What is the difference between oracle, sql and sql server ? Oracle is based on RDBMS.

SQL is Structured Query Language. SQL Server is another tool for RDBMS provided by MicroSoft. Why you need indexing? where that is Stored and what you mean by schema object? For what purpose we are using view? We can't create an Index on Index.. Index is stoed in user_index table. Every object that has been created on Schema is Schema Object like Table, View etc. If we want to share the particular data to various users we have to use the virtual table for the Base table. So that is a view. Indexing is used for faster search or to retrieve data faster from various table. Schema containing set of tables, basically schema means logical separation of the database. View is crated for faster retrieval of data. It's customized virtual table. we can create a single view of multiple tables. Only the drawback is..view needs to be get refreshed for retrieving updated data. Difference between Stored Procedure and Trigger? we can call stored procedure explicitly. but trigger is automatically invoked when the action defined in trigger is done. ex: create trigger after Insert on this trigger invoked after we insert something on that table. Stored procedure can't be inactive but trigger can be Inactive. Triggers are used to initiate a particular activity after fulfilling certain condition.It need to define and can be enable and disable according to need. What is the advantage to use trigger in your PL? A trigger is a database object directly associated with a particular table. It fires whenever a specific statement/type of statement is issued against that table. The types of statements are insert,update,delete and query statements. Basically, trigger is a set of SQL statements A trigger is a solution to the restrictions of a constraint. For instance: 1.A database column cannot carry PSEUDO columns as criteria where a trigger can. 2. A database constraint cannot refer old and new values for a row where a trigger can. Triggers are fired implicitly on the tables/views on which they are created. There are various advantages of using a trigger. Some of them are: Suppose we need to validate a DML statement(insert/Update/Delete) that modifies a table then we can write a trigger on the table that gets fired implicitly whenever DML statement is executed on that table. Another reason of using triggers can be for automatic updation of one or more tables whenever a DML/DDL statement is executed for the table on which the trigger is created. Triggers can be used to enforce constraints. For eg : Any insert/update/ Delete statements should not be allowed on a particular table after office hours. For enforcing this constraint Triggers should be used.

Triggers can be used to publish information about database events to subscribers. Database event can be a system event like Database startup or shutdown or it can be a user even like User loggin in or user logoff. What the difference between UNION and UNIONALL? Union will remove the duplicate rows from the result set while Union all does'nt. What is the difference between TRUNCATE and DELETE commands? Both will result in deleting all the rows in the table .TRUNCATE call cannot be rolled back as it is a DDL command and all memory space for that table is released back to the server. TRUNCATE is much faster.Whereas DELETE call is an DML command and can be rolled back. Which system table contains information on constraints on all the tables created ? USER_CONSTRAINTS, system table contains information on constraints on all the tables created Explain Normalization ? Normalisation means refining the redundancy and maintain stablisation. there are Four types of Normalization :first normal forms, second normal forms, third normal forms and fourth Normal forms. How to find out the database name from SQL*PLUS command prompt? Select * from global_name; This will give the database name which u r currently connected to. What is the difference between SQL and SQL Server ? SQLServer is an RDBMS just like oracle,DB2 from Microsoft whereas Structured Query Language (SQL), pronounced "sequel", is a language that provides an interface to relational database systems. It was developed by IBM in the 1970s for use in System R. SQL is a de facto standard, as well as an ISO and ANSI standard. SQL is used to perform various operations on RDBMS. What is difference between Co-related sub query and nested sub query? Correlated subquery runs once for each row selected by the outer query. It contains a reference to a value from the row selected by the outer query. Nested subquery runs only once for the entire nesting (outer) query. It does not contain any reference to the outer query row. For example, Correlated Subquery: select e1.empname, e1.basicsal, e1.deptno from emp e1 where e1.basicsal = (select max(basicsal) from emp e2 where e2.deptno = e1.deptno) Nested Subquery: select empname, basicsal, deptno from emp where (deptno, basicsal) in (select deptno, max(basicsal) from emp group by deptno) WHAT OPERATOR PERFORMS PATTERN MATCHING? Pattern matching operator is LIKE and it has to used with two attributes 1. % means matches zero or more characters and 2. _ ( underscore ) means matching exactly one character What is cluster.cluster index and non cluster index ? Clustered Index:- A Clustered index is a special type of index that reorders the way records in the table are physically stored. Therefore table may have only one clustered index.NonClustered Index:- A Non-Clustered index is a special type of index in which the logical order of

