14
4 9 4 4
3 14
4
8P 0.075 8
8PD n P
33.75 10
Gd 80 10 d d
Substituting for in equation(ii), we get
P
P 80 10 33.75 10 or d 0.0128m or 12.8mm
d

Maximum axial load the spring can carry P:
From equation (i), we get

( ) ( )
= = =
3
6
P 0.0375 250 10 0.0128 ; P 2745.2N 2.7452kN
16


13. Theor i es of Col umn
1. Introduction
Strut: A member of structure which carries an axial compressive load.
Column: If the strut is vertical it is known as column.
A long, slender column becomes unstable when its axial compressive load reaches a value
called the critical buckling load.
If a beam element is under a compressive load and its length is an order of magnitude larger
than either of its other dimensions such a beam is called a columns.
Due to its size its axial displacement is going to be very small compared to its lateral
deflection called buckling.
Buckling does not vary linearly with load it occurs suddenly and is therefore dangerous
Slenderness Ratio: The ratio between the length and least radius of gyration.
Elastic Buckling: Buckling with no permanent deformation.
Euler buckling is only valid for long, slender objects in the elastic region.
For short columns, a different set of equations must be used.

2. Which is the critical load?
At this value the structure is in equilibrium regardless of the magnitude of the angle
(provided it stays small)
Critical load is the only load for which the structure will be in equilibrium in the disturbed
position
At this value, restoring effect of the moment in the spring matches the buckling effect of the
axial load represents the boundary between the stable and unstable conditions.
If the axial load is less than Pcr the effect of the moment in the spring dominates and the
structure returns to the vertical position after a small disturbance stable condition.
If the axial load is larger than Pcr the effect of the axial force predominates and the structure
buckles unstable condition.
Because of the large deflection caused by buckling, the least moment of inertia I can be
expressed as, I = Ak
2

Where: A is the cross sectional area and r is the radius of gyration of the cross sectional area,
i.e. kmin =
min
I
A

Chapter-13 Theories of Column S K Mondals

Note that the smallest radius of gyration of the column, i.e. the least moment of inertia I
should be taken in order to find the critical stress. l/ k is called the slenderness ratio, it is a
measure of the column's flexibility.

3. Eulers Critical Load for Long Column
Assumptions:
(i) The column is perfectly straight and of uniform cross-section
(ii) The material is homogenous and isotropic
(iii) The material behaves elastically
(iv) The load is perfectly axial and passes through the centroid of the column section.
(v) The weight of the column is neglected.
Eulers critical load,
2
2
cr
e
EI
P
l
=

Where e=Equivalent length of column (1
st
mode of bending)

4. Remember the following table
Case Diagram Pcr Equivalent
length(le)

Both ends hinged/pinned

Both ends fixed

One end fixed & other end free

2
2
EI
2
2
4 EI
2
2
EI
4
2
C

O
/h

5

6
R
Chapter-13
One end fixe
hinged
5. Slender
=
Sle
=
cr
P
6. Rankine
Rankine theo
Short
Long
Slend

Cripp
P=
wher
d & other en
rness Rat
2
2
2
2
min
whe
=
enderness R
=

e
e
EI
L
EA
k
es Cripp
ory is applie
t strut /colu
g Column (V
derness ratio
e
k
pling Load ,
c
=
1 '

e
A
K
k
re k' = Rank
nd pinned
tio of Col
2
min
e
min
ere I=A k

Ratio =
k
pling Load
ed to both
mn (valid up
alid upto SR
o
2
e
E
P
2

kine constan
Theorie

lumn
n
min
k leas =
d
pto SR-40)
R 120)
( criti =
e
c
2
nt = de
E
es of Colum

st radius of
ical stress)=
epends on m
mn

gyration
cr
P
=
A

material & e

nd conditio
S K Mo

ons
2
ondals

c
stress = crushing
For steel columns
K =
1
25000
for both ends fixed
=
1
12500
for one end fixed & other hinged 20 100
e
k

7. Other formulas for crippling load (P)
Gordons formula,

2
b = a constant, d = least diameter or breadth of bar

1
=

+

c
e
A
P
b
d

Johnson Straight line formula,
1 c = a constant depending on material.

=

e
c
P A c
k

Johnson parabolic formulae :

where the value of index b' depends on the end conditions.

Fiddlers formula,
( )
( )
2
c
2

= + +

c e e c e
A
P c
C

2
e 2
where, =

e
E
k

8. Eccentrically Loaded Columns
Secant formula
max 2
1 sec
2

= +

c e
ey P P
A k k EA

Where
max
=maximum compressive stress
P = load

u
P
P
P
P
M
M

c
A = Area of c/s
y = Distance of the outermost fiber in compression from the NA
e = Eccentricity of the load

e
l = Equivalent length
I
k = Radius of gyration =
A
Modulus of elasticity of the material = E

e
. .
2k
Where M = Moment introduced.

=

P
M Pe Sec
EA

Prof. Perrys Formula

max 1
2

1 1

=

d c
d e
e y
k

max
Where maximum compressive stress =

d
2
2
Load
c/s area
Euler's load
/ area
'
= =
= =
= =
e
e
e
e
P
A
P
A c s
EI
p Euler s load

1
' Versine at mid-length of column due to initial curvature
e = Eccentricity of the load
e ' 1.2
distance of outer most fiber in compression form the NA
k = Radius of gyration
=
= +
=
c
e
e e
y

If
max
is allowed to go up to
f
(permssible stress)
Then,
1
2
=
c
e y
k

2
f
(1 ) (1 )

2 2
f e f e
d e
+ + + +
=

Perry-Robertson Formula

0.003
1 0.003
(1 0.003

2 2

=

+ +
+ +

=

e
e
e
f e
f e
d e f
k
k
k


9. ISIs Formula for Columns and Struts
For
e
k
=0 to 160

'
1 0.2sec
4
=

y
c
e c
fos
P
fos p
k E

Where, Pc = Permissible axial compressive stress
Pc
= A value obtained from above Secant formula

y
= Guaranteed minimum yield stress = 2600 kg/cm
2
for mild steel
fos = factor of safety = 1.68

e
l
k
= Slenderness ratio
E = Modulus of elasticity =
6 2
2.045 10 / kg cm for mild steel

For
160
e
l
k
>



Strength of Column
GATE-1. The rod PQ of length L and with
flexural rigidity EI is hinged at both
ends. For what minimum force F is it
expected to buckle?
(a)
2
2
L
EI t
(b)
2
2
2 EI
L
t

(c)
2
2
2L
EI t
(b)
2
2
2L
EI t

[GATE-2008]
Equivalent Length
GATE-2. The ratio of Euler's buckling loads of columns with the same parameters having (i) both
ends fixed, and (ii) both ends hinged is:
[GATE-1998; 2002; IES-2001]
(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) 8
Euler's Theory (For long column)
GATE-3. A pin-ended column of length L, modulus of elasticity E and second moment of the cross-
sectional area I is loaded centrically by a compressive load P. The critical buckling load
(Pcr) is given by: [GATE-2006]
(a)
2 2 cr
EI
P
L t
= (b)
2
2
3
cr
EI
P
L
t
= (c)
2 cr
EI
P
L
t
= (d)
2
2 cr
EI
P
L
t
=

GATE-4. What is the expression for the crippling load for a column of length l with one end fixed
and other end free? [IES-2006; GATE-1994]
(a)
2
2
2 EI
P
l
t
= (b)
2
2
4
EI
P
l
t
= (c)
2
2
4 EI
P
l
t
= (d)
2
2
EI
P
l
t
=

GATE-4A. The piston rod of diameter 20 mm and length 700 mm in a hydraulic cylinder is
subjected to a compressive force of 10 KN due to the internal pressure. The end
conditions for the rod may be assumed as guided at the piston end and hinged at the
other end. The Youngs modulus is 200 GPa. The factor of safety for the piston rod
is
(a) 0.68 (b) 2.75 (c) 5.62 (d) 11.0 [GATE-2007]

GATE-4(i).For a long slender column of uniform cross section, the ratio of critical buckling load for
the case with both ends clamped to the case with both ends hinged is
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 4 (d) 8 [GATE-2012]


Classification of Column
IES-1. A structural member subjected to an axial compressive force is called
[IES-2008]
(a) Beam (b) Column (c) Frame (d) Strut

IES-2. Which one of the following loadings is considered for design of axles?
(a) Bending moment only [IES-1995]
(b) Twisting moment only
(c) Combined bending moment and torsion
(d) Combined action of bending moment, twisting moment and axial thrust.

IES-2a An axle is a machine part that is subjected to: [IES-2011]
(a) Transverse loads and bending moment (b) Twisting moment only
(c) Twisting moment an axial load (d) Bending moment and axial load

IES-3. The curve ABC is the Euler's curve
for stability of column. The
horizontal line DEF is the strength
limit. With reference to this figure
Match List-I with List-II and select
the correct answer using the codes
given below the lists:
List-I List-II
(Regions) (Column specification)
A. R1 1. Long, stable
B. R2 2. Short
C. R3 3. Medium
D. R4 4. Long, unstable

[IES-1997]
(a) 2 4 3 1 (b) 2 3 1 4
(c) 1 2 4 3 (d) 2 1 3 4

IES-4. Mach List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the
lists: [IAS-1999]
List-I List-II
A. Polar moment of inertia of section 1. Thin cylindrical shell
B. Buckling 2. Torsion of shafts
C. Neutral axis 3. Columns
D. Hoop stress 4. Bending of beams
(a) 3 2 1 4 (b) 2 3 4 1
(c) 3 2 4 1 (d) 2 3 1 4
Strength of Column
IES-5. Slenderness ratio of a column is defined as the ratio of its length to its
(a) Least radius of gyration (b) Least lateral dimension [IES-2003]
(c) Maximum lateral dimension (d) Maximum radius of gyration

IES-6. Assertion (A): A long column of square cross section has greater buckling stability than a
similar column of circular cross-section of same length, same material and same area of
cross-section with same end conditions.
Reason (R): A circular cross-section has a smaller second moment of area than a square
cross-section of same area. [IES-1999; IES-1996]

Equivalent Length
IES-7. Four columns of same material and same length are of rectangular cross-section of same
breadth b. The depth of the cross-section and the end conditions are, however different
are given as follows: [IES-2004]
Column Depth End conditions
1 0.6 b Fixed-Fixed
2 0.8 b Fixed-hinged
3 1.0 b Hinged-Hinged
4 2.6 b Fixed-Free
Which of the above columns Euler buckling load maximum?
(a) Column 1 (b) Column 2 (c) Column 3 (d) Column 4

IES-8. Match List-I (End conditions of columns) with List-II (Equivalent length in terms of
length of hinged-hinged column) and select the correct answer using the codes given
below the Lists: [IES-2000]
List-I List-II
A. Both ends hinged 1. L
B. One end fixed and other end free 2. L/ 2
C. One end fixed and the other pin-pointed 3. 2L
D. Both ends fixed 4. L/2
(a) 1 3 4 2 (b) 1 3 2 4
(c) 3 1 2 4 (d) 3 1 4 2

IES-9. The ratio of Euler's buckling loads of columns with the same parameters having (i) both
ends fixed, and (ii) both ends hinged is:
[GATE-1998; 2002; IES-2001]
(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) 8
IES-10. What is the expression for the crippling load for a column of length l with one end fixed
and other end free? [IES-2006; GATE-1994]
(a)
2
2
2 EI
P
l
t
= (b)
2
2
4
EI
P
l
t
= (c)
2
2
4 EI
P
l
t
= (d)
2
2
EI
P
l
t
=

IES-10(i). The buckling load for a column hinged at both ends is 10 kN. If the ends are fixed, the
buckling load changes to [IES-2012]
(a) 40 kN (b) 2.5 kN (c) 5 kN (d) 20 kN

IES-10(ii). For the case of a slender column of length L and flexural rigidity EI built in at its base
and free at the top, the Eulers critical buckling load is [IES-2012]
()
()
()
()

IES-11. Euler's formula gives 5 to 10% error in crippling load as compared to experimental
results in practice because: [IES-1998]
(a) Effect of direct stress is neglected
(b) Pin joints are not free from friction
(c) The assumptions made in using the formula are not met in practice
(d) The material does not behave in an ideal elastic way in tension and compression

IES-12. Euler's formula can be used for obtaining crippling load for a M.S. column with hinged
ends.

