Chapter4 OCW

Department of Microelectronics and Computer Engineering
23/09/08
1
Chapter 4
The Semiconductor in Equilibrium
23/09/08
2
Topics
Thermal-equilibrium concentration of electron and holes
Intrinsic carrier concentration
Intrinsic Fermi-level position
Dopant atoms and energy levels
Extrinsic carrier concentration and temperature dependence
Ionization energy of dopant atoms in silicon
Fermi level in extrinsic semiconductor
Degenerate semiconductors
Fermi level in two systems in contact with each other and

at thermal equilibrium.
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3
Why?
Current is determined by flow rate and density of

charge carriers.
The density of electron and holes are related to the

density of states function and the Fermi distribution
(or probability) function.
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4
Conduction band
Valence band
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5
Density of quantum states per unit volume at energy E
For conduction band
For valence band
Density of states
*
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The probability that a quantum state at an energy E
will be occupied by an electron
The ratio between filled and total quantum states
at any energy E
Fermi-Dirac distribution (or probability) function
6
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7
Fermi-Dirac distribution (or probability) function
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8
Distribution of electron and holes
n ( E ) g
c
( E ) f
F
( E )
p ( E ) g
v
( E ) 1 f
F
( E )
[ ]
Number of electrons at E
(in conduction band)
Density of states at E
Fermi-Dirac
probability function
Number of holes at E
(in valence band)
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conduction band
9
valence band
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10
Electron concentration
n
0
D e n s i t y o f s t a t e s P r o b a b i l i t y f u n c t i o n d E
B o t t o m o f c o n d u c t i o n b a n d
T o p o f c o n d u c t i o n b a n d
E
C
The equation is valid for both intrinsic and extrinsic

semiconductors
23/09/08 September/Oktober 2004
Condition:
E - E
F
>> kT
Boltzman approximation
11
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12
Comparison of Fermi-Dirac probability function and Maxwell-
Boltzmann approximation
3kT

Maxwell-Boltzmann approximation and Fermi-Dirac function
are within 5% of each other when E-E
F
3KT
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n
0
Gamma function:
1
2

13
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N
c
= effective density of states function in the conduction band
semiconductors
14
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Hole concentration
15
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N
v
= effective density of states function in the valence band
16
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17
N
c
(cm
-3
) N
v
(cm
-3
) m
n
*/m
0
m
p
*/m
0
Si 2.8 x 10
19
1.04 x 10
19
1.08 0.56
Gallium Arsenide 4.7 x 10
17
7.0 x 10
18
0.067 0.48
Germanium 1.04 x 10
19
6.0 x 10
18
0.55 0.37
Effective density of states function and effective mass values
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Intrinsic semiconductor
Intrinsic electron concentration = Intrinsic hole concentration

n
i
p
i
Why?
charge carriers due to thermal excitation
thermally generated electrons and holes always created in pairs.

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INTRINSIC Semiconductor
Intrinsic Fermi level
19
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20
Semiconductor N
i
Silicon 1.5 x 10
10
cm
-3
Gallium Arsenide 1.8 x 10
6
cm
-3
Germanium 2.4 x 10
13
cm
-3
Commonly accepted values of n
i
at T=300K
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21
e
kT
E
N N n
g
v c i 10 10 10
log
2
) ( log
2
1
) ( log
Plot of log
10
(n
i
) vs. 1/T is straight
line.
Slope is negative. From the slope
E
g
can be calculated
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22
Application of the intrinsic semiconductors
High Electron Mobility

Transistor
High resistivity
substrate for RF circuits
amorphous-Si Solar
Cells
Structure of solar cell
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Conduction band
Valence band
Where is the intrinsic Fermi level?
E
Fi
(Intrinsic Fermi level): E
F
at which electron and hole
concentration becomes equal
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24
Even in intrinsic semiconductor, Fermi level is not exactly at centre between
conduction and valence bands.
Electron concentration Hole concentration
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Intrinsic silicon lattice
26
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Acceptor and Donor Impurities:
In Si four electrons in the valence shell participate in bonding.
atom with more than 4 valence electrons donor impurity
less than 4 acceptor impurity.

