Manual Me Pro

MEPro
Mechanical Engineering
Users Manual A software Application for the TI-89 and TI-92 Plus
Version 1.0 by da Vinci Technologies Group Inc
MEPro
A software Application
For TI-89 and TI-92 Plus
Users Guide
August 2000 da Vinci Technologies Group, Inc. Rev. 1.0
da Vinci Technologies Group, Inc. 1600 S.W. Western Blvd Suite 250 Corvallis, OR 97333 www.dvtg.com 2
Notice
This manual and the examples contained herein are provided as is as a supplement to MEPro application software available from Texas Instruments for TI-89, and TI-92 Plus platforms. da Vinci Technologies Group, Inc. (da Vinci) makes no warranty of any kin d with regard to this manual or the accompanying software, including, but not limited to, the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose. da Vinci shall not be liable for any errors or for incidental or consequential damages in connection with the furnishing, performance, or use of this manual, or the examples herein. Copyright da Vinci Technologies Group, Inc. 2000. All rights reserved. PocketProfessional and MEPro are registered trademarks of da Vinci Technologies Group, Inc. TI-GRAPH LINK is a trademark of Texas Instruments Incorporated, and Acrobat is a registered trademark of Adobe Systems Incorporated. We welcome your comments on the software and the manual. Forward your comments, preferably by e-mail, to da Vinci at [email protected].
Acknowledgements
The MEPro software was developed by Chris Bunsen, Dave Conklin, Michael Conway, Curtis Gammel, and Megha Shyam with the generous support of TIs development team. The users guide was developed by Michael Conway, Curtis Gammel, Melinda Shaffer, and Megha Shyam. Many helpful comments from the testers at Texas Instruments and other locations during testing phase is gratefully acknowledged.
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS4 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO MEPRO ............................................................................................ 12 1.1 Key Features of MEPro.................................................................................................... 12 1.2 Purchasing, Downloading and Installing MEPro............................................................... 13 1.3 Ordering a Manual ............................................................................................................. 13 1.4 Memory Requirements...................................................................................................... 13 1.5 Differences between TI-89 and TI-92 plus.......................................................................... 13 1.6 Starting MEPro................................................................................................................ 13 1.7 How to use this Manual...................................................................................................... 14 1.8 Manual Disclaimer............................................................................................................. 14 1.9 Summary........................................................................................................................... 15 PART I: ANALYSIS...16 CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION TO ANALYSIS .......................................................................................... 17 2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 17 2.2 Features of Analysis........................................................................................................... 18 2.3 Finding Analysis................................................................................................................ 18 2.4 Solving a Problem in Analysis ........................................................................................... 18 2.5 Tips for Analysis ............................................................................................................... 20 2.6 Function keys .................................................................................................................... 20 2.7 Session Folders, Variable Names ....................................................................................... 22 2.8 Overwriting of variable values in graphing ......................................................................... 22 2.9 Reserved Variables ............................................................................................................ 22 CHAPTER 3: STEAM TABLES ................................................................................................................ 23 3.1 Saturated Steam Properties................................................................................................. 23 3.2 Superheated Steam Properties ............................................................................................ 23 3.3 Air Properties .................................................................................................................... 23 3.4 Using Steam Tables ........................................................................................................... 24 3.5 Validity Range for Temperature and Pressure..................................................................... 25 CHAPTER 4: THERMOCOUPLES ............................................................................................................ 26 4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 26 4.2 Using the Thermocouples Function .................................................................................... 26 4.3 Basis for Temperature/Voltage Conversions....................................................................... 27 CHAPTER 5: CAPITAL BUDGETING ....................................................................................................... 28 5.1 Using Capital Budgeting .................................................................................................... 28 CHAPTER 6: EE FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERS................................................................................... 32 6.1 Impedance Calculations ..................................................................................................... 32 6.2 Circuit Performance........................................................................................................... 33 6.3 Wye Conversion ........................................................................................................ 34 CHAPTER 7: EFFLUX .......................................................................................................................... 36 7.1 Constant Liquid Level........................................................................................................ 36 7.2 Varying Liquid Level......................................................................................................... 36 7.3 Conical Vessel ................................................................................................................... 37 7.4 Horizontal Cylinder ........................................................................................................... 38 7.5 Large Rectangular Orifice .................................................................................................. 38 7.6 ASME Weirs ......................................................................................................................... 39 7.6.1 Rectangular Notch .......................................................................................................... 39 7.6.2 Triangular Weir .............................................................................................................. 39 7.6.3 Suppressed Weir ............................................................................................................. 40 7.6.4 Cipolletti Weir ................................................................................................................ 40 CHAPTER 8: SECTION PROPERTIES ..................................................................................................... 42 8.1 Rectangle........................................................................................................................... 42
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Table of Contents
8.2 Hollow Rectangle .............................................................................................................. 43 8.3 Circle................................................................................................................................. 43 8.4 Circular Ring ..................................................................................................................... 44 8.5 Hollow Circle .................................................................................................................... 45 8.6 1 Section - Uneven............................................................................................................. 45 8.7 I Section - Even ................................................................................................................. 46 8.8 C Section ........................................................................................................................... 47 8.9 T Section ........................................................................................................................... 48 8.10 Trapezoid......................................................................................................................... 48 8.11 Polygon ........................................................................................................................... 49 8.12 Hollow Polygon ............................................................................................................... 50 CHAPTER 9: HARDNESS NUMBER ....................................................................................................... 52 9.1 Compute Hardness Number ............................................................................................... 52 PART II: EQUATIONS...54 CHAPTER 10: INTRODUCTION TO EQUATIONS ..................................................................................... 55 10.1 Solving a Set of Equations ............................................................................................... 55 10.2 Viewing an Equation or Result in Pretty Print .................................................................. 56 10.3 Viewing a Result in different units ................................................................................... 56 10.4 Viewing Multiple Solutions.............................................................................................. 57 10.5 when () - conditional constraints when solving equations .............................................. 58 10.5 Arbitrary Integers for periodic solutions to trigonometric functions................................... 58 10.7 Partial Solutions............................................................................................................... 59 10.8 Copy/Paste....................................................................................................................... 59 10.9 Graphing a Function......................................................................................................... 59 10.10 Storing and recalling variable values in MEPro-creation of session folders.................... 61 10.11 solve, nsolve, and csolve and user-defined functions (UDF) ........................................ 61 10.12 Entering a guessed value for the unknown using nsolve .................................................. 61 10.13 Why can't I compute a solution? ..................................................................................... 62 10.14 Care in choosing a consistent set of equations................................................................. 62 10.15 Notes for the advanced user in troubleshooting calculations ............................................ 62 CHAPTER 11: BEAMS AND COLUMNS .................................................................................................. 64 11.1 Simple Beams...................................................................................................................... 64 11.1.1 Uniform Load ............................................................................................................... 64 11.1.2 Point Load .................................................................................................................... 66 11.1.3 Moment Load ............................................................................................................... 68 11.2 Cantilever Beams................................................................................................................. 70 11.2.1 Uniform Load ............................................................................................................... 70 11.2.2 Point Load .................................................................................................................... 71 11.2.3 Moment Load ............................................................................................................... 73 11.3. Columns ............................................................................................................................. 75 11.3.1 Buckling ....................................................................................................................... 75 11.3.2 Eccentricity, Axial Load................................................................................................ 76 11.3.3 Secant Formula ............................................................................................................. 77 11.3.4 Imperfections in Columns ............................................................................................. 79 11.3.5 Inelastic Buckling ......................................................................................................... 81 CHAPTER 12: EE FOR MES ................................................................................................................ 83 12.1 Basic Electricity................................................................................................................... 83 12.1.1 Resistance Formulas...................................................................................................... 83 12.1.2 Ohms Law and Power .................................................................................................. 84 12.1.3 Temperature Effect ....................................................................................................... 85 12.2 DC Motors........................................................................................................................... 86 12.2.1 DC Series Motor ........................................................................................................... 86 12.2.2 DC Shunt Motor............................................................................................................ 88 12.3 DC Generators..................................................................................................................... 90 12.3.1 DC Series Generator ..................................................................................................... 90 12.3.2 DC Shunt Generator ...................................................................................................... 91
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Table of Contents 5
12.4 AC Motors........................................................................................................................... 92 12.4.1 Three Induction Motor I ............................................................................................. 92 12.4.2 Three Induction Motor II............................................................................................ 94 12.4.3 1 Induction Motor ......................................................................................................... 96 CHAPTER 13: GAS LAWS..................................................................................................................... 98 13.1 Ideal Gas Laws .................................................................................................................... 98 13.1.1 Ideal Gas Law............................................................................................................... 98 13.1.2 Constant Pressure.......................................................................................................... 99 13.1.3 Constant Volume ........................................................................................................ 101 13.1.4 Constant Temperature ................................................................................................. 103 13.1.5 Internal Energy/Enthalpy............................................................................................. 104 13.2 Kinetic Gas Theory........................................................................................................ 106 13.3 Real Gas Laws................................................................................................................... 108 13.3.1 van der Waals: Specific Volume.................................................................................. 108 13.3.2 van der Waals: Molar form .......................................................................................... 109 13.3.3 Redlich-Kwong: Sp.Vol .............................................................................................. 110 13.3.4 Redlich-Kwong: Molar................................................................................................ 112 13.4 Reverse Adiabatic .......................................................................................................... 113 13.5 Polytropic Process.......................................................................................................... 115 CHAPTER 14: HEAT TRANSFER......................................................................................................... 118 14.1 Basic Transfer Mechanisms ............................................................................................... 118 14.1.1 Conduction ................................................................................................................. 118 14.1.2 Convection.................................................................................................................. 120 14.1.3 Radiation .................................................................................................................... 121 14.2 1 1D Heat Transfer................................................................................................................ 122 14.2.1 Conduction ..................................................................................................................... 122 14.2.1.1 Plane Wall ............................................................................................................... 122 14.2.1.2 Convective Source ................................................................................................... 123 14.2.1.3 Radiative Source ...................................................................................................... 125 14.2.1.4 Plate and Two Fluids................................................................................................ 127 14.2.2 Electrical Analogy .......................................................................................................... 128 14.2.2.1 Two Conductors in Series......................................................................................... 129 14.2.2.2 Two Conductors in Parallel ...................................................................................... 131 14.2.2.3 Parallel-Series .......................................................................................................... 132 14.2.3 Radial Systems ............................................................................................................... 135 14.2.3.1 Hollow Cylinder....................................................................................................... 135 14.2.3.2 Hollow Sphere ......................................................................................................... 136 14.2.3.3 Cylinder with Insulation Wrap.................................................................................. 137 14.2.3.4 Cylinder - Critical radius .......................................................................................... 139 14.2.3.5 Sphere - Critical radius............................................................................................. 141 14.3 Semi-Infinite Solid............................................................................................................. 142 14.3.1 Step Change Surface Temperature............................................................................... 142 14.3.2 Constant Surface Heat Flux ......................................................................................... 143 14.3.3 Surface Convection ..................................................................................................... 145 14.4 Radiation ........................................................................................................................... 146 14.4.1 Blackbody Radiation ................................................................................................... 146 14.4.2 Non-Blackbody radiation ............................................................................................ 148 14.4.3 Thermal Radiation Shield............................................................................................ 149 CHAPTER 15: THERMODYNAMICS ..................................................................................................... 152 15.1 Fundamentals................................................................................................................. 152 15.2 System Properties .............................................................................................................. 153 15.2.1 Energy Equations........................................................................................................ 153 15.2.2 Maxwell Relations ...................................................................................................... 155 15.3 Vapor and Gas Mixture...................................................................................................... 157 15.3.1 Saturated Liquid/Vapor ............................................................................................... 157 15.3.2 Compressed Liquid-Sub cooled ................................................................................... 159
15.4 Ideal Gas Properties ........................................................................................................... 160 15.4.1 Specific Heat............................................................................................................... 160 15.4.2 Quasi-Equilibrium Compression.................................................................................. 162 15.5 First Law............................................................................................................................... 163 15.5.1 Total System Energy ................................................................................................... 163 15.5.2 Closed System: Ideal Gas............................................................................................... 167 15.5.2.1 Constant Pressure..................................................................................................... 167 15.5.2.2 Binary Mixture......................................................................................................... 169 15.6 Second Law ........................................................................................................................... 171 15.6.1 Heat Engine Cycle .......................................................................................................... 171 15.6.1.1 Carnot Engine .......................................................................................................... 171 15.6.1.2 Diesel Cycle............................................................................................................. 173 15.6.1.3 Dual Cycle ............................................................................................................... 177 15.6.1.4 Otto Cycle................................................................................................................ 180 15.6.1.5 Brayton Cycle .......................................................................................................... 184 15.6.2 Clapeyron Equation..................................................................................................... 186 CHAPTER 16: MACHINE DESIGN....................................................................................................... 188 16.1 Stress: Machine Elements .................................................................................................. 188 16.1.1 Cylinders .................................................................................................................... 188 16.1.2 Rotating Rings ............................................................................................................ 189 16.1.3 Pressure and Shrink Fits .............................................................................................. 190 16.1.4 Crane Hook................................................................................................................. 192 16.2 Hertzian Stresses................................................................................................................ 193 16.2.1 Two Spheres ............................................................................................................... 193 16.2.2 Two Cylinders ............................................................................................................ 195 16.3.1 Bearing Life................................................................................................................ 197 16.3.2 Petroff's law ................................................................................................................ 198 16.3.3 Pressure Fed Bearings ................................................................................................. 199 16.3.4 Lewis Formula ............................................................................................................ 200 16.3.5 AGMA Stresses .......................................................................................................... 201 16.3.6 Shafts.......................................................................................................................... 203 16.3.7 Clutches and Brakes ........................................................................................................... 204 16.3.7.1 Clutches....................................................................................................................... 204 16.3.7.1.1 Clutches ................................................................................................................ 204 16.3.7.2 Uniform Wear - Cone Brake..................................................................................... 206 16.3.7.3 Uniform Pressure - Cone Brake ................................................................................ 207 16.4 Spring Design........................................................................................................................ 208 16.4.1 Bending .......................................................................................................................... 208 16.4.1.1 Rectangular Plate ..................................................................................................... 208 16.4.1.2 Triangular Plate........................................................................................................ 209 16.4.1.3 Semi-Elliptical ......................................................................................................... 210 16.4.2 Coiled Springs ................................................................................................................ 212 16.4.2.1 Cylindrical Helical - Circular wire............................................................................ 212 16.4.2.2 Rectangular Spiral .................................................................................................... 213 16.4.3 Torsional Spring ............................................................................................................. 215 16.4.3.1 Circular Straight Bar ................................................................................................ 215 16.4.3.2 Rectangular Straight Bar........................................................................................... 216 16.4.4 Axial Loaded .................................................................................................................. 217 16.4.4.1 Conical Circular Section........................................................................................... 217 16.4.4.2 Cylindrical - Helical..................................................................................................... 219 16.4.4.2.1 Rectangular Cross Section ..................................................................................... 219 16.4.4.2.2 Circular Cross Section ........................................................................................... 220 CHAPTER 17: PUMPS AND HYDRAULICS ............................................................................................ 222 17.1 Basic Definitions ........................................................................................................... 222 17.2 Pump Power .................................................................................................................. 223 17.3 Centrifugal Pumps ............................................................................................................. 225
17.3.1 Affinity Law-Variable Speed....................................................................................... 225 17.3.2 Affinity Law-Constant Speed ...................................................................................... 226 17.3.3 Pump Similarity .......................................................................................................... 227 17.3.4 Centrifugal Compressor............................................................................................... 228 17.3.5 Specific Speed ............................................................................................................ 229 CHAPTER 18: WAVES AND OSCILLATION ........................................................................................... 231 18.1 Simple Harmonic Motion................................................................................................... 231 18.1.1 Linear Harmonic Oscillation........................................................................................ 231 18.1.2 Angular Harmonic Oscillation ..................................................................................... 232 18.2 Pendulums......................................................................................................................... 233 18.2.1 Simple Pendulum ........................................................................................................ 233 18.2.2 Physical Pendulum...................................................................................................... 235 18.2.3 Torsional Pendulum .................................................................................................... 236 18.3 Natural and Forced Vibrations .............................................................................................. 236 18.3.1 Natural Vibrations........................................................................................................... 236 18.3.1.1 Free Vibration .......................................................................................................... 236 18.3.1.2 Overdamped Case (>1)........................................................................................... 238 18.3.1.3 Critical Damping (=1) ............................................................................................ 239 18.3.1.4 Underdamped Case (<1) ......................................................................................... 241 18.3.2 Forced Vibrations ........................................................................................................... 244 18.3.2.1 Undamped Forced Vibration..................................................................................... 244 18.3.2.2 Damped Forced Vibration ........................................................................................ 245 18.3.3 Natural Frequencies ........................................................................................................... 247 18.3.3.1 Stretched String........................................................................................................ 247 18.3.3.2 Vibration Isolation ................................................................................................... 248 18.3.3.3 Uniform Beams............................................................................................................ 249 18.3.3.3.1 Simply Supported.................................................................................................. 250 18.3.3.3.2 Both Ends Fixed.................................................................................................... 251 18.3.3.3.3 1 Fixed End / 1 Free End ....................................................................................... 252 18.3.3.3.4 Both Ends Free...................................................................................................... 254 18.3.3.4 Flat Plates .................................................................................................................... 255 18.3.3.4.1 Circular Flat Plate.................................................................................................. 255 18.3.3.4.2 Rectangular Flat Plate............................................................................................ 257 CHAPTER 19: REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ................................................................... 259 19.1 Heating Load ................................................................................................................. 259 19.2 Refrigeration...................................................................................................................... 261 19.2.1 General Cycle ............................................................................................................. 261 19.2.2 Reverse Carnot............................................................................................................ 262 19.2.3 Reverse Brayton.......................................................................................................... 263 19.2.4 Compression Cycle ..................................................................................................... 264 CHAPTER 20: STRENGTH MATERIALS ............................................................................................... 267 20.1 Stress and Strain Basics ..................................................................................................... 267 20.1.1 Normal Stress and Strain ............................................................................................. 267 20.1.2 Volume Dilation ......................................................................................................... 268 20.1.3 Shear Stress and Modulus............................................................................................ 269 20.2 Load Problems................................................................................................................... 270 20.2.1 Axial Load.................................................................................................................. 270 20.2.2 Temperature Effects .................................................................................................... 271 20.2.3 Dynamic Load ............................................................................................................ 272 20.3 Stress Analysis .................................................................................................................. 274 20.3.1 Stress on an Inclined Section ....................................................................................... 274 20.3.2 Pure Shear................................................................................................................... 275 20.3.3 Principal Stresses ........................................................................................................ 276 20.3.4 Maximum Shear Stress................................................................................................ 277 20.3.5 Plane Stress - Hooke's Law.......................................................................................... 278 20.4 Mohrs Circle Stress .......................................................................................................... 280
20.4 Mohrs Circle Stress....................................................................................................... 280 20.5 Torsion.............................................................................................................................. 281 20.5.1 Pure Torsion ............................................................................................................... 281 20.5.2 Pure Shear................................................................................................................... 283 20.5.3 Circular Shafts ............................................................................................................ 284 20.5.4 Torsional Member....................................................................................................... 285 CHAPTER 21: FLUID MECHANICS ..................................................................................................... 288 21.1 Fluid Properties ................................................................................................................. 288 21.1.1 Elasticity..................................................................................................................... 288 21.1.2 Capillary Rise ............................................................................................................. 289 21.2 Fluid Statics .......................................................................................................................... 291 21.2 1 Pressure Variation........................................................................................................... 291 21.2.1.1 Uniform Fluid .......................................................................................................... 291 21.2.1.2 Compressible Fluid .................................................................................................. 292 21.2.1 Pressure Variation........................................................................................................... 292 21.2.1.3 Troposphere............................................................................................................. 292 21.2.1.4 Stratosphere ............................................................................................................. 293 21.2.2.1 Floating Bodies ........................................................................................................ 294 21.2.2.2 Inclined Plane/Surface.............................................................................................. 296 21.3 Fluid Dynamics ................................................................................................................. 297 21.3.1 Bernoulli Equation ...................................................................................................... 297 21.3.2 Reynolds Number ....................................................................................................... 299 21.3.3 Equivalent Diameter.................................................................................................... 300 21.3.4 Fluid Mass Acceleration.................................................................................................. 302 21.3.4.1 Linear Acceleration .................................................................................................. 302 21.3.4.2 Rotational Acceleration ............................................................................................ 303 21.4 Surface Resistance ............................................................................................................. 304 21.4.1 Laminar Flow Flat Plate ........................................................................................... 304 21.4.2 Turbulent Flow Flat Plate ......................................................................................... 306 21.4.3 Laminar Flow on an Inclined Plane.............................................................................. 309 21.5 Flow in Conduits ................................................................................................................... 311 21.5.1 Laminar Flow: Smooth Pipe ....................................................................................... 311 21.5.2 Turbulent Flow: Smooth Pipe..................................................................................... 313 21.5.3 Turbulent Flow: Rough Pipe....................................................................................... 316 21.5.4 Flow pipe Inlet............................................................................................................ 319 21.5.5 Series Pipe System ...................................................................................................... 321 21.5.6 Parallel Pipe System.................................................................................................... 322 21.5.7 Venturi Meter ................................................................................................................. 324 21.5.7.1 Incompressible Flow ................................................................................................ 324 21.5.7.2 Compressible Flow................................................................................................... 327 21.6 Impulse/Momentum ............................................................................................................... 330 21.6.1 Jet Propulsion ............................................................................................................. 330 21.6.2 Open Jet.......................................................................................................................... 331 21.6.2.1 Vertical Plate ........................................................................................................... 331 21.6.2.2 Horizontal Plate ....................................................................................................... 332 21.6.2.3 Stationary Blade....................................................................................................... 333 21.6.2.4 Moving Blade .......................................................................................................... 335 CHAPTER 22: DYNAMICS AND STATICS ............................................................................................. 338 22.1 Laws of Motion ............................................................................................................. 338 22.2 Constant Acceleration........................................................................................................ 340 22.2.1 Linear Motion ............................................................................................................. 340 22.2.2 Free Fall ..................................................................................................................... 341 22.2.3 Circular Motion........................................................................................................... 342 22.3 Angular Motion ................................................................................................................. 343 22.3.1 Rolling/Rotation.......................................................................................................... 343 22.3.2 Forces in Angular Motion............................................................................................ 345
22.3.3 Gyroscope Motion....................................................................................................... 346 22.4 Projectile Motion ........................................................................................................... 347 22.5 Collisions .............................................................................................................................. 349 22.5.1 Elastic Collisions ............................................................................................................ 349 22.5.1.1 1D Collision............................................................................................................. 349 22.5.1.2 2D Collisions ........................................................................................................... 350 22.5.2 Inelastic Collisions.......................................................................................................... 351 22.5.2.1 1D Collisions ........................................................................................................... 351 22.5.2.2 Oblique Collisions.................................................................................................... 352 22.6 Gravitational Effects .......................................................................................................... 354 22.6.1 Law of Gravitation ...................................................................................................... 354 22.6.2 Kepler's Laws ............................................................................................................. 356 22.6.3 Satellite Orbit.............................................................................................................. 358 22.7 Friction.............................................................................................................................. 360 22.7.1 Frictional Force........................................................................................................... 360 22.7.2 Wedge ........................................................................................................................ 362 22.7.3 Rotating Cylinder........................................................................................................ 363 22.8 Statics................................................................................................................................ 364 22.8.1 Parabolic cable............................................................................................................ 364 22.8.2 Catenary cable ............................................................................................................ 365 PART III: REFERENCE .368 CHAPTER 23: INTRODUCTION TO REFERENCE................................................................................... 369 23.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 369 23.2 Finding Reference.......................................................................................................... 369 23.3 Reference Screens.......................................................................................................... 370 23.4 Using Reference Tables ................................................................................................. 370 CHAPTER 24: ENGINEERING CONSTANTS .......................................................................................... 372 24.1 Using Constants............................................................................................................. 372 CHAPTER 25: TRANSFORMS .............................................................................................................. 374 25.1 Using Transforms .......................................................................................................... 374 CHAPTER 26: VALVES AND FITTING LOSS ......................................................................................... 376 26.1 Valves and Fitting Loss Screens ..................................................................................... 376 CHAPTER 27: FRICTION COEFFICIENTS ............................................................................................ 377 27.1 Friction Coefficients Screens.......................................................................................... 377 CHAPTER 28: RELATIVE ROUGHNESS OF PIPES ................................................................................ 378 28.1 Relative Roughness Screens ........................................................................................... 378 CHAPTER 29: WATER-PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ................................................................................... 379 29.1 Water-Physical Properties Screens.................................................................................. 379 CHAPTER 30: GASES AND VAPORS ..................................................................................................... 380 30.1 Gases and Vapors Screens.............................................................................................. 381 CHAPTER 31: THERMAL PROPERTIES ................................................................................................ 382 31.1 Thermal Properties Screens ............................................................................................ 382 CHAPTER 32: FUELS AND COMBUSTION............................................................................................ 383 32.1 Fuels and Combustion Screens ....................................................................................... 383 CHAPTER 33: REFRIGERANTS ........................................................................................................... 385 33.1 Refrigerants Screens ...................................................................................................... 386 CHAPTER 34: SI PREFIXES ............................................................................................................... 387 34.1 Using SI Prefixes ........................................................................................................... 387 CHAPTER 35: GREEK ALPHABET ...................................................................................................... 388 PART IV: APPENDIX AND INDEX..389 APPENDIX A FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS ................................................................................. 390 A.1 Questions and Answers ................................................................................................... 390 A.2 General Questions........................................................................................................... 390 A.3 Analysis Questions.......................................................................................................... 392 A.4 Equations Questions........................................................................................................ 392 A.5 Graphing......................................................................................................................... 395
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A.6 Reference........................................................................................................................ 396 APPENDIX B WARRANTY, TECHNICAL SUPPORT ................................................................................ 397 B.1 da Vinci License Agreement............................................................................................ 397 B.2 How to Contact Customer Support................................................................................... 398 APPENDIX C: TI-89 & TI-92 PLUS- KEYSTROKE AND DISPLAY DIFFERENCES ................................... 399 C.1 Display Property Differences between the TI-89 and TI-92 Plus...................................... 399 C.2 Keyboard Differences Between TI-89 and TI-92 Plus ..................................................... 400 APPENDIX D E RROR MESSAGES ....................................................................................................... 404 D.1 General Error Messages .................................................................................................. 404 D.2 Analysis Error Messages ................................................................................................. 405 D.3 Equation Messages.......................................................................................................... 405 D.4 Reference Error Messages ............................................................................................... 406 APPENDIX E: SYSTEM VARIABLES AND RESERVED NAMES ............................................................. 407 INDEX 408
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Chapter 1: Introduction to MEPro

Thank you for purchasing the MEPro, a member of the PocketProfessional Pro software series designed by da Vinci Technologies Group, Inc., to meet the portable computing needs of students and professionals in mechanical engineering. The software is organized in a hierarchical manner so that the topics easy to find. We hope that you will find the MEPro to be a valuable companion in your career as a student and a professional of mechanical engineering.
Topics in this chapter include:

Key Features of MEPro Purchasing, Download and Installing MEPro Ordering a Manual Memory Requirements Differences between the TI-89 and TI-92 Plus Starting the MEPro How to use this Manual Manual Disclaimer Summary
1.1 Key Features of MEPro

The manual is organized into three sections representing the main menu headings of MEPro. Analysis Equations Reference Steam Tables Beams and Columns Engineering Constants Thermocouples EE For MEs Transforms Capital Budgeting Gas Laws Valves/Fitting Loss EE For MEs Heat Transfer Friction Coefficients Efflux Thermodynamics Roughness of Pipes Section Properties Machine Design Water Physical Properties Hardness Number Pumps and Hydraulic Machines Gases and Vapors Waves and Oscillation Thermal Properties Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Fuels and Combustion Strength Materials Refrigerants Fluid Mechanics SI Prefixes Dynamics and Statics Greek Alphabet These main topic headings are further divided into sub-topics. A brief description of the main sections of the software is listed below: Analysis: Chapters 2-9 Analysis is organized into 7 topics and 25 sub-topics. The software tools available in this section incorporate a variety of analysis methods used by mechanical engineers. Examples include Steam Tables, Thermocouple Calculations, EE for MEs; Efflux, Section Properties, Hardness Number Computations and Capital Budgeting. Where appropriate, data entered supports commonly used units. Equations: Chapters 10-22 This section contains over 1000 equations organized under 12 major subjects in over 150 sub -topics. The equations in each sub-topic have been selected to provide maximum coverage of the subject material. In
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 1 - Introduction to ME-Pro 12
addition, the math engine is able to compute multiple or partial solutions to the equation sets. The computed values are filtered to identify results that have engineering merit. A powerful built -in unit management feature permits inputs in SI or other customary measurement systems. Over 80 diagrams help clarify the essential nature of the problems covered by the equations. Topics covered include, Beams and Columns; EE for MEs; Gas Laws; Heat Transfer; Thermodynamics; Machin e Design; Pumps and Hydraulic Machines; Waves and Oscillation; Strength of Materials; Fluid Mechanics; and, Dynamics and Statics. Reference: Chapters 23-25 The Reference section contains tables of information commonly needed by mechanical engineers. Topics include, values for Constants used by mechanical engineers; Laplace and Fourier Transform tables; Valves and Fitting Loss; Friction Coefficient; Roughness of Pipes; Water Physical Properties; Gases and Vapors; Thermal Properties; Fuels and Combustion; Re frigerants; SI prefixes; and the Greek Alphabet.
1.2 Purchasing, Downloading and Installing MEPro

The MEPro software can only be purchased on-line from the Texas Instruments Inc. Online Store at http://www.ti.com/calc/docs/store.htm. The software can be installed directly from your computer to your calculator using TI-GRAPH LINKTM hardware and software (sold separately). Directions for purchasing, downloading and installing MEPro software are available from TIs website.
1.3 Ordering a Manual

Chapters and Appendices of the Manual for MEPro can be downloaded through TIs Web Store and viewed using the free Adobe Acrobat Reader TM that can be downloaded from http://www.adobe.com. Printed manuals can be purchased separately from da Vinci Technologies Group, Inc. by visiting the website http://www.dvtg.com/ticalcs/docs or calling (541) 754-2860, Extension 100.
1.4 Memory Requirements

The MEPro program is installed in the system memory portion of the Flash ROM that is separate from the RAM available to the user. MEPro uses RAM to store some of its session information, including values entered and computed by the user. The exact amount of memory required depends on the number of userstored variables and the number of session folders designated by the user. To view the available memory in your TI calculator, use the function . It is recommended that at least 10K of free RAM be available for installation and use of MEPro.
1.5 Differences between TI-89 and TI-92 plus

MEPro is designed for two models of graphing calculators from Texas Instruments, the TI-92 Plus and the TI-89. For consistency, keystrokes and symbols used in the manual are consistent with the TI-89. Equivalent key strokes for the TI-92 Plus are listed in Appendix D.
To begin MEPro, start by pressing the key. This accesses a pull down menu. Use the key to move the cursor bar to FlashApps.... and press . Then move the highlight bar to MEPro and press the key to get to the home screen of MEPro. Alternatively, press ; then, scroll to MEPro and press the key to get to the home screen of MEPro.
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 1 - Introduction to ME-Pro
13
1.6 Starting MEPro
Pull down Menu for (FlashApps...option is at the top of the list)
The MEPro home screen is displayed to the right. The tool bar at the top of the screen lists the titles of the main sections of MEPro which can be activated by pressing the function keys.
: Tools: Editing features, information about MEPro in A: About. : Analysis: Accesses the Analysis section of the software. : Equations: Accesses the Equations section of the software. : Reference: Accesses the Reference section of the software. : Info: Helpful hints on MEPro.
To select a topic, use the key to move the highlight bar to the desired topic and press , or alternatively type the number next to the item. The Analysis, Equation and Reference menus are organized in a menu tree of topics and sub-topics. The user can return to a previous level of MEPro by pressing . You can exit MEPro at any time by pressing the key. When MEPro is restarted, the software returns to its previous location in the program.
1.7 How to use this Manual

The manual section, chapter heading and page number appear at the bottom of each page. The first chapter in each of the Analysis, Equations and Reference sections gives an overview of succeeding chapters and introduces the navigation and computation features common to each of the main sections. For example, Chapter 2 explains the basic layout of the Analysis section menu and the navigation principles, giving examples of features common to all topics in Analysis. Each topic in Analysis has a chapter dedicated to describing its functionality in detail. The titles of these chapters correspond to the topic headings in the software menus. They contain example problems and screen displays of the computed solutions. Troubleshooting information, commonly asked questions, and a bibliography used to develop the software are provided in appendixes.
1.8 Manual Disclaimer

The calculator screen displays in the manual were obtained during the testing stages of the software. Some screen displays may appear slightly different due to final changes made in the software while the Manual was being completed.
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Pull down Menu on for FlashApps... (MEPro will be in the list)
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1.9 Summary
The designers of MEPro invite your comments by logging on to our website at http://www.dvtg.com or by e-mail to [email protected]. We hope that you agree we have made complex computations easy with the software by providing the following features: Easy-to-use, menu-based interface. Computational efficiency for speed and performance. Helpful-hints and context-sensitive information provided in the status line. Advanced ME analysis routines, equations, and reference tables. Comprehensive manual documentation for examples and quick reference.
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Part I:
Analysis
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Analysis -
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Chapter 2: Introduction to Analysis

2.1 Introduction
The analysis section contains subroutines and tools designed to perform specific calculations. Computations include estimating thermodynamic properties of water at different temperature and pressure, in Steam Tables, computing fluid flow rates through different shaped orifices in Efflux, performing Wye to circuit conversions of AC circuits in EE for MEs, and evalueating cash flow for different projects in Capital Budgeting. The computations are strictly top-down (i.e. the inputs and outputs are generally the same) and the interface for each section guides the user through the solving process. A brief description of some of the different sections in Analysis appear below: Steam Tables (3 sections): Saturated Steam, Superheated Steam, Air Properties computes the thermodynamic parameters of steam including saturated pressure, enthalpy, entropy, internal energy, and specific volume of the liquid and vapor forms of water given entries of temperature and/or pressure. This final topic covered computes the thermodynamic properties of dry air at different temperatures. Thermocouples: This tool converts a specified temperature to an emf output in millivolts (mV) or from emf output millivolts (mV) to a specified temperature. The software supports T, E, J, K, S, R and B type thermocouples. These computation algorithms result from the IPTS-68 standards adopted in 1968 and modified in 1985. Capital Budgeting: This section performs analysis of capital expenditure for a project and compares projects against one another. Four measures of capital budgeting are included in this section: Payback period (Payback); Net Present Value (NPV); Internal Rate of Return (IRR); and Profitability Index (PI). This module provides the capability of entering, storing and editing capital expenditures for nine different projects. Projects can be graphed on NPV vs. k scale. EE for Mechanical Engineers (3 sections): Performs evaluations on three types of circuits: Impedance calculations; Circuit Performance; Wye Circuit conversion Impedance Calculations, computes the impedance admittance of a circuit consisting of a resistor, capacitor and inductor connected in Series or Parallel. Performance parameters section computes load voltage and current, complex power delivered, power factor, maximum power available to the load, and the load impedance required to receive the maximum power from a single power source. The final segment of the software converts configurations expressed as a Wye to its equivalent. It also performs the reverse computation. Efflux (6 sections): Constant Liquid level; Varying liquid level; Conical Vessel; Horizontal Cylinder; Large Rectangular Orifice; ASME Weirs (Rectangular notch; Triangular Weir; Suppressed Weir; Cipolletti Weir) This section contains methods to compute fluid flow via cross sections of different shapes. Section Properties (12 sections): Rectangle; Hollow Rectangle; Circle; Circular Ring (Annulus); Uneven I-section; Even I-section; C section; T section; Trapezoid; Polygon (n-sided); Hollow Polygon (n-sided, side thickness) Computes area moment and location of center of mass for different shaped cross sections. Computed parameters include the cross section area, the polar moment of inertia, the area moment of inertia and radius of gyration on x and y axes. Hardness Number: A dimensionless number is a measure of the yield of a material from impact. Brinell and Vicker developed two popular methods of measuring the Hardness number. These tests consist of dropping a 10 mm ball of steel with a specified load such as 500 lbf and 3000 lbf. This steel ball results in an indentation in the material. The diameter of indentation indicates of the hardness number using either the Brinell's or Vicker's formulation.
MEPro for TI -89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 2- Introduction to Analysis
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2.2 Features of Analysis

Unit Management: Appropriate unit menus for appending units to variable entries or converting computed results are accessible in most sections. Numeric Computation Variable entries must consist of real numbers (unless specified). Algebraic expressions must consist of defined variables so a numeric value can be condensed upon entry.
2.3 Finding Analysis

The following panels illustrate how to start MEPro and locate the Analysis section.
There are seven sections under Analysis. To select a topic, use the key to move the highlight bar to the desired heading and pressing , or alternatively type the number next to the item to select. If a topic contains several sections (Steam Tables, EE for MEs, Efflux, Section properties, an ellipsis () will appear next to the title (see below).
From the home screen of MEPro Press to display the Analysis menu
Press for topics in Steam Tables
or, press Efflux.
for topics in
2.4 Solving a Problem in Analysis

The following example presents some of the navigational features in Analysis. This example is drawn from Chapter 6: EE for MEs. Problem - Calculate the performance parameters of a circuit consisting of a current source (10 - 5*i) with a source admittance of .0025 - .0012*I, a load of .0012 + .0034*i. Display the real result of power in kilowatts.
Steps 1 and 2 can be combined by pressing
and
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1. Press the key in the HOME screen to list the applications stored in your calculator.
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2. Press 1:FlashApps and press to display the applications stored in the 1 Flash section of memory.
3. HOME screen of MEPro. Analysis is listed as on the top function key row.
10. Following entry of all input fields, press : Solve to compute the results.
11. Results: Upper Half
12. Results: Lower Half
13. To display a result in different units, highlight the variable and press :Opts, move the cursor to 4:Conv.
14. The unit menu for the variable appears in the top bar. Press the function key corresponding to the desired units.
15. The computed value for Real Power, P, is now displayed in kilowatts (kW).
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7. Variable descriptions beginning with Enter require numeric entries.
4. While the cursor is highlighting Load Type, press the right arrow key, or to display the menu for Load Type.
5. In the menu for Load Type move the cursor to Admittance and press .
8. Variable descriptions beginning with the word Result are computed fields.
1. From the home screen of to display ME Pro, Press the menu of Analysis.
2. Move the cursor to EE for MEs and press (or press ).
3. Select Circuit Performance from the submenu in EE for Mes.
6. Admittance is now selected for Load Type and the appropriate variables are displayed.
9. When entering a value, press a function key to add the appropriate units ( - ).
There are two types of interfaces in Analysis: Type 1: Input/Output/Choose Fields (Steam Tables, Thermocouples, EE for MEs, Efflux, Section Properties, and Hardness Number). This input form lists the variables for which a numeric entry is required and prompts the user to choose a calculation setting if applicable before computing the results. The entries and results are always displayed in the same screen. Type 2: Multiple Forms/Graphing (Capital Budgeting) This interface includes most of the features of Type 1 with the additional screens used for entering cash flow for individual projects. The graphing features of the calculator are enabled in this section for visualizing the rate of return (Net Present Value vs. discount rate). An example of this interface is described briefly in this chapter, but in more detail in Chapter 5: Capital Budgeting.
Capital Budgeting allows the user to compare relative financial performance of several projects with
relevant data such as Interest rate or discount rate (k), IRR, NPV, or Payback period. The screen displays below illustrate the basic user interface.
2.5 Tips for Analysis

The following instructions are useful in the Analysis section: If an ellipsis () appears at the end of a menu title, a menu of subtopics exists in this section. An arrow to the right of a heading, as in Load Type, indicates an additional menu. Variables ending with an underscore _, such as Vs_, Zs_, and IL_, allow complex values. Descriptions for variables generally appear in the status line when the variable is highlighted. Variables for which an entry is required will have a description prefaced by the word Enter. Computed variables begin with the word, Result. 6. To convert values from one unit to another, press :Opts, and 4:Conv to display the unit menu for the variable at the top of the screen. Press the function key corresponding to the appropriate units. 7. To return to the previous level of MEPro, press . 8. To exit MEPro, press : Tools and : Clear. 9. To return to MEPro, press . 10. To toggle between a graph and MEPro in split-screen mode, press . 11. To remove the split screen in MEPro. 1) Press , 2) : Page 2, 3) : Split Screen App., 4) : Full Screen, 5) : Save. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
2.6 Function keys
When Analysis functions are selected, the function keys in the tool bar access or activate features, which are specific to the context of the section. They are listed in Table 2-1:
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Input Screen for Capital to Budgeting. Press display Cash Flow for Project 1.
A separate screen displays the Cash Flow for Project 1. Press : Solve to revert to the previous screen.
Press : Graph. Selecting Multiple Graphs allows the overlap of plots for different projects (Project 1, Project 2, etc.)
Table 2-1 Description of Analysis Function keys

Function Key Description Labeled "Tools" - displays all the functions available on the TI-89 at the Home screen level. These functions are: 1: Open This opens an existing folder to store or recall variables used in an MEPro session. 2: (save as) Not active in Analysis. 3: New Creates a new folder for storing variable values used in an MEPro session. 4: Cut - Removes entered values into the clipboard. Enabled for variables for which the user can enter values. 5: Copy Copies a highlighted value into the clipboard. 6: Paste Pastes clipboard contents at cursor location. 7: Delete Deletes highlighted values. 8: Clear Returns to the HOME screen of MEPro. 9: (format)-Not active in Analysis. A: About - Displays product name and version number. Labeled "Solve" - Pressing this key enables the software to begin solving a selected problem and display any resulting output to the user. Labeled "Graph" - This feature is available in input screens where the solution can be represented in graphical form. A graph can be viewed in the full screen or a split screen mode. This can be performed by pressing followed by . Use and to toggle between the data entry screen and graph window. Normally labeled as "View" - This enables the information highlighted by the cursor to be displayed using the entire screen in Pretty Print format. In some cases is labeled as "Pict", "Cash". "Pict" is available in the Section Properties or Hardness Number sections and when selected displays a diagram to facilitate better understanding of the problem. "Cash" is used in Capital Budgeting section of the software. Labeled "Opts" - This key displays a pop up menu listing the options: 1: View - allows the highlighted item to be viewed using Pretty Print. 2: (type) - Not active 3: Units This activates, or deactivates the unit management feature. 4: Conv Displays the unit menu for the highlighted variable and allows the conversion of an entry or result into different units. 5: Icons - Presents a dialog box identifying certain Icons used by the software to display content and context of the information. These icon systems are only used in equations. 6: (know)- Not active 7: Want - Not active Edit - Brings in a data entry line for the highlighted parameter. Choose in Capital Budgeting enables the user to select from one of nine projects. Check requesting the user to press this key to select a highlighted parameter for use in an Analysis computation. "Add Adds a cash flow entry for a project in Capital Budgeting section. (Not active)
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2.7 Session Folders, Variable Names

MEPro automatically stores its variables in the current folder specified by the user in or the HOME screen. The current folder name is displayed in the lower left corner of the screen (default is Main). To create a new folder to store values for a particular session of MEPro, press :/TOOLS, :/NEW and type the name of the new folder (see Guidebook for the complete details of creating and managing folders; Chapter 5 for the TI-89 and Chapter 10 for the TI-92 Plus). There are several ways to display or recall a value: The contents of variables in any folder can be displayed using , moving the cursor to the variable name and pressing to display the contents of a particular variable. Variables in a current folder can be recalled in the HOME screen by typing the variable name. All inputs and calculated results from the Analysis and Equations section are saved as variable names. Previously calculated, or entered values for variables in a folder are replaced when equations are solved using new values for inputs.
2.8 Overwriting of variable values in graphing

When an equation or analysis function is graphed, MEPro creates a function for the TI grapher, which expresses the dependent variable in terms of the independent variable. This function is stored under the variable name pro (x). When MEPros equation grapher is executed, values are inserted into the independent variable for pro (x) and values for the dependent value are calculated. Whatever values previously existed in either of the dependent and independent variables in the current folder are cleared. To preserve data under variable names, which may conflict with MEPros variables, run MEPro in a separate folder.
2.9 Reserved Variables

A list of reserved variable names used by the TI operating system, which cannot be used as user variable names or entries are listed in Appendix F.
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F2: Analysis/1: Steam Tables
Chapter 3: Steam Tables

Steam properties are a complex function of temperature, pressure, volume, critical temperature, critical pressure, and molecular weight of water. Our software takes into account the ranges of temperature and pressure that results in good fits to data gathered over a long periods in many parts of the world. Steam Tables offer a collection of programs organized as a powerful computational engine to calculate thermodynamic properties of steam in a user-friendly environment. Calculations of thermodynamic properties are based on standards and conventions adopted by the International Conventions covering properties of saturated and superheated steam.
3.1 Saturated Steam Properties

This section computes the properties of saturated steam at a single temperature or pressure. Variable
Ps Ts Vf Vg Hf Hfg Hg Sf Sfg Sg UF UG
Description
Saturation pressure Saturation temperature Specific volume liquid Specific volume vapor Enthalpy liquid Latent heat of vaporization Enthalpy vapor Entropy liquid S (g) - S (f) Entropy vapor Internal energy liquid Internal energy vapor
Units
MPa K m3/kg m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/(kgK) kJ/(kgK) kJ/(kgK) kJ/(kgK) kJ/(kgK)
3.2 Superheated Steam Properties

The properties of superheated steam require two inputs: temperature and pressure. From the data supplied, the program will compute saturated temperature, specific volume, enthalpy and entropy. The data is displayed in a tabular form. Variable
Temp Sat Pressure Sat Temperature Specific Volume Enthalpy Entropy
Description
Given temperature Given pressure Corresponding temperature Specific volume Enthalpy Entropy
Units
K MPa K m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/(kgK)
3.3 Air Properties

The properties of dry air are computed using the ideal gas law model as the basis. Using temperature as an input, the software computes a variety of parameters including specific heats, enthalpy, entropy, and velocity of sound.
Variable
Temp CP
Description
Given temperature Specific heat at constant pressure
Units
K J/(kgK)
MEPro for TI -89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 3 - Analysis Steam Tables
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Variable
CV H U E IPR IVR G A
Description
Specific heat at constant volume Enthalpy Internal energy Entropy function Isentropic pressure function Isentropic volume function Specific heat ratio Speed of sound
Units
J/(kgK) J/kg J/kg J/(kgK) unitless unitless unitless m/s
3.4 Using Steam Tables

Once you have selected STEAM TABLES at the main menu, the first screen displays three subtopics Saturated steam, Superheated steam and Air properties. Selecting saturated steam properties, allows properties to be calculated from user-entered value of temperature or pressure. However, properties for superheated steam require values for both temperature and pressure. Thermodynamic properties of air are calculated for dry air conditions only. Example 3.1: Calculate the properties of saturated steam at 130 C. Solution - Select the Saturated Steam section. The input screen calls for defining known parameter (temperature or pressure). The default condition is temperature. Move the pointer to the next line and start entering the temperature. The function keys assume unit assignments for the data about to be entered. For our example, enter 130 and press key thereby attaching C to the value just entered. Press to solve for the thermodynamic parameters.
Upper Display
Lower Display
All the calculated parameters are displayed on the screen with SI units attached as shown. If you desire to see the value of saturated pressure parameter Ps, use the key to move the highlight bar to capture Ps. Press to display a pull down menu of items to select. Select 4 (Conv). This allows other units for Ps such as Pa, kPa, atm, psi, torr attached to , , , , and respectively. Pressing converts the value of Ps into the new units of psi. The display is refreshed immediately in the units just selected. Example 3.2: Calculate the properties of superheated steam at 125 C and 20 psi. Solution - Select the Superheated Steam section. The input screen calls for entering temperature and pressure. Move the pointer to enter the 125 C and 20 psi for temperature and pressure. Make sure that the appropriate units are attached to the data using the function keys. Press to solve for the thermodynamic parameters.
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>
>
C BA@?
Upper Display
Lower Display
All the calculated parameters are displayed on the screen with units attached as shown. The displayed results could be converted to other units as described in the first example described earlier. Example 3.3: Calculate the properties of dry air to be -20 C. Select the Air Properties section. The input screen calls for defining the temperature. Enter a temperature of 20 C. When entering -20 C, be sure to use the unary operator key followed by 20 C. If you use key for a negative value this will result in an input error. Press to solve for the thermodynamic properties of air.
Input Screen
All the calculated parameters are displayed on the screen with SI units attached as shown. The parameters computed can be viewed in other units as described in the examples shown here.
3.5 Validity Range for Temperature and Pressure

The computed results are valid only for the following finite ranges of temperature and pressure: Saturated
Temperature: 273.16 - 647.3 K Pressure: 0.006113 - 22.08 MPa
Superheated
Saturated temperature Pressure: 0.006113 - 22.08 MPa
References:
1. Lester Haar, John S. Gallagher and George S. Kell, NBS/NRC Steam Tables, Thermodynamic and Transport Properties for Vapor and Liquid States of Water, Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, Washington, DC. Steam Tables, 1967; Thermodynamic properties of Water and Steam, The Electric Research Association, Edward Arnold Limited, London England, 1967 Thomas F. Levine, Jr., and Peter E. Liley, Steam and Gas Tables with Computer Equations, Academic Press, New York, NY, 1984
2. 3.
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>
Result screen
F2: Analysis/ 2: Thermocouples
Chapter 4: Thermocouples
This chapter describes using the software in the Thermocouples menu. Thermocouple parameters are calculated for the class of thermocouples in common usage.
4.1 Introduction
This tool converts a specified temperature to an emf output, millivolts (mV), and from an emf output, millivolts (mV), to a specified temperature. The software supports Type T, E, J, K, S, R and B thermocouples. The underlying assumption is a reference temperature of 0 C. These computation algorithms result from the IPTS-68 standards adopted in 1968 and modified in 1985.
4.2 Using the Thermocouples Function

Select the Thermocouples function from the Analysis menu by highlighting Thermocouples and pressing . This action brings out the main user interface screen. Press to view the choices available. Seven types of Thermocouples are available for computations. For example, to select a Pt-10%Rh-Pt thermocouple referred to as S Type thermocouple, move the high the highlight bar to Type S and press or press . At this point, the software presents the primary user interface awaiting data entry. At the same time, the material of the thermocouple and the valid range are displayed for reference. Thermocouple computations involve computing emf available from a known temperature or computing a temperature from an emf. The latter case is by its very nature not as accurate as the first type of computation.
Screen 1 (for temperature)
Screen 2 (for emf)
Example 4.2: Find the emf for an S type thermocouple at 400 F. From the value of emf computed, compute the temperature. Solution 4.2: Select Type S thermocouple for this problem. For temperature, enter 400, then press . The computed emf is 1.4777mV. Now return to Known line and select emf for input. Enter 1.4777 mV for emf to get 403.989 F for temperature. Notes: The thermocouple emf calculation can be expanded to cover the emf produced by the thermocouple if the reference temperature was different from 0 C. For example, if the reference temperature was 30 C instead of 0 C, you compute the resulting emf in two steps; first find the emf (emf 1) for the temperature desired, say 300 C, and the emf (emf 0) for the reference temperature. The resulting emf for the new reference temperature of 30 C is the difference between the two emfs, i.e., "emf 1 - emf 0".
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92Plus Chapter 4 - Analysis - Thermocouples
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F2: Analysis/ 2: Thermocouples
4.3 Basis for Temperature/Voltage Conversions

The temperature-to-voltage conversion is based on either a polynomial approximation or a combination of a polynomial coupled with a special sequence. This ensures precise calculations within some prescribed error range. These rages are displayed on each input screen. References: 1. Robert L. Powell, William J. Hall, Clyde H. Hyink, Larry L. Sparks, George W. Burns, Margaret Scoger and Harmon H. Plumb, Thermocouple Reference Tables based on IPTS-68, NBS Monograph 125, Omega Press, 1975
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92Plus Chapter 4 - Analysis - Thermocouples
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F2: Analysis/3: Capital Budgeting
Chapter 5: Capital Budgeting

This chapter covers the four basic measures of capital budgeting: Payback Period Net Present Value Internal Rate of Return Profitability Index
5.1 Using Capital Budgeting

This section performs analysis of capital e xpenditure for a project and compares projects against one another. Four measures of capital budgeting are included in this section: Payback period (Payback); Net Present Value (NPV); Internal Rate of Return (IRR); and Profitability Index (PI). This module provides the capability of entering, storing and editing capital expenditures for nine different projects. The following equations are used in calculations:
NPV =
t =1
n
CFt CFt = 0 (1 + k ) t
t
Eq. 1
(1 + IRR)
t =1 n
CFt
CFt = 0 = 0
Eq. 2
PI =
(1 + k )
CFt
t =1
Eq. 3
CFt = 0
CFt: Cash Flow at time t. Payback: The number of time periods it takes a firm to recover its original investment. NPV: The present values of all future c ash flows, discounted at the selected rate, minus the cost of the investment. IRR: The discount rate that equates the present value of expected cash flows to the initial cost of the project. PI: The present value of the future cash flows, discounted at the selected rate, over the initial cash outlay.
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 5 - Analysis - Capital Budgeting
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Field Descriptions - Input Screen

Project: (Project) Press to select one of nine unique projects or edit the current name of the project by pressing for Cash option. Enter a real number. Returns a real number. Returns a real number. Returns a real number (%). Returns a real number. Activation of this feature enables the overlay of each successive graph (projects) on the to activate. same axis. Press Press
k: Payback: npv: IRR: PI: Multiple Graphs Full Screen Graph
(Discount Rate per Period in %) (Payback Period) (Net Present Value) (Internal Rate of Return) (Profitability Index) (Graph multiple projects simultaneously) (Graph on full or split screen?)
Field Descriptions - Project Edit Screen

NAME: t0: t1: tn: (Project Name) (Investment at t=0) (Cash flow at t=1) (Cash flow at t=n) Enter the name of the project. Enter a real number. Enter a positive or negative real number. Enter a positive or negative real number.
Example 5.1: The following projects have been proposed by ACME Consolidated Inc. What are the Payback period, Net Present Value, Internal Rate of Return, and Profitability Index of each project? Which is the more viable project?
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to activate.
Table 5-1 Cash Flow for two projects Name of Project: Investment Outlay: Cost of Capital: Year 0 1 2 3 4 Plant 1 $75,000 (at t=0) 12% Net Cash Flow ($) -75,000 40,000 30,000 20,000 10,000 Plant 2 $75,000 (at t=0) 12% Net Cash Flow ($) -75,000 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000
Cash Flow Input: plant1
Cash Flow Input: plant2
Output Screen: plant1 1.
Output Screen: plant2
2. 3.
4.
8. 9.
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5. 6. 7.
With the highlight bar on the Project field, press to select a project to edit. Select a project that has not been used. Note: this example uses projects 1 and 2. Press to return to the Capital Budgeting screen. Press to select Cash option; enter the project edit screen; and, edit the cash flows. Enter plant1 in the Name field. Note: Cash flow data for this project will be stored in a variable of this name. Therefore the entered name must begin with a letter; be no more than 8 characters in length; and, contain no embedded spaces. Press 5 times to add 5 time points and enter the cash flows at each time point from the table on the previous page. When finished, your screen should look like the project edit screen above. Be sure to enter 75,000 as a negative number for t0. Press to save your changes and return to the Capital Budgeting screen. Enter 12 for k. Press to calculate Payback, NPV, IRR, and PI. Move the highlight bar to Multiple Graphs and press to enable overlaying of successive graphs of each project. Press to graph the curvilinear relationship between the Net Present Value and the Discount Rate. Press followed by to enable the graph editing toolbar.
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10. The curve indicates where k=0, the Net Present Value is simply cash inflows minus cash outflows. The IRR % is shown at the point where NPV=0. Using the built-in graphing capabilities of the TI 89, you can trace the graph to find the values of these two points. The TI 89 will give you the exact coordinates of any point along the graph. Press followed by to return to the Capital Budgeting screen. 11. Repeating steps 1 through 9 for the second project, under the Project field, plant2 and input the values in Table 5-1. Activating the Multiple Graph feature enables a simultaneous plot of the two projects. This will overlay a second graph on top of a previously plotted function. First plot plant1. After graphing, plot plant2. The first curve to appear, is plant1, the second is plant2. The most viable project in terms of discounted cash flows, in this example, is the one with the highest curve. 12. Pressing resets the display to full screen.
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Plot of Project 1
Overlay of Project 2
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F2: Analysis/4: EE for MEs
Chapter 6: EE for Mechanical Engineers

This chapter describes the software in the AC Circuits section and is organized under three topics. These topics form the backbone of circuit calculations of interest to mechanical engineers. Impedance Calculations Wye Conversion Circuit Performance
6.1 Impedance Calculations

The Impedance Calculations topic computes the impedance and admittance of a circuit consisting of a resistor, capacitor and inductor connected in Series or Parallel. The impedance and admittance values are displayed to the user in real or complex form.
Field Descriptions
CONFIG: Circuit Configuration
Elements:
Element Combination
fr: R:
Frequency in Hz Resistance in ohms; only appears if RL, RC or RLC is chosen in Elements field Inductance in Henry; only appears if L, RL, LC or RLC is chosen in Elements field Capacitance in Farads; only appears if C, LC, RC or RLC is chosen in Elements field Impedance in ohms Admittance in Siemens
L:
C:
ZZ_: YY_:
Example 6.1: Compute the impedance of a series RLC circuit consisting of a 10-ohm resistor, a 1.5 Henry inductor and a 4.7 Farad capacitor at a frequency of 100 Hz.
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 6 - Analysis - EE for MEs
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_ _ _ _ _ _ __ _
(Press and select Series or Parallel configuration by using . After choosing, press to display the input screen updated for the new configuration.. Press to display the following circuit elements: L, C, RL, RC, LC and RLC The choice of elements determines which of the input fields are available. Enter a real positive number. Enter a real positive number.
Enter a real positive number.
Enter a real positive number.
Returns a real or complex number. Returns a real or complex number.
Input Screen 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Output Screen
Choose Series for Config and RLC for Elements using the procedure described above. Enter 100 Hz for Freq. Enter 10 for R; 1.5 Henry for L; and 4.7 F for C. Press to calculate ZZ_ and YY_. The output screen shows the results of computation.
6.2 Circuit Performance

This section shows how to compute the circuit performance of a simple load connected to a voltage or current source. Performance parameters include load voltage and current, complex power delivered, power factor, maximum power available to the load, and the load impedance required to receive the maximum power.
Load Type:
Type of Load
Press to select load impedance (Z) or admittance (Y). This will determine whether the remaining fields Vs_, Zs_, and ZL_ or Is_, Ys_, and YL_ are displayed, respectively. A real or complex number. A real or complex number. A real or complex number.
Vs_: Zs_ ZL_: Is_:
rms Source Voltage in V Source Impedance in Load Impedance in rms Source Current in A
A real or complex number.
ys_: yl_:
Source Admittance in Siemens Load Admittance in Siemens
Enter a real or complex number. Enter a real or complex number.
Field Descriptions - Output Screen

