Concrete Concrete: It is an artificial stone manufacturing from a mixture of binding materials & inert materials with water.

Binding materials = Cement & lime. Inert materials =Aggregate: 1. Fine aggregate 2. Coarse aggregate Fine Aggregate Sand & surki are commonly used as fine aggregate in Bangladesh. The fine aggregate should not be larger than 3/16 inch.

Coarse Aggregate Brick khoa ( broken bricks), broken stones, gravels, pebbles, clinkers, cinders etc of the size of 3/16 to 2 inch are commonly used as coarse aggregate in Bangladesh. Concrete = Inert materials + Binding materials + Water Function of aggregate in concrete: Give volume to the concrete. Provide abrasion resistance. Voids in the coarse aggregate filled up with fine aggregate. Voids in the fine aggregate filled up with binding materials. Binding materials bind the aggregate with the help of water.

Function of water in concrete: To wet the surface of aggregate to develop adhesion. To prepare a plastic mixture of the various ingredients. Impart workability of concrete by placing in the desired position. Hydration of the cementing materials to set & harden the period of curing.

Classification of Concrete: There are mainly two types of concrete,

1- Lime concrete 2- Cement concrete 1) Lime Concrete: Lime concrete consists of lime surki and khoa or stone in the proportion 1:2:5. Khoa or stone should be soaked in water before mixing. Lime and surki in required proportion should be dry. Then mixed soaked khoa or stone with lime and surki. Water is then added gradually with this mixture. Concrete laid is different layers. Each layer is completed before next layer is laid. Used: Lime concrete mainly used in foundation. Terrace roofing. 2) Cement Concrete: Cement concrete consist of cement sand and brick khoa or stone in a proportion of 1:2:4 or 1:3:6. Khoa or stone soaked before use. Fine aggregate and coarse aggregate should be dry. Binding material should be dry. Cement then added and mixed through fine aggregate and coarse aggregate. Then water added with this mixture. Quality of water should be such that its imparting workability of cement. Small amount of concrete should prepare which can be used within 45 minutes. Concrete mixed properly till the water appeared on top. Mixing concrete by hand does not produce a good concrete. Mechanical mixture should be used in mixing. Used: Foundation work. Reinforced work. Advantages of concrete over other materials of construction: The following are the main advantage of concrete construction:1) Concrete is free from defects and flows where natural stone are associated. 2) It can be manufactured to desire strength and durability.

3) It can be cast to any desire shape. 4) Maintenance cost of concrete structure is almost negligible. 5) Concrete does not determine with age. Short note: Segregation: Segregation is a term defines as the separation of the constituent of a heterogeneous mix. Primary cause of segregation is the difference size of the particles and specific gravity of the mix constituent. Segregation should be controlled by suitable grading water cement ratio, handling, transporting and placing of concrete. Bleeding: Bleeding is a term defines as water gain in concrete mix or water tends to rise in concrete mix. Inability of the solid .constituent of the mix to hold all of the mixing water when then settles down. As a result of bleeding top of concrete becomes to wet. Due to water trapped in concrete they produce a pours, week and nondurable concrete. Bleeding water remixed during finishing off the top surface a weak wearing surface will found. Laitance: A layer of weak material containing cement and times from aggregate, brought to the top of over wet concrete, the amount of which is generally increased by over working and improper finishing of work. It also defined as squeezed out mortar on the surface of concrete. Due to bleeding it occurs. Produce a bad or weak concrete. Properties of concrete: Following are the desirable properties of concrete: 1. Strength 2. Elastic properties 3. Fatigue

4. Durability 5. Impermeability 6. Workability Strength: Strength usually gives the overall picture of quantity of concrete. Generally four types: 1) Compressive strength. 2) Tensile strength. 3) Flexural strength. 4) Shear strength. Compressive Strength: For finding out the compressive strength of concrete two types of test specimens are used in our country. (a) Cubes, (b) Cylinder. (a)For Cube: The cube specimen of concrete of a desired proportion are cast in steel or cast in iron mould. Size of cube is 6. Fill the mould with concrete with three layers. Each layer of concrete is compacted by 35 strokes through a 1 square steel punner. Ramming is continued until sufficient compaction has been achieved. Top surface of the cube finished off by a trowel. (b)For Cylinder: Cylinders are 12 high & 6 diameter. Using two layers instead of 3 layers. Used 5/8 diameter steel rod for tamping. After Preparation:

 Cubes & Cylinders are stored undisturbed for 24 hours at a temperature of 58` to 66`F & relative humidity should not be less than 90%. After 24 hours cubes & cylinders are poured in water for curing. After 28 days the cubes & cylinders are tested for compressive strength by a testing machine. The cube test gives much greater strength about 20 to 30% more than that given by cylinder. But the cylinder specimens are given more uniformity of result than cube specimens. Tensile Strength: Concrete is very weak in tensile strength. Tensile strength ranges about 7 to 10% of the compressive strength. Flexural Strength: Flexural strength of plain concrete wholly dependent upon the tensile strength. Flexural strength is most important in the design of concrete pavement. Shearing Strength: Shearing strength is the real determining factor in the compressive strength of short column. Strength of concrete beam depends upon the shearing strength of the material. Average strength of concrete in direct shear is about half of the compressive strength of rich mixture. Elastic properties: The elastic properties of concrete are of importance not only because of their bearing upon the deformation of concrete structure under load, but also for the design of reinforced, it is necessary to know the relative stresses in the steel and concrete under like distortions. Fatigue of concrete: Plain concrete when subjected to ffexufe, exhibits fatigue. The flextureresisting ability of a concrete of a given quality is indicated by an endurance limit whose value depends upon the number of re-petitions of stress.

Durability of Concrete:

 It is essential that concrete should with stand the condition for which it has been designed without deterioration over a period of years such concrete is called durable. The absence of durability due to external and internal causes. External causes are physical, chemical or mechanical, extreme temperature change or attack by industrial or natural liquid and gases. Internal causes are alkaline aggregate reaction, volume changes, difference in thermal properties of aggregate, cement paste & permeability of the concrete.

Impermeability of concrete: Penetration of concrete by materials in solution may adversely affect the durability of concrete. Penetration depends on the permeability to concrete. Penetration of air & moisture will result in the corrosion of steel. It penetration is continuous than cracking & spelling of the concrete is occurred. Workability of concrete: The strength of concrete of given mix properties are very seriously affected by the degree of its compaction. It is important that concrete should be transported placed without segregation. It a concrete satisfy these condition is said to be workable. Wet concrete are more workable then dry concrete. Slump test: The Standard Procedure of Slump Test is as follows: The mould of a slump test is a cone with a top &bottom diameter of 4& 8 respectively. The height of the cone is 12. It is provided with two handles for lifting being filled with concrete. First of all we have to make a paste in a ratio of 1:2:4 of cement ,sand,stone. Then the cone is filled with concrete in equal four layers. Each layer is tamped by 25 times with a bull nosed 5/8 diameter steel rod. The top surface is struck plain with a trowel.

 The mould must be hold firmly against its base during the entire operation. Immediately after filling the one is slowly lifted up very carefully. The unsupported concrete will now slump or subside and the depth of subsidence is a measure of the slump. After lifting the area near about the cone is cleaned. After lifting the area near about the cone is cleaned. In figure (a) shows the true slump where slumping evenly all round. In figure (b) shows the shear slump where one half of the cone slide down inclinedly. In figure (c) shows the collapse slump where the cone is collapsed. Only true slump indicates the workability of concrete.

If shear or collapse slump takes place then the test is repeated.

Table: Values of slump and workability for different concrete mixes:

Slump Value inch

Degree of workability

Use for which concrete is suitable Precast and vibrated concrete workability in roads, and piles(vibrated by power operated machines)

0-1

Very low

1-2

low

2-4

medium

4-7

High

Road works (vibrated by hand operated machine). Mass concrete in foundation (with vibration). Lightly reinforced sections (with vibration). Slabs (manually compacted), normal reinforced concrete (manually compacted). Heavily reinforced sections (with vibration). For sections with congested reinforcement (not normally suitable for vibration).