27
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Silicon lattice doped with donor impurity
Donor Impurity:
At very low temperature, the donor (excess) electron is still bound to the impurity atom.
However, the donor electron is loosely bound to the impurity atom and can become free with small
amount of thermal energy. Impurity atom is then ionized and positively charged.
28
Sb
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little energy required to move donor electrons from donor states to
conduction band.
positively charged donor ions are fixed but donor electrons in the conduction
band can move through the crystal.
Donor electron energy level:
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Acceptor Impurity:
One covalent bond is incomplete for Si.
With little thermal energy, a valence electron can break from another covalent bond and
can occupy this position, thus creating a hole at the location of the broken covalent bond.
The acceptor impurity is then ionized and negatively charged.
30
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Acceptor Energy Level:
little energy required to move valence electrons to acceptor levels.
negatively charged acceptor ions are fixed but holes in the valence band can
move through the crystal.
31
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32
Electron concentration vs. temperature showing partial
ionization, extrinsic and intrinsic regions.
Electron concentration vs. temperature in n-type semiconductor
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33
Electron concentration vs. temperature in extrinsic
semiconductor
At low temperatures, donor impurities are partially ionized. As

temperature increases the percentage of ionized donor impurities also
increases
Once all donor impurities are ionized, there is no increase in carrier

concentration. Even though intrinsic carrier concentration continues to
increase, it is still small compared to extrinsic concentration.
At high temperatures, intrinsic carrier concentration dominates and

electron concentration continues to increase again.
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The ionization energy is the
energy necessary
to remove an electron from the
neutral atom.
In case of donor atoms, the
ionization energy is the
energy necessary
to elevate an electron from
the donor level to
conduction band.
Ionization energy:
34
23/09/08
In the next few slides, we will calculate the approximate ionization

energy for donor atoms.
We use Bohr atomic model for these calculations. For hydrogen

atom, Bohr model and quantum mechanics give similar results.
Donor impurity atom can be visualized as one donor electron

orbiting the positively charged donor ion. This condition is similar to
that in a hydrogen atom.
However we have to consider permittivity of silicon instead of

permittivity of free space.
Ionization energy:
35
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36
Angular Momentum Quantization
Bohr proposed that circumference of electron orbit = integer

number of wavelengths
36
Then angular momentum,
angular momentum of electron is quantized.
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Ionization energy calculation:
Centripetal force Coulomb attraction force
Angular momentum quantization
37
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As defined in Chapter 2,
Bohr radius =
26 . 0
m
* m
and 7 . 11
silicon, For
0

r
For n=1,
38
radius Bohr
radius electron orbiting
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39
r
1
/a
0
=45 or r
1
=23.9A
0

This radius ~ 4 lattice constants of Si.

Each unit cell contains 8 silicon atoms.
Donor electron thus loosely bound to the donor atom.
We will next find the approximate ionization energy.

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Total energy
40
Kinetic energy
Potential energy
( refer slide 37)
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41
Ionisation energy of Hydrogen in lowest energy state = -13.6eV
For Si, it is -25.8meV << band gap.
Calculations using Bohr model give only the order of magnitude of the
ionisation energy. Actual values differ.
Impurity Ionization energy (eV)
Si Ge
Donors
Phosphorus 0.045 0.012
Arsenic 0.05 0.0127
Acceptors
Boron 0.045 0.0104
Aluminum 0.06 0.0102
Impurity ionization energies in Silicon and
Germanium
Impurity Ionization energy (eV)
Donors
Selenium 0.0059
Tellurium 0.0058
Silicon 0.0058
Germanium 0.0061
Acceptors
Beryllium 0.028
Zinc 0.0307
Cadmium 0.0347
Silicon 0.0345
Germanium 0.0404
Impurity ionization energies in gallium arsenide
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42
EXTRINSIC Semiconductor
n-TYPE p-TYPE
Majority carrier
electrons
Minority carrier
holes
Majority carrier
holes
Minority carrier
electrons
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semiconductors
43
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44

