Electrical Measurements

References:

Horowitz & Hill, The Art of Electronics Scherz, Practical Electronics for Inventors Barnaal, Electronics for Scientic Application Diefenderfer & Holton, Principles of Electronic Instrumentation

Abstract This article aims to re-familiarize you with the electronic instrumentation you used in Physics 200 lab: components like resistors and capacitors, measuring devices like digital multimeters and oscilloscopes, and electrical sources like function generators and d.c. power supplies. In addition the usual schematic symbols for these devices are presented.

Components

In Physics 200 you learned about three passive, linear components: resistors (R), capacitors (a.k.a., condensers, C) and inductors (a.k.a., chokes or coils, L). These devices are called passive because they require no outside power source to operate (and thus circuits involving just these components cannot amplify: at best power in = power out). These devices are called linear because the current through these devices is linearly proportional to the voltage across them1 : I= 1 V Z (1)

The impedance Z (unit: ) determines the proportionality constant. Large impedances (think M) mean small currents (think A) ow from moderate driving voltages. Small impedances (think 1 ) mean large currents (1 A) ow from moderate driving voltages. Impedance2 is an inclusive term: for resistors the impedance is called resistance; for inductors and capacitors the impedance is called reactance. Inductors and capacitors are useful only in circuits with changing voltages and currents. (Note: changing voltage and/or current = alternating current = a.c.; unchanging current/voltage = direct current = d.c..) The reactance (or impedance) of inductors and capacitors depends on the frequency f of the current. A capacitors impedance is inversely proportional to frequency, so it impedes low frequency signals and passes high frequency signals. An inductors impedance is proportional to frequency, so it impedes high frequency currents but passes low frequency
1 Unless otherwise stated, you should always assume that a.c. voltage and current refers to the rootmean-square (rms) value of that quantity. That is what meters always report. Of course, this equation would also apply to peak or peak-to-peak values as long as they are consistently used. 2 Impedance is often distinguished as being a complex quantity (as in Z = a + bi, where i = 1 and a, b R). Resistors then have real impedances whereas Z is purely imaginary for inductors and capacitors. This advanced approach is followed in Physics 338. In Physics 200 this reality is hidden behind phasers.

ground

diode
anode

cathode

XC =

1 2 f C

X L = 2fL

Figure 1: The schematic symbols for common components including resistors (R), capacitors (C), and inductors (L). For these three linear devices there is a linear relationship between the current through the device (I) and the voltage across the device (V ). For resistors, the resistance, R = V /I is constant. For capacitors and inductors the reactance X = V /I depends on frequency (f ) as shown above. The two symbols for ground (zero volts) are, respectfully, chassis and earth ground. currents. Recall that current and voltage do not rise and fall simultaneously in capacitors and inductors as they do in resistors. In the inductors the voltage peaks before the current peaks (voltage leads current, ELI). In capacitors the current peaks before the voltage peaks (current leads voltage, ICE). Diodes are non-linear passive devices. Positive voltages on one terminal (the anode) results in large current ows; positive voltages on the other terminal (the cathode) results in essentially no current ow. Thus the dening characteristic of diodes is easy current ow in only one direction. The arrow on the schematic symbol for a diode shows the easy direction for current ow. On a diode component a white line often marks which terminal allows easy outward ow. Light Emitting Diodes (LED) are specialized diodes in which part of the electrical power (IV ) is dissipated as light rather than heat. The color of the emitted light (from IR to UV) depends on the material and V .