Vl_: il_: P: Q: Load Voltage in V Load Current in A Real Power in W Reactive Power in W Returns a real, complex number. Returns a real, complex number. Returns a real number. Returns a real number.
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_ _ _ _
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Field Descriptions - Input Screen
VI_: :
Apparent Power in W Power factor Angle in degrees or radian, determined by the setting
Returns a complex number. Returns a real number.
PF: Pmax:
Zlopt_:
Ylopt_:
Example 6.2: Calculate the performance parameters of a circuit consisting of a current source (10 - 5*i) with a source admittance of .0025 - .0012*I, and a load of .0012 + .0034*i.
Input Screen 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Choose Admittance for Load Type. Enter the value 10 - 5*i A for Is_. Enter the value .0025 - .0012* i siemens for Ys_, and .0012 + .0034* i siemens for a load of YL_. Press to calculate the performance parameters. The input and results of computation are shown above.
6.3 Wye Conversion

The Wye Conversion converts three impedances connected in Wye or form to its corresponding or Wye form, i.e., Wye or Wye Input Fields Input Type: ZZA_: Impedance ZZB_: Impedance ZZC_: Impedance . ZZ1_: Y Impedance ZZ2_: Y Impedance
Load Power Factor Maximum Power Available in W
Returns a real number. Returns a real number.
Load Impedance for Maximum Power in - if Impedance is chosen for Load Type at the input screen Load Admittance for Maximum Power in Siemens - if Admittance, is chosen for Load Type at the input screen
Returns a real, complex number.
Returns a real, complex number.
Output: Upper Half
Output: Lower Half
Selection choices are Wye or Wye. This determines whether the next 3 fields (input fields) accept or Wye Impedances. Real or complex number. Real or complex number. Real or complex number. Fig. 6.1 Wye Network Real or complex number. Real or complex number.
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Z1
Z3
Z2
ZZ3_: Y Impedance Result Fields ZZA_: ( Impedance) ZZB_: ( Impedance) ZZC_: ( Impedance) ZZ1_: (Y Impedance) ZZ2_: (Y Impedance) ZZ3_: (Y Impedance)
Real or complex number.
Real or complex number. Real or complex number. Real or complex number. Real or complex number. Real or complex number. Real or complex number. Fig. 6-2 Network
ZB
ZC
Example 6.3: Compute the Wye impedance equivalent of a network with impedances 75+12*i, 75-12*i, and 125 ohms. 1. 2. 3. Select Y for Input Type. . Enter the values 75+12*i , 75 -12*i , 125 for ZZA_, ZZB_ and ZZC_ respectively. Press to calculate ZZ1_, ZZ2_ and ZZ3_.
ZA
The computed results are:
References: 1. 2. Sanford I. Heisler, The Wiley Engineer's Desk Reference, A concise guide for the Professional Engineer, John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY, 1984 James W. Nilsson, Electric Circuits, 2nd Edition, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Reading MA, 1987 and later editions.
> > > >
Input Parameters ZZ1_: 34.0909 - 5.45455 i ZZ2_: 34.0909 + 5.45455 i ZZ3_: 20.9782
Calculated Output
35
F2: Analysis/5: Efflux
Chapter 7: Efflux
This section of Analysis contains methods to compute fluid flow via cross sections of different shapes. Many of these formulas have been derived empirically over many years of experimental observations. Constant Liquid Level Conical Vessel ASME Weirs Varying Liquid Level Horizontal Cylinder
7.1 Constant Liquid Level

This portion of the software computes fluid discharge from an opening of cross sectional area So (m2), and a constant head H (m). The discharge coefficient (unitless) is a unique number (a number less than 1) accounting for the shape of the cross section, edge-rounding effects, and turbulence effects. Upon receiving these inputs, the software computes the volume discharge, Q, (m3/s) and the discharge velocity V (m/s). Example 7.1: Find the discharge parameters for a 1.5 sqft opening subject to a head of 4_m. Assume the discharge coefficient to be 0.85.
Input Screen
Result Screen
To solve the problem, enter values for = 0.85, H = 4 m and so = 1.5 ft 2 using the appropriate unit keys accessible during data entry. After all the input variables have been entered, press key to get the following results. Given: = 0.85 So = 1.5 ft2 H=4m Results Q = 1.04917 m 3/s V = 7.52877 m/s
7.2 Varying Liquid Level

This segment of the software considers fluid discharge from a tank of cross sectional area S (m2), an opening of cross sectional area So (m2) where the head has dropped from H1 (m) to H2 (m). The discharge coefficient (unitless) is a unique number (a number less than 1) accounting for the shape of the cross section, edge-rounding effects, and turbulence effects. Upon receiving these inputs, the software computes the time t (s) taken to see the drop in head height. Example 7.2: A large reservoir has an area of 10000 m 2 has head level of 4_m that needs to brought down by 0.5_m. The drainage opening is 3 m 2 and has a discharge coefficient of 0.95. How long will this process take?
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 7 - Analysis - Efflux
36
Input Screen
Result Screen
To solve the problem, enter values for = 0.95, H1 = 4 m, H2 = 3.5 m and So = 3 m 2 using the appropriate unit keys accessible when data is being entered. After all the input variables have been entered, press key to get the results. Given: = 0.95 S = 10000 m 2 So = 3 m2 H1 = 4 m H2 = 3.5 m
7.3 Conical Vessel

This segment considers fluid discharge from a container that conical in shape. The parameters specified for the computations include cross sectional area, So (m2), and a fluid head H1 (m) at t=0 and H2 (m) the fluid head at t. The discharge coefficient (unitless) is a unique number (a number less than 1) accounting for the shape of the cross section, edge-rounding effects, turbulent effects, and (rad) refers to the cone angle. Upon receiving these inputs, the software computes the time for the head to \drop from H1 to H2. Example 7.3: Find the time taken to discharge water from a 25 conical vessel with a discharge coefficient of 0.95 for a 1.2 cm2 opening. Consider the head drops from 24 in to 18 in. The base of the cone has a diameterDl of 12 in.
To solve the problem, enter values for = 0.95, H1 = 24 in, H2 =18 in, and So = 1.2 cm 2 using the appropriate unit keys accessible when data is being entered. After all the input variables have been entered, press [F2] key to get the results. Given: = 0.95 So = 1.2 cm2 Dl = 12 in H1 = 24 in H2 = 18 in = 25 deg Results t = 121.456 s
Results t = 204.68 s
Input Screen
Result Screen
37
7.4 Horizontal Cylinder

This segment of the software computes fluid discharge from a cylindrical tank of diameter D (m) and length L (m). The parameters specified for the computations include an opening for discharge with an area So (m2), and a fluid head H1 (m) at t=0 and H2 (m) the fluid head at t. In addition, the discharge coefficient (unitless) is a unique number (a number less than 1) accounting for the shape of the cross section, edge-rounding effects, and turbulent effects, along with Ks (unitless), and a space factor coefficient. Example 7.4: Find the time to oil from a cylindrical tank 12 m in diameter and 20 m long vessel with a space factor of 0.8 and orifice discharge coefficient of 0.75. How long does it take for the oil to drop down 10 cm from an initial height of 5 m. Assume the orifice opening to be 1.2 mm 2.
Input Screen
Result Screen
To solve the problem, enter values for = 0.55, Ks = 0.8 m, H1 = 5 m, H2 = 3.5 m, L = 20 m, and So = 1.2 cm2 using the appropriate unit keys accessible when data is being entered. After all the input variables have been entered, press key to get the results. Given: = 0.75 H1 = 5 m H2 = 4.9 m L = 20 m D = 12 m So = 1.2 mm2 Ks = 0.22 m
7.5 Large Rectangular Orifice

This segment of the software computes fluid discharge using a large rectangular orifice. The weir has a width of b (m). The system has a discharge coefficient f, fluid heights H1 (m) and H2 (m) at the beginning and end. Example 7.5: Find the time to water to drop head from 3 m to 4 ft, for a weir 20 ft wide. Assume discharge coefficient of 0.8.
Input Screen
Results Q = .090698 _m^3/s t = 492061 s
Result Screen
38
F2: Analysis/5: Efflux To solve the problem, enter values for f = 0.8, H1 = 3 m, H2 = 4 ft, and b = 20 ft. Enter all the inputs. After all the input variables have been entered, press key to get the results. Given: f = 0.8 H1 = 3 m H2 = 4 ft b = 20 ft Results Q = 55.4336 m 3/s
7.6 ASME Weirs

Weirs are useful devices to measure flow of liquids in open channels. A large number of empirical formulas have been developed in the engineering literature each with its own limitations. A few representative samples are included in this software.
7.6.1 Rectangular Notch

A rectangular weir has a width of b (m), initial static head of H (m), and a velocity of Vo (m/s). Assume a discharge coefficient (unitless). Example 7.6.1: A rectangular weir is 20 ft wide, has water flowing over it at a velocity of 10 ft/s, a static head of 1.25 ft., and a discharge coefficient of .8. Find the discharge for the system.
Input Screen Given: = 0.8 Vo = 10 ft/s H = 1.25 ft b = 20 ft
Results Q = 6.68284 m 3/s
7.6.2 Triangular Weir

A triangular weir has a water height H (m), a discharge coefficient with a static head of H (m) and a velocity of Vo (m/s). Assume a discharge coefficient (unitless). Example 7.6.2: A triangular weir has an angle of 60 deg, a discharge coefficient of 0.8 and a 2 ft water height. Find the discharge for this condition.
39
Result Screen
Input Screen Given: = 0.8 = 60 deg H = 2 ft Results Q = .316531m 3/s
Result Screen
7.6.3 Suppressed Weir

A suppressed weir helps measure flow depending upon the height above the weir. The system has a coefficient of discharge f, a height H (m) over the weir, weir of width b (m), with an initial a velocity of Vo (m/s). Assume a discharge coefficient (unitless). Example 7.6.3: A rectangular weir is 20 ft wide, has water flowing over it at a velocity of 10 ft/s, a static head of 1.25 ft., and the discharge coefficient is .8. Find the discharge for the system.
Input Screen Given: f = 0.8 H = 1.25 ft b = 20 ft Vo = 10 ft/s Results Q = 13.4099 m 3/s
Result Screen
7.6.4 Cipolletti Weir

A Cipolletti weir of width b (ft) and static head of H (ft) computes discharge in ft 3/s. The formulas used here are determined by experimental observation. Example 7.6.4: A rectangular weir is 20 ft wide, has water flowing over it with a 3 ft head. Find the discharge for the system.
40
Input Screen Given: H = 3 ft b = 20 ft
Result Screen Results Q = 9.90832 m 3/s
References:
1. 2. 3. Eugene A Avallone and Theodore Baumeister, III, General Editors, 9th Edition, Mark's Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY Ranald Giles, Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics, 2nd Edition, Schaum's Outline Series, McGrawHillBook Company, New York, NY, 1962 Michael R. Lindeburg, Mechanical Engineering Reference Manual, 8th Edition, Professional Publications Inc., Belmont, CA, 1990
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F2: Analysis/6: Section Properties
Chapter 8: Section Properties

This section of the software computes properties commonly associated with sections. These properties include calculating the area of cross-section, location of the center of mass from the vertical and horizontal axes. Computed area moments, I11 (m4) and I12 (m4), reflect their value with reference to vertical and horizontal axes. In cases where it is meaningful, the polar area moment is computed along with radius of gyration. Twelve standard cross-sections are found in this section. A pictorial description is included where possible. Rectangle Circle Hollow Circle I Section - Even T Section Polygon Hollow Rectangle Circular Ring I-Section uneven C-Section Trapezoid Hollow Polygon
8.1 Rectangle
The input screen for the rectangle requires the user to enter values of base, b (m), and height, h (m). In an illustrative example, we use a value of 10 inches for the base and 14 inches for the height. The results are displayed in SI units, however, they can be converted to different units by highlighting the values with the cursor, pressing : Opts, : Conv and pressing a function key ( ) to display the desired units. Entered values Variable b h
Description Base Height
Upper Display
Lower Display
Solution - To enter the value of 10 inches for the base, at the data input screen, move the highlight bar to b and press . Type in 10 and press to append the inch units to the value. Enter a value of 14 in for h in a similar manner. Press to compute the results. Computed Results Variable Area yy1 yy2 I11 I22 Ip
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 8 - Analysis Section Properties
Description Area Distance of center of mass from axis 1 Distance of center of mass from axis 2 Area moment inertia axis 11 Area moment inertia axis 12 Polar area moment
42
D>
Value 10 in 14 in
Value .090322 m2 .127 m .1778 m .000952 m4 .000486 m4 .001437 m4
Variable rg1 rg2
Description Radius of gyration 1 Radius of gyration 2
Value .102653 m .073323 m
8.2 Hollow Rectangle

The input screen for the hollow rectangle requires the user to enter outer and inner values of the base b and bi along with outer and inner heights h and hi. In an illustrative example, we use a value of 10 inches for the base and 14 inches for the height. The wall thickness is 1.5 in. Entered values Label b h bi hi Description Base Height Inside base (<b) Inside Height (<h) Value 10 in 14 in 7 in 11 in
Upper Display
Lower Display
To enter the value of 10 inches for the base, move the scroll bar to b and press . Type in 10 and press to append the inch units to the value. In a like manner, enter 7 in for bi, 14 in for h and 11 in for hi. Press to begin the calculations. The calculated results are shown below: Computed Results Label Area yy1 yy2 I11 I22 Ip rg1 rg2
Description Area Distance of center of mass from axis 1 Distance of center of mass from axis 2 Area moment inertia axis 11 Area moment inertia axis 12 Polar area moment Radius of gyration 1 Radius of gyration 2
8.3 Circle
The input screen for the circle requires the user to enter a value of diameter d. In an illustrative example, we use a value of 50 cm for the diameter.
43
? A
Value 0.040645 m2 0.127 m 0.1778 m 0.000629 m4 0.000355 m4 0.000983 m4 0.124362 m 0.093422 m
Entered values Label d
Description Diameter
Value 50 cm
Entered Values
Computed results . Press
To enter the value of 50 cm for the diameter, match the scroll bar to d and press begin the calculations. The calculated results are listed below. Computed Results Label Description Area Area yy1 Distance of center of mass from axis 1 I11 Area moment inertia axis 11 Ip Polar area moment rg1 Radius of gyration 1
Value 0.19635 m2 0.25 m 0.003068 m4 0.006136 m4 0.125 m
8.4 Circular Ring

The input screen for a circular ring requires the user to enter values of diameter d and thickness t. In an illustrative example, we use a value of 1.5 m for a wagon wheel with a ring thickness of 1 in. Entered values Label d t Description Diameter Thickness Value 1.5 m 1 in
Entered Values
Computed results
To enter the value of 1.5 m for the diameter d, at the data input screen match the scroll bar to d and press . Type in 1.5 and press to append the meter, m, and units to the value. Enter a value of 1 in for t in a similar manner. Press to begin the calculations. The calculated results are listed below.
Computed Results Label Area yy1 I11
Description Area Distance of center of mass from axis 1 Area moment inertia axis 11
Value 0.119695 m2 0.75 m 0.033664 m4
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to
??
Label Ip rg1
Description Polar area moment Radius of gyration 1
Value 0.067328 m4 0.53033 m
8.5 Hollow Circle

The input screen for the hollow circle requires the user to enter values of outer and inner diameters do and di. As an illustrative example, we use a value of 36 inches for the outer diameter and an inner diameter of 0.8 m. Entered values Label do di Description Diameter Thickness Value 36 in 0.8 m
Entered Values
Computed results
To enter the value of 36 inches for the outer diameter, at the data input screen match the scroll bar to do and press . Type in 36 and press to append the inch units to the value. Enter a value of .8 m for di in a similar manner. Press to begin the calculations. The calculated results are listed below. Computed Results Label Area yy1 I11 Ip rg1
Description Area Distance of center of mass from axis 1 Area moment inertia axis 11 Polar area moment Radius of gyration 1
8.6 1 Section - Uneven

The input screen for an uneven I-Section consists of 6 variables needing user input. Pressing allows a pictorial representation of T- and I-Beams. As shown in the picture shown here b and b1 represent the widths of top and bottom flanges respectively while t and t1 reflect the thickness of top and bottom flanges. The height and thickness of the fin connecting the top and bottom flanges is represented by d and tw. As an illustrative example, we use an I-Beam; we use a top flange width of 20 in and 2 in thickness followed by 36 in width and 2.5 in thickness. The fin is 50 cm in height and 4 cm in thickness. Entered values Label b t b1 t1 d tw Description Width of top flange Thickness of top flange Width of bottom flange Thickness of bottom flange Height of fin Thickness of the fin Value 20 in 2 in 36 in 2.5 in 50 cm 4 cm
A ?
Value 1.26449 m2 0.75 m 0.228399 m4 0.456797 m4 0.425 m
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Entered Values
Computed results
To enter the value of 20 inches for the base, at the data input screen match the scroll bar to b and press . Type in 20 and press to append the inch units to the value. Enter the remaining values in a similar fashion. Press to begin the calculating process. The calculated results are listed below. Computed Results Label Area yy1 yy2 I11 rg1
8.7 I Section - Even

The input screen for an even I-Section, (sometimes can be looked upon and a H-Section turned on its side), consist of four inputs the top and bottom flange width b and t, and height d of the fin and its thickness tw. Pressing reveals a picture on an even ISection. As an example, we use an even I-Section with a flange width of 100 cm and a thickness of 8 cm, while the fin has a height of 125 cm and a thickness of 10 cm . Entered values Label b t d tw Description Width of top flange Thickness of top flange Height of fin Thickness of the fin Value 100 cm 8 cm 125cm 10 cm
Upper Display
To enter the value of 100 cm for the flange width, at the data input screen match the scroll bar to b and press . Type in 100 and press to append the cm units to the value. Use this procedure to enter 8 cm for t, 125 cm for d and 10 cm for tw. Press to begin the calculations. The calculated results are listed below.
46
A ?
Description Area Distance of center of mass from axis 1 Distance of center of mass from axis 2 Area moment inertia axis 11 Radius of gyration 1
Value .103871 m2 .224422 m .389878 m .006184 m4 .244002 m
Lower Display
Computed Results Label Area yy1 yy2 I11 I22 rg1 rg2
Description Area Distance of center of mass from axis 1 Distance of center of mass from axis 2 Area moment inertia axis 11 Area moment inertia axis 12 Radius of gyration 1 Radius of gyration 2
Value 0.285 m2 0.705 m 0.5 m 0.087117 m4 0.013438 m4 0.552879 m 0.217138 m
8.8 C Section
The input screen for the C Section, width of flange b and thickness t, the fins have a height d and thickness tw. A picture of C Section can be viewed by pressing . As an example, we will compute the properties of a C Section with a 15 in flange with a thickness of 1 in, and the fin has a height of 6 in and a thickness of 1.5 in. Entered values Label b t d tw Description Width of top flange Thickness of top flange Height of fin Thickness of the fin
Upper Display
Lower Display
To enter the value of 15 in for the flange width at the data input screen match the scroll bar to b and press . Type in 15 and press to append the inch units to the value. Enter the values for the rest of the parameters in a similar manner. Press to begin the calculations. The calculated results are listed below. Computed Results Label Description Area Area yy1 Distance of center of mass from axis 1 yy2 Distance of center of mass from axis 2 I11 Area moment inertia axis 11 I22 Area moment inertia axis 12 rg1 Radius of gyration 1 rg2 Radius of gyration 2
Value 0.02129 m2 0.061191 m 0.1905 m 0.000065 m4 0.00046 m4 0.055133 m 0.146963 m
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Value 15 in 1 in 6 in 1.5 in
? A
8.9 T Section
The input screen for a T Section requires the user to enter values of top flange width b and thickness t, along height of the fin and its thickness d and tw. As an example, we compute the properties of a T Section 9 in wide flange with a thickness of 2 cm, and a fin of height 8 in and thickness 1.5 cm. Entered values Label b t d tw Description Width of top flange Thickness of top flange Height of fin Thickness of the fin Value 9 in 2 cm 8 in 1.5 cm
Upper Display
Lower Display
To enter the value of 9 in for the base, at the data input screen match the scroll bar to b and press . Type in 9 and press to append the inch units to the value. Enter the other values in a similar fashion. Press to begin the calculations. The calculated results are listed below. Computed Results Label Area yy1 yy2 I11 I22 rg1 rg2
Description Area Distance of center of mass from axis 1 Distance of center of mass from axis 2 Area moment inertia axis 11 Area moment inertia axis 12 Radius of gyration 1 Radius of gyration 2
Value 0.00762 m2 0.05464 m 0.1143 m 0.000033 m4 0.00002 m4 0.066223 m 0.05119 m
8.10 Trapezoid
The input screen for a trapezoid requires the user to enter value of base b, height h, and offset off, and top width c. In an illustrative example, we use a value of 10 in for the base and 6 in for top, a height of 6 in and an offset of 3.1 in. Label b h off c Description Base length Height Offset Top Value 10 in 6 in 3.1 in 6 in
48
By pressing you can access a schematic of the trapezoid. To enter the value of 10 inches for the base, at the data input screen match the scroll bar to b and press . Type in 10 and press to append the inch units to the value. Enter the values for other parameters in a like manner. Press to begin the calculations and display the results. The calculated results are listed below.
Upper Display Computed Results Label Area yy1 yy2 I11 I22 Ip rg1 rg2
Lower Display
Description Area Distance of center of mass from axis 1 Distance of center of mass from axis 2 Area moment inertia axis 11 Area moment inertia axis 12 Polar area moment Radius of gyration 1 Radius of gyration 2
Value 0.030968 m2 0.08255 m 0.114194 m .000059 m4 0.000115 m4 0.000174 m4 0.043533 m 0.060989 m
8.11 Polygon
A solid n-sided polygon with side a forms the basis of this segment. The input screen requires the user to enter values of side a, and number of sides n. In an illustrative example, we use a value of 12 inches for the side of a 6-sided polygon. A cross section of the polygon is shown in the screen display here. Entered values Label a n Description Side Length Number of sides Value 12 in 6
49
A?
Upper Display
Lower Display
To enter the value of 12 inches for the base, at the data input screen match the scroll bar to b and press . Type in 10 and press to append the inch units to the value. Enter the number of sides in a similar manner. Press to begin the calculations and display results. The calculated results are listed below. Computed Results Label Description Area Area Angle Radius to point 1 Radius to line 2 yy1 Distance of center of mass from axis 1 yy2 Distance of center of mass from axis 2 I11 Area moment inertia axis 11 I22 Area moment inertia axis 12 rg1 Radius of gyration 1 rg2 Radius of gyration 2
8.12 Hollow Polygon

A hollow n-sided polygon with side a forms the basis of this segment. The input screen requires the user to enter values of side a, wall thickness t and number of sides n. In an illustrative example, we use a value of 19 inches for the side, and a thickness of 2 in of a 9-sided polygon. A cross section of the polygon is shown in the screen display here. Entered values Label a n t Description Side Length Number of sides Thickness Value 19 in 9 2 in
Upper Display
A ?
Value .241369m2 .523599 rad 0.3048 m 0.263965 m 0.3048 m 0.263965 m 0.004672 m4 0.004672 m4 0.139122 m 0.139122 m
Lower Display
50
To enter the value of 19 inches for the base, at the data input screen match the scroll bar to b and press . Type in 10 and press to append the inch units to the value. Enter the number of sides in a similar manner. Press to begin the calculations and display results. The calculated results are listed below. Computed Results Label Description Area Area Angle Radius to point 1 Radius to line 2 yy1 Distance of center of mass from axis 1 yy2 Distance of center of mass from axis 2 I11 Area moment inertia axis 11 I22 Area moment inertia axis 12 rg1 Radius of gyration 1 rg2 Radius of gyration 2
References:
1. Warren C. Young, Roark's Formulas for Stress and Strain, 6th Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY, 1989.
A ?
Value 0.212191 m2 .349066 rad 0.705514 m 0.662966 m 0.694796 m 0.694796 m 0.045103 m4 0.045103 m4 0.461039 m 0.461039 m
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F2: Analysis/7: Hardness Number
Chapter 9:
Hardness Number
Brinnell and Vicker developed two popular methods of measuring the Hardness number. Brinell composed his tests by dropping a ball of steel onto slab of finite thickness with standard loads such as 500 lbf and 3000 lbf. This steel ball results in an indentation in the material. Vicker had a similar principle to Brinell; instead of steel ball he used a diamond in the shape of square pyramid. By measuring the diameter of indentation, di, for Brinells test and the diagonal length of the impression, di, for Vickers test, the hardness number is computed. By long standing convention, the diameter di is measured in millimeters.
9.1 Compute Hardness Number

The tests to measure the hardness number allows a 10 mm diameter steel ball or 10mm diagonal length pyramid to be dropped onto the material surface with a effective force of 500 lbf or 3000 lbf. The formulas used to compute the hardness number for by Brinell's and Vicker's methods give slightly different results, but do converge in several areas of the yield curves. Upon selecting this topic, the input screen (shown here) presents four options to the user. You can choose Brinell's method at 500 lbf or 3000 lbf or Vickers' method for the same two load values. Upon making the selection, enter the measured data for di by aligning the highlight bar to Impression size in mm. This number should be less than 10mm. After entering numbers for di, press to start the solving process. At the end of the computation, the results are displayed on the screen as shown in the example below. Example 9.1:
We choose an example of 4.2mm as the measured value of the indentation di and compute BHN and VHN for both 500-lbf loads and the 3000-lbf loads. Input and computed results are shown below.
Brinells output at 500 lbf
Brinells output at 3000 Ibf
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 9 - Analysis Hardness Number
52
F2: Analysis/7: Hardness Number
Vickers output at 500 lbf Given: di = 4.2 mm Results:
Vickers output at 3000 lbf
Test Brinnell Test Vicker Test
500 lbf 34.4208 48.7528
3000 lbf 206.525 292.517
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 9 - Analysis Hardness Number
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Part II: Equations
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus - Equations
54
F3: Equations
Chapter 10: Introduction to Equations

The Equations section of MEPro contains over 1000 equations organized into 12 topic and 185 subtopic menus. The user can select to solve equation sets in a particular s ub-topic, display all the variables used in the set of equations, enter the values for the known variables and solve for the unknowns. The equations in each sub-topic can be solved individually, collectively or as a sub-set. A unit management feature allows easy entry and display of results. Each equation can be graphed to examine the relationship between to variables in an equation. Multiple and partial solutions are possible. Specific parametric information about a particular variable can be displayed by highlighting the variable, press and /Type: to show a brief description of a variable and its entry parameters. The input form accepts valuables for variables that have physical meaning only. For example only positive real values are accepted for variables such as radius, thickness etc.
10.1 Solving a Set of Equations

Equations are accessed from the main level of the MEPro by pressing function key labeled "Equations." A pull-down menu listing all the main categories is displayed as shown in the screen display below. An arrow to the left of the bottom topic indicates more items are listed. Pressing jumps to the bottom of the menu list. Scroll the highlight bar to an item using the arrow key and press , or type the subject number appearing next to subject heading (Heat Transfer is selected for this example). A dialog box presents more subjects (sub-topics) under the topic heading. For example selecting the 1st item (i.e., Basic Transfer Mechanisms) displays a list of subtopics (Conduction, Convection, Radiation). Select Conduction to display a set of equations for this section. A complete list of topics in the equation section is listed at this end of the chapter. Use the arrow key to move the highlighter and press to select an equation, pressing selects all equations in the set. A selected equation is marked with a check (). Press to display all of the variables in the selected equations. A brief description of each variable will appear in the status line at the bottom of the screen. Enter values for the known parameters, selecting appropriate units for each value using the toolbar menu. Press to compute values for the unknown parameters. Entered and calculated values are distinguished in the display; for entered values and for computed results.
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 10- Intro to equations
55
1. Pressing displays the Equations menu. Press to select Heat Transfer.
2. Press to display the menu for Basic Transfer Mechanisms.
3. Press to display the equations for Conduction'.
D2
F3: Equations
Note: Only values designated as known will be used in a computation. Results displayed from an
earlier calculation will not be automatically used unless designated by the user by selecting the variable and pressing . Press to compute a new result for any input that is changed.
10.2 Viewing an Equation or Result in Pretty Print

Sometimes equations and calculated results exceed the display room of the calculator. The TI-89 and TI 92 Plus include a built-in equation display feature called Pretty Print which is available in many areas of MEPro and can be activated by highlighting a variable or equation and pressing the right arrow key or pressing the function key when it is designated as View. The object can be scrolled using the arrow keys . Pressing or reverts to the previous screen.
10.3 Viewing a Result in different units

To view a calculated result in units which are different from what is displayed, highlight the variable, press /Options and /Conv to display the unit tool bar at the top of the screen. Press the appropriate function key to convert the result to the desired units.
56
"!
1. To view an equation in, Pretty Print, highlight and press or .
2. Scroll features, using the arrow keys , enable a complete view of a large object.
"
7. Enter values for each known variable. Append the units by pressing the function key corresponding to the desired units.
8. Once all known variable values are entered, press to solve for the unknowns.
9. Note: Computed results are distinguished from entered values .
4. Equations found under conduction.
5. Select the equations for a calculation by moving the cursor to each equation and pressing . (Check mark appears when selected).
6. Press to display all the variables in the selected equations. Variable description appears on the status line at the bottom of the screen.
" e
g . e "! Y
F3: Equations
1. Highlight the result to be converted q. Press to display the Options menu, press : conv.
2. The unit menu tool bar is now displayed.
3. Press to convert the result of q from W to kW.
10.4 Viewing Multiple Solutions

When multiple solutions exist, the user is prompted to select the number of a series of computed answers to be displayed. To view additional solutions, press to repeat the calculation and enter another solution number. The user will need to determine which result is most useful to the application. The following example is taken from Ohms Law and Power in the EE for MEs section. Equations/EE for MEs/Basic Electricity/Ohms Law and Power.
1. Return to the HOME screen of MEPro ( : Tools, : Clear or press repeatedly) and access the equations section by pressing .
Press
for Basic Electricity.
Press for Ohms Law and Power.
Solution 1: To view another solution, press to repeat the calculation and enter the number of another solution to be viewed.
57
Solution 2: Enter a new number for each solve to display a series of multiple solutions.
1. Select an equation using highlighting the cursor bar and to display variables.
2. Enter known values for each variable using the tool bar to designate units. Press to compute the results.
3. If multiple solutions exist, a dialogue box will appear requesting the user to enter the number of a solution to view.
Y f N
d b.
F3: Equations
10.5
When () - conditional constraints when solving equations
In several sections of MEPro, equations are limited to certain variable ranges. An example can be found in Beams and Columns/Simple Beams/Uniform Load (Chapter 11.1.1): A beam, experiencing a uniform load along a distance, a (m), from one end, has a deflection, v (m), and slope of deflection, v1, located at a distance, x (m), from the end of the beam. Two sets of unique equations compute v and v1 depending on whether the condition is xa or xa. The conditions for the equations appear in the when clauses precede the equations. MEPro allows the selection of equations under a single when clause since the conditions are generally exclusive to each other2.
Note: The when clauses do not serve any mathematical function in the solving process or for screening variable entry; they are only a guide for selecting equations for a specifi c circumstance. Additional information for a when clause appears in the status line while it is highlighted.
All equations following a Only equations under a single Description of constraint highlighted when heading appears in the status line at when heading can be selected the bottom of the screen. are selected when is at a time. pressed. Some equation sets do not form a consistent set, which can be solved together. An example occurs in Equations/Fluid Mechanics/Fluid Dynamics/Equivalent Diameter (see Chapter 21.3.3), where each equation represents fluid flow through a different-shaped cross-section. In such a case, the specific conditions for each equation appear on the status line.
10.5
Arbitrary Integers for periodic solutions to trigonometric functions
When an angle value is being computed in a trigonometric function such as tangent, cosine and sine, MEPro may prompt an entry for an arbitrary integer (-2, -1, 0, 1, 2) before displaying a solution. Solutions for angles inside of trigonometric functions are generally periodic, however the solution, which is most often sought, is the principal solution. The principal solution, P, in a periodic trigonometric function, trig (), is P=trig ( + an) where n is the arbitrary integer and a=1 for tan (), a=2 for sin () and cos (). Selecting the arbitrary integer to be 0 gives the principal solution.
In at least one known case (Beams and Columns/Simple Beams/Point load), conditions in more than one when () statement can occur simultaneously. A work around is to solve the equation set in two steps, using equations under a single when () heading at a time and designating the results from one calculation as the input into the second.
58
F3: Equations
Dialog box for entering an arbitrary integer for a periodic solution.
If 0 is entered, the principal solution (P) for an angle is displayed.
If 1 is entered, a non-principal o solution (P+180 ) is displayed.
10.7 Partial Solutions

"One partial useable solution found" or "Multiple partial solutions found." will be displayed in the status line if values for one or more variables in the selected equation set cannot be computed. This situation can occur if there are more unknowns than equations in the selected set, the entered values do not form consistent relationships with the selected equations, or if the selected equations do not establish a closed form relationship between all of the entered values and the unknowns. In such a case, only the calculated variables will be displayed. This section appears in Equations/EE for MEs/Basic Electricity/Resistance Formulas.
Press to select all of the equations in Resistance Formulas.
10.8 Copy/Paste
A computed result and its expressed units can be copied and pasted to an appropriate part of the TI operating system using : Tools-5: Copy key sequence to copy a value and : Tools-6: Paste. In a few cases, The TI-89 and TI-92 operating systems, and MEPro use slightly different conventions for displaying units. The unit system in MEPro is designed to conform to the convention established by SI, however, in order to CUT and PASTE a value and units from MEPro to another area of the TI operating system, MEPro must insert extra characters in the units to match TIs syntax. The COPY/PASTE function can only work INSIDE of MEPro if the unit feature has been deactivated (press :Opts, : Units to toggle the unit feature on or off).
10.9 Graphing a Function
The relationship between two variables in an equation can be graphed on a real number scale if the other variables in the equation are defined. After solving an equation, or entering values for the non-x, y variables in the equation to be plotted, press /Graph to display the graph settings. Highlight Eq: and press to select the equation from the list to graph. Use the same steps as above to select the independent and dependent variables (Indep: and Depnd:) from the equation. Note: all pre-existing values stored in the variables used for Indep: and Depnd : will be cleared when the graphing function is executed.
59
If there are more unknowns Than selected equations or Relationships between Variables are not established From the selected equations...
...a partial solution will be displayed if one or more of the unknown variables can be computed from the entered inputs.
F3: Equations
The graphing unit scale for each variable reflects the settings in the Equations section of MEPro. Scrolling down the list, specify the graphing ranges for the x and y variables, whether to graph in full or split screen modes, automatically scale the graph to fit the viewing area, and label the graph. Press to graph the function.
Once the graph command has been executed, MEPro will open a second window to display the plot. All of the TI graphing features are available and are displayed in the toolbar, including Zoom , Trace , Math , etc. All the tools from TI graphics engine are now available to theuser. If the split-screen graphing mode is activated, the user can toggle between the MEPro graph dialogue display and the TI graph by pressing . If the full-screen graphing mode is activated, the user can switch between MEPro and the graph by pressing 4:Graph or A: MEPro. To remove the split screen after graphing, you will need to change the display settings in the MODE screen of the calculator. To do this: 1) Press 2) Press : Page 2; 3) move the cursor to Split Screen. 4) Press the right arrow key to display a pop-up menu. 5) Select FULL. 6) Press twice.
1*. Graph an equation by pressing . Press to choose an equation.
2. Select variables for Independent (x) and Dependent (y) variables.
Variable units reflect settings in MEPro.
*Before graphing an equation, be sure to specify val ues for variables in an equation, which are not going to be used as x, and y variables. Note: If an error is generated when attempting to graph, be sure that all of the variables in the graphed
equation, which are not specified as the independent, and dependent variables have known values. In the MEPro window, press to view the equations in the sub-topic, select the equation to be graphed and press to display the list of variables in the equation and enter values. Only the dependent (y) and independent (x) variables do not have to contain specified values. Press to display the graph dialogue and repeat the above steps to graph the function.
60
4. Select graphing options by pressing .
5. Split Screen Mode: Toggle Between graph and settings by pressing and .
6: Full Screen Mode: Press and to return to MEPro.

"
/
c O O2
F3: Equations
10.10 Storing and recalling variable values in MEPro-creation of session folders

MEPro automatically stores its variables in the current folder specified by the user in or the HOME screens. The current folder name is displayed in the lower left corner of the screen (default is Main). To create a new folder to store values for a particular session of MEPro, press :/TOOLS, :/NEW and type the name of the new folder. There are several ways to display or recall a value: , moving the The contents of variables in any folder can be displayed using the cursor to the variable name and pressing to display the contents of a particular variable. Variables in a current folder can be recalled in the HOME screen by typing the variable name. Finally, values and units can be copied and recalled using the /Tools : COPY and : PASTE feature. All inputs and calculated results in Analysis and Equations are saved as variable names. Previously calculated, or entered values for variables in a folder are replaced when equations are solved using new values for inputs. To preserve data under variable names, which may conflict with MEPro variables, run MEPro in a separate folder.
10.11 solve, nsolve, and csolve and user-defined functions (UDF)

When a set of equations is solved in MEPro, three different functions in the TI operating system (solve, numeric solve, and complex solve) are used to find the most appropriate solution. In a majority of cases, the entered values are adequate to find numeric solutions using either solve, or csolve functions. However, there are a few instances when UDFs external to equations are incorporated into the solving process. User defined functions which appear MEPro are the error functions erfc (x) and erf (x). When all the inputs to a UDF are known, solve or csolve passes a computed result to the equation: however, if the unknown variable is an input to the UDF, solve or csolve are unable to isolate the variable in an explicit form, and the operating system resorts to using nsolve which initiates a trial and error iteration until the solution converges. It should be noted that the solution generated by nsolve is not guaranteed to be unique (i.e. this solving process cannot determine if multiple solutions exist.). Because nsolve is used, an equation containing a user-defined function (UDF) cannot be graphed when the dependent variable is contained in the UDF. Table 15-1 User Defined Functions2 User-defined Function Topic Sub-topic Heat Transfer Step Change in Surface Temperature erf(x, d, time) Heat Transfer Constant Surface Heat Flux erfc (x, d, time) Heat Transfer Surface Convection erfc (x, d, h, k, time)
10.12 Entering a guessed value for the unknown using nsolve

To accelerate the converging process and, if multiple solutions exist, enhance the possibility thatnsolve resolves the correct solution, the user can enter a guessed value for the unknown which nsolve will use as an initial value in its solving process. Enter guessed a value for the variable in the input dialogue. Press /Opts, /Want. Press / to compute a solution for the
variable. erfc(h) is a user-defined function (UDF) that appears in the Surface Convection topic of Heat
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 10- Intro to equations 61
Only one variable in a user-defined function can be specified as an unknown.
Z b b
F3: Equations
Transfer.
An initial value for the unknown can be specified for the n-solve process :Opts, : Want.
MEPro posts a notice if the nsolve routine is used.
The user can enter a value for the unknown and designate it as a guessed value to accelerate the nsolve convergence process.
10.13 Why can't I compute a solution?

If a solution is unable to be computed, you might check the following: 1. Are there at least as many equations selected, as there are unknown parameters? 2. Are the entered values or units for the known parameters reasonable for a specific case? 3. Are the selected equations consistent in describing a particular case? (For example, certain equations used in the calculation of equivalent circular cross-section diameters in Fluid Mechanics/Fluid Dynamics/Equivalent Diameter, are only valid for certain shaped cross sections). Check the headings displayed at the bottom of the screen while the equation is highlighted to determine if special restrictions for a particular equation (set) apply.
10.14 Care in choosing a consistent set of equations

The success in obtaining a useful solution, or a solution at all is strongly dependent on an insight into the problem and care in choosing equations, which describe consistent relationships between the parameters.
The following steps are recommended:

Read the description of each set of equations in a topic to determine which subsets of equations in a series are compatible and consistent in describing a particular case. Some restrictions or special conditions for an equation or set of equations are listed in the status line while the equation or when conditions are highlighted. Select the equations from a subset, which describe the relationships between all of the known and unknown parameters. As a rule of thumb, select as many equations from the subset as there are unknowns to avoid redundancy or over-specification. The equations have been researched from a variety of sources and use slightly different approximation techniques. Over-specification (selecting too many equations) may lead to an inability of the equation solver to resolve slight numerical differences in different empirical methods of calculating values for the same variable.
10.15 Notes for the advanced user in troubleshooting calculations

When there are no solutions possible, MEPro provides important clues via the variables, meinput, meprob, means, and meanstyp. These variables are defined during the equation setup process by the built-in multiple equation solver. MEPro saves a copy of the problem, its inputs, its outputs, and a characterization of the type of solution in the user variables meprob, meinput, means, and meanstyp. For the developer who is curious to know exactly how the problem was entered into the multiple equation solver, or about what the multiple equation solver returned, and to examine relevant strings. The contents of these variables may be viewed and examined by using . Press ( followed by ), scroll to the variable name in the current folder and press to view the contents of the variable. The
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 10- Intro to equations 62
F3: Equations
string may be recalled to the status line of the home screen, modified and re-executed, if desired. If no solutions are possible when one should be displayed, try clearing the variables in the current folder, or opening a new folder.
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F3: Equations/1: Beams & Columns
Chapter 11: Beams and Columns

This chapter covers the details found in the Beams and Columns section. Three broad areas of common interest are covered. They are: Simple Beams Columns Cantilever Beams
11.1 Simple Beams

Structural members designed to resist forces acting perpendicular to its longitudinal axis are defined as Beams. The simplest types of beams can be thought of "planar structures" wherein all the deflections occur in the same plane. The essential features of a Simple Beam, or Simply Supported Beam, are a pin support is placed at one end and a roller support at the other. The equations used here cover Simple Beams where the rollers support are always at the right end of the beam. Three types of loads are considered here. They are Uniform load, Point load and Moment load. Each of these load types has unique characteristics and is illustrated in the software.
11.1.1 Uniform Load

The equation set here covers problems associated with a uniformly distributed load, p1 (N/m), covering a distance, a (m), from the left end. Equations 1 and 2 yield the slopes at the left and right ends of the beam, a (rad), and, b (rad), respectively. To compute the deflection, v (m), and slope, v1, at any location, x (m), from the left, use equations 3 and 4 when xa. When, x, lies between, a. and the beam length, L (m), use equations 5 and 6 to compute, v, and v1. E (Pa), the modulus of elasticity and I (m4), the area moment of inertia, represent the material properties of the beam.
p1 a 2 tan a = 2 L a 24 L E I tan b =
1 6 1 6
Eq. 1
p1 a 2 2 L2 a 2 24 L E I
7 7 7
Eq. 2
When 0 x a, the following two equations are applicable
v=
p1 x a 4 4 a 3 L + 4 a 2 L2 + 2 a 2 x 2 4 a L x 2 + L x 3 24 L E I
Eq. 3
v1 =
p1 a 4 4 a 3 L + 4 a 2 L2 + 6 a 2 x 2 12 a L x 2 + 4 L x 3 24 L E I
Eq. 4
When a x L, the following two equations are applicable
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 11 - Equations - Beams and Columns
64
v=
p1 a 2 a 2 L + 4 L2 x + a 2 x 6 L x 2 + 2 x 3 24 L E I
Eq. 5
p1 a 2 v1 = 4 L2 + a 2 12 L x + 6 x 2 24 L E I
When 0 x L, applies to all equations
Eq. 6
The variable names, description and applicable default units used in these equations are listed below. Variable a b a E I L p1 v v1 x Description Angle at left (fixed) end Angle at right (roller supported) end Load location from left (fixed) end Young's modulus Area moment of inertia Length Load/unit length Beam deflection Slope of deflection Dist. from left end Units rad rad m Pa m4 m N/m m unitless m
Caution: Because the equations represent a set where several subtopics are covered, the user has to select each equation to be included in the multiple equation solver. Pressing will not select all the equations and start the solver. Example 11.1.1:
A simple beam, 10 meters long, is subject to a uniform load of 1.5 kips/ft, spanning 18 feet from the left end. Find the slopes at left and right ends and deflection at mid-point of the beam. Assume that the Young's modulus of the beam material is 190 GPa and that the area moment is 170 in4.
Upper Display
Solution Select the first three equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. Select 0 to compute the principal solution). The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given a = 18 ft E = 190 GPa I = 170 in4 L = 10 m Solution a = 2.46317 b = 1.98714 v = .12243 m
65
Lower Display
? a?
Given p1 = 1.5 kip/ft x=5m
Solution
11.1.2 Point Load

This equation set covers problems associated with a point load, P (N), located a distance, a (m), from the left (fixed) end of a simple beam. Equations 1 and 2 yield the slope angles, a (rad), b (rad) at the left and right ends of the beam, respectively. Equation 3 computes the length of the beam, L (m), in terms of the load distance from the left, a (m), and right, b (m) ends. To compute the deflection, v (m), and slope v1 at any location, x (m), from the left side, use equations 4 and 5 when 0xa. Equation 6 yields c (m), the deflection at the center of the beam when ab. Equation 7 computes x1 (m), the location of maximum deflection, max (m), calculated by equation 8. The material properties of the beam are represented by, E (Pa) the modulus of elasticity, I (m4) the area moment of inertia, and L (m), the length of the beam.
P a b L + b tan a = 6 L E I P a b L + a tan b = 6 L E I L = a +b
1 6 1 6
6 6
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
P b x v= L2 b 2 x 2 6 L E I
7 7
Eq. 4
P b v1 = L2 b 2 3 x 2 6 L E I
Eq. 5
When a b, the following two equations are applicable
c =
P b 3 L2 4 b 2 48 E I
Eq. 6
x1 =
L2 b 2 3 P b L2 b 2
.5
Eq. 7
max =
243 L E I
1.5
Eq. 8
When 0 x L, applies to all equations The variable names, description and applicable default units used in these equations are listed below.
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Variable c max a b a b E I L P v v1 x xl
Description Deflection at mid point Maximum deflection at x1 Angle at left (fixed) end Angle at right (roller supported) end Load location from left (fixed) end Dist. from right (roller supported) end Young's modulus Area moment Length Point load Beam deflection Slope of deflection Distance from left end Maximum deflection location
Units m m rad rad m m Pa m4 m N m unitless m m
Caution: Because the equations represent a set where several subtopics are covered, the user has to select each equation to be included in the multiple equation solver. Pressing will not select all the equations and start the solver.
Example 11.1.2:
A simple beam, 50 ft long, is subject to a point load of 4000 lbf located 10 feet from the left end and a second load of 10 kN located 10 feet from the right end. Find the deflection at mid-beam and the slope at both ends. Assume that the Young's modulus of the beam material is 120 GPa, and the area moment is 1650 in 4. Solution - The problem is solved in two stages. First, compute the slopes at both ends, and the deflection at the center for the load of 10 kN. Repeat the calculations using the second load and add the two computed values using the superposition to calculate the final result. Select an arbitrary integer of 0 to compute the principal solution (the principal solution, P, in a periodic trigonometric function, trig (), is P=trig ( + n) and n is the arbitrary integer).
First load: Upper Display
First load: Lower Display
Use Equations 1, 2 and 6 to calculate the results from the first load. Given a = 40 ft b = 10 ft E = 120 GPa I = 1650 in4 L = 50 ft P = 10 kN Solution c = .005082 m a = .05167 deg b = 0.077506 deg
67
Second load: Upper Display
Second load: Lower Display
Use Equations 1, 2 and 4 to calculate the results from the second load. Given Solution a = 10ft a = .137905 deg b = 40 ft b = .091937 deg E = 120 GPa v =.005604 cm 4 I = 1650 in L = 50 ft P = 4000 lbf x = 25 ft The final results of the two loads are obtained by invoking the super position principle; thus add the results of the two sets of calculations. Solution a b c/v First load .05167 deg .077506 deg .005082 m Second load .091937 deg .13905 deg .005604 m Total .143607 deg .216556 deg .010686 m
11.1.3 Moment Load

This equation set covers problems associated with a moment load, MOM (Nm), applied at a distance, a (m), from the left end. Equations 1 and 2 calculate the slope angles, a (rad), and, b (rad), at the left and right ends of the beam, respectively. The deflection distance, v (m), and slope, v1, at distance, x (m), from the left side of the beam are computed by Equations 3 and 4. The material properties of the beam are represented by, E (Pa) the modulus of elasticity, I (m4) the area moment of inertia, and, L (m) the length of the beam.
MOM tan a = 6 a L 3 a 2 2 L2 6 L E I MOM tan b = 3 a 2 L2 6 L E I
1 6 1 6
Eq. 1
7 7 7
Eq. 2
MOM x v= 6 a L 3 a 2 2 L2 x 2 6 L E I
Eq. 3
MOM v1 = 6 a L 3 a 2 2 L2 3 x 2 6 L E I
When 0 x L, applies to all equations
Eq. 4
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The variable names, description and applicable default units used in the equations above are listed below. Variable a b a E I L MOM v v1 x Description Angle at left (fixed) end Angle at right (roller supported) end Distance of load from left (fixed) end Young's modulus Area moment of inertia Length Moment applied to beam Beam deflection Slope of deflection Distance from left (fixed) end Units rad rad m Pa m4 m Nm m unitless m
Example 11.1.3:
A simple beam, 10 meters long, is subject to a moment load of 10kN m at the middle point of the beam. Find the slopes at left and right ends of the beam, and deflection at mid point of the beam. Assume that the Young's modulus of the beam material is 100 GPa, and the area moment to be 125 in 4.
Upper Display
Solution Select the first, second, and fourth equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. Select an arbitrary integer of 0 to compute the principal solution (the principal solution, P, in a periodic trigonometric function, trig (), is P=trig ( + n) and n is the arbitrary integer). The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given a=5m E = 100 GPa I = 125 in4 L = 10 m MOM = 10 kNm x=5m Solution a = .045885 deg b = -.046885 deg v1 = -.001602
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Lower Display
? a?
11.2 Cantilever Beams

Structural members designed to resist forces acting perpendicular to its longitudinal axis are defined as Beams. The essential features of a Cantilever Beam are that it has a fixed support at one end and a free at the other end with no support. The fixed end of the beam is inflexible and does not incur any bending, thus ensuring the deflection and slope to be zero at this end. Three types of loads are considered here. They are Uniform load, Point load, and Moment load. Each of these load types has unique characteristics and is illustrated in the software.
11.2.1 Uniform Load

This equation set covers problems associated with a uniformly distributed load, p1 (N/m), over a distance, a (m), from the left (fixed) end. Equations 1and 2 yield the deflection, b (m), and slope angle, b (rad), at the right (free) end of the beam. Deflection v (m), and slope v1, at any location x (m), away from the left can be computed by using equations 3 and 4, when 0xa. When x lies between a, and beam length L, use equations 5 and 6 for the same properties. The material properties of the beam are represented by, the modulus of elasticity E (Pa), and, the area moment of inertia I (m4).
p1 a 3 b = 4 L a 24 E I p1 a 3 tan b = 6 E I
Eq. 1
1 6
Eq. 2
p1 x 2 v= 6 a2 4 a x + x2 24 E I p1 x v1 = 3 a 2 3 a x + x2 6 E I p1 a 3 v= 4 x a 24 E I p1 a 3 v1 = 6 E I
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
Eq. 5
Eq. 6
When 0 x L, applies to all equations The variable names, description and applicable default units used in these equations are listed below. Variable b Description Deflection at right (free) end Units m
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Variable b a E I L p1 v v1 x
Description Slope at right (free) end Distance of load from left (fixed) end Young's modulus Area moment of inertia Length Load/unit length Beam deflection Slope of deflection Distance from left (fixed) end
Units unitless m Pa m4 m N/m m unitless m
Example 11.2.1:
A cantilever beam, 10 meters long, is subject to a uniform load of 2.5 kN/m, 18 ft from the fixed end. Find the slope and deflection at the free end of the beam, as well as at the mid -point of the beam. Assume that the Young's modulus of the beam material is 190 GPa and that the area moment is 170 in4.
Upper Display
Solution Select equations 1, 2, 5 and 6 to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. Select the integer of 0 to compute the principal solution. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given a = 18 ft E = 190 GPa I = 170 in4 L = 10 m p1 = 2.5 kN/m x=5m Solution b = .044162 m b = .293246 deg v = .018571 m v1 = .005118
11.2.2 Point Load

This equation set covers problems associated with a point load, P (N), located a distance, a (m), from the left (fixed) end. Equations 1 and 2 yield the deflection, b (m), and slope angle, b (rad), at the right (free) end of the beam. To compute the deflection, v (m), and slope, v1, at a location x (m) from the left end, use equations 3 and 4, when
71
Lower Display
? a?
F3: Equations/1: Beams & Columns x occurs before the location of the load, a (m) (0xa), and equations 5 and 6 when x occurs after the load (axL). The material propertie of the beam is represented by E (Pa), the modulus of elasticity by E (Pa), the area moment of inertiaby, I (m4), and beam length, L (m).
P a2 3 L a b = 6 E I P a2 tan b = 2E I
Eq. 1
1 6
Eq. 2
P x2 v= 3 a x 6 E I
6 6
Eq. 3
P x v1 = 2 a x 2E I
Eq. 4
P a 2 3 x a v= 6 E I P a2 v1 = 2E I
Eq. 5
Eq. 6
When 0 x L, applies to all equations The variable names, description and applicable default units used in these equations are listed below. Variable b b a E I L P v v1 x Description Deflection at left (fixed) end Angle at right (free) end of beam Distance of load from left (fixed) end Young's modulus Area moment Length Load Beam deflection Slope of deflection Distance from left (fixed) end Units m rad m Pa m4 m N m unitless m
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Example 11.2.2:
A cantilever beam, 20 m long, is subject to a 15 kN point load located 18 feet from the fixed end. Find the slope and deflection at the free end of the beam. Assume that the Young's modulus of the beam material is 175 GPa, and that the area moment is 650 in 4.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the first two equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given a= 18 ft E = 175 GPa I = 650 in 4 L = 20 m P = 15 kN
11.2.3 Moment Load

This equation set covers problems associated with a moment load, MOM (Nm), applied at a distance a (m), from the left (fixed) end. Equations 1 and 2 calculate the deflection, b (m), and slope, b (rad), at the right (free) end. The deflection and slope, v (m) and v1, at a distance, x (m), from the left (fixed) side of the beam are defined by equations 3 and 4 for the case when 0xa, and equations 5 and 6 when a<x<L. The materials properties of the beam are represented by E (Pa), the modulus of elasticity; I (m4), the area moment of inertia; and L (m), the length of the beam.
MOM a b = 2 L a 2 E I MOM a b = E I
MOM x 2 v= 2 E I MOM x v1 = E I
? a?
6
Solution b = .086643 m b = .273193 deg
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
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F3: Equations/1: Beams & Columns When a x L, the following two equations are applicable
MOM a v= 2x a 2E I MOM a v1 = E I
Eq. 5
Eq. 6
When 0 x L, applies to all equations The variable names, description and applicable default units used in these equations are listed below. Variable b b a E I L MOM v v1 x Description Deflection at right (free) end Angle at right (free) end Distance of load from left (fixed) end Young's modulus Area moment Length Applied moment Beam deflection Slope of deflection Distance from left (fixed) end Units m rad m Pa m4 m Nm m unitless m
Example 11.2.3:
A simple beam, 10 meters long, is subject to a moment load of 1.5 ftkip, 18 feet from the fixed end. Find the slope and deflection at the right end of the beam, and the deflection at mid point of the beam. Assume that the Young's modulus of the beam material is 190 GPa, and that the area moment is 170 in4.
Upper Display
Solution Since the load occurs to the right of the midpoint of the beam (x=L/2<a<L, since x=5 m = 16.4 ft <18 ft=a) use equations 1, 2, and 3, to solve this problem. Select these equations and press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. Select an arbitrary integer of 0 to compute the principal solution. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above.
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Lower Display
Given a = 18 ft E = 190 GPa I = 170 in 4 L = 10 m MOM = 1.5 ftkip x =5 m
Solution b = .006023 m b = .047552 deg v = .001891 m
11.3. Columns
Structures fail a variety of ways depending upon material properties, loads and conditions of support. In this section, a variety of failures of columns will be considered. For our purpose, we define a column to be long slender structural members loaded axially in compression. Five type of problems are considered - Buckling, Eccentric Axial load, Secant formula, Column imperfections, and Inelastic buckling.
11.3.1 Buckling
These four equations give an insight into the critical parameters for designing columns. Equations 1 and 2 compute the critical load, Pcr (N), in terms of the cross-sectional area of the column, Area (m2), the modulus of elasticity, E (Pa), the column length, L (m), radius of gyration, r (m), and the area moment of inertia, I (m4). The compressive stress, cr (Pa), is calculated from equation 3 and the radius of gyration r is computed in equation 4.
2 E Area Pcr = 2 Ke L r
Eq. 1

2 EI Pcr = 2 Ke L
Eq. 2
Pcr cr = Area r= I Area
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
The variable names, description and applicable default units used in these equations are listed below. Variable cr Area E I Ke Description Critical stress Area Young's modulus Area moment Effective length factor Units Pa m2 Pa m4 unitless
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Variable L Pcr r
Description Length Critical load Radius of gyration
Units m N m
Example 11.3.1:
A steel column, with an area of 50 in 2 and 20 ft long, has a modulus of elasticity of 190 GPa. The effective length factor for this column is 1.75, and the area moment is 600 in 4. Find the critical load, the radius of gyration and critical stress.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select all of the equations to solve this problem. Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given Area = 50 in 2 E = 190 GPa I = 600 in 4 Ke = 1.75 L = 20 ft Solution cr = 18.5019 ksi Pcr = 925.096 kip r = 3.4641 in
11.3.2 Eccentricity, Axial Load

An eccentric load refers to the situation where the point load, P (N), is not located at the center of mass of the area, but is offset by a distance, xe (m). Equation 1 computes the deflection of the column at the midpoint, c (m). Equation 2 calculates the maximum bending moment, Mmax (Nm), for the specified eccentric load. The location of Mmax is the same as the location of maximum deflection (typically at half the height of the column, L/2).
P xe L2 c = 8 E I P xe Mmax = kL cos 2

Description Deflection at mid-point Units m
The variable names, description and applicable default units used in these equations are listed below. Variable c
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Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Variable E I k L Mmax P xe
Description Young's modulus Area moment of inertia Stiffness Length Maximum bending moment Point load Eccentricity offset
Units Pa m4 1/m m Nm N m
Example 11.3.2:
A 20 kip point load on the column described in Example 11.3.1 is offset 2 inches from the columns central axis. Find the buckling at the center of the column and the maximum moment -5 if the stiffness is 1 x 10 1/m.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select both equations to solve this problem. Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given E = 190 GPa I = 600 in 4 k = .00001 1/m L = 20 ft P = 20 kip xe = 2 in Solution c = .017418 in Mmax = 3.33333 ftkip
11.3.3 Secant Formula