Which one of the following conditions for the slenderness ratio
l
k
is to be satisfied?[IES-2000]
(a) 5 8
l
k
< < (b) 9 18
l
k
< < (c) 19 40
l
k
< < (d) 80
l
k
>

IES-13. If one end of a hinged column is made fixed and the other free, how much is the critical
load compared to the original value? [IES-2008]
(a) (b) (c) Twice (d) Four times

IES-14. If one end of a hinged column is made fixed and the other free, how much is the critical
load compared to the original value? [IES-2008]
(a) (b) (c) Twice (d) Four times

IES-15. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the code given below the
Lists: [IES-1995; 2007; IAS-1997]
List-I (Long Column) List-II (Critical Load)
A. Both ends hinged 1. t
2
EI/4l
2

B. One end fixed, and other end free 2. 4 t
2
EI/ l
2

C. Both ends fixed 3. 2 t
2
EI/ l
2

D. One end fixed, and other end hinged 4. t
2
EI/ l
2

(a) 2 1 4 3 (b) 4 1 2 3
(c) 2 3 4 1 (d) 4 3 2 1

IES-16. The ratio of the compressive critical load for a long column fixed at both the ends and a
column with one end fixed and the other end free is: [IES-1997]
(a) 1 : 2 (b) 1: 4 (c) 1: 8 (d) 1: 16

IES-17. The buckling load will be maximum for a column, if [IES-1993]
(a) One end of the column is clamped and the other end is free
(b) Both ends of the column are clamped
(c) Both ends of the column are hinged
(d) One end of the column is hinged and the other end is free

IES-18. If diameter of a long column is reduced by 20%, the percentage of reduction in Euler
buckling load is: [IES-2001, 2012]
(a) 4 (b) 36 (c) 49 (d) 59

IES-19. A long slender bar having uniform rectangular cross-section 'B x H' is acted upon by an
axial compressive force. The sides B and H are parallel to x- and y-axes respectively. The
ends of the bar are fixed such that they behave as pin-jointed when the bar buckles in a
plane normal to x-axis, and they behave as built-in when the bar buckles in a plane
normal to y-axis. If load capacity in either mode of buckling is same, then the value of
H/B will be: [IES-2000]
(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 8 (d) 16

IES-20. The Euler's crippling load for a 2m long slender steel rod of uniform cross-section hinged
at both the ends is 1 kN. The Euler's crippling load for 1 m long steel rod of the same
cross-section and hinged at both ends will be: [IES-1998]
(a) 0.25 kN (b) 0.5 kN (c) 2 kN (d) 4 kN

IES-21. If c and E denote the crushing stress and Young's modulus for the material of a column,
then the Euler formula can be applied for determination of cripping load of a column
made of this material only, if its slenderness ratio is:
(a) More than /
c
E t o (b) Less than /
c
E t o [IES-2005]
(c) More than
2
c
E
t
o
| |
|
\ .
(d) Less than
2
c
E
t
o
| |
|
\ .


IES-22. Four vertical columns of same material, height and weight have the same end conditions.
Which cross-section will carry the maximum load? [IES-2009]
(a) Solid circular section (b) Thin hollow circular section
(c) Solid square section (d) I-section
Rankine's Hypothesis for Struts/Columns
IES-23. Rankine Gordon formula for buckling is valid for [IES-1994]
(a) Long column (b) Short column
(c) Short and long column (d) Very long column
Prof. Perry's formula
IES-24. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the code given below the
lists: [IES-2008]
List-I (Formula/theorem/ method) List-II (Deals with topic)
A. Clapeyron's theorem 1. Deflection of beam
B. Maculay's method 2. Eccentrically loaded column
C. Perry's formula 3. Riveted joints
4. Continuous beam
Code: A B C A B C
(a) 3 2 1 (b) 4 1 2
(c) 4 1 3 (d) 2 4 3
Classification of Column
IAS-1. Mach List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the
lists: [IAS-1999]
List-I List-II
A. Polar moment of inertia of section 1. Thin cylindrical shell
B. Buckling 2. Torsion of shafts
C. Neutral axis 3. Columns
D. Hoop stress 4. Bending of beams
(a) 3 2 1 4 (b) 2 3 4 1
(c) 3 2 4 1 (d) 2 3 1 4
Strength of Column
IAS-2. Assertion (A): A long column of square cross-section has greater buckling stability than
that of a column of circular cross-section of same length, same material, same end
conditions and same area of cross-section. [IAS-1998]
Reason (R): The second moment of area of a column of circular cross-section is smaller
than that of a column of square cross section having the same area.

IAS-3. Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched? [IAS-2003]
(a) Slenderness ratio : The ratio of length of the column to the least radius of gyration
(b) Buckling factor : The ratio of maximum load to the permissible axial load on the
column

(c) Short column : A column for which slenderness ratio < 32
(d) Strut : A member of a structure in any position and carrying an axial
compressive load
Equivalent Length
IAS-4. A column of length 'I' is fixed at its both ends. The equivalent length of the column is:[IAS-1995]
(a) 2 l (b) 0.5 l (c) 2 l (d) l

IAS-5. Which one of the following statements is correct? [IAS-2000]
(a) Euler's formula holds good only for short columns
(b) A short column is one which has the ratio of its length to least radius of gyration
greater than 100
(c) A column with both ends fixed has minimum equivalent or effective length
(d) The equivalent length of a column with one end fixed and other end hinged is half
of its actual length
IAS-6. For which one of the following columns, Euler buckling load =
2
2
4 EI
l
t
?
(a) Column with both hinged ends [IAS-1999; 2004]
(b) Column with one end fixed and other end free
(c) Column with both ends fixed
(d) Column with one end fixed and other hinged

IAS-7. Assertion (A): Buckling of long columns causes plastic deformation. [IAS-2001]
Reason (R): In a buckled column, the stresses do not exceed the yield stress.

IAS-8. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the code given below the
Lists: [IES-1995; 2007; IAS-1997]
List-I (Long Column) List-II (Critical Load)
A. Both ends hinged 1. t
2
EI/4l
2

B. One end fixed, and other end free 2. 4 t
2
EI/ l
2

C. Both ends fixed 3. 2 t
2
EI/ l
2

D. One end fixed, and other end hinged 4. t
2
EI/ l
2

(a) 2 1 4 3 (b) 4 1 2 3
(c) 2 3 4 1 (d) 4 3 2 1


OBJECTIVE ANSWERS

GATE-1. Ans. (b) Axial component of the force FPQ = F Sin 45
0

We know for both end fixed column buckling load (P) =
2
2
L
EI t

and
0
Fsin45 = P or F =
2
2
2 EI
L
p

GATE-2. Ans. (b) Eulers buckling loads of columns

( )
( )
2
2
2
2
4 EI
1 both ends fixed
l
EI
2 both ends hinged
l
t
t
=
=

GATE-3. Ans. (d)
GATE-4. Ans. (b)
GATE-4A. Ans. (c)

GATE-4(i). Ans. (c)
IES
IES-1. Ans. (d) A machine part subjected to an axial compressive force is called a strut. A strut may
be horizontal, inclined or even vertical. But a vertical strut is known as a column, pillar
or stanchion.
The term column is applied to all such members except those in which failure would be
by simple or pure compression. Columns can be categorized then as:
1. Long column with central loading
2. Intermediate-length columns with central loading
3. Columns with eccentric loading
4. Struts or short columns with eccentric loading
IES-2. Ans. (a) Axle is a non-rotating member used for supporting rotating wheels etc. and do not
transmit any torque. Axle must resist forces applied laterally or transversely to their
axes. Such members are called beams.
IES-2a Ans. (a) Axle is a non-rotating member used for supporting rotating wheels etc. and
do not transmit any torque. Axle must resist forces applied laterally or transversely
to their axes. Such members are called beams.
IES-3. Ans. (b)
IES-4. Ans. (b)
IES-5. Ans. (a)
IES-6. Ans. (a)
IES-7. Ans. (b)

IES-8. Ans. (b)
IES-9. Ans. (b) Eulers buckling loads of columns

( )
( )
2
2
2
2
4 EI
1 both ends fixed
l
EI
2 both ends hinged
l
t
t
=
=

IES-10. Ans. (b)
IES-10(i). Ans. (a)
IES-10(ii). Ans. (d)
IES-11. Ans. (c)
IES-12. Ans. (d)
IES-13. Ans. (a) Critical Load for both ends hinged = t
2
EI/ l
2

And Critical Load for one end fixed, and other end free = t
2
EI/4l
2

IES-14. Ans. (a) Original load =
2
2
EI
I
t

When one end of hinged column is fixed and other free. New Le = 2L
New load =
( )
2 2
2 2
EI EI 1
Original value
4 4L
2L
t t
= =
IES-15. Ans. (b)
IES-16. Ans. (d) Critical Load for one end fixed, and other end free is t
2
EI/4l
2
and both ends fixed is
4 t
2
EI/ l
2

IES-17. Ans. (b) Buckling load of a column will be maximum when both ends are fixed
IES-18. Ans. (d)
2
2
t
=
EI
P
L
4
P I or P d or
( )
4 4 4
4
d d
p p 0.8d
1 0.59
p d d
'
' | |
= = =
|
\ .

IES-19. Ans. (a)
2
2
t
=
xx
EI
P
L
and
2
2
4t '
=
yy
EI
P
L
as
xx yy
P P = then
3 3
BH HB H
I 4I or 4 or 2
12 12 B
' = = =
IES-20. Ans. (d) For column with both ends hinged, P =
2
2
EI
l
t
. If l is halved, P will be 4 times.
IES-21. Ans. (a) For long column PEuler < Pcrushing
or
2
2 2 2 2
c c c 2 2
c e e
EI EAK le E le
A or A or or E /
k k l l
t t t
o o t o
o
| |
< < > >
|
\ .

IES-22. Ans. (b)
IES-23. Ans. (c)
IES-24. Ans. (b)
IAS
IAS-1. Ans. (b)
IAS-2. Ans. (a)
IAS-3. Ans. (b) Buckling factor: The ratio of equivalent length of the column to the least radius of
gyration.
IAS-4. Ans. (b)
IAS-5. Ans. (c) A column with both ends fixed has minimum equivalent effective length (l/2)
IAS-6. Ans. (c)
IAS-7. Ans. (d) And Critical Load for one end fixed, and other end free = t
2
EI/4l
2

IAS-8. Ans. (b)


Conventional Question ESE-2001, ESE 2000
Question: Differentiate between strut and column. What is the general expression used for
determining of their critical load?
Answer: Strut: A member of structure which carries an axial compressive load.
Column: If the strut is vertical it is known as column.
For strut failure due to compression or
force
s =
c
Compressive
Area

If
c yc
s s > it fails.
Euler's formula for column( )
2
2
=
l
C
e
EI
P

Q. Two long columns are made of identical lengths l and flexural rigidities EI. Column 1 is
hinged at both ends whereas for column 2 one end is fixed and the other end is free.
(i) Write the expression for Eulers buckling load for column 1.
(ii) What is the ratio of Eulers buckling load of column 1 to that column 2? [ 2 Marks]

Ans. (i)
( )
2 2
1 2
2 2
EI EI
P ; P ri ght
L 4L
t t
= =

e
For column l, both end hinged l L =
(ii)

Q. The piston rod of diameter 20 mm and length 700 mm in a hydraulic cylinder is subjected to
a compressive force of 10 kN due to internal pressure. The piston end of the rod is guided
along the cylinder and the other end of the rod is hinged at the cross-head. The modulus of
elasticity for piston rod material is 200 GPa. Estimate the factor of safety taken for the
piston rod design. [2 Marks]
Ans.
20mm
P P

P
A
= ;
PL
AE
= ;
e
2
= ;
2
e
2
e
EI
P
t
= (considering one end of the column is fixed and
other end is hinged)
Pe = Euler Crippling load
Compressive load,
c c
P Area = = 10 kN
Eulers load,
( ) ( )
2 9 4
e
2
2 200 10 0.020 / 64
P
(0.7)
t t
= = 63.278 kN
F.S =
Euler 's load
Compressi ve load

F.S =
63.278
6.3
10
=

1
2
P
4
P
=

Question: State the limitation of Euler's formula for calculating critical load on columns
Answer: Assumptions:
(i) The column is perfectly straight and of uniform cross-section
(ii) The material is homogenous and isotropic
(iii) The material behaves elastically
(iv) The load is perfectly axial and passes through the centroid of the column section.
(v) The weight of the column is neglected.