2
2.1

Sources
D.C. Current and Voltage Sources

An ideal voltage source produces a constant voltage, independent of the current drawn from the source. In a simple circuit consisting of a voltage source and a resistor, the power dissipated in the resistor (which is the same as the power produced by the voltage source) is V 2 /R. Thus as R 0 innite power is required. I hope it comes as no surprise that innite power is not possible, so ideal voltage sources do not exist. Every real voltage source has some sort of current limit built in. (Unfortunately it is not uncommon that the current limiting feature is the destruction the device beware!!!) Batteries can be thought of as an ideal voltage source in series with a small resistor3 , r, (the internal resistance). The maximum battery current ow (achieved if the external circuit is a short i.e., R
3

Thvenins Theorem claims most any two terminal device can be thought of this way! e

real battery

current source

battery

ac voltage transformer source

r
+

POWER ON
DC VOLTS

METER VOLTAGE

DC AMPS

OFF

CURRENT CURRENT ADJ

50 or
1.2

VOLTAGE ADJ

COARSE

FINE

lab power supply

function generator

Figure 2: The schematic symbols for common electric sources. Real sources can be modeled as ideal sources with hidden resistors. Lab power supplies are fairly close to ideal sources, if operated within specied limits. For example, the Lambda LL-901 specications report an internal resistance less than 4 m. 0) is V /r. Laboratory power supplies (battery eliminators) usually have an adjustable maximum current limit that can be achieved without damaging the device. When this current limit is reached the supplied voltage will be automatically reduced so no additional current will ow. When operating in this mode (current pegged at the upper limit, with actual output voltage varying so that current is not exceeded) the power source is acting as a nearly ideal current source. An ideal current source would produce a constant current, arbitrarily increasing the voltage if that currents meets a big resistance. In a simple circuit consisting of a current source and a resistor, the power dissipated in the resistor (which is the same as the power produced by the current source) is I 2 R. Thus as R innite power is required. No surprise: innite power is not available, so ideal current sources do not exist. Every real current source has some sort of voltage limit built in. Real current sources can be modeled as ideal current sources in parallel with a (large) internal resistance4 .

2.2

A.C. Voltage Sources

A function generator is a common source of a.c. signals. A function generator can produce a variety of wave shapes (sinusoidal, square, triangle, . . . ) at a range of frequencies, and can even sweep the frequency (i.e., vary the frequency through a specied range during a specied period). Usually the signals are balanced (i.e., produces as much positive voltage as negative), but a d.c. oset can be added to the signal, for example, producing a voltage of the form A cos(2f t) + B (2)

(In this case the d.c. oset would be B, the amplitude would be A, and the peak-to-peak voltage would be 2A.) Most function generators are designed to have an internal resistance of 50 and maximum voltage amplitude of around 10 V. Generally they have a power output of at most a few watts.
4

Nortons Theorem claims most any two terminal device can be thought of this way!

1.4

1.6 1. 8

.2
02 .0

.4
10

100

1K

10K 100K 1M

DC

.6
1

.8

PWR OFF

OFF

OFF

AMPLITUDE LO 50 OUT HI

1.0

2.0

VCG IN

GCV OUT

SWEEP OUT

PULSE OUT (TTL)

Certainly the most common a.c. source is the wall receptacle: 120 V at a frequency of 60 Hz. Transformers can be used to reduce this voltage to less dangerous levels for lab use. A variac (a variable transformer) allows you to continuously vary the voltage: 0120 V. Relatively large power (> 100 W) and current (> 1 A) can be obtained in this way. Of course the frequency is not changed by a transformer; it would remain 60 Hz.

3
3.1

Electrical Measurement
Digital Multimeter (DMM)