The equations in this section focus on further analysis of eccentric loads. Equation 1 computes the radius of gyration, r (m), from the area moment I (m4), and the cross sectional area, Area (m2). Equations 2 and 3 show two ways to calculate maximum stress, max (Pa), from known properties of the column including length, L (m); load, P (N); Area; and the modulus of elasticity, E (Pa). Two key ratios, the eccentricity ratio, ecr and the slenderness ratio, sr, are introduced in equations 4 and 5. The eccentric offset, xe (m), is distance of the load from the central longitudinal axis of the column and c (m) is the distance from the axis to the concave side of the column at the location of maximum deflection. Eq. 1
r=
I Area
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P Mmax max = + Area S
Eq. 2
P xe c 1 max = 1+ Area P r cos 2L r E Area

2
Eq. 3
xe c ecr = 2 r L sr = r
Eq. 4
Eq. 5
The variable names, description and applicable default units used in these equations are listed below. Variable max Area c E ecr I L Mmax P r S sr xe Description Maximum stress Area Distance of centroid to column edge Young's modulus Eccentricity ratio Area moment of inertia Length Maximum bending moment Point load Radius of gyration Section modulus Slenderness ratio Eccentric offset Units Pa m2 m Pa unitless m4 m Nm N m m3 unitless m
Example 11.3.3:
The column described in example 11.3.1 and 11.3.2 has a 20 kip axial load located at distance of 4 inches from the concave extremum. Find the maximum stress, radius of gyration and the slenderness ratio.
Upper Display
Lower Display
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Solution Select equations 1, 3, 4, and 5 to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given Area = 50 in 2 c = 4 in E = 190 GPa I = 600 in4 L = 20 ft P = 20 kip xe = 2 in Solution max = 4.61263 MPa ecr = .666667 r = 3.4641 in sr = 69.282
11.3.4 Imperfections in Columns

The approaches used in analyzing the impact of imperfections in columns are defined by the seven equations here. A column having a length, L (m), and initial deflection, ao (m), from the centroid (central longitudinal) axis is considered. The ratio (unitless), of the applied load, P (N), to critical load, Pcr (N), for the column is calculated in equation 1. An alternate way to compute is using equation 2, which uses area moment I (m4), column length L (m), applied load P; and modulus of elasticity, E (Pa). Equations 3 and 4 compute maximum bending moment Mmax (Nm) and the maximum deflection, max (Pa), at the mid-point of the column. The three remaining equations solve for the maximum shear stress, max (Pa), using alternate methods depending on which variables are known. The variable, r (m), is the radius of gyration and, c (m), is the horizontal distance from the centroid axis to the furthest point on the concave side of the column.
P = Pcr P L2 = 2 E I P ao Mmax = 1 ao max = 1 P Mmax c max = + Area I P ao c max = 1+ 2 Area r 1

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1 6
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
Eq. 5
Eq. 6
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P max = 1 + Area 1
Variable max max ao Area c E I L Mmax P Pcr r
ao c r P L E Area r
2 2
Eq. 7
The variable names, description and applicable default units used in the equations above are listed below. Description Ratio Maximum deflection due to load Maximum stress Deflection w/o load Area Centroid offset extremum Young's modulus Area moment of inertia Length Maximum bending moment Point load Critical load Radius of gyration Units unitless m Pa m m2 m Pa m4 m Nm N N m
Example 11.3.4:
Find the maximum deflection for the column described in example 11.3.1 and 11.3.2. Assume an initial deflection of 4 inches exists at the mid -point of this column.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select equations 2, 3, and 4 to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given ao = 4 in E = 190 GPa I = 600 in4 L = 20 ft P = 20 kip Solution = .007059 max = 4.02844 in Mmax = 6.71406 ftkip
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11.3.5 Inelastic Buckling

Critical load calculations for inelastic buckling are considered in this section. Equation 1 computes the tangential modulus load Pt (N) given the column length L (m), the area moment I (m4), and tangent modulus Et (Pa). The corresponding critical stress, t (Pa), is computed in equation 2 in terms of Et, column length, L (m), and the radius of gyration, r (m). Equations 3 and 4 define a reduced modulus of elasticity, Er, and a reduced stress, r (Pa), in terms of the known quantities Et, L, r and the Young's modulus of elasticity, E (Pa).
2 Et I Pt = L2 2 Et t = 2 L r
Eq. 1
2E
.5
Eq. 2
Er =
4 E Et + Et .5
Eq. 3
2 Er r = 2 L r

Eq. 4
The variable names, description and applicable default units used in these equations are listed below. Variable r t E Er Et I L Pt r Description Reduced stress Tangential stress Young's modulus Reduced modulus of elasticity Tangent modulus of elasticity Area moment of inertia Length Tangential load Radius of gyration Units Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa m4 m N m
Example 11.3.5:
A 25 kip tangential load is applied to the column having the computed properties in example 11.3.1. Find the tangential modulus and stress, in addition to the reduced modulus and stress.
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Upper display
Lower display
Solution Select all of the equations to solve this problem. Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given E = 190 GPa I = 600 in 4 L = 20 ft Pt = 25 kip r = 3.4641 in Solution r = 1.67126 ksi t = .5 ksi Er = 812.805 ksi Et = 243.171 ksi
References:
1. Mechanics of Materials, 3rd Edition, (1990) James M Gere and Stephen P. Timoshenko , PWS Kent Publishing Company, Boston, MA Specific sections from Chapter 9 and Appendix G.
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F3: Equations/2: EE for MEs
Chapter 12: EE for MEs

This portion of the software deals common electrical engineering problems encountered by mechanical engineers. Four sections form the core of the topic. Basic Electricity DC Generators DC Motor AC Motors
12.1 Basic Electricity

12.1.1 Resistance Formulas
Four equations in this section show the basic relationships between resistance and conductance. The first equation links the resistance, R (), of a bar with a length, len (m), with a uniform cross-sectional area, A (m2), with a resistivity, (m). The second equation defines the conductance, G (siemen), of the same bar in terms of conductivity, (Sm/m), len (m), and A. The 3rd and 4th equations show the reciprocity of conductance G resistance R as well as the resistivity and conductivity .
R= G= G=
len A A len
1 R 1
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
The variable names, description and applicable default units used in the equations above are listed below. Variable A G Len R Description Area Conductance Length Resistivity Resistance Conductivity Unit m2 Siemens m m Siemens/m
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 12 - Equations - EE for MEs
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Example 12.1.1: A copper wire 1500 m long has a resistivity of 6.5 cm and a cross sectional area of 0.45 cm2. Compute the resistance and conductance.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution - Examining the problem, two clear choices are evident. Either equations 1, 2 and 4 or 1 and 3 can be used to find the solution required. The second choice of equations will be used in this example. All the equations can be viewed at the equation screen wherein the two equations 1 and 3 can be selected by using the key to highlight the desired equation and pressing . Once both equations have been selected, press to display all the variables in the selected equation set. The software is now ready for receiving the input variables. Use the key to move the highlight bar to the variable that needs input. Type the value for the variable and press . Repeat to enter all the known variables and press to solve the selected equation set. The computed results are shown in the screen display shown here. Given A=.45 cm2 len=1500 m =6.5 cm Solution G=4.61538E-7 Siemens R=2.16667E6
12.1.2 Ohms Law and Power

The fundamental relationships between voltage, current and power are presented in this section. The first equation is the classic Ohm's Law, computes the voltage, V (V), in terms of the current, I (A), and the resistance, R (). The next four equations describe the relationship between power dissipation, P (W), voltage, V, current, I, resistance, R, and conductance, G (siemens). The final equation represents the reciprocity between resistance, R, and conductance, G.
V = I R P =V I P = I2 R V2 P= R P =V 2 G R= 1 G
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 3
Eq. 4
Eq. 5
Eq. 6
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The variable names, description and applicable default units used in the equations above are listed below. Variable G I P R V Example 12.1.2: A 4.7 k load carries a current of 275 ma. Calculate the voltage across the load, power dissipated and load conductance. Description Conductance Current Power Resistance Voltage Unit Siemens A W V
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution - Upon examining the problem, several choices are noted. Either Equations 1, 2 and 6; or 1, 2, 3 and 5; or 2, 3 and 6; or 1, 2 and 5; or, all the equations. Choose the last option, press to open the input screen, enter all the known variables and press to solve. Given I = 275 mA R = 4.7 k Solution G = .000213 siemens P = 355.438 W V = 1292.5_V
12.1.3 Temperature Effect

This equation models the effect of temperature on resistance. Electrical resistance changes fromRR1 () to RR2 () when the temperature change from T1 (K) to T2 (K) is modified by the temperature coefficient of resistance (1/K).
RR 2 = RR1 (1 + (T 2 T1))
The variable names, description and applicable default units used in the equations above are listed below. Variable RR1 RR2 T1 T2 Description Temperature coefficient Resistance, T1 Resistance, T2 Temperature 1 Temperature 2 Unit 1/K K K
Example 12.1.3: A 145 resistor at 75 F reads 152.4 at 125 C. Find the temperature coefficient of resistance.
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Eq. 1
Entered Values
Computed results
to display the input screen. Enter the variable values and press Solution - Press unknown variable. Given RR1=145 RR2 = 152.4 T1=75 F T2=125_C Solution = .000505 1/K
12.2 DC Motors
12.2.1 DC Series Motor
These eight equations describe the performance characteristics of a series DC motor. The first equation links the terminal voltage, Vt (V), to the back emf, Ea (V), defined by the third equation and the IR drop due to armature resistance, Ra (), adjustable resistance, Rd (), and series resistance Rs, (). The second equation calculates the load torque, TL (Nm), with the machine constant Ke, flux, (Wb), load current, IL (A), and the torque loss, Tloss (Nm). The third equation defines the back emf in the armature, Ea (V), in terms of Ke, , and mechanical frequency m (rad/s). The fourth equation shows torque generated at the rotor due the magnetic flux, and current IL. The sixth equation computes the torque generated T as the sum of load torque TL and lost torque Tloss. The last two equations show the connection between Ke, , a field constant Kef (Wb/A), load current IL, and torque T.
Vt = Ke m + (Ra + Rs + Rd ) IL TL = Ke IL Tloss Ea = Ke m T = Ke IL
The fifth equation shows a reciprocal quadratic link between m, Vt, Ke, , Ra, Rs, Rd, and torque T (Nm).
m =
Vt (Ra + Rs + Rd ) T Ke (Ke )2
T = Tloss + TL
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to solve for the
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 3 Eq. 4
Eq. 5
Eq. 6
Ke = Kef IL T = Kf IL2
Eq. 7 Eq. 8
The variable names, description and applicable default units used in the equations above are listed below. Variable Ea IL Ke Kef Ra Rd Rs T TL Tloss Vt m Example 12.2.1: A series motor, with a machine constant of 2.4 and rotating at 62 rad/s, is supplied with a terminal voltage of 110 V and produces a torque of 3 Nm. The armature resistance is 10 , the series resistance is 5 , and the adjustable resistance is 0.001 . Find the average voltage induced in the armature, the flux, and the load current. Description Average emf induced in the armature Load current Machine constant Field coefficient Flux Armature resistance Adjustable resistance Series field resistance Internal torque Load torque Torque loss Terminal voltage Mechanical radian frequency Unit V A Unitless Wb/A Wb Nm Nm Nm V rad/s
Solution 1: Upper Display
Solution 2: Upper Display
Solution 1: Lower Display
Solution 2: Lower Display
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Solution - The first, third and fifth equations are needed to compute a solution. Select these by highlighting and pressing . Press to display the input screen, enter all the known variables and press to solve the selected equation set. There are two possible solutions for this example. Type the number of the solution set to be viewed and press twice. To view another solution set, press to and select another number. The computed results are shown in the screen displays above. Given Ke = 2.4 Ra = 10 Rd = .001 , Rs = 5. T = 3. Nm Vt = 110. V m = 62. rad/s Solution Ea = 39.6764 V (70.3236 V) IL = 4.68793 A (2.64491 A) = .266642 Wb (.472605 Wb)
12.2.2 DC Shunt Motor

These seven equations describe the principal characteristics of a DC shunt motor. The first equation expresses the terminal voltage, Vt (V), in terms of the field current, IIf (A), and field resistance, Rf (), along with the external field resistance, Re (). The second equation defines the terminal voltage, Vt (V), in terms of the back emf (expressed in terms of the machine constant, Ke, flux swept, (Wb), angular velocity, m (rad/s), and the IR drop in the armature circuit.
Vt = (Re + Rf ) IIf Vt = Ke m + Ra Ia
Eq. 1 Eq. 2
The third equation refers to the torque available at the load, TL (Nm), due to the current, Ia (A), in the armature minus the loss of torque, Tloss (Nm), due to friction and other reasons.
TL = Ke Ia Tloss
Eq. 3
The fourth equation gives the definitive re lationship between the back emf Ea (V), Ke, (Wb), and m (rad/s).
Ea = Ke m
Eq. 4
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a ? a
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F3: Equations/2: EE for MEs The fifth equation displays the reciprocal quadratic relationship between m, Vt, K, , armature resistance, Ra (), adjustable resistance, Rd (), and T (Nm).
m =
Vt (Ra + Rd ) T Ke (Ke )2
Eq. 5
The last two equations compute torque T in terms of Tloss, load torque TL, flux , Ia (A), and Ke.
T = Tloss + TL T = Ke Ia
Eq. 6 Eq. 7
The variable names, description and applicable default units used in the equations above are listed below. Variable Ea Ia Iif Ke Ra Rd Re Rf T TL Tloss Vt m Description Average emf induced in armature Armature current Field current Machine constant Flux Armature resistance Adjustable resistance Ext. shunt resistance Field coil resistance Internal torque Load torque Torque loss Terminal voltage Mechanical radian frequency Unit V A A Unitless Wb Nm Nm Nm V rad/s
Example 12.2.2: Find the back emf for a motor with a machine constant of 2.1, rotating at 62 rad/s in a flux of 2.4 Wb.
Entered Values
Calculated Results
Solution - Use the fourth equation to solve this problem. Select the equation with the cursor bar and press . Press to display the input screen, enter all the known variables and press to solve the selected equation. The computed result is shown in the screen display above. Given Ke=2.1 =2.4 Wb m=62. rad/s
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 12 - Equations - EE for MEs 89
Solution Ea=312.48 V
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12.3 DC Generators
12.3.1 DC Series Generator
The two equations in this section describe the properties of a series DC generator. The first equation specifies the field current, IIf (A), and the armature current, Ia (A), to be the same. The second equation computes the terminal voltage, Vt (V), in terms of the induced emf, Ea (V), load current, IL (A), armature resistance, Ra (), and series field windings, Rs ().
Ia = IIf Vt = Ea ( Ra + Rs) IL
Eq. 1 Eq. 2
The variable names, description and applicable default units used in the equations above are listed below. Variable Ea Ia IIf IL Ra Rs Vt Example 12.3.1: Find the terminal voltage of a series generator with an armature resistance of 0.068 and a series resistance of 0.40 . The generator delivers a 15 A load current from a generated voltage of 17 V. Description Average emf induced in armature Armature current Field current Load current Armature resistance Series field resistance Terminal voltage Unit V A A A V
Entered Values
Calculated Results
Solution - Use the second equation to solve this problem. Select this with the highlight bar and press . Press to display the input screen, enter all the known variables and press to solve the selected equation. The computed result is shown in the screen display above. Given Ea=17. V IL=15. A Ra=.068 Rs=.4_ Solution Vt = 9.98 V
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12.3.2 DC Shunt Generator

The first equation in this section expresses the induced armature voltage, Ea (V), in terms of the machine constant, Ke, the mechanical angular frequency, m (rad/s), and flux, (Wb).
Ea = Ke m
Eq. 1
The second equation defines terminal voltage, Vt (V), in terms of the field current, IIf (A), external resistance, Re (), and field coil resistance, Rf (). The third equation computes Vt in terms of load current, IL (A), and load resistance, Rl (). The fourth equation expresses Vt as the induced emf, Ea (V), minus armature IR drop, RaIa.
Vt = ( Re + Rf ) IIf Vt = IL Rl Vt = Ea Ra Ia
Eq. 2 Eq. 3 Eq. 4
The armature current, Ia (A), is the sum of the load current IL and field current IIf in the fifth equation.
Ia = IL + IIf
The final equation is an alternate form of expression for Ea.
Eq. 5
Ea = Ra Ia + (Re+ Rf ) IIf
Eq. 6
The variable names, description and applicable default units used in the equations above are listed below. Variable Ea Ia IIf IL Ke Ra Re Rf Rl Vt m Example 12.3.2: Find the machine constant of a shunt generator running at 31 rad/s and producing 125 V with a 1.8 Wb flux. Description Average emf induced in armature Armature current Field current Load current Machine constant Flux Armature resistance Ext. shunt resistance Field coil resistance Load resistance Terminal voltage Mechanical radian frequency Unit V A A A unitless Wb V rad/s
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Entered Values
Calculated Results
Solution - Use the first equation to solve this problem. Select this by pressing . Press to display the input screen, enter all the known variables and press to solve the selected equation. The computed result is shown in the screen display above. Given Ea= 125. V =1.8 Wb m=31. rad/s Solution Ke=2.24014
12.4 AC Motors
12.4.1 Three Induction Motor I
These eleven equations define the relationships amongst key variables used in evaluating the performance of an induction motor. The first equation expresses the relationship between the radian frequency induced in the rotor, r (rad/s), the angular speed of the rotating magnetic field, of the stator s (rad/s), number of poles, p, and the mechanical angular speed, m (rad/s).
r = s
p m 2
Eq. 1
The second, third and fourth equations describe the slip, s, using r, s, m, p, the induced rotor power per phase, Pr (W), and the power transferred to the rotor per phase, Pma (W).
s = 1
p m 2 s
Eq. 2
Pr =s Pma
Eq. 3 Eq. 4
r = s s
Pma is defined in the fifth equation in terms of the rotor current, Ir (A), and the rotor phase voltage, Ema (V).
Pma = 3 Ir Ema
Eq. 5
The sixth and seventh equations account for the mechanical power, Pme (W),in terms of p, m, s, Pma, and torque, T (Nm).
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 12 - Equations - EE for MEs 92
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Pme = 3
p m Pma 2 s
Eq. 6 Eq. 7
Pme = T m
The eighth equation expresses torque in terms of p, Pma, and s.
T = 3
p Pma 2 s
Eq. 8
The last three equations show an equivalent circuit representation of induction motor action and links the power, Pa with rotor resistance, Rr (), rotor current, Ir, slip s, rotor resistance per phase, RR1 (), and the machine constant, KeM.
Pma = Rr Ir 2 + Pa = Rr =
1 s Rr Ir 2 s
Eq. 9
1 s Rr Ir 2 s RR1 KeM 2
Eq. 10
Eq. 11
The variable names, description and applicable default units used in the equations above are listed below. Variable Ema Ir KeM p Pa Pma Pme Pr RR1 Rr s T m r s Description Phase voltage Rotor current per phase Induction motor constant # poles Mechanical power available Power in rotor per phase Mechanical power Rotor power per phase Rotor resistance per phase Equivalent rotor resistance Slip Internal torque Mechanical radian frequency Electrical rotor speed Electrical stator speed Unit V A unitless unitless W W W W unitless Nm rad/s rad/s rad/s
Example 12.4.1: Find the mechanical power for an induction motor with a slip of 0.95, a rotor current of 75 A, and a resistance of 1.8 .
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Input Values
Calculated Results
Solution - Choose equation ten to compute the solution. Select by highlighting and pressing . Press to display the input screen, enter all the known variables and press to solve the equation Given Ir = 75. A Rr = 1.8 s = .95 Solution Pa = 532.895 W
12.4.2 Three Induction Motor II

These equations are used to perform equivalent circuit analysis for an induction motor. The first equation shows the power in the rotor per phase, Pma (W), defined in terms of the rotor current, Ir (A), rotor resistance, Rr (), and slip s.
Pma =
Rr 2 Ir s
Eq. 1
The second equation shows the expression for torque, T (Nm), in terms of poles p, Pma and radian frequency of the induced voltage in the stator, s (rad/s). The third equation is an alternate representation of torque in terms of the applied voltage, Va (V), stator resistance, Rst (), Rr (), inductive reactance XL (), and s (rad/s).
T= T=
3 Pma p 2 s 3 p Rr 2 s s
Eq. 2
Rst + Rr s
Va 2
+ XL2
Eq. 3
The fourth equation computes Tmmax (Nm) represents the maximum positive torque available at the rotor, given the parameters of the induction motor stator resistance, Rst, XL, Va, p, and s.
Tm max =
3 p Va 2 4 s Rst 2 + XL2 + Rst
Eq. 4
The maximum slip, sm, in the fifth equation represents the condition when dT/ds=0.
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sm =
Rr Rs + XL2
2
Eq. 5
The sixth equation defines the so-called breakdown torque, Tgmax (Nm), of the motor. The final equation relates, Rr (), with machine constant, KeM, and the rotor resistance per phase, RR1 ().
3 p Va 2 Tg max = 4 s Rs 2 + XL2 Rst Rr = RR1 KeM 2
Eq. 6
Eq. 7
The variable names, description and applicable default units used in the equations above are listed below. Variable Ir KeM p Pma RR1 Rr Rs Rst S Sm T Tgmax Tmmax Va s XL Description Rotor current per phase Induction motor constant # poles Power in rotor per phase Rotor resistance per phase Equivalent rotor resistance Series field resistance Stator resistance Slip Maximum slip Internal torque Breakdown torque Maximum positive torque Applied voltage Electrical stator speed Inductive reactance Unit A unitless unitless W unitless unitless Nm Nm Nm V rad/s
Example 12.4.2: An applied voltage of 125 V is applied to an eight-pole motor rotating at 245 rad/s. The stator resistance and reactance is 8 and 12 respectively. Find the maximum torque.
Input Values
Calculated Results
Solution - Use the fourth equation to compute the solution. Select by moving the cursor bar, highlighting, and pressing . Press to display the input screen, enter all the known variables and press to solve the equation.
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Given p=8 Rst = 8. Va = 125. V s = 245. rad/s XL = 12._
Solution Tmmax = 17.0658 Nm
12.4.3 1 Induction Motor

These three equations describe the properties of a single-phase induction motor. The first equation defines the slip for forward flux sf with respect to the forward rotating flux, (Wb). The radian frequency of induced is current in the stator, s (rad/s). Other variables of consequence include the number of poles, p, and the angular mechanical speed of the rotor m (rad/s). The final two equations represent the forward and backward torques, Tf (Nm) and Tb (Nm), for the system with respect to sf, the number of poles p, the electrical stator speed, s (rad/s), the equivalent rotor resistance, Rr (), and the currents, Isf (A) and Isb (A). The forward torque, Tf, is given by the power dissipated in the fictitious rotor resistor.
sf = 1
p m 2 s
Eq. 1
p 1 Isf 2 Rr Tf = 2 s 2 sf Tb = p 1 Isb 2 Rr 2 s 2 (2 sf )
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
The variable names, description and applicable default units used in the equations above are listed below. Variable Isb Isf p Rr sf Tb Tf m s Description Backward stator current Forward stator current # poles Equivalent rotor resistance Slip for forward flux Backward torque Forward torque Mechanical radian frequency Electrical stator speed Unit A A unitless unitless Nm Nm rad/s rad/s
Example 12.4.3: Find the forward slip for an eight-pole induction motor with a stator frequency of 245 rad/s, and a mechanical radian frequency of 62.5 rad/s.
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Entered Values
Calculated Results
Solution - The first equation is needed to compute the solution. Select by highlighting and pressing . Press to display the input screen, enter all the known variables and press to solve the equation. Given p=8 m = 62.5_rad/s s = 245._rad/s Solution sf = -.020408
References:
1. 2. 3. Slemon G. R., and Straughen, A., Electric Machines, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA 1980 Stevenson Jr., William D., Elements of Power Systems Analysis, McGraw-Hill International, New York, 1982 Wildi, Theodore, Electrical Power Technology, John Wiley and Son, New Jersey, 1981
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F3: Equations/3: Gas Laws
Chapter 13: Gas Laws

This section computes properties and state changes for ideal and real gases with an emphasis on ideal gases. Selected topics for real gases include van der Waals, and Redlich -Kwong models. The ideal gas constant, Rm, 8.31451 J/(molK) is automatically inserted into all calculations and does not appear in the list of variables in the calculator. Ideal Gas Laws Real Gas Laws Polytropic Process Kinetic Gas Theory Reverse Adiabatic
13.1 Ideal Gas Laws

13.1.1 Ideal Gas Law
The ideal gas law approximates, to a high degree, the actual properties of a gas at high temperature or low pressure. Equations 1 and 2 define the molar volume, vm (m3/mol), and specific volume, vs (m3/kg), of the gas in terms of the number of moles, N (mol), of gas or total mass, m (kg), occupying a volume, V (m3). Equations 3, 4 and 5 are three alternate forms of the ideal gas relationship between pressure, p (Pa), volume, V, temperature, T (K), molecular weight, MWT (kg/mol), and specific volume, vs. The last equation computes molar mass, MWT, in terms of m and N.
vm = vs =
V N
Eq. 1
V m Rm T MWT
Eq. 2
p vs =
Eq. 3
p V = N Rm T p vm = Rm T MWT =
Variable m MWT N p Rm T
Eq. 4 Eq. 5
m N
Description Mass Molar mass No. moles Pressure Molar gas constant Temperature
Eq. 6
Units kg kg/mol mol Pa 8.3145 J/(molK) K
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 13 - Equations - Gas Laws
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Variable V vm vs
Description Volume Molar volume Specific volume
Units m3 m3/mol m3/mol
Example 13.1.1: A 2-liter container is filled with methane (molecular mass = 16.042 g/mol) to a pressure of 3040 torr at room temperature (25oC). Calculate the number of moles and the total mass of methane.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution - Select the fourth and sixth equations to solve this problem. All the equations can be viewed at the equation screen wherein the two equations 4 and 6 can be selected by using the key to highlight the desired equation and pressing . Once both equations have been selected, press to display all the variables in the selected equation set. Use the key to move the highlight bar to the variable needing data. Enter the value for the variable then press . Repeat this until values for all known variables have been entered. Press to solve the selected equation set. The computed results are shown in the screen display shown here. Given MWT = 16.042 g/mol p=3040 torr T=25. oC V=2. l Solution m = 5.24558 g N = .32699 mol
13.1.2 Constant Pressure

The following equations describe the changes of the state for a fixed quantity gas at constant pressure, p. Equation 1 describes Charless Law- volume, V (m3), of a fixed amount of gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature, T (K). Equations 2 and 3 express relationship between W12 (J) in terms of pressure and volume or moles and temperatures change respectively. Equations 4 and 5 calculate the change in total entropy, S21 (J/K), and mass-specific entropy (entropy per unit mass), ss21 (J/(kgK)), due to change in temperature, T2-T1 (K). Equation 6 calculates the change in entropy per mole of gas, sm21 (J/(molK)), from ss21, and molecular mass, MWT (kg/mol). Equations 7 and 8 compute the transfer of heat to the system, Q12 (J), due to expansion under constant pressure. Equations 9 and 10 describe the relationships between the specific heat ratio k, to the specific heats constant volume, cv (J/(kgK)), and constant pressure, cp (J/(kgK)). Equation 11 relates molecular weight, MWT (kg/mol), to the number of moles, N (mol) and total mass of the gas, m (kg).
V 2 T2 = V 1 T1 W12 = p V 2 V 1
6
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Eq. 1
Eq. 2
W12 = N Rm T 2 T1
T 2 T1 T2 ss21 = cp ln T1

S 21 = m cp ln sm21 = MWT ss21 Q12 = m cp T 2 T1 Q12 = k W12 k 1 Rm MWT
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
Eq. 5
Eq. 6
Eq. 7
Eq. 8
cp = cv + k= cp cv
Eq. 9
Eq. 10
MWT =
Variable cp cv k m MWT N p Q12 Rm sm21 ss21 S21 T1 T2 V1 V2 W12
m N
Description Specific Heat-constant pressure Specific Heat-constant volume Specific Heat Ratio Mass Molar Mass. No. moles Pressure Heat Transfer: 12 Molar Gas constant Entropy Change-mole: 12 Entropy Change-mass: 12 Entropy Change: 12 Initial Temperature: 1 Final Temperature: 2 Initial Volume Final Volume Work Performed: 12
Eq. 11
Units J/(kgK) J/(kgK) unitless kg kg/mol mol Pa J 8.3145 J/(molK) J/(molK) J/(kgK) J/K K K m3 m3 J
Example 13.1.2: Dry air has a molecular mass of 0.0289 kg/mol; see mwa in Reference/Engineering Constants, and a specific heat of 1.0 J/(g K) at constant pressure of 1 bar in the temperature range of 200-500K. Air in a 3m3 cylinder performs work on a frictionless piston, exerting a constant pressure of 1 bar. A heating
100
element increases the temperature of the air from 45oC to 200oC. Assuming the air has ideal gas behavior, calculate the change in volume, the work performed on the piston, and the heat absorbed by the gas due to heating.
Upper Display Solution - Select equations, one, two, three, seven and eleven. Given: cp = 1 J/(g K) MWT = 0.0289 kg/mol p = 1 bar T1 = 45 oC T2 = 200 oC V1 = 3 m3
Lower Display
Solution: m = 3.27756 kg N = 113.41 mol Q12 = 508022 J V2 = 4.46157 m 3 W12 = -146157 J
13.1.3 Constant Volume

The following equations describe the changes of state for a fixed quantity gas under constant volume, V (m3), conditions. Equation 1 often called Gay-Lussacs Law, states that the pressure of a fixed quantity of gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature under conditions of constant volume. Equations 2 and 3 compute heat, Q12 (J), absorbed by the constant volume system. The fourth and fifth equations compute the change in total entropy, S21 (J/K), and mass-specific entropy (entropy per unit mass), ss21 (J/(kgK)), due to change in temperature, T2-T1 (K) under conditions of constant volume. Equation 6 calculates the change entropy per mole of gas, sm21 J/(molK), from ss21 and molar mass, MWT (kg/mol). Equations 7 and 8 compute the specific heat ratio, k, from the specific heat for constant volume, cv J/(kgK), and constant pressure, cp (J/(kgK)). The last equation relates the molar mass, MWT, to the number of moles, N (mol), and total mass of the gas, m (kg).
p2 T 2 = p1 T1 Q12 = m cv T 2 T1 Q12 = V p2 p1 k 1
T 2 T1 T2 ss21 = cv ln T1

S 21 = m cv ln
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 13 - Equations - Gas Laws 101
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
Eq. 5
sm21 = MWT ss21 cp = cv + k= cp cv m N

Description Specific heat-constant pressure Specific heat @ constant volume Specific heat ratio Mass Molar mass No. moles Initial pressure Final pressure Molar gas constant Heat transfer Entropy change: 12 Entropy change-mole: 12 Entropy change-mass: 12 Initial temperature Final temperature Volume
Eq. 6 Eq. 7
Rm MWT
Eq. 8
MWT =
Variable cp cv k m MWT N p1 p2 Rm Q12 S21 sm21 ss21 T1 T2 V
Eq. 9
Units J/(kgK) J/(kgK) unitless kg kg/mol mol Pa Pa 8.3145 J/(molK) J J/K J/(molK) J/(kgK) K K m3
Example 13.1.3: An electric current transfers 2 J as heat to argon contained in a 173 cm3 neon sign. The noble gas is initially charged to a pressure of 14 psi at 10oC. Argon has a molar mass of 39.948 g/mol, a specific heat at constant pressure of 0.52 J/(g K) (see Reference/Thermal Properties/Cp Liquids and Gases). For an ideal gas, the molar specific heat ratio is 5/3. Calculate the specific heat at constant volume, the final temperature and pressure, the total mass of argon and the total increase in entropy.
Upper Display
Lower Display
Solution The molar specific heat ratio is the same as the mass specific heat ratio k. Select equations one, two, three, four, eight and nine to solve this problem Given cp = .52 J(g K) k = 5/3
Solution cv = .311999 J/(g K) m = .000284 kg
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MWT = 39.948 g/mol p1 = 14 psi Q12 = 2 J T1 = 10 oC V = 173 cm^3
N = 0.007098 mol p2 = 15.1178 psi S21 = .006796 J/K T2 = 32.6081 oC
13.1.4 Constant Temperature

Often called Boyles Law, the first equation shows that the pressure of a fixed quantity of gas is inversely proportional to the volume if the temperature, T (K), remains constant. Equations 2 and 3 calculate the energy leaving the system in the form of work, W12 (J), for a reversible isothermal expansion between initial volume, V1 (m3), and final volume, V2 (m3). Equation 4 displays the heat transferred to a system, Q12 (J), undergoing reversible expansion is converted to work, W12 (J), leaving the gas system during an isothermal process. Equation 5 computes the total entropy change, S12 (J/K), from the heat transferred to the system, Q12 (J), at temperature, T (K). Equations 6, 7 and 8 compute the entropy per mass (specific), ss21 (J/(kgK)), and entropy per mole, sm21 (J/(molK)). The last equation computes the molar mass, MWT (kg/mol), from the number of moles, N (mol), and total mass of the gas, m (kg).
p2 V 1 = p1 V 2
Eq. 1
V 2 V 1 V 2 W12 = p1V 1 ln V 1

W12 = N Rm T ln Q12 = W12 S 21 = Q12 T
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
Eq. 5
ss21 = Rm T ln ss21 = S 21 m
V 2 V 1
Eq. 6
Eq. 7 Eq. 8 Eq. 9
sm21 = MWT ss21 MWT =

Variable m MWT N
m N
Description Mass Molar Mass No. moles Units kg kg/mol mol
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Variable p1 p2 Q12 Rm sm21 ss21 S21 T V1 V2 W12
Description Initial Pressure Final Pressure Heat Transfer Molar Gas constant Entropy Change-mole: 12 Entropy Change-mass: 12 Entropy Change: 12 Temperature Initial Volume Final Volume Work Performed: 12
Units Pa Pa J 8.3145 J/(molK) J/(molK) J/(kgK) J/K K m3 m3 J
Example 13.1.4: A 60-liter tank of compressed nitrogen gas, measured at 22 atm relative to atmospheric pressure, is used to inflate a large Stay Puft marshmallow balloon figure. Follow ing inflation, the equilibrium pressure between the marshmallow man and the tank is 3 atm, relative to the atmospheric pressure. Assuming a reversible expansion occurs at a constant temperature of 25oC, what is the volume of the marshmallow figure? How much work was performed to inflate the figure? What was the total mass nitrogen initially in the tank? The molar mass of nitrogen is 28.02 g/mol.
Upper Display
Lower Display
Solution Select equations one, two, three and nine. The volume of the inflatable figure is the difference between V2-V1 (380 l). Given MWT = 28.02 g/mol p1 = 22 atm p2 = 3 atm T = 25oC V1 = 60 l Solution m = 1.51178 kg N = 53.9534 mol V2 = 440 l W12 = -266486 J (energy leaving the system as work)
13.1.5 Internal Energy/Enthalpy

These equations compute changes in entropy, enthalpy and internal energy for ideal gases between initial and final states. Equation 1 computes the change in internal energy us21 (J/kg), of an ideal gas from change in temperature T2-T1 (K), and specific heat at constant volume cv (J/(kgK)). The second equation computes us21 from changes in pressure, p2-p1 (Pa), and specific volume, vs2-vs1 (m3/kg), and from the specific heat ratio k. Equations 3 and 4 compute the change in specific enthalpy, hs21 (J/kg), from the change in temperature, T2-T1, and specific heat at constant pressure, cp (J/(kgK)), or from the molar specific heat ratio k and changes in specific volume, vs2-vs1, and pressure, p2-p1. Equations 5, 6 and 7 calculate the change in entropy per kilogram of substance, ss21 (J/(kgK)), from a combination of temperature, specific volume, or pressure changes. Equations 8, 9 and 10 compute the molar versions of enthalpy difference, hm21 (J/mol), internal energy difference, um21 (J/mol), and difference in entropy, sm21 (J/(molK)), from their mass equivalents hs21, us21 and ss21. Equation 10 describes the relationship between specific heats at constant pressure, cp, and constant volume, cv, for an
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ideal gas. The equation 11 calculates k, the ratio of specific heat at constant pressure, cp, and the specific heat at constant volume, cv. The last two equations show the ideal gas law for the initial (1) and final (2) states.
us21 = cv T 2 T1 us21 =
Eq. 1
p2 vs2 p1 vs1 k 1
Eq. 2
1 6 k 1 p2 vs2 p1 vs16 hs21 =

hs21 = cp T 2 T1 k 1
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
T 2 + Rm ln vs2 T1 MWT vs1 T 2 Rm ln p2 ss21 = cp ln T1 MWT p1 vs2 + cv ln p2 ss21 = cp ln p1 vs1
ss21 = cv ln hm21 = MWT hs21 um21 = MWT us21 sm21 = MWT ss21 cp = cv + k= cp cv Rm T1 MWT Rm T2 MWT
Description Specific Heat -const. pressure Specific Heat-const. volume Enthalpy Change-mass: 12
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Eq. 5
Eq. 6
Eq. 7
Eq. 8 Eq. 9 Eq. 10 Eq. 11
Rm MWT
Eq. 12
p1 vs1 = p2 vs2 =
Variable cp cv hs21
Eq. 13
Eq. 14
Units J/(kgK) J/(kgK) J/kg
Variable hm21 k MWT p1 p2 Rm sm21 ss21 T1 T2 um21 us21 vs1 vs2
Description Enthalpy Change-molar: 12 Specific Heat Ratio Molecular Weight Initial Pressure Final Pressure Molar Gas constant Entropy Change-mole: 12 Entropy Change-mass: 12 Initial Temperature Final Temperature Internal energy change-molar: 12 Internal energy change-mass: 12 Initial Specific Volume Final Specific Volume
Units J/mol unitless kg/mol Pa Pa 8.3145 J/(molK) J/(molK) J/(kgK) K K J/mol J/kg m3/kg m3/kg
Example 13.1.5: Helium (molar mass = 4 g/mol) is compressed adiabatically from a pressure of 2 bars to a pressure of 4 bars. The temperature increases from 300 K to 476.22 K. What are the initial and final values for specific volume, and the change in entropy per mass, and entropy per mole? Since helium is an ideal monatomic, gas the specific heat ratio k is equivalent to 5/3.
Upper Display
Lower Display
Solution Select equations 6, and 10 through 14 to solve this problem Given k = 5/3 MWT = 4 g/mol p1 = 2 bar p2 = 4 bar T1 = 300 K T2 = 476.22 K Solution cp = 5.19657 J/(gk) cv = 3.11794 J/(gk) sm21 = 3.842121 J/(molk) ss21 = 960.526 J/(gk) vs1 = 3.11794 m^3/kg vs2 = 2.47471 m^3/kg
13.2 Kinetic Gas Theory

These two equations calculate the velocity and distribution for molecules in a gas phase. The first equation computes vrms (m/s), the root mean speed for molecules in an ideal gas, as a function of mass temperature, T (K), and molecular weight, MWT (kg/mol). The second equation calculates the fraction of molecules, f, in a gas sample having velocities in the range, vel v/2 (m/s). The second equation is often referred to as the Maxwell distribution of speeds.
vrms =
3 Rm T MWT
Eq. 1
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MWT f = 4 2 Rm T
Variable v f MWT Rm T vel vrms Example 13.2:
3 2
vel e
2
MWT vel 2 2 RmT
Eq. 2
Description Velocity range Distribution function Molecular weight Molar gas constant Temperature Velocity RMS velocity
Units m/s Unitless kg/mol 8.3145 J/(molK) K m/s m/s
A container is filled with molecular oxygen (MWT = 32 g/mol) at 300 K. What fractions of molecules have velocities in the range of 395-405 m/s? Plot the distribution function as a function of velocity. Find the velocity where the maximum fraction occurs.
Computed Results
Graph of f(vel).
Solution Select the second equation. Enter the known values and compute f. To graph the function: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Press , enter xmin=0 and xmax=1000. Select f as the dependent variable and vel as the independent variable. Move the cursor to the bottom of the screen and press to select Full Screen mode. Press to plot the function. Once the graph has been made, press : Math, : Maximum. A prompt will appear asking you to select a Lower Bound. Move the cursor to the left side of the maximum and press . A prompt asks you to enter the upper bound. Move the cursor to the right side of the maximum point and press . A maximum value appears on the bottom of the screen as shown in the screen display above. Given v = 10 m/s MWT = 32 g/mol T= 300 K vel = 400 m/s Solution f = 0.02102
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@ @
13.3 Real Gas Laws

Ideal gas laws assume the gas molecules are perfectly elastic spheres and that the average distance between molecules is large. This generally occurs at high temperatures or low pressure. However, under conditions of high pressure or low temperature and when the concentration of molecules increase, the forces between molecules become more significant and cause noticeable deviations from ideal gas behavior. This generally occurs for conditions of high pressure or low temperature. The van der Waals and Redlich-Kwong equations are two of several methods used to approximate the effect of intermolecular interactions in gas calculations. The coefficients for each method are specific to a particular gas and can be approximated from information using the critical temperature and critical pressure for a gas. Either method is an approximation and is likely to differ in its accuracy over certain regions. The equation sets for both the van der Waal and Redlich-Kwong methods have been adapted in molar and specific volume (gravimetric) forms.
13.3.1 van der Waals: Specific Volume

The van der Waals equation is one of the oldest methods to approximate the behavior of real gases. It has a reasonable accuracy for a wide range of conditions. The first equation is a modified form of the ideal gas equation found in 13.1.1: (Equation 3). The first coefficient, avws (Pam6/kg2), accounts for the attractive or repulsive forces between molecules, which reduce or increase pressure. The affect of these inter-molecular forces, according to the equation 1, is inversely proportional to the square of the gas volume vs (m3/kg). The second coefficient, bvws (m3/kg), accounts for the reduction in specific volume, vs, due to the space occupied by the gas molecules themselves. The second and third equations approximate the coefficients avws and bvws from the critical temperature Tcr (K), the temperature, above which, a liquid phase no longer exists for a particular gas, and critical pressure pcr (Pa), the pressure, at the critical temperature, when the phase boundary between the liquid and gas phase is nonexistent. The last equation relates the molar mass, MWT (kg/mol), to the number of moles, N (mol), and total mass of the gas m (kg).
p + avws 1vs bvws6 = Rm T vs MWT 27 Rm Tcr avws = 64 MWT pcr

2 2 2
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
1 Rm Tcr bvws = 8 MWT pcr MWT =

Variable avws bvws m MWT N
Eq. 3
m N
Description Coefficient van der Waals Coefficient van der Waals Mass Molecular weight No. moles
Eq. 4
Units Pam6 /kg2 m3 /kg kg kg/mol mol
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Variable P pcr Rm T Tcr vs Example 13.3.1:
Description Pressure Critical pressure Molar gas constant Temperature Critical temperature Specific volume
Units Pa Pa 8.3145 J/(molK) K K m3/kg
What are approximated values for the van der Waals coefficients of ammonia (NH3)? Use a specific volume for a pressure of 20 atm and a temperature of 73.15 oC. The molar mass of NH3 is approximately 17 g/mol.
Entered Values
Computed Results
Solution Select equations one, two and three. The critical temperature and pressure for several compounds, including ammonia are listed in the Critical Data Gases topic of Gases and Vapors in the Reference section of MEPro. The critical temperature is listed as 270.3 oF and the critical pressure is 111.5 atm. Given MWT = 17 g/mol p = 20 atm pcr = 111.5 atm T= -73.15 oC Tcr = 270.3 oF Solution avws = 1469.04 Pa m6/kg2 bvws = .002195 m 3/kg vs = .002662 m 3/kg
13.3.2 van der Waals: Molar form

These equations are the molar versions of the gravimetric (mass) van der Waals equations listed in the previous section. In other words, the properties per quantity of gas are expressed in moles instead of mass, ex: vs (m3/kg) are now vm (m3/mol). The first equation is an adapted form of the ideal gas equation p V=n Rm T which accounts for the effect of attractive and repulsive forces between molecules. The molar van der Waals coefficients, avwm (Pam6/mol2) and bvwm (m3/mol), which approximate the effect of these forces for a particular gas, can be estimated from the critical temperature, Tcr (K), and critical pressure, pcr (Pa), data using Eq. 2 and 3.
p + avwm 1vm bvwm6 = Rm T vm

2 2 27 2 Tcr avwm = Rm 64 pcr
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
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1 Tcr bvwm = Rm 8 pcr

Variable avwm bvwm p pcr Rm T Tcr vm Example 13.3.2: Description van der Waals coefficient - molar van der Waals coefficient-molar Pressure Critical pressure Molar gas constant Temperature Critical temperature Molar volume
Eq. 3
Units Pam6/mol2 m3 /mol Pa Pa 8.3145 J/(molK) K K m3 /mol
K.A. Kobe and R.E.Lynn, Jr. (Chem. Rev., 52:117-236 1953) reported critical pressure and temperature values for CO2 as 7.39 MPa and 304.2 K. This data is also available in Reference under Crit.Data-Gases in Gases and Vapors. Determine whether the van der Waal coefficients for carbon dioxide listed in the CRC 73rd ed., can be used to approximate these same values. The molar van der Waal coefficients for CO2 listed in the CRC 73rd Ed (a, b) are 3.592 atm liters2/mol2 and 0.04267 liters/mol. The molar mass of carbon dioxide is 44.01 g/mol.
Entered Values
Computed Results
Solution Select the second and third equations to solve this problem. Given avwm = 3.592 atm l2/mol2 bvwm = 0.04267 l/mol Solution pcr = 7.40362 MPa Tcr = 303.962 K
13.3.3 Redlich-Kwong: Sp.Vol

The Redlich-Kwong equations of state (Chem. Rev., 44, 233, 1949) offer another method for accounting for inter-molecular forces of attraction and repulsion in calculating gas parameters. The first equation is a modified version of the ideal gas equation, p V=n Rm T. The second and third equations approximate the gravimetric (mass) forms of the Redlich-Kwong coefficients, arks Pam6/(kg2K0.5) and brks (m3/kg), from the critical pressure, pcr (Pa), and temperature, Tcr (K), of a particular gas. The last equation relates the molar mass, MWT (kg/mol), to the number of moles, N (mol) and total mass of the gas m (kg).
p=
Rm T arks .5 MWT vs brks T vs vs + brks
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Eq. 1
Rm Tcr arks =.4275 MWT pcr

2 2 .5
Eq. 2
brks =.0867 MWT =

Variable arks brks m MWT N p pcr Rm T Tcr vs Example 13.3.3:
Rm Tcr MWT pcr
Eq. 3
m N
Description Redlich Kwong coefficient-mass Redlich Kwong coefficient-mass Mass Molar Mass No. moles Pressure Critical Pressure Molar Gas constant Temperature Critical Temperature Specific Volume
Eq. 4
Units Pam6/(kg2K.5) m3/kg kg kg/mol mol Pa Pa 8.3145 J/(molK) K K m3/kg
Calculate the Redlich Kwong coefficients for Argon and the specific volume at a pressure of 30 bars and a temperature of 190 K. The molar mass of Argon is 39.95 g/mol.
Entered Values
Computed Results
Solution Select equations 1, 2, and 3 to solve this problem. The critical temperature and pressure for several compounds, including argon are listed in Refrigerants-Cryogenic Properties in the Reference section of MEPro. The critical temperature is listed as 271.3 oR and the critical pressure is 709.8 psi. Given MWT = 39.95 g/mol p = 30 bar pcr = 709.8 psi T = 190 K Tcr = 271.3 oR Solution arks = 1.05527 kPa m6/kg2 K brks = 0.000556 m 3/kg vs = .0011763 m 3/kg

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13.3.4 Redlich-Kwong: Molar

These equations are the molar form of the Redlich Kwong equations. The first equation is a modified version of the ideal gas equation, p V=n Rm T. The second and third equations approximate the molar forms of the Redlich Kwong coefficients, arkm Pam6/(mol2K) and brkm (m3/mol), from the critical pressure, pcr (Pa), and temperature, Tcr (K), for a specific gas.

p=
Rm T arkm vm brkm T vm vm + brkm
Eq. 1
arkm = brkm =
.4275 Rm2 Tcr 2.5 pcr .0867 Rm Tcr pcr

Description Redlich Kwong coefficient-molar Redlich Kwong coefficient, molar Pressure Critical Pressure Molar Gas constant Temperature Critical Temperature Molar Volume
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Variable arkm brkm p pcr Rm T Tcr vm
Units Pam6/(mol2K.5) m3/mol Pa Pa 8.3145 J/(molK) K K m3/mol
Example 13.3.4: The molar Redlich Kwong coefficients for Helium (He) are listed on page 143 of Reference 1 the listed values are 8.168 kPa (m 3/kmol) 2 and 0.01655 (m 3/kmol) respectively. Verify that these values are consistent with calculations from critical pressure and temperature data for helium located in Reference/Refrigerants/Selected Materials.
Entered Values
Computed Results
Solution The values for critical temperature and pressure for Helium listed in Reference are 450oF and 33 psi, respectively. Select the second and third equations to solve this problem. Given pcr = 33 psi Tcr = -450 oF Solution arkm =8.68883 kPam6/kmol2K brkm = .000017 m3 /mol
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13.4 Reverse Adiabatic

These equations compute internal energy change per unit mass, us21 (J/kg), enthalpy change per unit mass, hs21 (J/kg), and work performed W12 (J), for an ideal gas undergoing a reversible adiabatic process. A reversible adiabatic process is also referred to as isentropic, i.e.: total entropy remains constant throughout the transition between initial and final states. Equations 1, 2, and 3 describe the relationships between pressure, temperature and volume for a reversible adiabatic process between initial state, p1 (Pa), V1 (m3), T1 (K), and final state, p2 (Pa), V2 (m3), T2 (K). Equations 4, 5 and 6 compute the work, W12, performed for a reversible adiabatic transition between the initial and final states. Equation 7 calculates the initial and final specific volumes, vs1 (m3/kg) and vs2 (m3/kg). Equations 8 and 9 compute the change in specific energy, us21 (J/kg), for an isentropic process. Equation 10 calculates the change in specific enthalpy, hs21 (J/kg), for a reversible adiabatic process. Equation 11 computes k, the ratio of the specific heats at constant pressure cp J/(kgK), and volume cv (J/(kgK)). Equation 12 relates molecular mass, MWT (kg/mol), to the number of moles, N (mol), and total mass of the gas, m (kg). Equations 13 and 14 compute the specific volumes of the initial and final specific volumes, vs1 and vs2. The final three equations are specific for an ideal gas. Equations 15 and 16 express the ideal gas law of the initial and final states for specific volume, vs1 and vs2. The last equation computes the specific heat at constant pressure, cp, for an ideal gas from the specific heat at constant volume, cp, and molar mass MWT.
T 2 V 1 = T1 V 2
p1 V2 = p2 V1 T2 p2 = T1 p1
Eq. 1
k 1
Eq. 2

k 1 k
Eq. 3
W12 = m cv T 2 T1 W12 =
6 1
Eq. 4
p2 V 2 p1 V 1 k 1
k 1 k
Eq. 5
p2 p1V 1 p1 W12 =
k 1
1 k 1
Eq. 6
T1 vs2 = vs1 T2 us21 = cv 1T 2 T16

Eq. 7
Eq. 8
us21 = hs21 = k= cp cv
p2 vs2 p1 vs1 k 1 k p2 vs2 p1 vs1 k 1
Eq. 9
Eq. 10
Eq. 11
MWT = vs1 = vs2 = V1 m V2 m
m N
Eq. 12
Eq. 13
Eq. 14
p1 vs1 = p2 vs2 = cp = cv +
Rm T1 MWT Rm T2 MWT Rm MWT
Eq. 15
Eq. 16
Eq. 17
Variable cp cv hs21 k m MWT N p1 p2 Rm T1 T2 us21 V1 V2 vs1 vs2
Description Specific Heat-constant pressure Specific heat -constant volume Enthalpy change Specific heat ratio Mass Molar mass No. moles Initial pressure Final pressure Molar gas constant Initial temperature Final temperature Internal energy change Initial volume Final volume Initial specific volume Final specific volume
Units J/(molK) J/(molK) J/kg Unitless kg kg/mol mol Pa Pa 8.3145 J/(molK) K K J/kg m3 m3 m3 /kg m3/kg
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Variable W12
Description Work performed
Units J
Caution: Because the equations represent a set where several subtopics are covered, the user has to select each equation to be included in the multiple equation solver. Pressing will not select all the equations and start the solver. Example 13.4: Acetylene (C2H2, MWT=26 g/mol) undergoes adiabatic compression from an initial pressure of 1 bar at an initial volume of 10 m3 to a final pressure of 5 bars. The temperature, following compression, is 300 K. What is the initial temperature, final volume, work performed, change in internal energy and enthalpy? Information regarding the specific heat of acetylene can be found in the Reference section under Thermal Properties/Specific Heat/Cp Liquids and Gases and Cp/Cv Liq. and Gases at 1 atm. Assume that the ratio of specific heats cp/cv remains constant over this pressure range and acetylene exhibits ideal gas behavior.
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Solution Select Equations, one, two, six, seven, nine, ten and fifteen. Use a listed value of cp/cv = 1.269 for acetylene from Thermal Properties/Specific Heat/Cp/Cv Liq. and Gases at 1 atm in the Reference section. Given k = 1.269 MWT = 26 g/mol p1 = 1 bar p2 = 5 bar T2 = 300 K V1 = 10 m 3 Solution hs21 = 130822 J/kg T1 = 213.282 K us21 = 103090 J/kg V2 = 2.81317 m 3 vs1 = .682053 m 3/kg vs2 = .191873 m 3/kg W12 = 1.51147E6 J
13.5 Polytropic Process

A quasi-equilibrium compression or expansion of an ideal gas is often referred to as polytropic. A criteria for a polytropic process is that it occurs at a sufficiently slow rate, that the system boundary is fully resisted by an external force at every stage between the initial and final state that the system, and therefore can be said to be in equilibrium at any stage in the entire process. The magnitude of work performed between the initial and final states is equivalent to the sum (integral) of the incremental work performed at each equilibrium stage between the initial state, p1 (Pa), V1 (m3), vs1 (m3/kg), and T1 (K). and final state, p2 (Pa), V2 (m3), vs2 (m3/kg), and T2 (K). Equation 1 relates the pressure p1, p2 to volume V1, V2 in a polytropic process. Equation 2 computes the polytropic specific heat, cn (J/(kgK)), from the polytropic exponent , the specific heat ratio k and the specific heat at constant volume cv. Equations 3 and 4 relate temperature to volume and temperature to pressure in a polytropic process. Equations 5 and 6 compute the work, W12 (J), performed from an initial state (p1, V1, vs1, and T1) and final state (p2, V2, vs2, and T2). Equation 7 computes the heat change, Q12 (J), of the system from the initial and final temperatures T1 and T2, and the specific heat for a polytropic process cn. The last two
equations describe the relationship between the specific heats at constant pressure cp (J/(kgK)), and constant volume cv (J/(kgK)), for an ideal gas, and compute the specific heat ratio k.
cv 1 k 6 cn =
p1 V2 = p2 V1
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
T2 V1 = T1 V2 T2 p2 = T1 p1 W12 =

Eq. 3
Eq. 4
p2 V 2 p1 V 1 1
1
Eq. 5
p2 p1V 1 p1 W12 =
1
Q12 = m cn T 2 T1 cp = cv + k= cp cv Rm MWT
1
Eq. 6
Eq. 7
Eq. 8
Eq. 9
Variable cn cp cv k m MWT p1 p2 Q12 Rm T1 T2
Description Polytropic coefficient, 1 Specific heat-polytropic process Specific heat constant pressure Specific heat-constant volume Specific heat ratio Mass Molar mass Initial pressure Final pressure Heat transfer Molar gas constant Initial temperature Final temperature
Units Unitless J/(molK) J/(kgK) J/(molK) Unitless kg kg/mol Pa Pa J 8.3145 J/(molK) K K
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Variable V1 V2 W12
Description Initial volume Final volume Work performed
Units m3 m3 J
Example 13.5: Suppose that inflating a balloon is a quasi-equilibrium process. If the air pressure is 1 atm outside of the balloon and the pressure of the same air inside a balloon, having an internal volume of 20 liters, is 2 atm, compute the work performed to inflate the balloon. Assume air behaves as an ideal gas, the balloon does not transfer heat to its surroundings, and the air temperature increases (due to air compression only) from 300-310 K.
Entered Values
Computed Results
Solution Select equations, one, four and five to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given p1 = 1 atm p2 = 2 atm T1 = 300 K T2 = 310 K V2 = 20 l
References:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Lynn D. Russell, and George A. Adebiyi, Classical Thermodynamics, Saunders College publishing, Harcourt Brace Jovanavich College Publishers, Fort Worth TX, 1993. Michael R. Lindeburg: Mechanical Engineering Reference Manual, Eighth Ed. Physical Chemistry, Peter Atkins, 5th Edition, Freeman Publishing Company, NY 1994. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 73 rd ed. 1992-1993, CRC Press, Boca Raton Fl, 1992. Redlich, O. and Kwong, J. N. S. 1949. On the Thermodynamics of Solutions. V. An Equation of State: Fugacities of Gaseous Solutions. Chemical Reviews. Vol. 44, No. 1. 233-244. K.A. Kobe and R.E.Lynn, Jr, Chemical Reviews, Vol. 52: 117-236 1953.
Solution = 1.04965 V1 = 38.7097 l W12 = 2633.02 J
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F3: Equations/4: Heat Transfer
Chapter 14: Heat Transfer

This section covers heat transfer due to conduction, convection and radiation. The equations in this chapter are grouped into four main categories. A list of thermal properties and conductivities for many materials is available in the Reference section under Thermal Properties/Thermal Conductivity. Basic Transfer Mechanics Semi-infinite Solid 1D Heat Transfer Radiation
14.1 Basic Transfer Mechanisms

14.1.1 Conduction
This section describes steady-state conduction of heat through objects with rectangular and circular cross-sections. The rate of heat transfer, q (W), is due to the thermal conductivity of a material, k (W/(mK)), and the temperatures J, (K) and J 2 (K) at the surfaces 1 and 2 over a distance, L (m). The thermal conductivity, k, depends on thermo physical properties and thermodynamic properties of the substance at a given temperature. The shape factor for conduction, S, is determined from the geometric properties of the object, including length L, area A (m2) of the rectangular surface, inner radius ra (m), and outer radius rb (m) for a circular conductor. Equation 1 computes the rate of heat loss, q, for a rectangular flat plate with a cross-sectional area, A, and a temperature difference, (T1-T2), across length, L. Equation 2 computes the rate of heat transfer, q, through an object with a geometric shape factor, S. Equation 3 computes the rate of heat transfer per rectangular surface area, q (W/m2), of the material. The next three equations compute the shape factor, S, for a rectangular thin plate (Eq.4), a cylinder with inner radius, ra, outer radius, rb, and length, L (Eq. 5), and a hollow sphere with inner radius, ra and outer radius, rb (Eq. 5). These equations assume steady-state transfer of heat, uniform conductivity, and the absence of thermal gradients perpendicular to the direction of main heat transfer.
q = k A
1T1 T 26
L
Eq. 1
q = k S T1 T 2 q = S= S= q A
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
A L 2 L rb ln ra
Eq. 4

