Bamboo

Economics and market potential of bamboo for shoots and engineered products in the Philippines
Merlyn Carmelita N. Rivera1

Abstract
Bamboo has been widely used for traditional purposes. Bamboo products are also good substitutes for wood products but they have not been widely accepted. A study was undertaken to determine the potential demand for engineered bamboo and bamboo shoots and to compute the costs and returns of adopting various treatments implemented in the Ilocos Norte, Capiz and Bukidnon sites of the bamboo project funded by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR). Bamboo shoot production is not pursued on a large-scale basis in the Philippines as there is no canning factory in the country that can absorb production of this perishable product. Furthermore, the pungent taste and odour of the shoots, availability of other vegetables and relatively low price of alternatives affect the acceptability of this product. Better technologies need to be developed to address the sensory issues if the production and utilisation of shoots are to be promoted. Awareness of the significance of bamboo shoots as an alternative or additional food source must be improved through information campaign drives such as cooking festivals and other extension strategies. The high cost of production and transport impedes the adoption of relevant technologies in the engineered bamboo industry. In addition, competition from China limits local incentive to transform bamboo culms (poles) into engineered products. Nevertheless, potential exists for engineered bamboo products to be accepted in the foreign market. There needs to be an integrated approach to the utilisation of culms to minimise wastage, and linkages throughout the productionconsumption chain must be enhanced. Benefitcost analyses showed that, in terms of optimising conditions for clump productivity over a prolonged period, mulching and fertiliser applications could be forgone, but irrigation provided good financial returns at sites where rainfall is a limiting factor. However, optimal management regimes are highly site-dependent. To promote bamboo as a sustainable industry in the Philippines, several sectoral policies that constrain the use of bamboo need to be reviewed.
Introduction
The bamboo sector in the Philippines comprises various market participants performing different functions and roles (Rivera et al. 1996). There are those who plant and harvest the bamboo culms (poles), which are turned over to the traders or intermediaries who subsequently market the product. There are also semi-processors/processors who convert the raw
1
Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, College, Laguna, the Philippines
materials into more useful, attractive and economically valuable finished products. However, most people who depend on bamboo for their livelihood, such as gatherers and weavers, are poor. Bamboo plantations and natural stands exist all over the Philippines and are found on both government and private lands. These local sources, together with some imports, provide bamboo raw materials utilised in the manufacture of various traditional products such as furniture, handicrafts, baskets, fishing and agriculture implements, food, pulp and paper, and construction materials. Because of its inefficient use and poor management, bamboo is perceived to be of 94
low value (Rivera et al. 1996). Some policymakers likewise overlook the importance and role of bamboo in society. As a general rule, undervalued resources tend to be over-exploited or abused by users because of the impression that they are neither scarce nor important. As a consequence, producers are less likely to invest in production technologies for less valuable resources. Thus, policymakers and forest managers tend to favour the development of resources considered to be more valuable (Pabuayon et al. 2001). However, bamboo can now be turned into high-value products, known as engineered bamboo products, including laminated bamboo veneer for floor tiles, tabletops and panels. Hence, the potential exists to greatly expand the bamboo industry in the Philippines, and thus improve the livelihood of people working in the sector. But to achieve this, further research and development are needed. Some productivity-enhancing technologies for bamboo are already available, but the incentives for adoption, and consequent commercialisation, are usually not present, as producers cannot gain access to favourable markets. To improve this situation, the market potential of bamboo products should be analysed, including vital information about the demand for and supply of raw materials and finished products. This should be done in association with knowledge of the facilitating and constraining factors for growth and development, so that interventions to be promoted in the future will not be futile. Despite changes in processing technologies, people in the Philippines have been relatively slow to adopt them. While it has already been established that bamboo products are good substitutes for wood products, the acceptance of such products has not been too enthusiastic. However, the reasons for this have not been fully established. Thus, the factors affecting availability and acceptability of the products are also important considerations in formulating workable and appropriate measures for future implementation. Furthermore, the costs and benefits of adopting new strategies or interventions need to be ascertained to allow monitoring of financial viability.
3. determine the factors affecting the availability and acceptability of engineered bamboo and bamboo shoots 4. review the policies that govern the harvest and sale of bamboo 5. calculate the costs and returns of producing bamboo for shoots and engineered products 6. formulate recommendations in the light of the findings.
Methodology
Information sources
Primary and secondary data were gathered about the market potential of selected bamboo products. Relevant articles, reports and documents were reviewed. The extent of the bamboo plantations and natural stands growing on government and private lands was estimated using data found in reports and other documents of local and national government and nongovernment agencies. Data from the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) were reviewed, primarily based on the Forest Management Bureau and plantation forest files. Key informants were interviewed to generate further information. Data were validated using pre-tested surveys of representatives from the various sectors, such as bamboo producers/harvesters, traders and manufacturers. Key informants from the DENR research sector were also interviewed to gain their views regarding the potential of bamboo for shoots and engineered products. Data on bamboo imports were also reviewed. This information was retrieved from DENR, the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), the Department of Science and Technology and National Statistical Coordinating Board databases.
Bamboo shoots
Estimation of the existing and potential demand for bamboo shoots was based on responses of representatives of bamboo shoot vendors and Department of Tourism (DOT) accredited hotel restaurants in Metro Manila. The cost of production was obtained from interviews with key informants. Information gathered included volume demanded, sources of shoots, markets for shoots, reasons why shoots are (or are not) processed or consumed, costs incurred and returns obtained in the production of shoots, and opportunities and constraints in the commercialisation 95
Study objectives
The objectives of this study were to: 1. determine the extent of bamboo plantations and natural stands and estimate the existing supply of bamboo raw materials in the Philippines 2. determine the existing and potential demand for engineered bamboo and bamboo shoots
of bamboo shoots. Market vendors were interviewed as key informants in different wet markets of four regions of the Philippines.
Species sold in the market

Table 1 shows the various species of bamboo shoots sold in the study regions. The buyers were restaurant owners/managers and households. Bambusa blumeana (kawayan tinik) was the main species sold in regions 1, 6 and 11, while Dendrocalamus asper (giant bamboo) was also sold as shoots in the markets of Region 10. Other species were sold in lesser quantities, but identified only by their common nameskawayan dalusan, botong and lunas.
Engineered bamboo
For the existing and potential demand for engineered bamboo, respondents included furniture-manufacturing firms, engineers involved in the construction of residential buildings, designers, manufacturers and traders of engineered products (tiles, tabletops, floorboards etc.). Information gathered included end products manufactured, estimated volume demanded, wood product substitutes, current buying and selling prices, knowledge or awareness of engineered bamboo products, costs and returns of producing engineered bamboo, reasons why engineered bamboo is preferred or rejected over other wood products, and constraints and opportunities in utilising engineered bamboo.
Volumes of sales
The indicative average volumes of shoots sold in selected wet markets are shown in Table 2. The volume of shoots sold is partly dependent on availability. Sometimes there is a glut of bamboo shoots (peak season), while at other times they are not readily found in the market (lean season). The average volume of bamboo shoots sold in the selected wet markets during the lean months (SeptemberNovember) was 535 kg/ month. In contrast, 1,032 kg/month were sold during the peak season (AprilAugust). Note that sources and volumes marketed are not well established for bamboo shoots compared to other forestry products or agricultural crops such as rice and corn. There is no known bamboo shoot canning plant in the Philippines at present. The current small-scale nature of production, plus other factorssuch as an unstable supply of bamboo shoots, increased production and maintenance costs, and unsure marketsdeterred a Taiwanese businessman who scouted for an area in Northern Mindanao (Region 10) from establishing a bamboo shoot cannery.
Analysis
Descriptive analysis provided a representation of the existing situation and potential of the bamboo industry in terms of the selected bamboo products.
Status of bamboo shoots

Four regions where bamboo is widely found were visitedRegion 1 (Ilocos Region), Region 6 (Western Visayas), Region 10 (Northern Mindanao) and Region 11 (Davao Region). These regions, with the exception of Region 11, include the sites of the project funded by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) entitled Improving and maintaining productivity of bamboo for quality timber and shoots in Australia and the Philippines (ACIAR Project No. HORT/2000/127).
Table 1.
Species of bamboo shoots sold in selected wet markets Speciesa Local name
Kawayan tinik Kawayan tinik Kawayan dalusan Kawayan tinik Giant bamboo Kawayan tinik Botong Lunas
Site (city, province, region)

Batac, Ilocos Norte, Region 1 Dumarao, Capiz, Region 6
Bambusa blumeana B. blumeana Cagayan de Oro, Misamis Oriental, B. bambusa Region 10 Dendrocalamus asper Davao City, Davao del Sur, Region 11 B. blumeana
a
For some bamboos, no species name was available, only the local common name
96
Table 2.
Average volume of bamboo shoots sold per month during lean and peak seasons in selected wet markets in 2005 Season Lean (kg/month) Peak (kg/month)
1,250 1,000 700 1,177 1,032 530 500 450 658 535

Batac, Ilocos Norte, Region 1 Dumarao, Capiz, Region 6 Cagayan de Oro, Misamis Oriental, Region 10 Davao City, Davao del Sur, Region 11 Average
Pricing
The price of bamboo shoots tended to increase during lean months when supply was lower. The average buying price of the market vendors from shoot growers/harvesters was PHP14.33/kg during lean months while only PHP9.73/kg during peak months (Table 3). Of the four regions visited, the Davao City wet market in Region 11 reported the lowest buying price at PHP9.30/kg (lean months) and PHP8.90/kg during peak months. In contrast, Batac wet market (Region 1) had a high buying price of PHP18.00/kg during lean months. In these wet markets, bamboo shoots were sold at an average price of PHP19.88/kg during the lean season and PHP15.38/kg during the peak season. Davao City wet market respondents (Region 11) reported the lowest selling price of PHP17.00/kg during lean months, while Region 10 vendors reported the lowest selling price of PHP12.50/kg during the peak season. The highest selling price during both seasons was in the Batac wet markets (Region 1), with PHP25.00/kg during lean months and PHP20.00/kg during peak months.
Shelf life
Table 4 shows that with no treatment, the shelf life of bamboo shootssliced and without skinis only a day. However, with water soaking and the addition of alum, bamboo shoots can remain fresh and edible for 37 days. When the shoots are soaked in water then washed in running water, they remain fresh and edible for 27 days.
Factors affecting availability

There are several factors that affect the availability or supply of bamboo shoots. These include the extent of bamboo-growing areas, presence of appropriate technology, perishability or shelf life of the product, preference of the growers to harvest culms instead of shoots, favourable environment for growing bamboo, season of the year, and the existence of local and national policies that either constrain or facilitate supply.
Factors affecting acceptability