The most common measurement device is the digital multimeter (DMM). Feel free to call these devices voltmeters, but in fact they can measure much more than just volts. For example, the Keithley 169 is fairly generic, measuring volts (a.c. and d.c.), amps (a.c. and d.c.), and ohms. The hand-held Metex M-3800 measures the above and adds transistor hF E and diode test. The bench-top DM-441B measures all of the above and frequency too. The ease of switching measurement options should not blind you to the fact that these measurement options put the DMM into radically dierent modes. If, for example, the DMM is properly hooked up to measure voltage and without changing anything else you switch the DMM to measure amps, most likely something will be destroyed: either the DMM or the device it is connected to. Please be careful! Recall that voltage (or more properly potential dierence) is a measurement of the electrical push applied to an electron as it moves through a section of the circuit. It is analogous to water pressure in that the dierence in the quantity determines the driving force. (No pressure dierence; no net force.) Note that the presence of big push, in no way guarantees that there will be a large resulting ow (current). A large resistance (or for a.c. circuits, impedance) can restrict the ow even in the presence of a big push. In fact, large current ows are often driven by very small voltage dierences as a very fat (small resistance) wire is provided for the ow. Wires work by having very small resistance; an ideal wire has zero resistance, and hence nearly zero voltage dierence between its two ends. A voltmeter measures the potential dierence across or between the two selected points. A good voltmeter is designed to draw only a small current so it must be equivalent to a large resistance. Modern DDMs typically have input impedances greater than 1 M. Voltmeters with even larger resistance (T) are called electrometers. An ideal voltmeter would draw no current; it would be equivalent to an open circuit. (An open circuit [R ] is the opposite of short circuit [R 0] which is obtained if the two points are connected by an ideal wire.) Since voltmeters draw only a small current, they should not aect the circuit being measured. This makes the voltmeter an excellent diagnostic tool. Voltmeters always measure the voltage dierence between the two probes (e.g., to measure the voltage across a device place probes at opposite ends of the device), but occasionally you are asked to measure the voltage at a point. Those words imply that the black (a.k.a. common) probe is to be placed at ground. (In fact youll soon learn that oscilloscopes are designed as one-probe-at-ground voltmeters.) Measurement of the current ow through a wire, necessarily requires modication of the circuit. The ow normally going through the wire must be redirected so it goes through the ammeter. This requires breaking the path that the current normally uses, i.e., cutting the 4

an ammeter acts like a short circuit A

a voltmeter acts like a open circuit V

Figure 3: The schematic symbols for basic meters. An ammeter must substitute for an existing wire to work properly, whereas a voltmeter can be attached most anywhere. wire and letting the ammeter bridge the two now disconnected ends. (With luck, the wire may not need to be literately cut, perhaps just disconnected at one end.) Because current measurements require this modication of the circuit under study, one generally tries to avoid current measurements, and instead substitute a voltage measurement across a device through which the current is owing. Knowledge of the impedance of the device will allow you to calculate the current from the voltage. Because an ammeter substitutes for a wire, it should have a very small resistance. An ideal ammeter would have zero resistance, i.e., be a short circuit between its two leads. (Note that this is the opposite of a voltmeter, which ideally has an innite resistance between its two leads.) Real ammeters require a small voltage drop (typically a fraction of a volt for a full scale reading) to operate. This small V is called the voltage burden. I say again: converting a DMM from voltmeter to ammeter makes a drastic change from open circuit to short circuit. Making such a switch in a DMM connected to a circuit usually results in damaging something. Poking around in a circuit with a voltmeter is unlikely to cause damage, because the voltmeter acts like a huge resistor (not that dierent from the air itself). Poking around in a circuit with an ammeter is quite likely to cause damage, as it is linking two points with a wire, i.e., adding short circuits between points in the circuit. A DMM measures resistance by forcing a current through the leads and, at the same time, measuring the potential dierence between the leads. The resistance can then be calculated by the DMM from R = V /I. Note that since a DMM in resistance mode is sending a current through its leads (sourcing current) and assuming that this current is the only current owing through the device, you cannot measure the resistance of a powered device. Furthermore, you can almost never use the DMM to measure the resistance of a device attached to an existing circuit because the current injected by the DMM may end looping back through the circuit rather than through the device. (In addition injecting current into a circuit at random places may damage some components in the circuit.) Thus to measure the resistance of something, you almost always have to disconnect at least one end of it from its circuit. Lab Reminder: For accurate measurement you must use the appropriate scale: the smallest possible without producing an overscale. DMMs may report an overscale condition . Similarly, for signicant DMM by a ashing display or a nonsense display like: measurements you should record in your notebook every digit displayed by the DMM.