the index does not match the physical stored order of the rows in the disk. The leaf nodes of a non-clustered index does not consists of the data pages. instead the leaf node contains index rows. What is the difference between a "where" clause and a "having" clause? "Where" is a kind of restriction statement. You use where clause to restrict all the data from DB. Where clause is using before result retrieving. But Having clause is using after retrieving the data. Having clause is a kind of filtering command. What structure can you implement for the database to speed up table reads? Follow the rules of DB tuning we have to: 1] properly use indexes ( different types of indexes) 2] properly locate different DB objects across different tablespaces, files and so on. 3] create a special space (tablespace) to locate some of the data with special datatype ( for example CLOB, LOB and ) What are the tradeoffs with having indexes? 1. Faster selects, slower updates. 2. Extra storage space to store indexes. Updates are slower because in addition to updating the table you have to update the index. What is "normalization"? "Denormalization"? Why do you sometimes want to denormalize? Normalizing data means eliminating redundant information from a table and organizing the data so that future changes to the table are easier. Denormalization means allowing redundancy in a table. The main benefit of denormalization is improved performance with simplified data retrieval and manipulation. This is done by reduction in the number of joins needed for data processing. What is a "constraint"? A constraint allows you to apply simple referential integrity checks to a table. There are four primary types of constraints PRIMARY/UNIQUE - enforces uniqueness of a particular table column. But by default primary key creates a clustered index on the column, where are unique creates a non-clustered index by default. Another major difference is that, primary key doesn't allow NULLs, but unique key allows one NULL only DEFAULT - specifies a default value for a column in case an insert operation does not provide one. FOREIGN KEY - validates that every value in a column exists in a column of another table. CHECK - checks that every value stored in a column is in some specified list. Each type of constraint performs a specific type of action. Default is not a constraint. NOT NULL is one more constraint which does not allow values in the specific column to be null. And also it the only constraint which is not a table level constraint. What types of index data structures can you have? - An index helps to faster search values in tables. The three most commonly used index-types are: B-Tree: builds a tree of possible values with a list of row IDs that have the leaf value. Needs a lot of space and is the default index type for most databases. Bitmap: string of bits for each possible value of the column. Each bit string has one bit for each row. Needs only few space and is very fast.(however, domain of value cannot be large, e.g. SEX(m,f); degree(BS,MS,PHD). Hash: A hashing algorithm is used to assign a set of characters to represent a text string such as a composite of keys or partial keys, and compresses the underlying data. Takes longer to build and is supported by relatively few databases. Why can a "group by" or "order by" clause be expensive to process?

Processing of "group by" or "order by" clause often requires creation of Temporary tables to process the results of the query. Which depending of the result set can be very expensive. What is a SQL view? An output of a query can be stored as a view. View acts like small table which meets our criterion. View is a pre-complied SQL query which is used to select data from one or more tables. A view is like a table but it doesn't physically take any space. View is a good way to present data in a particular format if you use that query quite often. View can also be used to restrict users from accessing the tables directly.