The preference of consumers and the sustainability of supply affect the acceptability of bamboo shoots in the market. Local consumers tend to reject bamboo shoots in favour of other, cheaper vegetables (such as carrots and young coconut shoots).
Table 3.
Average buying and selling prices of bamboo shoots during lean and peak seasons in selected wet markets, 2005 Buying price (PHP/kg) Lean Peak
10.00 10.00 10.00 8.90 9.73 18.00 15.00 15.00 9.30 14.33

Batac, Ilocos Norte, Region 1 Dumarao, Capiz, Region 6 Cagayan de Oro, Misamis Oriental, Region 10 Davao City, Davao del Sur, Region 11 Average
Selling price (PHP/kg) Lean

25.00 20.00 17.50 17.00 19.88
Peak
20.00 15.00 12.50 14.00 15.38
97
Table 4.
Shelf life of skinned bamboo shoots and those treated to prolong freshness Shelf life (days)
3 27 37 1
Treatment
Soaked in water Soaked with a daily change of water Soaked in water with alum No treatment
on preparation and use; and availability of cheaper alternatives. Introduction of bamboo shoots into the regular menu of restaurants of any hotel class seems unlikely unless these issues are addressed.
Status of engineered bamboo

Engineered bamboo is a relatively new product in the Philippines. Very few entities have embarked on its development. The survey gathered information from identified enterprises that have been in the past, or are presently, involved in engineered bamboo production, trading or utilisation. These are presented in the form of case studies of specific companies and their experiences and perceptions of the industry.
Demand in the restaurants of hotels

For the purpose of accreditation by the Manila Department of Tourism, hotels are classified into the following categories based on the quality of their services and facilities: economy (the lowest), standard, first class and deluxe (the highest). For each category, the following aspects were studied: whether or not bamboo shoots were included on the menu and preferred form; volume of use; characteristics of consumers; reasons for not using shoots; and the possibility of permanently including shoots in future menus. In general, restaurant representatives of all hotel classes gave similar answers to the survey questions. Factors that varied between hotel classes are detailed in Table 5. Bamboo shoots were not often included in the standard restaurant menus, but only prepared upon request. People requesting dishes incorporating shoots were of middle- to high-income classes and mainly Filipino, Chinese and Japanese nationals. Most restaurants used canned shoots (imported, as there is no canning facility in the Philippines), but this was primarily a decision of the chef, mostly based on availability and whether they were familiar with preparation of fresh shoots. The main reasons given for why bamboo shoots are not consumed more widely were: pungent odour and aftertaste; inconsistent supply and quality of fresh shoots; low client demand; lack of knowledge
Table 5. Factor Economy
No. restaurants surveyed No. currently using shoots Volume used (kg/month)a Preferred form of shoots Planned future use in menu cycle?
a b
Jireh Industries: production and trade

Jireh Industries is located at Valencia City, Bukidnon (Region 10) and manufactures various engineered products from bamboo and wood harvested from plantations. It utilises equipment invented and fabricated by the owner himself. He has received several research and development awards because of his inventions. The company started its engineered bamboo processing operation in the summer of 2003. In 3 weeks, it produced sixty 2 m 2 m and 2 m 3 m bamboo boards. The boards made over 4 months were exported to Africa through negotiations made by an intermediary based in Manila. The factory can potentially produce on a weekly basis 200 m2 of floor tiles requiring 100 bamboo culms. One culm of 5 cm in diameter can be stretched to as much as 13 cm using their flattening machine. Buyers interested in buying bamboo floor tiles must place orders in advance to allow ample time to dry and process culms to meet the product quality standard. The presence of existing bamboo plantations and
Characteristics of bamboo shoot utilisation in hotel restaurants Hotel type Standard

14 6 615 Mainly canned, some fresh Maybe
First class
6 3 3844 Mainly canned, one also used fresh No
Deluxe
15 10 370b Canned and fresh No
6 2 13 Canned No
Average amount used per month per restaurant that uses bamboo shoots Highly variable as they occasionally use bamboo shoots for special functions
98
natural stands ensures a good supply of culms for use as raw materials. In addition, as better protection measures continue to be adopted, more healthy, high-quality culms can be marketed and utilised for improved bamboo products. The owner argued that lifting the ban on the exportation of bamboo culms should not be pursued, as Filipino manufacturers would be disadvantaged because a higher percentage of the available bamboo would be sold to foreign markets where higher prices are offered. The accepted moisture content of bamboo for processing is based on requirements set by the country of destination and is based on equilibrium with the ambient humidity in the importing country. In the United States of America (USA), the accepted range is 68%. In Japan, the accepted level is 1012%. Local buyers, such as those in the furniture sector, require a range of moisture content of 1218%. The moisture content of freshly cut Bambusa sp. 2 (laak) and Gigantochloa atter (kayali) is much higher (M.A. Alipon 2007, pers. comm.). Therefore, to lower the moisture content, bamboo is oven- or kiln-dried for about a week. Factors limiting production include high production and shipping/transport costs and the many documents required by various checkpoints during transport. The high cost of raw material inputs was also mentioned as a limiting factor as far as engineered bamboo production is concerned.
of knowledge on how to utilise them properly. Some industries have experienced difficulties in developing new production techniques and processes for bamboo products. However, engineered bamboo products do have potential in the market due to their uniqueness, and consumers show much interest when they see these products. The respondent emphasised that the Philippines should be able to compete globally in the furniture and construction sectors.
Trayline Corporation: utlilisation

Trayline Corporation manufactures furniture made from leather, engineered bamboo and other combinations of local and imported materials. Laminated bamboo is used for tabletops and benches, which are considered very attractive and stylish. Bamboo comprises only 510% of the total furniture raw material inputs of this company. It is used only for designing/accenting purposes. The use of bamboo raw materials is limited due to the problems they have encountered in the production process. For example, a container of bamboo furniture was prevented from being shipped abroad due to the presence of powderpost beetles. It had to be opened, treated and repackaged before it was accepted by the foreign buyer, with concomitant delays and additional expense. Also, because of the natural oil present in the bamboo skin, paints, varnish and other finishing materials do not easily adhere to the surface. Thus, bamboo culms must be properly processed and prepared before application of finishing materials. In addition, some suppliers profess that the bamboo culms delivered have been kiln-dried when they have not and the quality of the finished products is thus negatively affected. The manufacturers felt that they were short-changed by the supplier, and would like quality assurance. The industry also experiences difficulty in transporting raw materials from harvest locations to manufacturing sites due to many checkpoints. The officials staffing these points make things difficult for them to pass, thus they resort to giving grease money.
Formaply Industries, Inc.: trade

Formaply imports engineered bamboo products such as panels and floorboards from China in shipments of approximately 22 m3. These products are supplied to the construction and furniture sectors. The company manager told of a plan to construct a plant in the province of Cebu (Region 7) as part of their expansion activities. At present, they export to Europe some of the products they have imported from China. The company thus serves as a broker between China and the European market, just like the brokers of rattan products based in Singapore. Three-quarters of the volume consists of floorboards, while only onequarter is panel boards. Laminated bamboo panels are sold at PHP1,400/m2 while laminated floorboards are sold at PHP800900 apiece. Bamboo products are long-lasting and relatively easy to maintain. If these could be produced locally, the red tape involved in importation would be minimised and the cost of shipping reduced. Although bamboo raw materials are available, there is a lack
Balbins Quality Furniture: production, utilisation and trade

Balbins respondent believes that bamboo has great potential in the market, particularly in novel products. A new design for bamboo trays, using laminated bamboo veneer, is being tested for sale in the export market. Problems with investments do not exist for this company as clients help financially
99
to pursue the projects. Similar government support would be welcome, but is currently non-existent. To highlight how this could helpVietnam used to rank way below the Philippines in the list of Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries that export furniture and handicraft, but now because of government support, Vietnam has overtaken the Philippines in ranking based on recent trade figures. The relatively large difference between the price of bamboo and narra (Pterocarpus indicus) tiles emphasises the undervaluation of engineered bamboo. At present, narra tiles sell for PHP1,200/m2 while bamboo tiles are only PHP550/m2 and the cost of producing bamboo tiles is PHP40/m2. In veneering, only the stump (butt; lowest 30%) of the culm is used, from which 0.37 m2 of tiles can be produced. Increasing the proportion of culm used, improving tile quality and promoting use of these products are all strategies that could benefit the engineered bamboo industry. The company representative related that when the engineered bamboo products are exported, about 10% of the volume is rejected. When a sample is provided to the buyer, the second best (according to the suppliers standard) is submitted rather than the best to give some allowances for rejects. There are times when this strategy works to their advantage. But there are times when this does not work and becomes a hindrance. The taste and preference of the market is dynamic and is one of the bases for product success. To prevent the occurrence of powderpost beetles, this company dips culms in agricultural insecticide rather than diesel since this was deemed too expensive. Afterwards, both ends of the culms are covered with cement.
Asia Rattan: production, utilisation and trade

Asia Rattan exports furniture made from materials such as wood, rattan, seagrass and bamboo. Its products are exported to the USA and elsewhere. A monthly order from foreign buyers of 75 corner tables is shipped regularly. The tables, measuring 46 cm 46 cm 91 cm, are made from a combination of wood and laminated bamboo. There is no problem with bamboo supply since there are many suppliers in the vicinity. The problem, however, is efficiency in the use of bamboo culms. Only 90122 cm of the lowest portion of the culm can be used. Thus, to become more efficient, other uses for the remaining portion need to be found.
Two types of machine can be used in producing laminated bamboo. One, imported from the USA, is very expensive while the other is locally fabricated and currently used by the company. However, the local machine is limited in the size of laminates it can produce, so the manufacturer is challenged to develop novel designs within this constraint. Another problem is the deformity of some bamboo culms, which results in wastage during the processing stage. A lack of efficient and low-cost preservation treatment strategies also constrains the use of bamboo for engineered products. The competition offered by China in terms of price and volume is too severe; direct competition cannot be pursued. Nevertheless, opportunities exist in the Philippine bamboo furniture industry because of the ingenuity and craftsmanship of local designers and workers. Bamboo is a cheaper substitute for wood, but currently bamboo comprises only 510% of the materials used in furniture made by Asia Rattan. Bamboo is only used as an accent or for decorative purposes. At present, laminated bamboo is sold at PHP110 150/m2; relatively higher than woody species of Gmelina, which is sold at PHP70/m2, but lower than mahogany (Swietenia spp.) at PHP150/m2 and very cheap compared to imported maple (Acer spp.) priced at PHP3,000/m2. The cost of equipment needed for a veneering/ lamination plant is PHP600,000 for the veneering machine, PHP1.6 million for the presser and PHP500,000 for the roller. Three labourers are usually employed in the veneering/lamination plant during an 8-hour shift. Additional labourers are employed only when there are big orders. Laminating involves gluing veneer onto a wooden base. Since the company makes use of a cold press, approximately PHP55/m 2 is spent in the gluing process. This expense is high compared to a hot compress, which costs only PHP7/m2 of glued material. However, the investment needed for a hot press is prohibitive at PHP3 million.
Bamboo for conventional products