3.1.1

A.C. DMM Measurements

Some special considerations are needed when using a DMM to measure a.c. currents or voltages. First, DMMs give accurate readings only for frequencies in a limited range. DMMs fail at low frequencies because DMMs report several readings per second and, in order to be properly measured, the signal needs to complete at least one cycle per reading frame. Thus f > 20 Hz or so for accurate readings. At the high frequencies, the input capacitance ( 100 pF) of the DMM tends to short out the measurement (recall the impedance of a capacitor at high frequency is small). No SJU DMM operates accurately above 0.3 MHz; some DMMs have trouble above 1 kHz. The DMMs manual, of course, reports these specications. Recall that a.c. signals are time-variable signals . . . there is no steady voltage to report as the voltage. The solution is to report root-mean-square (rms) quantities. (The square root of the average of the square of the voltage.) Since this is a complex thing to calculate, most cheap DMMs assume that the signal is sinusoidal so that there is a relationship between the rms value and the peak value: Vrms = Vpeak / 2 (3)

These cheap DMMs nd the peak voltage, divide it by 2 and report the result as if it were an rms voltage. This of course means the meter reports faulty values if non-sinusoidal signals are applied. True rms meters properly calculate the rms quantities.

3.2

Oscilloscope

Generally speaking DMMs work in the audio frequency range: 20 Hz 20 kHz. Radio frequency (rf, say frequencies above 1 MHz) require an alternative measuring device: the oscilloscope (a.k.a., oscope or scope). Unlike the DMM, the oscilloscope usually measures voltage (not current). Also unlike the DMM, the scope eectively has only one lead: the black lead of the scope is internally connected to ground; the voltage on the red lead is displayed on the screen. (Note: with a DMM you can directly measure the 1 V potential dierence between two terminals at 100 V and 101 V. You cannot do this with a scopeits black lead is internally connected to ground so if you connect its black lead to the 100 V terminal you will cause a short circuit [the 100 V terminal connected to ground through the scope, which will probably damage either the device or the scope].) While a DMM takes a complex waveform and reduces it to a single number: Vrms , a scope displays the graph of voltage vs. time on its screen. Oscilloscopes are generally used to display periodic signals. Every fraction of a second, a new section of the wave is displayed. If these successively displayed wave-sections match, the display will show an apparently unchanging trace. Thus the triggering of successive wave-sections is critical for a stable display. And an unsteady display (or a display with ghosts) is a sign of a triggering problem. In addition, the scales used for the horizontal and vertical axes should be in accord with the signal. (That is you want the signal to neither be o-scale large or indistinguishable from zero. A too large time (horizontal) scale will result in displaying hundreds of cycles as a big blur; a too small time scale will result in just a fraction of a cycle being displayed.)

Multipurpose Knob
Tektronix TDS 1002B
TWO CHANNEL DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE 60 MHz 1 GS/s

Menu Select
AUTORANGE SAVE/RECALL MEASURE
ACQUIRE

Trigger
AUTOSET
RUN/ STOP SINGLE SEQ

HELP

UTILITY
REF MENU

CURSOR

DISPLAY DEFAULT SETUP

SAVE

VERTICAL
POSITION

HORIZONTAL
POSITION

TRIGGER
LEVEL

Option Buttons

PRINT

HORIZ MENU CH 1 MENU MATH MENU CH 2 MENU SET TO ZERO

TRIG MENU

SET TO 50%

VOLTS/DIV

SEC/DIV

FORCE TRIG

TRIG VIEW PROBE CHECK

CH 1
PROBE COMP ~5V@1kHz

CH 2

EXT TRIG
300 V CAT II

USB Flash Drive

Vertical

Horizontal

Figure 4: The Tektronix TDS 1002B is a two channel digital storage oscilloscope (DSO). Pushing a button in the Menu Select region displays a corresponding menu of the items to be re-congured adjacent to the option buttons. (The multifunction knob allows a continuous variable to be modied.) The vertical region has knobs that control the size (volts/div) and position of vertical (y) scales for channel 1 (CH 1) and channel 2 (CH 2). Push buttons in this region control the display of menus for those channels and combinations of those channels (math). The horizontal region has knobs that control the size (sec/div) and position of horizontal (x) scales. In addition to the Main time-base, this dual time-base scope can blow up a selected portion (Window) of the display. The controls to do this are in the horiz menu. The trigger region has a knob that controls the voltage level for the triggering and the trig menu button allows the display of congurable options for the trigger. Note particularly the autoset, default setup, and help buttons to the right of the Menu Select region.