Factor controlling properties of concrete: The properties of concrete depend upon the following parameter: 1) Grading of the aggregate 2) Moisture content of the aggregate 3) Water/Cement ratio 4) Proportioning of the various ingredients of concrete 5) Method of mixing 6) Placing and compaction of concrete 7) Curing of concrete Grading of the aggregate: The term grading indicates the art of combining various size of particles of aggregate to produce a dense of economic concrete using a minimum amount of cement per unit volume for desired strength. The main factor governing grading are-

 The surface area of the aggregates, which determine the amount of water necessary to wet all the solids. The relative volume occupied by the aggregate. The workability of the mix. The tendency to aggregation. Problem: The combined fineness modulus of fine aggregate (Sand, Ff = 2.85) and coarse aggregate (stone, Fc = 6.77) was found to be 5.30.If 8.49 cu.ft of combined and well packed aggregate is required. Determine the volume of fine and coarse aggregate mixed initially take shrinkage factor to be 0.75. Solution: Given, S.F = 0.75 Ff = 2.85 Fc = 6.77 Fcom = 5.30 We know, R = (F1-Fcom)/ (Fcom-F2) = (6.77-5.30)/ (5.30-2.85) = 0.60 The fine and coarse aggregate in the ratio of 60:100 Total = 60+100 V = 8.49/0.75 = 11.28 ft3 Vf/ Vc = R1/R2 = 60/100 Fine aggregate, Vf = 60/100*11.28 = 4.23 ft3 Coarse aggregate, Vc = 100/160*11.28 = 7.05 ft3 Moisture content of the aggregate: The bulking of fine aggregate depends upon the m.c of the aggregate. The bulking is very high in fine aggregate but less in coarse aggregate. Fig shows the bulking of aggregate due to m.c (in coarse aggregate and F.A)

Water cement ratio: The proportion between the amount of water and cement used in a concrete mixed is termed as the water cement ratio. W/C= Wt of water/Wt of cement The water in the concrete mix does three functions: 1) To wet the surface of the aggregate.

2) To impact workability. 3) To combine chemically with cement. Compressive strength is inversely proportional to the w/c ratio. Quantity of water in a mix determines its strength. It will be found that there is a certain % of water below which the water will not be sufficient to hydrate the cement. The use of less water will not give good workability and will produce porous and weak concrete. On the other hand if more water is used than that actually required the concrete will be weak. The w/c must be 0.6.

Proportioning of various ingredients of concrete: The object of proportioning the ingredients is to obtain a strong and durable concrete to suite all requirements. The following are the possible method of proportioning: 1) Arbitrary Method. 2) Minimum Voids Method. 3) Sieve Analysis Method. 4) Trial Mixture Method.

Arbitrary Methods: In proportioning the concrete ingredients, the proportion of cement is taken as unity to be mixed with x parts of fine aggregate and parts of coarse aggregate. The amount of water is determined from the strength versus water/cement ratio curves & from slum test. Minimum Voids Methods: The fundamental principal of this method is that for a dense concrete the voids in the coarse & fine aggregates should be completely filled up. Because the dense concrete imparts higher strength. The voids of the coarse aggregate are determined first and an amount of fine aggregate is used so as to be equal to the voids of the coarse aggregate. Sieve Analysis Method: This is known as Fineness Modulus Method First, the fine & coarse aggregates are graded and their combined fineness modulus is calculated for a desired strength. Trial Mixture Method: In this method, fine aggregate & coarse aggregate are mixed in different proportion and the mixture of the same is taken after thoroughly compacted. Trial specimens are made with a workable mixture of cement, fine and coarse aggregate with requisite quantity of water and tested after 28 days. Method of mixing of concrete: There are two methods of mixing: 1) Hand mixing. 2) Machine mixing. Hand mixing does not produce a good concrete useless proper care is taken through the period of mixing. Machine mixing produce a good concrete. It is necessary to know the minimum mixing time to produce a good concrete.

 Generally 20 revolutions are sufficient for concrete mixing. Fig shows the strength of concrete increases with an increased in mixing time. Placing & Compaction of concrete: Concrete must be transported from the place of mixing to the place of final placing as quickly as possible. Concrete should be deposited & not thrown or dumped from a distance to avoid segregation. The distance should be 3ft. After placing the concrete, it should be compacted to eliminate entrapped air. The compaction is done by a standard steel rod by forcing the corners & edges to enable the spaces between the reinforcing bars. But now a days compaction is done by a vibration.

Curing of concrete: The object of curing is to keep concrete saturated so that hydration of cement can take place in a suitable environment. Water curing is when the concrete is covered with a layer of water for a period of time & evaporation of moisture from the surface of water. The ideal way of curing concrete, its need to stay continually wet for 7 days, preferable 14 days.