While interviewing key informants on engineered bamboo, other enterprises that utilise bamboo for more conventional products were also encountered. These are outlined below.
100
Kabagay Handicraft
Kabagay is located in Aringay, La Union (Region 1) and produces handicraft items made from various raw materials such as bamboo, rattan, nito (Lygodium spp.) and rono (a reputed native bamboo). It started its operations in 1981 when the supply of rattan was running out as a result of the export ban imposed by Indonesia. The company resorted to bamboo as an alternative raw material. In the past, the company tried to manufacture bamboo boards but encountered problems, including difficulty in controlling insects and limitations in devising varied designs. The price of engineered bamboo as flooring was PHP200/m2. The firm now focuses on bamboo and makes products such as gazebos, mats, blinds, salad sets and rocking chairs, among others. They also designed knock down nipa huts, gazebos and cabanas that are sold in the foreign market for US$900, US$450 and US$650, respectively. The company has no problem with the supply of bamboo because it has many suppliers in Aringay and neighbouring towns. Four truckloads of bamboo culms are supplied on a weekly basis. Export of bamboo furniture to date has not been successful due to insect borers that were detected upon inspection once they reached the foreign buyers. The buyers demanded Kabagay Handicraft replace the furniture. Thus, high losses were incurred in terms of manufacturing and transport costs. After this experience, diesel was used to treat the culms, but that darkens their colour. Powderpost beetle is also a problem insect in the bamboo industry. Solignum, a chemical usually used to control termites, can be used to treat bamboo against the powderpost beetle, but the price is high at PHP154/L. Nevertheless, this company constructed a pit filled with solignum which is used to treat the finished product by full immersion before it is marketed. A whole bamboo culm (89 m) costs PHP35150, while a shorter one (1.51.8 m) is PHP24. The volume of bamboo raw material exports cannot be readily determined because it is most often reported as dollar value of the manufactured product rather than volume. However, based on the designs used by the respondent for Kabagay, for every US$10,000 worth of product, approximately 5% of the total value is spent on bamboo raw materials for high-end products while about 10% for low-end products. On average, bamboo raw materials account for only about 7% of the total product value.
Bamboo International
Bamboo International (formerly Elm and Oak) exports candleholders of varied designs made out of bamboo twigs. The company takes pride in the quality of its products and practice of zero waste in its production activities. Accordingly, 100% of its raw materials are used in product manufacture. Products are made exactly according to the numbers ordered and no spare stock is carried within the company. As a small-scale company, the major concern of management in addressing exports is its limited capital and face-to-face access to buyers: the number of potential buyers visiting trade fairs and exhibits has been reduced by fears of terrorism and diseases such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and avian influenza (bird flu). For example, very few buyers attended the international trade fair in 2003 due to travel bans imposed by their respective countries.
CM Bamboo Craft
CM Bamboo Craft is a company run and managed by Catholic nuns. It produces bamboo items including chairs, tables, kitchen utensils, Christmas decorations, pens, portraits, frames and key chains. The company exports to the United Kingdom and Taiwan and, during 199899, the demand for bamboo products was high. They used to earn millions of pesos in exports, but demand diminished dramatically after the 11 September 2001 attack in New York, USA and similar occurrences.
Bamboo exportation
Bamboo has traditionally been exported as finished products either as furniture or handicraft items. In 2000, the total exportation of bamboo furniture alone was valued at US$3.18 million (free on board; FOB). In 19912000, the bamboo furniture and handicraft industries generated average export revenues of US$1.9 million/year and US$436.94 million/year, respectively. Approximately 30% of the exported handicrafts were bamboo in origin (Virtucio and Roxas 2003). There were also exports of bamboo culms and hand-woven bamboo mats (sawali), but only in very limited volumes. Culm exports were limited by the governments policy of allowing culm exportation only for scientific or testing purposes. However, bamboo was reclassificed to regulated rather than prohibited in May 2005 to support the governments effort to promote the Philippine export 101
industry. (Further information about government policy in relation to bamboo is provided later in this paper.) Table 6 shows the quantity and value of bamboo culms exported in 19992003. The quantity exported in 2003 was lower than in 2002 but the value increased tremendously from the previous year. This may be due to an increase in the price of bamboo in the foreign market or the weakening of the peso in relation to the other foreign currencies.
Table 6. Year
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
a
Projected demand and supply

The Master plan for the development of bamboo as a renewable and sustainable resource (OIDCI 1997) provided a 10-year projection of the demand and supply situation for bamboo for various traditional uses in the agriculture, fishing, furniture, handicraft and construction sectors that showed a supply deficit under all conditions. Without intervention, it was assumed that supply would be sourced from natural stands. Another assumption was that the moderate increase in demand through the years was based on population growth and furniture and handicraft exports. The with intervention scenarios (A and B; Table 8) were based on development of diversified products (pulp, plyboo, plyboard, laminated bamboo and mat board) that would be introduced in 2003. This was expected to lead to increased demand for bamboo culms. Scenarios A and B were similar in their assumptions about increased focus on market expansion and product diversification, but scenario B had higher export growth projections in furniture and handicrafts. Table 8 shows that there would be a supply deficit under all three conditions over the 10-year projection period. Hence, efforts to increase raw material production must be pursued at the same level as those for product development and diversification. To close the gap between supply and demand, more bamboo plantations must be developed and managed using the appropriate management practices.
Bamboo exports, 19992003 (DENR 2003) Quantity (000 kg)

4 19 30 65 54
Valuea (US$000)
6 39 36 28 113
Free on board (FOB) value
Bamboo importation
Bamboo has been imported into the Philippines from several counties including China, Hong Kong, Thailand and Vietnam. Table 7 shows that the highest bamboo importation occurred in 2002 with 237 t. However, the highest documented value of bamboo importation between 1999 and 2003 was in 2001 at US$212,000 (FOB) or US$227,000 (cost, insurance and freight; CIF). In 2002, several manufactured bamboo products were imported from China, Hong Kong and Taiwan. These products included bamboo sheets, flooring, culms, chopsticks and round sticks.
Table 7. Year Bamboo imports, 19992003 (DENR 2003) Quantity (tonnes)
73 143 200 237 103
Demand for engineered bamboo products

Bamboo is in high demand in the housing and construction sectors. Most of the demand comes from rural communities, where bamboo is used in combination with other construction materials. As reported by the DTI in 1997, if each household from the rural areas consumes at least five culms a year for maintenance, the total requirements nationwide will be approximately 7.3 million culms. At present, there is a limited market for engineered bamboo but this is seen as slowly growing (as discussed above). Engineered bamboo is distributed to both the domestic and export markets. The domestic market is segmented for furniture and handicraft. The high-quality products are directed to high-end markets, i.e. hotels, restaurants, condominiums and residential houses, while low-end ones are sold to low-end, medium-income consumers.
Valuea (FOB) (US$000)

44 85 212 206 103
Valuea (CIF) (US$000)

48 93 227 218 112
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

a
FOB = free on board; CIF = cost, insurance and shipping
102
Table 8. Year
Projected demand and deficit (in 000 culms) with and without intervention (OIDCI 1997) Supplyb Without intervention Demand Deficit A
14,238 12,640 11,291 11,223 11,322 11,304 11,309 11,334 11,387 11,471 52,247 52,326 52,411 52,502 52,601 58,381 58,842 59,351 59,916 60,543
With interventiona Demand B

52,247 52,396 62,563 52,751 52,982 58,982 59,717 60,568 61,558 62,649
Deficit A
14,238 12,641 11,291 11,223 11,322 16,904 17,169 17,480 17,848 18,278
B
14,238 12,710 11,443 11,472 11,703 17,505 18,044 18,697 19,490 20,384
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
a b
38,009 39,686 41,120 41,279 41,279 41,477 41,673 41,871 42,068 42,265
52,247 52,326 52,411 52,502 52,601 52,781 52,982 53,205 53,455 53,736
Annual growth rates: scenario A = furniture3% in 19992002 and 6% in 200307, and handicraft15% in 19992002 and 20% in 200307; scenario B = furniture6% in 19992002 and 12% in 200307, and handicraft15% in 19992002 and 30% in 200307. Production in 1998 was sourced from natural stands, with additional production in 1999 from Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) plantations, increased production in 200002 from mature plantations established earlier, and increased production in 200307 based on a 5% annual increase in plantation development since 1998.
If, for example, the construction sector considers bamboo in their design and plans and allows for bamboo to comprise at least 50% of its material requirements, then a sizeable demand for engineered bamboo will be created. The National Housing Authority estimated the housing needs for the bottom 40% of the total population for 19992004 to be 2.2 million housing units (2002 National Statistics Office Philippine Yearbook). However, with a backlog of 1.1 million more, this results in a total of 3.3 million housing units for the past 7 years as of 2006. Personal communication with a practising, licensed civil engineer suggests that a 24 m2 single, detached, low-cost housing unit would need approximately 80 pieces of lumber measuring 5.1 7.6 30.5 cm, estimated to be 1.13 m3 (Table 9). If 50% of the wood requirements for those 3.3 million housing units were substituted with bamboo tiles, then about 40 million 1 m2 tiles would have to be produced (Table 9). This translates to a requirement for 158 million bamboo culms. Since wood in the local market is limited and relatively highly priced, the country resorts to importation, which drains the dollar reserves. Thus, if the use of alternative raw materials, such as bamboo, can be pursued, then the problem of high costs and limited supply of these materials could be addressed.
Policies affecting the Philippine bamboo sector

Harvest and transport policies
Collecting and harvesting bamboo in forestlands is governed by existing DENR policies and regulations that require the gatherers to secure a cutting permit as specified in the Revised Forestry Administrative Order No. 11, dated 14 September 1970. Bamboo is combined with the other non-wood (minor) forest products. Pursuant to DENR Department Administrative Order (DAO) 38 series of 1990 and in line with the DENR policy on decentralisation, permit issue has been delegated to the DENR regional offices. Applications for cutting permits are filed through the relevant Community Environment and Natural Resources Office (CENRO). Forest charges must be paid for harvesting bamboo on public land. Exempted from these charges for planted bamboos are industrial tree plantations and private lands that are covered by existing titles or tax declarations. DENR also monitors the movement of bamboo by requiring a Certificate of Non-timber Forest Products Origin (CNFPO). This is specified in DAO 59, issued on 30 September 1993. Again, bamboo planted on titled and tax-declared alienable and disposable land is exempted, provided that certification by the CENRO is obtained.
103
Table 9.
Estimated wood and bamboo requirements in the housing sector (for 3.3 million housing units) Estimated volume of wood needed by floor area (m3)
1.13 1.50 2.35
Floor area of low-cost housing units (m2)