trigger

display

horizontal position

trigger level

holdoff

Figure 5: An oscilloscope displays one wave-section after another making an apparently steady display. Determining when to start a new wave-section is called triggering. The level and slope of the signal determine a trigger point. The trigger point is placed in the center of the display, but it can be moved using the horizontal position knob. The holdo is an adjustable dead time following a triggered wave-section.

3.2.1

Oscilloscope Controls and How To Use Them

Pre-lab Exercise The knob-lled face of an oscilloscope may appear intimidating, but the controls are organized in a logical and convenient way to help you recall their functions. The class web site contains a line drawing of an oscilloscope (TDS1002Bscope.pdf). Print out this diagram and have it in hand as you read this section. As each control is discussed m below a circled number (e.g., 1 ) appears. Find this control on the line drawing and label it with that number. Attach your diagram in your notebook. The name of each control or feature will be printed in SmallCaps Text. Display Section The left hand side (lhs) of the scope is dominated by the display or m m screen 1 . Note that there is a USB port 2 below the displaythis allows you to save scope data and display images on a thumb drive! There is an additional USB port in the back. The power switch is on top of the scope, lhs.
m m Vertical Sections Right of the option buttons 25 29 are the knobs and buttons that control the vertical portions of the graph. Typically the display shows a graph of voltage (y or vertical) vs. time (x or horizontal). This scope has two BNC5 inputs so the vertical section is divided into two sections with identical controls for each input. The inputs are m m called channel 1 (CH 1) 5 and channel 2 (CH 2) 10 . The scale factor for each input is m 11 ; the vertical location of zero determined by the corresponding volts/div knob 6 & m m m volts on the screen is determined by the corresponding position knobs 8 & 13 . Note that the scale factors and the zero location for the channel traces are independently set. Therefore the graph axes can not show values in physical units (volts), rather the graph is displayed on a 8 10 grid with units called divisions. (Note that a division is about a cm.)

The volts/div (or sensitivity) knobs are similar to the range switch on a multimeter. To display a 2 volt signal, set the volts/div knob to 0.5 volts/div. A trace 4 div high will then be obtained, since 4 div 0.5 V/div = 2 V. The current settings of these sensitivity knobs is displayed in the lower lhs of the display. You should always adjust the sensitivity so that the signal displayed is at least 3 div peak-to-peak. The traces from the two channels look identical on the screen; the symbols 1- and 2- on the lhs of the display show the position of zero volts for each trace. If you are unsure which trace is which, moving a position knob will immediately identify the corresponding trace.
m m The ch 1 and ch 2 menu buttons 7 & 12 produce menus controlling how the corresponding input is modied and displayed. In addition pushing these menu buttons toggles the display/non-display of the corresponding signal.

The top menu item in ch 1 and ch 2 menus, is Coupling, with options: DC, AC, Ground. These options control how the signal supplied to the BNC is connected (coupled) to the scopes voltage measuring circuits. The Ground option means the scope ignores the input and instead the display will graph a horizontal line at zero volts (ground) this allows you to precisely locate and position the zero volt reference line for that channel on the grid. When AC is selected a capacitor is connected between the inputted signal and scopes electronics.
5 According to Wiki, this denotes bayonet Neill-Concelman connector. This coaxial cable connector is very commonly used when signals below 1 GHz are being transmitted. You can also use Wiki to learn about banana connectors and alligator clips (a.k.a. crocodile clips).

(a) Channel 1 Menu

(b) Cursor Menu

(c) Measure Menu

(d) Trigger Menu

Figure 6: Buttons (often in the Menu Select region) control which menu appears on the rhs of the display. Here are four examples.