What is GROUP BY? The GROUP BY keywords has been added to SQL because aggregate functions (like SUM) return the aggregate of all column values every time they are called. Without the GROUP BY functionality, finding the sum for each individual group of column values was not possible.
What are defaults? Is there a column to which a default can't be bound? A default is a value that will be used by a column, if no value is supplied to that column while inserting data. IDENTITY columns and timestamp columns can't have defaults bound to them. Explain different isolation levels An isolation level determines the degree of isolation of data between concurrent transactions. The default SQL Server isolation level is Read Committed. Here are the other isolation levels (in the ascending order of isolation): Read Uncommitted, Read Committed, Repeatable Read, Serializable What type of Index will get created after executing the below statement? CREATE INDEX myIndex ON myTable(myColumn) Non-clustered index. By default a clustered index gets created on the primary key, unless specified otherwise. What's the maximum size of a row? 8060 bytes.

What is the system function to get the current user's details such as userid etc. ? USER USER_ID USER_NAME CURRENT_USER SUSER_SID HOST_NAME SYSTEM_USER SESSION_USER
What is Stored Procedure? A stored procedure is a named group of SQL statements that have been previously created and stored in the server database. Stored procedures accept input parameters so that a single procedure can be used over the network by several clients using different input data. And when the procedure is modified, all clients

automatically get the new version. Stored procedures reduce network traffic and improve performance. Stored procedures can be used to help ensure the integrity of the database.

What is an extended stored procedure? Can you instantiate a COM object by using T-SQL? An extended stored procedure is a function within a DLL (written in a programming language like C, C++ using Open Data Services (ODS) API) that can be called from T-SQL, just the way we call normal stored procedures using the EXEC statement. See books online to learn how to create extended stored procedures and how to add them to SQL Server. You can instantiate a COM (written in languages like VB, VC++) object from T-SQL by using sp_OACreate stored procedure.
What is Trigger? A trigger is a SQL procedure that initiates an action when an event (INSERT, DELETE or UPDATE) occurs. Triggers are stored in and managed by the DBMS. Triggers are used to maintain the referential integrity of data by changing the data in a systematic fashion. A trigger cannot be called or executed; DBMS automatically fires the trigger as a result of a data modification to the associated table. Triggers can be viewed as similar to stored procedures in that both consist of procedural logic that is stored at the database level. Stored procedures, however, are not event-drive and are not attached to a specific table as triggers are. Stored procedures are explicitly executed by invoking a CALL to the procedure while triggers are implicitly executed. In addition, triggers can also execute stored procedures. What is Nested Trigger? A trigger can also contain INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE logic within itself, so when the trigger is fired because of data modification it can also cause another data modification, thereby firing another trigger. A trigger that contains data modification logic within itself is called a nested trigger. What is a Linked Server? Linked Servers is a concept in SQL Server by which we can add other SQL Server to a Group and query both the SQL Server databases using T-SQL Statements. With a linked server, you can create very clean, easy to follow, SQL statements that allow remote data to be retrieved, joined and combined with local data. Stored Procedure SP_AddLinkedServer, SP_AddLinkedSerevrLogin will be used add new Linked Server.

What is Cursor? Cursor is a database object used by applications to manipulate data in a set on a row-by- row basis, instead of the typical SQL commands that operate on all the rows in the set at one time. In order to work with a cursor we need to perform some steps in the following order: 1.Declare cursor 2.Open cursor 3.Fetch row from the cursor 4.Process fetched row 5.Close cursor 6.Deallocate cursor
What is sub-query? Explain properties of sub-query? Sub-queries are often referred to as sub-selects, as they allow a SELECT statement to be executed arbitrarily within the body of another SQL statement. A sub-query is executed by enclosing it in a set of parentheses. Sub-queries are generally used to return a single row as an atomic value, though they may be used to compare values against multiple rows with the IN keyword. A sub-query is a SELECT statement that is nested within another T-SQL statement. A sub-query SELECT statement if executed independently of the T-SQL statement, in which it is nested, will return a result-set. Meaning a sub-query SELECT statement can standalone and is not depended on the statement in which it

is nested. A sub-query SELECT statement can return any number of values, and can be found in, the column list of a SELECT statement, a FROM, GROUP BY, HAVING, and/or ORDER BY clauses of a T-SQL statement. A Sub-query can also be used as a parameter to a function call. Basically a sub-query can be used anywhere an expression can be used. What are different Types of Join?