24 32 50
a
Estimated no. of bamboo tiles required (each 1 m2)a

12 16 25
Total wood requirement (million m3)

3.73 4.95 7.75
Total no. of 1 m2 bamboo tiles required (million)

39.60 52.80 82.50
Total no. of culms required (million)

158 211 330
If 50% of wood requirement is substituted with bamboo
Although forest charges and other fees are levied by the government for culms harvested on public landfor example, a fee of PHP0.100.60/m is meant to be paid as forest charges for bamboo harvested from natural stands (DAO 2000-63)these are not always paid. Because it is difficult to establish where bamboo resources originated, people can avoid paying these charges by fraudulently stating that their culms were harvested from plantations or other private land. Furthermore, the amount of forest charge or government share charged for the resource seems to have been determined without a scientific and economic basis. Thus, the true value of the resource has not been properly considered in the value determination. In particular, if the resource is undervalued, then the development of better technologies for its utilisation may not be initiated. It is recommended that more research be undertaken to generate appropriate information for better understanding and decision-making, with collaboration among research institutions, regulatory offices, private entities, community organisations and other concerned stakeholders. Appropriate policies must also be formulated for appropriate production, allocation and utilisation of bamboo.
Trade policies
Before 2005, based on the amended rules and regulations implementing Presidential Decree (PD) 930, bamboo culms could not be exported except for scientific or testing purposes for which an export clearance from the government was required. Exporters of manufactured bamboo products followed the general procedures required for exportation. Importation of bamboo culms for commercial purposes (e.g. for pearl farm fencing) was likewise allowed. However, it was recommended by concerned sectors that these policies be reviewed. Such studies would help formulate recommendations for favourable 104
steps towards the development of bamboo plantations and sourcing of raw materials to support the expansion of bamboo-based industries. Initial reviews by the DTI showed strong support from the private sector engaged in the export of bamboo and rattan products for the reclassification of bamboo and rattan from prohibited to regulated products by reason of abundance of supply in the Philippines. Subsequently, a study funded by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) on Global Forest Resources Assessment (GBRA) Update on Bamboo Resources for 2005 reported that there were approximately 156,574 ha of bamboo in the country. This could supply around 4,059,087 harvestable culms per year against an average demand of 200,880 culms per year by the fishpen, construction and furniture industries. The GBRA 2005 data were derived from an assessment conducted in 200204. With the apparent huge supply of bamboo resources compared to the demand, in May 2005, bamboo was reclassified from regulated. This change supported the governments effort to promote the Philippine export industry. However, these data are at odds with the projections of OIDCI 1997 (Table 8); it is believed that the very small sample size of the FAO/GBRA study influenced their estimates downwards. As well as the demand in the housing and construction sectors (discussed above), the DTI in 1997 reported that the banana industry had a total bamboo culm requirement each year of about 36 million. In the fishing and mariculture industries, about 210,000 and 3 million culms, respectively, are needed annually to replace 50% of the bamboo fishpens. All these figures add up to more than the estimated number of culms that can be supplied by the existing natural stands and plantations based on the GBRA 2005 report. Given this, the reclassification of bamboo for export from prohibited to regulated status may have a
detrimental impact on the handicraft, furniture and construction sectors as there is a possibility of creating a large gap between production and consumption, not only in the local but in the foreign market as well.
Improving the engineered bamboo industry

One of the concerns raised by the manufacturers of engineered bamboo is the inefficient utilisation of bamboo culms, as only the butt portion is preferred for engineered bamboo manufacture. There should be an integrated approach to the utilisation of bamboo culms for all possible uses. Wastage must be reduced for efficiency and economic reasons. Links throughout the productionconsumption chain must be enhanced. This could be done through identification of appropriate markets and products and complementary activities taking place in the chain. Furthermore, appropriate facilitating mechanisms such as policies and rules governing the production, marketing and utilisation of bamboo culms and manufactured products must be in place and in operation.
Reforestation and rehabilitation programs of DENR

Bamboo has been introduced and used in the Integrated Social Forestry (ISF) projects and the Community-Based Forest Management (CBFM) program as per the DAO No. 31 series of 1991. With the inclusion of bamboo species in the rehabilitation programs of the government, community-based and private entities have recognised the important role bamboo plays in attaining environmental stability. This policy encourages the planting of the bamboo species to provide vegetation to degraded areas over a shorter time frame than other reforestation species. It also provides the surrounding communities an additional source of income from the sale of culms and semi-processed or manufactured bamboo products. This strategy of the government is seen to support the livelihood of the upland communities and at the same time address the environmental problem of forest denudation and degradation.
Profitability indicators for the ACIAR project sites

The sites discussed here were part of the ACIARfunded project entitled Improving and maintaining productivity of bamboo for quality timber and shoots in Australia and the Philippines (ACIAR Project No. HORT/2000/127).
Recommendations and policy implications

Increasing consumption of bamboo shoots
Many people dislike the pungent taste and odour of both fresh and canned shoots. It may be easier to promote increased shoot consumption if technology could be developed to overcome this problem. In addition, people who are currently unfamiliar with shoots as a vegetable do not know how to prepare them. Hence, awareness of the significance of bamboo shoots as an alternative or additional food source should be improved. This could be done through an information campaign including appropriate information materials or kits on the proper handling and pre-cooking procedures that eliminate the odour and bitter aftertaste. As part of this campaign, food exhibits, fairs and cooking competitions promoting shoot consumption and providing suitable recipes and cooking ideas could be held with support from the association of hotels and restaurants, the Department of Tourism, the DTI and other concerned government and non-government organisations.
Capiz trial
Details of the trial in Dumarao, Capiz, are provided elsewhere in these proceedings (Marquez 2009). Based on the streams of benefits and costs of the treatments in the three project sites (data not presented), the net present value (NPV) estimated over a 6-year period for the various treatments in Capiz showed that treatment 6 (T6)with continuous irrigation and application of fertiliser, organic matter and mulch, and retention of three 1-year-old and three 2-year-old culms per clump (3-3 standing culm density, or SCD)had the highest NPV of PHP294,924/ha at the 12% discount rate (data not presented). The next two highest ranks were for T10 and T9. All three treatments were irrigated and supplied with fertiliser, mulch and organic matter, but differed in their SCD (which for T10 was 6-6, then harvest all 3-year-old culms; and for T9 was retain all shoots and harvest all 3-year-old culms). In treatments where shoots were harvested, this contributed to increased income, and could be attained by the adopter of the technology within the 6-year period.
105
While the NPV indicates how much the bamboo plantation is presently worth over a given number of years, the benefit:cost ratio (BCR) shows how much is realised in relation to the costs invested in the plantation. The results from the Capiz site indicate that one can forgo fertiliser application and mulching but not irrigation (as in T5) to be able to get a high BCR, especially when implementing a 4-4 SCD, as adopted in T5. It had a BCR of 6.3 and ranked highest among the Capiz treatments. This means that for every PHP1 put into the business, it gives back a benefit of PHP6 within the 6-year period of maintaining the plantation. Treatment 4 (with irrigation and mulch but no fertiliser, 4-4 SCD) also provided good results and obtained the second-highest ranking for BCR at 5. Treatment 6 (with irrigation, fertiliser and mulch, 3-3 SCD) ranked third in the BCR rating for the Capiz site if only the actual harvests were considered.
Ilocos Norte trial

Details of the Batac, Ilocos Norte, trial are provided in Malab et al. (2009). The three highest-ranked treatments for NPV and BCR results were very similar as those for Capiz. Treatment 5 ranked first for NPV and BCR (data not presented). The clumps in this treatment were not fertilised or mulched but were continuously irrigated. The SCD was 4-4-4. The NPVs estimated for this treatment were PHP219,227/ha at the 12% discount rate and PHP203,113/ha at 15%. The BCR was 5.9. However, there was a difference in the treatments that ranked second for these two profitability indicators. For NPV, T3 was ranked second while T1 ranked third. For BCR, T4 and T2 ranked second and third, respectively. Treatments in the top three for both measures all had 4-4-4 SCD and all except T2 used irrigation. With the dry weather conditions of Batac, bamboo seemed to react positively to irrigation. However, the relatively high rank of T2 (not irrigated) in the BCR ratings indicates that while irrigation is an important input for high productivity, it is also an expense that can be done away with and still be able to obtain good BCR results, which eventually makes the bamboo plantation profitable.
Dendrocalamus asper (giant bamboo) in Bukidnon rather than Bambusa blumeana (kawayan tinik) as in Ilocos Norte and Capiz. In addition, irrigation was not considered as a treatment for the Bukidnon site and there was no harvesting of the shoots for salethus the income from shoots was not included in the financial estimates. Based on unpublished data, by far the highest NPV (PHP292,474/ha using the 12% discount rate) at the Bukidnon site was obtained for T6, where fertiliser and mulch were applied and the SCD was 10-10. The second highest NPV (PHP191,134/ha) was for T3 (fertiliser but no mulch, 6-6 SCD). The treatment with the third-highest NPV (PHP182,466/ha) was T4, which also was the highest in terms of BCR at 5.81. In this treatment, no fertiliser or mulch was applied to the clumps, which had a 6-6 SCD. Interestingly, T10 ranked fourth in the NPV ratings at PHP175,662/ha and second in the BCR ratings at 5.6, even though it received no fertiliser or mulch. As a silvicutural strategy, all 3-year-old and above culms (but no younger ones) were harvested. If no harvesting or maintenance activity (except weeding and culm marking) was done in the plantation (T9), a negative NPV was obtained. A negative NPV implies that the plantation is not financially sound.
Summarising NPV ranking by treatment

Use of irrigation was the common factor for the Capiz and Ilocos Norte sites for the three NPV topranking treatments. High culm retention featured in the highest NPV at the Bukidnon site. Mulch and fertiliser were applied in the three top-ranking treatments in Capiz, but not in the top-ranking treatment in Ilocos Norte. However, the second- and third-ranked treatments in Ilocos Norte did receive fertiliser, organic matter and mulch. This strategy was similar for the three top-ranking treatments in Bukidnon.
Summarising BCR ranking by treatment

