What Is Electricity?

- Information Resource Center

Power is a form of energy. It is the flow of electrons. All matter is made up of atoms, and an atom has a center, called a nucleus. The nucleus contains positively charged particles called protons and uncharged particles called neutrons. The nucleus of an atom is surrounded by negatively charged particles called electrons. The negative charge of an electron is equal to the positive charge of a proton, and the number of electrons in an atom is usually equal to the number of protons. When the balancing force between protons and electrons is upset by an outside force, an atom may gain or lose an electron. When electrons are "lost" from an atom, the free movement of these electrons constitutes an electric current.

Power is a basic part of nature and it is one of our most widely used forms of energy. We get power, which is a secondary energy source, from the conversion of other sources of energy, like coal, natural gas, oil, nuclear power and other natural sources, which are called primary sources. Many cities and towns were built alongside waterfalls (a primary source of mechanical energy) that turned water wheels to perform work. Before power generation began slightly over 100 years ago, houses were lit with kerosene lamps, food was cooled in iceboxes, and rooms were warmed by wood-burning or coal-burning stoves. Beginning with Benjamin Franklin's experiment with a kite one stormy night in Philadelphia, the principles of power gradually became understood. In the mid-1800s, Thomas Edison changed everyone's life -- he perfected his invention -- the electric light bulb. Prior to 1879, power had been used in arc lights for outdoor lighting. Edison's invention used power to bring indoor lighting to our homes.

HOW IS A TRANSFORMER USED?

To solve the problem of sending power over long distances, George Westinghouse developed a device called a transformer. The transformer allowed power to be efficiently transmitted over long distances. This made it possible to supply power to homes and businesses located far from the electric generating plant.

Despite its great importance in our daily lives, most of us rarely stop to think how life would be like without power. Yet like air and water, we tend to take power for granted. Everyday, we use power to do many functions for us -- from lighting and heating/cooling our homes, to being the power source for televisions and computers. power is a controllable and convenient form of energy used in the applications of heat, light and power.

Today, the United States (U.S.) electric power industry is organized to ensure that an adequate supply of power is available to meet all demand requirements at any given instant.

HOW IS POWER GENERATED?

An electric generator is a device for converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. The process is based on the relationship between magnetism and power. When a wire or any other electrically conductive material moves across a magnetic field, an electric current occurs in the wire. The large generators used by the electric utility industry have a stationary conductor. A magnet attached to the end of a rotating shaft is positioned inside a stationary conducting ring that is wrapped with a long, continuous piece of wire. When the magnet rotates, it induces a small electric current in each section of wire as it passes. Each section of wire constitutes a small, separate electric conductor. All the small currents of individual sections add up to one current of considerable size. This current is used for electric power.

HOW ARE TURBINES USED TO GENERATE POWER?

An electric utility power station uses either a turbine, engine, water wheel, or other similar machine to drive an electric generator or a device that converts mechanical or chemical energy to power. Steam turbines, internal-combustion engines, gas combustion turbines, water turbines, and wind turbines are the most common methods to generate power.

Most of the power in the United States is produced through the use of steam turbines in power plants. A turbine converts the kinetic energy of a moving fluid (liquid or gas) to mechanical energy. Steam turbines have a series of blades mounted on a shaft against which steam is forced, thus rotating the shaft connected to the generator. In a fossil-fueled steam turbine, the fuel is burned in a furnace to heat water in a boiler to produce steam.

Coal, petroleum (oil), and natural gas are burned in large furnaces to heat water to make steam that in turn pushes on the blades of a turbine. Did you know power in the United States? In 2000, more than half (52%) of the county's 3.8 trillion kilowatthours used coal as its primary source of themal generated energy in power

stations.

Natural gas, in addition to being burned to heat water for steam, can also be burned to produce hot combustion gases that pass directly through a turbine, spinning the blades of the turbine to generate power. Gas turbines are commonly used when power utility usage is in high demand. In 2000, 16% of the nation's power was fueled by natural gas.

Petroleum can also be used to make steam to turn a turbine. Residual fuel oil, a product refined from crude oil, is often the petroleum product used in electric plants that use petroleum to make steam. Petroleum was used to generate less than three percent (3%) of all power generated in U.S. power plants in 2000.