Question: What is the value of Euler's buckling load for an axially loaded pin-ended (hinged at
both ends) strut of length 'l' and flexural rigidity 'EI'? What would be order of Euler's
buckling load carrying capacity of a similar strut but fixed at both ends in terms of the
load carrying capacity of the earlier one?
Answer: From Euler's buckling load formula,

2
C 2
Critical load (P )
e
EI
=
l

Equivalent length ( ) for both end hinged = for both end fixed.
2
e
=
l
l l

2
c 2
So for both end hinged (P )
beh
EI
=
l

( )

2 2
c 2 2
4
and for both fixed (P )
2
bef
EI EI
= =
l
l

Question: Euler's critical load for a column with both ends hinged is found as 40 kN. What would
be the change in the critical load if both ends are fixed?
Answer: We know that Euler's critical laod,
PEuler=
2
2
e
EI
l
[Where E = modulus of elasticity, I = least moment of inertia
equivalent length
e
= l ]
For both end hinged ( l e) = l
And For both end fixed ( l e) = l /2

2

. . . 2
2 2
Euler . . . 2 2
( ) =40kN(Given)
and (P ) = 4 4 40 160
( / 2)
Euler b e h
b e F
EI
P
EI EI
kN
\ =
= = =
l
l l

Question: A hollow cast iron column of 300 mm external diameter and 220 mm internal diameter
is used as a column 4 m long with both ends hinged. Determine the safe compressive
load the column can carry without buckling using Euler's formula and Rankine's
formula
E = 0.710
5
N/mm
2
, FOS = 4, Rankine constant (a) = 1/1600
Crushing Stress (
c
) =

567 N/mm
2
Answer: Given outer diameter of column (D) = 300 mm = 0.3 m.
Inner diameter of the column (d) = 220 mm = 0.22 m.
Length of the column ( l ) = 4 m
End conditions is both ends hinged. Therefore equivalent length (
e
l ) = l = 4 m.
Yield crushing stress (
c
) = 567 MPa = 56710
6
N/m
2

Rankine constant (a) = 1/ 1600 and E = 0.710
5
N/mm
2
= 70 x 10
9
N/m
2

( )

4

4 4 4 4 4 4
4 4
2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2 2
Moment of Inertia(I) ( ) 0.3 0.22 2.826 10
64 64
0.3 0.22
64
Slenderness ratio(k)= 0.093
16 16
( )
Area(A) ( ) (0.3 0.22 ) 0.03267
4 4
D d m
D d
I D d
m
A
D d
D d m

= = =

+ +
= = = =
= = =

2

Euler
2 9 4
2 2
(i) Euler's buckling load, P
(70 10 ) (2.826 10 )
12.2MN
4
P 12.2
Safe load = 3.05
fos 4
Euler
e
Euler
EI
P
MN

= = =
= =
A

( )
Rankine
6
Rankine 2 2
Rankine
(ii)Rankine's buckling load, P
56710 0.03267
.
P = = 8.59 MN
1 4
1+ 1 .
1600 0.093
P 8.59
load = 2.148
fos 4
c
e
A
a
k
Safe MPa
=

+

= =
A

Question: A both ends hinged cast iron hollow cylindrical column 3 m in length has a
critical buckling load of P kN. When the column is fixed at both the ends, its
critical buckling load raise by 300 kN more. If ratio of external diameter to
internal diameter is 1.25 and E = 100 GPa determine the external diameter of
column.
Answer:
2
2
c
e
EI
P
I
=

2
2
For both end hinged column
EI
P= ( )
L
i
( )
2 2
2 2
For both end fixed column
4
P+300= ( )
2
EI EI
ii
L
L

=
(ii) by (i) we get
P+300
4 or P=100kN
P
Dividing
=
( )
( )
2
4 4
2
3 2
4 4 5
2 9
Moment of inertia of a hollow cylinder c/s is
64
100 10 3
64
1.8577 10
100 10
PL
I D d
E
orD d
= =
= =


Question: A piston rod of steam engine 80 cm long in subjected to a maximum load of 60
kN. Determine the diameter of the rod using Rankine's formula with
permissible compressive stress of 100 N/mm
2
. Take constant in Rankine's
formula as
1
7500
for hinged ends. The rod may be assumed

partially fixed
with length coefficient of 06.

Answer: Given:
3 2
c
l 80 cm 800mm ;P 60kN 60 10 N, 100N/ mm ; = = = = =

1
a for hinged ends; length coefficient 0.6
7500
= =
To find diameter of the rod, d:
Use Rankines formula

c
2
e
A
P
l
1 a
k
=

+

e
Here l 0.6l 0.6 800 480 mm [ length coefficient 0.6] = = = =

4
2
d
I d
64
k
A 4
d
4
= = =

2
3
2
100 d
4
60 10
1 480
1
7500 d / 4

=

+

Solving the above equation we get the value of d
Note: Unit of d comes out from the equation will be mm as we put the equivalent
length in mm.
= or d 33.23mm

Question: A hollow cylinder CI column, 3 m long its internal and external diameters as
80 mm and 100 mm respectively. Calculate the safe load using Rankine
formula: if
(i) Both ends are hinged and
(ii) Both ends are fixed.
Take crushing strength of material as 600
2
/ N mm , Rankine constant 1/1600
and factor of safety = 3.
Answer:
4 4 4 6 4
Moment of Inertia (I)= (0.1 0.08 ) 2.898 10
64
m m
=
4
4 5
D D
1.25 or d =
d 1.25-5
1
D 1 1.8577 10
1.25
D=0.0749 m = 74.9 mm
given
or
or
=

=

C

C
Q

A

Chapter-13
Convention
Question:
Answer:
Area( )
Radius of
=
1
Rankine
A
P
=
(i)
=2
Safe load
(ii) For bo
Rankine
P
load Safe
nal Questi
A slender
free end.
maximum
exceed th
Above figu
and eccent
Let y be th
deflection a
The bendin
(
2
2
0.1
4
f gyration (
.
;
c
e
A
a
k
=

+

A
(
600
Rank
10
=
1
1
2.61026kN
P
d (P)=
FOS
(
oth end fix
600
1
e
=
+
Rank
P
d (P)=
FOS
ion AMIE-
column is
Working
m length of
he eccentric
ure shows a
ric load P is
he deflection
at A.
ng moment a
Theorie
)
2
0.08 2
I
(k) =
A
[ = equ
e
=
=
A
) (
6
ine
2.827
1 3
600 0.0
N
2612
S 3

=
)
e
6
xed,
10 (2.8
1
1600 0
=
A
A
kine
714.8
S 3
=
-1997
built-in at
from the
f column su
city of load
slender colu
applied at t
n at any sect
at the sectio
es of Colum
2.8274 10
2.898
2.8274
uivalent len
)
3
2
4 10
;
3
032
6
87.09
=
3
2
1.5
2
274 10
1.5
0.032
m
8
238.27 =
t one end a
first prin
uch that th
ding.
umn of lengt
the free end
tion XX dist
n XX is give
mn
3 2
6
3
0
10
0.
10
ngth]
m
[ = l = 3
e
kN
A
)
714.8k =
7kN
and an ecce
nciples fin
he deflectio

th I. The co
A.
tant x from
en by
.032m
m for both
kN

entric load
nd the exp
on of the fr
olumn is bu
the fixed en
S K Mo
h end hing
is applied
pression fo
ree end do
ilt in at one
nd B. Let
ondals
ed]

at the
or the
oes not
e end B
be the

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
o
o o
= +
+ = + + = +
2
2
2 2
2 2
d y
EI P e y i
dx
d y d y P P
EI Py P e or y e
EI EI dx dx

The solution to the above differential equation is

( ) ( )
( )
( )
1 2
1 2
1 2
1
P P
y C cos x C sin x e ii
EI EI
Where C and C are the constants.
At the end B, x 0 and y 0
0 C cos 0 C sin0 e
or C e
o
o
o
( (
= + + +
( (
( (

= =
= + + +
= +

( )
1 2
Differentiating equation ii we get
dy P P P P
C sin x C cos x
dx EI EI EI EI
( (
= +
( (
( (

( )
2
2
Again,at the fixed end B,
dy
When x 0, 0
dx
P P
0 e 0 C cos0
EI EI
or C 0
o
= =
= + +
=

( )
( ) ( )
( )
At the free end A,x ,y
Substituting for x and y in equation ii , we have
P
e cos e
EI
P e
cos iii
EI e
o
o o o
o
= =
(
= + = +
(

(
=
(
+

It is mentioned in the problem that the deflection of the free end does not exceed the
eccentricity. It means that o = e
Substituting this value in equation (iii), we have

1
P e 1
cos
EI e 2
P 1
cos
EI 2 3
EI
3 P
o
t
t
(
= =
(
+

| |
= =
|
\ .
=

Question: A long strut AB of length ' l ' is of uniform section throughout. A thrust P is applied at
the ends eccentrically on the same side of the centre line with eccentricity at the end B
twice than that at the end A. Show that the maximum bending moment occurs at a
distance x from the end A,
Where, tan(kx)=
2 cos P
and k=
sin EI
k
k
- l
l

C

An

C
Q
A

C
Q
Chapter-13
nswer: L
b
o
o
C
y
I
A
Convention
Question:
Answer:
Convention
Question:
Let at a dist
beam is y
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
d y
EI
dx
d y P
or
E dx
d y
or k
dx
=
+
+
C.F of this di
y = A cos kx
It is clear at
And at x = A
.... e A =
2 cos
co
e A
y e
=
=
Where be
the deflec
tan
dy
e
dx
or kx
=
=
nal Questi
The link o
circular c
of the link
and elast
can carry
According t
cr
P =
cr
.
Hear A=ar
least radiu
For both e
P 40
y
A
=
nal Questi
Find the s
section 60
yield stre
GPa respe
ance 'x' from
2
.
0
0
P y
P
y
EI
y
ifferential e
+ B sin kx, W
x = 0, y = e
, y= 2e
..............( ) i
s sin
2
os
s
k B k
e
kx
+
ending mom
tion will be
sin
2 cos
sin
ek kx k
k
k
+
=
ion ESE-1
of a mecha
cross-sectio
k are hing
ic modulus
y. Use John
to Johnson's
2
1
4
rea of cross
us of gyratio
end hinged
0 63.62 1
y
n E
ion GATE-
shortest le
00 mm 10
ength and m
ectively.
Theorie
m end A defl
P
k gi
EI
=
quation
Where A & B

cos
s
sin
k or
e k
k
ment is maxi
maximum s
2 cos
.
sin
e e
k
k
996
anism is su
on with dia
ged. It is m
s = 200 kN
non's equati
s equation
2
s section=
I
on (k) =
A
n=1
k
2
4 1
-1995
ngth of a h
00 mm, for
modulus o
es of Colum
lection of th
iven

B constant.
2
s
in
e
B
kx
mum,
so 0
s
cos
dy
dx
k
kx
=
ubjected to
ameter 9 m
made of stee
N/mm
2
. Calc
ion.
2
64
d
2
4
d
63.62
4
4
40
d
=

= =

3
0
(200 10
hinged stee
r which the
of elasticity
mn
e

cos
in
e k
k

0 =

axial com
mm and len
el having y
culate the
2
2
2.55
4
mm
d
= =
2
3
200
2.25 )

el column h
e elastic E
y value for
mpressive fo
ngth 200 mm
yield stren
critical lo
mm
=15.262k
having a re
uler formu
r steel as 2
S K Mo
orce. It has
m. The two
gth = 400 N
oad that th
N

ectangular
ula applies
250 MPa an
ondals

s solid
o ends
N/mm
2

he link
cross-
. Take
nd 200

Answer: Given: Cross-section, (= b x d) = 600 mm x 100 mm = 0.6 m x 0.1 m = 0.06 m
2
;

Yield strength =
2 12 2
250 250 / ; 200 200 10 /
P
MPa MN m E GPa N m
A
= = = =

3 3
5 4
0.6 0.1
Least areamoment of Inertia, 5 10 m
12 12
bd
I

= = =
Length of the column, L :

( )
5
2 4 2
2
5 10
, 8.333 10
0.6 0.1
[ where area of cross-section, radius of gyration ]
I
Also k m
A
I AK A k
= = =
= = =

2 2
2 2
From Euler's formula for column, we have
,
cr
e
EI EI
Crushing load P
L L

= =

( )
e
2 2
2
2
2
2 2
2
For bothendhinged type of column, = L
/
cr
cr
cr
L
EAk
or P
L
P EI
or Yield stress
A L
Ek
or L
P A
=

=

=

Substituting the value, we get

2 9
2
6
200 10 0.0008333
6.58
250 10
2.565
L
L m

= =
=

Question: Determine the temperature rise necessary to induce buckling in a lm long
circular rod of diameter 40 mm shown in the Figure below. Assume the rod to
be pinned at its ends and the coefficient of thermal expansion as
6 0
20 10 / C
. Assume uniform heating of the bar.

Answer: Let usassumethe buckling load be'P'.