Another form (relation between E
F
and E
Fi
)
n
0
p
0
=n
i
2
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45
Where is the Fermi level?
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46
Condition for the
Boltzmann approximation
E
C
-E
F
> 3KT
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47
Use The Fermi-Dirac Integral
No Boltzmann approximation
If the impurity concentration is very high....
Fermi level will be very close to conduction band or valence
band.
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Boltzman approximation
Only if E
C
-E
F
> 3KT
48
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49
Fermi-Dirac Integral
If
F
>1, then E
F
>E
C
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50
Degenerate Semiconductors
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51
If the impurity atoms are very close
each other...
Donor electrons interact with each other
The single discrete donor energy will split into a band
The band may overlap the conduction band
If the concentration exceed N

c
, E
F
lies within the
conduction band
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N
d
>

N
c
N
a
>

N
v
Degenerated Semiconductor
Fermi level in the conduction band: Metallic conduction
52
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53
Statistics of donors and acceptors
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54
How many electrons still in the donor levels
compared to the total number of electrons?
depends on the temperature and the Fermi level....
23/09/08
Probability function for donor & acceptor levels
This same as the Fermi-Dirac probability function except
the pre-exponential coefficient of .
Density of donor atoms
Density of electrons
occupying donor states
Concentration of ionized donors
55
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56
similar for holes:
g=degeneration factor; 4 for GaAs and Si acceptor levels
23/09/08
57
Low temperature Moderate temperature
High temperature
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E
d
-E
F
>>kT
Moderate temperature
If E
d
-E
F
>> kT, then even E
c
-E
F
>> KT
58
Then,
23/09/08
With Phosphorus doping of N
d
=10
16
cm
-3
, at
T=300K, n
d
/(n
d
+n
0
)=0.41%
Almost complete ionization at Room Temp!
Fraction of electrons still in the donor states
59
23/09/08
Extremely low temperature (T=0K)
n
d
=N
d
E
F
> E
d
Freeze-out
60
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61
High temperature
At very high temperature behavior is just like the

intrinsic semiconductor
(because of thermally generated electrons)
(because of thermally generated holes)
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Complete
ionization
Freeze-out
62
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63
Compensated semiconductor
Both donor and acceptor impurities in the same region

If N
d
> N
a
n-type compensated semiconductor
If N
d
< N
a
p-type compensated semiconductor
If N
d
= N
a
completely compensated (will behave like
intrinsic material)
Practical semiconductor is always compensated semiconductor.
Eg. Substrate is predoped usually p-type. All other dopings are done on top
of this.
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64
Charge neutrality :
Ionized acceptors
Ionized donors
23/09/08
65
Using the relation
n
0
is not simply N
d
Recall
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66
Minority carrier concentration
p
0

n
i
2
n
0
Similarly in p-type semiconductor,
2
2
0
2 2
i
d a d a
n
N N N N
p +
,
_
(n-type material)
o
i
p
n
n
2
0

(p-type material)
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67
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Where is the Fermi level of an extrinsic semiconductor?
N-type: N
d
>>n
i
then n
0
N
d

68
23/09/08
Where is the Fermi level of a p-type extrinsic semiconductor?
P-type: N
a
>>n
i
then p
0
N
a

,
_

a
v
v F
N
N
kT E E ln
69
23/09/08
Position of Fermi level for an (a) n-type and (b) p-type
semicondcutor.
(a) (b)
70
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71
Different expression for the n-type...
Another expression for the p-type
E
F i
E
F
k T l n
p
0
n
i
_
,