Nuclear power is a method in which steam is produced by heating water through a process called nuclear fission. In nuclear power plants, a reactor contains a core of nuclear fuel, primarily enriched uranium. When atoms of uranium fuel are hit by neutrons they fission (split), releasing heat and more neutrons. Under controlled conditions, these other neutrons can strike more uranium atoms, splitting more atoms, and so on. Thereby, continuous fission can take place, forming a chain reaction releasing heat. The heat is used to turn water into steam, that, in turn, spins a turbine that generates power. Nuclear power is used to generate 20% of all the country's power.

Hydropower, the source for 7% of U.S. power generation, is a process in which flowing water is used to spin a turbine connected to a generator. There are two basic types of hydroelectric systems that produce power. In the first system, flowing water accumulates in reservoirs created by the use of dams. The water falls through a pipe called a penstock and applies pressure against the turbine blades to drive the generator to produce power. In the second system, called run-of-river, the force of the river current (rather than falling water) applies pressure to the turbine blades to produce power.

OTHER GENERATING SOURCES

Geothermal power comes from heat energy buried beneath the surface of the earth. In some areas of the country, enough heat rises close to the surface of the earth to heat underground water into steam, which can be tapped for use at steam-turbine plants. This energy source generates less than 1% of the power in the country.

Solar power is derived from the energy of the sun. However, the sun's energy is not available full-time and it is widely scattered. The processes used to produce power using the sun's energy have historically been more expensive than using conventional fossil fuels. Photovoltaic conversion generates electric power directly from the light of the sun in a photovoltaic (solar) cell. Solar-thermal electric generators use the radiant energy from the sun to produce steam to drive turbines. Less than 1% of the nation's generation is based on solar power.

Wind power is derived from the conversion of the energy contained in wind into power. Wind power, like the sun, is rapidly growing source of power, and is used for less than 1% of the nation's power. A wind turbine is similar to a typical wind mill.

Biomass includes wood, municipal solid waste (garbage), and agricultural waste, such as corn cobs and wheat straw. These are some other energy sources for producing power. These sources replace fossil fuels in the boiler. The combustion of wood and waste creates steam that is typically used in conventional steamelectric plants. Biomass accounts for less than 1% of the power generated in the United States.

The power produced by a generator travels along cables to a transformer, which changes power from low voltage to high voltage. Power can be moved long distances more efficiently using high voltage. Transmission lines are used to carry the power to a substation. Substations have transformers that change the high voltage power into lower voltage power. From the substation, distribution lines carry the power to homes, offices and factories, which require low voltage power.

HOW IS POWER MEASURED?

Power is measured in units of power called watts. It was named to honor James Watt, the inventor of the steam engine. One watt is a very small amount of power. It would require nearly 750 watts to equal one horsepower. A kilowatt represents 1,000 watts. A kilowatt-hour (kWh) is equal to the energy of 1,000 watts working for one hour. The amount of power a power plant generates or a customer uses over a period of time is measured in kilowatthours (kWh). Kilowatthours are determined by multiplying the number of kW's required by the number of hours of use. For example, if you use a 40-watt light bulb 5 hours a day, you have used 200 watts of power, or .2 kilowatthours of electrical energy..

Electric Power in General

Traditional electric utilities in the United States are responsible for ensuring an adequate and reliable source of power to all consumers in their service territories at a reasonable cost. Electric utilities include investorowned, publicly owned, cooperatives, and Federal utilities. Power marketers are also considered electric utilities--these entities buy and sell power, but usually do not own or operate generation, transmission, or

distribution facilities. Utilities are regulated by local, State, and Federal authorities.

The electric power industry is evolving from a highly regulated, monopolistic industry with traditionally structured electric utilities to a less regulated, competitive industry. The Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978 (PURPA) opened up competition in the generation market with the creation of qualifying facilities. The Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPACT) removed some constraints on ownership of electric generation facilities and encouraged increased competition in the wholesale electric power business.

Basic Electricity - Electrical Definition

Basic electricity is described in many ways. When an electric circuit flows through a conductor, a magnetic field (or "flux") develops around the conductor. The highest flux density occurs when the conductor is formed into a coil having many turns. In electronics and basic electricity, a coil is usually known as an inductor. If a steady DC current is run through the coil, you would have an electromagnet - a device with the properties of a conventional magnet, except you can turn it on or off by placing a switch in the circuit.