Eq. 5
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S=
4 ra rb rb ra
Eq. 6
Variable A k L q q ra rb S T1 T2
Description Area Thermal conductivity Length Heat transfer rate - conduction Heat flux Inner radius Outer radius Shape factor Temperature at 1 Temperature at 2
Units 2 m W/(mK) m W W/m2 m m m K K
Caution: Because the equations represent a set where several subtopics are covered, the user has to select each equation to be included in the multiple equation solver. Pressing will not select all the equations and start the solver. Example 14.1.1: A lead slab, laid flat, has a cross-sectional area of 2 m2 and a thickness of 1 cm. If the temperatures of the upper and lower sides are maintained at 400K and 300 K, what is the rate of heat transfer per area of the metal?
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Solution The thermal conductivity of lead is listed as k=20.3 Btu/(hrftoF) in the temperature range 32500oF (see Reference/Thermal Properties/Thermal Conductivity/Elemental). Use the first and third equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given A = 2 m2 k = 20.3 Btu/(hrftoF) L = 1 cm T1=400 oC T2=300 oC Solution q = 702678 W q = 351339 W/m2
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14.1.2 Convection
Convection is the transfer of heat from a surface to a moving fluid. It is a combination of heat transfer due to conduction, from the surface to the fluid immediately adjacent to the surface, and transport of the heat due to fluid motion. The mean coefficient of heat transfer, h, depends on several factors: The shape, size, roughness, and thermal conductivity of the surface. The thermal and physical properties of the fluid, including density, specific heat, and conductivity at a specific temperature. The flow properties of the fluid: velocity, viscosity and stability.
The single equation in this section describes a steady state process for heat transfer from a surface due t o convection, qc (W), from a surface with temperature, Ts (K), and an area, As (m2), to a flowing fluid with average temperature, Tf (K). Equation 1 is commonly known as Newtons Law for cooling.
qc = h As Ts Tf
6
Description Total surface area Convection coefficient Heat transfer rate-convection Temperature of fluid Surface temperature of emitter
Eq. 1
Variable As h qc Tf Ts
Units m2 W/(m2K) W K K
Example 14.1.2: Convective transfer occurs from a surface, with an average temperature of 45oC and an area of 200 cm2 to an air stream with an average temperature of 25oC. The rate of heat loss is 2 watts. What is the coefficient of transfer due to convection for this system?
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given As = 200 cm 2 qc = 2 W Tf = 25 oC Ts = 45 oC Solution h = 5 W/(m2K)
120
to
14.1.3 Radiation
Radiation is the transmission of heat in the form of electromagnetic waves. An object absorbing all incoming radiation is defined as a blackbody. The following equations describe radiative transfer between two blackbodies. Often called Stefan-Boltzmann law, equation 1 links emissive power of a black body, Eb (W/m 2) to the surface temperature of a radiating body Ts (K) and a constant . Equations 2 and 3 compute the emissions, E1 and E2, for objects with non-blackbody properties. The variables, 1 and 2, account for the differences in emissivity, due to material type composition and temperature (=1 for a blackbody, =0 for a purely reflective body). Equation 4 computes the net radiative transfer, Qrate (W), of heat between two bodies. Fs2r is the shape (or view) factor representing the fraction of radiation transmitted by one object, which is absorbed by the other. The shape factor, Fs2r, becomes 1 if the receiving surface area surrounds the emissive surface area, A1 (m). Ts (K) and Tr (K) are the temperatures of the sending and receiving bodies, and =5.670 x 10-8 W/(m2K4) is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant for radiation.
Eb = Ts 4 E1 = 1 T14 E 2 = 2 T 24 Qrate = A1 Fs2r Eb1 Eb2
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 3
Eq. 4
Variable 1 2 A1 Eb E1 E2 Fs2r Qrate T1 T2 Ts
Description Stefan-Boltzmann constant Emissivity of 1 Emissivity of 2 Area of radiating surface Black body emissive power Emissive power-radiating surface Emissive power-receiving surface Radiation shape factor Heat transfer rate-radiation Surface temperature of emitter Temperature of receptor Surface temperature of emitter
Units 5.670x10-8 W/(m2K4) unitless unitless m2 W/m2 W/m2 W/m2 unitless W K K K
Example 14.1.3: A machine case with a blackbody emissive surface area of 20 ft 2 is exposed to black body radiation with the surrounding walls and ceiling of a room. The temperature of the case and the walls is 50oC and 25oC, respectively. What is the heat transferred from the case to the ceiling and walls of the room?
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Solution Select equations 2, 3, and 4. The Stefan-Boltzmann constant, = 5.670 x 10 -8 W/(m2K4), is automatically inserted into the equation when solving. Given 1 = 1 2 = 1 A1 = 20 ft 2 Fs2r = 1 T1= 50 oC T2 = 25 oC Solution E1 = 618.356 W/m 2 E2 = 448.086 W/m 2 Qrate = 316.372 W
14.2 1 1D Heat Transfer

One-dimensional (1D) transfer equations describe heat exchange along a single axis (x-axis). No temperature gradients occur along the y and z-axes. Heat transfer is assumed to be time invariant.
14.2.1 Conduction
14.2.1.1 Plane Wall
The following equations describe heat transfer due to conduction along the horizontal axis of a plane wall. The wall, composed of a homogeneous material with thermal conductivity, k (W/(mK)), separates temperatures T1 (K) and T2 (K). The wall has a length, L (m), along the axis of conduction and an area, A (m2), normal to the direction of heat transfer. The first equation computes the temperature, T (K), at position x (m) from the side of the wall where the temperature is T1. The second equation computes the rate of heat transfer, q (W), between T1 and T2. Rk (K/W) is the total thermal resistance to heat conduction of a rectangular plane wall having length L, area A, and conductivity, k.
T = T1 + q=
T 2 T1 x L
Eq. 1
kA T1 T 2 L L kA
Eq. 2
Rk =
Eq. 3
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Variable A k L q Rk T T1 T2 x
Description Area Thermal conductivity Length Heat transfer rate - conduction Thermal resistance - conduction Temperature at x Temperature at 1 Temperature at 2 Distance from the left/side length
Units m2 W/(mK) m W K/W K K K m
Entered Values
Solution Select the first and second equations to solve this problem. The thermal conductivity for Steel (1% C) is listed in Reference/Thermal Properties/Thermal Conductivity/Alloys. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given A=5 m2 k = 26.2 Btu/(hrftoF) L = 2.33333 in T1=200 oF T2=85oF x = 1.16667 in Solution q = 244409 W T = 142.5 oF
14.2.1.2 Convective Source

These equations compute heat transfer for cases where convection and conduction occur in sequence. The diagram to the right portrays heat transfer between a fluid with temperature, Tf (K), to a surface with temperature, T1 (K), and area, A (m2). Heat is then conducted across the thickness of the plate, L (m), where the temperature is T2. Equation 1 computes the temperature, T (K), at a distance, x (m) inside the plate from T1. The thermal conductivity, k (W/(mK)), measures the plate materials ability to conduct heat. The convective coefficient, h W/(m2K), measures the fluids ability to transport heat away from the surface and is dependent on the flow rate, viscosity, and specific heat of the fluid. The second and third equations compute the thermal resistances for conduction, Rk (K/W), and convection Rcv (K/W). Thermal resistances are often used in
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IR HGLV KFDH QR VHUXWDUHSPHW HK7 /

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Example 14.2.1.1: Steel (1% carbon) is listed in the Reference section of the software as having a thermal conductivity of 26.2 Btu/(hrftoF) for the temperature range 60-212 oF. Compute the steady state heat transfer across a steel plate with a cross-sectional area of 5 m2 and a thickness of 2 the plate are maintained at 200oF and 85 oF. Calculate the temperature at the midpoint inside the plate.
viewing the heat transfer process as analogous to an electrical circuit. Equations 4 and 5 calculate, T1, the temperature of the surface adjacent to the fluid. Equation 6 computes qc (W), the rate of heat transfer due to convection. Equations 7 and 9 compute q (W), the rate of heat transfer due to conduction. Equation 8 assumes a steady state process of heat transfer for the convection and conduction series transfer mechanisms.
T T2 L x = Tf T 2 L + k h Rk = L kA 1 h A
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Rcv =
Eq. 3
Tf T2 + T1 = Rcv Rk 1 1 + Rcv Rk Tf h + T2 k L k h+ L
Eq. 4
T1 =
Eq. 5
qc = q=
Tf T1 Rcv
Eq. 6
T 2 T1 Rk
Eq. 7
q = qc q= Tf T 2 Rcv + Rk
Eq. 8 Eq. 9
Variable A h
Description Area Convection coefficient
Units m2 W/(m2K)
Ohms law (i=V/R) states that the rate of electron transfers, I, which flows through a circuit, is proportional to the voltage difference, V, over the resistance of the circuit, R. Heat transfer can be viewed as an analogy of Ohms Law (q=T/R) where q is the rate of heat transfer, T is the temperature difference, and R is the resistance to heat transfer. See section 14.2.2 for more explanation.
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Variable k L q qc Rcv Rk T T1 T2 Tf x
Description Thermal conductivity Length Heat transfer rate-conduction Heat transfer rate-convection Resistance to convection Thermal resistance - conduction Temperature at x Temperature at 1 Temperature at 2 Temperature of fluid Distance from the left/side length
Units W/(mK) m W W K/W K/W K K K K m
Example 14.2.1.2: Compute the average convective transfer coefficient and surface temperature for air flowing over an aluminum plate having a surface area of 1.75 m 2, a thickness of 20 mm, an average air temperature of 85oF and a surface temperature on the opposite side of the plate of 200o F. The rate of heat transfer is 2000 Btu/hr. Which mechanism of transfer (convection or conduction) limits transfer the most?
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Solution Aluminum has a thermal conductivity of 130 Btu/(hrftoF), see Reference/Thermal Properties/Thermal Conductivity/Elements. Select the third through the seventh equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. The thermal resistance having the higher value limits heat transfer the most (convection in this example). Given A = 1.75 m 2 k = 130 Btu/(hrftoF) L = 20 mm q = 2000 Btu/hr T2 = 85 oF Tf = 200 oF Solution h = 5.24496 W/(m 2K) qc = 2000 Btu/hr Rcv = .108948 K/W Rk = .000051 K/W T1 =85.0536 oF
14.2.1.3 Radiative Source

These equations describe a sequential transfer of heat, first due to radiation, and secondly by conduction through a rectangular plane wall. The first equation calculates the rate of heat transferred, Qrate, (w) from an emitting object with emissivity, s, and surface temperature, Ts, (K) to a blackbody plane wall with surface temperature, T1 (K). The second equation computes the temperature, T1, (K) at the surface of the plane wall. Fs2r, is the shape factor, representing the fraction of radiation transmitted from the emitting surface area, As, (m2) that is absorbed by the plane wall. The last equation
computes heat conducted through a plane wall with thermal conductivity, k (W/mK), length, L (m), surface temperature, T1 (K) (facing the emitter), and a surface temperature, T2, (K) on the opposite side of the plane wall.
Qrate = Fs2r As Ts 4 T14 Qrate = k T1 T 2 L
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
L Ts 4 k T1 = L 1 + Fs2r T13 k
T 2 + Fs2r
Eq. 3
Variable As Fs2r k L Qrate T1 T2 Ts
Description Stefan-Boltzmann constant Emissivity Total Surface area Radiation shape factor Thermal conductivity Length Heat transfer rate-radiation Temperature at 1 Temperature at 2 Temperature of radiating surface
Units 5.670x10-8 W/(m2K4) unitless m2 unitless w/(mK) m W K K K
Example 14.2.1.3: The larger surface of a rectangular flat copper plate with dimensions 12 x 10 x 0.2 is exposed to a radiating blackbody (=1) with a surface temperature of 100o C. If the temperature of the opposite side of the copper plate is maintained at 50oC, what are the heat transfer and the boundary temperature of the side facing the blackbody emitter? Assume the shape factor for the radiating body and the copper surface is 0.4.
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Solution Copper has a thermal conductivity of 232 Btu/(hrftoF), see Reference/Thermal Properties/Thermal Conductivity/Elements). The first and second equations are needed to solve the problem. The Stefan-Boltzmann constant, = 5.670 x 10 -8 W/(m2K4), is automatically inserted into the equation when solving and does not appear in the list of variables.
126
Given =1 As = 120 in 2 Fs2r = .4 k= 232 Btu/(hrftoF) L = .2 in T2 = 50 oC Ts = 100 oC
Solution Qrate = 14.8968 W T1 = 50.0002 oC
14.2.1.4 Plate and Two Fluids

These equations compute the rate of heat transfer between two fluids separated by a rectangular plate. Equation 1 calculates the thermal resistance due to convection, Rc1 (K/W), between a fluid with a convection coefficient of, h1 (W/(m2K), and a plate surface with area, A (m). Equation 2 computes the thermal resistance due to convection, Rc2 (K/W), between a fluid with convection coefficient, h2 W/(m2K), and the plate surface with area, A (m). The third equation calculates the thermal resistance, Rk (K/W), for a rectangular plate with a thermal conduction coefficient of, k (W/(mK)), thickness L (m), and surface area A (m). Equation 4 computes the rate of heat transfer, q (W), between two fluids, with temperatures, Tf1 (K) and Tf2 (K), separated by a plate having a thermal resistance, Rk (K/W). The last two equations estimate the surface temperatures on either side of the plate. T1 (K), is the temperature of the plate on the surface adjacent to the fluid having a temperature, Tf1, (K), and thermal resistance to convection of Rc1 (K/W). T2 (K), is the temperature of the surface adjacent to the fluid having a temperature, Tf2 (K), and a thermal resistance to convection of, Rc2 (K).
Rc1 = Rc2 = Rk = q=
1 h1 A 1 h2 A
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
L kA
Eq. 3
Tf 1 Tf 2 Rc1 + Rc2 + Rk
Eq. 4
T1 = Tf 1 Rc1 q T 2 = Tf 2 + Rc2 q
Eq. 5 Eq. 6
Variable A h1 h2 k L
Description Area Convection coefficient Convection coefficient Thermal conductivity Length
Units m2 W/(m2K) W/(m2K) W/(mK) m
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Variable q Rc1 Rc2 Rk T1 T2 Tf1 Tf2
Description Heat transfer rate-conduction Thermal resistance-convection Thermal resistance-convection Thermal resistance-conduction Temperature at 1 Temperature at 2 Temperature of fluid 1 Temperature of fluid 2
Units W K/W K/W K/W K K K K
Example 14.2.1.4: A stainless steel plate section in a heat exchanger has a thermal conductivity of 13.5 Btu/(hftoF), a thickness of 3 mm and a surface area of 20 cm2 in contact with the fluid. If the convection coefficients of two fluids flowing in opposite directions on each side of the plate are 200 Btu/(hft2oF) and 150 Btu/(hft2oF) and the temperatures of each fluid are 200 oF and 80 oF, respectively, what is the rate of heat transfer through the plate?
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Solution Select equations, one, two, three and four to solve this problem. Given A = 20 cm 2 h1 = 200 Btu/(hrft2oF) h2 = 150 Btu/(hrft2oF) k = 13.5 Btu/(hrftoF) L = 3 mm Tf1 = 200 oF Tf2 = 80 oF Solution q = 61.0776 W Rc1 = .440275 K/W Rc2 = .587034 K/W Rk = .064199 K/W
14.2.2 Electrical Analogy

The equation for the rate heat transfer, q (W), through a conducting medium between temperatures, T1 (K) and T2 (K), is similar to Ohms Law for a current, i (A) moving through a resistive circuit between voltages, V1 (V) and V2 (V).
i=
V1V 2 R
q=
T1 T 2 R
Ohms Law
Heat Transfer
The variable, R, in the equation for heat transfer, is the thermal resistance to heat transfer for a particular medium. R (K/W) depends on the physical dimensions of the conducting medium area, A (m2), length L
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F3: Equations/4: Heat Transfer (m), or shape factor Fs2r and the convection, h W/(m2K), or conductivity, k W/(mK), coefficient of the medium. Heat transfer through a plane wall composed of different materials in series or parallel arrangement to the direction of heat transfer can be viewed similarly to current movement through resistors in series or parallel arrangement. The following topics describe conduction of heat through composite materials, each having different conductivities, in parallel, series or combination arrangements.
14.2.2.1 Two Conductors in Series

These equations describe heat transfer and temperature profiles inside a plane wall composed of two materials. The materials have a series arrangement with respect to the direction of heat flow and perfect thermal contact exists between the two materials (i.e. there is no additional resistance at the contact point between the materials due to surface roughness). In addition, a steady state condition for heat transfer exists with no heat sources or sinks in the series arrangement. The two materials have lengths, in the direction of heat flow, L1 (m) and L2 (m), conductivities, k1 W/(mK) and k2 W/(mK), and cross-sectional areas, A1 (m2) and A2 (m2). Equation 1 computes the thermal resistance for heat transfer in the first section of the plane wall, Rk1 (K/W). Equation 2 calculates the thermal resistance for the second material, Rk2 (K/W). The third equation computes the rate of heat transfer, q (W), through the combined series arrangement between temperatures, T1 (K) and T3 (K). Equation 4 computes, q, for the first material from temperatures, T1 (K) and T2 (K), and Rk1. Equation 5 calculates, q, conducted through the second section of the wall with boundary temperatures, T2 and T3. The last two equations compute the temperature, T (K), inside the wall at distance, x (m), from T1.
Rk 1 = Rk 2 = q= q= q=
L1 k 1 A L2 k2 A
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
T1 T 3 Rk 1 + Rk 2 T1 T 2 Rk 1 T 2 T3 Rk 2
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
Eq. 5
When x < 0 and x < L1 the following equation is applicable
T T1 x = T 2 T1 L1
When L1 x and x < (L1+L2) the following equation is applicable
Eq. 6
T T 2 x L1 = T3 T2 L2
Eq. 7
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Variable A k1 k2 L1 L2 q Rk1 Rk2 T T1 T2 T3 x
Description Area Thermal conductivity Thermal conductivity Length Length Heat Transfer rate - conduction Thermal resistance-Conduction Thermal resistance-Conduction Temperature at x Temperature at 1 Temperature at 2 Temperature at 3 Distance from the left/side length
Units m2 W/(mK) W/(mK) m m W K/W K/W K K K K m
Caution: Because the equations represent a set where several subtopics are covered, the user has to select each equation to be included in the multiple equation solver. Pressing will not select all the equations and start the solver. Example 14.2.2.1: A 0.1 mm oxide coating exists on an aluminum plate thick having a thickness of 10 mm and a surface area of 400 cm2. If the rate of heat loss through the plate is 5 W and the surface temperature of the oxide coating is maintained 50 oC, what are the temperatures of the opposite side of the aluminum plate and the interface between the aluminum and the oxide? The thermal conductivity of aluminum is 130.6 Btu/(hrftoF) and the oxide coating is 0.3 Btu/(hftoF).
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Solution Select equations, one, two, three and four to solve this problem. Given A = 400 cm 2 k1 = 130.6 Btu/(hrftoF) k2 = .3 Btu/(hrftoF) L1 = 10 mm L2 = .1 mm q=5W T3 = 50o C Solution Rk1 = .001106 K/W Rk2 = .004815 K/W T1 = 50.0296 oC T2 = 50.0241 oC
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14.2.2.2 Two Conductors in Parallel

These equations describe heat transfer in a composite material of two substances with the grain parallel to the direction of heat transfer. Equations 1 and 2 compute the thermal resistances, Rk1 (K/W) and Rk2 (K/W), for the individual materials from lengths, L1 (m) and L2 (m), cross-sectional areas, A1 (m2) and A2 (m2), and thermal conductivities, k1 W/(mK) and k2 W/(mK). Equations 3 and 4 calculate the rates of heat transfer, qc1 (W) and qc2 (W), through each material due to conduction. Equation 5 computes the average temperature at distance, x, from T1 (K). Equation 6 calculates the total transfer of heat between temperatures, T2 (K) and T1. The last equation calculates the equivalent resistance, Rk (K/W), for the parallel system from the individual resistances, Rk1 and Rk2. These equations assume there is negligible transfer of heat between the two materials.
Rk 1 = Rk 2 = qc1 = qc2 =
L k 1 A1 L k 2 A2
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
T1 T 2 Rk 1 T1 T 2 Rk 2
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
T T1 = qT =
1T 2 T16 x
L
Eq. 5
T1 T 2 Rk
Eq. 6
1 1 1 = + Rk Rk 1 Rk 2
Eq. 7
Variable A1 A2 k1 k2 L qc1 qc2 qT Rk Rk1
Description Area Area Thermal conductivity Thermal conductivity Length Heat transfer rate Heat transfer rate Total heat transfer rate Thermal Resistance-Conduction Thermal resistance-Conduction
Units m2 m2 W/(mK) W/(mK) m W W W K/W K/W
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Variable Rk2 T T1 T2 x
Description Thermal resistance-Conduction Temperature at x or x, t Temperature at 1 Temperature at 2 Distance from the left/side length
Units K/W K K K m
Example 14.2.2.2: A CPU loses heat through a sink mounted with steel screws. The rate of heat transfer through the sink alone, with an internal temperature of 55 oC and surface temperature of 50 oC, is 3 W. The power loss for the sink, including the stainless steel screws, for the same surface temperature, is 3.22 W. Assume there is imperfect thermal contact between the screws and heat sink and negligible heat transfer occurs between the two. Compute the individual and total thermal resistances for the heat sink and the screws.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select equations 3, 4, 6, and 7. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given qc1 = 3 W qT = 3.22 W T1 = 55 oC T2 = 50 oC Solution qc2 = .22 W Rk = 1.5528 K/W Rk1 = 1.66667 K/W Rk2 = 22.7273 K/W
14.2.2.3 Parallel-Series
This section describes the conduction of heat between temperatures, T1 (K) and T2 (K), through a parallel-series arrangement of four different materials. Equation 1 computes the rate of heat transfer, qc (W), due to conduction through the composite system between T1 and T2. Req (K/W), is the equivalent resistance of the combined parallelseries arrangement. Equation 2 computes, qc, as the sum of the parallel heat transfer rates for the left, qcx (W), and right, qcy (W), sides. Equation 3 calculates the rate of heat transfer, qcx, between temperatures, T1 and T2, for the series arrangement of thermal resistances, Rk1 (K/W) and Rk3 (K/W). Equation 4 computes the rate of heat transfer, qcy, in the second series arrangement, using thermal resistances, Rk2 (K/W) and Rk4 (K/W). Equations 5, 6, 7, and 8 compute the thermal resistances, Rk1, Rk2, Rk3, and Rk4 from thermal conductivities, k1, k2, k3, and k4, W/(mK) cross-sectional areas, A1and A2 (m2), and diffusion lengths, L1 and, L2 (m). The last equation calculates the equivalent resistance of the parallel-series arrangement, Req from Rk1, Rk2, Rk3, and Rk4.
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qc =
T1 T 2 Re q
Eq. 1
qc = qcx + qcy qcx = qcy = Rk 1 = Rk 2 = Rk 3 = Rk 4 = T1 T 2 Rk 1 + Rk 3 T1 T 2 Rk 2 + Rk 4 L1 k 1 A1 L1 k 2 A2 L2 k 3 A1 L2 k 4 A2
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
Eq. 5
Eq. 6
Eq. 7
Eq. 8
1 1 1 = + Req Rk 1 + Rk 3 Rk 2 + Rk 4
Eq. 9
Variable A1 A2 k1 k2 k3 k4 L1 L2 qc qcx qcy Req Rk1 Rk2 Rk3 Rk4 T1 T2
Description Area Area Thermal conductivity Thermal conductivity Thermal conductivity Thermal conductivity Length Length Heat Transfer rate Heat Transfer rate Heat Transfer rate Equivalent thermal resistance Thermal resistance-Conduction Thermal resistance-Conduction Thermal resistance-Conduction Thermal resistance-Conduction Temperature at 1 Temperature at 2
Units m2 m2 W/(mK) W/(mK) W/(mK) W/(mK) m m W W W K/W K/W K/W K/W K/W K K
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Example 14.2.2.3: A 1 ft thick section of concrete wall, with four steel rods running parallel to the wall thickness, is exposed to a fluid having a temperature of 100 oC. The wall has a cross sectional area of 10 ft 2. The rods, which run parallel to the direction of heat transfer, have a total cross sectional area of 12 in2 and a length which is the same as the thickness of the wall. The temperature on the opposite side of the wall is 0 oC. If the thermal conductivity is 0.435 Btu/(hrftoF) for concrete, 26.2 Btu/(hrftoF) for steel (1% C), and the convection coefficient for the fluid are 1000 W/(m2K), what is the rate of heat transfer and thermal resistance in each material?
Upper Display
Lower Display
Solution This problem can be solved using the conversion for the convection coefficient, h=k/L. Enter the value of h in the place k and enter L = 1. The units of L must be the same as the length units in k. Example: 1. For h = 1000 W/(m2K)
k = 1000 W/(mK) L=1m
2. For h = 500 Btu/(hroFft2) k = 500 Btu/(hroFft) L = 1 ft Select equations, one, five, six, seven, eight and nine. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. The value of qc is negative since heat travels in a direction opposite to the diagram above. Given A1 = 10 ft 2 A2 = 12 in 2 k1 = 26.2 Btu/(hrftoF) k2 = .435 Btu/(hrftoF) k3 = 1000 W/(mK) k4 = 1000 W/(mK) L1 = 1 ft L2 = 1 m T1 =0 oC T2 = 100 oC Solution qc = -12033.2 W Req = .00831 K/W Rk1 = .007235 K/W Rk2 = 52.2934 K/W Rk3 = .001076 K/W Rk4 = .129167 K/W
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14.2.3 Radial Systems

14.2.3.1 Hollow Cylinder
These three equations compute heat conduction between the interior and exterior of a hollow cylinder made from a single material having a thermal conductivity, k (W/(mK)). The length of the cylinder is, L (m), and the inner and outer radii of the cylinder are, ra (m) and rb (m). The surface temperatures at the inner and outer radii are, T1 (K) and T2 (K), respectively. The first equation computes the rate of heat transfer, q (W), due to conduction between the interior and the exterior of the cylinder. Equation 2 calculates the thermal resistance, Rk (K/W), for conduction from rb, ra, L and k. The last equation estimates the temperature, T (K), at position, r (m), inside the cylinder wall, where ra<r<rb.
q=
2 L k T1 T 2 rb ln ra
Rk =
2 L k
1 rb ln ra
ln
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
When r = ra and r rb the following equation is applicable
r ra T T1 = T 2 T1 rb ln ra
When ra < rb applies to all equations in this set.
Eq. 3
Variable k L q ra rb Rk T T1 T2
Description Thermal conductivity Length Heat transfer rate - conduction Inner radius Outer radius Thermal resistance-conduction Temperature at x or x, t Temperature at 1 Temperature at 2
Units W/(mK) m W m m K/W K K K
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Example 14.2.3.1: A PVC pipe with an inner diameter 5 and an outer diameter of 6has an interior surface temperature of 40oC and an outside surface temperature of 4oC. What is the rate of heat transfer per meter length of the pipe? Rigid poly-vinyl chloride (PVC) has a thermal conductivity of 0.14515 Btu/(hrftoF). Solution Select equations, one and two to solve this problem.
Entered Values
Computed results
Given k = .14515 Btu/ hrftFo L=1m ra = 2.5 in rb = 3 in T1 =40 oC T2 = 4 oC
Solution q = 311.668 W Rk = .115508 K/W
14.2.3.2 Hollow Sphere

These equations compute the rate of heat transfer between the inner and outer surfaces of a hollow sphere due to conduction. The first equation calculates the rate of heat conducted, q (W), between the inner surface of the sphere, having temperature, T1 (K), and the outer surface, having a temperature of, T2 (K). Equation 2 calculates the thermal resistance, Rk (K/W), between the inner and outer surfaces of the sphere from the inner radius, ra (m), outer radius, rb (m), and thermal conductivity, k W/(mK). Equation 3 computes the temperature T (K) at position r (m) where ra<r<rb.
q=
T1 T 2 Rk rb ra 4 rb ra k
Eq. 1
Rk =
Eq. 2
When rb r ra the following equation is applicable.
T T1 r ra rb = T 2 T1 rb ra r
Eq. 3
136
Variable k q r ra rb Rk T T1 T2
Description Thermal conductivity Heat transfer rate - conduction Radius Inner radius Outer radius Thermal resistance-conduction Temperature at x Temperature at 1 Temperature at 2
Units W/(mK) W m m m K/W K K K
Example 14.2.3.2: A hollow steel ball has an inner diameter of 20 cm and an outer diameter of 21 cm. The internal and external surface temperatures of the steel surface are 5oC and 10oC. What is the steady rate of heat transfer?
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Equations one and two are needed to solve the problem. Steel (1% carbon) has a thermal conductivity value of 26.2 Btu/(hrftoF) in the range of 60-212oF (this value is listed in Reference/Thermal Properties/Thermal Conductivity/Alloys). Assume the listed value of thermal conductivity for steel has the same value at 4 oC and 10oC. Given k = 26.2 Btu/(hrftoF) ra = 10 cm rb = 10.5 cm T1 = - 5 oC T2 = 10 oC Solution q = -17949.5 W Rk = .000836 K/W
14.2.3.3 Cylinder with Insulation Wrap

These equations describe a three-stage transfer of heat between an insulated pipe or cylinder, and a surrounding fluid. The first stage is conduction across the pipe material, having an inner surface radius, ra (m) and an outer radius, rb (m). The temperature on the interior surface of the pipe is T1 (K), and the outer surface is T2 (K). The second stage of heat transfer is conduction across a pipe insulation material having an inner radius, rb, and outer radius, ro (m). The temperature difference between the inner and outer surfaces of the insulation wrap is T3-T2. The final step is convection of heat between the outer surface of the insulation material and the surrounding fluid, having a temperature, Tf (K), and convective transfer coefficient, h (W/(m2K)). Since these steps occur in sequence, a series resistor analogy is used to describe the overall rate of heat exchange (see section 14.2.2). Equation 1 computes the thermal resistance due to conduction, Rk1 (K/W), between the inner and outer surfaces of a pipe having inner and outer radii, ra
137
and rb, length L, and thermal conductivity, k1 (W/(mK)). Equation 2 calculates the thermal resistance due to conduction for the insulation wrap, having an interior and exterior radii, rb and ro, length L, and thermal conductivity, ki W/(mK). Equation 3 computes the thermal resistance due to convection between the insulation wrap and surrounding fluid, having a convection coefficient, h. Equation 4 calculates the equivalent resistance, Req (K/W), for heat transfer between the interior of the pipe and the fluid. The next two equations 5 & 6 compute the rate of heat transfer, q (W), from the temperature differences and the thermal resistances to heat transfer for the pipe and insulation. Equation 7 calculates the pipe/insulation boundary temperature, T2. The last equation computes the interfacial temperature, T3, for the surface of the insulation in contact with the fluid.
q= q=
T1 Tf Req T1 T 2 Rk 1 T1 Tf Rk 1 Re q T1 Tf Rc3 Req
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
T 2 = T1 + T 3 = Tf +
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
ln Rk 1 =
2 L k1 ln
rb ra
Eq. 5
Rki = Rc3 =
2 L ki 1 h 2 ro L
Eq. 7
ro ra
Eq. 6
Re q = Rk 1 + Rki + Rc 3
When ra < rb and bb < ro applies to all equations in this set.
Eq. 8
Variable h ki k1 L q ra rb
Description Convection coefficient Thermal conduct. insulator Thermal conduct. cylinder Length Heat transfer rate - conduction Inner radius Outer radius
Units W/(m2K) W/(mK) W/(mK) m W m m
138
Rc3 Req Rk1 Rki ro T1 T2 T3 Tf
Thermal resistance-convection Equivalent thermal resistance Thermal resistance-conduction Thermal resistance-insulator Outer radius Temperature at 1 Temperature at 2 Temperature at 3 Temperature of fluid
K/W K/W K/W K/W m K K K K
Example 14.2.3.3: A copper pipe having a conductivity of k=560 Btu/(hrftoF), an inner and outer radius of 0.4 and 0.5, is surrounded by a half-inch thick layer of polyurethane foam (PUF) k = 0.024191 Btu/(hrftoF). The temperature of the interior of the pipe is 50oC. Cooling outside the pipe occurs due to natural convection with a fluid having a temperature of 5oC and a convection coefficient for heat of h=3.6 Btu/(hrft2oF). Assuming steady-state transfer of heat occurs, what is the rate of heat transfer to the surrounding fluid per meter length of the pipe? What is the temperature of the outside of the copper pipe and the outside of the insulation?
Upper Display
Lower Display
Solution Select equations, one, two, four, five, six, seven and eight. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given h = 3.6 Btu/(hrft2oF) k1 = 560 Btu/(hrftoF) ki = .024191 Btu/(hrftoF) L=1m ra = .4 in rb = .5 in ro = 1.5 in T1 = 50oC Tf = 5oC Solution q = 8.60615 W Rc3 = .204351 Req = 5.22882 K/W Rk1 = .000037 K/W Rki = 5.02443 K/W T2 = 49.9997 oC T3 = 6.75868 oC
14.2.3.4 Cylinder - Critical radius

The equations in this section describe the transfer of heat from a pipe to a surrounding fluid. The first equation calculates the rate of heat transfer as a function of the temperature of the fluid Tf (K), inner surface temperature of the pipe T1 (K), the resistance to conduction Rk (K/W), and the resistance to convection Rcv (K/W). Equation 2 computes the resistance to conduction, Rk (K/W), of the pipe from the inner and outer pipe radii, ra (m), and, rb (m), the length of the pipe, L (m), and the thermal conductivity of the pipe material, k W/(mK). Equation 3 calculates the resistance due to convection, Rcv, for a fluid having a convection coefficient, h W/(m2K). Equation 4 computes the critical radius, rcrit (m). If rb < rcrit the rate of transfer will increase as rb
(pipe thickness) increases. This is due to a greater decrease of Rcv with increasing surface area, than increase in Rk with pipe thickness. If rb>rcrit, an increase in pipe thickness will cause a decrease in the rate of heat transfer.
q=
T1 Tf Rk + Rcv ln
Eq. 1
Rk =
2 L k 1 h 2 L rb k h
Eq. 3
rb ra
Eq. 2
Rcv = rcrit =
Eq. 4
Variable h k L q ra rb rcrit Rcv Rk T1 Tf
Description Convection coefficient Thermal conductivity Length Heat transfer rate - conduction Inner radius Outer radius Critical radius Thermal resistance - convection Thermal resistance - conduction Temperature at 1 Temperature of fluid
Units W/(m2K) W/(mK) m W m m m K/W K/W K K
Example 14.2.3.4: Determine whether an increase in the thickness of the insulation wrap in the previous problem would increase or decrease the rate of heat transfer.
Entered Values
Computed results
140
Solution Select the last equation to solve this problem. If the outer radius of the insulation (1.5 inches) is greater than the critical radius, rcrit, than an increase in thickness will result in a decrease in the rate of heat transfer. If rcrit < 1.5 than an increase in thickness will cause q, the rate of heat transfer, to increase. Given h = 3.6 Btu(hrftoF) k = .024191 Btu/(hrft2oF) Solution rcrit = .080637 in
14.2.3.5 Sphere - Critical radius

These equations describe the transfer of heat from a hollow sphere to a surrounding fluid. The first equation calculates the rate of heat transfer, q (W), as a function of the temperature of the fluid, Tf (K), inner surface temperature of the sphere, T1 (K), the resistance to conduction, Rk (K/W) between the inner and outer surfaces, and the resistance to convection of heat from the sphere surface to the fluid, Rcv (K/W). Equation 2 computes the resistance to conduction, Rk (K/W) inside the sphere from the inner and outer radii, ra (m) and rb (m), and thermal conductivity of the material, k W/(mK). Equation 3 calculates the resistance due to convection from the heat conducting capacity of the fluid, h W/(m2K). Equation 4 computes the critical radius, rcrit (m). If rb < rcrit the rate of transfer will increase as rb increases. This is due to a greater decrease of Rcv (increasing surface area), than increase in Rk (sphere thickness), with additional material. If rb>rcrit, an increase in sphere thickness will cause a decrease in heat transfer.
q=
T1 Tf Rk + Rcv rb ra 4 ra rb k 1 h 4 rb 2 2k h
Eq. 1
Rk =
Eq. 2
Rcv = rcrit =
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
Variable h k q ra rb rcrit Rcv Rk T1 Tf
Description Convection coefficient Thermal conductivity Heat transfer rate - conduction Inner radius Outer radius Critical radius Thermal resistance Thermal resistance-conduction Temperature at 1 Temperature of fluid
Units W/(m2K) W/(mK) W m m m K/W K/W K K
141
Example 14.2.3.5: Compute the critical radius for a hollow sphere composed of a material having a thermal conductivity of 25 Btu/(hrftoF) surrounding by a fluid having a convection coefficient of 10 Btu/(hrftoF).
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the last equation to solve this problem. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given h = 10. Btu/(hrft2oF). k = 25. Btu/(hrftoF). Solution rcrit = 60 in
14.3 Semi-Infinite Solid

14.3.1 Step Change Surface Temperature
The equation set in this topic computes the unsteady case for one-dimensional heat transfer, in a semi-infinite solid, from a constant temperature source. Equation 1 calculates the temperature, T (K), at position, x (m), from the constant temperature source after, time (s), has elapsed since the heat source was introduced. To (K), is the temperature of the constant heat source and Ti is the initial temperature of the solid at the time the heat source is introduced, i.e. Ti = T(x,0) and T(,time) To=T(0, time). Equation 2 calculates the rate of heat transfer into the solid, qs (W), after time, has elapsed since the addition of the heat source. Area, A (m2), is the area of the solid in direct contact with the heat source, d (m2/s), is thermal diffusion coefficient of heat in the solid, and k Btu/(fthroF) is the thermal conductivity of the solid. Equation 3 computes the heat flux, qf (W/m2), the rate of heat transfer per area. Equation 1 incorporates the complimentary error function, erfc().
T To x = erf Ti To 2 d time qf = qf = k To Ti

Eq. 1
d time
qs A
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
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Variable d A k qf qs T Ti To time x
Description Thermal diffusivity Area Thermal conductivity Heat flux Heat transfer rate Temperature at x or x, t Temperature (x, time = 0 or , time = t) Temperature (0, time = t) Time Distance from the left/side length
Units m2/s m2 W/(mK) W/m2 W K K K J m
Example 14.3.1: One end of a rectangular slab of lead, at 25oC, is brought into thermal contact with a mixture of ice and water. At what distance inside the slab, from the water contact point, has a temperature of 10 oC after 10 seconds? After 20 seconds? After 30 seconds? What is the rate of heat transfer per square meter during these periods? Lead as a thermal conductivity of 20.3 Btu/(hrftoF) and a thermal diffusion coefficient of 24.1x 10-6 m2/s at room temperature.
Entered Values (First Solution)
Computed Results (First Solution)
Solution Select the first and second equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. A notice will appear stating that nsolve(), numeric solve, will be used to compute the solution. Press . The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given d = 0.000024 m 2/s k = 20.3 Btu/(hrftF) T = 10oC Ti = 25oC To = 0oC time = 10, 20, 30 s Solution x= 1.1489 cm (10 s) x= 1.6248 cm (20 s) x= 1.98996 cm (30 s) qf = -31987.9 W/m2 (10 s) qf = -22618.9 W/m2 (20 s) qf = -18468 W/m2 (30 s)
14.3.2 Constant Surface Heat Flux

These equations describe the unsteady case for heat diffusion through a conducting plane wall, with initial temperature, Ti (K), in contact with a heat source transferring a constant rate of heat with time, qs (W), i.e.: the temperature of the heat source varies with time to conduct the same amount of heat through the wall. Equation 1 calculates the temperature, T (K), at position x (m), from the constant heat source inside the wall after, time (s), has elapsed since the heat source was introduced. Equation 2 computes the temperature of the surface in contact with the constant heat source, Ts (K), at after time has elapsed. Ti (K), is the initial temperature of the plane wall at the
time the heat source is introduced, i.e. Ti =T (x,0) and T(,time) and Ts=T(0, time). Equation 3 computes the heat flux, qf (W/m2), the rate of heat transfer over the area, A (m), of the conducting surface in contact with the emitting source. d (m2/s), is the thermal diffusion coefficient and, k Btu/(fthroF), is the thermal conductivity for the wall material. Equation 1 incorporates the Complimentary Error function, erfc() described in the previous section.
2 qf d time 4dxtime qf x x T = Ti + e erfc k k 2 d time

2

Eq. 1
Ts = Ti + qf = qs A
d time 2 qf k
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Variable d A k qf qs T Ti Ts time x
Description Thermal diffusivity Area Thermal conductivity Heat flux Heat transfer rate Temperature at x Temperature Surface temperature of emitter Time Distance from the left/side length
Units m2/s m2 W/(mK) W/m2 W K K K s m
Example 14.3.2: A heat element, with a surface area of 30 cm 2 and emitting a constant 300 W, is implanted in a semiinfinite block of aluminum. The aluminum has initial temperature of 25oC, a thermal conductivity of 130 Btu/(hrftoF) (see Reference/Thermal Properties/Thermal Conductivity/Elements) and a thermal diffusion coefficient of 97.5 x 10-6 m2/s. At what time following the activation of the heating element does the temperature of the aluminum adjacent to heat element reach 100 oC?
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the second and third equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. A notice will appear stating that nsolve()
144
(numeric solve) will be used to compute the solution. Press results are shown in the screen displays above. Given d = 97.5E-6 m2/s A = 30 cm 2 k = 130 Btu/(hrftoF) qs = 300 W Ti = 25oC Ts = 100oC
Solution qf = 100000 W/m2 time = 229.38 s
14.3.3 Surface Convection

The following equations describe the unsteady case of convective heat transfer from a fluid to a solid plane wall and diffusion of heat through the wall by means of conduction. The fluid has a convective transfer coefficient, h W/(m2K), the solid has a thermal conductivity, k W/(mK), and a thermal diffusion coefficient, d (m2/s). Equation 1 computes temperature, T (K), at position x (m), and elapsed time (s), after the exposure of the solid to the fluid. The solid has an initial temperature, Ti (K), and the liquid maintains a constant temperature, Tf (K). The second equation computes the temperature of the solid surface at the solid/fluid interface at time. Equation 3 computes the heat flux, qf (W/m2), at after time has elapsed. The last equation computes the heat flux, qf (W/m2), from the total flux, qs, over the fluid/solid contact surface area, A (m2).
T Ti x = erfc e k Tf Ti 2 d time Ts Ti = 1 e Tf Ti
h 2 d time k2

h x h 2 d time + k2
erfc
erfc
h
d time k

qf = h Tf Ti e qs A
h 2 d time k2
erfc
h
d time k
qf =
Variable d A h k qf qs T Tf Ti
Description Thermal diffusivity Area Convection coefficient Thermal conductivity Heat flux Heat transfer rate Temperature at x or x,t Temperature of fluid Temperature (x, time = 0 or , time = t)
145
to start the solver. The entries and
x h d time 2 + k d time

Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
Units m2/s m2 W/(m2K) W/(mK) W/m2 W K K K
Variable Ts time x
Description Surface temperature of emitter Time Distance from the left/side length
Units K s m
Example 14.3.3: Boiling water is continuously sprayed onto a fireclay brick wall. A temperature probe, placed at the solid liquid interface at a distance of 2 cm inside the brick, records an initial temperature of 10oC and a temperature of 17oC, after 120 seconds have elapsed. The brick has a thermal conductivity of 1.04 W/(moK) and thermal diffusion coefficient of 5.4 x 10-7 m2/s. What is the convection coefficient for the boiling water being sprayed on the brick surface?
Entered Values:Use F5:Opts, 7:Want to convert h to an initial value for nsolve(..)
Computed results
Solution Select the first equation to solve this problem. Select this by highlighting the equation and pressing . Press to display the variables. An initial guess value of h, is needed for nsolve () to converge to a solution. The convection coefficient for boiling water typically ranges from 2000 to :Opts, : Want, to flag the entered value for 50000 W/(m2K). Enter h = 9000 W/(m2K) and press h as a starting value for nsolve (). Press to compute the solution. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given d = 5.4 E-7 m2/s k = 1.04 W/(mK) T = 17oC Tf = 100oC Ti = 10oC time = 120 s x = 2 cm Solution h = 6029.88 W/(m2K)
14.4 Radiation
14.4.1 Blackbody Radiation
Equation 1 is the Stefan-Boltzmann law for radiation emitted by a blackbody source. Eb (W/m2), is the total emissive power for all wavelengths, (m), for an ideal blackbody and Ts (K), is the surface temperature of the blackbody emitter. The second equation computes E (W/m2), the power emitted from a non-ideal blackbody source. The emissivity factor, , accounts for a particular materials radiative spectrum at a particular temperature ( =1 an ideal blackbody). The third equation is Plancks Law for monochromatic power, Eb (W/m2), emitted by a blackbody surface at temperature, Ts and wavelength (m). The last equation computes the wavelength of maximum power emission from a blackbody, max (m), at blackbody surface temperature, Ts. The Stefan-Boltzmann constant for radiation, =5.670 x 10-8
F3: Equations/4: Heat Transfer W/(m2K4), and the blackbody radiation constants, brc1=3.7417749 x 10-16 Wm2, brc2=0.01438769 mK, and the Wein displacement constant brc3=0.002897756 mK, are values automatically inserted into the equation by MEPro during the solving process. The values for , brc1, brc2 and brc3 are listed in the Reference/Engineering Constants section of MEPro.
Eb = Ts 4 E = Eb Eb =
Eq. 1 Eq. 2
5 e Ts 1
Ts max = brc3

brc1
brc 2

Eq. 3
Eq. 4
Variable max brc1 brc2 brc3 E Eb Eb Ts
Description Emissivity Stefan-Boltzmann constant for radiation Wavelength Peak wavelength 1st radiation constant 2nd radiation constant Wein displacement constant Emissive power Black body emissive power Monochromatic emissive power Surface temperature of emitter
Units unitless 5.670 x 10-8 W/(m2K4) m m 3.7417749 x 10-16 Wm2 0.01438769 mK 0.002897756 mK W/m2 W/m2 W/m3 K
Example 14.4.1: What is the total power emitted, per area, from an ideal blackbody at 310 K? What is the monochromatic power and wavelength at which the maximum emission occurs?
Computed Results: 1st step
Computed Results: 2nd step
Solution Solve this problem in two steps. Select equations one and four. Enter the temperature and press to solve. Deselect equations one and four, select equation 3, press to solve. Enter the calculated value of max for . Press to solve. Given Ts = 310 K Solution max = 9.3476
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Given
Solution Eb = 523.684 W/m2 Ebmax = 3.68364E7 W/m3
14.4.2 Non-Blackbody radiation

Most surfaces are not blackbody surfaces but exhibit a combination of radiative and reflective properties (opaque). Equation 1 is the equation for the rate of energy emitted per area, Es (W/m2), by a nonblackbody surface at temperature T (K). Equation 2 computes the radiosity, Js (W/m2), per area from the surface, As (m2), as the sum of the radiative, Es, and reflective, Gss, light components. Gs (W/m2), is the thermal radiation per area incident on surface and, s, is the fraction of the incoming light which is reflected. Equation 3 and 4 compute the radiative energy qs (W), leaving the opaque surface, where s is the fraction of the light, incident on the opaque surface, which is absorbed and, s, is the emissivity of the surface. The absorptivity, s, is dependent on the wavelength of the incoming light. For objects exhibiting graybody characteristics, the light absorbed is independent of the wavelength of the incoming light and the assumption can be made that s s 1-s. Equation 5 computes the thermal radiative resistance-to-transfer, Rs (1/m2), of the second kind. The last equation computes the relationship between the radiative, s, and reflective, s, components of incident energy on the surface (s=1, s=0 for totally reflective, s=0, s=1 for blackbody).
Es = s T 4 Js = Es + s Gs qs = As Js Gs
Eq. 1 Eq. 2
Eq. 3
s Es Js qs = s Rs
1 s Rs = s As
Eq. 4
Eq. 5
s = 1 s
Eq. 6
Variable s s
Description Stefan-Boltzmann constant for radiation Absorptivity Emissivity of shield
Units 5.670 x 10-8 W/(m2K4) unitless unitless
Radiative transfer of the first kind views exchange of heat between two surfaces as powered by a thermal gradient, (T1-T2). The equation for this approach is, q = (T1-T2)/Rf, where Rf (K/W) is the resistance to transfer of the first kind and is a function of temperature, radiation area and shape factors. This approach works for heat exchange between two surfaces of having temperatures T1 and T2. Radiative transfer of the second kind views heat exchange as powered by a difference in emission (E1-E2) between objects. The equation for this approach is, q = (E1-E2)/Rs, where Rs (1/m2), is the resistance to transfer of the second kind. The second approach allows the advantage of modeling heat transfer between several surfaces (see Lindon Thomas, Heat Transfer p. 300).
Variable s As Es Gs Js qs Rs T
Description Reflectivity Total surface area Emissive power-radiating surface Irradiation Radiosity Heat transfer rate Thermal resistance, 2nd kind Temperature at x or x, t
Units unitless m2 W/m2 W/m2 W/m2 W 1/m2 K
Example 14.4.2: Polished stainless steel has a solar absorptivity of 0.42, and an emissivity of 0.11 at room temperature (300 K). If sunlight, with an intensity of 1.5 kW/m2 is irradiated on the steel surface, what is the total radiosity, and radiation emitted per square meter?
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Solution Select the equations, one, two, three and six to solve this problem. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given s = .42 s = .11 As = 1 m 2 Gs = 1.5 kW/m2 T = 300 K Solution s = .58 Es =50.5242 W/m 2 Js = 920.524 W/m 2 qs = -579.476 W
14.4.3 Thermal Radiation Shield

Insulating walls are composed of layers of reflective materials separated by evacuated spaces. The reflective plates reduce heat transfer due to radiation and the spaces add extra insulation by reducing heat exchange due to thermal contact. In these equations, plates with surface areas As (m2) and emissivity s separate emissive graybodies with surface areas, A1 (m2) and A2 (m2), emissivities, 1 and 2, and steady-state emissions, E1 (W) and E2 (W). These equations assume the following conditions: The shield surfaces are thin, and have a negligible resistance to conduction. The shape factors between shields and radiating surfaces are 1. Since the thermal shields are highly reflective, radiation received by the first gray-body, E1 is assumed to originate primarily from itself. The non-isothermal gray-body approximation assumes 1/11. Where 1 is the absorptivity of surface A1.
Equations 1 and 2 compute the power emission for each surface. Equation 3 computes the steady state heat transfer between, A1, and, A2, for a series arrangement of two reflective shields in the direction of
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F3: Equations/4: Heat Transfer heat transfer. Each shield has an emissivity, s, and a reflective area, As. Equation 4 calculates the case where Ns shields (As, s) are placed in a parallel arrangement between A1 and A2.
E1 = 1 T14 E 2 = 2 T 24 q12c = E1 E 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 s + + + A1 1 A1 A2 2 As s A1 E 1 E 2 2 s Ns 1 1 + 1+ 1 2 s
Eq. 1 Eq. 2
Eq. 3
q12c =
Eq. 4
Variable 1 2 s A1 A2 As E1 E2 Ns q12c T1 T2
Description Stefan-Boltzmann constant for radiation Emissivity of 1 Emissivity of 2 Emissivity of shield Area Area Total surface area Emissive power 1 Emissive power 2 No. of shields Heat flux Temperature 1 Temperature 2
Units 5.670 x 10-8 W/(m2K4) unitless unitless unitless m2 m2 m2 W/m2 W/m2 unitless W/m2 K K
Caution: Because the equations represent a set where several subtopics are covered, the user has to select each equation to be included in the multiple equation solver. Pressing will not select all the equations and start the solver. Example 14.4.3: A blackbody plate with a temperature of 50oC exchanges radiation with a stainless steel plate having a temperature of 850oC and =0.6. If two thin, polished aluminum shields (=0.1), are placed in a series arrangement between the plates, what is net heat transfer per square meter between the two plates?
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Solution Select the first three equations to solve this problem. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given 1 = 1 2 = .6 s = .1 A1 = 1 m 2 A2 = 1 m 2 As = 1 m 2 T1 = 50oC T2 = 850oC Solution E1 = 618.356 W/m 2 E2 = 54140.8 W/m 2 q12c = -2589.79 W/m2
References:
1. Thomas, Lindon C, Heat Transfer, Prentice Hall NJ, 1992 A useful source for heat transfer properties of many materials can be located on the web* at: http://www.tak2000.com/ A glossary of websites for material related to this topic is located at: http://www.uic.edu/~mansoori/Thermodynamic.Data.and.Property_html *Note: These websites are not maintained or affiliated with da Vinci Technologies Group. da Vinci does not guarantee the availability and reliability of information located at these URLs.
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F3: Equations / 5:Thermodynamics
Chapter 15: Thermodynamics

This section covers a wide range of topics under six subheadings. Fundamentals Vapor and Gas Mixture First Law System Properties Ideal Gas Properties Second Law
15.1 Fundamentals
These equations list various forms for expressing the quantity of a substance. Equation 1 calculates the specific volume, vs (m3/kg), which is the volume occupied per unit mass of a substance. The second equation computes density, (kg/m3). Equation 3 calculates the specific weight, (N/m3), from the total mass, m (kg), and volume, V (m3) of the substance. The gravitational acceleration constant, grav (_g = 9.80665 m/s2), is automatically inserted into the computation by MEPro and does not appear in the list of variables. The last equation computes the number of moles, n (mol), of a substance from its total mass, m, and molar mass, MWT (kg/mol).
vs =
V m m V m grav V m MWT
Description Specific weight Density Acceleration due to gravity Mass Molar mass Number of moles Volume Volume per unit mass
Eq. 1
= =
n=
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
Variable grav m MWT n V vs
Units N/m3 kg/m3 9.80665 m2/s kg kg/mol mol m3 m3/kg
Example 15.1: Compute the density and specific volume of a liquid having a volume of 2.6 liters and a mass of 5 pounds.
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 15 - Equations - Thermodynamics
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Solution Select the first and second equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given m = 5 lb V = 2.6 l
15.2 System Properties

15.2.1 Energy Equations
This section includes the general forms of the equations used to describe the state of a pure substance in thermodynamic equilibrium. Equation 1 computes the enthalpy, H (J), as the sum of the internal energy, UE (J), of the material, and the work, pV (J), performed by the system. The variables, p (Pa) and V (m3), are the pressure and volume of the gas component of the system. The second equation computes the Helmoltz energy, A (J), the maximum work the system is able to perform. The quantity, TS (J), is the energy in the system stored as random heat energy, and is unavailable for work. T (K), is the temperature and, S (J/K), is the total entropy of the system. Equations 3 and 4 compute the Gibbs energy, G (J), the work that can be extracted from the system, after work, (pV), and the energy lost to increasing the entropy of the system, (TS). The energies H, U, A and G are extensive properties; i.e., dependent on the quantity of the substance. Equations 5-9 are differentiated forms of the first three equations and represent a thermodynamic transition of the system. in equations 10-17, indicates a change in a property (p, V, T, H, UE, G, A, S) between state 1 and state 2.
H = UE + p V A = UE T S G = H T S G = A + p V UE = T S p V H = UE + p V + V p A = UE S T T S G = H S T T S
Solution = 872.293 kg/m3 vs = .001146 m 3/kg
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 3 Eq. 4 Eq. 5 Eq. 6 Eq. 7 Eq. 8
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G = A + p V + V p A = A2 A1 G = G 2 G1 H = H 2 H1 p = p2 p1 S = S 2 S1 T = T 2 T1 V = V 2 V 1 UE = UE 2 UE1
Variable A G H p S T UE V A A1 A2 G G1 G1 H H1 H2 p p1 p2 S S1 S2 T T1 T2 UE UE1 UE2 V V1 V2 Description Difference - Helmoltz function Difference - Gibbs free energy Difference - enthalpy Difference - pressure Difference - entropy Difference - temperature Difference - internal energy Difference - volume Helmoltz function Helmoltz energy 1 Helmoltz energy 2 Gibbs Free energy Gibbs energy 1 Gibbs energy 2 Enthalpy Enthalpy 1 Enthalpy 2 Pressure Partial pressure 1 Partial pressure 2 Entropy Entropy 1 Entropy 2 Temperature Temperature 1 Temperature 2 Internal energy Internal energy state 1 Internal energy state 1 Volume Volume state 1 Volume state 2
Eq. 9 Eq. 10 Eq. 11 Eq. 12 Eq. 13 Eq. 14 Eq. 15 Eq. 16 Eq. 17 Units J J J Pa J/K K J m3 J J J J J J J J J Pa Pa Pa J/K J/K J/K K K K J J J m3 m3 m3
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Example 15.2.1: One mole of hydrogen gas reacts with half a mole of molecular oxygen at room temperature (298.15 K) and standard atmospheric pressure (1 atm), to form 1 mol of liquid water.
1 H2 ( g ) + O2 ( g ) 2 H2O(l ) 2
The enthalpy of formation for both hydrogen and oxygen under standard atmospheric and pressure conditions is 0 J/(molK). The enthalpy of formation for liquid water (298.15 K, 1 atm) is 285.83 kJ/mol. If the reaction creates 252 kJ of energy available for work, what is the change in entropy for the reaction?
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Solution Select the eighth and twelfth equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters. A value for S is not needed since this is a constant temperature process. Press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given G=-252 kJ T = 0 K H1 = 0 J H2 = -285.83 kJ S = 0 J/K T=298.15 K Solution H = -252 kJ S = -113.466 J/K
15.2.2 Maxwell Relations

These four equations describe exact differential relationships used in thermodynamic calculations. An advantage of the Maxwell Relations is the ability to relate changes in observable parameters, such as pressure, volume and temperature (p, V, T), to changes in non-measurable quantities such as entropy (S). The subscripts to the bottom right of the parenthesis indicate a parameter being held constant while the other two parameters inside the parenthesis vary. indicates the change in a property (p, V, T, and S).
Note: Due to display limitations, the subscript variable, which remains constant during a transition, cannot be shown. The parameter being held constant on the left and right side of the equations appears in the status line at the bottom screen while the equation is being highlighted.
T V
=
S
p S
Eq. 1
V
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T p p T
=
S
V S S = V
=
Eq. 2
p
Eq. 3
T
V T
S p
Eq. 4
T
Status Line message for a highlighted Maxwell Relation S (entropy) is constant for the left side of the equation V (volume) is constant for the right side of the equation. Variable p S T V Description Difference - pressure Difference - entropy Difference - temperature Difference - volume Units Pa J/K K m3
Caution: Because the equations represent a set where several subtopics are covered, the user has to select each equation to be included in the multiple equation solver. Pressing will not select all the equations and start the solver. Example 15.2.2: If the constant-volume heating of a gas produces an increase of 20 Pa with an increase in temperature of 30 K, what will be the change in entropy for the same gas if the volume expands by 2 m 3 during an isothermal heating?
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Solution Select the third equation to solve this problem. Select this by highlighting the equation and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given p = 20 Pa T = 30 K V = 2 m 3
15.3.1 Saturated Liquid/Vapor