 Evaporation of water from concrete depends on the temperature and relative humidity. Hydration of a maximum rate can proceed only under saturation condition. After curing it will increase concrete strength. It will increase abrasion resistance. Lessen the chance of concrete cracking. Lessen the chance of surface dusting. Carbonation of concrete Carbonation defined as the chemical combination of CO2 with the hydration products of cement.CO2 combines with Ca(OH)2,but also decompose with calcium silicate & alumina. Carbonation result in a soft dusty surface to normal concrete. It is most prevalent in cold weather concrete. At a temp below 40F hydration of concrete being slowed. And concrete stay in plastic condition for a layer period carbonation increase. Carbonation can affect concrete to various degree for a light dust on the surface to a deep layer of dust or more. Reduce carbonation by use membrane curing & sealing compound as soon as possible to the CO2 gas from concrete.

Concreting in Hot weather:

 A high temperature of fresh concrete results in a more rapid hydration and leads, therefore, to accelerated setting and to a lower strength of hardened concrete. Furthermore, rapid evaporation may cause plastic shrinkage and crazing and subsequent cooling of the hardened concrete would introduce tensile stresses. Plastic shrinkage is likely to occur when the rate of evaporation exceeds the rate at which the bleeding water raises the surface but it has been recently found that cracks also form due to rapid evaporation. There are some complications in hot weather concreting; air entraining is more difficult. The temperature of the fresh concrete can be lowered by pre-cooling one or more ingredients of the mix. It is wise to say that a temperature should not be higher than 60`F. The evaporation of freshly laid concrete and also the evaporation of curing water can be stopped by covering the surface by polythene sheets and other suitable devices.

Concreting in Cold weather: If it is done at a freezing temperature, the mixing water freezes with a consequent increase in the overall volume of the concrete. Since no water is available for chemical reactions, the setting and hardening of concrete are delayed, thus resulting in a poor concrete. To avoid the ill effects of low temperature in fresh concrete certain precaution can be taken. The temperature at the time of casting can be raises by heating easily, but it is inadvisable to exceed a temperature of 100 to 140`F as the flash setting of cement may result.

 If heating the water does not sufficiently raise the temperature of the concrete the aggregate may also be heated. Heating the aggregate again above 125`F is inadvisable. The temperature of mix ingredients must be controlled to make sure that setting does not occur at too high temperature. A high temperature of fresh concrete lowers workability and may lead to high thermal contraction. It is essential that the temperature does not fall below above 50`F during the next three years. The form of heating should be such that the concrete does not dry out rapidly.

Creep of concrete: Concrete creep is defined as the deformation of structure under sustained load. In many application concrete structures one required to sustain steady load for long period of time such as concrete roof, beams, column etc. Under such condition the concrete may continue to deform until its usefulness is seriously impaired. Creep does not necessarily cause concrete to fail or break. Creep is factored in when concrete structure are designed.

Factor Affecting Creep: 1. Aggregate 2. Mix properties 3. Age of concrete.

Factor Affecting Creep: 1. Aggregates. 2. Mixed proportion. 3. Age of concrete. 1. Influence of aggregate: Aggregate undergoes very little creep. It is really the paste which is responsible for the creep. However the aggregate influences the creep of concrete through a restraining effect on the magnitude of creep. The paste which is creeping under load is restrained by aggregate which do not creep. The stronger the aggregate the more is the restraining effect & hence the less is the magnitude of creep. The modulus of elasticity of aggregate is one of the important factors influencing creep. 2. Influence of Mix proportions: The amount of paste content & its quality is one of the most important factors influencing creep. A poorer paste structure undergoes higher creep. Therefore it can be said that creep increases with the increase in water/cement ratio. In other words, it can be said that creep is inversely proportional to the strength of concrete.

3. Influence of age: Age at which a concrete member is loaded will have a predominant effect on the magnitude of creep. This can be easily understood from the fact that the quality of gel improves with time. Such gel creeps less, whereas a young gel under load being not so stronger creeps more.