This capacitor prevents any d.c. oset voltage from entering the scopes circuits. Thus any d.c. oset will be subtracted from the signal and the display will show the remaining signal oscillating around a mean of zero volts. The usual selection for Coupling is DC, which means the signal is displayed unmodied. Proper Practice: Use CouplingDC almost always. Exceptional circumstances like a d.c. oset larger than an interesting a.c. signal (i.e., B A in Eq. 2) or a requirement to measure an rms voltage in the usual way, i.e., with any d.c. oset removed, may force occasional, brief uses of CouplingAC, but dont forget to switch back to CouplingDC ASAP.
m In between the ch 1 and ch 2 menu buttons, nd the math menu 9 button. which is used to display combinations of CH 1 and CH 2 (+, , ) and Fourier transforms (FFT) of either signal.
Ground

Probe The second item from the bottom in the ch 1 and ch 2 menus is Probe. Probe is the name for the device/wire that connects the scope to the signal source. In this course most often your probe will be nothing more complex than a wire, so the choice should be 1X Voltage. Note that this is not the factory default choice (which is 10X Voltage). So one of the rst things you should do on turning on a scope, is check that the the probe actually attached to the scope matches what the scope thinks is attached to the scope. (If there is a mis-match, all scope voltage measurements will be wrong.) There m is a probe check button 3 on the scope to help you establish the attenuation of an unlabeled probe, but usually probes are labeled and it is faster just to immediately set the probe type yourself in the corresponding channel menu. Note: most probes used in this class have a switch to select either 10 or 1 attenuation. All SJU probes are voltage probes.

Input

FYI: The name 10 on a probe is quite confusing: 10 would be a better name as the voltage that reaches the scope has been reduced by a factor of 10. Why reduce a signal before measuring it? Because it reduces the probes impact on the circuit it is connected to. A 10 probe has a larger impedance (smaller capacitance and larger resistance) than a 1 probe and hence aects the circuit less. This is particularly important for high frequency measurements (which are not the focus of this class). Horizontal Section In the center-right of the scope face, nd the horizontal section. Just as in the vertical sections, there are knobs that control the horizontal scale (sec/div m m 15 ) and horizontal position 18 . In a single time-base scope, all the input channels must be displayed with the same horizontal scale (unlike the vertical scale). In this dual time base scope, a portion of the display can be expanded in a Window. The window controls are m found in the horiz menu 17 . When using the window feature the Main sec/div setting is labeled M and the Window sec/div setting is labeled W. Trigger Section As you might guess, the process of determining when to trigger and display the next wave-section is the most complex part of a scope. Luckily most often

1X

1 or 10

Switch
10X

10

the default settings will work OK. Generally you will want to trigger when the wave has m m reached a particular level 23 . But which wave? The trig menu 22 allows you to m set the Source: CH1, CH2, Ext (the signal connected to the ext trig BNC 14 in the horizontal section), Ext/5 (the same signal, but rst attenuated by a factor of 5useful for larger triggering signals), or AC Line (which uses the 60 Hz, 120 V receptacle power line as the triggering signaluseful for circuits that work synchronously with the line voltage). Just as in the vertical section, the Coupling of this source to the triggering electronics can occur in a variety of ways: subtract the dc oset (AC), lter out (attenuate or remove) high frequency (HF Reject, high means > 80 kHz), lter out low frequency (LF Reject, low means < 300 kHz), use hysteresis to reduce the eects of noise (Noise Reject), or directly connected (DC). Note: triggering with CouplingAC is a common choice as then a level of zero is sure to match the wave at some point. Similarly Noise Reject is not an uncommon choice. The above options go with TypeEdge. There are additional sophisticated and useful triggering modes for TypePulse and TypeVideo.
m Measure Menu The measure menu 36 allows up to ve measurements to be continuously updated and displayed. Push on one of the option buttons and a new menu is displayed allowing you to set the Source: CH1, CH2, MATH, and the Type: Freq, Period, Mean (voltage), Pk-Pk (peak-to-peak, i.e., the full range of voltage from the lowest valley to the highest peak), Cyc RMS (the root-mean-square voltage of the rst complete cycle), Min (minimum voltage), Max (maximum voltage), Rise Time, Fall Time (10% to 90% transitions), Pos(itive) Width, Neg(itive) Width (using the 50% level).