Basic Electrical Theory There are four basic electrical quantities that we need to know:

Current Potential Difference (Voltage) Power Resistance Electrical Current Current is a flow of charge. Each electron carries a charge of 1.6 1019 coulombs. This is far too small to be any use, so we consider electricity to flow in packets called coulombs. When there is a flow of 1 coulomb per second, a current of 1 amp is flowing. Current is measured in ampres, or amps (A).
Potential Difference Potential difference is often referred to as voltage. There are several ways of defining voltage; the correct physics definition is energy per unit charge, in other words, how big a job of work each lump of charge can do.

Power in a Circuit Power in a circuit can be worked out using the simple relationship:

Power (W) = Voltage (V) Current (A)

Electrical Resistance This is the opposition to the flow of an electric current.

There's reciprocity in the interaction between electron flow and magnetism. If you sweep one pole of a magnet quickly past an electrical conductor (at a right angle to it), a voltage will be momentarily "induced" in the conductor. The polarity of the voltage will depend upon which pole of the magnet you're using, and in which direction it sweeps past the conductor.

This phenomenon becomes more apparent when the conductor is formed into a coil of many turns.

Figure 1 shows a coil mounted close to a magnet that is spinning on a shaft. As the north pole of the magnet sweeps past the coil, a voltage is induced in the coil, and, if there is a "complete" circuit, current will flow. As the south pole of the magnet sweeps past, a voltage of opposite polarity is induced, and current flows in the opposite direction.

This relationship in basic electricity is the fundamental operating principle of a generator. The output, known as alternating current, is the type of power that electric utility companies supply to businesses and homes. A practical generator would likely have two coils mounted on opposite sides of the spinning magnet and wired together in a series connection. Because the coils are in a series, the voltages combine, and the voltage output of the generator will be twice that of each coil.

Figure 2 is a graph of the voltage produced by such a generator as a function of time. Let's assume that this happens to be a 120-volt, 60-Hz generator. The voltage at one point in the cycle momentarily passes through 0 volts, but it's headed for a maximum of 169.7 volts. After that point, the voltage declines, passing through 0 volts, then reverses its polarity, and has a negative "peak" of -169.7 volts.

This curve is known as a sine wave since the voltage at any point is proportional to the sine of the angle of rotation. The magnet is rotating 60 times a second, so the sine wave repeats at the same frequency, making the period of a single cycle one-sixtieth of a second.

Electricity appears in two forms: alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC). Direct current does not change directions-- the electron flow is always from the negative pole to the positive pole-- although as we mentioned before, the electrons themselves don't really "move," it's the holes that are created that "move." Direct current is almost always what is used inside of electronic devices to power the various internal components, but it is a harmful thing in audio signals, which are alternating current. Alternating current does change direction-- standard household electricity is alternating current, because of its flexibility in traveling long distances. It changes direction at a specific frequency-- 60 times per second, or 60 Hz (in the United States, Japan, and a couple of other countries; in Europe the standard is 50 Hz). Audio signals vary their directionalternation according to the frequency in question.

AC - ALTERNATING CURRENT Alternating current or AC electricity is the type of electricity commonly used in homes and businesses throughout the world.

While the flow of electrons through a wire in direct current (DC) electricity is continuous in one direction, the

current in AC electricity alternates in direction. The back-and-forth motion occurs between 50 and 60 times per second, depending on the electrical system of the country.

AC is created by an AC electric generator, which determines the frequency. What is special about AC electricity is that the voltage in can be readily changed, thus making it more suitable for long-distance transmission than DC electricity. But also, AC can employ capacitors and inductors in electronic circuitry, allowing for a wide range of applications.

DC - DIRECT CURRENT In a direct-current system, it's easy to determine voltage because it is nonvarying or varies slowly over time. You can simply make a measurement with a DC voltmeter. But in an AC circuit, the voltage is constantly changing.

Electrical engineers state the voltage of an AC sine wave as the RMS (root-mean-square), a value equal to the peak value of the sine wave divided by the square root of two, which is approximately 1.414. If you know the RMS voltage, you can multiply it by the square root of two to calculate the peak voltage of the curve. If you were to power a light bulb from 120V(RMS) AC, you would get the same amount of light from the bulb as you would by powering it from 120V DC. Yet another device uses electromagnetic induction: the transformer.

Just as an iron core improves the inductance of a coil, it has the same positive effect in a transformer, and most power transformers are wound on iron cores.