23/09/08
Variation of E
F
with doping concentration:
72
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73
Variation of E
F
with temperature T
E
F i
E
F
k T l n
p
0
n
i
_
,
,
_

i
Fi F
n
n
kT E E
0
ln
Variation of Fermi level with temperature for
different doping concentrations
At higher temperatures, the
semiconductor becomes more
intrinsic. n
i
increases and Fermi level
moves towards mid-gap
At T=0, Fermi level is above E
d
in n-
type and below E
a
in p-type
semiconductor
23/09/08
EF must be equal when different systems are
in contact and in thermodynamic equilibrium
Consider a material A, with Fermi level
E
FA
. Bands below E
FA
are full and above
are empty.
material B with Fermi level E
FB
.
74
23/09/08
EF must be equal when different systems are
in contact and in thermodynamic equilibrium
When A and B are brought in contact, electrons will flow

from A into lower energy states of B, until thermal
equilibrium is reached.
Thermal equilibrium E
F
same in A & B
75
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Summary
Electron concentration
Hole concentration
Intrinsic carrier concentration :
In intrinsic semiconductor, Fermi level is close to but not

exactly in the centre between conduction and valence bands.
76
0
( )
exp
c F
c
E E
n N
kT
1

1
]
0
( )
exp
F v
v
E E
p N
kT
1
]
2
0 0
( )
exp exp
g
c v
i c v c v
E
E E
n n p N N N N
kT kT
1
1

1
1
]
]
Holds for both
intrinsic as well
as extrinsic
semiconductor
*
*
3
ln
4
p
Fi midgap
n
m
E E kT
m
_

,
23/09/08
Summary
In extrinsic semiconductor, Fermi level is close to conduction

band (n-type) or valence band (p-type)
Position of Fermi level in extrinsic semiconductor
In compensated n-type semiconductor electron concentration

is given by
When two different systems are in contact and in thermal

equilibrium, E
F
must be the same in both systems.
77
0
ln
F Fi
i
n
E E kT
n
_

,
2
2
0
2 2
d a d a
i
N N N N
n n

_
+ +

,

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Department of Microelectronics and Computer Engineering

Thermal-equilibrium concentration of electron and holes

Intrinsic carrier concentration

Intrinsic Fermi-level position

Dopant atoms and energy levels

Extrinsic carrier concentration and temperature dependence

Ionization energy of dopant atoms in silicon

Fermi level in extrinsic semiconductor

Fermi level in two systems in contact with each other and

Current is determined by flow rate and density of

The density of electron and holes are related to the

The equation is valid for both intrinsic and extrinsic

Intrinsic electron concentration = Intrinsic hole concentration

charge carriers due to thermal excitation

thermally generated electrons and holes always created in pairs.

High Electron Mobility

In Si four electrons in the valence shell participate in bonding.

atom with more than 4 valence electrons donor impurity

less than 4 acceptor impurity.

At low temperatures, donor impurities are partially ionized. As

Once all donor impurities are ionized, there is no increase in carrier

At high temperatures, intrinsic carrier concentration dominates and

In the next few slides, we will calculate the approximate ionization

We use Bohr atomic model for these calculations. For hydrogen

Donor impurity atom can be visualized as one donor electron

However we have to consider permittivity of silicon instead of

Bohr proposed that circumference of electron orbit = integer

Donor electron thus loosely bound to the donor atom.

We will next find the approximate ionization energy.

Donor electrons interact with each other

The single discrete donor energy will split into a band

The band may overlap the conduction band

If the concentration exceed N

At very high temperature behavior is just like the

Both donor and acceptor impurities in the same region

Department of Microelectronics and Computer Engineering

When A and B are brought in contact, electrons will flow

Intrinsic carrier concentration :

In intrinsic semiconductor, Fermi level is close to but not

In extrinsic semiconductor, Fermi level is close to conduction

Position of Fermi level in extrinsic semiconductor

In compensated n-type semiconductor electron concentration

When two different systems are in contact and in thermal

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