Treatment 5 and T4 ranked first and second, respectively, for BCR for both the Capiz and Ilocos Norte sites (which had the same input regime, but different SCD4-4 in Capiz and 4-4-4 in Ilocos Norte). However, T6 in Capiz was ranked third where a different silvicultural strategy (3-3 SCD) was adopted. On the other hand, Ilocos Norte had T2 as the third-ranked treatment, with no irrigation and 4-4-4 SCD. Incurring the least cost and at the same time obtaining the highest benefits is crucial in the
Bukidnon trial
Details of the Impalutao, Bukidnon, trial are provided in Decipulo et al. (2009). The amount of fertiliser applied and the numbers of culms retained and harvested differed from the treatments at Ilocos Norte and Capiz. The species differed too, with
106
BCR analysis. The results indicate that one can forgo the expenses of fertiliser, mulch and organic matter but still get a high BCR. However, as manifested in the results obtained, irrigation cannot be sacrificed, as production or yield and consequently income will be adversely affected. Therefore, water is a deciding factor in the productivity, and consequently the yield, of bamboo plantations and natural stands. The BCR result for Bukidnon indicates that the best approach is to adopt a 6-6 SCD, with no mulch or fertiliser applied. This treatment also ranked third in the NPV ratings. Even without the application of fertiliser and mulch, but with the appropriate silvicultural strategy, high financial returns seemed feasible on this fertile soil. Thus, the prevailing environmental conditions at each site influenced the management strategy that gave the highest financial returns.
References
Decipulo M.S., Ockerby S. and Midmore D.J. 2009. Managing clumps of Dendrocalamus asper in Bukidnon, the Philippines. In Silvicultural management of bamboo in the Philippines and Australia for shoots and timber, ed. by D.J. Midmore. ACIAR Proceedings No. 129, 3645. [These proceedings] Malab S.C., Batin C.B., Malab B.S., Alipon M.A. and Midmore D.J. 2009. Improving productivity of a previously unmanaged Bambusa blumeana plantation for culms and shoots in Ilocos Norte, the Philippines. In Silvicultural management of bamboo in the Philippines and Australia for shoots and timber, ed. by D.J. Midmore. ACIAR Proceedings No. 129, 2435. [These proceedings]
Marquez C.B. 2009. Improving and maintaining productivity of Bambusa blumeana for quality shoots and timber in Iloilo and Capiz, the Philippines. In Silvicultural management of bamboo in the Philippines and Australia for shoots and timber, ed. by D.J. Midmore. ACIAR Proceedings No. 129, 4660. [These proceedings] OIDCI (Orient Integrated Development Consultants, Inc.) 1997. Master plan for the development of bamboo as a renewable and sustainable resource. Prepared for the Cottage Industry Technology Center. Department of Trade and Industry, Makati City, Metro Manila. DENR (Department of Environment and Natural Resources). Philippine forestry statistics. Forest Management Bureau, DENR, Quezon City. Pabuayon I.M., Calderon M.M., Rivera M.N. and Lumanta L.C. 2001. Economic valuation of bamboo resources. College of Economics and Management, College of Forestry and Natural Resources at the University of the Philippines Los Baos and Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources (ERDB-DENR): College, Laguna. Rivera M. Carmelita N. and Austria M.V.O. Ma. 1996. The bamboo sector in the Cordilleras and Western Visayas: an analysis of the production to consumption system. Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources (ERDB-DENR): College, Laguna. Virtucio F.D. and Roxas C.A. 2003. Bamboo production in the Philippines. Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources: College, Laguna, 202 pp.
107
Cultivated bamboo in the Northern Territory of Australia

Mark Traynor1 and David J. Midmore2
Abstract
Trials were conducted on established, yet young (3.54.5-year-old), stands of Dendrocalamus asper and D. latiflorus on three properties in the Northern Territory, Australia; one managed to organic standards. Imposed treatments involved fertiliser rates, irrigation regimes and standing culm numbers. In essence, fertiliser application was effective in hastening shoot appearance and increasing their numbers, especially in wetter years, but culm yield was not markedly affected in these young plantations by fertiliser. Dry (winter) season irrigation was apparently not necessary for shoot production; heavy irrigation just before the beginning and during the shoot season was all that was required. In contrast, culm dry weights were responsive to dry-season irrigation. Maintaining a higher standing culm density, with a greater proportion of 1- and 2-year-old culms enhanced shoot numbers, and an annual strategy of leaving four shoots per clump to develop into culms (to be harvested when just over 3 years of age) was most suitable for shoot and culm production.
Introduction
The Northern Territory (NT) is home to the sole endemic clumping bamboo species of Australia, Bambusa arnhemica. Culms of this species have traditionally been harvested in the wild by Indigenous peoples for water containers and didgeridoos. More recently, the shoots have been harvested by Asian immigrants to the area, for both personal but increasingly more importantly for commercial purposes, with seasonal exports to southern states of Australia. The natural resource, which is generally found close to major river systems in the region (Franklin and Bowman 2004), is controlled by the Northern Territory Governmentover-exploitation has become of concern as conservation measures fail
1
Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Berrimah Agricultural Research Centre, Makagon Road, Berrimah, GPO Box 3000, Darwin, Northern Territory 0801, Australia Centre for Plant and Water Science, Central Queensland University, Rockhampton, Queensland 4702, Australia
to stem indiscriminate harvesting (PWCNT 1995; Franklin 2006). Given that the environment of the NT is conducive to the growth of bamboo, and that the harvest of B. arnhemica is limited, a number of entrepreneurs have established bamboo in plantations ranging from 2 to 10 ha, with the view to supplying bamboo shoots for both domestic and export markets. The species planted include vegetatively propagated Dendrocalamus asper, D. latiflorus, D. brandisii and Bambusa oldhamii. Given a recent flowering event in B. arnhemica, this species has also been propagated from seed by some growers. Since all of these species are new to plantation-style cultivation in the NT, growers are keen to acquire information on the agronomic/silvicultural management specific to the region, with particular emphasis on mineral nutrition, irrigation and thinning regimes and how they influence the number and size distribution of bamboo shoots and culms. Several trials were set up in the early 2000s, following on from earlier research undertaken by the then NT Department
108
of Primary Industries and Fisheries and Central Queensland University (Kleinhenz and Midmore 2002). That research showed that shoot emergence coincided with peaks of rainfall in the NT (i.e. during January to March), and it was hypothesised that irrigation before the natural onset of the rainy season could bring forward shoot harvest dates. The impact of nitrogen (N) nutrition on leaf N for optimum yield was highlighted in the earlier research in Queensland (Kleinhenz and Midmore 2002) and the current trials aimed to determine whether the same was true in the NT, although for different species. Likewise, earlier studies showing that younger culms provided greater shoot yields than did older culms were of interest to NT growers keen to enter early into the seasonal market, and this was included in the present study. The trials, in three sites, therefore studied the effects of irrigation, N nutrition and management of culm number on shoot and culm yields of D. asper and D. latiflorus.
three replications. This site is at the NT Government horticultural research farm. All clumps were subjected to a 4-4-4 thinning schedule, i.e. at any one time there were four 01-year-old-culms, four 12-year-old culms and four 23-year-old culms. Harvesting of culms took place in the dry season, following the shoot season, and the four culms older than 3 years were removed at ground level. Plot size was four plants.
Site 3 (Old Bynoe Road)

The third trial utilised a 4-year-old planting of D. latiflorus grown from cuttings and planted 6 m apart within a single windbreak row. The trial compared two irrigation and three fertiliser treatments plus three thinning treatments, replicated three times in a randomised complete block design. Plot size was nine plants and irrigation was provided by mini sprinklers. At both sites 1 and 3, some seedlings of B. arhemica were also planted, for general observation, but data are not presented herein.
Materials and methods

Experimental sites
Three sites were chosen for experimentation, within a 60 km radius from Darwin, NT.
Treatments
Fertiliser
Earlier research (Kleinhenz and Midmore 2002) indicated that 3% leaf nitrogen (N) concentration was linked with optimal yields across a number of bamboo species, and they established a quadratic relationship between % leaf N and fertiliser application rates, such that, for a given deficiency in % leaf N, a determined fertiliser rate would bring % leaf N to 3%. One fertiliser treatment, the 100% N, was determined by the N rate required to bring actual % leaf N to 3%, based upon leaf N analysis before fertiliser application, in the 100% irrigation treatment. Percentage leaf N was again measured soon (within 34 weeks) after application to determine the response. The other two fertiliser treatments comprised 25% of the fertiliser input dictated by the 100% treatment, and double the prescribed amount of N, i.e. the 200% treatment. At site 1, the fertiliser was applied as an organic product with 5:3:1.5 N:P:K (ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus to potassium). At sites 2 and 3, it was applied as a mineral blend of 15:4:11 N:P:K. All treatments were applied to a 20 m2 area around each clump.
Site 1 (Berry Springs)

This site utilised a 4.5-year-old planting of Dendrocalamus asper, established from tissuecultured plantlets and spaced at 6 m between clumps within a row and 12 m between rows. A natural grass stand was periodically mown between rows and used to mulch the bamboo clumps. The farm was managed organically. Irrigation was provided through a mini-sprinkler system, with the capacity to irrigate a 20 m2 area for each clump and to supply 80 L/hour/clump. The trial comprised a factorial design with two irrigation three fertiliser three thinning treatments, in a randomised complete block set-up with three replications. Plot size comprised nine plants (i.e. clumps).
Site 2 (Middle Point)

This trial utilised a 3.5-year-old planting of D. latiflorus established from cuttings at spacing of 7 m 8 m between clumps. Irrigation was provided by mini sprinklers. The trial investigated the effects of three irrigation treatments and two fertiliser treatments, in a randomised complete block design with
Irrigation
The 100% irrigation treatment was scheduled to provide 100% of the monthly average daily evaporation values, irrigated twice daily. The 50% irrigation treatment provided one-half of the 100% 109
treatment, again irrigated twice daily, and the drought treatment did not provide irrigation during the dry season months of April to September, with irrigation at 100% commencing October of each year. The irrigated area around each clump was 20 m2. The irrigation quantities applied at site 2 according to treatment are provided in Table 1. Similar amounts were applied according to treatment at the other sites, because OctoberMarch rainfall was also similar across sites (Table 2).
Table 1. Month 100%
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Totals ML/ha/year
a
Irrigation quantities (L/month) at site 2 according to treatment
Treatmenta
50%
3,410 2,800 3,100 3,450 3,720 3,600 3,720 3,875 4,200 4,495 4,050 3,720 44,140 7.9
Drought
6,820 5,600 6,200 0 0 0 0 0 0 8,990 8,100 7,440 43,150 7.7
class. During the wet season, the designated number of shoots was left in each clump to grow into culms and each was given an identification marking for that year. Other shoots were harvested fresh. During the following dry season, the designated number of the oldest culms was removed, leaving each clump with the required SCD for each treatment. This resulted in three generations of experimental culms in each thinning treatment with their own colour identification marking. The thinning of treatments was conducted in July each year. All treatments were established before the start of the 2002 dry season, although the initial thinning of all treatments was done in late 2001 so that each clump had a specific culm population according to its designated treatment.
6,820 5,600 6,200 6,900 7,440 7,200 7,440 7,750 8,400 8,990 8,100 7,440 88,280 15.8
Data collection
Shoot and culm harvest
Shoots were manually harvested on a twice or threetimes weekly schedule, to ensure that shoots were within the accepted height-to-base diameter ratios of 2:1 and 3:1, separated into various size classes, counted and weighed. Untrimmed shoots greater than 0.35 kg were generally classed as marketable. Shoots were then trimmed ready for market before each shoot was weighed, measured and recorded. Culms were harvested in July of each year and in 2004 and 2005 (some treatments only) they were measured for determination of culm biomass, as described by Zhu et al. (2009).
100% = scheduled to provide 100% of the monthly average daily evaporation values; 50% = one-half of the 100% treatment; drought = no irrigation from April to September, otherwise as for 100%
Soil water content