The following equations describe a pure liquid in equilibrium with its vapor at constant temperature. The chemical equation for conversion of a pure substance, A, from a liquid (l) to a vapor (v) is described below.
Equation 1 computes x, the dryness fraction, or the degree of conversion of A from a liquid to a vapor, or, the mole fraction of A in vapor form (x=0 when A is a liquid, x=1 when A is a vapor). Equation 2 calculates the total volume occupied by the chemical, V (m3), as the sum of the total liquid volume, Vtl (m3), and total vapor volume, Vtv (m3), of A. Equation 3 computes the total volume, V, from the mass of the liquid, mlq (kg), and vapor, mv (kg), components of A, in addition to the volumes occupied per mass of liquid, vl (m3/kg), and gas, vv (m3/kg). Equation 4 calculates, V, from the total mass of the liquid and vapor, m (kg), and the volume occupied, per mass, by the liquid/vapor system, vs (m3/kg). Equation 5 computes the change in specific volume, v (m3), for the conversion of a pure substance from a liquid to a vapor. Equation 6 computes, vs, from the mass of the vapor, mv, the total mass, m, and the specific volumes of the liquid, vl and vapor, vv. Equation 7 calculates, vs, as the sum of the specific volume of the liquid, vl, and the additional volume contribution of the substance in vapor form x(vv-vl). Equation 8 computes the change in internal energy per mass, u (J/kg), for a liquid/vapor transition from the difference of the internal energy of the vapor, ul (J/kg), and the vapor, uv (J/kg). Equation 9 calculates the internal energy per mass of the liquid/vapor us (J/kg) for the dryness fraction, x. Equation 10 computes the specific enthalpy change, h (J/kg), for converting a pure substance from a liquid to a vapor. Equation 11 calculates the enthalpy per mass, hs (J/kg), of the liquid/vapor system for the dryness fraction, x. The last two equations, (Eq. 12 and 13), compute the entropy change per mass, s J/(kgK), of liquid converted to a vapor, and the entropy per mass, ss J/(kgK), of the liquid/vapor system.
x=
mv mlq + mv
V = Vtl + Vtv V = mlq vl + mv vv V = m vs
v = vv vl
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Solution S = 1.33333 J/K
15.3 Vapor and Gas Mixture
A(l ) A(v ) (1 x ) ( x)
Eq. 1
Eq. 2 Eq. 3 Eq. 4 Eq. 5
vs =
m mv mv vl + vv m m
Eq. 6
vs = vl + x v
Eq. 7 Eq. 8 Eq. 9 Eq. 10 Eq. 11 Eq. 12 Eq. 13 Description Difference in specific enthalpy Difference in specific entropy Difference in specific internal energy Difference in specific volume Specific enthalpy - liquid Specific enthalpy Specific enthalpy vapor Mass Mass of liquid Mass of vapor Entropy per unit mass Specific entropy liquid Specific entropy vapor Internal energy/mass (liquid) Internal energy/mass Internal energy/mass (vapor) Volume Specific volume liquid Volume per unit mass Total liquid volume Total vapor volume Specific vapor volume Dryness fraction Units J/kg J/(kgK) J/kg m3/kg J/kg J/kg J/kg kg kg kg J/(kgK) J/(kgK) J/(kgK) J/kg J/kg J/kg m3 m3/kg m3/kg m3 m3 m3 unitless
u = uv ul
us = ul + x u
h = hv hl
hs = hl + x h
s = sv sl
ss = sl + x s
Variable h s u v hl hs hv m mlq mv ss sl sv ul us uv V vl vs Vtl Vtv vv x
Caution: Because the equations represent a set where several subtopics are covered, the user has to select each equation to be included in the multiple equation solver. Pressing will not select all the equations and start the solver. Example 15.3.1: A table lists Refrigerant-22 as having a vapor quality (dryness fraction) of 0.5 at T=40 oC. The saturated specific volumes of the refrigerant at this temperature are 0.000883 m3/kg for the liquid and 0.0151 m3/kg
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for the vapor. The specific enthalpies of the liquid and vapor are 94.93 kJ/kg and 261.14 kJ/kg. Find the specific volume and the specific enthalpy of the refrigerant.
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Solution Select equations 5, 7, 10, and 11 to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given hl = 94.93 kJ/kg hv = 261.14 kJ/kg vl = .000883 m3/kg vv = .0151 m3/kg x = .5
15.3.2 Compressed Liquid-Sub cooled
Equation 1 describes the change in thermodynamic properties between initial state, 0 and final state, 1. Sub cooled liquid data for many substances is not available. Equation 2 is an approximate version of the first equation for calculating of the thermodynamic state for a compressed or sub cooled liquid ho (J/kg) and po (Pa), from saturated liquid properties, h1 (J/kg), vm1 (m3/mol), p1 (Pa), at the same temperature. It is assumed that the internal energy and the specific volumes of the saturated liquid can be used for the sub-cooled state without a significant loss of accuracy. The assumptions are made are that uio = ui1 (J/kg) and vmo = vm1 (m3/mol) at constant temperature, T (K).
Solution h = 166.21 kJ/kg v = .014217 m3/kg hs = 178.035 kJ/kg vs = .007992 m 3/kg
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ho = hs1 + uio ui1 + po vmo p1 vm1 ho = hs1 + vm1 ( po p1)

Variable hs1 ho p1 po ui1 uio vm1 vmo Description Specific enthalpy state 1 Specific enthalpy state o Partial pressure 1 Partial pressure o Internal energy/mass state 1 Internal energy/mass state o Volume per mass at state 1 Volume per mass at state o Units J/(kgK) J/(kgK) Pa Pa J/kg J/kg m3/kg m3/kg
Eq. 1 Eq. 2
Example 15.3.2: Compute the sub cooled liquid properties for water at 65 oC and 14 MPa.
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Solution Obtain the thermodynamic values for the saturated liquid state from Analysis/Steam to solve. Tables/Saturated Steam (see Chapter 3). Select Temperature, enter Ts = 65 oC and press Use the values of Ps, Vf, and Hf for p1, vm1 and hs1 respectively, in equation 2 of this section. Use : Tools, : Copy/ : Paste. Given T = 65oC hs1 (Hf) = 273.184 kJ/kg p1 (Ps) = .025039 MPa po = 14 MPa vm1 (Vf ) = .00102 m 3/kg Solution ho = 287.438 kJ/kg
15.4 Ideal Gas Properties

15.4.1 Specific Heat
The following equations compute various thermodynamic properties of ideal gases. Equation 1 is the ideal gas law. The second equation computes the difference in specific heats of constant pressure and constant volume for an ideal gas. Equation 3 calculates the specific heat ratio, k. Equations 4 and 5 compute the change in specific enthalpy, hs2-hs1 (J/kg), and internal energy per mass, ui2-ui1 (J/kg), with change in temperature, T2-T1 (K). The specific heats at constant volume and pressure, cv J/(kgK), and cp J/(kgK), in equations 4 and 5, are assumed to remain constant with temperature.
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p vs =
Rm T MWT Rm MWT
Eq. 1
cp cv = cp =k cv
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
1 6 ui 2 ui1 = cv 1T 2 T16
hs2 hs1 = cp T 2 T1
Variable cp cv vs hs1 hs2 k MWT p Rm T T1 T2 ui1 ui2 Description Specific heat at constant pressure Specific heat at constant volume Specific volume Specific enthalpy 1 Specific enthalpy 2 Specific heat ratio Molar mass Pressure Molar gas constant Temperature Temperature - 1 Temperature 2 Internal energy/mass state - 1 Internal energy/mass state - 2 Units J/(kgK) J/(kgK) m3/kg J/kg J/kg unitless kg/mol Pa 8.3145 J/(kgK) K K K J/kg J/kg
Eq. 4 Eq. 5
Example 15.4.1: An ideal monatomic gas, having a molar mass of 40 g/mol, is contained in a cylinder with a piston exerting a constant pressure. A heating element increases the temperature of the gas from 300 K to 600 K. What is the change in specific enthalpy, internal energy per kilogram, the specific heat at constant pressure and volume for the monatomic gas?
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Solution A specific heat ratio of k = 5/3 can be used for an ideal monatomic gas. Select equations 2, 3, 4, and 5 to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above.
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Given hs1 = 0 J/kg k = 5/3 MWT = 40 g/mol T1 = 300 K T2 = 600 K ui1 = 0 J/kg
Solution cp = 519.657 J/(kgoK) cv = 311.794 J/(kgoK) hs2 = 155897 J/kg ui2 = 93537.8 J/kg
15.4.2 Quasi-Equilibrium Compression

The following equations compute the work performed by a gas due to quasi-equilibrium expansion or compression. Equation 1 computes the work performed, Wp (J), at a constant pressure, p (Pa), between an initial volume, V1 (m3), and final volume, V2 (m3). Equation 2 computes the work performed at constant temperature, Wt (J), due to isothermal expansion/compression from an initial volume, V1 to a final volume, V2. The third equation computes the work performed for a polytropic process, Wpol (J), (see Chapter 13.5 for more information on polytropic or quasi-equilibrium processes). The polytropic coefficient is restricted to values of 1. When =0 (constant pressure), equation 3 simplifies to Equation 1. When = , the constant volume condition is fulfilled and Wpol becomes zero. The fourth equation computes Wpol for an ideal gas between an initial temperature T1 (K) and final temperature T2 (K). Equation 5 shows the equivalence relationship between pressure and volume for the initial, V1 (m3) and p1 (Pa), and final, V2 (m3) and p2 (Pa), states of a polytropic process. Equations 6 and 7 compute the heat flow, Qpol (J), into the system for a polytropic process.
Wp = p V 2 V 1 Wt = p1V 1 ln Wpol =
V 2 V 1 1 6
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
p2 V 2 p1V 1 1
Eq. 3
m Rm T 2 T1 MWT Wpol = 1 p1V 1 = p2 V 2 Qpol Wpol = m ui 2 ui1
Eq. 4
Eq. 5
Qpol = m cv T 2 T1 + Wpol
Variable cv m MWT p p1 p2
6
Description Polytropic Index ( 1) Specific heat at constant volume Mass Molar mass Pressure Pressure 1 Pressure 2
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Eq. 6 Eq. 7 Units unitless J/(Kkg) kg kg/mol Pa Pa Pa
Variable Qpol T1 T2 ui1 ui2 V1 V2 Wp Wpol Wt
Description Heat Flow - polytropic Temperature 1 Temperature 2 Internal energy/mass state 1 Internal energy/mass state 2 Volume 1 Volume 2 Work done: constant pressure Work done: polytropic process Work: constant temperature
Units J K K J/kg J/kg 3 m 3 m J J J
Caution: Because the equations represent a set where several subtopics are covered, the user has to select each equation to be included in the multiple equation solver. Pressing will not select all the equations and start the solver. Example 15.4.2: 3 A piston compresses a gas reversibly from an initial pressure 101,325 Pa and an initial volume of 300 cm 3 to a final pressure of 200,000 Pa and a final volume of 150 cm . The polytropic index for the system is 1.4. Compute the work performed.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution To solve the problem select Equation 3. Highlight the equation by and press . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above.
Given = 1.4 p1 = 101325 Pa p2 = 200000 Pa V1 = 300 cm 3 V2 = 150 cm 3
Solution Wpol = .99375 J
15.5 First Law

15.5.1 Total System Energy
The following equations describe the conservation of various forms of energy. The first equation computes the change in energy, E (J), due to heat added to the system, Q12 (J), less the work performed on the surroundings, W12 (J). Equation 2 computes the total change in energy as the sum of the changes of kinetic energy, KE (J), potential energy, PE (J), and internal energy, UE (J). Equation 3 calculates the difference in kinetic energy, KE, between the initial, KE1 (J), and final, KE2 (J), states. Equation 4 calculates the change in internal energy, PE, from the initial, PE1 (J), and final, PE2 (J),
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F3: Equations / 5:Thermodynamics energy states. Equation 5 calculates the change in internal energy, UE, from the initial, UE1 (J), and final, UE2 (J), energy states. Equation 6 computes, KE, due to difference in linear velocities, vel1 (m/s) and vel2 (m/s). Equation 7 calculates the difference in potential energy, PE, due to relative heights, zh1 (m) and zh2 (m), in the earths gravitational field. The last equation computes UE from the change in internal energy per mass, ui1 (J/kg) and ui2 (J/kg), and the total mass of the substance, m (kg).
E = Q12 W12 E = KE + PE + UE KE = KE 2 KE1 PE = PE 2 PE1 UE = UE 2 UE1 KE = 1 m vel 2 2 vel12 2
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 3 Eq. 4 Eq. 5
Eq. 6
PE = m grav ( zh2 zh1) UE = m ui 2 ui1
Eq. 7 Eq. 8
Variable E KE PE UE grav KE1 KE2 m PE1 PE2 Q12 ui1 ui2 UE1 UE2 vel1 vel2 W12 zh1 zh2
Description Energy change Difference in kinetic energy Difference in potential energy Difference in internal energy Gravitational constant Kinetic energy state 1 Kinetic energy state 2 Mass Potential energy state 1 Potential energy state 2 Heat Flow Internal energy/mass state 1 Internal energy/mass state 2 Internal energy state 1 Internal energy state 2 Velocity state 1 Velocity state 2 External work performed 1 to 2 Height 1 Height 2
Units J J J J 9.80665 m/s2 J J kg J J J J J J J m/s m/s J m m
Example 15.5.1: A 40 g bullet is fired vertically from a gun. The heat generated from gunpowder combustion inside the bullet is 4 kJ. The energy lost due to work and heating the gun is 1300 J. The remainder of the energy is transferred as kinetic energy to the bullet. If there is no wind friction, how high will the bullet travel?
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Step 1: Upper Display (Solution 2)
Step 1: Lower Display (Solution 2)
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Step 2: Entered Values
Step 2: Computed Results
Solution This problem needs to be solved in two stages. First, calculate the conversion of stored energy, in the gunpowder, to kinetic energy in the bullet using Equations 1, 2, and 6. The first computation (Step 1) has two possible solutions, press for the second solution for the results shown on this page. Then calculate the conversion of kinetic energy to potential energy using Equations 2 and 7. Enter the known variables for each step as shown in the screen displays above. Step 1: Given PE = 0 J UE = 0 J m = 40 g Q12 = 4 kJ vel1 = 0 m/s W12 = 1300 J Step 2: Given E = 2700 J KE = 0 J UE = 0 J m = 40 g zh1 = 0 m Step 1: Solution E = 2700 J KE = 2700 J vel2 = 367.423 m/s
Step 2: Solution PE = 2700 J zh2 = 6883.08 m
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15.5.2 Closed System: Ideal Gas

15.5.2.1 Constant Pressure
These equations describe the thermodynamic properties of a system undergoing transition under constant pressure. The first equation calculates the heat change of a system, Q12 (J), as the sum of the change of the internal energy components, ui2-ui1 (J/kg), and the work performed, W12 (J). Equation 2 computes Q12 from the change in specific enthalpy,hs2-hs1 J/(kgK). Equation 3 computes the work, W12, performed by the system during a expansion/compression between an initial volume, V1 (m3), and final volume, V2 (m3), by a constant pressure, p (Pa). Equation 4 calculates the change in specific enthalpy, hs2-hs1, from the specific heat at constant pressure, cp J/(kgK), and the change in temperature, T2-T1 (K). Equation 5 computes the change in internal energy, ui2-ui1, from the specific heat at constant volume, cv J/(kgK). Equation 6 calculates the change in specific enthalpy, ss2-ss1 J/(kgK), from cp and the initial and final temperatures, T1 (K) and T2 (K). Equation 7 computes the total change in entropy of the system, S21 (J/K). Equation 8 calculates, k, the ratio of specific heats. Equations 9 and 10 compute the ideal gas law at states 1 and 2.
1 6 Q12 = m 1hs2 hs16 W12 = p 1V 2 V 16 hs2 hs1 = cp 1T 2 T16 ui 2 ui1 = cv 1T 2 T16 T2 ss2 ss1 = cp ln T1
S12 = m ( ss2 ss1) cp k= cv m p V 1 = Rm T1 MWT m p V 2 = Rm T 2 MWT
Variable cp cv hs1
Q12 = m ui 2 ui1 + W12
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 3 Eq. 4 Eq. 5 Eq. 6
Eq. 7 Eq. 8
Eq. 9
Eq. 10
Description Specific heat at constant pressure Specific heat at constant volume Specific enthalpy state1
Units J/(Kkg) J/(Kkg) J/kg
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Variable hs2 m MWT p Q12 Rm S12 ss1 ss2 T1 T2 ui1 ui2 V1 V2 W12
Description Specific enthalpy state 2 Mass Molar mass Pressure Heat flow Ideal gas constant Entropy Entropy per mass state 1 Entropy per mass state 2 Temperature state 1 Temperature state 2 Internal energy/mass - state 1 Internal energy/mass state 2 Volume 1 Volume 2 External work done - 1 to 2
Units J/kg kg kg/mol Pa J 8.31451 J/(Kmol) J/K J/(Kkg) J/(Kkg) K K J/kg J/kg m3 m3 J
Example 15.5.2.1: Nitrogen (28 g/mol), contained in a volume of 2 m3, exerts a constant pressure of 2 bars against a movable, frictionless piston. The temperature of the nitrogen gas is 26.85 oC. A heating element exchanges 19,000 kJ of heat causing the volume to expand and the temperature to increase. The specific heat at constant pressure for nitrogen in this temperature range is approximately 7 Btu/(lbF). What is the mass of nitrogen in the cylinder, the final volume and temperature the gas, and the work performed? Assume nitrogen has ideal gas behavior and the specific heat remains constant with temperature.
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Solution Select the second, third, fourth, ninth and tenth equations. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given cp = 7 Btu/(lboF) hs1= 0 J/kg MWT = 28 g/mol p = 2 bar Q12 = 19000 kJ T1=26.85 oC V1=2. m3
15.5.2.2 Binary Mixture

The following equations compute the thermodynamic state for a mixing of two ideal gases. The gases are assumed to occupy the same volume before and after mixing. Equations 1 and 2 compute the specific internal energy, us (J/kg), and the specific enthalpy, hs (J/kg), of the binary mixture at a temperature, T (K). The reference temperature, Trf (K), and the reference pressure, pref (Pa), must be identical for both gases. Equation 3 calculates the specific entropy of the mixture, ss J/(kgK), as the sum of the entropies of the individual gases at temperature, T, and entropy of mixing contribution (from the middle terms) due to the irreversible mixing of two gases. The two gases have partial pressures, p1 (Pa) and p2 (Pa), and occupy an initial and final volume, V1 (m3) and V2 (m3). Equation 4 calculates the specific heat at constant pressure, cp J/(Kkg), of the gas mixture as the sum of the individual contributions of the specific heats of each gas, cp1 J/(Kkg) and cp2 J/(Kkg). Equation 5 computes the mole ratio from the masses, m1 (kg) and m2 (kg), and the molar masses of each gas, MWT1 (g/mol) and MWT2 (g/mol). The final equation calculates the total mass, m (kg), of the gas mixture as the sum of the individual masses of each ideal gas, m1 (kg) and m2 (kg).

us =
m1 m2 m1 Rm m2 Rm h2rf Trf cv1 ( T Trf ) + cv 2( T Trf ) + h1rf Trf + m m m MWT1 m MWT 2
hs =
ss =
m1 m2 m1 m2 cp1 T Trf + cp2 T Trf + h1rf + h2rf m m m m

+ m1 m2 s1rf + s2rf m m

m1 T m2 T m1 Rm p1 m2 Rm p2 + cp2 ln + cp1 ln ln ln m Trf m Trf m MWT1 pref m MWT 2 pref
cp =
m1 m2 cp1 + cp2 m m
Solution hs2 = 4.23149 E6 J/kg m = 4490.14 g T2 = 799.888 oR V2 = 2.96255 m 3 W12 = 192509 J
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
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n2 MWT 1 m2 = n1 MWT 2 m1 m = m1 + m2
Variable cp cp1 cp2 cv1 cv2 h1rf h2rf hs m m1 m2 MWT1 MWT2 n1 n2 p1 p2 pref ss s1rf s2rf T Trf us Description Specific heat of mixture: Constant Pressure Specific heat: constant pressure substance 1 Specific heat: constant pressure substance 2 Specific heat: constant volume substance 1 Specific heat: constant volume substance 2 Specific enthalpy substance 1, at pref = Trf, Specific enthalpy substance 2, at pref = Trf Specific enthalpy of mixture Mass of mixture Mass 1 Mass 2 Molar mass: substance 1 Molar mass: substance 2 No. moles: substance 1 No. moles: substance 2 Partial pressure: substance 1 Partial pressure: substance 2 Reference partial pressure Specific entropy of mixture Specific entropy substance 1, at temp. = Trf, press. = pref Specific entropy substance 2, at temp. = Trf, press. = pref Temperature Temperature reference Internal energy/mass
Eq. 5 Eq. 6 Units J/(kgK) J/(kgK) J/(kgK) J/(kgK) J/(kgK) J/kg J/kg J/kg kg kg kg kg/mol kg/mol mol mol Pa Pa Pa J/(kgK) J/(kgK) J/(kgK) K K J/kg
Example 15.5.2.2: Dry air has an approximate volume composition of 79 % Nitrogen (28.15 g/mol) and 21% oxygen (32 g/mol). The specific heat at constant pressure for dry air is listed as 1.007 J/g/K at 1 bar and 300 K. The specific heat at constant pressure for molecular oxygen, at the same temperature and pressure, is 0.92 J/(gK). Approximate the specific heat at constant pressure for nitrogen.
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Solution Select the last three equations to solve this problem. The volumetric fractions of an ideal gas are the same as the mole fractions. Use a value of m=1 so m1 (oxygen) and m2 (nitrogen) are computed as mass ratios. The actual value of the specific heat for nitrogen is 1.0302 J/(kgK). Given cp = 1.007 J/(gK) Solution cp2 = 1.03329 J/(kgK)
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Given cp1=0.92 J/(gK) m=1g MWT1 = 32 g/mol MWT2 = 28.15 g/mol n1 = .21 mol n2 = .79 mol
Solution m1 = . 232056 g m2 = .767944 g
15.6 Second Law
15.6.1 Heat Engine Cycle

Heat engines exemplify the principles of the 2 nd law of thermodynamics. By a series of reversible compression and expansion processes, work can be done.
15.6.1.1 Carnot Engine

The Carnot cycle, the most efficient heat engine, is composed of the following stages: 12: Reversible isothermal expansion (heat, QH (J), enters the system, temperature is constant). 2 3: Reversible adiabatic expansion (no heat is exchanged, Q=0 J). 34: Reversible isothermal compression (heat, QL (J), is exchanged to the heat sink, temperature is constant). 41: Reversible adiabatic compression (no heat is exchanged). The first equation computes the work performed, Wnet (J), as the difference of the heat extracted from the heat source, QH, and the heat deposited into a heat sink, QL. Equation 2 calculates the heat removed from the heat source, QH, during isothermal expansion (step 12) from the mass of the ideal gas, m (kg), the molar mass of the gas, MWT (g/mol), the temperature of the heat source, TH (K), and the initial, V1 (m3), and final, V2 (m3), volumes during the isothermal expansion process. Equation 3 computes the heat transferred to the heat sink, QL, during the isothermal compression (step 34). TL (K), is the temperature of the heat sink. V3 (m3) and V4 (m3) are the initial and final volumes of the reversible isothermal compression. Equations 4 and 5 calculate the ratio of the initial and final volumes for the reversible adiabatic expansion (V2V3) and compression (V4V1) stages in the Carnot cycle from the ratio of the initial and final temperatures (TLTH for stage 2, and THTL for stage 4). Equations 6 and 7 compute the efficiency, , of converting heat to work, for the Carnot cycle. Equation 8 computes the specific heat ratio, k, from the specific heat of the gas at constant pressure, cp J/(kgK), and constant volume, cv J/(kgK). Equation 9 and 10 calculate the relationship between the initial and final temperatures and pressures for an adiabatic process. The last equation computes the mass of the gas, m (kg), used in the Carnot cycle from the ideal gas relationship.
QH QL = Wnet QH = m Rm V2 TH ln MWT V1
Eq. 1

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Eq. 2
QL =
m Rm V4 TL ln MWT V3
k 1

Eq. 3
TL V 1 = TH V 4
TL V2 = TH V3
Eq. 4
k 1
Eq. 5
= 1 =
k=
TL TH
Eq. 6
Wnet QH cp cv
Eq. 7
Eq. 8
k 1 k
TH p2 = TL p3 TH p1 = TL p4 p V =

Eq. 9
k 1 k
Eq. 10
m Rm T MWT
Description Efficiency Specific heat at constant pressure Specific heat at constant volume Ratio of specific heats Mass Molar mass Pressure Pressure - 1 Pressure 2 Pressure 3 Pressure 4 Heat flow at TH Heat flow at TL Molar gas constant Temperature Temperature
Eq. 11
Variable cp cv k m MWT p p1 p2 p3 p4 QH QL Rm T TH
Units unitless J/(kgK) J/(kgK) unitless kg kg/mol Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa J J 8.3145 J/(kgK) K K
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Variable TL V V1 V2 V3 V4 Wnet
Description Temperature Volume Volume 1 Volume 2 Volume 3 Volume 4 Work done
Units K m3 m3 m3 m3 m3 J
Example 15.6.1.1: A boiling pot of water (100 oC) and the ambient air (25oC) are the heat source and heat sink for a Carnot engine using helium. If the work generated per cycl e is 2 J, the maximum volume for a compression cycle is 300 cm 3, and the measured pressure is at the maximum volume of 0.5 bars, what is the maximum efficiency of the engine, the heat absorbed and dispensed during a single cycle?
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Solution Select equations 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 11. The maximum volume in the cycle occurs at step 3 where the volume is V3 and the temperature is TL. The molar mass (MWT) of helium is 4.003 g/mol. Use a value of k=5/3 for an ideal monatomic gas. Given k = 1.66667 MWT = 4.003 g/mol p = .5 bar T = 25 oC TH = 100 oC TL = 25oC V = 300 cm 3 V3 = 300 cm 3 Wnet = 2 J Solution = .200992 m = 0.02422 g QH = 9.95067 J QL = 7.95067 J V1 = 126.111 cm 3 V2 = 214.264 cm 3 V4 = 176.564 cm 3
15.6.1.2 Diesel Cycle

The ideal diesel cycle consists of four reversible steps: Stage 1: 1 2: Isentropic compression Stage 2: 2 3: Reversible constant pressure heating Stage 3: 3 4: Isentropic expansion Stage 4: 4 1: Reversible constant volume cooling The first equation calculates the rate heat intake Qin (W), into the ideal diesel cycle during the constant pressure-heating step (Stage 2). Equation 2 computes the heat exhaust rate, Qout (W), during the constant volume-cooling step (Stage 4). Equations 3 and 4 compute the net power, Wr (W), available for work. Equations 5, 6, and 7 compute the maximum efficiency, (unitless), for the conversion of heat to work in the ideal diesel cycle. Equation 8 calculates the specific heat ratio, k. Equation 9 computes
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the work ratio, Rw (net work over of the work performed during isentropic expansion), from the compression ratio, cr, and the cutoff ratio, cor. Equation 10 calculates the mean effective pressure, mep (Pa), or the constant pressure required to perform the network of the cycle (Wrtime) in a single compression stroke, V1V2 (m3). The cutoff ratio, cor, is defined in Equation 11 as the ratio of the volume of air at which constant pressure heating ends, V3 (m3), to the clearance volume, V2 (m3). Equation 12 calculates cor in terms of T1 (K) and T2 (K). Equation 13 computes the compression ratio, cr, the ratio of the initial volume, V1 (m3), and final volume, V2 (m3), in the first stage of the diesel cycle (the compression ratio must be greater than 14 and T2 must be greater than the ignition temperature for the diesel to ignite). Equations 14 and 15 relate the initial and final temperatures, T1 and T2, and pressures, p1 and p2, of the compression cycle (Stage 1), to the compression ratio, V1/V2 and the specific heat ratio, k. Equation 16 displays the pressure equivalence during the constant pressure expansion (Stage 2) of the ideal diesel cycle. Equations 17 and 18 relate the initial and final temperatures, T3 (K) and T4 (K), of the isentropic expansion process (Stage 3) to the volume ratio (V3/V4 or cr/cor) and the specific heat ratio, k. Equations 19 and 20 compute the temperature, T4 and T1 (K), pressure, p4 and p1 (Pa), and volume, V4 and V1 (m3), relationships for the constant volume cooling step of the ideal diesel cycle (stage 4). The last two equations compute the ideal gas law (Eq. 21) and the time (s) (Eq. 22) for a complete revolution of the diesel cycle from the mass flow rate, mr (kg/s), of fuel and air into the cycle and the mass of gas, m (kg), inside the cycle.
Qin = mr cp T 3 T 2
Qout = mr cv T 4 T1 Wr = Qin Qout
Eq. 1
6 6 2 7
Eq. 2 Eq. 3
Wr = mr cp T1 cr k 1 cor 1 mr cv T1 cor k 1
Eq. 4
= 1
Qout Qin
Eq. 5
T4 1 T1 = 1 T1 k T2 T3 1 T2

7
Eq. 6
1 cor k 1 k 1 = 1 cr k cor 1
Eq. 7
k=
cp cv
Eq. 8
Rw =
k cor 1 cr
k cor 1 cr k 1 cor k 1
k 1
cor cr
k
k 1
7
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Eq. 9
mep =
1 1 time V 1 cr
T3 T2
Wr
Eq. 10
cor = cor = cr =
V3 V2
Eq. 11
Eq. 12
V1 V2
Eq. 13
T 2 = T1 cr k 1 p2 = p1 cr k 1 p2 = p3
Eq. 14 Eq. 15 Eq. 16

k 1
cor cr V 3 T 4 = T 3 V 4 T4 p4 = p1 T1
T 4 = T 3 V1 = V 4 p V = time =
Eq. 17
k 1
Eq. 18
Eq. 19
Eq. 20 Eq. 21
m Rm T MWT m mr
Description Efficiency Cutoff ratio Specific heat at constant pressure Compression ratio Specific heat at constant volume Ratio of specific heats Mass of gas in cycle Mean effective pressure
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Eq. 22
Variable cor cp cr cv k m mep

Units unitless unitless J/(kgK) unitless J/(kgK) unitless kg Pa
Variable mr MWT p p1 p2 p3 p4 Qin Qout Rm Rw T T1 T2 T3 T4 time V V1 V2 V3 V4 Wr
Description Mass flow rate Molar mass Pressure Pressure - 1 Pressure 2 Pressure 3 Pressure 4 Heat inflow rate Heat outflow rate Molar gas constant Work ratio Temperature Temperature - 1 Temperature - 2 Temperature - 3 Temperature - 4 Time elapsed Volume Volume - 1 Volume 2 Volume 3 Volume 4 Work rate
Units kg/s kg/mol Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa W W 8.3145 J/(kgK) unitless K K K K K s m3 m3 m3 m3 m3 W
Example 15.6.1.2: An air standard diesel engine has a compression ratio of 16 and operates at maximum and minimum temperatures, 1675 K and 300 K. The pressure at the beginning of compression is 1 atm, the specific heat ratio for air is assumed to be 1.4 and the specific heat of air at constant pressure is 1.005 kJ/(kgK). Compute the pressure and temperature at each point in the cycle, the network performed per kilogram of gas in a single cycle, the maximum thermal efficiency, and the work ratio and mean effective pressure. The molar mass of air is 28.97 g/mol.
Step 1: Entered Values
Step 1: Computed results
Solution - Step 1Solve this problem in two steps. Select Equation 21 and compute V for State 1 (beginning of the isentropic compression). Record the computed value of V.
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Solution - Step 2 Deselect Equation 21 and select Equations 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 19. Enter the computed value of V = .849753 m 3 in the previous step for V1. Note, from the diagram above, that the high temperature occurs at T3. Since Wr will be computed as the network per kg of gas per cycle (J/kg), enter a mass flow rate of mr = 1kg/s and cycle time of time= 1 s so Wr displays the appropriate computed result for these units. Step 1: Given MWT = 28.97 g/mol p=1 atm T=300. K m= 1 kg Step 2: Given cp = 1.005 kJ/(kgK) cr = 16 k = 1.4 mr = 1kg/s p1 = 1 atm T1 = 300 K T3 = 1675 K time = 1 s V1 = .849753 m 3 (from step 1) Solution = .621712 cor = 1.84181 cv = 717.857 J/(kgK) mep = 600449 Pa p2 = 307160 Pa p3 = 307160 Pa p4 = 238265 Pa Qin = 769398 W Qout = 291054 W Rw = .522308 T2 = 909.43 K T4 = 705.448 K Wr = 478344 W Solution V = .849753 m 3 (enter for V1 in Step 2)
15.6.1.3 Dual Cycle

The ideal dual cycle better approximates the actual performance of a diesel engine. It is composed of 5 stages, including two heating steps: Stage 1: 12 Adiabatic Compression. Stage 2: 23 Constant Volume Heating. Stage 3: 34 Constant pressure heating. Stage 4: 45 Adiabatic Expansions. Stage 5: 51 Constant Volume Cooling. The first equation computes the total rate of heat intake, Qin (W), in Stages 2 and 3. Equation 2 calculates the rate of heat exhaust, Qout (W), in Stage 5. Equation 3 determines the net power available for work, Wr (W). Equations 4, 5, and 6 compute the maximum thermal efficiency, ,(unitless) of the heat cycle. Equation 7 calculates the specific heat ratio, k. The pressure ratio, rp, is calculated in equation 8. The compression ratio, cr, is determined in equation 9. The cut-off ratio, cor, the ratio of volumes at the end of constant pressure heating, is computed in equation 10. The temperature/volume relationship during adiabatic compression (Stage 1) is computed in equation 11. Equation 12 computes the temperature increase during the adiabatic compression step. Equations 13 and 14 calculate the pressure/volume/temperature relationship for constant volume heating (Stage 2). Equations 15 and 16 compute the gas properties for constant pressure heating (Stage 3). Equation 17 and 18 computes the
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temperature/volume relationship for adiabatic expansion (Stage 4). Equations 19 and 20 describe the constant volume cooling stage, the final step of the cycle (Stage 5). The last two equations compute the ideal gas law (Eq. 21) and the time (s) (Eq. 22) for a complete revolution of the dual cycle from the mass flow rate, mr (kg/s), of fuel and air into the cycle and the mass of gas, m (kg), inside the cycle.
Qin = mr cv T 3 T 2 + mr cp T 4 T 3 Qout = mr cv T 5 T1 Wr = Qin
6 6
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 3
= 1
T 5 T1 T3 T2 + k T4 T3
Eq. 4
= 1
Qout Qin
Eq. 5
1 rp cor k 1 k 1 = 1 cr k rp cor 1 + rp 1
Eq. 6
cp =k cv rp = cr = p3 p2 V1 V2 V4 V3
Eq. 7
Eq. 8
Eq. 9
cor =
Eq. 10
T 2=T1cr k 1
Eq. 11
k 1 k
p2 T 2 = T1 p1
T 3=T 2rp V2 =V3 T 4 = T 3 cor
Eq. 12
Eq. 13 Eq. 14 Eq. 15
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p3 = p4 T 5=T 4
Eq. 16
k 1
V 4 V 5
Eq. 17
k 1 k
p5 T5 = T 4 p4
T5 = T1 p5 p1 V1 = V 5 p V = time =
Variable cor cp cr cv k m mr MWT p p1 p2 p3 p4 p5 Qin Qout Rm rp T T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 time V V1 V2 V3
Eq. 18
Eq. 19
Eq. 20 Eq. 21 Eq. 22
m Rm T MWT m mr
Description Efficiency Cutoff ratio Specific heat at constant pressure Compression ratio Specific heat at constant volume Ratio of specific heats Mass of gas in cycle Mass Flow rate Molar mass Pressure Pressure 1 Pressure 2 Pressure 3 Pressure 4 Pressure 5 Heat inflow rate Heat outflow rate Molar gas constant Pressure ratio Temperature Temperature 1 Temperature 2 Temperature 3 Temperature 4 Temperature 5 Cycle duration Volume Volume - 1 Volume 2 Volume 3
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Units unitless unitless J/(kgK) unitless J/(kgK) unitless kg kg/s kg/mol Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa W W 8.3145 J/(kgK) unitless K K K K K K s m3 m3 m3 m3
Variable V4 V5 Wr
Description Volume 4 Volume 5 Work rate
Units m3 m3 W
Example 15.6.1.3: A dual cycle is used to estimate the performance of a piston engine. Atmospheric air, at 20 oC, is drawn into the engine a rate of 0.1 kg/s. The air in the piston chamber is compressed to a pressure of 10 MPa. Following combustion, the pressure increases to 20 MPa. Assuming a cut-off ratio of 2 and a compression ratio of 16, compute the maximum thermal efficiency, the rate of heat intake and power available for work. Air has a specific heat ratio of 1.4 and a specific heat at constant pressure of 1.005 kJ/(kgK).
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Solution Solve this problem using equations 1, 3, 6, 7, 8, 11, 13, 15, and 16. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given cor = 2 cp = 1.005 kJ/(kgK) cr = 16 k = 1.4 mr = .1 kg/s p2 = 10 MPa p3 = 20 MPa T1 = 20oC Solution = .628625 cv = 717.857 J/(kgK) p4 = 2.E7 Pa Qin = 242415 W rp = 2 T2 = 888.665 K T3 = 1777.33 K T4 = 3554.66 K Wr = 152388 W
15.6.1.4 Otto Cycle

The ideal Otto cycle is the approximate pattern of internal combustion (spark ignition) engines in automobiles. Stage 1: Stage 2: Stage 3: Stage 4: 12 Isentropic compression 23 Reversible constant volume heating 34 Isentropic expansion 41 Reversible constant volume cooling
The first equation computes the rate of heat intake, Qin (W), into the system. Equation 2 calculates the rate of heat exhaust, Qout (W). Equation 3 and 4 compute the power available for work, Wr (W). Equations 5, 6, and 7 calculate the maximum thermal efficiency of the ideal Otto cycle, .(unitless) Equation 8 calculates the mean effective pressure, mep (Pa), as the pressure needed to perform the net work per cycle (Wrtime) in a single compression stroke, V1V2. Equation 9 computes the work ratio, Rw, network over of the work performed during isentropic expansion, from the compression ratio, cr,
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and the low and high temperatures, T1 (K) and T3 (K). Equation 10 calculates the specific heat ratio, k. Equation 11 computes the compression ratio, cr, as the ratio of the initial and final volumes, V1 (m3) and V2 (m3), in the adiabatic compression (Stage 1). Equation 12 computes the optimum compression ratio, copt, where Wr is maximized. Equation 13 computes the temperature change during adiabatic compression (Stage 1). Equation 14 states the constant volume condition during the heating process of Stage 2. Equation 15 calculates the initial and final temperature of the isentropic expansion process (Stage 3). Equation 16 states the constant volume condition for the cooling step (Stage 4). The last two equations compute the ideal gas law (Eq. 17) and the time (s) (Eq. 18) for a complete revolution of the dual cycle from the mass flow rate, mr (kg/s), of fuel and air into the cycle and the mass of gas, m (kg), inside the cycle at any time.
Qin = mr cv T 3 T 2
1 6 T1 cr 1 1 Wr = mr cv T 3 1 T 3 cr
Qout = mr cv T 4 T1
k 1 k 1
Eq. 1 Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Wr = Qin
Eq. 4
T 4 1 T1 T1 = 1 T2 T3 T 2 1
= 1 = 1
mep = Qout Qin 1 cr k 1
Eq. 5
Eq. 6
Eq. 7
1 1 time V 1 cr
T 1 k 1 cr T3
Wr
Eq. 8
Rw = 1 k= cp cv V1 V2
Eq. 9
Eq. 10
cr =
Eq. 11
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T 3 copt = T1
T2 = cr k 1 T1 V3=V2 T3 V4 = T4 V3 V1 = V 4 p V = time =
Variable copt cp cr cv k m mep mr MWT p Qin Qout Rm Rw T T1 T2 T3 T4 time V V1 V2 V3 V4 Wr
1 2 ( k 1)
Eq. 12
Eq. 13 Eq. 14
k 1

Eq. 15
Eq. 16 Eq. 17
m Rm T MWT m mr
Description Efficiency Compression ratio Specific heat at constant pressure Compression ratio Specific heat at constant volume Ratio of specific heats Gas mass in cycle Mean effective pressure Mass flow rate Molar mass Pressure Heat inflow rate Heat outflow rate Molar gas constant Work ratio Temperature Temperature - 1 Temperature - 2 Temperature - 3 Temperature - 4 Time elapsed Volume Volume 1 Volume 2 Volume 3 Volume 4 Work rate
Eq. 18
Units unitless unitless J/(kgK) unitless J/(kgK) unitless kg Pa kg/s kg/mol Pa W W 8.3145 J/(kgK) unitless K K K K K s m3 m3 m3 m3 m3 W
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Example 15.6.1.4: An air spark-ignition engine operates at a low pressure of 200 kPa, a low temperature of 200 oC and a high temperature of 1675 K. Compute the maximum work per mass of gas in one cycle revolution, the optimum compression ratio and the maximum thermal efficiency. Air has a molar mass of 28.97 g/mol, a specific heat ratio of 1.4 and a specific heat at constant pressure of 1.005 kJ/(kgK).
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Solution Step 1: Compute the solution in two steps. First compute the optimum compression ratio, copt, and the initial volume for a kilogram of air, V, using equations 12 and 17. Be sure to record the value of copt and V for cr and V1, respectively, in the next step. Given (Step 1) k = 1.4 m = 1 kg MWT = 28.97 g/mol p = 200000 Pa T = 200 oC T1 = 200 oC T3 = 1675 K Solution (Step 1) copt = 4.8559 (enter for cr in Step 2) V = .67898 m 3 (enter for V1 in Step 2)
Solution Step 2: After computing V and copt, deselect the equations 12 and 17 by highlighting the equations and pressing , and select equations 3, 7, 8, 9, and 10. Enter the previously calculated value of copt for cr, V for V1, a value of 1 s for cycle duration, time, and 1 kg/s for the mass flow rate, mr, so the computed value of Wr displays the work performed per mass of gas in a single cycle. Press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given (Step 2) cp = 1.005 kJ/(kgK) cr = 4.8559 (computed in step 1) k = 1.4 mr = 1 kg/s T1 = 200 oC T3 = 1675 K time = 1 s V1 = .67898 m 3 (computed in step 1)
Solution (Step 2) = .468514 cv = 717.857 J/(kgK) mep = 489536 Pa Rw = .468514 Wr = 263935 W
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15.6.1.5 Brayton Cycle

The Brayton Cycle is used to model power generation in gas turbine systems. It is composed of four stages: Stage 1: 1 to 2: Isentropic compression. Stage 2: 2 to 3: Constant pressure (Isobaric) heating. Stage 3: 3 to 4: Isentropic expansion. Stage 4: 4 to 1: Constant pressure (Isobaric) cooling. The first equation computes the rate of heat intake, Qin (W), during the constant pressure-heating step (Stage 1). Equation 2 computes the rate of heat exhaust, Qout (W). Equation 3 calculates the power available for work, Wr (W). Equation 4, 5, 6, and 7 compute the maximum heat efficiency, , (unitless) of the Brayton cycle. Equation 8 computes the work ratio Rw, the network over of the work performed during isentropic expansion. Equation 9 computes the optimum pressure ratio, ropt, required to perform the maximum rate of work for the Brayton Cycle temperature conditions. Equation 10 calculates the specific heat ratio, k. Equation 11 computes the pressure ratio, rp, of the isobaric heating process (Stage 2). Equation 12 computes the temperature/pressure relationship for adiabatic compression (Stage 1). Equation 13 states the constant pressure condition for isobaric heating (Stage 2). Equation 14 computes the temperature/pressure relationship for adiabatic expansion (Stage 3). Equation 15 states the constant pressure condition for isobaric cooling (Stage 4). The last two equations compute the ideal gas law (Eq. 16) and the time (s) (Eq. 17) for a complete revolution of the dual cycle, from the mass flow rate, mr (kg/s), of fuel and air into the cycle and the mass of gas, m (kg), inside the cycle.
Qin = mr cp T 3 T 2
Qout = mr cp T 4 T1 Wr = Qin T1 T 4 1 T 2 T1 = 1 T3 1 T2
Eq. 1
Eq. 2 Eq. 3

Eq. 4
= 1
Qout Qin
1 k k
Eq. 5
= 1 rp
Eq. 6
k 1 k
p1 = 1 p2
Rw = 1
Eq. 7
k 1 T1 rp k T3
Eq. 8
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T 3 ropt = T1
k= cp cv p2 p1 rp =
k k 1
Eq. 9
Eq. 10
Eq. 11
T1 rp = T2
p2 = p3 p3 T3 = p4 T4 p1 = p4 p V = time =
k k 1
Eq. 12
Eq. 13
k k 1

Eq. 14
Eq. 15
m Rm T MWT m mr
Description Efficiency Specific heat at constant pressure Specific heat at constant volume Ratio of specific heats Mass of gas in cycle Mass flow rate Molar mass Pressure Pressure 1 Pressure 2 Pressure 3 Pressure 4 Heat inflow rate Heat outflow rate Molar gas constant Optimum pressure ratio Pressure ratio Work ratio Temperature Temperature 1
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Eq. 16
Eq. 17
Variable cp cv k m mr MWT p p1 p2 p3 p4 Qin Qout Rm ropt rp Rw T T1

Units unitless J/(kgK) J/(kgK) unitless kg kg/s kg/mol Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa W W 8.3145 J/(kgK) unitless unitless unitless K K
Variable T2 T3 T4 time V Wr Example 15.6.1.5:
Description Temperature 2 Temperature 3 Temperature 4 Time elapsed Volume Work rate
Units K K K s m3 W
Air, having a pressure of 1 atm and temperature of 300 K, is drawn into a turbine where it is compressed to a pressure of 6 atm. The air is heated, at constant pressure, to a temperature of 1100 K. The rate of energy input during heating is 100 MW. Assume the turbine operates on the ideal Brayton cycle. Compute the temperature and pressure at each point in the cycle, the airflow rate (kg/s), the work ratio, and the thermal efficiency for the gas turbine. Air has a specific heat ratio of 1.4 and a specific heat at constant pressure of 1.005 kJ/(kgK).
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Solution Select the following Equations 1, 3, 4, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given cp = 1.005 kJ/(kgK) k = 1.4 p1 = 1 atm p2 = 6 atm Qin = 100 MW T1 = 300 K T3 = 1100 K Solution = .609573 mr = 108.131 kg/s p3 = .60795 MPa p4 = 101325 Pa rp = 6 Rw = .544952 T2 = 179.801 K T4 = 659.271 K Wr = 6.09573 E7 W
15.6.2 Clapeyron Equation

The Clausius Clapeyron equation describes the change in vapor pressure, of a pure substance, p1-p2 (Pa), with change in temperature, T1-T2 (K). It is assumed that the pure substance does not undergo a phase change between temperatures, T1 and T2. The specific enthalpy, hs (J kg K-1), determines the amount of energy-required convert a kilogram of pure substance from a solid to a vapor (sublimation) or liquid to a vapor (vaporization).
ln
p2 = MWT hs 1 1 p1 Rm T1 T 2
186
Eq. 1
Variable hs MWT p1 p2 Rm T1 T2
Description Enthalpy per unit mass Molar mass Pressure 1 Pressure 2 Molar gas constant Temperature 1 Temperature 2
Units J/(kgK) kg/mol Pa Pa 8.3145 J/(kgK) K K
Example 15.6.2: Liquid ammonia (molar mass: 17 g/mol) has a vapor pressure of 103,000 Pa at 240 K and 1,062,000 Pa at 300 K. What is the approximate enthalpy of vaporization per mass of ammonia?
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given MWT = 17 g/mol p1 = 103,000 Pa p2 = 1,062,000 Pa T1 = 240 K T2 = 300 K Solution hs=1.36936 E6 J/kg
References: 1. Lynn D. Russell, and George A. Adebiyi, Classical Thermodynamics, Saunders College publishing, Harcourt Brace Jovanavich College Publishers, Fort Worth TX, 1993 2. Michael R. Lindeburg, Mechanical Engineering reference manual, 8th Edition, Professional Publications, Belmont, CA 1990
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F3: Equations/6: Machine Design
Chapter 16: Machine Design

This section of the software deals a wide range of calculations under the broad classification "Machine Design". Topics include designing springs, calculating induced stresses due to contact between cylinders or shafts, stresses in a variety of types of machine elements and bearings. The topics in this section are organized under four headings. They are: Stress - Machine elements Bearings Hertzian Stresses Spring Design
16.1 Stress: Machine Elements

16.1.1 Cylinders
Cylindrical pressure vessels, hydraulic cylinders, gun barrels, pipes carrying fluids at high pressures develop both radial and tangential stresses with values strongly dependent upon the radius of the elements under consideration. In determining the radial stress, r (Pa), and tangential stress, t (Pa), the assumption is made that the longitudinal elongation is constant. We designate the inner and outer radius of the cylinder as ri (m) and ro (m), while the internal and external pressures are designated by pi (Pa) and po (Pa). The two equations listed here determine the radial and tangential stresses respectively.
t =
pi ri 2 po ro 2
ri 2 ro 2 po pi r2 ro 2 ri 2
6 6
Eq. 1
r =
pi ri 2 po ro 2 +
ri 2 ro 2 po pi r2 ro 2 ri 2
Eq. 2
When r < ro and r > ri both equations give physically meaningful results. Variable r t pi po r ri Ro Description Radial stress Tangential stress Pressure inside Pressure outside Radius Inside radius Outside radius Units Pa Pa Pa Pa m m m
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 16 - Equations Machine Design
188
Example 16.1.1: A hollow cylinder, with an outer radius of 10 inches and an inside radius of 24 cm, carries a fluid at a pressure of 100 psi. The pressure outside is 15 psi. Find the radial and tangential stresses 0.5 cm away from the inner radius line.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select both equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given pi = 100 psi po = 15 psi r = 24.5 cm ri = 24 cm ro = 10 in
The stress results shown here have been converted to psi units.
16.1.2 Rotating Rings

Many problems such as flywheels and blowers can be simplified to rotating ring problems to determine stresses. The two equations listed below describe the radial stress, r (Pa), and tangential stress, t (Pa), are linked to key parameters density, (kg/m3), angular velocity, (rad/s), Poissons ratio, (unitless), inside radius ro (m), outer radius ro (m) and radial distance, r (m), between ri and ro. The first equation computes the tangential stress, t (Pa), while the second equation computes the radial, r.
3+ ri 2 ro 2 1 + 3 2 t = ri 2 + ro 2 + r 8 r2 3 + 2
2
r = 2
3+ ri 8
When r < ro and r > ri both equations give physically meaningful results.
Variable r t r
Solution r = -67.966 psi t = -1453.81 psi

Eq. 1
ri 2 ro 2 2 + ro 2 r2 r2

Eq. 2
Description Poissons ratio Density Radial stress Tangential stress Angular velocity Radius
Units unitless kg/m3 Pa Pa rad/s m
189
Variable ri ro
Description Inside radius Outside radius
Units m m
Example 16.1.2: A material with a density of 1.5 lb/in 3 is a thin ring rotating at 300 rpm. The ring has an inner radius of 10 in and an outer radius of 11 in. Given the Poisson of 0.8, find the stress at mid -point of the ring thickness.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select both equations to solve the problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given =.8 = 1.5 lb/in 3 = 300 rpm r = 10.5 in ri = 10 in ro = 11 in
16.1.3 Pressure and Shrink Fits

Shrinking or pressing one part against the other, assembles two cylindrical parts, a contact pressure is created. The five equations presented in this equation set form the foundation for calculating stresses and dimensional changes in the two components involved in the assembly. The first equation computes the tangential stress, it (Pa), at the transition radius, r (m), of the inner member, inner radius of the inner member, ri (m), and pressure, p (Pa). In a similar manner, the second equation calculates the tangential stress of the outer rim, ot (Pa), in terms of p, r and the inner surface radius of the outer member, ro (m). The next two equations determine the radial elongation/contraction, i (m), and, o (m), of the inner and outer members in terms of r, ri, ro, p and the respective modulus of elasticity, Eo (Pa), Ei (Pa) and Poissons ratios, i (unitless) and o (unitless). The last equation calculates the radial interference, (m).
it =
p r 2 + ri 2 r 2 ri 2 p ro 2 + r 2 ro 2 r 2
ot =
c
7
Solution r = 1.82034 psi t = 422.75 psi
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
190
p r ro 2 + ri 2 o = + o Eo ro 2 r 2 p r r 2 + ri 2 i = 2 Ei r ri 2

i
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
= i o
When r < ro and r > ri all the equations give physically meaningful results.
Eq. 5
Variable i o i o it ot Ei Eo p r ri ro
Description Total radial change Change in inner radius Change in outer radius Poissons ratio inner ring Poissons ratio outer ring Tangential stress inner rim Tangential stress outer rim Youngs modulus inner material Youngs modulus outer material Pressure Radius Inside radius Outside radius
Units m m m Unitless Unitless Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa m m m
Example 16.1.3: Two cylinders of radius 7 inches and 10 inches are made of materials with modulus of elasticity 60 GPa and 100 GPa respectively and are press fitted with a pressure of 50 psi. The transition radius is 9 inches. Assume that the Poissons ratios of the inner and outer members to be 0.8. Find the stresses in the inner and outer members at the transition radius. Compute the radial interference.
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Solution Select all of the equations to solve this problem by pressing . Now press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given i = 0.8 o = 0.8 Ei = 60 GPa Eo = 100 GPa p = 50 psi r = 9 in
Solution =-0.003853 mm i =-0.004285 mm o =0.008138 mm it = -1.4005E6 Pa ot = 3.28408E6 Pa
191
Given ri = 7 in ro = 10 in
Solution
16.1.4 Crane Hook

The three equations in this section help solve the essential parameters involved in the use of a crane hook. The first equation calculates the cross sectional area, A (m2), in terms of the width, b (m) and depth, h (m), of the crane hook. The second equation calculates the radius, rn (m), of the neutral axis using the inner and outer radius, ri (m) and ro (m). The third equation calculates the stress, (Pa), in terms of the force, F (N), area A, moment MOM (Nm), rn, eccentricity, (m). Equation 4 relates ri and ro to the depth of the hook, h. The last equation computes the distances to an arbitrary position on the hook from the neutral axis y (m), and the central axis, x (m).
A = bh
rn = h ro ln ri

Eq. 1 Eq. 2

F MOM y = + A A rn y
Eq. 3
6
Eq. 4 Eq. 5
ro = ri + h rn = x + y
When rn < ro and rn > ri, these equations give physically meaningful results.
Variable A b F h MOM ri rn ro Y
Description Eccentricity Stress Area Width Force Height Moment of inertia Inside radius Radius of neutral axis Outside radius Distance
Units m Pa m2 m N m Nm m m m m
Example 16.1.4: A rectangular crane hook has to lift a load of 12500 lbf. The width of the hook is 1 inch and the thickness is 1 inch. The hook ring has an outer radius of 8 inches and an inner radius of 7 inches. The eccentric offset is 1 inch and the moment is applied 1.5 inches away from the center. A moment load of 1000 Nm is applied. Find the radius of neutral axis, and stress in the hook material.
192
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Solution Select all the equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given = 1 in b = 1 in F = 12500 lbf h = 1 in MOM = 1000 Nm ri = 7 in ro = 8 in y = 1.5 in
When two spheres or cylinders with curved surfaces are pressed together to have a point or line contact stresses are developed in both bodies. The stresses developed in the two bodies are in general three dimensional in nature. The contact stresses arise in a number of practical cases such as wheel on a rail, in automotive cams and tappets, mating stresses in gear teeth and roller bearings. The general case of contact stresses for two spheres or cylinders are called Hertzian Stresses.
16.2.1 Two Spheres

When two solid spheres of diameters, d1 (m) and d2 (m), are pressed together with a force, F (N), a circular contact area of radius, ac (m), is formed. The stress is maximum in the center of this circular contact area. By specifying the Young's modulus, E1 (Pa) and E2 (Pa), and the Poisson's ratio, 1 and 2 (unitless), for the two spheres, the contact radius, ac (m), is calculated from equation 1. The second equation computes the maximum pressure, pmax (Pa), at the center of the contact area. The principal stresses, xx (Pa) and zz (Pa), are computed from equations 3 and 4 illustrating the variation of these stresses away from the principle point of contact with coefficient of friction f (unitless).
3 F 1 1 + 1 2 8 E1 E 2 ac = 1 1 + d1 d 2
2 2 MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 16 - Equations Machine Design
Solution = 14716.8 psi A = .000645 m2 rn = 7.48888 in X = .152117 m
16.2 Hertzian Stresses
1 3
Eq. 1
193
p max =
3 F 2 ac 2
Eq. 2
z ac 1 xx = pmax 1 tan 11 + f 6 z ac z 2 1 + ac
1 2 2
Eq. 3
zz =
pmax z2 1+ 2 ac
Description Poissons ratio of 1 Poissons ratio of 2 Stress along x axis Stress along z axis Coefficient of friction Radius of contracted area Diameter of 1 Diameter of 2 Youngs modulus 1 Youngs modulus -2 Force Maximum pressure z-axis distance from contact point
Eq. 4
Variable 1 2 xx zz f ac d1 d2 E1 E2 F pmax z Example 16.2.1:
Units unitless unitless Pa Pa unitless m m m Pa Pa N Pa m
Two spheres, with diameters 8 inch and 15 inch, are pressing a load of 4000 lbf between them. The two spheres have elastic constants of 100 GPa and 125 GPa respectiv ely, and have Poisson's ratios of 0.8 each. If the friction coefficient is 0.5, find the stress 0.1 inches away from the point of impact.
Upper Display
Lower Display
Solution Select all the equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. The problem is solved best in two stages. First solve the first two equations as a pair; then solve the last two equations as a new set knowing the values calculated from the first two equations. The composite results are shown below.
194
Given 1 = .8 2 = .9 f = .5 d1 = 8 in d2 = 15 in E1 = 100 GPa E2 = 125 GPa F = 4000 lbf z = .1 in
Solution xx = -9693.95 psi zz = -134102 psi ac = .06513 in pmax = 450242 psi
16.2.2 Two Cylinders