In order to understand how electricity is created and works it is necessary to look at how all matter is structured. All matter is made up of molecules that have a certain number of atoms, for example one molecule of water is made up of two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen giving a symbol of H 2 O. All other matter also has a symbol like this and is made up of atoms.

To be able to understand electricity however, the atom must be broken down even further into a nucleus, electrons and protons. The nucleus is made up of positively charged protons and neutrally charged neutrons that generally balance the number of negatively charged electrons, which are moving around the nucleus in a similar manner to the planets circling the sun.

The outer ring of electrons is called the Valency Shell and the electrons contained in this ring are called Valence Electrons. These are the electrons which are knocked or forced out to form a flow of electricity. If one or more electrons are moved out of the the atom it will leave the atom with more protons than electrons, which means that the atom will be positively charged.

One rule that is very prevalent in all forms of electricity, and also magnetism, is that like charges, or poles, repel and unlike charges, poles, will attract. This means that a positively charged object will attract a negatively charged one, but if both charges are the same then they will repel each other.

ELECTRICITY GENERATION

A "generator" and "motor" are essentially the same thing: what you call it depends on whether electricity is going into the unit or coming out of it.

A generator produces electricity. In a generator, something causes the shaft and armature to spin. An electric current is generated, as shown in the picture (lighting bolt).

Lots of things can be used to make a shaft spin - a pinwheel, a crank, a bicycle, a water wheel, a diesel engine, or even a jet engine. They're different sizes but it's the same general idea. It doesn't matter what's used to spin the shaft - the electricity that's produced is the same.

A motor uses electricity. In a motor, the electricity comes in through wires attached to the positive (+) and negative (-) terminals. The electric current causes the armature and shaft to spin. If there's just a little current and it's a small motor, it won't do very much work (i.e. it can only spin a small fan). If it's a large motor and it's using a lot of electricity, it can do a lot of work (i.e. spin a large fan very fast; lift a very heavy load; or whatever the motor is being used for).

Electric generators are essentially very large quantities of copper wire spinning around inside very large magnets, at very high speeds.

A commercial utility electric generator -- for example, a 180-megawatt generator at the Hawaiian Electric Company's Kahe power plant on Oahu -- can be quite large. It is 20 feet in diameter, 50 feet long, and weighs over 50 tons. The copper coils (called the "armature") spin at 3600 revolutions per minute. Although the principle is simple (copper wire and magnets), it's not necessarily easy!

Steam turbine generators, gas turbine generators, diesel engine generators, alternate energy systems (except photovoltaics), even nuclear power plants all operate on the same principle - magnets plus copper wire plus motion equals electric current. The electricity produced is the same, regardless of source.

So where do all the different fuels come in? It's all a question of how to get (and keep) the system moving (i.e. how to keep the copper wire spinning around).

In a steam power plant, fuels (such as petroleum, coal, or biomass) are burned to heat water which turns into steam, which goes through a turbine, which spins...turning the copper wire (armature) inside the generator and generating an electric current.

A geothermal power plant is pretty much a steam power plant, since what comes out of the earth is steam. Rainwater soaks into the ground and goes down, down, down...far enough until it reaches a region which is really hot (in Hawaii, that's about 6000 feet). A well is drilled, the steam comes out, goes through a heat exchanger, and spins a turbine... turning the copper wire (armature) inside the generator and generating an electric current. By the time the steam has gone through the heat exchanger, it has cooled off and become warm water. It is then re-injected into the ground.

In a gas turbine power plant, fuels are burned to create hot gases which go through a turbine, which spins...turning the copper armature inside the generator and generating an electric current.

In a nuclear power plant, nuclear reactions create heat to heat water, which turns into steam, which goes through a turbine, which spins...turning the copper armature inside the generator and generating an electric current.

In a wind turbine, the wind pushes against the turbine blades, causing the rotor to spin...turning the copper armature inside the generator and generating an electric current.

In a hydroelectric turbine, flowing (or falling) water pushes against the turbine blades, causing the rotor to spin...turning the copper armature inside the generator and generating an electric current.

Consumers expect electricity to be available whenever they plug in an appliance, turn a switch, or open a refrigerator. Satisfying these instantaneous demands requires an uninterrupted flow of electricity. In order to meet this requirement, utilities and nonutility electricity power producers operate several types of electric generating units, powered by a wide range of fuel sources. These include fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and petroleum), uranium, and renewable fuels (water, geothermal, wind, and other renewable energy sources).

