PNEUMONIA

Definition There are two clinical definitions of pneumonia: bronchopneumonia: a febrile illness with cough, respiratory distress with evidence of localised or generalised patch infiltrates lobar pneumonia: similar to bronchopneumonia except that the physical findings and radiographs indicate lobar consolidation. Aetiology The specific aetiological agents is not identified in 40% to 60% of cases. It is difficult to distinguish viral from bacterial disease based on a combination of findings. A helpful indicator in predicting aetiological agents is the age group. The majority of lower respiratory tract infections are viral in origin, e.g. respiratory syncytial virus, influenza A and B, adenovirus and parainfluenza virus. The predominant bacterial pathogens are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Pathogens for pneumonia Age Bacterial Pathogens newborns Group B streptococcus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella species, Enterobacteriaceae 1- 3 months Chlamydia trachomatis preschool Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae type b, Staphylococcal aureus Less common: group A Streptococcus, Moraxella catarrhalis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa school Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydia pneumoniae

RESPIRATORY

Assessment of severity of pneumonia The predictive value of respiratory rate for the diagnosis of pneumonia may be improved by making it age specific. Tachypnoea is defined as follows : < 2 months age: > 60 /min 2- 12 months age: > 50 /min 12 months 5 years age: > 40 /min Assessment of severity is essential for optimal management of pneumonia, and can be categorised based on the respiratory signs and symptoms as shown in Table 2:
Table 2. Assessment of severity of pneumonia age < 2 months age 2 months - 5 years Severe pneumonia Mild pneumonia severe chest indrawing fast breathing or fast breathing Severe pneumonia Very severe pneumonia chest indrawing not feeding Very severe pneumonia convulsions not able to drink abnormally sleepy or difficult to wake convulsions fever/ low body temperature drowsiness hypopnoea with slow irregular breathing malnutrition

Investigations and assessment Children with bacterial pneumonia cannot be reliably distinguished from those with viral disease on the basis of any single parameter: clinical, laboratory or chest X-ray findings. chest radiograph - indicated when clinical criteria suggests pneumonia - does not diagnose aetiological agent - not always necessary if facilities are not available or the pneumonia is mild

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 white blood cell count - increased counts with predominance of polymorphonuclear cells suggests bacterial cause - leucopenia can either suggests a viral cause or severe overwhelming infection blood culture - non-invasive gold standard for determining the precise aetiology of pneumonia - sensitivity is low: positive blood cultures in 10%-30% of patients with pneumonia - should be performed in severe pneumonia or if poor response to first line antibiotics pleural fluid analysis - if there is significant pleural effusion diagnostic pleural tap will be helpful serology - serology is performed in patients with suspected atypical pneumonia, i.e. from Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydia, Legionella and Moraxella catarrhalis are - acute phase serum titre > 1:160 or paired samples taken 2-4 weeks apart showing a 4 fold rise is a good indicator of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. This test should be considered for children aged five years or older. Assessment of oxygenation The best objective measurement of hypoxia is by pulse oximetry which avoids the need for arterial blood gases. It is a good indicator of the severity of pneumonia Criteria for hospitalization community acquired pneumonia can be treated at home it is crucial to identify indicators of severity in children who may need admission. Failure to recognise the severity of pneumonia may lead to death. The following indicators can be used as a guide for admission: - children aged 3 months and below, whatever the severity of pneumonia. - fever ( more than 38.5 C ), refusal to feed and vomiting - fast breathing with or without cyanosis - associated systemic manifestation - failure of previous antibiotic therapy - recurrent pneumonia - severe underlying disorder ( i.e. immunodeficiency ) Antibiotics When treating pneumonia, the clinical, laboratory and radiographic findings should be considered. Other factors are age of the child, local epidemiology of respiratory pathogens and sensitivity to microbial agents and the emergence of antimicrobial resistance. The severity of the pneumonia and drug costs also impact on selection of therapy. The majority infections are caused by viruses and do not require any antibiotic. However, it is also very important to be vigilant to choose appropriate antibiotics especially in the initial treatment to reduce further mortality and morbidity.
Table 3. Bacterial pathogens of children and the recommended antimicrobial agents to be used Pathogen Antimicrobial agent Beta-lactam susceptible Streptococcus pneumonia penicillin, cephalosporins Haemophilus influenzae type b ampicillin, chloramphenicol, cephalosporins Staphylococcus aureus cloxacillin Group A Streptococcus penicillin, cephalosporin Mycoplasma pneumoniae macrolides , e.g. erythromycin, azithromycin Chlamydia pneumoniae macrolides , e.g. erythromycin, azithromycin Bordetella pertussis macrolides , e.g. erythromycin, azithromycin

RESPIRATORY

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INPATIENT MANAGEMENT Antibiotics For children with severe pneumonia, the following antibiotics are recommended:
Table 4. Suggested antimicrobial agents for inpatient treatment of pneumonia

RESPIRATORY

1st line 2nd line 3rd line others

beta-lactam drugs : benzylpenicillin, amoxycillin, ampicillin, amoxycillin-clavulanate cephalosporins : cefotaxime, cefuroxime, ceftazidime carbapenem: imipenam aminoglycosides: gentamicin, amikacin

second line antibiotics need to be considered when : - there are no signs of recovery - patients remain toxic and ill with spiking temperature for 48 - 72 hours a macrolide antibiotic is used if Mycoplasma or Chlamydia are the causative agents a child admitted to hospital with severe community acquired pneumonia must receive parenteral antibiotics. As a rule, in severe cases of pneumonia, combination therapy using a second or third generation cephalosporins and macrolide should be given. Staphylococcal infections and infections caused by Gram negative organisms such as Klebsiella have been frequently reported in malnourished children. Staphylococcal infection Staphylococcus aureus is responsible for a small proportion of cases. A high index of suspicion is required because of the potential for rapid deterioration. It is chiefly a disease of infants and has a significant mortality rate. Radiological features include the presence of multilobar consolidation, cavitation, pneumatocoeles, spontaneous pneumothorax, empyema and pleural effusion. Treatment with high dose cloxacillin (200 mg/kg/day) for a longer duration and drainage of empyema will result in good outcome in the majority of cases. Supportive treatment Fluids Oral intake should ceased when a child is in severe respiratory distress. In severe pneumonia, secretion of anti-diuretic hormone is increased which means that dehydration is uncommon. It is important that the child should not be overhydrated. Oxygen Oxygen reduces mortality associated with severe pneumonia. It should be given especially to children who are restless, tachypnoeic with severe chest indrawing, cyanosed or not tolerating feeds. It is important to maintain the SaO > 95%. Cough syrup Not recommended as it causes suppression of cough and may interfere with airway clearance. Adverse effects and overdosage have been reported. Temperature control To reduce discomfort from symptoms, as paracetamol will not abolish the fever Chest physiotherapy This assists in the removal of tracheobronchial secretions: removes airway obstruction, increase gas exchange and reduce the work of breathing. There is no evidence that chest physiotherapy should be routinely done in pneumonia. OUTPATIENT MANAGEMENT In children with mild pneumonia, their breathing is fast but there is no chest indrawing. Antibiotics can be prescribed orally. The mother is advised to return in two days for reassessment, or earlier if the child is getting worse. 90