When two solid cylinders with diameters d1 (m), d2 (m) and length L (m) are pressed together with a force F (N), a circular contact area of radius ac (m) is formed. The maximum stress is in the center of this circular contact area. By specifying the Young's modulus, E1 and E2 (Pa), and Poisson's ratio, 1 and 2 (unitless), for the two cylinders, the contact radius ac (m) is calculated from equation 1. The second equation computes the maximum pressure pmax (Pa) at the center of the contact area. The principal stresses xx (Pa), yy (Pa) and zz (Pa) are computed from equations 3, 4 and 5 illustrating the variation of these stresses away from the principle point of contact with coefficient of friction f (unitless).
ac =
2 F 1 12 1 2 2 + L E1 E2 1 1 + d1 d 2 2 F ac L

z ac 2
2
Eq. 1
pmax =
Eq. 2
xx = 2 pmax
1 yy = p max 2 z 1 + ac
2 2

1+
z2 z 2 ac ac
Eq. 3
1+
2 z ac
Eq. 4
zz =
p max 1+ z2 ac 2
Description Poissons ratio of 1 Poissons ratio of 2 Poissons ratio Stress along x axis Eq. 5
Variable 1 2 xx
Units unitless unitless unitless Pa
195
Variable yy zz ac d1 d2 E1 E2 F L Pmax Z
Description Stress along y axis Stress along z axis Radius of contracted area Diameter of 1 Diameter of 2 Youngs modulus 1 Youngs modulus 2 Force Length Maximum pressure z-axis distance from contact point
Units Pa Pa m m m Pa Pa N m Pa m
Example 16.2.2: Two cylinders 12 inches long, diameters 4 and 6 inches respectively, have Poisson's ratio of 0.9 and elasticity modulus of 50 and 60 GPa each. Find the stress at the line of impact when a 4000 -lbf load is applied.
Upper Display
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Solution Select all the equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. The problem takes about 20 seconds to solve. Given = .9 1 = .9 2= .9 d1 = 4 in d2 = 6 in E1 = 50 GPa E2 = 60 GPa F = 4000 lbf L = 12 in z = 0.1 in
Solution xx = -1.316 E7 Pa yy = -8926.28 Pa zz = -2116.48 psi ac = .004946 in pmax = 2.95815 E8 Pa
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16.3 Bearings
16.3.1 Bearing Life
Under the heading Bearing life, we have listed four equations that help design key bearing parameters in developing design equations. The main parameters of interest can be divided into manufacturer specified parameters are the rating load, FR (N), rated number of revolutions, NR (unitless), and the rated life, LR (s); in the design process, one specifies the corresponding design load, FD (N), design life, LD (s), and required design in the number of revolutions, ND (unitless). In addition, the rated speed, NR1 (1/s), and designed speed, ND1 (1/s), are also included in the calculations. The manufacturer supplies these ratings. The constant is either 3 for ball bearings or 3.33 for collar bearings based on experience from the field.
ND = LD ND1 NR = LR NR1 ND FR = NR FD
Eq. 1 Eq. 2

Eq. 3
LD ND1 FR = FD LR NR1
Variable FD FR LD LR ND ND1 NR NR1
Eq. 4
Description A Constant: enter 3 for ball bearings and 3.33 for roller bearings Radial design load Radial rating load Required design life Catalog rated life Required design: number of revolutions Required design speed Rated number of revolutions Rated speed
Units unitless N N s s unitless 1/s unitless 1/s
Example 16.3.1: Design a bearing system from the following specifications: Rating load is 1000 lbf; rated life is 100 hr; rated revolutions is 10000000; design goals are 3000000 revolutions for life, a design life of 1000 hrs. Assume a value of 3 for .
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197
Solution Select all the equations to solve this problem. Press to select all the equations and start the solving process by displaying all the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above.
Given =3 FR = 1000 lbf LD = 1000 hr LR = 100 hr ND = 3 E6 NR = 1 E7
Solution FD = 1493.8 lbf ND1 = 50 rpm NR1 = 1666.67 rpm
16.3.2 Petroff's law

Petroff was one of the first to recognize clear connection between torque, speed, clearance, and coefficient of friction. In developing similar ideas, Sommerfeld was able to recognize a non-dimensional number named after him indicating a characteristic property of bearings. The four equations below form the core set of relationships. The first equation connects torque, (Nm), with the journal radius, rj (m), length L (m), clearance clr (m), absolute viscosity, (Pas), and significant speed, N (1/s). The second equation computes coefficient of friction, cof (unitless), in terms of , N, load pressure, Pb (Pa), and clr. The third and fourth equations are alternative ways to link the Sommerfeld number, Sfld (unitless), with cof, rj, clr, , Pb.
4 2 rj 3 L N clr
2 2 N rj cof = Pb clr cof rj = 2 2 Sfld clr
rj N Sfld = clr Pb
2
Variable clr cof L N Pb rj Sfld
Description Torque Absolute viscosity Clearance Coefficient of friction Length Significant speed Load per bearing area Journal radius Sommerfeld number
198
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
Units Nm Pas m Unitless m 1/s Pa m unitless
Example 16.3.2: A journal bearing with a radius of 6 inches, 22 inches long, is working at a pressure of 15,000 lbf/ft 2. With a clearance of 0.1 in and an absolute viscosity of 0.15 Pas revolves at a speed of 2500 rpm. Find the torque, coefficient of friction and Sommerfeld number.
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Solution Select the first three equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given = .15 Pas clr =0.1 in L = 22 in N = 2500 rpm Pb = 15000 lbf/ft2 rj = 6 in
16.3.3 Pressure Fed Bearings

The equations analyze the use of forced lubrication in a bearing system; enable the computation of heat dissipated and temperature rise in the fluid cooling the system.
Qs =
ps r clr 3 1 + 15 ecc 2 . 3 L
ps clr 2 umax = 8 L H = 2 cof Pld r N J 2 H grav CH Qs

Description Specific weight Rate of heat loss Temperature rise Absolute viscosity Specific heat
TF =
Variable H TF CH
c
7
Solution = 192.14 Nm cof = .010307 Sfld = .031328
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
Units N/m3 W K Pas J/(kgK)
199
Variable clr Cof ecc J L N Pld ps Qs R umax
Description Clearance Coefficient of friction Eccentricity Mechanical equivalent heat Length Significant speed Load Supply pressure Sideflow Radius Maximum velocity
Units m unitless unitless unitless m 1/s N Pa m3/s m m/s
Example 16.3.3: A cooling fluid with a specific weight of 100 lbf/ft 3 is forced into a system at the rate of 5 gal/min. The specific heat of the fluid is 2.5 J/(gK). The shaft is rotating at a speed of 300 rpm. If the load is 250 lbf, find the amount of heat removed and the temperature rise of the fluid. Assume that the shaft radius is 5 inches.
Upper Display
Lower Display
Solution Select the last two equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given = 100 lbf/ft 3 CH = 2.5 J/(gK) cof = 0.005 N = 300 rpm Pld = 250 lbf Qs = 5 gal/min r = 5 in
16.3.4 Lewis Formula

Two equations illustrate computing stress, (Pa), from different input data. The first equation computes from the length, L (m), along the z-axis, the load expressed as weight, Wt (N), and the x and y dimensions, dx (m) and dy (m), respectively. The second equation computes from Wt, dx, the diametrical pitch pd (1/m) and the Lewis form factor, Lf (unitless).
6 Wt L dx dy 2
Solution H = 22.1845 W TF = .035123 K
Eq. 1
200
Wt pd dx Lf
Description Stress X-section dimension Y-section dimension Length Lewis form factor Diametrical pitch Load
Eq. 2
Variable Dx Dy L Lf Pd Wt
Units Pa m m m unitless 1/m N
Example 16.3.4: Compute the Lewis form factor and stress in a mechanical system defined below: The tooth is 4 inches wide, 2 inches high, and is 16 inches long. It is subjected to a weight of 1000 lbf. Assume diametrical pitch to be 4 1/m.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select both equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given dx= 4 in dy = 2 in L = 16 in pd = 4 1/m Wt = 1000 lbf
16.3.5 AGMA Stresses

American Gear Manufacturer's Association (AGMA) has established some industry wide standards for stress calculations. The two equations in this section reflect their standards. The first equation computes the bending stress, b (Pa), of the gear in terms of load, Wt (N), face width, fw (m), pitch diameter, dp (m), a series of factors of the system such as geometry factor, gf (unitless), application factor, Ka (unitless), size factor, Ks (unitless), and dynamic factor, Kv (unitless), and load distribution factor, Kld (unitless). The second equation computes compressive stress, c (Pa), in terms of the application parameter, Ca (unitless), surface condition factor, Cf (unitless), load distribution factor, Cm (unitless), elastic coefficient factor, CP (Pa), size factor CS (unitless), dynamic factor, Cv (unitless), dp, gf, and fw.
Solution = 6000 psi Lf = .001348
201
b =
Wt Ka 1 Ks Kld Kv fw dp gf
CP Wt Ca CS Cm Cf Cv fw dp gf
Eq. 1
c =
Eq. 2
Variable b c Ca Cf Cm CP CS Cv dp fw gf Ka Kld Ks Kv Wt
Description Stress Compressive stress Application factor Surface condition factor Load distribution factor Elastic coefficient Size Factor Dynamic Factor Pitch diameter Face width Geometric factor Application factor Load distribution factor Size factor Dynamic Factor Load
Units Pa Pa unitless unitless unitless Pa unitless unitless m m unitless unitless unitless unitless unitless N
Example 16.3.5: Compute the base stress for a system with a stress level of 25000 psi, application factor of 1.1, pitch diameter of 6 inches, dynamic factor of 0.25, face width of 0.5 inches, load distribution factor of 1.8, size factor of 1.25 and geometry factor of 0.5. Find the load the system can bear.
Upper Display
Lower Display
Solution Select the first equation to solve this problem. Select it by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given b = 25000 psi dp = 6 in fw = .5 in gf = .5 Ka = 1.1 Kld = 1.8 Ks = 1.25 Kv = 0.25
Solution Wt = 3787.88 lbf
202
16.3.6 Shafts
The equation below reflects a way to compute minimum shaft diameter, ds (m), given design criteria such as shear endurance limit, se (Pa), and shear yield point, syp (Pa), torque amplitude, se (Nm), mean torque, m (Nm), moment amplitude, Ma (Nm), moment mean, Mn (m), and a factor of safety, ns (unitless).
32 ns se m Ma Mn ds = se + syp + se + syp

2 2
.5 1/ 3
Eq. 1
Variable se syp a m ds Ma Mn ns
Description Shear Endurance limit Shear yield point Torque amplitude Mean torque Shaft diameter Moment amplitude Moment mean Factor of safety
Units Pa Pa Nm Nm m Nm Nm unitless
Example 16.3.6: Find the mean diameter of a shaft required to transmit a mean torque of 1000 Nm and torque amplitude of 2000 ftlbf. The shaft has to withstand 5 GPa of an endurance limit, and a shear yield point of 12.5 GPa. The moment amplitude and mean moment of the shaft are 1450 Nm and 1250 Nm. Assume a factor of safety of 10.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given se = 5 GPa syp = 12.5 GPa a = 2000 ftlbf m = 1000 Nm Ma = 1450 Nm Mn = 1250 Nm ns = 10 Solution ds = 1.65889 in
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16.3.7 Clutches and Brakes
16.3.7.1 Clutches
16.3.7.1.1 Clutches
The six equations in this section are based on the following assumptions: 1. 2. 3. 4. The pressure at any point is proportional to distance from the hinge. The effect of centrifugal force neglected. The shoe is assumed to be rigid. Coefficient of friction does not vary with pressure.
For a clockwise rotation the pin reactions along x and y directions are shown by, Rcx (N) and Rcy (N), from equations 1 and 2 in terms of maximum pressure, pa (Pa), width b (m), radius r (m), friction factor, f (unitless), two computed unitless parameters, conA and conB, and loads, Fx (N) and Fy (N). The angle, a (rad), represents the angle from the hinge. The third and fourth equations compute Rax (N) and Ray (N) representing the calculations for the counterclockwise case. The two angles, 1 (rad) and 2 (rad), represent the minimum and maximum angles of the brake shoe. The last two equations compute conA and conB in terms of 1 and 2.
Rcx =
pa b r conA f conB Fx sin a pa b r conB + f conA Fy sin a pa b r conA + f conB Fx sin a pa b r conB f conA Fy sin a
2 2
1 61
6 6
Eq. 1
Rcy =
1 61
Eq. 2
Rax =
1 61
Eq. 3
6 1 61 2sin1 267 2sin1167 conA =

Ray = 2 conB =
Eq. 4
Eq. 5
2 1 sin 2 2 sin 2 1 2 4
1 6
Eq. 6
204
Variable 1 2 a f b conA conB Fx Fy pa r Rax Ray Rcx Rcy
Description Minimum angle Maximum angle Angle from hinge pin, location of pa Coefficient of friction Width Constant A Constant B Force along x Force along y Maximum pressure at a Radius Reaction x-axis (anti-clockwise) Reaction y-axis (anti-clockwise) Reaction x-axis (clockwise) Reaction y-axis (clockwise)
Units rad rad rad unitless m unitless unitless N N Pa m N N N N
Example 16.3.7.1.1: A clutch/brake system has a show that covers from 20 degrees to 120 degrees, with the angle from the hinge pin of 70 degrees. The coefficient of friction is 0.5. For a load of 1000 lbf along the x-axis and 1000 lbf along y-axis, and a maximum pressure of 25000 psi, find the counterclockwise reactions for a system 3 inches wide and 3 inches in radius.
Display: Step 1
Solution Solve this problem in two steps. First select equations 5 and 6 to solve for conA and conB. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Following the calculations of conA and conB, deselect the last two equations and select equations 3 and 4. Designate the previously computed results for conA and conB as known values using the highlight bar and :Opts/ :Know. Press to solve for Rax and Ray. Given (first step) 1 = 20 deg 2 = 120 deg Given (second step) a = 70 deg f = .5 b = 3 in Fx = 1000 lbf Fy = 1000 lbf pa = 25000 psi r = 3 in Solution (first step) conA = .316511 conB = 1.24987 Solution (second step) Rax = 261990 lbf Ray = 303939 lbf
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[ f c
16.3.7.2 Uniform Wear - Cone Brake

The two equations in this section represent the force and torque required for a cone brake where uniform wear is assumed. The first equation represents the force F (N) necessary to actuate the brake system based on the maximum stress, pmax (Pa), outer diameter, d1 (m), and inner diameter, d2 (m). The second equation determines the torque, (Nm), needed in terms of the same parameters and cone angle, (rad).
pmax d 1 F= d 2 d1 2
6 7
Eq. 1
f pmax d 1 = d 2 2 d 12 8 sin
16
Eq. 2
Variable f d1 d2 F Pmax
Description Half thread/cone angle Torque Coefficient of friction Inner diameter Outer diameter Force Maximum pressure
Units rad Nm unitless m m N Pa
Example 16.3.7.2: A cone brake with an angle of 45 degrees, an outer diameter of 4 inches, and an inner diameter of 3 inches, has coefficient of friction of 0.5. Find the force if the maximum pressure allowed is 1000 psi.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select both equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given = 45 deg = .5 d1 = 3 in d2 = 4 in pmax = 1000 psi uf = .5
Solution =658.647 Nm F = 4712.39 lbf
206
16.3.7.3 Uniform Pressure - Cone Brake

The two equations here reflect the force, F (N), and torque, (Nm), for the case where the pressure on the cone is assumed to be uniform. The first equation represents the force, F (N), necessary to actuate the brake system based on the maximum stress, pmax (Pa), outer diameter, d1 (m), and inner diameter, d2 (m). The second equation determines the torque, (Nm), needed in terms of the same parameters and cone angle, (rad).
F=
pmax d 2 2 d 12
4
Eq. 1
F f d 2 3 d 13 3 sin = d 2 2 d 12
Variable f d1 d2 F pmax
1 62
Eq. 2
Description Half thread/cone angle Torque Coefficient of friction Inner diameter Outer diameter Force Maximum pressure
Units rad Nm unitless m m N Pa
Example 16.3.7.3: A cone brake has an angle of 45 degrees, an outer diameter 12 inches and an inner diameter of 8 inches. Assuming a coefficient of friction of 0.5, find the force if the maximum pressure allowed is 1000 psi.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select both equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given = 45 deg f= .5 d1 = 8 in d2 = 12 in pmax = 1000 psi
Solution = 25433.6 Nm F = 62831.9 lbf
207
16.4 Spring Design

Design of springs has played a key role in a variety of situations where effort is made to find the proper combination of material, spring strength and volume of material. In this section we have treated a variety of spring designs: 1. 2. 3. 4. Bending Springs plate springs with a rectangular, triangular or semi-elliptical shapes. Coiled Springs Cylindrical helical springs with circular or rectangular cross section. Torsional Springs Circular or rectangular straight bar Axially Loaded Springs Conical circular section, or cylindrical helical spring with rectangular or circular cross section.
In the following subsections, the design equations for these springs are included and example problems are solved.
16.4.1 Bending
16.4.1.1 Rectangular Plate
The four equations in this section define the key design equations for a bending spring of rectangular cross section. The spring has a length, L (m), width b (m), and thickness, h (m). The spring is subjected to a load, Pld (N), resulting in a stress, s (Pa), and a deflection, y (m). U (J), represent the energy in the spring and the area moment is given by I (m4). The first equation computes, s, for a given load, Pld. The second equation computes the area moment, I, while the third equation estimates the energy, U. The last equation links up deflection, y, in terms of Pld, L, Youngs modulus, E (Pa), and I.
Pld = I= U=
b h 2 s 6 L
Eq. 1
b h3 12 Pld y 2 Pld L3 3 E I
Description Deflection Safe stress Width Youngs modulus
208
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
y =
Eq. 4
Variable y s b E
Units m Pa m Pa
Variable h I L Pld U
Description Height Area moment Length Load Resilience
Units m m4 m N Nm
Example 16.4.1.1: A rectangular plate spring is 8 inches long, 1 inch wide and 0.25 in thick. The material has a Y oungs modulus of 80 GPa, and flexes 1.5 inches. Find the maximum load the system can handle, the energy stored in the spring and the stress level for the maximum load.
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Solution Select all the equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given y = 1.5 in b = 1 in E = 80 GPa h = .25 in L = 8 in
16.4.1.2 Triangular Plate

The four equations in this section define the key design equations for a bending spring of rectangular cross section. The spring has a length, L (m), and width, b (m), and thickness, h (m). The spring is subjected to a load, Pld (N), resulting in a stress, s (Pa) and a deflection, y (m). U (J), represent the energy in the spring and the area moment is given by I (m4). The first equation computes s for a given load, Pld. The second equation computes the area moment, I, while the third equation estimates the energy in the spring, U. The last equation links up deflection, y, in terms of Pld, L, Youngs modulus, E (Pa), and I.
b h 2 s Pld = 6 L b h3 I= 12
Solution s = 7.03125E8 Pa I = 5.41968E-10 m4 Pld = 590.662 N U = 11.2521 Nm
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
209
U=
Pld y 2 Pld L3 2 E I
Description Deflection Safe stress Width Youngs modulus Height Area moment Length Load Resilience
Eq. 3
y =
Eq. 4
Variable y s b E h I L Pld U
Units m Pa m Pa m m4 m N Nm
Example 16.4.1.2: A triangular plate 20 inches long with a base width of 10 inches and a thickness of 1.5 cm is subject to a load of 500 lbf. Find the deflection due to this load, the energy of the spring, and the maximum stress introduced into the material. The spring has a modulus of elasticity of 50 GPa.
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Lower Display
Solution Select all the equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given b = 10 in E = 50 GPa h = 1.5 cm L = 20 in Pld = 500 lbf
16.4.1.3 Semi-Elliptical
The two equations in this section specify key design properties for a semielliptical spring design. These equations are useful for designing springs for automobiles. The spring has a half-length, L (m), width, b (m), and a leaf thickness, h (m). The spring is subjected to a load 2*Pld (N) resulting in a stress, s (Pa), and a deflection, y (m). The first equation computes s for a load, Pld, given the number of leaves, nf, (unitless), and the no-load sag, p (m). The second equation computes the deflection, y (m), in terms of L, nf, b, h, Pld, p, Youngs modulus, E (Pa), and the half cone angle, (rad).
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 16 - Equations Machine Design 210
Solution y = 1.6069 in s = 1.18619 E8 Pa I = 7.14375 E-8 m4 U = 45.3887 Nm
Pld = nf b h 2 6 L2 nf b h 3
y =
1 67 L + p tan1 6 Pld 2
E
Description Half thread/cone angle Sag without load Deflection Safe stress Width Youngs modulus Height Length Number of coils/leaves Load
s 6 L + p tan
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Variable p y s b E H L Nf Pld
Units rad m m Pa m Pa m m unitless N
Example 16.4.1.3: A semi-elliptical spring has 6 leaves and is 24 inches long, 3 inches wide and .5 inches thick. The Youngs modulus for the steel spring is 100 GPa. Find the deflection and stress for a 10000-lbf load. Assume the spring has initial sag of 1.5 inches. The half angle formed at the top of the spring is 25 degrees.
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Solution Select both equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given = 25 deg p = 1.5 in b = 3 in E = 100 GPa h = .5 in L = 24 in nf = 6 Pld = 10000 lbf
Solution y = 26.1576 in s = 2.27062E9 Pa
211
16.4.2 Coiled Springs

16.4.2.1 Cylindrical Helical - Circular wire
The seven equations in this section form the design equations for a cylindrical helical spring with a circular wire. The wire of the spring has a diameter, d (m), a coil radius, r (m), and length, L (m). The spring is subjected to a load, Pld (N), resulting in a stress, s (Pa), and a deflection, y (m). U (J) represents the energy in the spring and the area moment is given by I (m4). The first equation computes s for a given load, Pld. The second equation computes the area moment, I, while the third equation estimates the energy, U. The fourth equation links up deflection, y, in terms of Pld, L, Youngs modulus, E (Pa), and I. Equations 6 and 7 define the geometry factor, ksp (unitless), and the geometry ratio, kw (unitless). The last equation computes the deflection, y, from the coil radius, r, and the deflection angle, .
h 3 s Pld = 32 r ksp d4 I= 64 s 2 V U= 8 E ksp 2 y =

kw = ksp = 2 r L s d E ksp 2 r h 4 kw 1 4 kw 4
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
Eq. 5
Eq. 6
y = r
Variable y s d E h I ksp kw Description Half thread/cone angle Deflection Safe stress Diameter Youngs modulus Height Area moment Geometry factor Geometry ratio
Eq. 7
Units rad m Pa m Pa m m4 unitless unitless
212
Variable L nf Pld r U V
Description Length Number of coils/leaves Load Radius Resilience Volume of spring
Units m unitless N m Nm m3
Example 16.4.2.1: A helical spring is to be designed with a circular wire. The wire used has a diameter 2 mm, and is wound as a spring of radius 4 cm. The total length of the wire is 1 m, and a safe stress is established at 50000 psi. Assume that the elastic modulus for the wire material is 80 GPa. Find the load the spring is designed to carry and the moment of inertia for the wire.
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Solution Select the equations 1, 2, 4, 5 and 6 in this set to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given s = 50000 psi d = 2 mm E = 80 GPa L=1m r = 4 cm Solution y = .169117 m I = 7.85398 E-13 m4 ksp =1.01923 kw = 40 Pld = 6.6412 N
16.4.2.2 Rectangular Spiral

The five equations in this section define the key design equations for a bending spring having a rectangular cross section. The spring has a width, b (m), thickness, h (m), and a radius, r (m). The spring is subjected to a load, Pld (N) resulting in a stress, s (Pa), and a deflection, y (m). U (J) represents the energy in spring and the area moment is given by, I (m4). The first equation computes s for a given load, Pld. The second equation computes the area moment, I, while the third equation estimates the energy, U, in terms of the volume of the spring, V (m3). The last two equations define the geometry factor ksp (unitless) and the geometry ratio kw (unitless).
Pld =
b d 2 s 6 r ksp
I=
b h3 12
213
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
U=
s 2 V 8 E ksp 2
2 r d
Eq. 3
kw =
Eq. 4 Eq. 5
3 kw 1 ksp = 3 kw 3
Variable s B E h I ksp kw Pld r U V Example 16.4.2.2: Description Safe stress Width Youngs modulus Height Area moment Geometry factor Geometry ratio Load Radius Resilience Volume of spring
Units Pa m Pa m m4 unitless unitless N m Nm m3
A spring design calls for a 0.3 cm wide bar of height 1 cm, is wound to a radius of 15 cm. The safe stress is 50000 psi. Find the area moment of the spring and load it is designed to handle.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select equations 1, 2, 4, and 5 to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given s = 50000 psi b = 0.3 cm h = 1 cm r= 15 cm
Solution I = 2.5 E-10 m4 ksp = 1.02299 kw = 30 Pld = 112.33 N
214
16.4.3 Torsional Spring

16.4.3.1 Circular Straight Bar
The four equations in this section define the design equations for a spring designed as a circular straight bar. The spring bar has a diameter, d (m), length L, (m) and is subject to a load, Pld (N), resulting in a stress, s (Pa), and a deflection, y (m). U (J) represents the energy in the spring. The first equation computes s for a given load Pld. The second equation computes the spring energy, U. The last two equations compute the deflection due to the load, y (m).
d 3 s Pld = 16 r
U=
Eq. 1
s 2 V 4G
2 r L s d G
Eq. 2
y =
Eq. 3
y = r
Variable y s d G L Pld r U V Description Half thread/cone angle Deflection Safe stress Diameter Modulus of rigidity Length Load Radius Resilience Volume of spring
Eq. 4
Units rad m Pa m Pa m N M Nm m3
Example 16.4.3.1: A circular straight bar, 18 inches long, has a diameter of 2.1 cm, and a safe stress level of 50000 psi. The material of the spring has a bulk elasticity of 90 GPa. The radius of the circular plate is 10 cm. Find the load and deflection for such a spring.
Entered Values
Computed results
215
Solution Select equations 1 and 3 to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given s = 50000 psi d = 2.1 cm G = 90 GPa L = 18 in r = 10 cm
16.4.3.2 Rectangular Straight Bar

The five equations in this section define the key design equations for a rectangular straight bar with length, L (m), and width, b (m), and thickness, h (m). The spring is subjected to a load, Pld (N), resulting in a stress s, (Pa) and a deflection, y (m). U (J) represents the energy in the spring. The first equation computes s for a given load, Pld. The second equation computes the spring energy, U. The third equation computes C, a geometry factor. The last two equations compute the deflection, y, in alternate forms.
2 b 2 h s Pld = 9 r U= C= 4 s 2 V C 2 + 1 45 G b h
4 r L s b 2 + h 2 5 y = b h2 G
y = r
Variable y s b C G h L Pld r U Description Half thread/cone angle Deflection Safe stress Width Constant: max when C=1 Modulus of rigidity Height Length Load Radius Resilience
Solution y = .016679 m Pld = 1409.26 lbf
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
Eq. 5
Units rad m Pa m unitless Pa m m N m Nm
216
Variable V
Description Volume of spring
Units m3
Example 16.4.3.2: A rectangular straight bar is 3 cm wide and 1 cm high. If the radius of the load from the torque center is 20 cm and the allowed safe stress is 10 GPa, find the allowed load.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the first equation to solve this problem. Select by this highlighting the equation and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given s = 10 GPa b = 3 cm h = 1 cm r = 20 cm
16.4.4.1 Conical Circular Section

The five equations in this section define the key design equations for an axial loaded conical spring, having a circular cross section. The spring has a coil diameter, d (m), and is subject to a load, Pld (N), resulting in a stress, s (Pa), and a deflection, y (m). U (J) represents the energy in the spring. The first equation computes s for a given load, Pld, spring radius, r (m), and wire diameter, d. The second equation computes the energy, U, in terms of bulk modulus, G (Pa), spring volume, V (m3), and s. The next two equations compute geometrical, unitless parameters, ksw and kw, that must be considered in computing load. The last equation calculates the deflection due to the load, y (m).
Pld =
d 3 s 16 r ksp
U=
s 2 V 8 G ksp 2
4 kw 1 .615 + 4 kw 4 kw
ksp =
Solution Pld = 100000 N
16.4.4 Axial Loaded
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
217
kw =
2 r d
Eq. 4
y =
nf r 2 s d G ksp
Description Deflection Safe stress Diameter Modulus of rigidity Geometry factor Geometry ratio Number of coils/leaves Load Radius Resilience Volume of spring
Eq. 5
Variable y s d G ksp kw nf Pld r U V
Units m Pa m Pa unitless unitless unitless N m Nm m3
Example 16.4.4.1: A 1 cm diameter wire is wound into a coil, 5 cm in radius, as an axially loaded spring. There are 10 rounds in the spring. If a load of 400 lbf is applied to this spring, what is the deflection and stress in the wire? Use a value of 100 GPa for the bulk modulus.
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Solution Select equations 1, 3, 4, and 5 to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given d = 1 cm G = 100 GPa nf = 10 Pld = 400 lbf r = 5 cm
Solution y = 3.55858 cm s = .518715 GPa ksp = 1.14483 kw = 10
218
16.4.4.2 Cylindrical - Helical

16.4.4.2.1 Rectangular Cross Section
The six equations in this section define the key design equations for a bending spring of rectangular cross section. The spring ribbon has a width, b (m), and thickness, h (m). The spring is subject to a load, Pld (N), resulting in a stress, s (Pa), and a deflection, y (m). U (J) represents the energy in the spring. The first equation computes s for a given load, Pld. The second equation computes a parameter, C, that expresses the aspect ratio of the ribbon material. The third equation estimates the energy of the spring, U, from the volume, V (m3), and bulk modulus, G (Pa). The fourth equation computes ksp, a geometric factor in terms of kw, computed by equation 6. The deflection, y, is computed by equation 5.
2 b 2 h s Pld = 9 r ksp C= b h 4 s 2 V C 2 + 1 45 G ksp

2
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
U=
Eq. 3
ksp =
4 kw 1 .615 + 4 kw 4 kw
Eq. 4
y =
kw =
7.2 nf r 3 Pld b 2 + h 2 b h G
3 3
Eq. 5
2 r b
Description Deflection Safe stress Width Constant: maximum when C=1 Modulus of rigidity Height Geometry factor Geometry ratio Number of coils/leaves Load Radius Resilience
Eq. 6
Variable y s b C G h ksp kw nf Pld r U
Units m Pa m unitless Pa m unitless unitless unitless N m Nm
219
Variable V
Description Volume of spring
Units m3
Example 16.4.4.2.1: Find the load for a helical ribbon 0.5 cm wide, 0.1 cm thick, wound as a spring 3 cm in radius. Assume that allowed stress is 25000 psi.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select equations 1, 4 and 6 to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above.
Given s = 25000 psi b = .5 cm h = .1 cm r = 3 cm
16.4.4.2.2 Circular Cross Section

The five equations in this section represent the key design equations for a bending spring of rectangular cross section. The spring has a wire diameter, d (m), and spring radius, r (m). The spring is subject to a load, Pld (N), resulting in a stress, s (Pa), and a deflection, y (m). U (J) represents the energy in the spring. The first equation computes s for a given load, Pld. The unitless parameters, kw and ksp, represent the impact of the geometry of the wire. Equation 2 computes the geometric ratio of the spring, kw (unitless). The third equation estimates the energy, U, using the spring volume, V (m3), and bulk modulus, G (Pa). The deflection due to the load, y, is computed by equation 4. The last equation computes, ksp a geometric factor, in terms of kw, computed by equation 2.
d 3 s Pld = 16 r ksp
2 r kw = d
s 2 V U= 4 G ksp 2
Solution kw =12 ksp = 1.11943 Pld = 6.41034 lbf
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
220
4 nf r 2 s y = d G ksp 4 kw 1 .615 ksp = + 4 kw 4 kw
Eq. 4
Eq. 5
Variable y s d G ksp kw nf Pld r U V
Description Deflection Safe stress Diameter Modulus of rigidity Geometry factor Geometry ratio Number of coils/leaves Load Radius Resilience Volume of spring
Units m Pa m Pa unitless unitless unitless N m Nm m3
Example 16.4.4.2.2: A spring coil 2 mm in diameter is wound as a coil 6 cm in radius. A load of 100 lbf is applied. What is the stress in the spring coil?
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select equations 1, 2 and 5 to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given d = 2 mm Pld = 100 lbf r = 6 cm References: 1. 2. 3. 4. Joseph E. Shigley and Charles R. Miseke, Mechanical Engineering Design, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill Publishing company, New York, NY 1989 Eugene A. Avallone and Theodore Baumeister III, Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, 9th Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1984 Michael R Lindeburg, Mechanical Engineer's Reference Manual, Professional Publications, Belmont, CA 1990 Joseph E. Shigley and Charles R. Miseke, Mechanical Engineering Design, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill Publishing company, New York, NY 1977
221
Solution s= 2.52092 E6 psi ksp = 1.02296 kw = 60
F3: Equations/7: Pumps and Hydraulic Machines
Chapter 17: Pumps and Hydraulics

This portion of the software engages in solving problems encountered in dealing with pumps and hydraulic machines. The equations are presented under, three classifications listed below. Basic Definitions Centrifugal Pumps Pump Power
17.1 Basic Definitions

This area of mechanical engineering is a rather specialized area and commands a vocabulary of its own. The first equation describes friction head, hf (m), defined as the resistance to flow in the pipe, fittings valves, entrance and exits. The friction head, hf, results from friction coefficient f (unitless), a velocity, V (m/s), diameter, d (m), the effective length, Le (m), and the acceleration due to gravity, grav (m/s2). The second equation defines the kinetic head, hv (m), from the velocity, V (m/s), and gravity, grav. The third and fourth equations are the so-called atmospheric head, pa (Pa), and pressure head, hp (m), due to a pressure, p (Pa). Fluid vapor pressure, pvp (Pa), converted to an equivalent head is defined as hvp (m) in equation 5. The sixth and seventh equations show the combined effects of the various heads defined here. For example, hd (m), represents total dynamic discharge head, hd (m), while, nps (m), represents the net positive suction head.
hf =
f Le V 2 2 d grav V2 2 grav pa grav p grav pvp grav
Eq. 1
hv = ha = hp =
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
hvp =
Eq. 5
hd = hs + hv + hf nps = ha + hs hf hvp
Variable d f Description Density Diameter Friction coefficient
222
Eq. 6 Eq. 7 Units kg/m3 m unitless
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 17 - Equations - Pumps and Hydraulic Machines
Variable grav ha hd hf hp hs hv hvp Le hps p pa pvp V
Description Gravitational acceleration Atmospheric head Discharge head Friction head Pressure head Static head Velocity head Vapor pressure head Equivalent length Net positive suction head Pressure Air pressure Vapor pressure Velocity
Units 9.80665 m/s2 m m m m m m m m m Pa Pa Pa m/s
Example 17.1: Water (T=20oC) flows through an eight-inch diameter asphalted cast iron pipe with a velocity of 2 m/s. The friction coefficient is computed from a Moody diagram to be 0.019. What is the head loss per kilometer length of pipe?
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the first equation to solve this problem. Select this by highlighting the equation and pressing . Press to display the variables. The gravitational constant, grav (9.80665 m/s2), is automatically inserted into the calculation and does not appear in the list of variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given d = 8 in f = .019 Le = 1000 m V = 2 m/s
17.2 Pump Power

The following equations compute the energy (head) added by a pump, hap (m), to a flowing fluid. The first equation is a modified version of the Bernoulli equation. The variables, po (m) and pi (m) are the pressures at the outlet and inlet of the pump. Vo (m/s) and Vi (m/s) are the flow velocities at the outlet and inlet sides of the pump; zh2 (m) is the height of the pump outlet and zh1 (m) is the height of the inlet. The second equation computes the hydraulic horsepower, whp (W) from the mass flow rate, Qm (kg/s), and head added by the pump, hap. Equation 3 computes the brake horsepower delivered to the pump shaft, bhp (W) from whp and the pump efficiency, effp. The friction horsepower, fhp (W), is calculated in equation 4. The electrical horsepower of the motor, ehp (W), is computed in equation 5. The sixth equation computes the overall efficiency of the pump, effo. The last equation computes the mass flow rate, Qm, from the volume flow rate, Q (m3/s), and the fluid density, (kg/m3).
Solution hf = 19.0695 m
223
hap =
po pi Vo 2 Vi 2 + + zh2 zh1 2 grav 2 grav
Eq. 1
whp = Qm grav hap bhp = whp effp
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
fhp = bhp whp ehp = effo = bhp effe whp ehp
Eq. 4
Eq. 5
Eq. 6
Qm = Q
Variable bhp effe effo effp ehp fhp grav hap pi po Q Qm Vi Vo whp zh1 zh2 Example 17.2: Description Density Brake horsepower Motor efficiency Overall efficiency Pump efficiency Electric horsepower to the motor Frictional horsepower Gravitational acceleration Head added by pump Pressure at inlet Pressure at outlet Discharge rate Mass discharge rate Velocity at inlet Velocity at outlet Hydraulic horsepower Elevation at inlet Elevation at outlet
Eq. 7 Units kg/m3 W unitless unitless unitless W W 9.80665 m/s2 m Pa Pa 3 m /s kg/s m/s m/s W m m
An electric pump consuming 7.5 hp adds a 26 ft head to a flow rate of 2 ft 3/s. What is the overall efficiency of the pump? Assume the density of water is 1000 kg/m3.
224
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select equations 2, 6 and 7 to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The gravitational constant, grav (9.80665 m/s2), is automatically inserted into the calculation and does not appear in the list of variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given = 1000 kg/m3 ehp = 7.5 hp hap = 26 ft Q = 2 ft 3/s
17.3.1 Affinity Law-Variable Speed

The following equations compute the change in pump performance (discharge rate, head and brake horsepower) with variation of pump speed, assuming the efficiency remains constant.
Qd 2 n2 = Qd 1 n1
bhp2 n2 = bhp1 n1
h2 n2 = h1 n1
2
Variable bhp1 bhp2 h1 h2 n1 n2 Qd1 Qd2
Description Brake horsepower, machine 1 Brake horsepower, machine 2 Head for machine 1 Head for machine 2 Revolutions per second, machine 1 Revolutions per second, machine 2 Discharge rate, machine 1 Discharge rate, machine 2
Solution effo = .786971 Qm =56.6337 kg/s whp = 5.90228 hp
17.3 Centrifugal Pumps
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Units W W m m 1/s 1/s m3/s m3/s
225
Example 17.3.1: A 3600-rpm pump adds a head of 430 ft to a discharge rate of 150 gallons per minute. What will be the head and discharge rate for a similar pump at 2500 rpm?
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the first two equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given h1 = 430 ft n1 = 3600 rpm n2 = 2500 rpm Qd1 = 150 gal/min
17.3.2 Affinity Law-Constant Speed

The following equations compute the variation of pump parameters (discharge rate, head and brake horsepower) with impeller diameter, for a homologous pump assuming the pump speed remains constant.
Qd 2 d 2 = Qd 1 d 1
bhp2 d 2 = bhp1 d 1
h2 d2 = h1 d1
2
Variable bhp1 bhp2 d1 d2 h1 h2 Qd1 Qd2
Description Brake horsepower, machine 1 Brake horsepower, machine 2 Diameter, machine 1 Diameter, machine 2 Head for machine 1 Head for machine 2 Discharge rate, machine 1 Discharge rate, machine 2
Example 17.3.2: What ratio of impeller diameter increase is needed to raise the head from 25 to 30 ft?
Solution h2 = 207.369 ft Qd2 = 104.167 gal/min
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Units W W m m m m m3/s m3/s
226
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the second equation to solve this problem. Since a ratio of diameter increase is being computed, enter an arbitrary value of 1 ft for d1. Select this by highlighting the equation and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given d1 = 1 ft h1 = 25 ft h2 = 30 ft Solution d2 = 1.09545 ft (~10% increase)
17.3.3 Pump Similarity

These equations are used to predict the performance of homologous pump (2) from the known parameters of another pump. These similarity laws assume that both pumps operate in the turbulent region, have the same operating efficiency, specific speed, cavitation number and the same percentage of wide-open flow.
n1 d 1 n2 d 2 = h1 h2
Qd 1 d 2 2 h 2 = Qd 2 d 12 h1
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
bhp1 1 d 12 h11.5 = bhp2 2 d 2 2 h21.5 Qd 1 n1 d 13 = Qd 2 n2 d 2 3 bhp1 1 n13 d 15 = bhp2 2 n2 3 d 25 n1 Qd 2 h1 = n2 Qd 1 h2

Variable 1 2 bhp1 bhp2
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
Eq. 5

3 4
Eq. 6
Description Fluid density in machine 1 Fluid density in machine 2 Brake horsepower, machine 1 Brake horsepower, machine 2
Units kg/m3 kg/m3 W W
227
Variable d1 d2 h1 h2 n1 n2 Qd1 Qd2
Description Diameter, machine 1 Diameter, machine 2 Head for machine 1 Head for machine 2 Revolutions per second, machine 1 Revolutions per second, machine 2 Discharge rate, machine 1 Discharge rate, machine 2
Units m m m m 1/s 1/s m3/s m3/s
Example 17.3.3: Compute the head and discharge capacity of a 8 pump operating at 1170 rpm from a similar pump having a diameter of 6, a discharge capacity of 1500 gallons per minute against a head pressure of 80 ft and operating at a speed of 1770 rpm.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the first and fourth equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given d1 = 6 in d2 = 8 in h1 = 80 ft n1 = 1770 rpm n2 = 1170 rpm Qd1 = 1500 gal/min
17.3.4 Centrifugal Compressor

Centrifugal compressors are used to increase pressures for compressible fluids. The theoretical power of a compressor, Pth (W), is computed for two cases in this section. The first equation assumes the compression process is adiabatic. The second equation computes Pth for an isothermal process in a water-cooled compressor. Qd1 (m3/s) is the volumetric flow entering the pump, p1and p2 (Pa) are the pressures at the inlet and outlet of the pump, respectively.
k Qd 1 p1 Pth = k 1
p2 p1

k 1 k

Pth = p1 Qd 1 ln
p2 p1
Solution h2 = 62.1431 ft Qd2 = 2350.28 gal/min
1
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
228
Variable k p1 p2 Pth Qd1
Description Isentropic index Pressure 1 Pressure 2 Theoretical power Discharge rate, machine 1
Units unitless Pa Pa W m3/s
Example 17.3.4: What is the theoretical power for an air compressor having an intake rate of 1 m 3/s, increasing the pressure from 100 kPa, to 200 kPa. The specific heat ratio (isentropic index) for air is k=1.4.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the first equation to solve this problem. Select this by highlighting the equation and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given k = 1.4 p1 = 100000 Pa p2 = 200000 Pa Qd1 = 1 m 3/s
17.3.5 Specific Speed

The specific speed is a parameter used to rate the suitability of a pump or impeller type for a specific application. It is computed in the following equations from the pump parameters including the head coefficient, CH, discharge coefficient, CQ, rotational speed, n (1/s), head, h (m), and the rate of discharge, Q (m3/s).
CQ.5 ns = CH .75 ns =
1 grav h6
h grav d 2 n2 Q n d 3
n Q
.75
CH = CQ =
Solution Pth = 76654.8 W
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
229
Variable h CH CQ d grav n ns Q
Description Head Head coefficient Discharge coefficient Diameter Gravitational acceleration Revolutions per second Specific speed Discharge rate
Units m unitless unitless m 9.80665 m/s2 Hz unitless m3/s
Example 17.3.5: Compute the specific speed for a pump having a rotational speed, 2500 rpm, a flow rate of 8 ft3/s and a head increase of 30 ft.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the second equation to solve this problem. Select this by highlighting the equation and pressing . Press to display the variables. The gravitational constant, grav (9.80665 m/s2), is automatically inserted into the calculation and does not appear in the list of variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given h = 30 ft n = 2500 rpm Q = 8 ft 3/s
References: 1. Michael R. Lindeburg, Mechanical Engineering Reference Manual, 8th Edition, Professional Publications, Belmont, CA 1990 2. John A. Roberson and Clayton T. Crowe, Engineering Fluid Mechanics, 5th Edition, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, MA, 1993
Solution ns = .680555
230
F3: Equations / 8: Waves and Oscillations
Chapter 18: Waves and Oscillation

This section contains equations describing oscillation or vibration of mechanical devices.The equations are presented under, three classifications listed below. Natural and Forced Vibrations Simple Harmonic Motion Pendulums
18.1 Simple Harmonic Motion

18.1.1 Linear Harmonic Oscillation
These equations describe the oscillation of a mass, m (kg), attached to the end of an ideal spring. The first equation is called Hookes Law to compute the restoring force of the spring, F (N), in a direction opposite to the direction of displacement, x (m), from its equilibrium position. Equation 2 calculates the natural frequency of vibration, (rad/s), of the system with a mass, m, and a spring stiffness, k (N/m). Equation 3 computes the period of oscillation, Tp (s). The last equation calculates the oscillation frequency, freq (Hz).
F = k x
Eq. 1
k m m k
Eq. 2
Tp = 2 freq = 1 Tp
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
Variable F freq k m Tp x
Description Radian frequency Restoring force Frequency Stiffness Mass Period Displacement from fest position
Units rad/s N Hz N/m kg s m
Example 18.1.1: A block is attached to a spring having a stiffness of 65 N/m. The block is pushed, compressing the spring to a distance 11 cm from its equilibrium position. What is the restoring force exerted by the spring?
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 18 - Equations Waves and Oscillations
231
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Use the first equation to solve this problem. Select it by highlighting the equation and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter a negative value for displacement (x=-11 cm) since we want to compute the force in the opposite direction. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given k = 65 N/m x = -11 cm
18.1.2 Angular Harmonic Oscillation

These equations describe the angular oscillation of a mass, with a rotational moment of inertia, Ip (kgm2), attached to the end of a torsion spring. If the mass is twisted (or displaced) by an angle, (rad), from its equilibrium position , the wire will exert a restoring torque, (Nm), in the opposite direction. Equation 1 computes the period of oscillation, Tp (s), for the system. Equation 2 computes the, restoring torque, , from the torsion constant of the suspension wire, k (Nm/rad), and the displacement angle, . The last equation calculates the angular frequency of oscillation, (rad/s), from the period of oscillation, Tp.
Tp = 2
Ip k
= k =
2 Tp
Description Displacement angle Torque Torsion constant Radian frequency Rotational inertia Period of oscillation
Variable k Ip Tp Example 18.1.2:
A suspension wire has a restoring torque of -2 Nm at a displacement angle of 45o. A mass is then attached to the end of a suspension and allowed to oscillate freely. The period for one oscillation is 2 s. Compute the torsion constant of the spring and the rotational moment of inertia for the mass.
Solution F = 7.15 N
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Units rad Nm Nm/rad rad/s kgm2 s
232
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Use the first and second equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given = 45 deg = -2 Nm Tp = 2 s
18.2 Pendulums
18.2.1 Simple Pendulum
The following equations describe the harmonic motion of a mass, m (kg), hanging from an ideal string (massless, non-stretchable) and having a length, L (m). The angle of displacement, (rad), is relative to a vertical line connecting the string to a mount. Equation 1 computes the period of oscillation, Tp (s), for a simple pendulum with a string length, L. Equation 2 calculates the tension, Ten (N), in the string at a displacement angle, , from the equilibrium position. Equation 3 computes the restoring force, Fr (N), active in forcing the pendulum to its equilibrium position. The last equation calculates the oscillation frequency of the pendulum, freq (Hz).
Tp = 2
L grav
Ten = m grav cos
16 Fr = m grav sin1 6
freq = 1 Tp
Description Displacement angle Restoring force Frequency Gravitation acceleration constant Length Mass
Variable Fr freq grav L m
Solution k = 2.54648 Nm/rad Ip = .258012 kgm2
Eq. 1
Eq. 2 Eq. 3
Eq. 4
Units rad N Hz 9.08665 m/s2 m kg
233
Variable Ten Tp
Description Tension Period of oscillation
Units N s
Example 18.2.1: Compute the oscillation period and frequency for a simple pendulum having a cord length of 40 cm. If a mass, weighing 2 kg, is attached to the end of the pendulum, what is the maximum tension exerted by the gravitational field and angle of displacement for this tension?
Step 1: Computed results
Step 2: Graphing Ten vs. (Tracing the minimum value of Ten using F3: Trace)
Solution This solution can be computed in two steps. The TI graphing features will be used in the second part. Step 1: use the first and fourth equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter a value for L = 40 cm and press to solve for Tp and freq. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Note that the gravitational acceleration constant, grav = 9.08665 m/s2, is automatically inserted into the calculation by the software and does not appear in the variable list. Step 2: Check the settings of your calculator to make sure the ANGLE mode is set to DEGREE. Access the mode screen by pressing , and move the highlight bar to ANGLE. If RADIAN is listed, press the right arrow key and select DEGREE. Press twice to save the settings and return list of variables. Continuing the solution for the example, press to view the equations; select the second equation; press to display the list of variables; and enter m = 2 kg. Now press to graph the newly selected equation. Select the second equation, identify as the Independent variable and ten as the Dependent variable. Enter X-Min: 45 and X-Max: 45. Press to graph the selected equation. In this case, the graph appears in the right side of the screen. Press and to switch the active window from MEPro to the Graph interface. To switch back Trace and move the cursor to the minimum point (=0, Ten= to MEPro press and . Press -19.6 N). The value for ten is negative since the force is in a direction opposite to ten in the diagram. An Math, : Minimum. Move the cursor to a alternative method for finding the minimum: Press location to the left of the minimum for the Lower Bound and press , and then move the cursor to a location on the right of the minimum and press for the Upper Bound. To switch back to MEPro press . Given L = 40 cm (Step 1) m = 2 kg (Step 2)
234
Solution freq = .788044 Hz Tp = 1.26896 s Ten = -19.6133 (from Graph)
"
/ / d
/
18.2.2 Physical Pendulum

A physical pendulum represents the behavior of real pendulums to a greater degree than the simple case. The equations in this section describe a physical pendulum, having a mass, m (kg), and a rotational moment of inertia at the pivot point, Ip (kgm2), with its center of mass located at a distance, h (m), from the pivot point. When the pendulum is displaced from its equilibrium position at an angle, (rad), relative to the gravitational field, a restoring torque, r (Nm) appears (Eq.1). The period of motion, Tp (s), for the physical pendulum can be calculated from Ip, m, and h using equation 2. The restoring force, Fr (N), acting at the center of mass is computed in the last equation.
r = m grav h sin
Tp = 2
16
Eq. 1
Ip m grav h
Eq. 2
Fr =
r h
Description Displacement angle Restoring torque Restoring force Gravitation acceleration constant Distance from pivot to center to Rotational inertia Mass Period of oscillation
Eq. 3
Variable r Fr grav h Ip m Tp
Units rad Nm N 9.08665 m/s2 m kgm2 kg s
Example 18.2.2: A steel cord weighing 30 kg and having a length of 5 m is suspended from a hook. What is the restoring torque and restoring force, at the center of mass, for a displacement angle of /6 rad? Assume the center of mass is located at the midpoint of the cable. If the period of oscillation is 3.7 seconds, what is the moment of inertia of the cable at the pivot point?
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select all the equations to solve this problem. Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above.
235
Given = /6 rad h = 2.5 m m = 30 kg Tp = 3.7 s
Solution r = 367.749 Nm Fr = 147.1 N Ip = 255.05 kgm2
18.2.3 Torsional Pendulum

This menu heading reflects the contents of section 18.1.2 Angular Harmonic Motion and contains the same equation set.
18.3 Natural and Forced Vibrations
18.3.1 Natural Vibrations

18.3.1.1 Free Vibration
These equations compute the position and velocity of a free, linear, undamped oscillating system with respect to time, t (s). The first equation computes the displacement, x (m), of the oscillating system, relative to its equilibrium position (x=0) at time, t. The second equation computes the linear velocity of the system, v (m/s), at position, x, and time, t. Equations 3 and 4 relate the angular offset, (rad), used in equations 1 and 2, to the initial displacement, xo (m), the velocity at t=0, vo (m/s), and the natural oscillation frequency, n (rad/s). Equation 5 computes the maximum displacement amplitude from the equilibrium position, xm (m). Equation 6 computes the maximum velocity of the oscillating object, vm (m/s). Equation 7 calculates the angular offset, , from the initial position and velocity, xo and vo, and the natural frequency, n. Equation 8 computes the natural vibration frequency, n, of the oscillating system from the mass of the object, m (kg), attached to a spring having a stiffness, k (N/m). The last equation calculates the period, Tn (s), of the natural vibration.
x = xm sin(n t + ) v = xm n cos(n t + ) xo = xm sin( ) vo = xm n cos( ) xm = xo

2
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 3 Eq. 4
vo + n
Eq. 5
vm = xm n
Eq. 6
236
= tan 1
k m 2 n
xo n vo
Eq. 7
n =
Tn =
Eq. 8
Eq. 9
Variable n k m t Tn v vm vo x xm xo
Description Phase angle Natural frequency Stiffness Mass Time Natural oscillation period Velocity Maximum velocity Initial velocity Displacement Maximum displacement from rest position Initial displacement
Units rad rad/s N/m kg s s m/s m/s m/s m m m
Example 18.3.1.1: A mass (30 kg) attached to a spring oscillat es once every 2.5 seconds and has a maximum displacement amplitude of 22 cm. If a stopwatch is set when the mass passes the equilibrium position of the spring, at what time will the mass reach a distance halfway between the equilibrium position and the position of maximum displacement? What will be the linear velocity at that time?
Upper Display: First Solution Arbitrary Integer, 0 (Principal solution)
Lower Display: First Solution Arbitrary Integer, 0 (Principal solution)
Solution Select Equations 1, 2, 8 and 9 to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. Select an arbitrary integer of 0 to compute the principal solution (the principal solution, P, in a periodic trigonometric function, trig (), is P=trig ( + n) and n is the arbitrary integer). Select 1 in the Multiple solutions dialog box to display the first solution. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above.
237
Given = 0 rad m = 30 kg Tn = 2.5 s x = 10 cm xm = 20 cm
Solution n = 2.51327 rad/s k = 189.496 N/m t = .208333 s v = .435312 m/s
18.3.1.2 Overdamped Case (>1)

A damped oscillation system has a mechanism for removing mechanical energy from the vibrating system in the form of heat. An over damped vibrating system is defined as the case where the damping ratio, >1 (Eq.4), and the roots 1 and 2 (Equations 5 and 6) are distinct real negative numbers. The dashpot, in the diagram to the right, has a viscous damping coefficient of c (Ns/m) and exerts a frictional force proportional to the velocity of the oscillating mass, m (kg). Equation 1 computes the displacement of the mass from the rest position, x (m), at time, t (s), following release of the object. Equations 2 and 3 calculate the constants, A1 (m) and A2 (m), for the case when the timer is started (t=0) when the mass is located at the amplitude of maximum displacement, xm (m), and the linear velocity ceases, (dx/dt = 0). Equation 4 calculates the damping ratio, , from the viscous damping coefficient, c, and the natural radian frequency, n (rad/s). Equations 5 and 6 compute the roots, 1 (rad/s) and 2 (rad/s) from the damping ratio, . The last two equations compute the natural frequency of the oscillating system, n (rad/s) and the natural period, Tn (s).
x = A1 e 1t + A2 e 2t A1 = xm A2 =
Eq. 1
2 (When x=xm and dx/dt=0 at t=0) 2 1
Eq. 2
xm 1 (When x=xm and dx/dt=0 at t=0) 2 1
Eq. 3
c 2 n
Eq. 4
1 = n + 2 1
9 9
Eq. 5
2 = n 2 1 n =
Tn = k m 2 n
Eq. 6
Eq. 7
Eq. 8
Variable 1
Description Natural radian frequency 1
Units rad/s
238
Variable 2 n A1 A2 c k m t Tn x xm Example 18.3.1.2:
Description Natural radian frequency 2 Damping ratio Natural frequency Constant, when t=0, x=xm Constant, when t=0, x=xm Viscous damping coefficient Stiffness Mass Time Natural oscillation period Displacement from rest position Maximum displacement from rest position
Units rad/s unitless rad/s m m Ns/m N/m kg s s m m
What is the damping ratio for a damped oscillating system having a spring stiffness of 98 N/m, a viscous damping coefficient of 42 Ns/m, and a mass of 2 kg?
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the fourth and seventh equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given c = 42 Ns/m k = 98 N/m m = 2 kg
18.3.1.3 Critical Damping (=1)

Critical damping exists when the frequency of the damping mechanism is the same as the natural frequency, n (rad/s), or =1. A critically damped system approaches equilibrium faster than the overdamped case. The following equations compute the unique case when the object is released at t=0 (x=xm (m) and dx/dt=0). The coefficients for critically damped case (1 and 2 in the overdamped case, section 18.3.1.2), are equivalent to the natural vibration frequency (i.e. 1 = 2 = -n). Equation 1 computes the displacement from the equilibrium position, x (m), at time, t (s), following release. Equation 2 computes the linear velocity, v (m/s), at time, t. Equations 3 and 4 compute the coefficients, A1 (m) and A2c (mrad/s), from the initial (maximum) displacement, xm = xo (m) and the natural oscillation frequency, n. The fifth equation computes n from the spring constant, k (N/m), and the mass of the oscillating object, m (kg). The last equation calculates the period of natural vibration, Tn (s).
Solution = 1.5 n = 7 rad/s
239
x = A1 + A2c t e nt v = n A1 + A2c t e nt + A2c e nt A1 = xm (When x=xm and dx/dt=0 at t=0) A2c = A1 n (When x=xm and dx/dt=0 at t=0)
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 3 Eq. 4
n =
Tn =
k m 2 n
Description Natural frequency Constant, when t=0, x=xm Constant, when t=0, x=xm Stiffness Mass Time Natural oscillation period Velocity Displacement from rest position Maximum displacement from rest position
Eq. 5
Eq. 6
Variable n A1 A2c k m t Tn v x xm Example 18.3.1.3:
Units rad/s m mrad/s N/m kg s s m/s m m
A critically damped system has a natural oscillation frequency of 7 rad/s and an initial displacement of 5 m. What is the maximum linear velocity between the time of release and the time the system has reached equilibrium?
1: Entered values and computed results.
2: Press
3: : Math, : Maximum. Select Lower and Upper bounds.
4: Result for maximum velocity.
240
for Graph Interface Screen.
Solution This problem can be solved in two steps. First, compute the constants, A1 and A2c, from xm and n using the third and fourth equations. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters. Enter a negative value for displacement since we want to compute a positive velocity in the other direction. Press to solve for the unknown variables: Frame 1. Next, press : Graph and use the right arrow key to display the equations in this set. Select the second equation by highlighting and pressing . Select t as the independent variable and v as the dependent. Enter Xmin = 0 and Xmax=1, Ymin=0 and Ymax=15 (Frame 2). Deselect Autoscale. Press : Graph to plot the equation on the right side of the screen. Press to switch from MEPro to the graphing window. The maximum velocity occurs at the maximum of the graph. To locate the maximum, Press : Math and : Maximum. Move the cursor to a point on the left side of the curve using the left arrow key and press (Frame 3). Next move to the right side of the curve using the right arrow key and press . The x and y coordinate of the maximum are displayed (Frame 4). To switch back to MEPro, Press . Given n = 7 rad/s xm = -5 m Solution A1 = -5 m A2c = -35 radm/s v = 12.8758 m/s (maximum value)
18.3.1.4 Underdamped Case (<1)