1.Cross Join A cross join that does not have a WHERE clause produces the Cartesian product of the tables involved in the join. The size of a Cartesian product result set is the number of rows in the first table multiplied by the number of rows in the second table. The common example is when company wants to combine each product with a pricing table to analyze each product at each price. 2.Inner Join A join that displays only the rows that have a match in both joined tables is known as inner Join. This is the default type of join in the Query and View Designer. 3.Outer Join A join that includes rows even if they do not have related rows in the joined table is an Outer Join. You can create three different outer join to specify the unmatched rows to be included: 1.Left Outer Join: In Left Outer Join all rows in the first-named table i.e. "left" table, which appears leftmost in the JOIN clause are included. Unmatched rows in the right table do not appear. 2.Right Outer Join: In Right Outer Join all rows in the second-named table i.e. "right" table, which appears rightmost in the JOIN clause are included. Unmatched rows in the left table are not included. 3.Full Outer Join: In Full Outer Join all rows in all joined tables are included, whether they are matched or not. 4.Self Join This is a particular case when one table joins to itself, with one or two aliases to avoid confusion. A self join can be of any type, as long as the joined tables are the same. A self join is rather unique in that it involves a relationship with only one table. The common example is when company has a hierarchal reporting structure whereby one member of staff reports to another. Self Join can be Outer Join or Inner Join. What is User Defined Functions? What kind of User-Defined Functions can be created? User-Defined Functions allow defining its own T-SQL functions that can accept 0 or more parameters and return a single scalar data value or a table data type. Different Kinds of User-Defined Functions created are: 1.Scalar User-Defined Function A Scalar user-defined function returns one of the scalar data types. Text, ntext, image and timestamp data types are not supported. These are the type of user-defined functions that most developers are used to in other programming languages. You pass in 0 to many parameters and you get a return value. 2.Inline Table-Value User-Defined Function An Inline Table-Value user-defined function returns a table data type and is an exceptional alternative to a view as the user-defined function can pass parameters into a TSQL select command and in essence provide us with a parameterized, non-updateable view of the underlying tables. 3.Multi-statement Table-Value User-Defined Function A Multi-Statement Table-Value user-defined function returns a table and is also an exceptional alternative to a view as the function can support multiple TSQL statements to build the final result where the view is limited to a single SELECT statement. Also, the ability to pass parameters into a TSQL select command or a group of them gives us the capability to in essence create a parameterized, non-updateable view of the data in the underlying tables. Within the create function command you must define the table structure that is being returned. After creating this type of userdefined function, It can be used in the FROM clause of a T-SQL command unlike the behavior found when using a stored procedure which can also return record sets. What is Identity? Identity (or AutoNumber) is a column that automatically generates numeric values. A start and increment value can be set, but most DBA leave these at 1. A GUID column also generates numbers; the value of this cannot be controlled. Identity/GUID columns do not need to be indexed.