( )
[ ]
2
e 2
2
e 2
. . , Where is the temperature rise.
.
.
,
where L =equivalent length
. .
QL =L For bothendhinged
cr
e
L L t t
L
or t
L
PL L AE
Also L or P
AE L
EI
P
L
EI L AE
or
L L
d
d
d
d
p
p d
=
=
= =
= - - -
=
V V
V

( )
( ) ( )
2
2 2
2
4
2
0
2 4
6
. . . .
Substituting the values, we get
0.040
64
Temperature rise 49.35
1 0.040 20 10
4
I
or L
LA
L I I
t
L LAL L A
t C
p
d
d p p
p
p
p
-
=
= = =

= =

V
V

So the rod will buckle when the temperature rises more than 49.35C.


14. St r ai n Ener gy Met hod
1. Resilience (U)
Resilience is an ability of a material to absorb energy when
elastically deformed and to return it when unloaded.
The strain energy stored in a specimen when stained within
the elastic limit is known as resilience.
2
U = U =
2 2

2
E
V o l u m e o r V o l u m e
E

2. Proof Resilience
Maximum strain energy stored at elastic limit. i.e. the strain energy stored in the body upto
elastic limit.
This is the property of the material that enables it to resist shock and impact by storing
energy. The measure of proof resilience is the strain energy absorbed per unit volume.

3. Modulus of Resilience (u)
The proof resilience per unit volume is known as modulus of resilience. If is the stress due to
gradually applied load, then
2
u = u =
2 2
2
E
o r
E

4. Application
2 2
2
2
2
3
P .
4 4
=
2
2 (2 )
2.
4
4
L
L P
P L
U
d AE
d E
E
= +

Strain energy becomes smaller & smaller as the cross sectional area of bar
is increased over more & more of its length i.e. A , U

5. Toughness
This is the property which enables a material to be twisted, bent or stretched under impact
load or high stress before rupture. It may be considered to be the ability of the material to
L
L/4
2d
P
C

M

6

Chapter-14
absor
absor
Toug
The a
Toug
The
struc

Modulus of
The
to ab
The
that
witho
The a
diagr
which
be a
mate
fractu
6. Strain e

Strain e
s
u
Total

Case
Sol
Ho
rb energy i
rbed after be
ghness is an
ability to wit
ghness = stre
materials w
ctures that w
f Toughnes
ability of un
sorb energy
amount of
the mat
out failure.
area under
ram is called
h is a meas
absorbed by
erial due to i
ures.
energy in
2
energy per u
or,
2
=
s
G
l Strain Ene

1
2
=
s
s
U
U
or =
s
U
es
,
s
lid shaft U
, llowshaft
in the plast
eing stressed
ability to ab
thstand occa
ength + duct
with higher
will be expos
ss
nit volume
y in the plast
work per u
erial can
the entire s
d modulus of
sure of ener
y the unit
impact loadi
shear an
2
s
unit volume
u
2
=
G
ergy (U) for a
2
1
2

=
T
T L
or
GJ
2
max
2
2
2

=

L
G r
2
max
4
= r
G
2
max
4
s
U
G
=
Strain En
tic zone. Th
d upto the p
bsorb energy
asional stres
tility
r modulus
sed to sudde
of material
tic range.
unit volume
withstand
tress strain
f toughness,
gy that can
volume of
ing before it
nd torsion
s
e, (u )

a Shaft in T
2
1 GJ
2

L

2

d
2
r L
(
4 4
2
D d
D

nergy Meth
he measure
point of fract
y in the plas
sses above th
of toughne
n and impac
l
e
d
n

n
f
t

n
orsion
)
4
2
max
4
L
G
=
hod
e of toughne
ture.
stic range.
he yield stre
ess are use
ct loads.
U
T
( )
2 2
2
D d
D
+
O
T
ess is the
ess without f
ed to make
T
=
u

f

Volume
A
B
d
S K Mo
amount of
fracture.
e componen
ondals
energy
ts and


Chapter-

T
w

7. Strai
An
St
o r U
C
Im

8. Casti

P
-14
s = Le
Thin walled
where

Conical sp
Cantilever b
Helical spr
n energy
ngle subtend
train energy
=
=
0
0
U
2
2
L
b
L
b
M
E
E I
U
ases
o Canti
o Simpl
mportant N
o For pu

o For no

igliones
=
n
n
U
P

,
ength of me
=
s
d tube U
S
, U

= pring
beam with l
, =
s
ring U
in bendi
ded by arc,
y stored in b

2
2
2
2
0
.
x
L
M
d x
E I
d y
d x
lever beam
ly supported
Note
ure bending
M is const
ML
EI
=
=
2
2
M L
U
EI
on-uniform b
Strain en
Strain en
theorem
Strain
2
4
ean centre lin
= sLt
G
2
2 2
3
0
2
P
=
2GJ

n
GJ d
dx
R
load 'p' at en
2 3
P R n
GJ
ng.
. =
x
M
dx
EI
eam.
d x
with a end l
d with a load
g
tant along th
if Misknow
bending
ergy in shea
ergy in bend
n Energy M
ne

2
2
0
3
2
( var
=

GJ
dx
d R
s
3
nd, U
5
( 2 = L
x
2
2
d y
d x
load P ,
b
U
d P at centre
he length L
=
2
wn
2
EI
if
L
ar is neglecte
ding is only
Method
2
0
.
ries with )
n
PR
R
GJ
2

P L
bhG

) Rn
M
E I
2 3
6
=
b
P L
EI

e,
2
96
=
b
P L
U
E
L
curvature
ed
considered.
. (
)
= R d R R

3
L
EI

/ isknow L

S K
) Radius

n
Mondals

Chapter-14 Strain Energy Method S K Mondals

1
=

x
x
M U
M dx
p EI p

Note:
o Strain energy, stored due to direct stress in 3 coordinates

2
1
( ) 2
2
=

x x y
U
E

o = = If ,in case of equal stress in 3 direction then
x y z

2 2
3
U= [1 2] (volume strain energy)
2 2 E k
=



Strain Energy or Resilience
GATE-1. The strain energy stored in the beam with flexural rigidity EI and loaded as shown in
the figure is: [GATE-2008]

(a)
2 3
3
P L
EI
(b)
2 3
2
3
P L
EI
(c)
2 3
4
3
P L
EI
(d)
2 3
8
3
P L
EI

GATE-2.
3
3
PL
EI
is the deflection under the load P of a cantilever beam [length L, modulus of
elasticity, E, moment of inertia-I]. The strain energy due to bending is:
[GATE-1993]

2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3 6 4 48
P L P L P L P L
a b c d
EI EI EI EI

GATE-3. The stress-strain behaviour of a material is
shown in figure. Its resilience and
toughness, in Nm/m
3
, are respectively
(a) 28 10
4
, 76 10
4
(b) 28 10
4
, 48 10
4
(c) 14 10
4
, 90 10
4
(d) 76 10
4

[GATE-2000]

GATE-4. A square bar of side 4 cm and length 100 cm is subjected to an axial load P. The same
bar is then used as a cantilever beam and subjected to all end load P. The ratio of the
strain energies, stored in the bar in the second case to that stored in the first case, is:[GATE-1998]
(a) 16 (b) 400 (c) 1000 (d) 2500
Toughness
GATE-5. The total area under the stress-strain curve of a mild steel specimen tested up to failure
under tension is a measure of [GATE-2002]
(a) Ductility (b) Ultimate strength (c) Stiffness (d) Toughness

IES-1. What is the strain energy stored in a body of volume V with stress o due to gradually
applied load? [IES-2006]
(a)
E
V
o
(b)
2
E
V
o
(c)
2
V
E
o
(d)
2
2
V
E
o


IES-1(i). A circular bar L m long and d m in diameter is subjected to tensile force of F kN. Then
the strain energy, U will be (where, E is the modulus of elasticity in kN/m
2
)
[IES-2012]
()
()
()
()

IES-1(ii). Statement (I): Ductile materials generally absorb more impact energy than the brittle
materials.
Statement (II): Ductile materials generally have higher ultimate strength than brittle
materials. [IES-2012]
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true and Statement (II) is the
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true but Statement (II) is not
the correct explanation of Statement (I)

IES-2. A bar having length L and uniform cross-section with area A is subjected to both tensile
force P and torque T. If G is the shear modulus and E is the Young's modulus, the
internal strain energy stored in the bar is: [IES-2003]
(a)
2 2
2
T L P L
GJ AE
+ (b)
2 2
2
T L P L
GJ AE
+ (c)
2 2
2 2
T L P L
GJ AE
+ (d)
2 2
T L P L
GJ AE
+

IES-3. Strain energy stored in a body of volume V subjected to uniform stress s is:
[IES-2002]
(a) s E / V (b) sE
2
/ V (c) sV
2
/E (d) s
2
V/2E

IES-4. A bar of length L and of uniform cross-sectional area A and second moment of area I is
subjected to a pull P. If Young's modulus of elasticity of the bar material is E, the
expression for strain energy stored in the bar will be:
[IES-1999]

2 2 2 2
P L PL PL P L
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2AE 2EI AE AE

IES-5. Which one of the following gives the correct expression for strain energy stored in a beam
of length L and of uniform cross-section having moment of inertia I and subjected to
constant bending moment M? [IES-1997]
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
a b c d
2 2
ML ML M L M L
EI EI EI EI

IES-6. A steel specimen 150
2
mm in cross-section stretches by 005 mm over a 50 mm gauge
length under an axial load of 30 kN. What is the strain energy stored in the specimen?
(Take E = 200 GPa) [IES-2009]
(a) 0.75 N-m (b) 1.00 N-m (c) 1.50 N-m (d) 3.00 N-m


IES-7. What is the expression for the strain energy due to bending of a cantilever beam (length
L. modulus of elasticity E and moment of inertia I)? [IES-2009]
(a)
2 3
3
P L
EI
(b)
2 3
6
P L
EI
(c)
2 3
4
P L
EI
(d)
2 3
48
P L
EI

IES-8. The property by which an amount of energy is absorbed by a material without plastic
deformation, is called: [IES-2000]
(a) Toughness (b) Impact strength (c) Ductility (d) Resilience

IES-8a Resilience of material becomes important when it is subjected to :
(a) Fatigue (b) Thermal stresses
(c) Shock loading (d) Pure static loading [IES-2011]

IES-9. 30 C 8 steel has its yield strength of 400 N/mm
2
and modulus of elasticity of 2 10
5
MPa.
Assuming the material to obey Hooke's law up to yielding, what is its proof resilience?[IES-2006]
(a) 08 N/mm
2
(b) 0.4 N/mm
2
(c) 06 N/mm
2
(d) 07 N/mm
2

IES9a Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code given below the
lists: [IES-2010]
List I List II
A. Point of inflection 1. Strain energy
B. Shearing strain 2. Equation of bending
C. Section modulus 3. Equation of torsion
D. Modulus of resilience 4. Bending moment diagram
(a) 1 3 2 4 (b) 4 3 2 1
(c) 1 2 3 4 (d) 4 2 3 1
Toughness
IES-10. Toughness for mild steel under uni-axial tensile loading is given by the shaded portion of
the stress-strain diagram as shown in [IES-2003]

IAS-1. Total strain energy stored in a simply supported beam of span, 'L' and flexural rigidity
'EI 'subjected to a concentrated load 'W' at the centre is equal to:
[IAS-1995]

(a)
2 3
40
W L
EI
(b)
2 3
60
W L
EI
(c)
2 3
96
W L
EI
(d)
2 3
240
W L
EI

IAS-2. If the cross-section of a member is subjected to a uniform shear stress of intensity 'q'
then the strain energy stored per unit volume is equal to (G = modulus of rigidity).[IAS-1994]
(a) 2q
2
/G (b) 2G / q
2
(c) q
2
/2G (d) G/2 q
2

IAS-3. The strain energy stored in the beam with flexural rigidity EI and loaded as shown in
the figure is: [GATE-2008]

(a)
2 3
3
P L
EI
(b)
2 3
2
3
P L
EI
(c)
2 3
4
3
P L
EI
(d)
2 3
8
3
P L
EI

IAS-4. Which one of the following statements is correct? [IAS-2004]
The work done in stretching an elastic string varies
(a) As the square of the extension (b) As the square root of the extension
(c) Linearly with the extension (d) As the cube root of the extension
Toughness
IAS-5. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the
lists: [IAS-1996]
List-I (Mechanical properties) List-II (Meaning of properties)
A. Ductility 1. Resistance to indentation
B. Hardness 2. Ability to absorb energy during plastic
C. Malleability deformation
D. Toughness 3. Percentage of elongation
4. Ability to be rolled into flat product
(a) 1 4 3 2 (b) 3 2 4 1
(c) 2 3 4 1 (d) 3 1 4 2