 What is said above is not a very accurate statement because of the fact that the moisture content of the concrete being different at different age also influences the magnitude of creep. Effects of creep on concrete of reinforced concrete: 1. In reinforced concrete beam, creep increases the deflection with time and may be a critical consideration in design. 2. In eccentrically loaded column, creep increases the deflection and can load to buckling. 3. The mass concrete strict such as dam creep is harmful and causes orating in the interior of dams. Therefore, all precautions and step must be taken to see that an increase in temp does not take place in the interior of mass concrete. 4. Loss of prestress due to creep of concrete in prestresses concrete structure. Chemical Attack of Concrete: The common form of chemical attack are: 1. Leaching out of cement efflorescence. 2. Action of sulphates. 3. Sea water attack. 4. Acid water attack. In general terms the resistance of concrete varies with the type of cement used, it has been suggested that the resistance increases in the following order: 1. Ordinary and rapid hardening Portland cement. 2. Portland blast-furnace cement and low heat Portland cement. 3. Sulphate resisting Portland cement and pozzolana cement.

4. Aluminious cement. Design of concrete mix: Design of concrete mix may be defined as the process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete & determining their relative quantities with the object of producing as economically as possible concrete of certain minimum properties. The definition stressed on two points: 1. The concrete must have certain min properties. 2. It is to be produced as economically as possible a most common requirement in engineering.

There are four different method of design of concrete mix which is given bellow. 1) Fineness Modulus method 2) Minimum Void Method 3) Trial Mixes Method 4) Arbitrary Method Absolute Volume Method:
W C Af Ac + + + =27 62.4 62.4Sc 62.4Sfag 62.4 Scag

W.C, As, Ac = Weight of water, cement, five aggregate coarse ass, respectively. 62.4 = density of water SC = specific gravity of cement Sfag = specific gravity of cement fine agg. Scag = specific gravity of cement coarse. agg. 27= volume of concrete. X: Y: Z= 1: 0.94: 2.59

Prestressed concrete: Concrete in which there have been introduced internal stress of such magnitude and distribution that stresses resulting from given external loading are counteracted to a desired degree. In reinforced cement concrete members the prestress is commonly introduced by tensioning the steel reinforcement. In prestressed concrete, high tensile steel is used which will have to be elongated a great deal before its strength is fully utilized. If the high tensile steel simply buried in the concrete as in ordinary reinforced concrete, the surrounding concrete will have to crack very seriously before the full strength of the steel is developed. It is necessary to prestretch the steel with respect to concrete. Compressive stresses and strains in concrete and tensile stresses and strains in steel. This combined action permits the safe and economical utilization of the two materials. Prestressed concrete is nothing but an extension of the applications of the reinforced concrete to include steels of high tensile strength. Classification: Prestressed concrete structure can be classificatied in number of ways,depending upon their features of design and construction.Theses are follows: a. Externally and internally prestressing: Externally prestressing is a term applied to prestressed structures where stressing is applied externally.Similarly internally prestressing is used to describe the method of prestressing internally.Most of the prestressed concrete structures are internally prestressed. b. Circular and Linear prestressing: Circular prestressing refers to prestressing in circular or round structures like tanks,pipes etc.where the prestressing reinforcement are wound around in circle.Prestressing all other members like beams slaps,etc terned as linear prestressing. c. Pre-tensioning and Post-tensioning: The term pretensioning is used to describe any method of prestressing in which the reinforcement are strtched before the concrete is placed.Post tensioning is a method of prestressing in which the reinforcement is tensioned after the concrete has hardened. d. Partial or Full prestressing:

When a member is designed so that under the working load there is no tensile stress in it then the concrete is said to be fully prestressed.If some tensile stresses will be produced in the member under working load then it is termed partially prestressed. Lightweight Aggregates: Light weight aggregates was first used by the Romans. They used to embed large pieces of pumice in the domes and walls of larger building, The modern lightweight aggregate industry was born in earlier part of this century(1917) The following are the desirable qualities of good lightweight aggregate:1. They should be uniform in composition & properties. 2. They should be suitably graded for their intended use & the desired grading should be maintained. 3. They should have a low specific weight. 4. They should have a large number of small well disposed internal voids but should not have a minimum number of large external voids that gave to be filled with mortar or paste. 5. The aggregate should possess adequate strength for its intended purpose. 6. Particles should be of proper shape to promote good workability. 7. The particles must bond well with the cement paste. 8. The particles should be inert chemically. 9. They should have good resistance to weathering, moisture insects & fungi. 10. If used for insulation purpose they should have high thermal insulation. 11. A low water absorption is desirable. 12. They must have low production cost.