Coal was the fuel used to generate the largest share (51.8 percent) of electricity in 2000 1,968 billion kilowatthours(kWh). This is over one and a half times the annual electricity consumption of all U.S. households (1,141 billion kWh). Natural gas was used to generate 612 billion kWh (16.1 percent), and petroleum accounted for 109 billion kWh (3 percent).

Steam-electric generating units burn fossil fuels, such as coal, natural gas, and petroleum. The steam turns a turbine that produces electricity through an electrical generator. Natural gas and petroleum are also burned in gas turbine generators where the hot gases produced from combustion are used to turn the turbine, which, and in turn, spins the generator to produce electricity. Additionally, petroleum is burned in generating units with internal-combustion engines. The combustion occurs inside cylinders of the engine, which is connected to the shaft of the generator. The mechanical energy provided from the engine drives the generator to produce energy.

In 2000, approximately 40 quads of energy were used to generate electricity. Roughly one-third of this was converted into the 13 quads of electricity that reached end-users (3,800 billion kilowatthours). The other twothirds wound up mostly as waste heat and dissipated into the environment.

In nuclear-powered generating units, the boiler is replaced by a reactor in which the fission of uranium is used to make steam to drive the turbine. Nuclear generating units accounted for the second largest share (20 percent) of electricity generation in the United States in 2000, 754 billion kWh.

Hydro electricity units use flowing water to spin a turbine connected to a generator. In a falling water system, water is accumulated in reservoirs created by dams, then released through conduits to apply pressure against the turbine blades to drive the generator. In a run-of-the-river system, the force of the river current applies the pressure to the turbine blades to produce electricity. In 2000, hydroelectric generation had the fourth largest share (7 percent) of electricity production at 273 billion kWh..

Nonwater renewable sources of electricity generation presently contribute only small amounts (about 2 percent) to total power production. These sources include geothermal, refuse, waste heat, waste steam, solar, wind, and wood. Electricity generation from these sources in 2000 totaled 84 billion kWh. Total electric power industry generation in 2000 was 3,800 billion kWh, 2.5 percent greater than the 1999 total of 3,705 billion kWh. Of this total, utilities net generation for 2000 was 3,015 billion kWh, and net generation by nonutility power producers was 785 billion kWh.

Sources of Electricity

Introduction Sources of electricity are everywhere in the world. Worldwide, there is a range of energy resources available to generate electricity. These energy resources fall into two main categories, often called renewable and nonrenewable energy resources. Each of these resources can be used as a source to generate electricity, which is a very useful way of transferring energy from one place to another such as to the home or to industry. Non-renewable sources of energy can be divided into two types: fossil fuels and nuclear fuel. Fossil fuels Sources of electricity include fossil fuels are found within the rocks of the Earth's surface. They are called fossil fuels because they are thought to have been formed many millions of years ago by geological processes acting on dead animals and plants, just like fossils. Coal, oil and natural gas are fossil fuels. Because they took millions of years to form, once they are used up they cannot be replaced. Oil and natural gas Sources of electricity include oil and gas are chemicals made from molecules containing just carbon and hydrogen. All living things are made of complex molecules of long strings of carbon atoms. Connected to these carbon atoms are others such as hydrogen and oxygen. A simple molecule, called methane (CH4), is the main component of natural gas. Crude oil (oil obtained from the ground) is a sticky, gooey black stuff. It contains many different molecules, but all are made of carbon and hydrogen atoms. How were they formed? Gas and oil were formed from the remains of small sea creatures and plants that died and fell to the bottom of seas. Over many millions of years, layers of mud or other sediments built up on top of these dead animals and plants. The pressure from these layers and heat from below the Earth's crust gradually changed the once-living material into oil and natural gas. Over time, the layers of rocks in the Earth's crust move and may become squashed and folded. Gas and oil may move through porous rocks and may even come to the surface. In some places, pockets of oil and gas can be found, because non-porous rocks have trapped them. Natural gas and crude oil can be found in many places around the world, such as the Middle East (about 70 per cent of the world's known resources of oil), the USA and under the North Sea off the coast of the UK. When gas and oil burn they produce mainly carbon dioxide and water, releasing the energy they contain. Crude oil is a mixture of different chemicals and is usually separated out into fuels such as petrol, paraffin, kerosene and heavy fuel oils. The oil-based fuels provide less energy per kilogram than natural gas. Both oil and natural gas produce carbon dioxide, which is a greenhouse gas.