IAS-6. Match List-I (Material properties) with List-II (Technical definition/requirement) and
select the correct answer using the codes below the lists: [IAS-1999]
List-I List-II
A. Hardness 1. Percentage of elongation
B. Toughness 2. Resistance to indentation
C. Malleability 3. Ability to absorb energy during plastic deformation
D. Ductility 4. Ability to be rolled into plates
(a) 3 2 1 4 (b) 2 3 4 1
(c) 2 4 3 1 (d) 1 3 4 2

IAS-7. A truck weighing 150 kN and travelling at 2m/sec impacts which a buffer spring which
compresses 1.25cm per 10 kN. The maximum compression of the spring is: [IAS-1995]
(a) 20.00 cm
(b) 22.85 cm
(c) 27.66 cm
(d) 30.00 cm


OBJ ECTI VE ANSWERS
GATE-1. Ans. (c)
4 3 4
2 2 2 2
0 0 3
L L L L
L L
M dx M dx M dx M dx
EI EI EI EI
= + +

3 4
2 2 2 2
0 0 3
3
2 2 2 3
0
2 By symmetry
( ) ( ) 4
2
3
L L L L
L L
L L
L
M dx M dx M dx M dx
EI EI EI EI
Px dx PL dx P L
EI EI EI

= + =

= + =

GATE-2. Ans. (b) We may do it taking average
Strain energy = Average force x displacement =
3
2 3

=

P PL
EI
2 3
6
P L
EI

Alternative method: In a funny way you may use Castigliones theorem,
U
P
. Then
U
P
3
3
PL
EI
= or
3
3
PL
U U P
EI
= =

Partially integrating with respect to P we get
2 3
P L
U
6EI
=
GATE-3. Ans. (c) Resilience = area under this curve up to 0.004 strain
=
6 4
1
0.004 70 10 14 10
2
= Nm/m
3

Toughness = area under this curve up to 0.012 strain
= ( ) ( ) ( )
4 6 6
1
14 10 70 10 0.012 0.004 0.012 0.004 120 70 10
2
+ + Nm/m
3

4
90 10 = Nm/m
3
GATE-4. Ans. (d)

= =
2
2
1
W
AL
W L A
U
2E 2AE

= = =

= = =

2 3 2 3 2 3
2 4
4
2
2
2
2
1
W L W L 2W L
U
1 6EI Ea
6E a
12
U 4L 100
or 4 2500
U 4 a

GATE-5. Ans. (d)
I ES
IES-1. Ans. (d) Strain Energy =
2
1
. V
2 E

IES-1(i). Ans. (c)
IES-1(ii). Ans. (c)
IES-2. Ans. (c)
1 1 1 1
Internal strain energy = P + P +
2 2 2 2
PL TL
T T
AE GJ
=
IES-3. Ans. (d)
IES-4. Ans. (a) ( )
2
1 1
Strain energy x stress x strain x volume= .
2 2 2
P P L PL
AL
A A E AE

= =


IES-5. Ans. (d)
IES-6. Ans. (a) Strain Energy stored in the specimen

( )

= = = = =

2
3
2
6 9
30000 50 10
1 1 PL P L
P P 0.75 N-m
2 2 AE 2AE 2 150 10 200 10

IES-7. Ans. (b) Strain Energy Stored

= = =

L
L 2 2 3 2 3
0
0
(Px) dx P x P L
2E 2EI 3 6EI

IES-8. Ans. (d)
IES-8a. Ans. (c)
IES-9. Ans. (b) Proof resilience
( )
( )
2
2
2
p 5
400
1 1
R . 0.4N/ mm
2 E 2 2 10
= = =

IES9a Ans. (b)
IES-10. Ans. (d) Toughness of material is the total area under stress-strain curve.
I AS
IAS-1. Ans. (c) Strain energy =
2
L L/ 2 L/ 2 2 2 2 3
0 0 0
M dx M dx 1 Wx W L
2 dx
2EI 2EI EI 2 96EI

= = =

Alternative method: In a funny way you may use Castigliones theorem,
U U
P W

= =

We know that
3
48
WL
EI
= for simply supported beam in concentrated load at mid span.
Then
U U
P W

= =

3
48
WL
EI
= or
3
48
WL
U U W
EI
= =

partially integrating with
respect to W we get
2 3
W L
U
96EI
=
IAS-2. Ans. (c)
IAS-3. Ans. (c)
4 3 4
2 2 2 2
0 0 3
L L L L
L L
M dx M dx M dx M dx
EI EI EI EI
= + +

3 4
2 2 2 2
0 0 3
3
2 2 2 3
0
2 By symmetry
( ) ( ) 4
2
3
L L L L
L L
L L
L
M dx M dx M dx M dx
EI EI EI EI
Px dx PL dx P L
EI EI EI

= + =

= + =

IAS-4. Ans. (a)
( )
2
2
2
2
1 1
2 2 2
l
E E
E L

= =

IAS-5. Ans. (d)
IAS-6. Ans. (b)
IAS-7. Ans. (c) Kinetic energy of the truck = strain energy of the spring

3
2
2
2 2
150 10
2
9.81 1 1 mv
mv kx or x 0.2766m 27.66cm
10 1000 2 2 k
0.0125

= = = = =


Q. A close coiled helical spring made of wire diameter d has mean coil radius R, number of
turns n and modulus of rigidity G. The spring is subjected to an axial compression W.
(1) Write the expression for the stiffness of the spring.
(2) What is the magnitude of the maximum shear stress induced in the spring wire
neglecting the curvature effect? [2 Marks]
Ans. (1) Spring stiffness, K =
(2) Maximum shear stress,

Q. A semicircular steel ring of mean radius 300 mm is suspended vertically with the top end
fixed as shown in the above figure and carries a vertical load of 200 N at the lowest
point.
Calculate the vertical deflection of the lower end if the ring is of rectangular cross-
section 20 mm thick and 30 mm wide.
Value of Elastic modulus is
5 2
2 10 N/mm .
Influence of circumferential and shearing forces may be neglected.
[10 Marks]

Ans. Load applied, F = 200 N
Mean Radius, R = 300 mm
Elastic modules, E =
5 2
2 10 N/mm
I = Inertia of moment of cross section

3
bd
I b = 20 mm
12
=

( )
3
4
d = 30 mm
20 30
= = 45,000 mm
12

Influence of circumferential and shearing force are neglected strain energy at the section.
4
3
W Gd
X
8nD
=
3
8WD
d
t =
t

( )
2
0
2 2 2
0
2
2
5
3
M Rd R
u = for 10
2 EI 4
M = F Rsin
M
= R sin
F
u F R sin FR
= = d
F EI 2 EI
200 300
FR
= =
2 EI 2 2 10 45000
3.14 10 mm.
t
t
u
>
u
c
u
c
c u
o u t
c
t
t
o

o =
}
}

Question: A simply supported beam is subjected to a single force P at a distance b from one of the
supports. Obtain the expression for the deflection under the load using Castigliano's
theorem. How do you calculate deflection at the mid-point of the beam?
Answer: Let load P acts at a distance b from the support B, and L be the total length of the
beam.

Re , ,
Re ,
A
B
Pb
action at A R and
L
Pa
action at A R
L
=
=

Strain energy stored by beam AB,
U = Strain energy stored by AC (U AC) + strain energy stored by BC (U BC)
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2 3 2 2 3
2 2
0 0
2
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2
2 2
2 2
. .
2 2 6 6
)
6 6 6
2
Deflect ion under t he load ,
6 3
a b
Pb dx Pa dx P b a P b a
x x
L EI L EI EIL EIL
P L b b
P b a P b a
a b a b L
EIL EIL EIL
P L b b P L b b
U
P y
P EIL EIL
o
| | | |
= + = +
| |
\ . \ .
( = + = = + =

c
= = = =
c
} }

Deflection at the mid-span of the beam can be found by Macaulay's method.
By Macaulay's method, deflection at any section is given by

( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
3
3
2 2
3
3
2 2
3 2 2
2
2 2 2
6 6 6
Wher e y is deflect ion at any dist ance x fr om t he suppor t .
At , , . at mid-span,
2
/ 2
2
6 6 2 6
2
or ,
48 12 48
4
48
P x a
Pbx Pb
EIy L b x
L L
L
x i e
L
P a
Pb L
Pb L
EIy L b
L L
Pb L b
P L a
PbL
EIy
P
y bL b L b L
EI
=
=
| |
\ .
=

=
= ( )
3
2a
(


15. Theor i es of Fai l ur e
1. Introduction
Failure: Every material has certain strength, expressed in terms of stress or strain, beyond
which it fractures or fails to carry the load.
Failure Criterion: A criterion used to hypothesize the failure.
Failure Theory: A Theory behind a failure criterion.

Why Need Failure Theories?
To design structural components and calculate margin of safety.
To guide in materials development.
To determine weak and strong directions.

Failure Mode
Yielding: a process of global permanent plastic deformation. Change in the geometry of the
object.
Low stiffness: excessive elastic deflection.
Fracture: a process in which cracks grow to the extent that the component breaks apart.
Buckling: the loss of stable equilibrium. Compressive loading can lead to bucking in
columns.
Creep: a high-temperature effect. Load carrying capacity drops.

Failure Modes:
Excessive elastic
deformation
Yielding Fracture
1. Stretch, twist, or
bending
2. Buckling

3. Vibration
Plastic deformation at room
temperature
Creep at elevated
temperatures
Yield stress is the important
design factor
Sudden fracture of brittle
materials
Fatigue (progressive
fracture)
Stress rupture at elevated
temperatures
Ultimate stress is the
important design factor
2. Maximum Principal Stress Theory
(W. Rankins Theory- 1850) Brittle Material
The maximum principal stress criterion:
Chapter-

Ra
la
th
Cr
pr
Cr
sa
Th
be
U
Li
G
3. Maxi
(Guest
The Tres
Al
Yi
si
-15
ankin stated
argest princi
he onset of fr
rack will st
rincipal stre
riterion has
ame in comp
Failu
his theory o
een used suc
sed to descr
imitations
o Doesn
o Doesn
mater
eneralizatio
mum She
s or Tres
sca Criterio
lso known a
ielding will
mple tension
d max princ
ipal stress e
racture, |1
tart at the
ess at that po
s good exper
pression and
ure surface
of yielding h
ccessfully for
ribe fracture

nt distinguis
nt depend o
rials
on to 3-D str
ear Stress
scas The
on:
s the Maxim
occur when
n test.
Theo
ipal stress t
xceeds the u
| = u OR |
most highly
oint reaches
rimental ver
d tension
according
has very poo
r brittle mat
of brittle m
sh between
on orientati
ess case is e
s or Stres
ory-1868
mum Shear S
the maximu
ories of Fa
theory as fol
ultimate str
3| = u
y stressed p
s u
rification, e
g to maximu

or agreemen
terials.
materials su
tension or co
ion of princ
easy:
ss differe
)- Ductile
Stress criter
um shear st
ailure
llows- a mat
rength u in
point in a b
ven though
um princip
nt with expe
uch as cast i
ompression
cipal planes
ence theo
e Material
rion.
tress reache
terial fails by
a simple te
rittle mater
it assumes

pal stress th
riment. How
iron

s so only ap

ory

s that which
S K
y fracturing
nsion test. T
rial when th
s ultimate s
heory
wever, the t
pplicable to
h caused yie
Mondals
g when the
That is, at
he largest
trength is
theory has
o isotropic
elding in a
C

4
T
T
e
th
e
U
5
V
Chapter-15
Reca
princ
maxi
If
1
Failu
stres
This
4. Strain E
The theory
This theory i
nergy absor
he stress sy
nergy at the
2
1
1
2
U
E
= +
2 2 2
1 2 3
+ +
2 2
1 2
2 +
5. Shear S
Theory
Von-Mises C
Also
Base
ll that yield
cipal stresse
imum shear
2 3
> > T
ure by slip (
s
f
as deter
theory gives
Failur
Energy Th
associated
is based on
rbed by the m
stem causin
e elastic limi
2 2
2 3
+ +
(
2
3 1 2
2
2
1 2 y
=
Strain En
y or Von-M
Criterion:
known as th
d on a more
ding of a m
es. This sho
stress in th
Then
1

(yielding) oc
rmined in a
s satisfactory
re surface a
heory (Ha
d with Haig
the assump
material at f
ng it. The str
it in simple
(
1 2
2 +
2 3 3
+ +
For 2
nergy The
Misses T
he Maximum
complex vie
Theorie
material occu
ould indicate
e material r
3 y
=
ccurs when t
uniaxial ten
ry result for
according t
aighs Th
gh
ption that st
failure up to
rain energy
tension.
2 3 3 1
+
)
2
3 1 y
=
2D- stress
eory (Dist
heory)-Du
m Energy of
ew of the rol
es of Failu
urred by slip
e to you tha
rather than t
the maximu
nsion test.
ductile ma

to maximu
eory)
trains are re
o this point
per unit vol
)
2
2
y
E

For 3
tortion En
uctile Ma
Distortion c
le of the prin
re
ppage betwe
at yielding
the maximu
um shearing
aterial.