Warning: Unlike a DMM on AC, the option Cyc RMS does not subtract the d.c. oset before calculating rms voltage. You can assure yourself of a DMM-like rms result only if the channel is switched to CouplingAC. If a measurement is displayed with a question mark, try switching scales. (Generally the scope wants signals that are several divisions high and complete at least onebut not too manycycles in the display.)
m Cursor Menu The cursor menu 37 enables a pair of TypeAmplitude or TypeTime measuring lines. With Amplitude cursors, a pair of horizontal lines (cursors) appears. Hitting the appropriate option button allows the multifunction knob to move each cursor up or down to the required place. The voltage for each cursor is displayed along with the dierence (V ). With Time cursors, a pair of vertical lines appears. Hitting the appropriate option button allows the multifunction knob to move each line (cursor) right or left to the required place. The voltage and time for each cursor is displayed along with the dierences (t, V ), and frequency 1/t.

Display Values The bottom of the display is used to report key numerical values like scale settings. A typical example: CH1 500mV CH2 2.00V M 1.00ms 23-Nov-07 13:03 CH1 0.00V 1.01407kHz

The rst two numbers of the rst line are the volts/div for channels CH1 and CH2, M refers to the main time-base of 1 ms/div, and the nal sequence reports that positive edge 11

triggering at a level of 0.00 V is being used with channel 1 as the source. The second line shows the date/time and the frequency of the triggering signal. Run/Stop In normal operation, the scope is constantly updating the display. It is possible to freeze the display (i.e., take a snapshot of the voltage vs. time graph) using the m m run/stop 44 or single seq 43 buttons. Hit Me First The scope remembers option settings between uses. Thus unless you are the sole user of the scope it is wise to set it to a well dened initial state before proceeding. The m default setup 41 achieves this goal (but it sets the Probe10X Voltage, in the channel m menuswhich is not usually desired in this class). Similarly the autoset 42 button will attempt to make rational choices for scale factors, etc. given the signals connected to the m scope. If you want you can save commonly used setups using the save/recall 34 menu button.

Problems
1. (a) A 1.5 V battery can be modeled as an ideal 1.5 V voltage source in series with a 1 resistor. If this battery is connected to a 10 resistor (see below left), what voltage is actually across the 10 resistor? (b) A 1 mA current source can be modeled as an ideal 1 mA current source in parallel with a 1 M resistor. If this source is connected to a 10 k resistor (see below right), how much current actually ows through the 10 k resistor.?

1.5 V battery

1 M

1 mA

1 10
+

10 k

1.5 V power supply current source

2. (a) A voltage source produces a voltage V when its terminals are disconnected (open circuit). When a device that draws a current I is connected across its terminals, the voltage decreases to V V . What is the internal resistance? (b) A current source produces a current of I when a wire connects the terminals. When a device is instead connected to the terminals the current drops to I I and the voltage across the terminals is V . What is the internal resistance?

3. The manual for a stereo amplier warns that it can be damaged if its outputs are too heavily loaded. What sort of resistor would constitute a heavy load: (A) R = 1 M or (B) R = 1 ? Explain!

12

4. (a) A current of 3 mA ows into a circuit consisting of 3 resistors, and 10 mA ows out (see below left). Report the readings on the three voltmeters. Draw a schematic diagram showing which lead on each voltmeter is the red lead. (b) An unknown device is connected in a circuit with a 9 V battery and a 15 k resistor (see below right). The ammeter reads 0.5 mA. What does the voltmeter read?
V1 3 mA 5.6 k 1.8 k 10 mA V2 2.7 k ?? mA V3
device
+