How long will they last? Oil and gas are non-renewable: they will not last forever. New sources of oil and gas are constantly being sought. It is thought that the current resources under the North Sea will last about another 20 years and the world resources will last for about 70 years. Estimates vary, however, because we do not know where all the resources are and we do know how quickly we will use them. It is thought that with new discoveries these fossil fuels will last well into the next century. Advantages These sources of energy are relatively cheap and most are easy to get and can be used to generate electricity. Disadvantages When these fuels are burned they produce the gas carbon dioxide, which is a greenhouse gas and is a major contributor to global warming. Transporting oil around the world can produce oil slicks, pollute beaches and harm wildlife. Coal Sources of electricity can include coal, which mainly consists of carbon atoms that come from plant material from ancient swamp forests. It is a black solid that is reasonably soft. You can scratch it with a fingernail. It is not as soft as charcoal, however, and is quite strong. It can be carved into shapes. There are different types of coal. Some contain impurities such as sulphur that pollute the atmosphere further when they burn, contributing to acid rain. How was it formed? Millions of years ago, trees and other plants grew rapidly in a tropical climate, and when they died they fell into swamps. The water in the swamps prevented the plant material from decaying completely and peat was formed. As time passed, layer upon layer of peat built up. The pressure from these layers and heat from below the Earth's crust gradually changed the material into coal. Coal can be found in parts of the world that were once covered with swampy forests, such as the UK about 250 million years ago. There are large deposits in China, USA, Europe and Russia. South Africa also has relatively large deposits. When coal burns it produces mainly carbon dioxide, some carbon monoxide and soot (which is unburned carbon). Many coals when burned produce smoky flames. Their energy content weight for weight is not as great as oil. When coal burns it produces more carbon dioxide than oil. How long will the supply of coal last? The world has relatively large reserves of coal, more so than oil and gas. Estimates vary, but suggestions are that supplies will last well into the next century. Advantages Coal is relatively cheap, with large deposits left that are reasonably easy to obtain, some coal being close to the surface. It is relatively easy to transport because it is a solid.

Disadvantages Some sources of coal are deep below the ground, as in the UK. They can be difficult, costly and dangerous to mine. Burning coal without first purifying it contributes to global warming, as well as to the production of smog (smoke and fog), which is harmful to health. It is a finite resource and will eventually run out. Nuclear fuel

Static Electricity Explained

Static electricity is an electric charge built up on persons or objects through friction. It is most familiar as an occasional annoyance in seasons of low humidity, but can be destructive and harmful in some situations. When working in direct contact with integrated cicuit electronics, or in the presence of flammable gas, care must be taken to avoid accumulating and discharging static electricity.

Static electricity is electricity that does not flow in a current. Static electricity generated by rubbing two nonmagnetic objects together. The friction between the two objects generates attraction because the substance with an excess of electrons transfers them to the positively-charged substance. Usually, substances that don't conduct current electricity (insulators) are good at holding a charge. These substances may include rubber, plastic, glass or pitch. The electrons that are transferred are stored on the surface of an object.

Materials Causing Charges

It is created by putting certain materials together and then pulling them apart causes excess electrical charges to be created on their surfaces. This can be done by pushing them together and pulling them apart or by rubbing the materials together, which is the main way it is created.

Excess Of Charges

Most matter is electrically neutral. That means its atoms and molecules have the same number of electrons as protons. If a material somehow obtains extra electrons and attaches them to the atom's outer orbits or shells, that material has a negative ( ) charge. Likewise, if a material loses electrons, it has an excess of positive (+) charges. The electric field from the excess of charges then causes the electric effects of attraction, repulsion or a spark (lightning).

Stealing Electrons

According to Solar System Model (or Bohr Model) of the atom, electrons are in orbits or shells around the

nucleus. A maximum number of electrons are allowed in each orbit. Forces in each atom seek to reach that maximum number, such that if an element is just one electron short of the maximum amount in its outer orbit, it would try to "steal" an electron from another element that may be just starting its outer orbit. This is the basis of chemical reactions.