What is Data-Warehousing? 1.Subject-oriented, meaning that the data in the database is organized so that all the data elements relating to the same real-world event or object are linked together; 2.Time-variant, meaning that the changes to the data in the database are tracked and recorded so that reports can be produced showing changes over time; 3.Non-volatile, meaning that data in the database is never over-written or deleted, once committed, the data is static, read-only, but retained for future reporting. 4.Integrated, meaning that the database contains data from most or all of an organization's operational applications, and that this data is made consistent. How do you implement one-to-one, one-to-many and many-to-many relationships while designing tables? One-to-One relationship can be implemented as a single table and rarely as two tables with primary and foreign key relationships. One-to-Many relationships are implemented by splitting the data into two tables with primary key and foreign key relationships. Many-to-Many relationships are implemented using a junction table with the keys from both the tables forming the composite primary key of the junction table. What are the different isolation levels ? An isolation level determines the degree of isolation of data between concurrent transactions. The default SQL Server isolation level is Read Committed. Here are the other isolation levels (in the ascending order of isolation): Read Uncommitted, Read Committed, Repeatable Read, Serializable. What would happen if you create an index on each column of a table ? If you create an index on each column of a table, it improves the query performance, as the query optimizer tool of the Database engine can choose from all the existing indexes to come up with an efficient execution plan. At the same time, data modification operations (such as INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE) will become slow, as every time data changes in the table, all the indexes need to be updated. Another disadvantage is that, indexes need disk space, the more indexes you have, more disk space is used. What is Lock escalation? Lock escalation is the process of converting many fine-grain locks into fewer coarse-grain locks, reducing system overhead. When a transaction exceeds its escalation threshold, automatic escalation of row locks and page locks into table locks happens. When a transaction requests rows from a table, SQL Server automatically acquires locks on those rows affected and places higher-level intent locks on the pages and table, or index, which contain those rows. When the number of locks held by the transaction exceeds its threshold, a stronger lock is acquired, and all page and row level locks held by the transaction on the table are released, reducing lock overhead. Lock escalation thresholds are determined dynamically by SQL Server and do not require configuration. What is a live lock? A live lock is one, where a request for an exclusive lock is repeatedly denied because a series of overlapping shared locks keeps interfering. SQL Server detects the situation after four denials and refuses further shared locks. A live lock also occurs when read transactions monopolize a table or page, forcing a write transaction to wait indefinitely. What is blocking and how would you troubleshoot it? Blocking happens when one connection from an application holds a lock and a second connection requires a conflicting lock type. This forces the second connection to wait, blocked on the first.
1. Determine the name sex and age of the oldest student. SELECT Name, Gender, (CURRENT_DATE-Dtnaiss)/365 AS Age FROM Student WHERE (CURRENT_DATE-Dtnaiss) /365 = ( SELECT MAX(( CURRENT_DATE-Dtnaiss) /365) FROM Student); 2. Display the marks of the student number 1 which are equal to the marks of the student number 2.

SELECT Note FROM NOTES WHERE Num=1 AND Note IN (SELECT Note FROM NOTES WHERE Num=2); 3. Finding the names of everybody who works in the same department as a person called James SELECT name FROM emp WHERE dept_no = (SELECT dept_no FROM emp WHERE name = 'James') or as a join statement, like this:SELECT e1.name FROM emp e1,emp e2 WHERE e1.dept_no = e2.dept_no AND e2name = 'James'

4. The SQL statement to find the departments that have employees with a salary higher than the average employee salary SELECT name FROM dept WHERE id IN ( SELECT dept_id FROM emp WHERE sal > (SELECT avg(sal)FROM emp) )

5. Write the SQL to use a sub query which will not return any rows - when just the table structure is required and not any of the data. CREATE TABLE new_table AS SELECT * from table_orig WHERE 1=0; The sub query returns no data but does return the column names and data types to the 'create table' statement. 6. HOW DO YOU FIND THE SECOND HIGHEST SALARY?

SELECT MAX(SALARY) FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE SALARY NOT IN (SELECT MAX(SALARY) FROM EMPLOYEE)

7. Finding duplicates in a table SELECT name, COUNT (name) AS NumOccurrences FROM users

GROUP BY email HAVING (COUNT (name) > 1)

You could also use this technique to find rows that occur exactly once: SELECT name FROM users GROUP BY name HAVING (COUNT (name) = 1)

8.While deleting a row from the database,i need to check based upon the Name of the Employee and The Employee Number. How to give 2 Conditions in an SQL Query ? "DELETE FROM Employees WHERE Emp_Name='" & Txt_Name.Text.Trim & "'

AND Emp_Number= '" & Txt_Empno.Text.Trim & "'"