um shear st
ecoverable u
is a single v
lume causin
3D- stress
nergy The
aterial
criterion
ncipal stress
een planes
of a materi
um normal s
g stress,
ma
tress theory
up to the ela
valued funct
ng failure is
eory or M
s differences
S K Mo
oriented at
al depends
tress.
x
exceeds th

y
astic limit, a
ion indepen
equal to the
Mises-Hen
s.
ondals
45 to
on the
he yield
and the
ndent of
e strain
nky
Chapter-

In
co
W
Fo

It

In
so
an
Th
th
on
It
6. Maxi
According
strain at
and minim
-15
n simple term
ontributing t
When the crit
or a state of
2
1

is often con
e
=
e
or
n formulatin
o the theory
nisotropic m
he von Mise
here is little
n or between
gives very g
mum Prin
g to this the
the tensile
mum princip
ms, the von
to the chara
terion is app
f plane stres
1 2 2
+
nvenient to e
1 2
1
(
2

1
(
2
x
ng this failur
y given is
materials.
es theory is
difference i
n these two t
good result i
ncipal Str
eory, yieldin
yield point
pal strains c
Theo
Mises criter
cterization o
plied, its rela
s (
3
=0)
2 2
2 y
=

express this
2
2 2
) ( +
2
) (
y y
+
re theory we
only applic
a little less
in their pred
theories.
in ductile m
rain Theo
ng will occur
in either sim
correspondin
ories of Fa
rion consider
of yield onse
ationship to
as an equiv
2
3 3
) ( +
2
) (
z x
+
e used gene
cable to tho
s conservativ
dictions of fa
material.
ory (St. Ve
r when the
mple tension
ng to 1 and

ailure
rs the diame
et in isotropi
the uniaxia

alent stress
1/ 2
2
1
)

2
) 6
x z
+
ralized Hoo
ose materia
ve than the
ailure. Most
enant The
maximum
n or compre
2, in the lim
eters of all t
ic materials
al tensile yie
, e:
2 2
6(
xy yz
+ +
ke's law for
ls but it ca
Tresca theo
t experiment

eory)
principal st
ession. If 1
miting case
S K
three Mohrs
.
ld strength
1/ 2
2
)
zx

an isotropic
an be gene
ory but in m
tal results te
train just ex
and 2 are
Mondals
s circles as
is:
c material
ralized to
most cases
end to fall
xceeds the
maximum
C

7
M
H
c
8
A
s
Chapter-15
7. Mohrs
Mohrs Theo
Mohr
tensi
In M
state
one w
Point
minim
Expe
failur
simp
enve
Mohr
Higher shear
ompression
8. Compa
A comparison
hown in figu
theory- B
ory
rs theory is
ion and comp
ohrs circle,
es of stress o
with maximu
ts on the o
mum princip
eriments are
re. Each sta
le compress
elope (AB &
rs envelope
r stresses ar

rison
n among the
ure
Brittle Ma
s used to pr
pression. Cr
we note tha
on planes wi
um , point
outer circle
pal stresses
e done on a
ate defines
ion, and pur
AB)
thus repres
re to the lef
e different f
Theorie
aterial
redict the fr
riterion mak
at depends
th same b
t P.
are the we
are sufficien
given mate
a Mohrs ci
re shear, th
ents the locu
ft of origin,
failure theor
es of Failu
fracture of a
kes use of Mo
on , or =
ut differing
eakest plan
nt to decide
erial to dete
ircle. If the
e three resu
us of all pos
since most
ries can be m
re
a material h
ohrs circle
= f(). Note t
, which m
es. On thes
whether or
ermine the
e data are o
ulting circles
sible failure
brittle mate
made by sup

having diffe
the vertical
means the we
se planes th
not failure w
states of str
obtained fro
s are adequa
e states.
erials have
perposing th
S K Mo
erent proper
line PC repr
eakest plane
he maximu
will occur.
ress that re
om simple t
ate to constr

higher stren
he yield surfa
ondals
rties in
resents
e is the
um and
esult in
ension,
ruct an

ngth in
faces as
Chapter-

-15

Theoories of Fa ailure S K Mondals

Chapter-15 Theories of Failure S K Mondals


Maximum Shear stress or Stress Difference Theory
GATE-1. Match 4 correct pairs between list I and List II for the questions [GATE-1994]
List-I List-II
(a) Hooke's law 1. Planetary motion
(b) St. Venant's law 2. Conservation Energy
(c) Kepler's laws 3. Elasticity
(d) Tresca's criterion 4. Plasticity
(e) Coulomb's laws 5. Fracture
(f) Griffith's law 6. Inertia

GATE-2. Which theory of failure will you use for aluminium components under steady loading?[GATE-1999]
(a) Principal stress theory (b) Principal strain theory
(c) Strain energy theory (d) Maximum shear stress theory
Shear Strain Energy Theory (Distortion energy theory)
GATE-3. According to Von-Mises' distortion energy theory, the distortion energy under three
dimensional stress state is represented by [GATE-2006]

GATE-4. A small element at the critical section of a component is in a bi-axial state of stress with
the two principal stresses being 360 MPa and 140 MPa. The maximum working stress
according to Distortion Energy Theory is:
[GATE-1997]

GATE-5. The homogeneous state of stress for a metal part undergoing plastic deformation is
10 5 0
5 20 0
0 0 10
T
| |
|
=
|
|
\ .

where the stress component values are in MPa. Using von Mises yield criterion, the value of
estimated shear yield stress, in MPa is
(a) 9.50 (b) 16.07 (c) 28.52 (d) 49.41 [GATE-2012]

GATE-6. Match the following criteria of material failure, under biaxial stresses
1
o and
2
o and
yield stress ,
y
o with their corresponding graphic representations:
[GATE-2011]


P. Maximum-normal-stress criterion L.

Q. Minimum-distortion-energy criterion M.

R. Maximum shear-stress criterion N.

(a) P M, Q L, R N (b) P N, Q M, R L
(c) P M, Q N, R L (d) P N, Q L, R M
Maximum Principal Stress Theory
IES-1. Match List-I (Theory of Failure) with List-II (Predicted Ratio of Shear Stress to Direct
Stress at Yield Condition for Steel Specimen) and select the correct answer using the
code given below the Lists: [IES-2006]
List-I List-II
A. Maximum shear stress theory 1. 10
B. Maximum distortion energy theory 2. 0577
C. Maximum principal stress theory 3. 062
D. Maximum principal strain theory 4. 050
(a) 1 2 4 3 (b) 4 3 1 2
(c) 1 3 4 2 (d) 4 2 1 3

IES-2. From a tension test, the yield strength of steel is found to be 200 N/mm
2
. Using a factor
of safety of 2 and applying maximum principal stress theory of failure, the permissible
stress in the steel shaft subjected to torque will be: [IES-2000]
(a) 50 N/mm
2
(b) 57.7 N/mm
2
(c) 86.6. N/mm
2
(d) 100 N/mm
2

IES-3. A circular solid shaft is subjected to a bending moment of 400 kNm and a twisting
moment of 300 kNm. On the basis of the maximum principal stress theory, the direct
stress is and according to the maximum shear stress theory, the shear stress is t . The
ratio / t is: [IES-2000]
o
2
o
y
o
y
o
y
o
y
o
1
o
2
o
y
o
y
o
y
o
y
o
1
o
2
o
y
o
y
o
y
o
y
o
1

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 3 9 11
a b c d
5 9 5 6

IES-4. A transmission shaft subjected to bending loads must be designed on the basis of[IES-1996]
(a) Maximum normal stress theory
(b) Maximum shear stress theory
(c) Maximum normal stress and maximum shear stress theories
(d) Fatigue strength

IES-5. Design of shafts made of brittle materials is based on [IES-1993]
(a) Guest's theory (b) Rankines theory (c) St. Venant's theory (d) Von Mises theory

IES-5a Assertion (A): A cast iron specimen shall fail due to shear when subjected to a
compressive load. [IES-2010]
Reason (R): Shear strength of cast iron in compression is more than half its compressive
strength.
Maximum Shear stress or Stress Difference Theory
IES-6. Which one of the following figures represents the maximum shear stress theory or
Tresca criterion? [IES-1999]

IES-7. According to the maximum shear stress theory of failure, permissible twisting moment
in a circular shaft is 'T'. The permissible twisting moment will the same shaft as per the
maximum principal stress theory of failure will be:
[IES-1998: ISRO-2008]
(a) T/2 (b) T (c) 2T (d) 2T

IES-8. Permissible bending moment in a circular shaft under pure bending is M according to
maximum principal stress theory of failure. According to maximum shear stress theory
of failure, the permissible bending moment in the same shaft is: [IES-1995]
(a) 1/2 M (b) M (c) 2 M (d) 2M

IES-9. A rod having cross-sectional area 100 x 10
- 6
m
2
is subjected to a tensile load. Based on
the Tresca failure criterion, if the uniaxial yield stress of the material is 200 MPa, the
failure load is: [IES-2001]
(a) 10 kN (b) 20 kN (c) 100 kN (d) 200 kN

IES-10. A cold roller steel shaft is designed on the basis of maximum shear stress theory. The
principal stresses induced at its critical section are 60 MPa and - 60 MPa respectively. If
the yield stress for the shaft material is 360 MPa, the factor of safety of the design is:[IES-2002]
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 6

IES-11. A shaft is subjected to a maximum bending stress of 80 N/mm
2
and maximum shearing
stress equal to 30 N/mm
2
at a particular section. If the yield point in tension of the
material is 280 N/mm
2
, and the maximum shear stress theory of failure is used, then the
factor of safety obtained will be: [IES-1994]
(a) 2.5 (b) 2.8 (c) 3.0 (d) 3.5


IES-12. For a two-dimensional state stress (
1 2 1 2
, 0, 0 o o o o > > < ) the designed values are
most conservative if which one of the following failure theories were used?
[IES-1998]
(a) Maximum principal strain theory (b) Maximum distortion energy theory
(c) Maximum shear stress theory (d) Maximum principal stress theory
IES-13. Who postulated the maximum distortion energy theory? [IES-2008]
(a) Tresca (b) Rankine (c) St. Venant (d) Mises-Henky

IES-14. Who postulated the maximum distortion energy theory? [IES-2008]
(a) Tresca (b) Rankine (c) St. Venant (d) Mises-Henky

IES-15. The maximum distortion energy theory of failure is suitable to predict the failure of
which one of the following types of materials? [IES-2004]
(a) Brittle materials (b) Ductile materials (c) Plastics (d) Composite materials

IES-16. If y is the yield strength of a particular material, then the distortion energy theory is
expressed as [IES-1994]
(a)
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
2
1 2 2 3 3 1
2
y
o o o o o o o + + =
(b)
( )
2 2 2 2
1 2 3 1 2 2 3 3 1
2 ( )
y
o o o o o o o o o o + + + =
(c)
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
2
1 2 2 3 3 1
3
y
o o o o o o o + + =
(d)
( )( ) ( )
2
2
1 2 3
1 2 2 1
y
o o o o + + = +

IES-17. If a shaft made from ductile material is subjected to combined bending and twisting
moments, calculations based on which one of the following failure theories would give the
most conservative value? [IES-1996]
(a) Maximum principal stress theory (b) Maximum shear stress theory.
(d Maximum strain energy theory (d) Maximum distortion energy theory.
Maximum Principal Strain Theory
IES-18. Match List-I (Failure theories) with List-II (Figures representing boundaries of these
theories) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists: [IES-1997]
List-I List-II
A. Maximum principal stress
theory

B. Maximum shear stress theory

C. Maximum octahedral stress
theory


D. Maximum shear strain
energy theory

(a) 2 1 3 4 (b) 2 4 3 1
(c) 4 2 3 1 (d) 2 4 1 3
Maximum Principal Stress Theory
IAS-1. For
1 2
o o = and 3 = 0, what is the physical boundary for Rankine failure theory?[IAS-2004]
(a) A rectangle (b) An ellipse (c) A square (d) A parabola

1. Experiments have shown that the distortion-energy theory gives an accurate
prediction about failure of a ductile component than any other theory of failure.
2. According to the distortion-energy theory, the yield strength in shear is less than the
yield strength in tension.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

1. Distortion-energy theory is in better agreement for predicting the failure of ductile
materials.
2. Maximum normal stress theory gives good prediction for the failure of brittle
materials.
3. Module of elasticity in tension and compression are assumed to be different stress
analysis of curved beams.
Which of these statements is/are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 only (d) 1 and 3

IAS-4. Which one of the following graphs represents Mises yield criterion? [IAS-1996]

Maximum Principal Strain Theory
IAS-5. Given that the principal stresses
1 2 3
o o o > > and e is the elastic limit stress in simple
tension; which one of the following must be satisfied such that the elastic failure does not
occur in accordance with the maximum principal strain theory? [IAS-2004]
(a)
3 1 2 e
E E E E
o o o o

| |
<
|
\ .
(b)
3 1 2 e
E E E E
o o o o

| |
>
|
\ .