Adhesive Molecular Force

An electric charge will also tend to hold two different materials together. In that situation, the force is called the adhesive molecular force. When different materials are pressed together and then pulled apart, the adhesive molecular force pulls electrons from material unto the other. This creates the phenomenon known as "static electricity".

You can see this electric charge effect with a piece of Scotch tape or similar tape. First verify that it is not attracted to your finger. Then stick it to some surface and then pull it off. Put you finger near the tape and it will now be attracted to your finger, showing that there is an excess of charges on the tape.

Despite their small size, protons and electrons carry an electrical charge. Protons carry a "positive" charge, while electrons carry a "negative" energy charge.

Usually, the two different charges balance each other out, and nothing happens. But when two objects with like charges (all positive or all negative) come together, the charges repel and the objects move away from each other. Objects with opposite charges attract each other because the different charges want to enter a state of balance with each other.

Objects can get a negative charge by picking up electrons from other objects. For example, when your shoes scuff against the rug, your shoes are actually picking up electrons from the rug. The electrons fly over your body, giving you a negative charge.

Your new electrons fly over your body because they are looking for a positive charge. If you touch a metal doorknob, the electrons on your body will leap into the metal, attracted by the protons there. The transfer of electrons is actually a small electrical current, and produces the tiny electric shock you feel called Static electricity.

Lightning is similar, except on a much bigger scale. Both lightning and an electric charge happens because of the attraction between the opposite static electricity charges.

Not friction

Although your can create an electric charge by pressing materials together and pulling them apart, rubbing them together works even better, except in the case of something sticky like tape.

One unfortunate result from saying that rubbing materials creates this electric charge is that most people think that friction causes the charges to build up. It is not friction that causes the spark, rather it is the adhesive forces that pull off electrons.

Dry human skin and rabbit fur have the greatest tendency to give up electrons when rubbed on something and become positively ( + ) charged. Teflon and vinyl have the greatest tendency to become negatively charged ( ) when rubbed. If you want to create it, rubbing fur on teflon should give the best results.

In conclusion

It occurs when there are an excess of positive (+) or negative (-) charges on an object's surface. You can create a charge by rubbing certain materials together. It is not caused by friction. The position of the material in the Triboelectric Series determines how effectively the charges will be exchanged.

SOLAR ELECTRICITY EXPLAINED

Solar electricity is created by using Photovoltaic (PV) technologyby converting solar energy into solar electricity from sunlight. Photovoltaic systems use sunlight to power ordinary electrical equipment, for example, household appliances, computers and lighting. The photovoltaic (PV) process converts free solar energy - the most abundant energy source on the planet - directly into solar power. Note that this is not the familiar "passive" or Solar electricity thermal technology used for space heating and hot water production.

A PV cell consists of two or more thin layers of semi-conducting material, most commonly silicon. When the silicon is exposed to light, electrical charges are generated and this can be conducted away by metal contacts as direct current (DC). The electrical output from a single cell is small, so multiple cells are connected together and encapsulated (usually behind glass) to form a module (sometimes referred to as a "panel"). The PV module is the principle building block of a PV system and any number of modules can be connected together to give the desired electrical output.

PV equipment has no moving parts and as a result requires minimal maintenance. It generates solar electricity without producing emissions of greenhouse or any other gases, and its operation is virtually silent.

What is PV power used for?

PV systems supply solar electricity to many applications in the UK, ranging from systems supplying power to city buildings (which are also connected to the normal local solar power network) to systems supplying power to garden lights or to remote telecom relay stations.

The main area of interest in the UK today is grid connect PV systems. These systems are connected to the local solar electricity network. This means that during the day, the solar electricity generated by the PV system can either be used immediately (which is normal for systems installed on offices and other commercial buildings), or can be sold to one of the electricity supply companies (which is more common for domestic systems where the occupier may be out during the day). In the evening, when the electrical system is unable to provide the electricity required, power can be bought back from the network. In effect, the grid is acting as a Solar electricity energy storage system, which means the PV system does not need to include battery storage.

Grid connect PV systems are often integrated into buildings. PV technology is ideally suited to use on buildings, providing pollution and noise-free solar power without using extra space. The use of photovoltaics on buildings has grown substantially in the UK over the last few years, with many impressive examples already in operation.

PV systems can be incorporated into buildings in various ways. Sloping rooftops are an ideal site, where modules can simply be mounted using frames. Photovoltaic systems can also be incorporated into the actual building fabric, for example PV roof tiles are now available which can be fitted as would standard tiles. In addition, PV can also be incorporated as building facades, canopies and sky lights amongst many other applications.