9. Common SQL Syntax used in database interaction

9a. Select Statement SELECT "column_name" FROM "table_name" 9b. Distinct SELECT DISTINCT "column_name" FROM "table_name" 9c. Where SELECT "column_name" FROM "table_name" WHERE "condition" 9d. And/Or SELECT "column_name" FROM "table_name" WHERE "simple condition" {[AND|OR] "simple condition"}+ 9e. In SELECT "column_name" FROM "table_name" WHERE "column_name" IN ('value1', 'value2', ...) 9f. Between SELECT "column_name" FROM "table_name" WHERE "column_name" BETWEEN 'value1' AND 'value2' 9g. Like SELECT "column_name" FROM "table_name" WHERE "column_name" LIKE {PATTERN} 9h. Order By SELECT "column_name" FROM "table_name" [WHERE "condition"] ORDER BY "column_name" [ASC, DESC] 9i. Count SELECT COUNT("column_name") FROM "table_name" 9j. Group By SELECT "column_name1", SUM("column_name2") FROM "table_name" GROUP BY "column_name1" 9k. Having SELECT "column_name1", SUM("column_name2") FROM "table_name" GROUP BY "column_name1" HAVING (arithematic function condition) 9l. Create Table Statement CREATE TABLE "table_name" ("column 1" "data_type_for_column_1","column 2" "data_type_for_column_2",)

9m. Drop Table Statement DROP TABLE "table_name" 9n. Truncate Table Statement TRUNCATE TABLE "table_name" 9m. Insert Into Statement INSERT INTO "table_name" ("column1", "column2", ...) VALUES ("value1", "value2", ...) 9o. Update Statement UPDATE "table_name" SET "column_1" = [new value] WHERE {condition} 9p. Delete From Statement DELETE FROM "table_name" WHERE {condition}
10. SQL CREATE VIEW Syntax

CREATE VIEW view_name AS SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name WHERE condition

11. In a table how can one find all of the employees whose first name does not start with 'M' or 'A'.

SELECT EmployeeID, FirstName, LastName, HireDate, City FROM Employees WHERE (FirstName NOT LIKE 'M%') AND (FirstName NOT LIKE 'A%')

12.Find the wine(s) sold for the highest Sells(bar, wine, price) SELECT wine FROM Sells WHERE price >= ALL( SELECT price FROM Sells );

wines(name, manf)

13.Find the wines that are the unique wine by their manufacturer

SELECT nameFROM wines w1 WHERE NOT EXISTS( SELECT *

FROM wines WHERE manf = w1.manf AND name <> w1.name );

14.Find the name and manufacturer of wines that wines (name, manf) Likes(drinker, wine) SELECT * FROM wines WHERE name IN (SELECT wine FROM Likes WHERE drinker = James );

James like

15.Find bars that serve Mike at the same price James charges for Bille.

Sells(bar, wine, price) SELECT bar FROM Sells WHERE wine = 'Mike' AND price = (SELECT price FROM Sells WHERE bar = 'James''s Bar' AND wine = 'Bille' );
16.Find pairs of wines by the same manufacturer.

Wines(name, manf) SELECT w1.name, w2.name FROM Wines w1, Wines w2 WHERE w1.manf = w2.manf AND w1.name < w2.name;
17.Find the wines that the frequenters of Jamess Bar

like.

Likes(drinker, wine) Frequents(drinker, bar) SELECT wine FROM Frequents, Likes WHERE bar = 'James''s Bar' AND Frequents.drinker = Likes.drinker;

18.Find drinkers whose phone has exchange 555.

Drinkers(name, addr, phone) SELECT name FROM Drinkers WHERE phone LIKE '%555- ';
19.Find the price James's Bar charges for Bille.

Sells(bar, wine, price) SELECT price FROM Sells WHERE bar = 'James''s Bar' AND wine = 'Bille';
20. How to find out the 10th highest salary in SQL query?

Table - Tbl_Test_Salary Column - int_salary select max(int_salary) from Tbl_Test_Salary where int_salary in(select top 10 int_Salary from Tbl_Test_Salary order by int_salary)