All treatments were monitored once a week with a Diviner moisture probe to a depth of 1 m. Monitoring with tensiometers was conducted during the first year but did not produce useful data and was not continued after the 2002 dry season. Tensiometers measure the soil water potential and could not be maintained within their working range of 080 centibars. The Diviner moisture probe measures volumetric soil water content at 10 cm increments and monitoring sites require no maintenance.
Table 2.
Total OctoberMarch rainfall (mm) at sites 2 and 3 Site 2

1,396 1,728 950
Date
200203 200304 200405
Site 3
1,460 1,924 1,079
Thinning
Three thinning treatments were imposed at sites 1 and 3. The 4-4-4 standing culm density (SCD) was as described for site 2. The 4-2-2 SCD comprised four 01-year-old culms, two 12-year old culms and two 23-year-old culms. The 2-2-2 SCD was as for the 4-4-4 SCD, but with only two culms of each age
Leaf nitrogen concentration

Youngest fully expanded leaves from at least 10 branches were collected from 1-year-old culms from each plot, dried, ground and subjected to Kjeldahl analysis for total % N. Samples were collected just before anticipated timing of fertiliser applications (generally in October and April) and 34 weeks later. 110
On a number of occasions, the nitrate concentration in juice expressed from harvested shoots was quantified using the Reflectoquant test system and related to % leaf N.
Data analysis
Analyses of shoot yield data were done for each site as repeated measures models that accounted for the three shoot seasons in one model, using the software Statistical. Analyses presented are for average marketable shoot number per clumpto test for treatment effect on shoot yield, and average individual marketable shoot weight per clumpto test any treatment effect on shoot size. Significant interactions between treatments and seasons across sites 2 and 3 were most likely caused by the comparatively low rainfall of the 200405 wet season, which was also responsible for the yield reduction in some.
associated with the prescribed application rates, and he pulled out of the trial. At sites 2 and 3, % leaf N was more responsive to N applications, although rarely did % leaf N reach 3% (Figure 2 and Figure 3, respectively). The total amounts of N applied in each year are presented in Table 3 and the % leaf N before the shoot season in Table 4. Carryover effects of N treatments were evident; higher rates of N application resulted in higher pre-application % N in leaves, but the rates of application to achieve this were considerable, reaching over 1,000 kg N/ha in 2 of the 4 years. Since phosphorus and potassium were applied in proportions following the N rates (for the N:P:K ratio of the compound fertiliser was 4:1:3), it is instructive to review the data on leaf K (Table 4). The data show no effect of rate of K application on leaf K, although there was an indication that the leaf concentration declined after the first year.
Results
Fertiliser treatments
Application rates and monitoring of leaf N
At site 1, the organic input site, even with large quantities of N application, % leaf N did not reach 3% (Figure 1). Indeed, the grower, after year 1 of the project, decided that he could not justify the costs
4 N application 3
Shoot and culm yields

Despite there having been negligible effect of fertiliser on % leaf N at site 1the organic siteshoot number, albeit very low, showed a positive response (Figure 4) in the first (and only) seasons harvest. At site 2, where only 25% and 100% fertiliser were compared, the higher rate led to more shoots in the first two seasons (Figure 5), but averaged over the three seasons the effect was not significant.
350 Leaf N 300 250 kg N/ha applied 200
% leaf N
2 150 100 50 0 0
01-
26-
17Oc t -01
19Dec 01
06-
07-
11Apr -02
20-
01-
2 v-0 No 19-
09Jan -02
17-
Jun -02
Oc t
Jan
Feb
Jun -02
Oc t -02
Ma r-03
-03
-02
03
Figure 1.
Nitrogen application (100% treatment) and response in leaf N at site 1. Note: 100% treatment = amount of fertiliser calculated to bring leaf N to 3%.
111
Nitrogen application (100% treatment) and response in leaf N at site 2. Note: 100% treatment = amount of fertiliser calculated to bring leaf N to 3%.
kg N/ha applied 350 300 250 200 150 100 350 300 250 50 0
kg N/ha applied 200 150
-05 Feb 24- -05 Feb 02-05 Jan 054 v-0 No 04- -04 Oct 11- -04 Sep 01- -04 Feb 25- -04 Feb 04- -04 Jan 053 v-0 No 07- -03 Oct 07- -03 Sep 01r-03 Ma 17- -03 Feb 07-03 Jan 062 v-0 No 19- -02 Oct 26- -02 Oct 01- -02 Jun 20- -02 Jun 01- -02 Apr 11- -02 Feb 15- -02 Jan 25-01 Dec 131 v-0 No 22- -01 Oct
Leaf N Date N application
-05 Feb 24- -05 Feb 02- -05 Jan 4 05v-0 No 04- -04 Oc t 11- -04 Sep 01- -04 Feb 25- -04 Feb 04- -04 Jan 3 05v-0 No 07- -03 Oc t 07- -03 Sep 01- r-03 Ma 17- -03 Feb 07- -03 Jan 2 06v-0 No 19- -02 Oc t 26- -02 Oc t 01- -02 Jun 20- -02 Jun 01- -02 Apr 11- -01 Dec 1 13v-0 No 22- -01 Oc t 17-
Nitrogen application (100% treatment) and response in leaf N at site 3. Note: 100% treatment = amount of fertiliser calculated to bring leaf N to 3%. Figure 2.
3 2 1 0 4 3 2 % leaf N % leaf N
100
50
N application
Leaf N
17-
Date
Figure 3.
112
Table 3. Year
Annual totals (kg/ha) of applied nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) at sites 2 and 3 Site 3 treatmentsa 25% N K
74 72 91 94
Site 2 treatmentsa 200% 25% K

594 574 726 748
100% N
419 393 500 520
100% K
42 33 92 93
K
297 287 363 374
N
838 786 1,000 1,040
N
58 45 127 127
N
231 178 507 506
K
168 132 369 369
200102 200203 200304 200405

a
105 98 125 130
100% = amount of fertiliser calculated to bring leaf N to 3%; 25% = one-quarter of the amount dictated by the 100% treatment; 200% = double the 100% input
Table 4.
Leaf nutrient levels before pre-shooting fertiliser application for each year of the project for sites 2 and 3 Site 3 treatmentsa 25% Leaf N Leaf K
2.05 1.75 1.73 2.23 2.27 1.92
Sampling date
Site 2 treatmentsa 200% Leaf N

2.71 2.69 2.47
100% Leaf N
2.33 2.47 2.18
25% Leaf N
2.99 2.16 2.13
100% Leaf N
3.09 2.26 2.22
Leaf K
2.05 1.59 1.64
Leaf K
1.92 1.59 1.65
Leaf K
1.68 1.43 1.66
Leaf K
1.69 1.38 1.37
26 Oct 2002 07 Oct 2003 11 Oct 2004