15 k 9V V

5. What is the resistance (when operating) of a 100 W light bulb operating from a 120 V source? 6. An ideal ammeter should act like a wire and hence have zero volts between its terminals. However real ammeters are less than perfect. The specications for Keithley 196 in d.c. amps mode reports it has a voltage burden of about .15 V when measuring 100 mA on the proper scale. If you use a 196 to measure the current through a 15 resistor powered by a 1.5 V battery, what current does it read? 7. Which light bulb in the below left circuit shines the brightest? Why? Which light bulb shines the dimmest? Why?
A B

parallel
D C

series

V A

8. (a) An ammeter and a voltmeter are connected is series. Are either likely to be damaged? Why? Will either read the current or voltage of the battery? Why? (b) An ammeter and a voltmeter are connected in parallel. Are either likely to be damaged? Why? Will either read the current or voltage of the battery? Why? 9. An ideal voltmeter V1 is used to measure the voltage across the series combination of a battery and 1 k resistor; an ideal voltmeter V2 is used to measure the voltage across the battery alone. Which of the below is correct? (a) V1 > V2
battery
1 k

(b) V1 = V2 (c) V1 < V2

battery

13

10. The picture (right) shows a circuit in which a battery powers a light bulb. (a) Make a careful drawing showing how the voltage produced by the battery could be measured. Include details like exactly where the red and black leads on the voltmeter would be attached. (b) Make a careful drawing showing how the current produced by the battery could be measured. Include details like exactly where the red and black leads on the ammeter would be attached. 11. The specications for a Keithley 169 say that, when operating in a.c. volts mode, the inputs look like 1 M in parallel with 100 pF (see right). At what frequency is the current equally shared by the capacitor and the resistor?

Keithley 169 a.c. volts mode

100 pF

1 M

D Cell 1.5 V Battery

12. A typical lab power supply has knobs labeled Voltage Adjust and Current Adjust. If you turn the voltage knob the output voltage changes, but if you turn the current knob nothing seems to change and the current meter continues to read zero. Explain! 13. A function generator has an output impedance of 50 and, when unloaded and adjusted to produce its maximum output, produces a voltage amplitude of 10 V. What is the maximum power that can be transferred to an external device attached to the function generator? 14. Oscilloscope True or False: (a) When the vertical input coupling is set to dc mode, the voltage of an a.c. waveform cannot be measured. (b) When the vertical input coupling is set to ac mode, the voltage of a battery cannot be measured. 15. A circuit consists of an inductor (inductance L) connected directly to a 120 V, 60 Hz wall receptacle. What is the smallest L you could use and avoid blowing the 20 A fuse? A similar circuit consists of a capacitor connected directly to a wall receptacle. What is the largest C you could use and avoid blowing the fuse? 16. Manufacturers typically report DMM errors as a percentage of the reading plus a certain number of digits. In this context, one digit means a 1 in the rightmost displayed digit and zeros everywhere else. Consider a DMM display: 0.707. Find the absolute error in this reading if the device is: (a) MeTex-3800 DC current, 2 mA range. (b) MeTex-3800 AC current at 500 Hz, 2 A range. (c) Keithley 169 resistance, 2 k range. (d) Keithley 169 AC volts at 2 kHz, 2 V range. The specication sheets can be found posted in the lab or in the manuals in the physics library. Please note that errors should be rounded to one or two signicant gures. 14

17. Work the previous problem assuming the display reads: 0.007 18. The below left diagram shows a single sinusoidal scope trace. Determine: the peak-topeak voltage, the voltage amplitude, the rms voltage, the wave period and frequency. Assume that the bottom of the scope display reads: CH1 500mV M 1.00ms Ext 0.00V

19. The above right diagram shows a pair sinusoidal scope traces. Assume that the scope controls are set as in the previous problem with CH 2 (dotted) and CH 1 (solid) identical. Which trace is lagging: dotted or solid? What is the phase shift in degrees? 20. The section describing oscilloscope controls identied controls with a circled number m like: 1 . On the class web site, nd and print the le TDS1024Bscope.pdf which is a line drawing of an oscilloscope. On this hardcopy, locate every control and label each with the appropriate number.

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