Stand-alone photovoltaic systems have been used for many years in the UK to supply solar electricity to applications where grid solar power supplies are unavailable or difficult to connect to. Examples include monitoring stations, radio repeater stations, telephone kiosks and street lighting. There is also a substantial market for PV technology in the leisure industry, with battery chargers for boats and caravans, as well as for powering garden equipment such as solar electricity fountains. These systems normally use batteries to store the solar power, if larger amounts are required they can be combined with another source of power - a biomass generator, a wind turbine or diesel generator to form a hybrid power supply system.

PV technology is also widely used in the developing world. The technology is particularly suited here, where electricity grids are unreliable or non-existent, with remote locations often making PV power supply the most economic option. In addition, many developing countries have high solar radiation levels year round.

Types of PV Cell

Monocrystalline Silicon Cells: Made using cells saw-cut from a single cylindrical crystal of silicon, this is the most efficient of the photovoltaic (PV) technologies. The principle advantage of monocrystalline cells are their high efficiencies, typically around 15%, although the manufacturing process required to produce monocrystalline silicon is complicated, resulting in slightly higher costs than other technologies.

Multicrystalline Silicon Cells: Made from cells cut from an ingot of melted and recrystallised silicon. In the manufacturing process, molten silicon is cast into ingots of polycrystalline silicon, these ingots are then saw-cut into very thin wafers and assembled into complete cells. Multicrystalline cells are cheaper to produce than monocrystalline ones, due to the simpler manufacturing process. However, they tend to be slightly less efficient, with average efficiencies of around 12%., creating a granular texture

Thick-film Silicon: Another multicrystalline technology where the silicon is deposited in a continuous process onto a base material giving a fine grained, sparkling appearance. Like all crystalline PV, this is encapsulated in a transparent insulating polymer with a tempered glass cover and usually bound into a strong aluminium frame.

Amorphous Silicon: Amorphous silicon cells are composed of silicon atoms in a thin homogenous layer rather than a crystal structure. Amorphous silicon absorbs light more effectively than crystalline silicon, so the cells can be thinner. For this reason, amorphous silicon is also known as a "thin film" PV technology. Amorphous silicon can be deposited on a wide range of substrates, both rigid and flexible, which makes it ideal for curved surfaces and "fold-away" modules. Amorphous cells are, however, less efficient than crystalline based cells, with typical efficiencies of around 6%, but they are easier and therefore cheaper to produce. Their low cost makes them ideally suited for many applications where high efficiency is not required and low cost is important.

Other Thin Films: A number of other promising materials such as cadmium telluride (CdTe) and copper indium diselenide (CIS) are now being used for PV modules. The attraction of these technologies is that they can be manufactured by relatively inexpensive industrial processes, certainly in comparison to crystalline silicon technologies, yet they typically offer higher module efficiencies than amorphous silicon. New technologies based on the photosynthesis process are not yet on the market.

Typical PV System Configuration

The components typically required in a grid-connected PV system are illustrated below.

The PV array consists of a number of individual photovoltaic modules connected together to give the required power with a suitable current and voltage output. Typical modules have a rated power output of around 75 - 120 Watts peak (Wp) each. A typical domestic system of 1.5 - 2 kWp may therefore comprise some 12 - 24 modules covering an area of between 12 - 40 m2, depending on the technology used and the orientation of the array with respect to the sun.

Most PV modules deliver direct current (DC) electricity at 12 volts (V), whereas most common household appliances in the UK run off alternating current (AC) at 230 V. An inverter is used to convert the low voltage DC to higher voltage AC. Numerous types of inverter are available, but not all are suitable for use when feeding power back into the UK mains supply. Good suppliers and installers of grid-connect PV systems will be able to offer advice on suitability of commonly available models.

Other components in a typical grid-connected PV system are the array mounting structure and the various cables and switches needed to ensure that the PV generator can be isolated both from the building and from the mains. Again, good suppliers and installers of grid-connect PV systems will be able to offer advice on these aspects of the PV system.

Finally, a meter will be required to ensure that the system owner can be credited for any PV power fed into the mains supply.

Suppliers will normally offer a 12 months warranty on the system, together with 2 years on the inverter and a performance warranty of 10 - 25 years on the modules.