a
100% = amount of fertiliser calculated to bring leaf N to 3%; 25% = one-quarter of the amount dictated by the 100% treatment; 200% = double the 100% input
3.5 3.0 2.5 Shoot no./clump 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0
25% fertiliser 100% fertiliser 200% fertiliser
28-
18-
04-
21-
14-
28-
14-
02No v-0 2
Feb
Feb
Feb
Jan
Jan
Dec
Dec -02
-03
-03
-02
03
03
03
Date
Figure 4.
Average shoot number per clump for the 200203 season at site 1 as affected by fertiliser treatments. Note: 100% fertiliser = amount of fertiliser calculated to bring leaf N to 3%; 25% = one-quarter of the amount dictated by the 100% treatment; 200% = double the 100% input.
113
25% fertiliser 20
100% fertiliser
15
10
0 200203 200304 Season 200405
Figure 5.
Average marketable shoot number per clump over the three shoot seasons at site 2 as affected by fertiliser treatments. Note: 100% fertiliser = amount of fertiliser calculated to bring leaf N to 3%; 25% = one-quarter of the amount dictated by the 100% treatment
Higher fertiliser rates at site 3 resulted in more shoots in association with an earlier harvest (Figure 6). As clumps aged, the shoot size distribution tended towards larger shoots (Figure 7) and, at site 3, average marketable shoot number per clump ranged from 3.1 in the 25% fertiliser treatment, 5.3 in the 100% treatment, to 8.2 in the 200% treatment (data not shown). Weight per shoot did not differ between fertiliser treatments at site 1 (0.10 kg at 25% N, 0.10 kg at 100% N and 0.09 kg at 200% N; data not shown). Likewise, at neither site 2 nor site 3 was weight per shoot affected by fertiliser treatment (on average 0.48 kg at 25% N and 0.48 kg at 100% N at site 2, and 0.38 kg at 25% N, 0.39 kg at 100% N and 0.40 kg at 200% N at site 3; data not shown). Therefore, the response of total shoot yield in the fertiliser treatments followed the pattern of shoot numbers. Culms were weighed as harvested only at sites 2 and 3 in 2004 and at site 2 in 2005. At neither site in 2004 was culm weight affected by fertiliser treatment, with culms in the range of 5.06.0 t/ha at site 2 and 6.97.3 t/ha at site 3 (detailed data not shown). This was about one-half of the total above-ground biomass produced. Leaf and branches comprised c. 52% and culms c. 48% of the total biomass at
Marketable shoot no./clump
4.0 3.5 3.0 Shoot no./clump 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 25% fertiliser 100% fertiliser 200% fertiliser
2 v-0 No 30-
20-
2 v-0 No 18-
14-
2 v-0 No 09-
07Dec -02
04-
11-
28-
11-
14-
28-
Dec -02
Date
Dec -02
Jan -03
Feb
Jan -03
r-0 Ma
Jan -03
Feb 03
03
Figure 6.
Average shoot number per clump for the 200203 season at site 3 as affected by fertiliser treatments. Note: 100% fertiliser = amount of fertiliser calculated to bring leaf N to 3%; 25% = one-quarter of the amount dictated by the 100% treatment; 200% = double the 100% input.
114
(a) 20 25% fertiliser 100% fertiliser
15 Shoot no./clump
10
0 <0.25 0.250.35 0.350.45 Shoot grade (kg) (b) 10 8 Shoot no./clump 6 4 2 0 <0.25 0.250.35 0.350.45 Shoot grade (kg) (c) 10 8 Shoot no./clump 6 4 2 0 <0.25 0.250.35 0.350.45 Shoot grade (kg) 0.450.55 >0.55 0.450.55 >0.55 0.450.55 >0.55
Figure 7.
Shoot size distribution (average shoot number per clump) over three seasons at site 2 as affected by treatments: (a) 200203; (b) 200304; and (c) 200405. Note: 100% fertiliser = amount of fertiliser calculated to bring leaf N to 3%; 25% = one-quarter of the amount dictated by the 100% treatment.
115
site 2 with D. latiflorus, and at site 3 for D. latiflorus, values were c. 45% and c. 55%, respectively. There was a tendency for higher N to increase culm over branch-plus-leaf biomass and in site 2 in 2005, culms in the 100% N treatment were 13% heavier.
Irrigation treatments
Application rates and soil moisture content
Average application amounts (Table 1) show small variation between months, with September and October receiving greatest amounts and February (due to cloudy wet days with lower evaporation) the least. Seasonal rainfall for sites 2 and 3 is presented in Table 2 and it is evident that there was a near twofold difference between 200304 and 200405. At site 1, soil water monitoring continued only until early 2003, and showed greater availability of water in the 100% than the 50% treatment (data not presented), with the exception of December through to March 2003 when the two treatments did not differ. At site 2, the volumetric soil water content (VSWC) for the drought and 50% treatments was very similar throughout the three dry seasons and the timing of recommencement in October of full irrigation in the drought treatment is quite clear (Figure 8). The
180 160 140 120 VSWC (mm) 100 80 60 40 20 0
drought treatment thereafter received the 100% rate and the soil moisture for that treatment then remained quite similar to that of the 100% treatment. For this site, the 100% irrigation treatment reached field capacity (128146 mm over 050 cm soil depth) in only the 200304 wet season when considerably more rainfall was received than in the other 2 years. The VSWC of the 100% inputs in the upper profile were considerably higher than the 50% and drought treatments, and remained above wilting point (4546 mm over 050 cm soil depth). The VSWC of the three treatments was quite similar in the lower compared to the upper soil profile, with less fluctuation in weekly records (data not presented). The VSWC of the 100% treatment remained below 80 mm in the lower profile, indicating that very little applied water reached below 50 cm soil depth. These monitoring data combined with shoot yield data suggest that the evaporation replacement treatment (100%) was insufficient in quantity to markedly affect plant performance. At site 3, although the VSWC in the upper soil profile of the 100% treatment remained slightly higher than the 50% inputs over the three dry seasons, both treatments were very similar (Figure 9). This indicates the free drainage of the soil and contrasts with site 2
50% irrigation 100% irrigation drought
Figure 8.
Ma 12r-02
Volumetric soil water content (VSWC) of the upper soil profile (050 cm) for irrigation treatments at site 2. Note: 100% irrigation = scheduled to provide 100% of the monthly average daily evaporation values; 50% = one-half of the 100% treatment; drought = no irrigation from April to September, otherwise as for 100%.
12y-0 Ma
12Jul02
12Sep -02
No 12-
J 12an03
M 12-
r-05 Ma 12-05 Jan 124 v-0 No 12-04 Sep 1204 Jul124 y-0 Ma 12r-04 Ma 12-04 Jan 123 v-0 No 12-03 Sep 1203 Jul123 y-0 Ma 123 ar-0
2 v-0
Date
116
200 180 160 140 VSWC (mm) 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 50% irrigation 100% irrigation
22r-02 Ma
22-
22Jul02
22-
22-
22-
22-
22-
22-
22-
22-
22-
22-
22-
22-
22-
22-
22-
2 y-0 Ma
Sep -02
vNo 02
Jan -03
r-03 Ma
3 y-0 Ma
Jul03
Sep -03
Jan -04
vNo 03
r-04 Ma
4 y-0 Ma
Jul04
Sep -04
vNo 04
Jan -05
Date
Figure 9.
Volumetric soil water content (VSWC) of the upper soil profile (050 cm) for irrigation treatments at site 3. Note: 100% irrigation = scheduled to provide 100% of the monthly average daily evaporation values; 50% = one-half of the 100% treatment.
where the soil had a greater water-holding capacity and was able to retain more of the water applied in the 100% treatment. More water was held in the lower soil profile in the 100% treatment compared to the 50% inputs (Figure 10) which may also indicate that the additional water of the 100% treatment drained through the soil profile. As with site 2, it seems that the evaporation replacement treatment (100%) was insufficient in volume to satisfy plant demand. Although site 3 received more total rainfall in each of the three wet seasons, data for VSWC indicate that the peaks of the three wet seasons are compressed compared with those of site 2. This is further indication of the lower water-holding capacity of the soil at site 3.
Shoot and culm yields

The onset of the shoot season was earlier with the 100% compared to the 50% irrigation treatments at site 1, but overall number did not differ, and weight per shoot and size grade distribution also did not differ between irrigation treatments (data not presented). The winter drought treatment at site 2 resulted in a consistent increase in the number of marketable shoots per clump (Figure 11), the effect being greater in 200304, the year with the greatest rainfall, and in combination with the 100% fertiliser treatment 117
compared to the 25% fertiliser treatment (data not presented). At site 3, averaged over the three seasons, irrigation had no effect on shoot number (although the tendency was for shoot number to be greater for the 50% irrigation treatments; P = 0.07), nor weight per shoot. At site 2, weight per shoot was also not affected by irrigation treatment, hence total yield per clump responded in the same manner to irrigation as did number of shoots per clump. In contrast to these data showing benefits of drought on shoot numbers, 100% irrigation at site 2 led to calculated culm dry-weight yields of 6.5 t/ha in 2004 and 7.5 t/ha in 2005 compared to 5.4 and 6.5 t/ha for 50% irrigation and 4.9 and 5.1 t/ha for the winter season drought treatment, respectively. At site 3, there was no effect of irrigation on culm dry weight (detailed data not presented).
Thinning treatments
Thinning treatments were imposed only at sites 1 and 3. At site 1, where monitoring was for the first season only, there was a marked (but in absolute terms small) increase in shoot number with the 2-2-2 treatment compared to the others, but no effect on size-grade distribution (data not presented).
200 180 160 140 VSWC (mm) 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 50% irrigation 100% irrigation
Figure 10. Volumetric soil water content (VSWC) of the lower soil profile (50100 cm) for irrigation treatments at site 3. Note: 100% irrigation = scheduled to provide 100% of the monthly average daily evaporation values; 50% = one-half of the 100% treatment.
30 50% irrigation 25 100% irrigation Drought Marketable shoot no./clump 20
15
10
Figure 11. Average marketable shoot number per clump for the irrigation treatments over three shoot seasons at site 2 (vertical bars denote 95% confidence limits)
22r-02 Ma
5 0
22-
22Jul02
22-
22-
22-
22-
22-
22-
22-
22-
22-
22-
22-
22-
22-
22-
22-
2 y-0 Ma
200203
Sep -02
vNo 02
Jan -03
r-03 Ma
3 y-0 Ma
Shoot season
118
Jul03
Sep -03
Jan -04
vNo 03
r-04 Ma
4 y-0 Ma
Jul04
Sep -04
vNo 04
Jan -05
Date
200304
200405
Both number and individual weight of shoots were influenced by thinning treatments at site 3. Averaged over the three seasons, shoot number per clump and weight per shoot were similar for 4-4-4 and 4-2-2 treatments, and both were greater by a factor of two than the number for 2-2-2, although the effect on number was not notable in the first year after the treatment was imposed (Figure 12) and the effect on weight per shoot was evident in only the third year (data not presented). Individual culm dry weights at site 3 in the 2004 harvest were not markedly affected by thinning treatments, but because the 4-2-2 and 2-2-2 treatments had only half the number of culms harvested compared to the 4-4-4, their yields (c. 3.63.7 t/ha) were only 50% those of 4-4-4 (6.8 t/ha).
Discussion
Fertiliser
The higher fertiliser rates almost invariably resulted in a higher shoot yield and more shoots early in the season. This effect was strongest when combined with a good wet season. Illustrative data from 200203, presented in Figure 13, show the cumulative number of marketable shoots harvested from the start of harvest
14 12 10 Marketable shoot no./clump 8 6 4 2 0 -2 200203 2-2-2 thinning 4-2-2 thinning 4-4-4 thinning
through to the end of December for the fertiliser treatments at site 3. The higher rates of fertiliser application consistently resulted in more harvested shoots during the early stages of the three shooting seasons. This trend was evident for the two fertiliser treatments at site 2 for the first two seasons but not in 200405 (data not presented). The use of strategic applications of fertiliser in the management of bamboo for shoot production may provide an economic advantage in the market. Indeed, high nitrogen supply has enhancing effects in terms of earliness and numbers of tillers in other members of the grass family (see e.g. Salvagiotti and Miralles 2007). While the response to increased nitrogen and potassium fertiliser was strongly reflected in shoot yield, the response in leaf nutrient levels was surprisingly small. The objective to achieve 3% nitrogen in the leaves of 1-year-old culms using the calculated diagnosis and recommendation integrated system (DRIS) fertiliser application rate (Kleinhenz and Midmore 2002), although based on a number of bamboo species, was generally not successful and would need updating to suit NT conditions. An alternative fertiliser strategy for local growers might be based on the correlation of experimental yields with fertiliser inputs, supported by leaf nutrient concentration ranges developed from project data.
200304 Shoot season
200405
Figure 12. Average marketable shoot number per clump for the thinning treatments over the three shoot seasons at site 3 (vertical bars denote 95% confidence limits)
119
6.0
5.0
25% fertiliser 100% fertiliser 200% fertiliser
Marketable shoot no./clump
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
31-
28-
24-
20-
17-
14-
10-
07-
03-
v No 30-
v No 26-
v No 23-
v No 18-
v No 16-
v No 09-
Figure 13. Early marketable shoot numbers per clump as affected by fertiliser treatments for site 3 in 2002
Although not tested in this project, it is considered that the strategic fertigation of nitrogen and potassium would have benefits over the application of solid fertilisers. High daily rates could be applied over a week or more directly into the surface roots. This would minimise leaching caused by monsoonal rainfall, which may occur with single applications of solid fertiliser. Culm yields in 2004 were not influenced by fertiliser treatments, but were to a small degree in 2005, perhaps a further indication (see below) that growth of the bamboo clumps was constrained by water shortage, even at the highest irrigation rate.
v No 02-
Dec
Dec
Dec
Dec
Dec
Dec
Dec
D ec
Date
D ec
Irrigation
Watering as we trialled during 5 months (May September) of the 6-month dry season (April September) may not be necessary. An irrigation strategy of supplying high-volume irrigation to mature clumps only before and during the shoot season appeared to have the same effect on shoot yield as irrigation throughout the dry season, and saved on irrigation costs. There was indeed a close relationship between the propensity of clumps to shoot and both rainfall and VSWC. Figure 14 indicates the strong correlation between rainfall and significant increases 120
in VSWC. The commencement and continuation of shoot emergence during this project was strongly reliant on monsoonal rainfall. The shooting periods at sites 2 and 3 appear to be initiated by significant increases in VSWC within the upper soil profile (e.g. Figure 15), which contains most of the clump roots (Kleinhenz and Midmore 2001). These data indicate that shooting began when the upper profile reached 100 mm water content per 50 cm profile at site 2 and at around 80 mm at the site 3. If a high-volume irrigation strategy were trialled to initiate early or out-of-season shooting, then frequent monitoring of VSWC would be required. Data from southern Queensland (Kleinhenz et al. 2003) do show that imposed early irrigation before natural summer rainfall can bring forward shoot appearance. Although the 100% daily irrigation inputs used in the project are similar to those applied to various tropical tree crops (Diczbalis and Wicks 2002), they appear to be insufficient to have a significant effect on bamboo shoot production and failed to sustain the VSWC that was anticipated. Only monsoonal rainfall achieved the required wetted soil profile to trigger shoot emergence; evaporation replacement irrigation inputs were not sufficient.
180 VSWC (050cm) 160 140 rainfall (mm)
450 400 350 300 Rainfall (mm)
VSWC (mm)
120 100 80 60 40
250 200 150 100 50