The following equations compute the vibration properties of an underdamped oscillation system. An underdamped system does not cease oscillating after a single period (<1). The first equation computes the displacement, x (m), of the oscillating system relative to its equilibrium position, x=0, at time, t (s). The second equation computes the linear velocity of the system, v (m/s), at position, x, and time, t. Equations 3 and 4 calculate the initial displacement, xo (m), and velocity, vo (m/s), at t=0. Equation 5 computes the damping frequency, d (rad/s), for a system having a damping ratio, <1. Equation 6 computes the natural vibration frequency, n, of the oscillating system from the mass of the object, m (kg), attached to a spring having a stiffness, k (N/m). Equation 7 computes the maximum displacement amplitude from the equilibrium position, xm (m). Equation 8 computes the angular offset, (rad), at t=0. Equations 9 and 10 calculate the damping ratio, , from either an observed value of the logarithmic damping factor, (m), or the viscous damping factor, c (Ns/m). represents the decrease in oscillation amplitude, xm, vs. time due to damping. The last two equations calculate the periods of the damping oscillation, Td (s) and the natural frequency of vibration, Tn (s).
x = xm e nt sin(d t + ) v = n xm e nt sin(d t + ) + xm e nt d cos(d t + ) xo = xm sin( ) vo = n xm sin( ) + d xm cos( )
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 3 Eq. 4 Eq. 5
d = n 1 2 n =
k m
241
Eq. 6
Y !" f
"
/
xm = xo 2 +
= tan 1 = =
vo n xo n vo
Eq. 7
Eq. 8
4 2 + 2 c 2 m n 2 d 2 n
Description Logarithmic decrement Damping ratio Phase angle Damping frequency Natural frequency Viscous damping coefficient Stiffness Mass Time Underdamped oscillation period Natural oscillation period Velocity Initial velocity Displacement Maximum displacement from rest position Initial displacement
Eq. 9
Eq. 10
Td = Tn =
Eq. 11
Eq. 12
Variable d n c k m t Td Tn v vo x xm xo
Units unitless unitless rad rad/s rad/s Ns/m N/m kg s s s m/s m/s m m m
Example 18.3.1.4: An 8 kg mass attached to a damped spring is released at a distance of 0.2 m from its equilibrium position. The spring stiffness is 32 N/m and the viscous damping coefficient is 20 N s/m. Compute the amplitude after one complete oscillation.
242
1: Entered Values and computed Results
2: Equations Screen
3: Enter Td for t.
4: Computed value of Td appears for t.
5: Use
:Opts, : Know to designate previously computed values as Known .
6: Press : Solve. Select the 4th of 4 possible solutions ( = /2).
7: Results: Upper Display
8: Results: Lower Display
Solution Compute this solution in two steps. The time, t, of a complete oscillation is equivalent to the damped period, Td. The computed value of Td will need to be entered for t in the first equation. To compute the period of the damped oscillation, Td, select the fifth, sixth, tenth, and eleventh equations. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters (c, k, and m) and press to solve for the unknown variables (d, to view the equation list. Deselect Equations 5, 6 and 10 by n, , and Td). Next, press highlighting the equations and pressing and select equations 1, 7 and 8; i.e.: Equations. 1, 7, 8, and 11 should now be selected. Press to display the variables. Move the cursor to each of the variables, , n, and d. Press :Opts, : Know to select each of the previously computed values to an entered value for computations. For t, enter the variable Td and press , the computed value of Td will appear for t. Enter values for xo, vo and press to solve for the unknown variables (, x and xm). When the MEPro dialogue box appears, select the fourth solution ( = /2). The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given c = 20 Ns/m k = 32 N/m m = 8 kg vo = 0 m/s xo = .2 m Solution = .625 = 1.5708 rad d = 1.56125 rad/s n = 2 rad/s t = 4.02446 s (computed value of Td) Td = 4.02446 s x = .001307 m (less than 1% of xm) xm = .2 m
243
[c f .
18.3.2 Forced Vibrations

18.3.2.1 Undamped Forced Vibration
These equations describe the steady state oscillation conditions of an undamped system, experiencing an external periodic force, Fo (N). The undamped system has a natural vibration frequency, n (rad/s). The external vibration force has a frequency and magnitude of f (rad/s) and Fo. The first equation computes the particular solution (solution of the system in steady state) of the position, xp (m), vs. time, t (s). The equation assumes the velocity ceases, (dx/dt) = 0, when xp = xm at t = 0 s. The amplitude of the forced, undamped system, xm (m), is computed in equation 2 from the amplitude of the forced oscillation, xf (m), the angular frequency of the natural motion, n, and the forced motion, f. The magnification factor, Mag, in Equation 3, computes the degree of resonance between the forced and natural resonance frequencies. As f approaches n, the limits of the attached spring are tested as Mag and xm approach infinity. This condition is to be avoided. If f<n, Mag>0 and the vibration is in phase with the force, Fo. If f>n, the vibration is out of phase with the external force, Fo and Mag<0. Equation 4 computes the natural frequency of the oscillating system, n, from the spring constant, k (N/m), and the mass attached to the spring, m (kg). Equation 5 calculates the amplitude of the external force, Fo, on the oscillating system.
xp = xm cos f t xm =
Eq. 1
f 1 n
1
xf
Eq. 2
Mag =
f 1 n
k m
Eq. 3
n =
Eq. 4
Fo = k xf
Variable f n Fo k m Mag t xf xm xp Description Forced radian frequency Natural frequency Magnitude of driving force Stiffness Mass Magnification Time Forced displacement amplitude Maximum displacement of steady state Displacement: particular solution
Eq. 5 Units rad/s rad/s N N/m kg unitless s m m m
244
Example 18.3.2.1: A machine weighing 50 kg is mounted on four springs, each having a spring constant of 8000 N/m. The machine is mounted on a vibrating platform, having a vibration frequency of 10 Hz and a displacement of 0.5 cm. What is the maximum displacement of the forced system under steady-state conditions? Is the forced vibration in or out of phase with the natural vibration frequency? What is the maximum displacement of the forced system?
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the second, third, and fourth equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given f = 10 Hz k = 32000 (4 x 8000) N/m m = 50 kg xf = .5 cm Solution n = 4.02634 Hz Mag = -1.9348 (out of phase) xm = -.09674 cm (out of phase)
18.3.2.2 Damped Forced Vibration

These equations describe the features of a damped oscillating system experiencing a periodic, external vibration force having an angular frequency, f (rad/s) and amplitude, xf (m). The first equation computes the particular solution of the displacement amplitude, xp (m), at time, t (s), for the steady state condition of forced oscillation. The equation assumes (dx/dt) = 0 and xp = xm at t = /f. Equation 2 calculates the maximum displacement of the damped, forced system, xm (m), from the natural frequency of the oscillating system, n (rad/s), the damping ratio, , the forced amplitude, xf, and the frequency, f, of the external vibration. The phase offset, (rad), or the degree the amplitude of response, xp (m), lags the amplitude of the applied force, xf, is computed in equation 3. The magnification factor, Mag (unitless), represents a degree of resonance between the forced, f, and natural, n, oscillation frequencies is computed in Equation 4. Resonance is achieved when = 90 deg for all values of . Equation 5 computes the damping ratio, , from the viscous damping coefficient, c (Ns/m), of the damping system. The damping force (cv) is proportional to the velocity of the spring, v (m/s). The maximum damping occurs when f = n. Equation 6 computes the natural frequency of the oscillating system, n, from the spring stiffness, k (N/m), and the mass attached to the spring, m (kg). Equation 7 calculates the maximum force, Fo (N), applied to the base of the system, as the sum of the spring and damping forces. The last two equations calculate the periods of the natural frequency of vibration, Tn (s), and the forced oscillation, Tf (s)
xp = xm cos f t
245
Eq. 1
f f 1 n + 2 n 2 f n = tan 1 f n
2 2 2 1 2
xm =
xf
.5
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Mag =
f f 1 n + 2 n
2 2 2
0.5
Eq. 4
c 2 n k m
2
Eq. 5
n =
Eq. 6
Fo = xm k 2 + c 2 f Tn = Tf = 2 n 2 f
Eq. 7
Eq. 8
Eq. 9
Variable f n c Fo k m Mag t Tf Tn xf xm
Description Damping ratio Phase angle Forced radian frequency Natural frequency Viscous damping coefficient Magnitude of driving force Stiffness Mass Magnification Time Forced oscillation period Natural oscillation period Displacement due to Fo Maximum displacement of steady state
Units unitless rad rad/s rad/s Ns/m N N/m kg unitless s s s m m
246
Variable xp
Description Displacement: particular solution
Units m
Example 18.3.2.2: The machine in Example 18.3.2.1 is equipped with four damp pads. What value for the viscous damping coefficient must each pad have to critically damp the system?
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution A system is critically damped when =1. Equations 2, 5, and 6 are needed to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. The computed viscous damping coefficient value (2529.82 Ns/m), must be divided by four to compute the c for each pad (632.455 Ns/m). Given =1 f = 10 Hz k = 32000 N/m m = 50 kg xf = .5 m Solution n = 4.02634 Hz c = 2529.82 Ns/m (4 x 632.455 Ns/m) xm = .06975 cm (86% reduction)
18.3.3 Natural Frequencies

18.3.3.1 Stretched String
The first equation calculates the natural frequency, f1 (Hz), of longitudinal vibration for a hanging mass, m (kg), located at the center of a string. The string has two fixed ends located at distance, L (m), apart at the same height on an axis perpendicular to the gravitational field. Ten (N) is the tension in the string. The second equation computes the tension in the string, Ten, from the load and the deflection angle, (rad), from the horizontal axis. The load, W (N), is computed in the third equation from the mass of the hanging object, m, and the gravitational constant, grav (9.08665 m/s2). The last equation computes the deflection, st (m), the vertical distance of the object from the horizontal axis between the two mounts from the angle deflection at each end, (rad). The gravitational constant, grav (9.80665 m/s2), is automatically inserted into the calculation and does not appear in the list of variables.
f1=
1 4 Ten 2 m L
247
Eq. 1
Ten =
W 2 sin
Eq. 2
W = m grav tan = 2 st L
Description Deflection Deflection angle Natural frequency due to load (W) Gravitational acceleration Length Mass Tension Point Load
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
Variable st f1 grav L m Ten W Example 18.3.3.1:
Units m rad Hz 9.80665 m/s2 m kg N N
Compute the natural frequency for a mass of 3 kg hanging from a string at a horizontal distance of 3 m from each fixed point. The tension of the string is 90 N.
Entered Values
Computed results
Given L=6m m = 30 kg Ten = 90 N
Solution f1 = .225079 Hz
18.3.3.2 Vibration Isolation

The isolation of equipment from a vibrating platform can be accomplished using pads or damped springs. The damped vibration system is similar to the damped forced vibration schematic on the right side of the diagram. The first equation computes the natural frequency of the damped vibration system, n (rad/s). Equation 2 computes the amplitude of displacement, st (m) for the vibrating system. Equation 3 calculates the isolation efficiency, eff, from the forced vibration. For a reduction in vibration to occur, the following condition must be met: 2n<f. The last equation relates the load, W (N), on the oscillating system to the mass of the machine, m (kg).
248
Solution Select the first equation to solve this problem. Highlight the equation using the cursor and press . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above.
n = st =
grav st W k
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
eff = 1
f n
1
2
Eq. 3
W = m grav
Variable st n f eff grav k m W Description Deflection Natural frequency due to load (W) Forcing frequency Isolation efficiency Gravitation acceleration constant Stiffness Mass Point load
Eq. 4 Units m rad/s rad/s unitless 9.08665 m/s2 N/m kg N
Example 18.3.3.2: A centrifugal fan (75 kg), rotating at 800 rpm, requires an isolation efficiency of 95%. What spring constant is required for the isolating material?
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select all of the equations to solve this problem. Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given f = 800 rpm eff = .95 m = 75 kg
Solution st = .029343 m n = 174.574 rpm k = 25065.7 N/m W = 735.499 N
18.3.3.3 Uniform Beams
249
18.3.3.3.1 Simply Supported

The following equations compute the natural frequency for a simply supported beam of length, L (m), with a point load, W (N), uniform load, w1 (N/m), or both. The first equation computes the natural frequency of vibration, f1 (Hz), for a beam having a length, L, an area moment of inertia, I (m4), a modulus of elasticity (Youngs modulus), E (Pa), and a point load, W, at the center of the beam. Equation 2 calculates the frequency of vibration, fn (Hz), for a vibration mode (harmonic), n, for the same beam, having a uniform load, w1, instead of a point load, W. Equation 3 computes the natural frequency of vibration, f2 (Hz), for a beam with a combined point and uniform load (W and w1). Values for the vibration mode-based constant, Kn, in the second equation, are listed in Table 18.1 for different vibration modes (harmonics). Table 18.1: Kn for a simply supported, uniform beam, length L, vibration mode, n (Ref. #6) Mode (n) 1 2 3 4 5 Kn 9.87 39.5 88.8 158 247 Nodal positions/L 0.0 1.00 0.0 0.50 1.00 0.0 0.33 0.67 0.0 0.25 0.50 0.0 0.20 0.40
1.00 0.75 0.60
1.00 0.80
1.00
f1=
6.93 E I grav 2 W L3 Kn E I grav 2 w1 L4 6.93 E I grav 2 W L3 +.486 w1 L4

Description Youngs modulus Natural frequency due to W Natural frequency due to W and w1 Frequency for w1, mode n Gravitation acceleration constant Area moment of inertia Constant for vibration mode, n Beam length Point load Load per unit length (Uniform)
Eq. 1
fn =
Eq. 2
f2=
Eq. 3
Variable E f1 f2 fn grav I Kn L W w1
Units Pa Hz Hz Hz 9.08665 m/s2 m4 unitless m N N/m
Example 18.3.3.3.1: Compute the natural frequency of a simply supported beam (L = 2.5 m, E=200 GPa, I=18.5 x 106 mm4) having a uniform load of 150 lb/ft.
250
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the second equation. Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. Since we are calculating the natural frequency, the vibration mode-based constant is 1 and a value of Kn = 9.87 is selected from Table 18.1. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given E = 200 GPa I = 1.85 E 7 mm4 Kn = 9.87 L = 2.5 m w1 = 150 lb/ft
18.3.3.3.2 Both Ends Fixed

The following equations compute the natural frequency for a uniform beam with both ends fixed. The first equation computes the natural frequency of vibration, f1 (Hz), for a beam having a length, L, an area moment of inertia, I (m4), a modulus of elasticity (Youngs modulus), E (Pa), and a point load, W at the center of the beam. Equation 2 calculates the frequency of vibration, fn, for a vibration mode (harmonic), n, for the same beam, having a uniform load, w1, instead of a point load, W. Equation 3 computes the natural frequency of vibration, f2 (Hz), for a beam with a combined point and uniform load (W and w1). Values for the vibration mode-based constant, Kn, in the second equation, are listed in Table 18.2 for different vibration modes. Table 18.2: Kn for a uniform beam, both ends fixed, length L, for vibration mode, n (Ref.#6). n 1 2 3 4 5 Kn 22.4 61.7 121 200 299 Nodal positions/L 0.0 1.00 0.0 0.50 1.00 0.0 0.36 0.64 0.0 0.28 0.50 0.0 0.23 0.41
f1=
1386 E I grav . 2 W L3 Kn E I grav 2 w1 L4 1386 . E I grav 2 W L3 +.383 w1 L4
fn =
f2=
Solution fn = 32.3584 Hz
1.00 0.72 0.59
1.00 0.77
1.00
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
251
Description Youngs modulus Natural frequency for W Natural frequency for W and w1 Frequency for w1, mode n Gravitation acceleration constant Area moment of inertia Constant for vibration mode, n Beam length Point load Load per unit length (Uniform)
Example 18.3.3.3.2: Compute the natural frequency of a uniform beam with both ends fixed (L = 2.5 m, E=200 GPa, I=18.5 x 106 mm4) having a uniform load of 150 lb/ft.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the second equation. Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. Since we are calculating the natural frequency, the vibration mode-based constant is 1 and a value of Kn = 22.4 is selected from Table 18.2. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given E = 200 GPa I = 1.85 E7 mm 4 Kn = 22.4 L = 2.5 m w1 = 150 lb/ft
18.3.3.3.3 1 Fixed End / 1 Free End

The following equations compute the natural frequency for a beam with one end fixed and one end free. The first equation computes the natural frequency of vibration, f1 (Hz), for a beam having a length, L, an area moment of inertia, I (m4), a modulus of elasticity (Youngs modulus), E (Pa), and a point load, W at the center of the beam. Equation 2 calculates the frequency of vibration, fn, for a vibration mode (harmonic), n, for the same beam, having a uniform load, w1, instead of a point load, W. Equation 3 computes the natural frequency of vibration, f2 (Hz), for a beam with a combined point and uniform load (W and w1). Values for the vibration mode-based constant, Kn, in the second equation, are listed in Table 18.3 for different vibration modes.
252
Table 18.3: Kn for a uniform beam, length L, One fixed/One free end, vibration mode, n (Ref.#6). n Kn Nodal positions/L 1 3.52 0.0 2 22.0 0.0 0.783 3 61.7 0.0 0.504 0.868 4 121 0.0 0.358 0.644 0.905 5 200 0.0 0.279 0.500 0.723 0.926
f1=
1732 E I grav . 2 W L3 Kn E I grav 2 w1 L4 1732 . E I grav 2 W L3 +.236 w1 L4

Description Youngs Modulus Natural frequency due to W Natural frequency due to W and w1 Frequency for w1, mode n Gravitation acceleration constant Area moment of inertia Constant for vibration mode, n Beam length Point load Load per unit length (Uniform)
Eq. 1
fn =
Eq. 2
f2=
Eq. 3
Example 18.3.3.3.3: Compute the natural frequency of a uniform beam with both ends fixed (L = 2.5 m, E=200 GPa, I=18.5 x 106 mm4) having a uniform load of 150 lb/ft.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the second equation. Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. Since the natural frequency is being calculated, the vibration mode-based constant is, n=1, and a value of Kn = 3.52 is selected from Table 18.3. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above.
253
Given E = 200 GPa I = 1.85 E 7 mm 4 Kn = 3.52 L = 2.5 m w1 = 150 lb/ft
18.3.3.3.4 Both Ends Free

The following equation computes the frequency of vibration, fn (Hz), for a uniform beam with both ends free. The beam has a length L (m), an area moment of inertia, I (m4), a modulus of elasticity (Youngs modulus), E (Pa), and a uniform load, w1 (N/m). Values for the vibration mode-based constant, Kn, are listed in Table 18.4 for different vibration modes, n. Table 18.4: Kn for a uniform beam, length L, both ends free, vibration mode, n (Ref.#6). n 1 2 3 4 5 Kn 22.4 61.7 121 200 299 Nodal positions/L 0.224 0.776 0.132 0.500 0.868 0.095 0.356 0.644 0.074 0.277 0.500 0.060 0.226 0.409
0.905 0.723 0.591
0.926 0.774
0.940
fn =
Kn E I grav 2 w1 L4
Description Youngs modulus Frequency for w1, mode n Gravitation acceleration constant Area moment of inertia Constant for vibration mode, n Beam length Load per unit length (Uniform)
Eq. 1
Variable E fn grav I Kn L w1
Units Pa Hz 9.08665 m/s2 m4 unitless m N/m
Example 18.3.3.3.4: Compute the natural frequency of a uniform beam with both ends free (L = 2.5 m, E=200 GPa, I=18.5 x 106 mm4) having a uniform load of 150 lb/ft.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. Since we are calculating the natural frequency, the vibration modebased constant is 1 and a value of Kn = 22.4 is selected from Table 18.4. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above.
254
Given E = 200 GPa I = 1.85 E 7 mm 4 Kn = 22.4 L = 2.5 m w1 = 150 lb/ft
18.3.3.4 Flat Plates

18.3.3.4.1 Circular Flat Plate
The following equations compute the natural vibration properties for a circular plate having a radius, r (m) and uniform thickness, tr (m) experiencing a uniform load per unit area, wa (N/m2), which includes the weight of the plate. The first equation computes the frequency of vibration, fn (Hz). The second equation computes the flexural of rigidity for the plate, D (Nm), from the elastic properties of the material (Poissons ratio, , and Youngs modulus, E) and the thickness of the plate, tr. Values for the vibration mode-based constant, Kn, in equation 1 are listed in Table 18.5 for different mounting types and vibration modes (harmonics), n. The third equation computes the load per area, wa, from the total load, W (N), and the radius of the circle, r (m). The last equation adapts the previous three equations for an elliptical plate, having a major axis radius ra (m), and minor axis radius, rb (m), with its edges fixed. Table 18.5: Kn for a Circular Plate, radius r, thickness, tr and an elliptical plate (Ref.#6). Support Type (Circular) Edge fixed n 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 Kn 10.2 18.3 34.9 39.8 4.99 13.9 25.7 29.8 5.25 9.08 12.2 20.5 Kn (n=1) 10.2 11.3 12.6 17.0 27.8 57.0 Nodal positions/L Fundamental One nodal diameter Two nodal diameters One nodal circle Fundamental One nodal diameter Two nodal diameters One nodal circle Two nodal diameters One nodal circle Three nodal diameters One nodal diameter and One nodal circle
Edge Simply Supported (=0.3) Edge Free (=0.33)
Elliptical Flat Plate (edge fixed) Major Radius ra, Minor Radius rb
ra/rb 1 1.1 1.2 1.5 2.0 3.0
fn =
Kn D grav 2 wa r 4
Eq. 1
255
D=
E tr 3 12 1 2
Eq. 2
wa = r=
W r2
Eq. 3
ra + rb 2
Description Poissons ratio Flexural of rigidity Youngs modulus Natural frequency for wa, mode n Constant for vibration mode, n Plate radius Major radius Minor radius Plate thickness Total load Load per unit area Units unitless Nm Pa Hz unitless m m m m N N/m2
Eq. 4
Variable D E fn Kn r ra rb tr W wa Example 18.3.3.4.1:
A simply supported, cast iron manhole cover weighs 60 kg (radius 500 mm, thickness ). Cast iron has a Youngs Modulus of 100 GPa and a Poissons ratio of 0.3. If the load is solely due to the plates mass 588.4 N (60 kg * 9.80665 m/ s 2), compute the fundamental vibration frequency.
Upper Display
Lower Display
Solution Select the first three equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. A value of Kn = 4.99 is selected from Table 18.5 for the fundamental vibration mode. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given = 0.3 E = 100 GPa Kn = 4.99 r = 500 mm tr = .5 in W = 588.4 N
Solution D = 18758.1 Nm fn = 49.7787 Hz wa = 749.174 N/m2
256
18.3.3.4.2 Rectangular Flat Plate

The following equations compute the natural vibration properties for a rectangular plate having a short side length, ar (m), a longer side length, br (m) and uniform thickness, tr (m), experiencing a uniform load per unit area, wa (N/m2), including the weight of the plate. The first equation computes the natural frequency of vibration, fn (Hz). The second equation computes the flexural of rigidity of the plate, D (Nm), from the elastic properties of the material (Poissons ratio, , and Youngs modulus, E) and the thickness of the plate, tr. Values for the vibration mode-based constant, Kn, in equation 1 are listed in Table 18.6 for some different mounting types and vibration modes (harmonics), n. The third equation computes the load per area, wa, from the total load, W (N), and the dimensions of the plate, ar and br. The last equation computes Kn for the special case where all edges are simply supported. The constants na and nb are positive integers and represent the number of vibration modes along the axis of ar and br. Table 18.6: Kn for a Rectangular Plate, thickness, tr (Ref.#6). Rectangular Flat Plate All edges fixed ar shorter edge length br longer edge length ar/br 1 0.9 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 Use Equation 4 3.0 2.0 1.6 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 Kn (n=1) 36.0 32.7 29.9 25.9 23.6 22.6 22.4 Use Equation 4 213 99 67 42.4 33.1 25.9 20.8 17.8 16.2 15.8
All edges simply supported 2 ar fixed/1 br fixed/1 br free
fn =
Kn D grav 2 wa ar 4
Eq. 1
E tr 3 D= 12 1 2
Eq. 2
wa =
W ar br
Eq. 3
257
Kn =
ar na + br
2
nb 2

(When all edges are supported)
Eq. 4
Variable ar br D E fn Kn na nb tr W wa
Description Poissons ratio Shorter length of rectangular plate Longer length of rectangular plate Flexural rigidity Youngs modulus Frequency for wa, mode n Constant for vibration mode, n Mode of vibration: ar axis {1, 2, 3} Mode of vibration: br axis {1, 2, 3} Plate thickness Total load Load per unit area
Units unitless m m Nm Pa Hz unitless unitless positive integer unitless positive integer m N N/m2
Example 18.3.3.4.2: Compute the fundamental frequency for a titanium plate 2 mm thick with edge lengths 1m and 10 cm. The load, including the weight of the titanium, is 20 N. All of the edges are fixed. Pure titanium has a Youngs modulus value of 110 GPa and a Poissons ratio value of 0.33.
Upper Display
Lower Display
Solution Select all of the equations to solve this problem. Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. Enter values of na = 0 and nb = 1. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given = 0.33 ar = 10 cm br = 1 m E = 100 GPa na = 0 nb = 1 tr = 2 mm W = 20 N References:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Solution D = 74.8139 Nm fn = 3.00854 Hz Kn = .098696 wa = 200 N/m2
Halliday, Resnick and Walker Fundamentals of Physics 4th ed. 1993, John Wiley and Sons Inc., NY Eugene A Avallone and Theodore Baumeister III, Marks Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, 9th Edition, McGraw-Hill Book company, New York, NY 1986 Michael R. Lindeburg, Mechanical Engineering Reference Manual, 8th Edition, Professional Publications, Belmont, CA 1990 R. C. Hibbeler Engineering Mechanics, Statics and Dynamics 7th Edition Prentice Call, Engle Cliffs, NJ 1995 Meriam J.L., Kraige L.G. Engineering Mechanics Vol. 2: Dynamics 2 nd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, NY, 1986 Young, W. Roarks Formulas for Stress and Strain, 6 th ed, McGraw Hill, NY, 1989
258
F3: Equations/9:Refrigeration
Chapter 19: Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

This portion of the software is designed to solve some of the common problems encountered in Refrigeration and Air conditioning. Two distinct areas form the basis for the calculations. Heating Load Refrigeration
19.1 Heating Load

Eleven equations listed in this category are used in the design of insulation and heating systems. The first equation computes the overall heat transfer coefficient, U W/(m2K), for a heat loss surface. The variables, hin and hout W/(m2K), are the film coefficients of the inside and outside surfaces. Equation 2 computes the resistance due to convection in an air space, Rh (m2K/W); ak W/(m2K) is the thermal conductivity of the air space- typically 1.65 for inside (still) air and 6.0 for outside (~15 mph wind) air. Equation 3 calculates the thermal resistance of conduction for three surfaces in series, Rk (m2K/W), each having thickness, xd1, xd2, and xd3 (m), and conductivities k1, k2, and k3 W/(mK). Equation 4 calculates the effective space emissivity, E, due to thermal conduction in air spaces. The variables, e1 and e2, are the emissivities of side 1 and side 2 of the enclosure. Equation 5 estimates the rate of heat transfer, Qrate (W), from the heat loss surface having an overall heat transfer coefficient, U, and area, A (m2). Equation 6 estimates Qrate through the edges of a floor surface. The perimeter, peri (m), is used when slab edge data is available. The heat loss coefficient, F W/(mK), varies between 1.4 W/(mK) for an exposed surface edge and 0.95 W/(mK) for insulated edges. Equations 7 and 8 compute the heat required to warm moisture in incoming air, qw (J), from the specific heat of water vapor, cp J/(kgK), the inside and outside temperature, Ti (K) and To (K), the air density (kg/m3) and the humidity ratio, (unitless). Equations 9 and 10 calculate the total heat required, to warm incoming moist air, qt (J). Values of hi J/(kgK) and ho J/(kgK), the enthalpies of moist air at temperatures,Ti and To, are available from psychometric charts (see Analysis Steam Tables). The last equation computes the volumetric flow rate of air, Vf (m3/s) through a fixture using the crack method. If 1 wall is exposed, the total crack length is used for L (m), the greater crack length for 2 exposed walls, the crack length of two walls if 3 walls are exposed and one half the total crack length is used for 4 walls. B (m2/hr) is the infiltration coefficient, which is specific to a type of fixture and the wind velocity.
U=
1 1 1 + + Rk + Rh hin hout 1 ak xd 1 xd 2 xd 3 + + k1 k2 k3
Eq. 1
Rh = Rk =
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
1 1 1 = + 1 E e1 e2 Qrate = U A Ti To
Eq. 4
6
259
Eq. 5
ME Pro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 19 - Equations - Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
Qrate = peri F Ti To
1 qt = Vf 1hi ho6
qt = qa + qw Vf = B L
Variable A ak B cp E e1 e2 F hi hin ho hout k1 k2 k3 L ma mw peri qa Qrate qt qw Rh Rk Ti To U Vf xd1 xd2 xd3 Example 19.1:
Eq. 6
qw = Vf cp Ti To
Eq. 7 Eq. 8 Eq. 9 Eq. 10
Description Density of incoming air Humidity ratio Area Thermal coefficient for air Infiltration coefficient Specific heat at constant pressure Effective space emissivity Emissivity Emissivity Heat loss coefficient Enthalpy-inside Air Film coefficient Enthalpy - outside Air Film coefficient Thermal conductivity of 1 Thermal conductivity of 2 Thermal conductivity of 3 Length Air mass Water vapor mass Perimeter Heat transfer-dry air Rate of heat loss Rate of heat transfer-incoming air Rate of heat transfer-moisture Resistance due to convection Resistance due to conduction Inside temperature Outside temperature Overall heat transfer coefficient Volumetric flow rate Thickness of material 1 Thickness of material 2 Thickness of material 3
Units kg/m3 unitless m2 W/(mK) m2/hr J/(kgK) unitless unitless unitless W/(m2K) J/kg W/(m2K) J/kg W/(m2K) W/(mK) W/(mK) W/(mK) m kg kg m J W W W Km2/W Km2/W K K m2K m3/s m m m
A roof, having an area of 800 ft2, is made of two layers of Oregon Pine (thickness of 1 in, thermal conductivity of 0.065 Btu/(fthroF) separated by an air space of ~ 4 inches having a convection coefficient of 0.69 Btu/(ft2hroF). Assuming no heat loss occurs due air seepage through cracks, what is
260
the rate of heat loss if the inside temperature is 75oF and the outside temperature is 30 oF. Assume the film coefficients for the inside and outside air are 1.65 and 6.0 W/(m 2K).
Upper Display
Middle Display
Lower Display
Solution Select equations 1, 2, 3, and 5 to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given A = 800 ft 2 ak = .69 Btu/(hrft2oF) hin = 1.65 W/(m2K) hout = 6 W/(m2K) k1 = .065 Btu/(hrftoF) k2 = .065 Btu/(hrftoF) k3 = (blank) Ti = 75 oF To = 30 oF xd1 = 1 in xd2 = 1 in xd3 = 0 in
19.2 Refrigeration
19.2.1 General Cycle
The following equations focus on the performance characteristics of refrigeration cycles. Equation 1 computes the coefficient of performance for a refrigeration cycle, COPr (unitless). Equation 2 calculates the coefficient of performance COPh (unitless) for a heat pump. The third equation shows the implicit relationship between COPr and COPh. The last equation calculates the work required to drive the refrigeration cycle, Win (J). Qin (J), is the heat input from the low temperature reservoir and Qout (J), is the exhaust of heat into the high temperature area.
COPr = COPh =
Qin Qout Qin Qin + Win Qout Qin
COPh = COPr + 1
Solution Qrate = 905.821 W/(m2K) Rh = .826952 m2K/W Rk = .451565 m2K/W U = .487509 W/(m2K)
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
261
Win = Qout Qin

Variable COPh COPr Qin Qout Win Description Performance coefficient -heat pump Performance coefficient refrigeration Heat flow from low temperature region Heat flow from high temperature region Work input
Eq. 4 Units unitless unitless J J J
Example 19.2.1: A refrigeration cycle requires 400 J of work and expels 1 kJ of heat. What is the heat drawn from the cool area and the coefficient of performance?
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the first and last equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given Qout = 1 kJ Win = 400 J
19.2.2 Reverse Carnot

The reverse Carnot cycle is composed of four steps: 1. 2. 3. 4. Isentropic expansion Isothermal heating (vaporization) Isentropic compression Isothermal cooling (condensation)
The coefficient of performance for the reverse Carnot cycle (refrigeration), COPr (unitless), is computed from the high and low temperatures, Thi (K) and Tlo (K). The coefficient of performance for the forward Carnot cycle (heat pump) COPh (unitless) is computed from Thi and Tlo in the second equation.
COPr = COPh =
T1o Thi T1o Thi Thi T1o
COPh = COPr + 1
Solution COPr = 1.5 Qin = 600 J
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
262
Variable COPh COPr Thi Tlo Example 19.2.2:
Description Performance coefficient -heat pump Performance coefficient -refrigeration Temperature High Temperature Low
Units unitless unitless K K
What is the coefficient of performance for a reverse carnot cycle having a high temperature of 100 oF and a low temperature of 39 oF?
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the first equation to solve this problem. Select this by highlighting the equation and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given Thi = 100 oF Tlo = 39 oF
19.2.3 Reverse Brayton

The reverse Brayton (air refrigeration) cycle is composed of four steps: 1. 2. 3. 4. Isentropic expansion. Constant pressure heating. Isentropic compression. Constant pressure cooling.
Equations 1 and 2 compute the coefficient of performance, COP, from the temperatures T1 (K), T2 (K), T3 (K) and T4 (K) at each stage in the cycle, the compression ratio, pr (unitless), and the specific heat ratio, k (unitless). The compression ratio, pr, is defined as the ratio of the high and low pressures in the third equation.
COP =
T3 T2 T 4 T1 T 3 T 2
COP = pr pr = phi plo
1
k 1 k
1
Eq. 3
Solution COPr = 8.17492
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
263
Variable COP k phi plo pr T1 T2 T3 T4
Description Coefficient of performance Adiabatic expansion coefficient Pressure High Pressure Low Pressure ratio Temperature Temperature Temperature Temperature
Units unitless unitless Pa Pa unitless K K K K
Example 19.2.3: Compute the coefficient of performance for an air refrigeration cycle having a compression ratio of 5.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the second equation to solve this problem. Select this by highlighting the equation and pressing . Press to display the variables. Use a value of k=1.4 for air (see Reference/Thermal Properties/Specific Heat/ Cp/Cv Liquids and Gases at 1 atm). Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given k = 1.4 pr = 5
19.2.4 Compression Cycle

The following equations describe the properties of a reciprocating single-stage compressor with clearance for an ideal gas. The four processes forming the foundation of the cycle are described below: 1. 2. 3. 4. Intake valve opens and suction occurs at constant pressure. Intake valve closes, polytropic compression occurs. Discharge valve opens and discharge occurs at constant delivery pressure until piston. System returns to its original state (residual gases from original compression exist
The pressure and volume of the gas at the beginning of the cycles are defined below: 1. 2. 3. 4. Beginning of stroke 1 Beginning of stroke 2 Beginning of stroke 3 Beginning of stroke 4 - Pressure p1 (Pa) and volume V1 (m3) - Pressure p2 (Pa) and volume V2 (m3) - Pressure p3 (Pa) and volume V3 (m3) - Pressure p4 (Pa) and volume V4 (m3)
The volume at the end of Stage 1, V2, is termed the bottom dead center (BDC). The volume at the end of Stage 3, V4 is the top dead center (TDC). The first and second equations compute the compression ratio, pr (unitless), as the ratio of the high and low pressures in the cycle (p4=p3, high pressure; p1=p2, low pressure). Equations 3 and 4 calculate the volumetric efficiency, effv (unitless), and the ratio of the
Solution COP = 1.71286
264
mass of compressed gas to the mass of the swept volume. Equations 5 and 6 relate the pressure/volume ratios for polytropic compression. The variable, n (unitless), is the polytropic exponent. If the compression is isentropic, n, has a value equivalent to the specific heat ratio of the gas (cp/cv where cp is the specific heat at constant pressure and cv is the specific heat at constant volume). The last equation computes the work performed by the system during polytropic compression, W23 (J) (Stage 2).
pr = pr = effv =
p4 p1 p3 p2 V 2 V1 V 2 V 4
1 n
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
pr 1 V 4 effv = 1
V 2 V 4
1 V1 = pr n V4 1 V2 = pr n V3 n 1 n p 2 V 2 pr n 1 1 n
Eq. 4
Eq. 5
Eq. 6
W 23 =

Eq. 7
Variable effv N p1 p2 p3 p4 Pr V1 V2 V3 V4 W23
Description Volumetric efficiency Polytropic exponent Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure ratio Volume Volume Volume Volume Work - compression/ stroke
Units unitless unitless Pa Pa Pa Pa unitless m3 m3 m3 m3 J
Example 19.2.4: What is the volumetric efficiency and work required for compression for a compressor which discharges air at constant pressure of 86 psi and draws in air at a constant pressure of 12 psi? The BDC volume is 200 cm3 and the TDC volume is 25 cm 3. Assume the compression process is adiabatic (n=1.4).
265
Upper Display
Lower Display
Solution Note: V4=TDC and V2=BDC, and p1=p2=low pressure, and p3=p4=high pressure. Select equations 1, 3, 4, 5 and 7 to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given n = 1.4 p1 = 12 psi p2 = 12 psi p4 = 86 psi V2 = 200 cm 3 V4 = 25 cm 3 Solution effv = .559623 pr = 7.16667 V1 = 102.066 cm 3 W23 = 43.7498 J
References: 1. 2. 3. Michael R. Lindeburg, Mechanical Engineering Reference Manual, 8th Edition, Professional Publications, Belmont, CA 1990 John A. Roberson and Clayton T. Crowe, Engineering Fluid Mechanics, 5th Edition, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, MA, 1993 Eugene A Avallone and Theodore Baumeister III, Mark's Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, 9th Edition, McGraw-Hill Book company, New York, NY 1986
266
F3: Equations/A: Strength Materials
Chapter 20: Strength Materials

Strength of materials section is designed to cover a range of example problems encountered in characterizing materials under a variety of types of stresses. The topics are covered under these broad categories: Stress and Strain Basics Stress Analysis Torsion Load Problems Mohr's Circle
20.1 Stress and Strain Basics

Three basic definitions of stresses and strains are introduced in this section. They are Normal Stress and Strain, Volume dilation and Shear stress. Each of these sections is described here.
20.1.1 Normal Stress and Strain

Three equations describe the basic definitions of stress and strain. The first equation defines the relationship between stress, (Pa), load, P (N), and area, A (m2). The second equation establishes the definition of strain, (no units), as the ratio of elongation, (m), due to the force, P, of a bar of length, L (m). The third equation represents Hooke's law relating stress, , to strain, , using the elasticity modulus, E (Pa).
= =
P A
Eq. 1
Eq. 2 Eq. 3 Description Equivalent elongation Strain Stress Area Youngs modulus Length Load Units m unitless Pa m2 Pa m N
= E
Variable A E L P
Example 20.1.1: Calculate the stress and strain of a bar with an Area of .002 m2. The bar is made of an aluminum alloy (2014-T6) with a modulus of elasticity of 70 GPa. A load of 85 kN is placed upon this bar in tension mode.
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 20 - Equations Strength Materials
267
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the first and third equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given A = .002 m 2 E = 70 GPa P = 85 kN
20.1.2 Volume Dilation

Volume dilation refers to volume changes in a solid body due to shear forces. A solid block defined by the dimensions base, b (m), height h (m), and width, w (m). The initial volume, Vi (m3), of such a parallel-piped is defined by the first equation. A stress applied to this bar results in a strain, (no units), along the direction of the stress. However, the lateral dimensions shrink by the longitudinal strain modulated by the so-called Poisson's ratio, (no units). This is illustrated by the second equation. The last equation defines the volumetric strain, ev (no units), in terms of and .
Vi = b h w Vf = Vi 1 + 1 1
2
1 61 61 ev = 1 + $ 1 $ 1
Variable B Ev H Vf Vi W
Description Strain Poissons ratio Base Volume dilation Height Final volume Initial volume Width
Example 20.1.2: A copper bar, with an initial volume of .0015 m3, is subject to a volumetric strain of 4.416. The Poissons ratio for this copper bar is 1/3. Find the final volume of the copper bar after the stress has been applied.
Solution = .000607 = .0425 GPa
Eq. 1
Eq. 2 Eq. 3 Units unitless unitless m unitless m m3 m3 m
268
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the second equation to solve this problem. Select this by highlighting the equation and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given = 4.416 = 1/3 Vi = .0015 m3
20.1.3 Shear Stress and Modulus

The average shear stress, av (Pa), on the cross section of an element such as a bolt is defined by the first equation as the shear force, F (N), acting over an area, A (m2). The second equation expresses shear stress as a product of shear strain, (unitless), and bulk shear modulus, G (Pa), in a manner similar to Hooke's Law in shear. The third equation connects the modulus of elasticity in tension and shear (E (Pa) and G (Pa)) in terms of the Poisson's ratio, (unitless).
av =
P A
av = G
G=
E 2 1+
1 6
Description Shear strain Poissons ratio Shear stress Area Youngs modulus Shear modulus Load
Variable av A E G P
Example 20.1.3: Find the shear stress and shear strain on a steel bolt that passes through one steel plate on a tractor and a U-shaped hitch on a trailer. The trailer is in a motionless position. As the tractor starts to move, it exerts a load on the bolt of 25 lbf. The area of the plate on the tractor is 60 cm2 and the modulus of elasticity on the bolt is 80 GPa.
Solution Vf = .00181 m3
Eq. 1 Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Units Unitless unitless Pa m2 Pa Pa N
269
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the first and second equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given A = 60 cm 2 G = 80 GPa P = 25 lbf
20.2 Load Problems

This section is devoted to the behavior of a selected set of axially loaded members, which refers to structural elements having longitudinal axes and carrying only axial forces whether they are tensile or compressive. This family of problems is associated with bars in trusses, columns in buildings, spokes in bicycle wheels, and struts in aircraft engine mounts.
20.2.1 Axial Load

The elastic properties of a primitive bar of length, L (m), loaded in tension by axial forces, P (N), is characterized by the first equation defining the elongation of the bar. The material of the bar has a Young's modulus, E (Pa), and area, A (m2), elongated by a distance, (m). For the axial bar, a convenient unit of measure is the stiffness, k (N/m) (i.e., the force needed to produce a unit elongation), computed in Equation 2.
=
k=
P L E A E A L Description Equivalent elongation Area Youngs modulus Stiffness Length Load
Variable A E k L P
Solution = 2.31678E-7 av = .000019 GPa
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Units m m2 Pa N/m m N
270
Example 20.2.1: Find the stiffness, the amount of force required for elongation, of a Titanium Alloy bar that is 150 mm long. This bar has an area of 525 mm 2, and the modulus of elasticity is 100 GPa.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the second equation to solve this problem. Select this by highlighting the equation and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given A = 525 mm 2 E = 100 Gpa L = 150 mm
20.2.2 Temperature Effects

A change in the temperature of an object tends to produce a change in its dimensions. As shown in the schematic diagram shown here, a homogeneous rectangular block with length, L (m), area, A (m2), is subject to a temperature change, T (K), and a thermal expansion coefficient, (1/K), results in a uniform thermal strain, t (unitless) computed in equation 1. The second equation calculates the actual expansion, t (m), due to thermal strain. The third equation computes the thermal strain force, R (N), induced in the member if the material is confined in a fixed space that does not allow the top to expand.
t = T t = t L
R = A E T Variable T t t A E L R Description Coefficient of thermal expansion Temperature difference Elongation Thermal strain Area Youngs modulus Length Thermal strain force
Solution K = 3.5E8 N/m
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 3 Units 1/K K m unitless m2 Pa m N
271
Example 20.2.2: If a porch had a roof that is held up by concrete pillars, how much will it move in an environment that has a 313.706 k temperature change from winter to summer? Also how much of a strain will this put on the pillars? The pillars are 8 ft tall, and the coefficient of thermal expansion for concrete is 14E-6 1/C.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the first and second equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given = 14E-6 1/C T = 313.706 k L = 8 ft
20.2.3 Dynamic Load

Dynamic loads differ from static loads in that they are generally and loads can be applied suddenly and from an impact load. The eight equations in this section focus on impact of a dynamic load and helps compute its impact on properties of the system. We use the example of a collar and flange designed so that the collar sits on the flange and moves downwards with it. This situation is often referred to as perfectly plastic impact. Two key assumptions are made in this analysis Disregard energy losses Assume all kinetic energy of the falling mass is converted to strain energy of the bar.
The first equation falls out of the conservation of energy principle whereby the potential energy lost by the mass, M (kg), with a weight, Wt (N), is transferred to the bar of length, L (m), area, A (m2), height, h (m), elastic modulus, E (Pa), results in a maximum deflection, max (m). The second equation solves for the positive root of max. The third equation extracts the static elongation, st (m), in terms of the static load parameters, Wt, L, E and A. The next equation is an alternative form of the first equation except max is expressed as a function of the static elongation, st, and the effect of the dynamic load. The next three equations reflect a calculation of the maximum tensile stress, max (Pa), from parameters of the system. Equation 7 describes maximum stress, max, in terms of velocity; weight, Wt, physical properties of the system such as area A, length L, velocity vel (m/s), and modulus of elasticity E (Pa). The final equation relates weight, Wt, and mass, M. E A max 2 2 L

Wt h + max =
6 1

Wt L + max = EA
Wt L EA
2 Wt L h + EA
Solution t = .421621 in t = .004392
Eq. 1
.5
Eq. 2
272
st =
Wt L EA
.5
Eq. 3
M=
Wt grav Description Maximum elongation Static elongation Maximum stress Static stress Area Youngs modulus Height Length Mass of load Maximum velocity Force
Variable max st max st A E h L M vel Wt
Example 20.2.3: When a collar around a copper rod is dropped from a height of 40.64 cm, find the force of the collar, and the maximum stress experienced by the rod. The length of the rod is 50.8 cm and its modulus of elasticity is 40 GPa. The collar has a mass of .680389 kg and the rod has an area of 1.26677 cm 2.
Entered Values
Solution Select the fifth and eighth equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above.
? a?

Wt vel 2 E max = A L grav

.5

max = st + st 2 +

2h E st L
.5

Wt max = + A
Wt A
2 Wt h E + A L
9
.5
max = st + st 2 + 2 h st
4
Eq. 4
Eq. 5
Eq. 6
Eq. 7
Eq. 8
Units m m Pa Pa m2 Pa m m kg m/s N
Computed results
273
Given A = 1.26677 cm 2 E = 40 GPa h = 40.64 cm L = 50.8 cm M = .680389 kg
Solution max = 58.1147 MPa Wt = 6.67234 N
20.3 Stress Analysis

Five varieties of stress analysis problems are covered under this section.
20.3.1 Stress on an Inclined Section

By slicing a plane through a bar at an angle an inclined plane section is cut, (rad). The plane is subject to an axial force, P (N). The normal force, N (N), and shear force, V (N), result on the inclined plane and is defined by the first two equations. The normal force, N, represents the force perpendicular to the inclined plane, while shear force, V, represents the force parallel to the inclined plane. The equations 3 and 4 formulate the normal stress, (Pa) and shear stress, (Pa), in terms of P, area, A (m2), and .
6 1
2
N = P cos V = P sin
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 3
Variable A N P V Example 20.3.1:
Given the area of a bar, the load of an object, and the angle of the incline plane on the bar as 152.419 cm2, 1855.125 N, and 20 deg respectively, find the shear force, the normal force, the normal stress, and the shear stress of the placed upon the bar by the object.
6 1
6 1
P sin cos A
76 1
P cos A
6 1
Eq. 4
Description Inclined plane angle Normal stress Shear stress Area Normal force Load Shear force
Units rad Pa Pa m2 N N N
274
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select all of the equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given = 20 deg A = 152.419 cm 2 P = 1855.125 N Solution = 107475.0 Pa = -39117.5 Pa N = 1743.25 N V = 634.49 N
20.3.2 Pure Shear

When a circular bar is subject to torsion, shear stresses act over the cross sections and longitudinal planes as shown in the thin crosssectional element in the accompanying diagram. The first equation shows the shear stress along the principal stress, x1 (Pa), relates to the inclined plane angle, (rad), and shear stress, xy (Pa). The second equation shows the shear stress, x1y1 (Pa), along the principal axis perpendicular to x1 in terms of xy (Pa) and .
6 1
x1 = 2 xy cos sin x1y1 = xy cos

2
6 1
2
Variable x1 x1y1 xy
Description Inclined plane angle Stress along principal axis Shear stress along principal axis Shear stress
Example 20.3.2: Find the principal shear stress on a plane 30 deg from the longitudinal axis when a shear stress of 15000 psi.
Entered Values
7 6 1
? a?
2 76 1
Eq. 1
2
sin
Eq. 2
Units rad Pa Pa Pa
Computed results
275
Solution Select all the equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given = 30 deg xy = 15000 psi Solution x1 = 12990.4 psi x1y1 = 7500 psi
20.3.3 Principal Stresses

The transformation equations for plane stresses to principal stresses form the backbone of these equations. From the normal stresses along the x and y-axis, xx (Pa) and yy (Pa), and shear stress, xy (Pa), we can compute the angle of the plane, p (rad), as shown by the first equation. The second equation computes a characteristic radius, Rp (Pa), often called the Mohr circle radius. The third and the fourth equations define the stresses, 1 (Pa) and 2 (Pa), along the principal axis. While the fifth equation shows a simple linear relationship amongst 1, 2, xx and yy, the final two equations show a method of computing p using alternative methods. tan 2 p =
6 1
xx + yy 2 = 2
1 + 2 = xx + yy
xx yy 2
cos 2 p =
$
xx yy 2 Rp xy Rp
Description Principal angle Stress in 1 Stress in 2 Stress along x axis Stress along y axis Shear stress Mohrs circle radius
sin 2 p =
$
Variable p 1 2 xx yy xy Rp

? a ?
2 xy xx yy
2
Eq. 1

1 =
xx + yy + 2

Rp =
xx yy 2
+ xy 2
Eq. 2
xx yy 2
+ xy 2
Eq. 3
+ xy 2
Eq. 4
Eq. 5 Eq. 6
Eq. 7
Units rad Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa
276
Example 20.3.3: Compute the Mohr radius given 15000 psi and 6000 psi for the normal stresses on the x and y axis, respectively. The shear stress is 7500 psi. Find the principal angle of the principal plane and values for the principal stresses.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the first four equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. At the MEPro solver, select an arbitrary integer of 0 to compute the principal solution (the principal solution, P, in a periodic trigonometric function, trig (), is P=trig ( + n) and n is the arbitrary integer). Given xx = 15000 psi yy = 6000 psi xy = 7500 psi Solution p = 29.5181 deg 1 = 1.32699 E8 Pa 2 = 1.20905E7 Pa Rp = 6.03045E7 Pa
20.3.4 Maximum Shear Stress

The five equations below compute the maximum shear stress experienced in a member and the angle of the plane where this stress is experie nced. The first equation defines s (rad) as the angle of orientation of the plane of maximum shear stress in terms of the normal shear stresses, xx (Pa) and yy (Pa), along x and y axis respectively, and the shear stress, xy (Pa). The second equation connects s to p (rad), the angle of orientation to the principal planes. The plane of algebraically maximum value of maximum shear, max (Pa), is shown by the third equation. The last two equations show alternate forms of computing max in terms of xx, yy and xy or the corresponding principal stresses, 1 (Pa) and 2 (Pa). tan 2 s =
6 1
tan 2 s =
6 1
s1 = p
4


max =
xx yy 2
1 tan 2 p
1
+ xy 2
xx yy 2 xy
1
? a?
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
277
max =
1 2 2
Description Principal angle Principal angle- maximum shear Principal angle- maximum shear 1 Stress in 1 Stress in 2 Stress along x axis Stress along y axis Maximum shear stress Shear stress
Eq. 5
Variable p s s1 1 2 xx yy max xy Example 20.3.4:
Units rad rad rad Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa
An element in plane stress is subject to a normal stress of 12300 psi along x-axis, and a stress of 4200 psi along y-axis, along with a shear stress of 4700 psi. Determine the principal stresses and the angle of maximum shear stress.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the first four equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Because of the presence of trigonometric relationships, multiple solutions are possible and the principal solutions were chosen here. At MEPro solver and grapher, use 0 for the replacement integer of the arbitrary integer. Given xx = 12300 psi yy =-4200 psi xy = -4700 psi Solution p = -14.835 deg s = 30.165 deg s1 = -59.835 deg max = 6.54648E7 Pa
20.3.5 Plane Stress - Hooke's Law

Normal strains, xx (unitless), yy (unitless) and zz (unitless), represent the changes in dimensions of an infinitesimally small cube having edges of unit length. The normal stress-strain relationships shown in the first three equations reflect Hookes law relationships, where stress and strain are related by the Youngs modulus of elasticity, E (Pa), and the Poissons ratio (unitless). The fourth equation shows the Hookes law for shear stress, xy (Pa), bulk modulus of elasticity, G (Pa) and shear strain, xy (unitless). The last two equations complement the first two equations where stresses, xx (Pa), yy (Pa), and zz (Pa), are expressed in terms of strains.
? a?
278
xx = yy = zz =
xy =
1 xx yy E 1 yy xx E xx + yy E
1 1
6 6
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
6 6 6
Eq. 3
xy G
Eq. 4
xx = yy =
E xx + yy 1 2 E yy + xx 1 2
1 1
Eq. 5
Eq. 6
Variable xy xx yy zz xx yy xy E G
Description Shear strain along x, y axis Strain-x axis Strain-y axis Strain-z axis Poissons ratio Stress along x axis Stress along y axis Shear stress Youngs modulus Shear modulus
Units unitless unitless unitless unitless unitless Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa
Example 20.3.5: A cubic structure is subject to linear strains of 1.4E-3 along the x-axis, and 1.5E-4 along the y-axis, and a Poissons ratio of 0.01. If the Youngs modulus of elasticity for this member is 100 GPa, find the stresses along x, and y-axis.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the last two equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above
? a?
279
Given xx =1.4E-3 yy = 1.5E-4 = 0.01 E = 100 GPa
Solution xx = 1.40164E8 Pa yy = 1.64016E7 Pa
20.4 Mohrs Circle Stress

20.4 Mohrs Circle Stress
A graphical presentation of transformation equations for plane stress is called the Mohrs circle. Six equations listed here form the core relationships that reflect various aspects of the components constituting the Mohrs circle. The first equation relates principal axis stress, x1 (Pa), to stresses along x and y-axis, xx (Pa) and yy (Pa), and the inclined plane angle, (rad). The second equation shows the relationship of these variables to the principal shear stress, x1yt1 (Pa). The third equation computes the average stress, av (Pa). The Mohrs circle radius, Rp (Pa), is calculated from, x1, av and xy. The last two equations show alternate ways to calculate p1 (rad), the angle of the principal axis.
av =
xx + yy 2
2
cos 2 p1 =
$
xx yy 2 Rp xy Rp
Description Inclined plane angle Principal angle 1 Average stress Stress-principal axis 1 Stress along x axis Stress along y axis Shear stress principal axis Shear stress Mohrs circle radius
sin 2 p1 =
$
Variable p1 av x1 xx yy x1y1 xy Rp
Rp 2 = x1 av
1
+ x1y12
x1y1 =
xx yy
sin 2 + xy cos 2
280
x1
xx + yy xx yy = cos 2 + xy sin 2 2 2
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Eq.3
Eq. 4
Eq. 5
Eq. 6
Units rad rad Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa
Example 20.4: An element in plane stress is subject to a stress of 15000 psi along the x-axis, 5000 psi along the y-axis and a shear force of 4000 psi. The plane is at an angle of 40 degrees to the axis. Find the principal stress values and angle of the planes for maximum stress.
Upper Display
Lower Display
Solution Select the first five equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. At MEPro solver and grapher, use 0 for the replacement integer of the arbitrary integer. The first usable solution is shown in this example. Given = 40 deg xx = 15000 psi yy = 5000 psi xy = 4000 psi Solution p1 =70.6701 deg av = 6.89476E7 Pa x1 = 14807 .5 psi x1y1 = -2.9161E7 Pa Rp = 4.4146E7 Pa
Torsion refers to the twisting of a structural member, when it is loaded by a couple which produces rotation about the longitudinal axis.
20.5.1 Pure Torsion

Eight equations are listed here to illustrate various aspects of torsion. The first two equations focus on the definition of torsional shear strain, (unitless), in terms of the shaft radius, rad (m), and length L (m), angular twists per unit length, 1 (rad/m), and twist, (rad). The third equation represents Hookes law for shear. The fourth equation yields the torque, T (Nm), for the angular twist modulated by the bulk modulus, G (Pa), and polar moment of inertia, Ip (m4). The fifth equation computes Ip in terms of rad. The sixth equation shows the computation of the twist, , in terms of T, L, G and Ip. The last two equations show alternate forms of max (Pa), the maximum shear stress.
= rad 1
rad L
= G
T = G Ip 1
? a?
20.5 Torsion
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 3 Eq. 4
281
Ip =
rad 4 2
Eq. 5
TL G Ip T rs Ip 16 T d 3 Description Shear strain Angle of twist/unit length Shear stress Maximum shear stress Angle of twist Diameter Shear modulus Polar moment of inertia Length Radius Shaft radius Torque
Eq. 6
max =
Eq. 7
max =
Eq. 8
Variable l max d G Ip L rad rs T
Units unitless rad/m Pa Pa rad m Pa m4 m m m Nm
Example 20.5.1: Compute the torque needed for a system with a radius of 4 inches, G=100 GPa, and a twist of 0.05 rad/ft.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the fourth and fifth equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above.
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282
Given 1 = 0.05 rad/ft G = 100 GPa rad = 4 in
Solution Ip = 0.000167 m 4 T = 2.74568E6 Nm
20.5.2 Pure Shear

When a circular bar either solid or hollow is subject to torsion, shear stress, (Pa), acts over the cross section of the inclined face of a plane inclined at an angle of (rad). The first equation in this set calculates, (Pa), the normal stress perpendicular to the plane of interest in terms of shear stress, (Pa) and . The second equation gives the shear stress value, (Pa), for the system on the plane. The next two equations complement the first two by expressing and in alternate forms using trigonometric identities. The fifth equation represents Hookes law for shear linking shear strain, (unitless), with bulk modulus, G (Pa), and shear stress, . The remaining equations compute Youngs modulus, E (Pa), strain, max (unitless), and elastic strain energy, U (J), with G, Poissons ratio (unitless), system torque, T (Nm), polar moment Ip (m4).
$
= 2 sin cos = cos