(c)
3 1 2 e
E E E E
o o o o

| |
> + +
|
\ .
(d)
3 1 2 e
E E E E
o o o o

| |
< +
|
\ .

OBJECTIVE ANSWERS
GATE-1. Ans. (a) - 3, (c) -1, (d) -5, (e) -2
St. Venant's law: Maximum principal strain theory
GATE-2. Ans. (d) Aluminium is a ductile material so use maximum shear stress theory
GATE-3. Ans. (c)

( ) ( ) ( )
{ }
2 2 2
s 1 2 2 3 3 1
1
V Where E 2G(1 ) simplifyand get result.
12G
o o o o o o = + + = +
GATE-4. Ans. (c) According to distortion energy theory if maximum stress (t) then

2 2 2
t 1 2 1 2
2 2 2
t
t
or
or 360 140 360 140
or 314 MPa
o o o o o
o
o
= +
= +
=

GATE-5. Ans. (b)

( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
{ }
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
{ }
( )
2 2
2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2
We knowthat equivalent stress
1
6
2
1
10 20 20 10 10 20 6 5 0 0
2
27.84
27.84
ThereforeYieldshear stress 16.07
3 3 3
e
x y y z z x xy yz zx
y
e
y
MPa
MPa
o
o o o o o o t t t
o
o
t
= + + + + +
= + + + + +
=
= = = =

GATE-6. Ans. (c)
IES-1. Ans. (d)
IES-2. Ans. (d) For pure shear
x
t s =
IES-3. Ans. (c)
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
3 3
16 16
M M T and M T
d d
o t
t t
= + + = +

2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
M M T 4 4 3 9
Therefore
5
M T 4 3
o
t
+ + + +
= = =
+ +

IES-4. Ans. (a)
IES-5. Ans. (b) Rankine's theory or maximum principle stress theory is most commonly used for
brittle materials.
IES-5a Ans. (d) A cast iron specimen shall fail due to crushing when subjected to a compressive
load.
A cast iron specimen shall fail due to tension when subjected to a tensile load.
IES-6. Ans. (b)
IES-7. Ans. (d)
yt
3
16T
Given principal stressesfor only thisshear stressare
2 d
o
t
t
= =

( )
o t t
o o o
t
= =
= =
2
1,2
1 2 yt 3
maximum principal stress theory of failuregives
16 2T
max[ , ]
d

IES-8. Ans. (b)
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
3 3
16 16
M M T and M T
d d
o t
t t
= + + = + put T = 0

3
yt
yt 3 3 3
32M
32M 16M 16M d
or and ThereforeM M
2 2 d d d
o
t
o t
t t t
| |
|
'
\ .
' = = = = = =

IES-9. Ans. (b) Tresca failure criterion is maximum shear stress theory.

yt
max
P sin2 P
Weknowthat, or
A 2 2A 2
o
u
t t = = = or
yt
P A s =
IES-10. Ans. (b)
IES-11. Ans. (b) Maximum shear stress =
2
2 2
80 0
30 50 N/mm
2
| |
+ =
|
\ .

According to maximum shear stress theory,
280
; . . 2.8
2 2 50
y
F S
o
t = = =

IES-12. Ans. (c)

Graphical comparison of different failure theories
Above diagram shows that
1 2
0, 0 o o > < will occur at 4
th
quadrant and most
conservative design will be maximum shear stress theory.
IES-13. Ans. (d)
IES-14. Ans. (d)
Maximum shear stress theory Tresca
Maximum principal stress theory Rankine
Maximum principal strain theory St. Venant
Maximum shear strain energy theory Mises Henky
IES-15. Ans. (b)
IES-16. Ans. (a)
IES-17. Ans. (b)

IES-18. Ans. (d)

IAS
IAS-1. Ans. (c) Rankine failure theory or
Maximum principle stress theory.

IAS-2. Ans. (c) 0.577
3
y
y y
o
t o = =
IAS-3. Ans. (b)
IAS-4. Ans. (d)
IAS-5. Ans. (b) Strain at yield point>principal strain

3 1 2 e
E E E E
o o o o
>

Q. The stress state at a point in a body is plane with

2 2
1 2
60 N / mm & 36 N / mm = =
If the allowable stress for the material in simple tension or compression is 100
N/mm
2
calculate the value of factor of safety with each of the following criteria for failure
(i) Max Stress Criteria
(ii) Max Shear Stress Criteria
(iii) Max strain criteria
(iv) Max Distortion energy criteria [10 Marks]

Ans. The stress at a point in a body is plane

Allowable stress for the material in simple tension or compression is 100 N/mm
2

Find out factor of safety for
(i) Maximum stress Criteria : - In this failure point occurs when max principal stress reaches
the limiting strength of material.
Therefore. Let F.S factor of safety

( )
1
2
2
allowable
F.S
100 N / mm
F.S 1.67 Ans.
60 N / mm
o
o =
= =

(ii) Maximum Shear stress criteria : - According to this failure point occurs at a point in a
member when maximum shear stress reaches to shear at yield point
2 2
1 2
60 N / mm 36 N / mm o = o =

= =
+
= = = =
=
= = =
=
yt 2
max yt
2 1 2
max
100 N/ mm
2 F.S
60 36 96
48 N/ mm
2 2 2
100
48
2 F.S
100 100
F.S 1.042
2 48 96
F.S 1.042 Ans.

(iii) Maximum Strain Criteria ! In this failure point occurs at a point in a member when
maximum strain in a bi axial stress system reaches the limiting value of strain (i.e
strain at yield point)

( )
2
2 2 allowable
1 2 1 2

2
FOS
FOS 1.27
0.3assume

+ =

=
=

(iv) Maximum Distortion energy criteria ! In this failure point occurs at a point in a
member when distortion strain energy per unit volume in a bi axial system reaches the
limiting distortion strain energy at the of yield

( )
2
yt 2 2
1 2 1 2
2
2
2
F.S
100
60 36 60 36
F.S
F.S 1.19

+ =

+ =

=

Question: A mild steel shaft of 50 mm diameter is subjected to a beading moment of 1.5
kNm and torque T. If the yield point of steel in tension is 210 MPa, find the
maximum value of the torque without causing yielding of the shaft material
according to
(i) Maximum principal stress theory
(ii) Maximum shear stress theory.
Answer:
b 3
32
We know that, Maximum bending stress ( )
M
d
=

3
16
and Maximum shear stress ( )
T
d
=

2
2 2 2
1,2 3
Principal stresses are given by:
16
2 2
b b
M M T
d

= + = +

( )
2 2 6
3
( ) According to Maximum principal stress theory
Maximum principal stress=Maximum stress at elastic limit
16
210 10
y
i
or M M T
d

+ + =


( )
2 2 6
3
16
or 1500 1500 210 10
0.050
T = 3332 Nm = 3.332 kNm
T
or

+ + =

1 2
1 2
max
2 2 6
3
( ) According to Maximum shear stress theory
2 2
,
16
, 2 210 10
d
, T = 2096 N m = 2.096 kNm
y
y
ii
or
or M T
or

= =
=
+ =

Question: Illustrate the graphical comparison of following theories of failures for two-
dimensional stress system:
(i) Maximum normal stress theory
(ii) Maximum shear stress theory
(iii) Distortion energy theory
Answer:

Question: State the Von- Mises's theory. Also give the naturally expression.
Answer: According to this theory yielding would occur when total distortion energy absorbed
per unit volume due to applied loads exceeds the distortion energy absorbed per unit
volume at the tensile yield point. The failure criterion is

( ) ( ) ( )
y

2 2 2
2
1 2 2 3 3 1
2
[symbols has usual meaning]
+ + =

Question: Derive an expression for the distortion energy per unit volume for a body
subjected to a uniform stress state, given by the
1 2
and with the third
principal stress
3
being zero.
volume at the tensile yield point. Total strain energy ET and strain energy for volume
change EV can be given as

( )
2 2 6
3
16
or 1500 1500 210 10
0.050
T = 3332 Nm = 3.332 kNm
T
or

+ + =

1 2
1 2
max
2 2 6
3
( ) According to Maximum shear stress theory
2 2
,
16
, 2 210 10
d
, T = 2096 N m = 2.096 kNm
y
y
ii
or
or M T
or

= =
=
+ =

Question: Illustrate the graphical comparison of following theories of failures for two-
dimensional stress system:
(i) Maximum normal stress theory
(ii) Maximum shear stress theory
(iii) Distortion energy theory
Answer:

Question: State the Von- Mises's theory. Also give the naturally expression.
volume at the tensile yield point. The failure criterion is

( ) ( ) ( )
y

2 2 2
2
1 2 2 3 3 1
2
[symbols has usual meaning]
+ + =

Question: Derive an expression for the distortion energy per unit volume for a body
subjected to a uniform stress state, given by the
1 2
and with the third
principal stress
3
being zero.
volume at the tensile yield point. Total strain energy ET and strain energy for volume
change EV can be given as

Substituting strains in terms of stresses the distortion energy can be given as

At the tensile yield point, 1 = y , 2 = 3 = 0 which gives

The failure criterion is thus obtained by equating Ed and Edy , which gives

In a 2-D situation if 3 = 0, the criterion reduces to

Question: A cube of 5mm side is loaded as shown in figure below.
(i) Determine the principal stresses
1 2 3
, , .
(ii) Will the cube yield if the yield strength of the material is 70 MPa? Use Von-
Mises theory.
Answer: Yield strength of the material
et
s = 70 MPa = 70 MN/m
2
or 70 N/mm
2
.


( )
( )
( ) ( )
1 2 3
2 2
2 2
2
2
2
2 2
2
1
i Principal stress , , :
2000 1000
80 N/mm ; 40 N/mm
5 5 5 5
500 800
20 N/mm ; 32 N/mm
5 5 5 5
80 40 80 40
32
2 2 2 2
60 20 32 97.74, 22.26
97.74N/mm , or 9
x y
z xy
x y x y
xy

= = = =

= = = =

+
+

= + = +

= + =
=
2
2
2
3
7.74 MPa
and 22.96N/mm or 22.96 MPa
20N/mm or 22 MPa
z

=
= =

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
2 2 2
2
1 2 2 3 3 1
2 2 2
1 2 2 3 3 1
2 2 2
2
2
ii Will thecube yieldor not?
According to Von-Mises yield criteria, yielding will occur if
2
Now
97.74 22.96 22.96 20 20 97.74
11745.8
and, 2 2 70 9800
yt
yt
i
ii

+ +
+ +
= + +
=
= =

Since 11745.8 > 9800 so yielding will occur.