07-Nov-02 01-Nov-04 22-Nov-04 13-Dec-04 14-Jan-05 08-Feb-05 03-Dec-02 21-Feb-03 15-May-03 30-Mar-04 21-Nov-03 11-Dec-03 05-Mar-04 14-Mar-03 08-Mar-05 05-Jun-03 17-Oct-02 11-Jun-04 17-Jul-03 30-Jan-04 23-Oct-03 09-Jan-04 18-Jul-02 08-Jul-04
09-Sep-04
26-Sep-02
28-Aug-03
18-Sep-03
29-Aug-02
08-Aug-02
Date
Figure 14. Rainfall and volumetric soil water content (VSWC) of the upper soil profile (050 cm) for the 100% irrigation treatment at site 2 over three seasons. Note: 100% irrigation = scheduled to provide 100% of the monthly mean daily evaporation values.
12-Aug-04
30-Sep-04
02-Apr-03
29-Apr-04
24-Apr-03
180 160 140 VSWC (mm) 120 100 80 VSWC (050cm) shoot number
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 Shoot no./clump
60 40
1
18-Jul-02 01-May-03 14-Mar-03 12-Jan-04 30-Jan-04 05-Mar-04 10-Jun-04 08-Jul-04 29-Jul-04 14-Nov-02 10-Dec-02 22-May-03 13-Nov-03 22-Nov-04 24-Oct-02 21-Feb-03 12-Jun-03 17-Jul-03 30-Mar-04 01-Nov-04 13-Dec-04 14-Jan-05 18-Feb-05 11-Dec-03 08-Mar-05 02-Oct-03
05-Sep-02
08-Aug-02
07-Aug-03
04-Sep-03
Date
Figure 15. Volumetric soil water content (VSWC) of the upper soil profile (050 cm) and average shoot number per clump for the 100% irrigation treatment at site 3 over three seasons. Note: 100% irrigation = scheduled to provide 100% of the monthly mean daily evaporation values.
121
26-Aug-04
23-Sep-04
26-Sep-02
09-Apr-03
29-Apr-04
Most likely, a large volume of dormant root mass would need to be activated by high-volume irrigation to induce shooting before the wet season. Seasonal monsoon rainfall is high volume, continuous over an extended period and falls on the total plantation area. To achieve this with irrigation may prove difficult and expensive but would be worth investigation in an attempt to achieve earlier or out-of-season shooting. Weight of culms at harvest (in 2004) was affected by irrigation treatment. At site 2, the site with the heavier soil type, drought (irrigation only for 5 months during the dry season) reduced culm weight compared to full 100% irrigation (by 24% in 2004 and 33% in 2005) and 50% irrigation also reduced culm yield (by 15% in 2004 and 13% in 2005). At site 3, with a lighter soil and less notable difference between soil depths in VSWC (Figures 9 and 10), irrigation rates (50% or 100%) did not affect culm weights.
Thinning
The marketable shoot yield increased with higher standing culm density (SCD) and with a higher percentage of 1- and 2-year-old culms across treatments. Higher SCD may result in the development of more rhizome axes and a greater shoot yield potential from the growing points of these axes. Project research in the Philippines has shown that 1- and 2-year-old culms can produce 90% of new shoots (Malab et al. 2009) and the data from the current thinning treatments support that finding. A productive thinning strategy for shoot production would maintain only (or a high percentage of) 1- and 2-year-old culms and apply a SCD that encourages strong rhizome development. Possible thinning schedules focusing on shoot production might be 4-4-2 or 4-4. If both shoots and mature 3-year-old timber culms are to be harvested, then 4-4-4 would be a better schedule. Before the first thinning operation of young bamboo plants, it is important to encourage a well-developed and branching rhizome (M. Traynor, personal observation). There are some important considerations in the selection of shoots to grow into culms. Shoots selected early in the season will have the full benefit of favourable wet-season conditions to become established culms, while shoots selected late in the season may have their development restricted by the onset of the dry season. Selected shoots should be of good size and evenly spaced around the clump. Some form of yearly identification marking of new culms will assist at thinning time. 122
Thinning treatments did not affect the individual weight of culms, most likely because clumps were widely spaced and still without canopy overlap and hence did not impose severe within-clump competition, and culm yield per unit area was directly proportional to the number of culms harvested. In summary, fertiliser application was effective in hastening timing of shoot appearance and their numbers, especially in wetter years, but culm yield was not affected by fertiliser. Dry-season (winter) irrigation was not, apparently, necessary for shoot production; heavy irrigation just before the beginning and during the shoot season was all that was required. In contrast, culm dry weights were responsive to dryseason irrigation. Maintaining a higher standing culm density, with a greater proportion of 1- and 2-yearold culms enhanced shoot numbers, and an annual strategy of leaving four shoots per clump to develop into culms, to be harvested when just over 3 years of age, was most suitable for shoot and culm production.
References
Diczbalis Y. and Wicks C. 2002. Rambutan irrigation requirements and management. AgnoteNorthern Territory of Australia (238/18). Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Northern Territory of Australia: Darwin, 5 pp. Franklin D.C. 2006. Wild bamboo stands fail to compensate for a heavy 1-year harvest of culm shoots. Forest Ecology and Management 237(1/3), 115118. Franklin D.C. and Bowman D.M.J.S. 2004. A multi-scale biogeographic analysis of Bambusa arnhemica, a bamboo from monsoonal northern Australia. Journal of Biogeography 31, 1,3351,353. Kleinhenz V. and Midmore D.J. 2001. Aspects of bamboo agronomy. Advances in Agronomy 74, 99153. Kleinhenz V and Midmore D.J. 2002. Improved management . practices for culinary bamboo shoots. RIRDC Publication No. 02/035. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation: Canberra. Kleinhenz V Milne J., Walsh K.B. and Midmore D.J. 2003. ., A case study on the effects of irrigation and fertilization on soil water and soil nutrient status, and on growth and yield of bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) shoots. Journal of Bamboo and Rattan 2, 281293. Malab S.C., Batin C.B., Malab B.S., Alipon M. and Midmore D.J. 2009. Improving productivity of a previously unmanaged Bambusa blumeana plantation for culms and shoots in Ilocos Norte, the Philippines. In Silvicultural management of bamboo in the Philippines and Australia for shoots and timber, ed. by D.J. Midmore. ACIAR Proceedings No. 129, 2435. [These proceedings]
PWCNT (Parks and Wildlife Commission of the Northern Territory) 1995. A strategy for conservation through the sustainable use of wildlife in the Northern Territory of Australia. PWCNT: Darwin. Salvagiotti F. and Miralles D. J. 2007. Wheat development as affected by nitrogen and sulfur nutrition. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 58(1), 3945.
Zhu G.X., Ockerby S., White D.T. and Midmore D.J. 2009. Identifying agricultural practices to sustain bamboo production in Queensland. In Silvicultural management of bamboo in the Philippines and Australia for shoots and timber, ed. by D.J. Midmore. ACIAR Proceedings No. 129, 124139. [These proceedings]
123

Bamboo

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bamboo

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bamboo

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Economics and market potential of bamboo for shoots and engineered products in the Philippines

Merlyn Carmelita N. Rivera1

Species sold in the market

Status of bamboo shoots

Site (city, province, region)

Site (city, province, region)

Factors affecting availability

Factors affecting acceptability

Site (city, province, region)

Selling price (PHP/kg) Lean

Status of engineered bamboo

Demand in the restaurants of hotels

Jireh Industries: production and trade

Characteristics of bamboo shoot utilisation in hotel restaurants Hotel type Standard

Trayline Corporation: utlilisation

Formaply Industries, Inc.: trade

Balbins Quality Furniture: production, utilisation and trade

Asia Rattan: production, utilisation and trade

Bamboo for conventional products

Projected demand and supply

Bamboo exports, 19992003 (DENR 2003) Quantity (000 kg)

Free on board (FOB) value

Demand for engineered bamboo products

Valuea (FOB) (US$000)

Valuea (CIF) (US$000)

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

FOB = free on board; CIF = cost, insurance and shipping

With interventiona Demand B

Policies affecting the Philippine bamboo sector

Floor area of low-cost housing units (m2)

Estimated no. of bamboo tiles required (each 1 m2)a

Total wood requirement (million m3)

Total no. of 1 m2 bamboo tiles required (million)

Total no. of culms required (million)

If 50% of wood requirement is substituted with bamboo

Improving the engineered bamboo industry

Reforestation and rehabilitation programs of DENR

Profitability indicators for the ACIAR project sites

Recommendations and policy implications

Ilocos Norte trial

Summarising NPV ranking by treatment

Summarising BCR ranking by treatment

Cultivated bamboo in the Northern Territory of Australia

Site 3 (Old Bynoe Road)

Materials and methods

Site 1 (Berry Springs)

Site 2 (Middle Point)

Irrigation quantities (L/month) at site 2 according to treatment

Soil water content

Total OctoberMarch rainfall (mm) at sites 2 and 3 Site 2

Leaf nitrogen concentration

Shoot and culm yields

kg N/ha applied 200 150

Site 2 treatmentsa 200% 25% K

200102 200203 200304 200405

105 98 125 130

Site 2 treatmentsa 200% Leaf N

26 Oct 2002 07 Oct 2003 11 Oct 2004

25% fertiliser 100% fertiliser 200% fertiliser

0 200203 200304 Season 200405