Question: A thin-walled circular tube of wall thickness t and mean radius r is subjected
to an axial load P and torque T in a combined tension-torsion experiment.
(i) Determine the state of stress existing in the tube in terms of P and T.
(ii) Using Von-Mises - Henky failure criteria show that failure takes place
when
2 2
0 0
3 , ,
.
where is the yield stress in uniaxial tension
and are respectively the axial and torsional stresses in the tube

+ =

Answer: Mean radius of the tube = r,
Wall thickness of the tube = t,
Axial load = P, and
Torque = T.
(i) The state of stress in the tube:
Due to axial load, the axial stress in the tube
2
P
x
rt
=
Due to torque, shear stress,
( )
{ }
3 3
4
4 3 2
3
2 2
2 -neglecting t higher power of t.
2
The state of stress in the tube is, , 0,
2 2
xy
x y xy
Tr Tr T
J r t r t
J r t r r t
P T
rt r t

= = =
= + =
= = =

(ii) Von Mises-Henky failure in tension for 2-dimensional stress is

2 2 2
0 1 2 1 2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2 2
2 2
x y x y
xy
x y x y
xy

= +

+

= + +

+

= +

( )
2
2
1
2
2
2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
0
In this case, , and
2 4
0
2 4
2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4
x x
xy
x x
xy y
x x x x x x x x
xy xy xy xy

= + +
= + =

= + + + + + + +

2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2
2
2 2
2 2
0
2. . 2. .
4 4 2 4 4 4 2 4
4 4
3
3
x x x x x x x x
xy xy xy xy
x x
xy
x xy
x xy

= + + + + + + + + +

= +
= +

Question: Find the maximum principal stress developed in a cylindrical shaft. 8 cm in
diameter and subjected to a bending moment of 2.5 kNm and a twisting
moment of 4.2 kNm. If the yield stress of the shaft material is 300 MPa.
Determine the factor of safety of the shaft according to the maximum
shearing stress theory of failure.
Answer: Given: d = 8 cm = 0.08 m; M = 2.5 kNm = 2500 Nm; T = 4.2 kNm = 4200 Nm

( )
( ) ( )
( )
2
2 2
2 2
3
6 2 2
max 3 3
2
300 300 MN/m
Equivalent torque, 2.5 4.2 4.888kNm
Maximum shear stress developed in the shaft,
16 16 4.888 10
10 MN/m 48.62MN/m
0.08
300
Permissible shear stress 150MN/m
2
Fact
yield yt
e
MPa
T M T
T
d

= =
= + = + =

= = =
= =
150
or of safety 3.085
48.62
= =


16. Riveted and Welded Joint

Chapter-16 Riveted and Welded Joint S K Mondals



Failure of riveted joint
GATE-1. Bolts in the flanged end of pressure vessel are usually pre-tensioned Indicate which of
the following statements is NOT TRUE? [GATE-1999]
(a) Pre-tensioning helps to seal the pressure vessel
(b) Pre-tensioning increases the fatigue life of the bolts
(c) Pre-tensioning reduces the maximum tensile stress in the bolts
(d) Pre-tensioning helps to reduce the effect of pressure pulsations in the pressure vessel

Statement for Linked Answers and Questions Q2 and Q3
A steel bar of 10 50 mm is cantilevered with two M 12 bolts (P and Q) to support a static load of 4
kN as shown in the figure.

GATE-2. The primary and secondary shear loads on bolt P, respectively, are:
[GATE-2008]
(A) 2 kN, 20 kN (B) 20 kN, 2kN (C) 20kN,0kN (D) 0kN, 20 kN

GATE-3. The resultant stress on bolt P is closest to [GATE-2008]
(A) 132 MPa (B) 159 MPa (C) 178 MPa (D) 195 MPa

GATE-4. A bolted joint is shown below. The maximum shear stress, in MPa, in the bolts at A and
B, respectively are: [GATE-2007]

(a) 242.6, 42.5 (b) 425.5, 242.6 (c) 42.5, 42.5 (d) 242.6, 242.6

GATE-5. A bracket (shown in figure) is rigidly mounted on wall using four rivets. Each rivet is 6
mm in diameter and has an effective length of 12 mm. [GATE-2010]

Direct shear stress (in MPa) in the most heavily loaded rivet is:
(a) 4.4 (b) 8.8 (c) 17.6 (d) 35.2
Efficiency of a riveted joint
GATE-6. If the ratio of the diameter of rivet hole to the pitch of rivets is 0.25, then the tearing
efficiency of the joint is: [GATE-1996]
(a) 0.50 (b) 0.75 (c) 0.25 (d) 0.87

GATE-7. A manufacturer of rivets claims that the failure load in shear of his product is 500 25
N. This specification implies that [GATE-1992]
(a) No rivet is weaker than 475 N and stronger than 525 N
(b) The standard deviation of strength of random sample of rivets is 25 N
(c) There is an equal probability of failure strength to be either 475 Nor 525 N
(d) There is approximately two-to-one chance that the strength of a rivet lies between
475 N to 525 N

IES-1. An eccentrically loaded riveted
joint is shown with 4 rivets at P,
Q, R and S.
Which of the rivets are the most
loaded?
(a) P and Q
(b) Q and R
(c) Rand S
(d) Sand P

[IES-2002]

IES-2. A riveted joint has been designed to support an
eccentric load P. The load generates value of F1
equal to 4 kN and F2 equal to 3 kN. The cross-
sectional area of each rivet is 500 mm
2
.
Consider the following statements:
1. The stress in the rivet is 10 N / mm
2
2. The value of eccentricity L is 100 mm
3. The value of load P is 6 kN
4. The resultant force in each rivet is 6 kN
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 3

[IES-2003]

IES-3. If permissible stress in
plates of joint through a pin
as shown in the given
figure is 200 MPa, then the
width w will be
(a) 15 mm
(b) 18 mm
(c) 20 mm
(d) 25 mm

[IES-1999]

IES-4. For the bracket bolted as shown
in the figure, the bolts will
develop
(a) Primary tensile stresses and
secondary shear stresses
(b) Primary shear stresses and
secondary shear stresses
(c) Primary shear stresses and
secondary tensile stresses
(d) Primary tensile stresses and
secondary compressive
stresses

[IES-2000]

IES-5. Assertion (A): In pre-loaded bolted joints, there is a tendency for failure to occur in the
gross plate section rather than through holes. [IES-2000]
Reason (R): The effect of pre-loading is to create sufficient friction between the
assembled parts so that no slippage occurs.

IES-6. Two rigid plates are clamped by means of bolt and nut with an initial force N. After
tightening, a separating force P (P < N) is applied to the lower plate, which in turn acts
on nut. The tension in the bolt after this is: [IES-1996]
(a) (N + P) (b) (N P) (c) P (d) N
Efficiency of a riveted joint
IES-7. Which one of the following structural joints with 10 rivets and same size of plate and
material will be the most efficient? [IES-1994]

IES-8. The most efficient riveted joint possible is one which would be as strong in tension, shear
and bearing as the original plates to be joined. But this can never be achieved because:[IES-1993]
(a) Rivets cannot be made with the same material
(b) Rivets are weak in compression
(c) There should be at least one hole in the plate reducing its strength
(d) Clearance is present between the plate and the rivet
Advantages and disadvantages of welded joints
IES-9. Assertion (A): In a boiler shell with riveted construction, the longitudinal scam is, jointed
by butt joint. [IES-2001]
Reason (R): A butt joint is stronger than a lap joint in a riveted construction.

IAS-1. Two identical planks of wood
are connected by bolts at a
pitch distance of 20 cm. The
beam is subjected to a
bending moment of 12 kNm,
the shear force in the bolts
will be:
(a) Zero (b) 0.1 kN
(c) 0.2 kN (d) 4 kN

[IAS-2001]
IAS-1. Ans. (a)

IAS-2. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the code given below the
Lists: [IAS-2007]
List-I List-II
(Stress Induced) (Situation/ Location)
A. Membrane stress 1. Neutral axis of beam
B. Torsional shear stress 2. Closed coil helical spring under axial load
C. Double shear stress 3. Cylindrical shell subject to fluid pressure
D. Maximum shear stress 4. Rivets of double strap butt joint
(a) 3 1 4 2 (b) 4 2 3 1
(c) 3 2 4 1 (d) 4 1 3 2
IAS-2. Ans. (c)

OBJECTIVE ANSWERS
GATE-1. Ans. (c)
GATE-2. Ans. (a) Primary (Direct) Shear load = k
kN
2
2
4
= N
GATE-3. Ans. (b)
GATE-4. Ans. (a)
GATE-5. Ans. (b)

2
1000 250
250N and 8.8MPa
4
(6)
4
t
= = = = =
F
F z
A

GATE-6. Ans. (b)

GATE-7. Ans. (a)

IES
IES-1. Ans. (b)
IES-2. Ans. (d)

2
1 1 1
P = 2F = 2 x 3 = 6 kN
and P.L = = 2 F
or 6 2 4 8
8
or
6
+
= =
=
Fl Fl l
L l l
L
l

( ) ( )
2 2
1 2 1 2
2 2
Resultant force on rivet,
R = F +F +2FF cos
= 4 3 2 4 3cos
5kN
u + +
=

3
2
Shear stress on rivet,
R 510
= =10 N/mm
Area 500
=

IES-3. Ans. (a) (w 10) 2 10
-6
200 10
6
= 2000 N; or w = 15 mm.
IES-4. Ans. (a)
IES-5. Ans. (a)
IES-6. Ans. (a)
IES-7. Ans. (b)
IES-8. Ans. (c) Riveted joint can't be as strong as original plates, because there should be at least one
hole in the plate reducing its strength.
IES-9. Ans. (c)
IAS-1. Ans. (a)
IAS-2. Ans. (c)


Question: The longitudinal joint of a thin cylindrical pressure vessel, 6 m internal diameter and
16 mm plate thickness, is double riveted lap point with no staggering between the
rows. The rivets are of 20 mm nominal (diameter with a pitch of 72 mm. What is the
efficiency of the joint and what would be the safe pressure inside the vessel? Allowable
stresses for the plate and rivet materials are; 145 MN/m
2
in shear and 230 MN/m
2
in
bearing. Take rivet hole diameter as 1.5 mm more than the rivet diameter.
Answer: Given: Diameter of rivet = 20 mm
Diameter of hole = 20 + 1.5 = 21.5 mm
Diameter the pressure vessel, d = 6 m
Thickness of the plate, t = 16 mm
Type of the joint: Double riveted lap joint
Allowable stresses:

( )
2 2 2
1
2
145 / ; 120 / ; 230 /
72 2 21.5
16
St r engt h of plat e in t ear ing/pit ch, 145
1000 1000
0.06728
20
St r engt h of r iver t in t ear ing/pit ch, 2 120
4 1000
0.0754
St r engt h of plat e in cr ushin
c
t
s
MN m MN m MN m
R
MN
R
MN
o t o
t
= = =
(
=
(
(

=
| |
=
|
\ .
=
20 16
g/pit ch, 2 230
1000 1000
0.1472 MN
s
R
| |
=
|
\ .
=

From the above three modes of failure it can be seen that the weakest element is the
plate as it will have tear failure at 0.06728 MN/pitch load itself.
Stresses acting on the plate for an inside pressure of pN/m
2
is shown in figure.

( )
( )
( )
6
Hoop st r ess 187.5
2 2 0.016
6
Longit udinal st r ess 93.75
4 4 0.016
Maximum pr incipal st r ess act ing on t he plat e
2
only , .187.5 as t her e is no shear st r ess.
pd p
p
t
pd p
p
t
pd
t
i e p
= = =
= = =
=


( )
( )
( ) ( )
2
int
0.06728
or 187.5 145
72 2 21.5
0.016
1000
or 0.7733 / 0.7733
0.06728
0.4028 40.28%
. . 0.072 0.016 145
t
jo
t
p
p MN m or MPa
R
p t
q
o
s s
(
(

s
= = = =

Question: Determine the shaft diameter and bolt size for a marine flange-coupling transmitting
3.75 MW at 150 r.p.m. The allowable shear stress in the shaft and bolts may be taken
as 50 MPa. The number of bolts may be taken as 10 and bolt pitch circle diameter as
1.6 times the shaft diameter.
Answer: Given, P = 3.75MW; N = 150 r.p.m.;

6
6
3
6 3
6
50 ; 10, 1.6
Shaft diamet er , :
2
60
2 150
3.78 10
60
3.75 10 60
or 238732 Nm
2 150
Also,
16
or 238732 50 10
16
238732 16
0.28 290 mm
50 10
Bolt size, :
Bolt pit ch cir cl
s b b
s
b
MPa n D D
D
NT
P
T
E
T
T D
D
D m or
d
t t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
= = = =
=

=

= =
=
=
| |
= =
|

\ .
2
2 6
e diamet er , 1.6 1.6 0.29 0.464 m
Now,
4 2
0.464
or 238732 10 50 10
4 2
or 0.0512 m or 51.2 mm
b
b
b b
b
b
D D
D
T n d
d
d
t
t
t
= = =
| |
=
|
\ .
| |
=
|
\ .
=


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For 2013 ( I ES, GATE & PSUs)

- The resultant of the internal forces for an axially loaded member is

= , is chiefly influenced by uniform elongation, which is dependent on the

(b) Shear stress,

The number of elastic constant is 36 (For anisotropic materials)

What is the maximum shear strain

For 2013 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 108 of 431

For 2013 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 131 of 431

(i.e. S.F. variation is linear)

= = = But not in choice. Nearest choice (a)

We know that differential equation of elastic line

Maximum deflection at mid span (x = L/2)

(ix) A simply supported beam with a continuously distributed load the

For 2013 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 217 of 431

For 2013 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 218 of 431

For 2013 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 304 of 431

For 2013 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 312 of 431

Where, t1= wall thickness of cylindrical portion

= [GAIL exam 2004]

b = a constant, d = least diameter or breadth of bar

= A value obtained from above Secant formula

. Assume uniform heating of the bar.

For 2013 (IES, GATE & PSUs) Page 390 of 431

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