$ $ $
Eq. 1
% $
283 2
sin
Eq. 2 Eq. 3 Eq. 4 Eq. 5 Eq. 6 Eq. 7
= cos 2 = G

E = 2 G 1+
U=
T2 L 2 G Ip Description Shear strain Maximum strain Poissons ratio Inclined plane angle Normal stress Shear stress Shear stress Youngs modulus Shear modulus
Variable max E G
max =
1+ E
= sin 2

%6 1
Eq. 8
Units unitless unitless unitless rad Pa Pa Pa Pa Pa
Variable Ip L T U
Description Polar moment of inertia Length Torque Elastic strain energy
Units m4 m Nm J
Example 20.5.2: Find the normal stress and shear stress for system when a shear stress of 15000 psi is applied to a plane at an angle of 30 degrees.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the first and second equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given = 30 degrees = 15000 psi Solution = 12990.4 psi = 7500 psi
20.5.3 Circular Shafts

Circular shafts are used invariably in transferring mechanical power from one system to another. The three equations below represent the basic properties of such a rotating system. The first equation connects the power, Pwr (W), with the torque, T (Nm), and angular frequency, (rad/s). The second equation shows the connection between and frequency, freq (Hz). The last equation expresses the relation between the rotational speed, rpm (rpm) and freq.
Pwr = T
= 2 freq
rpm = freq
Variable freq Pwr rpm T Description Radian frequency Frequency Power Revolutions per minute Torque
Example 20.5.3: Find the torque needed to transfer 1000W of power at 300 revolutions per minute.
? a?
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 3 Units rad/s Hz W 1/s Nm
284
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select all the equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given Pwr = 1000 W rpm = 300 rpm Solution = 31.4159 rad/s freq = 5 Hz T = 31.831 Nm
20.5.4 Torsional Member

The ten equations in this section represent an analysis of the flexibility method applied to bars in torsion, as shown in the picture. We examine the case of two bars of diameters, da (m) and db (m), loaded by a torque, To (Nm), at the location C shown in the picture above. The object is to compute Ta (Nm) and Tb (Nm), the reactive torque at each end of the system. The angle of rotation, c (rad), from C to A, and b (rad), represents the angle of rotation from B to C. The two segments of the element have lengths, La (m) and Lb (m), giving a total length of L (m). Ipa (m4) and Ipb (m4) represent the polar moments of the regions of the member, while ac (Pa) and bc (Pa), represent the maximum shear from A to C and maximum shear from B to C respectively. G (Pa), is defined as the bulk modulus. The equations listed below represent a complex set of relations between all the variables described here. To = Ta + Tb
$
cb =
To La db 2 La Ipb + Lb Ipa

? a ?
b =
Ta = Tb = To Lb L To La L L = La + Lb
Eq. 1 Eq. 2
To Tb La Tb Lb G Ipa G Ipb
Eq. 3
Eq. 4 Eq. 5 Eq. 6
ac =
To Lb da 2 La Ipb + Lb Ipa

Eq. 7
285
c =
Ta La G Ipa Tb Lb G Ipb La Lb To G La Ipb + Lb Ipa

Eq. 8
c =
Eq. 9
c =
Eq. 10
$
Variable ac cb b c da db G Ipa Ipb L La Lb Ta Tb To Example 20.5.4:
Description Maximum shear at angle of twist AC Maximum shear at angle of twist CB Angle of rotation at B Angle of rotation at C Diameter at end A Diameter at end B Shear modulus Polar moment of inertia of A Polar moment of inertia of B Length Shaft length-diameter da Shaft length-diameter db Reactive torque at A Reactive torque at B Load torque
Units Pa Pa rad rad m m Pa m4 m4 m m m Nm Nm Nm
A shaft 4 feet long has a diameter of 6 inches for the first 3 feet and 8 inches for the remaining length. The bulk modulus has a value of 100 GPa. If a torque of 50 ftkips is applied at the transition point, find the angles of twist, and shear stresses in the system. Assume that the polar moments are 127.235 in4 and 402.124 in 4 respectively.
Upper Display
Lower Display
Solution Select the first eight equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given da = 6 in db = 8 in G = 50 GPa Ipa = 127.235 in 4 Ipb = 402.124 in 4 Solution ac = 194360 lbf/ft2 cb = 3.7224E7 Pa b = .229222 deg c = .335319 deg Lb = 1 ft
? a?
286
Given L = 4 ft La = 3 ft To = 50 ftkip
Solution Ta = 16947.7 Nm Tb = 50843.2 Nm
References:
Gere and Timoshenko Mechanics of Materials 3rd Ed. PWS-Kent. 1990
287
F3: Equations/B: Fluid Mechanics
Chapter 21: Fluid Mechanics

The fluid mechanics section of the equation library offers a collection of equations organized in convenient topics identified below. These topics have several subtopics to assist quick access to the subject matter of choice. Fluid properties Fluid Dynamics Flow in Conduits Fluid Statics Surface Resistance Impulse/Momentum
21.1 Fluid Properties

21.1.1 Elasticity
Elasticity is a measure of the deformation (expansion or contraction) of a fluid due to a pressure change. The first equation computes the bulk modulus of elasticity, Ev (Pa), for an ideal compressible fluid undergoing an isothermal process. Equation 2 computes Ev for an adiabatic process. Equation 3 computes the specific heat ratio, k (unitless), from the specific heat at constant pressure, cp (J/(kgK)), and the specific heat at constant volume, cv (J/(kgK)). Equation 4 links cp and cv using the molecular mass, MWT (kg/mol) and Rm (J/(mol. K), the universal Gas Constant. Equation 5 computes the density of the fluid, (kg/m3), from the mass, m (kg), occupied per volume, vol (m3). The last equation is the ideal gas law.
Ev =
Rm T MWT
Eq. 1
Ev = k p k= cp cv Rm MWT
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
cp = cv +
Eq. 4
=
p=
m vol
Rm T MWT
Description Density Specific heat at constant pressure Specific heat at constant volume
Eq. 5
Eq. 6
Variable cp cv
Units kg/m3 J/(kgK) J/(kgK)
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 21 - Equations - Fluid Mechanics
288
Variable Ev k m MWT p Rm T vol
Description Bulk modulus for an ideal gas Specific heat ratio Mass Molar mass Pressure Ideal Gas constant Temperature Volume
Units Pa Unitless Kg kg/mol Pa 8.31451 J/(molK) K m3
Example 21.1.1: Compute the adiabatic elasticity for air using values for molar mass, standard temperature and pressure.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution The molar mass of dry air (ma = 0.02897 kg/mol), the standard temperature (ST = 273.15 K) and the standard pressure, (SP = 101325 Pa) are listed in MEPro under the Reference section in Engineering Constants (see Chapter 27). The specific heat for dry air, cp = 1.025 kJ/(kgK), at 275 K is listed under Reference/Thermal Properties/Specific Heat/Cp Liquids and Gases (see Chapter 34). Select Equations 2, 3, 4 and 6 to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. Note that Rm, is automatically inserted into the calculation by the software. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above.
21.1.2 Capillary Rise

These equations compute the rise of a fluid inside a capillary tube due to surface tension. The first equation computes the surface tension, (N/m), of a fluid inside a capillary due to the vertical displacement of the fluid inside of the tube, hc (m), the inner diameter of the capillary, d (m), and the contact angle of the fluid with sides of the capillary tube, a (rad). Equation 2 computes the radius of the meniscus, rdm (m). The last equation computes the specific weight of the fluid, (N/m3), from the density, (kg/m3) and the gravitational acceleration.
? a ?
Given cp = 1.025 kJ/(kgK) MWT = .02897 kg/mol p = 101325 Pa T = 273.15 K
Solution = 1.29249 kg/m3 cv = .737996 kJ/(kgK) Ev = 140730 Pa k = 1.3889
hc =
4 cos a d
1 6
Eq. 1
289
rdm =
d 2 cos a
1 6
Eq. 2
grav
Description Specific weight Contact angle Capillary rise Density Surface tension Diameter Gravitational acceleration Meniscus radius
Eq. 3
Variable a hc d grav rdm
Units N/m3 rad m kg/m3 N/m m 9.80665 m/s2 m
Example 21.1.2: A capillary having an interior diameter of 1.6 mm is inserted into water ( = 1.0 g/cm3). If a height displacement of 18.6 mm is measured and the contact angle of the meniscus is assumed to be zero, what is the surface tension?
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the first and third equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Note that grav, is automatically inserted into the calculation. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given hc = 18.6 mm a = 0 rad = 1 g/cm3 d = 1.6 mm Solution = 9806.65 N/m 3 = .072961 N/m
290
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21.2 Fluid Statics
21.2 1 Pressure Variation

21.2.1.1 Uniform Fluid
This equation computes the pressure variation, p1 (Pa) and p2 (Pa), between heights, h1 (m) and h2 (m), for a uniform density fluid, having a specific gravity, (N/m3).
p1 p2 + h1 = + h2
Variable h1 h2 p1 p2 Description Specific weight Height at 1 Height at 2 Pressure at 1 Pressure at 2 Units N/m3 m m Pa Pa
Eq. 1
Example 21.2.1.1: Water has a specific weight of 62.4 lbf/ft 3 at 25 oC. If a pressure gauge is dropped 35 ft below the water surface (at sea level), and the temperature of the water is uniform, what is the pressure reading?
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press solve for the unknowns. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above.
Hint: the value of specific weight, (N/m3) can be calculated from the density, (kg/m3), of a fluid in the next section. The value of standard pressure for p1, (SP = 101325 Pa) is listed in MEPro under the Reference section in Engineering Constants (see Chapter 27). Given = 62.4 lbf/ft 3 h1 = 0 h2 = -35 ft p1 = 101325 Pa Solution p2 = 205895 Pa
291
to
21.2.1.2 Compressible Fluid

These equations compute the specific weight, (N/m3) and density, (kg/m3) for an ideal gas. The first equation calculates , from pressure, p (Pa), temperature, T (K), molar mass, MWT (kg/mol), and the gravitational acceleration, grav (9.80665 m/s2). The second equation computes from its density, .
= =
p grav MWT Rm T
Eq. 1
grav
Description Specific weight Density Gravitational acceleration Molar mass Ideal gas constant Pressure Temperature
Eq. 2
Variable Grav MWT Rm P T
Units N/m3 kg/m3 9.80665 m/s2 kg/mol 8.31451 J/(molK) Pa K
Example 21.2.1.2: What is the specific weight and density for helium (molar mass = 4 g/mol) at 1 MPa and 500 K?
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select both equations to solve this problem. Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Note that grav and Rm are automatically inserted into the calculation by the software. Given MWT = 4 g/mol p = 1 MPa T = 500 K Solution = 9.4357 N/m 3 = .962173 kg/m3
21.2.1 Pressure Variation

21.2.1.3 Troposphere
This section computes the temperature and pressure in the troposphere region of the atmosphere (up to 10,800 m above sea level). The atmospheric lapse rate in the troposphere is = 6.50 K/km. These equations can also compute the variation of pressure and temperature with height for any compressible fluid.
292
T2 = T1 a h2 h1
p2 = p1
Variable grav h1 h2 MWT p1 p2 Rm T1 T2

7
grav MWT Rm
Eq. 1
T1
Description Lapse rate Gravitational acceleration Height at 1 Height at 2 Molar mass Pressure at 1 Pressure at 2 Ideal gas constant Temperature at 1 Temperature at 2
Example 21.2.1.3: Given the adiabatic lapse rate = 6.5 C/km, and the standard temperature and pressure conditions at sea level, calculate the atmospheric temperature and pressure at a height of 30000 ft above sea level?
Entered Values
Solution The values for the standard temperature (ST = 273.15 K) and the standard pressure, (SP = 101325 Pa) and the molar mass of dry air (ma = 0.02897 kg/mol), are listed in MEPro under the Reference section of Engineering Constants (see Chapter 24). Select both equations to solve this problem. Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. Note that grav and Rm are automatically inserted into the calculations. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given = 6.5 K/km h1 = 0 ft h2 = 30000 ft MWT = .02897 kg/mol p1 = 101325 Pa T1 = 273.15 K Solution p2 = 27894.1 (~28% of SP) T2 = 213.714 K (~78% of ST)
21.2.1.4 Stratosphere
The following equation computes the variation of pressure with height in the stratosphere. The stratosphere occurs at heights greater than 10,769 m and extends to an elevation of 32.3 km. The usual assumption in stratosphere calculations is that the temperature is constant in the entire region.
293
6
T1 a h2 h1
1
Eq. 2
Units C/m 9.80665 m/s2 m m kg/mol Pa Pa 8.31451 J/(molK) K K

o
Computed results
p2 =
h2 h1 MWT grav RmT p1 e
Variable grav h1 h2 MWT p1 p2 Rm T
Description Gravitational acceleration Height at 1 Height at 2 Molar mass Pressure at 1 Pressure at 2 Ideal gas constant Temperature
Example 21.2.1.4: If the pressure and temperature of the atmosphere are 3.28 psi and 55 oC at an elevation of 11,000 m, what is the pressure at 18,000 m, assuming the temperature remains constant with height in this range?
Entered Values
Solution The molar mass of dry air (ma = 0.02897 kg/mol), is listed in MEPro under the Reference section in Engineering Constants (see Chapter 24). Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Note that grav and Rm are automatically inserted into the calculation by the software. Given h1 = 11000 m h2 = 18000 m MWT = .02897 kg/mol p1 = 3.28 psi T = -55 oC
Solution p2 = 1.09574 psi
21.2.2.1 Floating Bodies

These equations compute the stability of a floating object due to buoyancy. A floating object has a center of gravity located at G and a center of buoyancy C along the axis of symmetry as shown in the schematic diagram shown here. The object has a second moment of I00 (m4) with respect to the waterline. When the object is tilted (heeled) at an angle (rad), the center of buoyancy is shifted by a distance, xo (m) to a new location, C, due to the displacement of liquid, Vd (m3), on one side of the moment axis. The intersection of the vertical line connecting C to the moment axis is defined as the metacenter M. If the M is located above the G, the floating object is stable (ie. CM is positive). If CM is negative, M is below G, than the object is unstable (likely to tip over). The first equation calculates CM (m) from I00 (m4) and Vd (m3). Equation 2 computes the distance GM (m) between the metacenter and the center of gravity. The last
294
'
"
Eq. 1 Units 9.80665 m/s2 m m kg/mol Pa Pa 8.31451 J/(molK) K
Computed results
equation computes Vd (m3), from the second moment of inertia, I00, the shift xo, between the C and C.
CM = GM = Vd =
I00 Vd I00 CG Vd
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
I 00 tan xo
16
Description Angle Dist. from center of buoyancy to center of gravity Dist. from center of mass to metacenter Metacentric height (G to M) 2nd Moment of inertia Displaced volume Displacement of buoyancy center
Eq. 3
Variable CG CM GM I00 Vd xo
Units rad m m m m4 m3 m
Example 21.2.2: A block of wood (30 x 30x 60 cm) floats at an immersed depth of 18 cm with its longitudinal axis parallel to the water surface. The block has a longitudinal second moment of 135,000 cm 4 and a transverse second moment of 540,000 cm 4. Determine whether the object is stable on each axis.
Longitudinal Stability
Transverse Stability
Solution Select the second equation to solve this problem. Select this by highlighting the equation and pressing . Press to display the variables. The center of gravity, G, is located at a distance of 15 cm (1/2 x 30 cm) from the bottom of the block and the center of buoyancy, C, is located at a distance of 9 cm (1/2 x 18 cm) from the bottom. The difference, CG, is 6 cm. The displaced volume, Vd, is 32,400 to solve for the unknown cm3 (18 x 30 x 30 cm). Enter the values for the known parameters and press variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given CG = 6 cm I00 = 135,000 cm 4 (longitudinal moment) I00 = 540,000 cm 4 (transverse moment) Vd = 32400 cm 3 Solution GM = -1.83333 cm (longitudinal) unstable GM = 10.6667 cm (transverse) stable
295
? a
21.2.2.2 Inclined Plane/Surface

These equations compute the pressure on a flat rectangular surface immersed in a liquid with one of its edges inclined at an angle, (rad), relative to the surface of the liquid. The first equation computes the density of the liquid, (kg/m3) from the specific weight, (N/m3) and the gravitational acceleration, grav (9.80655 m/s2). Equation 2 computes the pressure on the inclined edge surface, p1 (Pa), immersed at a vertical distance of h1 (m) from the liquids surface (see figure). Equation 3 computes the pressure at the edge furthest from the liquid surface, p2 (Pa), at a vertical distance h2 (m) from the surface. Equation 4 computes the average pressure, pavg (Pa), over the inclined surface. Equation 5 calculates the vertical distance from the liquid surface to the center of pressure, hR (m), on the inclined surface. Equation 6 computes the relationship between the length of the inclined side, L (m) and the heights, h1 and h2. The last equation relates hR, to dR (m), the distance from the upward edge located at h1 to the center of pressure.
grav
Eq. 1
p1 = r grav h1 p2 = r grav h2
g b
Eq. 2 Eq. 3 Eq. 4
pavg =
1 grav h1 + h2 2
K J I H G F
hR =
2 h1 h2 h1 + h2 3 h1 + h2
Eq. 5
L=
h2 h1 sin hr h1 sin
g b g b
Eq. 6
dR =
Eq. 7
Variable dR grav h1 h2 hR L p1 p2 pavg
Description Specific weight Angle Density Distance to R from edge 1 Gravitational acceleration Height at 1 Height at 2 Distance to center of pressure Length Pressure at 1 Pressure at 2 Average pressure
Units N/m3 rad kg/m3 m 9.80665 m/s2 m m m m Pa Pa Pa
296
Example 21.2.3: A swimming pool has an inclined portion of its wall at an angle of 60 o and a vertical depth of 10 ft from the waters surface. The length of the incline is 2 ft. Compute the average pressure on the inclined surface and the location of the pressure center from the leading edge. Water has a density of 1000 kg/m3.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the last four equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. Note that grav is automatically inserted into the calculations. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given = 60 deg = 1000 kg/m3 h1 = 10 ft L = 2 ft
21.3 Fluid Dynamics

21.3.1 Bernoulli Equation
The following equations expound the conservation of energy for fluid flow between an inlet 1 and an outlet 2. The fluid is assumed to be incompressible (i.e., the pressure does not change more than 10 % between 1 and 2) and the flow is frictionless and adiabatic. The first equation is the so called the Bernoulli equation. The first term on each side of the equation represents the energy associated with pressure p1 (Pa) and specific weight (N/m3) at the inlet and the corresponding pressure p2 (Pa) and (N/m3). The second term on each side represents kinetic energy associated with the fluid flow due to velocities v1 and v2. Equation 2 is a duplicate of equation 1 with the total pressure head, ht (m), and equivalent to the lefthand side of the equation. Equation 3 calculates the total pressure, pt (Pa), at the inlet (1) from the specific weight, (N/m3) of the fluid and the total head, ht (m). Equation 4 calculates the total head, ht, at the inlet (1) from the pressure, p1 (Pa), velocity, v1 (m/s), and head due to height, h1 (m). Equation 5 computes the impact head, hs (m). Equation 6 calculates pressure head, hp (m). Equation 7 estimates the velocity head, hv (m). Equation 8 computes the total energy, Et (J), for a mass of fluid, m (kg), at the inlet. Equation 9 computes the relationship between the specific weight, (N/m3) and density, (kg/m3), of the fluid. p1 v12 p2 v2 2 + + h1 = + + h2 2 grav 2 grav
a?
Solution dR = 1.02657 ft h2 = 11.7321 ft hR = 10.889 ft pavg = 32479.3 Pa
Eq. 1
297
ht =
p2 v2 2 + + h2 2 grav
Eq. 2
pt = ht
ht = hs + h1
Eq. 3 Eq. 4 Eq. 5
hs = hp + hv
hp = p1 v12 2 grav
Eq. 6
hv =
Eq. 7
Et = m grav ht
Eq. 8
grav
Description Specific weight Density Total energy of fluid Gravitational acceleration Height at 1 Height at 2 Pressure head Impact head Total head Velocity head Mass Pressure at 1 Pressure at 2 Total pressure Velocity at 1 Velocity at 2
Eq. 9
Variable Et grav h1 h2 hp hs ht hv m p1 p2 pt v1 v2 Example 21.3.1:
Units N/m3 kg/m3 J 9.80665 m/s2 m m m m m m kg Pa Pa Pa m/s m/s
An intake pipe in a water reservoir is located 10 m below the water surface. The discharge pipe is located 300 m below the intake pipe. What is the velocity of the water leaving the discharge pipe? Assume no significant change in atmospheric pressure exists between the two heights and water has a density of 1000 kg/m3.
298
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the first and last equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The gravitational constant, grav (9.80665 m/s2), is automatically inserted into the calculation and does not appear in the list of variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Choose the second solution (positive velocity). Given = 1000 kg/m3 h1 = 10 m h2 = -300 m p1 = 1 atm p2 = 1 atm v1 = 0 m/s
21.3.2 Reynolds Number

The following equations compute the Reynolds number, Nre. If Nre 2000, the flow is assumed to be laminar. If Nre >2000, the fluid flow is assumed to be turbulent 3. Equation 1 computes Nre from the equivalent diameter of the conduit, de (m) (determined in the next section), the average flow velocity, v (m/s), the fluid density, (kg/m3), and the absolute viscosity, (Ns/m2). Equation 2 computes Nre from the kinematic viscosity of the fluid, k (m2/s). The next three equations calculate Nre from the mass flow rate per area, Qf (kg/s/m2), mass flow rate, Qm (kg/s), and volume flow rate, Qv (m3/s). The last equation relates the kinematic viscosity, k (m2/s) to the absolute viscosity, (Ns/m2).
Nre = Nre = Nre =

Nre =
de v de v k de Qf
4 Qm de
A transition region between laminar and turbulent flow exists between Nre=2000 to 4000. However, for most cases for turbulent flow, values of Nre are well above 4000.
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 21 - Equations - Fluid Mechanics 299
? a
Solution = 9806.65 N/m 3 v2 = 77.9751 m/s
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
Nre =
4 Qv de
Eq. 5
k =

Description Density Absolute viscosity Kinematic viscosity Equivalent diameter Reynolds number Mass flow rate per area Mass flow rate Rate of volume discharge Velocity
Eq. 6
Variable k de Nre Qf Qm Qv v
Units kg/m3 Ns/m2 m2/s m unitless kg/(sm2) kg/s m3/s m/s
Example 21.3.2: Water (25oC) has a kinematic viscosity of 8.94 x 10 -7 m2/s and a density of 1000 kg/m3. Compute the equivalent diameter needed to support a volume flow rate of 500 cubic feet per second and maintain an approximate Reynolds value of 2 x 10 6. What is the linear velocity of flow?
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the second and last two equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given = 1000 kg/m3 k = 8.94 E-7 m2/s Nre = 2 E6 Qv = 500 ft3/s
21.3.3 Equivalent Diameter

The following equations compute the circular pipe equivalent diameter, de (m), for different shaped conduit cross sections (annulus, square, rectangular and trapezoid). The equivalent diameter, de, is four times the ratio of the area in flow over the wetted perimeter, i.e.: de = 4(area in flow/wetted perimeter). The description of each equation appears at the bottom of the screen when the equation is highlighted with the cursor (see below). The description includes the name of the cross section and whether flow completely fills the cross-section.
a?
Solution = .000894 Ns/m2 de = 33.0783 ft v = .581829 ft/s
300
Equation description appears at the bottom of the screen
de = do di de = bx de =
(Full flow-annulus cross-section, do-longer radius, di-shorter radius)
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 3
(Full flow-square, bx-side length) (Full flow-rectangle, bx-width, by-depth)
2 bx by bx + by
de = d de =
(Half-filled circle) (Partially full rectangle, bx-wide, by-depth of flow)
Eq. 4 Eq. 5
4 bx by bx + 2 by
de = 4 by de =
(Wide shallow stream, by-depth of flow)
Eq. 6 Eq. 7
2 by btop + bbot bbot + 2 bside
(Partial flow-trapezoid, by- flow depth, btop- top width, bbot- bottom width, bs- side length)
Variable bbot bside btop bx by d de di do
Description Width along bottom Side of trapezoid Width along top Flow width -x Flow depth y Diameter Equivalent diameter Inner diameter Outer diameter
Units m m m m m m m m m
Example 21.3.3: An equivalent diameter of 33.0783 ft was needed to achieve turbulent flow in the previous example (example 21.3.2). If the flow occurs in a trapezoid canal having a bottom width of 20 ft, a top width of 40 ft and a side length of 20 ft, what is the depth of flow?
301
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the last equation to solve this problem. Select this by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given bbot = 20 ft bside = 20 ft btop = 40 ft de = 33.0783 ft
21.3.4.1 Linear Acceleration

These equations compute the change in surface angle of a contained liquid when subject to a linear acceleration from an applied force. The first equation computes the angle of incline for the liquid surface, (rad), due to the vertical, ay (m/s2), horizontal, ax (m/s2), and gravitational, grav (9.80665 m/s2) components of acceleration. The vertical acceleration, ay, is opposite in direction to grav. The second equation calculates the head pressure of the liquid, ph (Pa), due to the height change, h (m), gravitation, grav, and vertical acceleration, ay.
tan =
16
ax ay + grav
ph = grav h 1 +

Variable h ax ay grav ph
Description Height difference Angle Density Acceleration along x Acceleration along y Gravitational acceleration Pressure head
a ?
Solution by = 16.5392 ft
21.3.4 Fluid Mass Acceleration
Eq. 1
ay grav

Eq. 2
Units m rad kg/m3 m/s2 m/s2 9.80665 m/s2 Pa
302
Example 21.3.4.1: A pipe joint in a rocket is equipped with a seal that can withstand a fluid pressure of 100 psi. What is the increase in pressure for the pipe seal system, having a head of 25 m, in the earths gravitational field, and then subjected to an additional vertical acceleration of 3 gs (gravitational fields) due to launching? Will the seal be able to withstand the additional pressure? Use water as a fluid for the pipe system and ignore the change in atmospheric pressure with height.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the second equation to solve this problem. Select this by highlighting the equation and pressing . Press to display the variables. The density of water is approximately 1000 kg/m3. First compute the pressure, ph, where ay=0, then calculate the pressure when ay = 3*grav, where grav is a defined constant in MEPro for the gravitational acceleration constant (9.80665 m/s2). The gravitational constant, grav, is automatically inserted into the calculation and does not appear in the list of variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given h = 25 m = 1000 kg/m3 ay = 0 m/s2 ay = 3* grav (29.42 m/s2)
21.3.4.2 Rotational Acceleration

When a liquid mass is rotated about its central axis at angular velocity, r (rad/s), the liquid surface forms into a parabolic shape (see diagram). The first equation computes the average angle of incline, (rad), of a liquid surface between the axis of rotation and the edge of the vessel containing the liquid. The second equation computes the change in height of the center of the meniscus due to rotation. The radius of the meniscus during rotation, r (m), is measured from the axis of rotation to the edge of the liquid at the height of the liquid surface prior to rotation. Equation 3 computes the tangential velocity, v (m/s), of the rotating liquid at distance, r, from the axis of rotation.
1 6 r grav 1 r 6 h =
tan =
2 2
2 grav
v = r
Variable h Description Height difference Angle Units m rad
Solution ph = 35.5584 psi (ay = 0 m/s2) ph = 142.233 psi (ay = 29.42 m/s2) (The seal does not have sufficient capacity)
Eq. 1
Eq. 2 Eq. 3
303
Variable grav r v Example 21.3.4.2:
Description Angular velocity Gravitational acceleration Radius Velocity
Units rad/s 9.80665 m/s2 m m/s
A 22 cm length test tube, having a diameter of 22 mm is filled with a liquid to a height of 15 cm. If the test tube is placed on an agitator, which spins the fluid, what is the maximum rotational velocity setting (Hz) that can be used to prevent the liquid from spilling due to rotation? Use the radius of the test tube as a rough estimate for the meniscus radius.
Use
:Opts,
Dialogue displaying number

of possible solutions (select 2)
to convert to units of Hz
Solution Select the second equation to solve this problem. Select this by highlighting the equation and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The gravitational constant, grav (9.80665 m/s2), is automatically inserted into the calculation and does not appear in the list of variables. Select the second of two possible solutions (positive angular velocity). To convert the value of (rad/s) to units of Hertz, highlight : Opts, Conv. The unit menu for will appear in the tool bar at the top. Press Hz. , and press The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given h = 7 cm r = 11 mm Solution = 16.9532 Hz (2nd solution)
21.4 Surface Resistance

21.4.1 Laminar Flow Flat Plate
These equations describe the dimensions and velocity profile of boundary layer formation over a plate for laminar flow. When a fluid, having a mean velocity, uo (m/s), encounters a plate parallel to its stream, a velocity gradient forms over the plate. The velocity, u (m/s), at the surface of the plate is zero and increases with height until u=uo. The region where the velocity gradient occurs is the laminar boundary layer. The height at which u=0.99uo is the boundary layer depth, (m). The thickness of the boundary layer, (m), increases with distance from the edge of the plate, x (m). The first equation computes the thickness of the boundary layer, , at distance x (m) from the edge the plate. Equation 2 computes the shear stress, o (N/m2), on the plate at a given distance from the plate edge, x. Equation 3 computes the shear force, Fs (N), exerted over an upwind portion of the plate having an area, bx (m2), where, b (m) is the width of the plate and x is the traveled distance of the fluid over the plate. Equation 4 computes the Reynolds value, Re, from the mean velocity of the fluid, uo, the distance traveled by the fluid, x, and the
304
Conv.
Computed results
B a ?
F3: Equations/B: Fluid Mechanics kinematic viscosity, k (m2/s). Equation 5 calculates the velocity, u, inside the laminar boundary layer at distance, x, from the plate edge and vertical distance, y (m) from the plate surface. Equation 6 calculates the local shear stress coefficient, cf, from the shear, o, and mean fluid velocity, uo. Equation 7 computes the average shear stress coefficient, Cof, for the length of the plate, Lp (m). The last equation relates the absolute viscosity, (Ns/m2), to the kinematic viscosity, k (m2/s).
Re = 5 x o = uo Re 3 x
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Fs =.664 b uo Re
Re = uo x k
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
u .332 y Re = uo x cf = 2 o uo 2
Eq. 5
Eq. 6
Cof =
uo Lp k
133 .
.5
Eq. 7
= k
Variable o k b cf Cof Fs Lp Re u uo x y Description Boundary layer thickness Density Shear stress Absolute viscosity Kinematic viscosity Breadth Local shear stress coefficient Average shear stress coefficient Shear force Length of plate Reynolds value at x Velocity Free atream velocity Distance from edge Depth: distance along y
Eq. 8
Units m kg/m3 N/m2 Ns/m2 m2/s m unitless unitless N m unitless m/s m/s m m
305
Caution: Because the equations represent a set where several subtopics are covered, the user has to select each equation to be included in the multiple equation solver. Pressing will not select all the equations and start the solver. Example 21.4.1: Caution: Because the equations represent a set where several subtopics are covered, the user has to select each equation to be included in the multiple equation solver. Pressing will not select all the equations and start the solver. Crude oil, at 70 F (k = 10-4ft/s, = 0.86 g/cm3), flows over plate with a free stream velocity of 10 ft/s. The plate has a width of 4 ft and a length of 6 ft. Compute the thickness of the boundary layer at the end of the plate and the total drag force exerted on the plate by the fluid.
Upper Display
Solution Select Equations 1, 3, 4, and 8 to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given = .86 g/cm3 k = .0001 ft 2/s b = 4 ft uo = 10 ft/s x = 6 ft
Solution = .011805 m = .00799 Ns/m2 Fs = 15.2708 N Re = 600000
21.4.2 Turbulent Flow Flat Plate

The following equations describe turbulent flow over a smooth plate. Turbulent flow is more complex than the laminar case. Different velocity profiles occur in different regions above the surface and different equations are required for each. The boundary layer depth, , is defined as the region where u 0.99uo. This section contains equations for three regions in the boundary layer region, (m), above a plate. The viscous sub layer, immediately above the surface, is characterized laminar flow, shear is constant with height, and momentum transport occurs due to viscous forces rather than turbulence. The viscous sub layer underneath a turbulent layer has a depth, v (m), computed in Equation 10 and a velocity profile described in Equation 11. A second region above, v, is the turbulent layer where logarithmic velocity profile law applies (Eq. 12). The logarithmic profile is valid for heights above the surface, y (m), where v<y<0.15. The final region inside the boundary layer is approximated by the power law (Eq. 13). This equation overlaps region where the logarithmic profile equation and spans from 0.1<y< inside the boundary layer. The first equation relates absolute viscosity, (Ns/m2) to the kinematic viscosity of the fluid, k (m2/s). Equation 2 computes the local shear stress coefficient, cf, for the surface. Equation 3 calculates the average shear stress coefficient, Cof, over the length of the
? ?
Lower Display
F3: Equations/B: Fluid Mechanics plate, Lp (m). Equation 4 calculates the shear force per area, o, (N/m2) on the plate. Equation 5 computes the shear force, Fs (N), over the area of the plate having a width, b (m), from the fluid density, (kg/m3), the free stream velocity, uo (m/s), and boundary layer depth, (m). Equation 6 computes the friction velocity, uf (m/s). The Reynolds value, Re, is computed in the seventh equation. The determinant, Rf, in Equation 8, is used to determine whether height, y, occurs inside the viscous sub layer (Rf<11.84), or in the logarithmic profile region (30<Rf<500, or y/<0.15). The boundary layer depth, (m), is computed in Equation 9. The depth of the viscous sub layer, v, is determined in equation 10. Equation 11 estimates the velocity, u (m/s), at height y inside the viscous sub layer. Equation 12 computes the velocity, u, at height y in the turbulent region, y>v. Equation 11 is valid for Reynolds values, Re<107. Equation 12, is known as the power law, and approximates, to a good degree, the velocity profile over about 90% of the boundary layer 0.1<y/<1. The last two equations compute the velocity, u, at a height, y, in an equilibriated turbulent boundary layer above a flat roughened surface having a roughness length, kd (m), height displacement, hd (m), friction velocity, uf, and the von Krmn constant, vk (~0.4). is the stability factor (=0 neutral, >0 stable, <0 unstable) and is calculated in the last equation from the Monin-Obukhov path length, Lm (m) where Lm= +5 m for extremely stable conditions, Lm= -5 m for extremely unstable conditions, and Lm= for neutral conditions.
= k
cf = .058 Re1/ 5
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Cof =
uo Lp k
.074
1/ 5
Eq. 3
o =
cf uo 2 2
Eq. 4
Fs = b uo 2 uf =
Eq. 5
o
uo x k
Eq. 6
Re =
Eq. 7
Rf =
uf y k
Eq. 8
0.37 x Re.2
Eq. 9
307
v =
5 k uf
Eq. 10
when y v the following equation is applicable
u=
o y
Eq. 11
when v < y .15 the following equation is applicable
u y uf + 5.56 = 5.75 log uf k

when 0.1v < y < the following equation is applicable

Eq. 12
y u = uo
1 7
Eq. 13
when kf>0 (turbulent flow over a rough surface) the following equations are applicable
u 1 y = ln + uf vk kf

Eq. 14
4.7 y Lm
Description Boundary layer thickness Viscous sub layer depth Density Shear stress Stability (>0 stable, <0 unstable, =0 neutral) Absolute viscosity Kinematic viscosity Breadth Local shear stress coefficient Average shear stress coefficient Shear force Roughness Length Monin-Obukhov path length (L= +5m stable, L= -5m unstable, L= neutral) Length of plate Reynolds value at x Reynolds determinant Velocity Friction velocity
Eq. 15
Variable v o k b cf Cof Fs kf Lm Lp Re Rf u uf
Units m m kg/m3 N/m2 unitless Ns/m2 m2/s m unitless unitless N m m m unitless unitless m/s m/s
308
Variable uo vk x y
Description Free stream velocity von Krmn constant (~0.4) Distance from edge Depth: distance along y
Units m/s unitless m m
Caution: Because the equations represent a set where several subtopics are covered, the user has to select each equation to be included in the multiple equation solver. Pressing will not select all the equations and start the solver. Example 21.4.2: Air flows with a velocity of 5 m/s parallel with a smooth plate. What is the nominal thickness of the viscous layer, the shear force at a horizontal distance of 2 m from edge of the plate and a height of 5 cm above the surface? The kinematic viscosity and density of air at (10 oC, 1 atm) is 1.41 x 10 -5 m2/s and 1.28 kg/m3 (the density of air can be calculated using the last equation in the first section of this chapter, 21.1.1:Elasticity using MWT = 28.97 g/mol).
Upper Display
Solution Solve this problem in two steps. First determine whether y=5 cm is inside the boundary layer, and, if it is, which equation of velocity should be used. Select Equations 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. Since y is close to the height of and Rf>500, equation 13 (power law) should be used to compute the velocity. Press , select the last equation, and press to return to the variable list, and to solve. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given = 1.28 kg/m3 k = 1.41E-5 uo = 5 m/s x=2m y = 5 cm Solution = 5.00122 cm v = .031849 cm o = .062718 N/m2 = .000018 Ns/m2 cf = .00392 Re = 709220 Rf = 784.95 u = 4.99983 m/s uf = .221356 m/s
21.4.3 Laminar Flow on an Inclined Plane

These equations describe laminar flow of a fluid down a smooth plate inclined at an angle (rad). The flow is uniform and occurs as a result of gravitational acceleration. These equations assume a constant flow depth, d (m), and velocity, u (m/s), with distance down the inclined plane. In addition, it is assumed that the shear, o (N/m2), decreases linearly with height from the plate surface (bottom), where shear is at its maximum, to the height of the liquid surface, d, where shear with the atmosphere is assumed to be negligible. The criteria of whether laminar or turbulent flow exists is determined by the Reynolds
309
c c
Lower Display
F3: Equations/B: Fluid Mechanics number, Nre. In this case, if Nre500, the flow is considered laminar. Equations 1 and 2 compute the average velocity of the fluid, uavg (m/s) from the specific weight, (N/m3), the absolute viscosity, (Ns/m2), kinematic viscosity, k (m2/s), the angle of incline, , and the depth of fluid flow, d (m). Equation 3 computes the slope of the incline, So. Equation 4 calculates the flow velocity, u (m/s), at height, y (m), from the plane. Equation 5 computes the maximum velocity, umax (m/s), when y=d. The sixth equation computes the Reynolds number, Nre. Equation 7 calculates the shear, o, at height, y, from the plate surface. Equation 8 relates the absolute viscosity, (Ns/m2) to the kinematic viscosity, k (m2/s), of the fluid. The last equation relates the specific weight, , to the density (kg/m3) of the fluid.
uavg =
d2 3 sin
16 16 6
Eq. 1
uavg =
grav d 2 sin 3 k
Eq. 2
So = tan u=
16 1
grav So 2 d 2 k
Eq. 3
grav So y 2d y 2 k
Eq. 4
umax =
N re =
Eq. 5
u avg d k
Eq. 6
o = sin d y = k = grav
Variable o k d grav Nre So u uavg umax
Eq. 7 Eq. 8 Eq. 9
Description Specific weight Angle Density Shear stress Absolute viscosity Kinematic viscosity Depth Gravitational acceleration Reynolds number Slope Velocity Average velocity Maximum velocity
Units N/m3 rad kg/m3 N/m2 Ns/m2 m2/s m 9.80665 m/s2 unitless unitless m/s m/s m/s
310
Variable y
Description Depth: distance along y
Units m
Example 21.4.3: Crude oil flows down a plate having a slope incline of 0.02. Crude oil has a density of 0.92g/cm 3 and a kinematic viscosity of 9.3 x 10-5 m2/s. If the depth of flow is 6 mm, what are the maximum and average flow velocities? Is the flow laminar?
Upper Display
Lower Display
Solution Select Equations 2, 3, 5, 6, and 8, to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. Select an arbitrary integer of 0 to compute the principal solution. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given = .92 g/cm3 k = .000093 m 2/s d = 6 mm So = .02
21.5 Flow in Conduits

21.5.1 Laminar Flow: Smooth Pipe
These equations describe laminar flow of an incompressible fluid in a smooth pipe, having a circular cross-section and length, L (m). The first equation the computes the pressures, p1 and p2 (Pa), on two ends of a pipe due to height (or head) difference, h1-h2 (m), and head loss due to friction, hf (m). Equation 2 calculates the velocity, u (m/s), at a distance, y (m) from the wall towards the center of the pipe. Equation 3 computes the shear, o (N/m2), on the surface of the pipe opposite to the direction of fluid flow. Equation 4 estimates the head loss due to friction, hf, over the length of the pipe section, L (m), from the mean velocity, uavg (m/s), and the diameter of the pipe, d (m). Equation 5 computes the Reynolds number, Nre, for the flow in the pipe. If Nre<2000, flow is considered to be laminar. Equation 6 calculates the volume flow rate, Q (m3/s), from the mean velocity of the fluid, uavg, and the area of the pipe. Equation 7 calculates the resistance coefficient, fr, for laminar flow in a pipe having a Reynolds number, Nre. Equation 8 relates the absolute viscosity, (Ns/m2), to the kinematic viscosity, k (m2/s), of the fluid. The last equation relates the specific weight, (N/m3), to the density, (kg/m3), of the fluid.
p1 p2 + h1 = + h2 + hf
Solution = 1.14576 deg = .08556 Ns/m2 Nre = 1.63241 (laminar) uavg = .025302 m/s umax = .037961 m/s
Eq. 1
311
u=
d y y 2 hf 4 L d hf 4 L 32 L uavg d2 uavg d k
Eq. 2
o =
hf =
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
Nre = Q= fr =
Eq. 5
uavg 2 d 4 64 Nre
Eq. 6
Eq. 7 Eq. 8 Eq. 9
= grav = k
Variable o k d fr grav h1 h2 hf L Nre p1 p2 Q u uavg y Description Specific weight Density Shear stress Absolute viscosity Kinematic viscosity Diameter Friction coefficient Gravitational acceleration Height at 1 Height at 2 Head loss due to friction Length Reynolds number Pressure at 1 Pressure at 2 Rate of volume discharge Velocity Average velocity Depth: distance along y
Units N/m3 kg/m3 N/m2 Ns/m2 m2/s m unitless 9.80665 m/s2 m m m m unitless Pa Pa m3/s m/s m/s m
Example 21.5.1: Oil, having a density of 0.9 g/cm3 and an absolute viscosity of 5 x 10 -1 Ns/m2, flows down a vertical 3 cm pipe. The pipe pressure at a height of 85 m is 250,000 Pa and the pressure at 100 m is 200,000 Pa. What is the direction of flow and the fluid velocity at the center of the pipe?
Upper Display
Lower Display
Solution Select Equations 1, 2, 4, 8 and 9 to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The gravitational constant, grav (9.80665 m/s2), is automatically inserted into the calculation and does not appear in the list of variables. Note: the equations compute a positive velocity and head loss if flow occurs from 12 and a negative velocity for flow in the direction of 21. In this case, the lower height and pressure were entered for h1 and p1, and the height and pressure at the higher elevation were entered as h2 and p2. The negative velocity for u indicates a movement of fluid downwards due to gravity. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given = .9 g/cm3 = .5 Ns/m2 d = 3 cm h1 = 85 m h2 = 100 m L = 15 m P1 = 250000Pa P2 = 200000 Pa Y= 1.5 cm
21.5.2 Turbulent Flow: Smooth Pipe

Turbulent flow occurs in pipes when the Reynolds number Nre>3000. These equations describe turbulent flow of an incompressible fluid in through a smooth circular pipe of length, L (m) and constant diameter, d (m). The first equation the computes the pressures at each end of a pipe due to height (or head) difference, h1-h2 (m), and head loss due to friction, hf (m). Equation 2 (Darcy-Weisbach equation) estimates the head loss due to friction, hf, over the length of the pipe section, L, from the mean velocity, uavg (m/s), and diameter of the pipe, d. Equation 3 is an analytical expression which relates the resistance coefficient, fr, for turbulent flow in a pipe, to the Reynolds number, Nre. Equation 4 computes the friction velocity, uf (m/s). Equation 5 calculates, Rf, a determinant used for the velocity profile equations, Equation. 11 and 12. The computed value of Rf determines whether a distance, y (m) from the side of the pipe, lies inside the viscous sub layer (non turbulent) region of pipe flow, or the turbulent region. Equation 6 computes the Reynolds number, Nre, for the flow in the pipe. Equation 7 computes the shear, o (N/m2), on the surface of the pipe in the direction opposite to the direction of fluid flow. Equation 8 calculates the volume flow rate, Q (m3/s), from the mean velocity of the fluid, uavg, and the
Solution = 8825.99 N/m 3 k = .000556 m2/s hf = -9.33491 m u = -.617923 m/s uavg = -.308962 m/s
313
F3: Equations/B: Fluid Mechanics cross-sectional flow area of the pipe. Equation 9 calculates the specific weight, (N/m3), from the density of the fluid, (kg/m3), and the gravitational acceleration, grav (9.80655 m/s2). Equation 10 relates the absolute viscosity, (Ns/m2) to the kinematic viscosity, k (m2/s) of the fluid. Equations 11, 12 and 13 compute velocity profiles inside the pipe at vertical distance, y, from the edge. If Rf<5 then equation 11 is used to compute the velocity at height y. If 20<Rf<105, than the logarithmic profile, equation 12, is should be used. The appropriate ranges of for the determinant, Rf, or Reynolds number, Nre, for each equation are listed in a when () clause preceding the equation. The coefficient, n, in the last equation varies with Reynolds number, Nre. The appropriate values of n for Nre are listed in Table 21.1. Table 21.1 Empirical values of n vs. Nre in Equation 13 Nre 4 x 103 2.3 x 104 1.1 x 105 1.1 x 106 3.2 x 106 n 6.0 6.6 7.0 8.8 10.0
1
p1 p2 + h1 = + h2 + hf fr L uavg 2 hf = 2 grav d 1 = 2 log Nre fr .8 fr uf = uavg uf y k uavg d k fr 8
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
Rf =
Eq. 5
Nre =
Eq. 6
o = uf 2
Eq. 7
314
Q=
uavg 2 d 4
Eq. 8 Eq. 9 Eq. 10
= grav = k
when 0< Rf < 5, the following equation is applicable
u=
uf 2 y k
Eq. 11
when 20< Rf < 1 E5, the following equation is applicable
y uf u = 5.75 log k uf

+ 5.5
Eq. 12
when 4 E3< Nre < 3.2 E6, the following equation is applicable
2 y u = u max d
Variable o k d fr grav h1 h2 hf L n Nre p1 p2 Q Rf u uf uavg umax y
1 n
Eq. 13
Description Specific weight Density Shear stress Absolute viscosity Kinematic viscosity Diameter Friction coefficient Gravitational acceleration Height at 1 Height at 2 Head loss due to friction Length Constant: turbulent flow (see Table 21.1) Reynolds number Pressure at 1 Pressure at 2 Volume discharge Determinant Velocity Friction velocity Average velocity Maximum velocity Depth: distance along y
Units N/m3 kg/m3 N/m2 Ns/m2 m2/s m unitless 9.80665 m/s2 m m m m unitless unitless Pa Pa m3/s unitless m/s m/s m/s m/s m
315
Example 21.5.2: A fluid having a density of 800 kg/m 3 and an absolute viscosity of 10-2 Ns/m2, flows at a speed of 10 cm/s through a 10 cm diameter circular pipe. What is the maximum velocity?
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Lower Display
Solution The maximum velocity occurs at the center of the pipe, y=d/2. To determine which equation for velocity profile should be used (Eq. 11, 12, 13), compute Rf and Nre in equations 4 and 5. Use Equations 3, 4, 5, 6 and 10. Select these by highlighting the equat ons and pressing i . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for Rf and Nre. Since 20<Rf<1 E5, select equation 12 (logarithmic profile equation), to solve for the maximum velocity. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given = 800 kg/m3 = .01 Ns/m2 d = 10 cm uavg = 10 cm/s y = 5 cm Solution k =.000013 m 2/s fr = .067888 Nre = 800 Rf = 36.8479 uf = .921198 cm/s
21.5.3 Turbulent Flow: Rough Pipe

The following equations compute turbulent flow in a circular pipe having a roughened surface. For high values of Nre, the resistance coefficient, fr, is solely a function of the mean roughness of the surface elements inside the pipe, kf (m), and the pipe diameter, d (m). The first equation computes the difference in pressures, p1 (Pa) and p2 (Pa), at each end of the pipe due to height (or head) difference, h1h2 (m), and head loss due to friction, hf (m). Equation 2 calculates the volume flow rate, Q (m3/s), from the mean velocity of the fluid, uavg (m/s), and the cross-sectional area of the pipe. Equations, 3 and 4, compute the Reynolds number, Nre, for flow in a pipe. If Nre>3000, the flow in the pipe is considered turbulent. Equation 4 is an empirical equation, which calculates the resistance coefficient, fr, for turbulent flow in a pipe having a Reynolds number, Nre, length, L, and diameter, d. Equation 5 calculates the velocity, u (m/s), at a distance, y (m) from the pipe wall towards the center of the pipe. Equation 6 (Darcy-Weisbach equation) estimates the head loss due to friction, hf (m), over the length of the pipe section, L, from the mean velocity, uavg (m/s), and diameter of the pipe, d. Equation 7 computes the friction velocity, uf (m/s). Equation 8 calculates the shear, o (N/m2), on the surface of the pipe in the direction opposite to the fluid flow. Equation 9 calculates the specific weight, (N/m3), from the density (kg/m3) of the fluid and the gravitational acceleration, grav (9.80655 m/s2). Equation 10 relates the absolute viscosity, (Ns/m2) to the kinematic viscosity, k (m2/s) of the fluid. Equations 11, 12 and 13 are explicit formulas for relating fr, hf, Q and d. These formulas have been reported to have an accuracy of 3% for the following ranges of kf/d and Nre 1: 10-5 < kf/d < 2 x 10 -2 and 4 x 103 < Nre < 108. Since Eq. 11, 12 and 13 compute approximate relationships for fr, hf, Q and d, it is recommended, at the most, only one be used in a computation. Some roughness values, kf (m), for some common pipe surfaces are listed in Table 21.2.
316

1,5
Table 21.2: Relative roughness for various pipe surfaces Pipe Surface Riveted Steel Concrete Cast Iron Galvanized Iron Asphalt Cast Iron Commercial steel or wrought iron Brass and Copper Drawn Tubing kf 0.9 mm 0.3 mm 0.26 mm 0.15 mm 0.12 mm 0.046 mm 0.0015 mm 0.0015 mm
p1 p2 + h1 = + h2 + hf Q= uavg 2 d 4 uavg d k 2 grav hf d 3/ 2 L fr k
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Nre =
Eq. 3
Nre =
Eq. 4
u y = 5.75 log + Kc uf kf hf = fr L uavg 2 2 grav d fr 8

Eq. 5
Eq. 6
uf = uavg
Eq. 7
o = uf 2 = grav = k
Eq. 8 Eq. 9 Eq. 10
317
when 4 E3 < Nre < 1E8 and when 1 E -5 < kf/d < 2 E-2, the following equations are applicable
fr =
log kf + 5.74 3.7 d Nre

.9
.25
Eq. 11
2
Q = 2.22 d 5/ 2
grav hf L
kf + log 3.7 d d
4 .75
178 k .
3/ 2
grav hf L
5.2

.04
Eq. 12
L Q d =.66 kf grav hf
2 1.25
+ k Q 9 .4
L grav hf

Eq. 13
Variable o k d fr grav h1 h2 hf kf Kc L Nre p1 p2 Q u uf uavg y
Description Specific weight Density Shear Absolute viscosity Kinematic viscosity Diameter Friction coefficient Gravitational acceleration Height at 1 Height at 2 Head loss due to friction Roughness length (see Table 21.2) Coefficient Length Reynolds number Pressure at 1 Pressure at 2 Rate of volume discharge Velocity Friction velocity Average velocity Depth: distance along y
Units N/m3 kg/m3 N/m2 Ns/m2 m2/s m unitless 9.80665 m/s2 m m m m unitless m unitless Pa Pa m3/s m/s m/s m/s m
318
Example 21.5.3: The head loss for water (20oC) in an asphalted cast-iron pipe, having a diameter of 20 cm and a length of 1 km, is 12.2 m. What is the volumetric flow rate in this pipe? Water has a kinematic viscosity of 1 x 106 m2/s at T = 20 oC. The roughness value, kf, for a cast iron pipe is listed as 0.12 mm in Table 21.2.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Equation 12 can be used to solve this problem. Select it by highlighting the equation and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given k = .000001 m 2/s d = 20 cm hf = 12.2 m kf = .00012 m L = 1000 m
21.5.4 Flow pipe Inlet

The following equation computes the head loss caused by flow separation or turbulence in pipe bends or transitions to different pipe sizes. Table 21.3 lists the coefficient, Kc, for different inlets, outlets, or fittings for turbulent flow.
Kc v 2 hL = 2 grav
Variable Grav HL Kc V Description Gravitational acceleration Head loss Coefficient (see Table 21.3) Velocity
Table 21.3 Loss Coefficients for various Transitions and Fittings1 Pipe Entrance r/d
Contraction
Solution Q = .05025 m 3/s
Eq. 1
Units 9.80665 m/s2 m unitless m/s
Kc
0.0 0.1 >0.2 D2/D1 0.50 0.12 0.03 Kc (=60 /=180 C)
o o
319
Pipe Entrance
r/d
Kc
0.0 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 0.90 Expansion D2/D1 0.0 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 90 Miter Bend
o
0.08/0.50 0.08/0.49 0.07/0.42 0.06/0.32 0.05/0.18 0.04/0.10 Kc (=10 /=180 C)

o o
--/1.00 0.13/0.92 0.11/0.72 0.06/0.42 0.03/0.16 With Vanes 0.2
Without Vanes 1.1
90 Smooth Bend
r/d 1 2 4 6 8 10
Kc 0.35 0.19 0.16 0.21 0.28 0.32 10.0 5.0 0.2 5.6 2.2 0.4 1.8 0.9 0.4
Threaded Pipe Fittings
Globe valve-Wide Open Angle valve-Wide Open Gate valve-Wide Open Gate valve-Half Open Return Bend Tee-straight-through flow Tee-side-outlet flow 90 Elbow 45 Elbow
o o
Example 21.5.4: Compute the head loss for a 90o miter pipe bend (w/o vanes) having a flow velocity of 15 cm/s.
320
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution From Table 21.3, select Kc= 1.1. Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given Kc = 1.1 (from Table 21.3) v = 15 cm/s
21.5.5 Series Pipe System

These equations compute the head loss of two pipes (a and b) connected in series. The head loss due to friction, hf (m), is computed as the sum of individual losses in each section. These equations can be used in conjunction with the pipe flow equations in the preceding sections, 21.5.1, 21.5.2, 21.5.3, and the equation for computing loss due to fittings or transitions (Flow Pipe Inlet, 21.5.4). The first equation computes the conservation of volume flow in a series connection of two pipes each having velocities, va (m/s) and vb (m/s), and circular diameters, da (m) and db (m). Equation 2 computes the head loss, hf, in both pipes from the individual losses due to friction in each pipe. The friction coefficients, fa and fb, for each individual pipe section, can be computed for specific pipes or flow features using equations which compute, fr, in sections, Laminar Flow in Smooth Pipes, 21.5.1: Turbulent Flow in Smooth Pipes, 21.5.2: and Turbulent Flow in Rough Pipes 21.5.3:).
da vb = db
va
va 2 fa La fb Lb da hf = + 2 grav da db db

4
Variable da db fa fb grav hf La Lb va vb
Description Diameter of pipe a Diameter of pipe b Friction coefficient of pipe a Friction coefficient of pipe b Gravitational acceleration Head loss due to friction Length of pipe a Length of pipe b Flow velocity in pipe a Flow velocity in pipe b
321
Solution hL = .001262 m
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Units m m unitless unitless 9.80665 m/s2 m m m m/s m/s
Example 21.5.5: A 12 cm diameter riveted steel pipe (fr = 0.039), having a flow velocity of 15 cm/s, is connected to an asphalt cast-iron pipe having a friction coefficient of 0.019 and a diameter of 20 cm. The lengths of each pipe are 20 m and 400 m, respectively. What is the flow velocity in the second pipe and what is the total head loss due to friction in both pipes?
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Solution Select all of the equations to solve this problem. Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The gravitational constant, grav (9.80665 m/s2), is automatically inserted into the calculation and does not appear in the list of variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given da = 12 cm db = 20 cm fa = .039 fb = .019 La = 20 m Lb = 400 m va = 15 cm/s
Solution hf = 0.013106 m vb = 5.4 cm
21.5.6 Parallel Pipe System

When a second pipe, b, is added to an existing line, a, the flow will divide itself so the head loss due to friction is the same in each pipe. The first equation describes the equivalence relationship of head loss in each pipe, hfa (m) and hfb (m). Equations 2 and 3 compute the head loss in each pipe, hfa and hfb (m), due to friction. The friction coefficients, fa and fb, can either be obtained from Moody diagrams for different pipe surfaces or computed from the pipe roughness factor, kf (m), and the Reynolds number, Nre, using the formula for fr in Turbulent Flow: Rough pipes. The variables, va (m/s) and vb (m/s) are the velocities each pipe. Equation 4 computes the total flow rate, Qt (m3/s) as the sum of the flows in each pipe, Qa (m3/s) and Qb (m3/s). The last two equations compute the flow rates in each pipe, Qa and Qb, from the respective flow velocities, va and vb, and pipe diameters, da (m) and db (m).
hfa = hfb va = 2 da grav hfa fa La 2 db grav hfb fb Lb
vb =
322
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Qt = Qa + Qb Qa = va da 2 4
Eq. 4
Eq. 5
vb db 2 Qb = 4
Variable da db fa fb grav hfa hfb La Lb Qa Qb Qt va vb Description Diameter of ppe - a Diameter of pipe - b Friction coefficient of pipe - a Friction coefficient of pipe - b Gravitational acceleration Head loss due to friction - a Head loss due to friction - b Length of pipe - a Length of pipe - b Rate of volume discharge - a Rate of volume discharge - b Rate of total volume flow Flow velocity in pipe a Flow velocity in pipe b
Eq. 6
Units m m unitless unitless 9.80665 m/s2 m m m m m3/s m3/s m3/s m/s m/s
Example 21.5.6: A 12 cm diameter, 20 m length riveted steel pipe (fr = 0.039) is connected in parallel with a 20 cm diameter, 30 m length, and asphalt cast-iron pipe (fr = 0.019). If the total flow rate is 0.15 m 3, what are the flow rates through each pipe?
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Solution Select all of the equations to solve this problem. Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The gravitational constant, grav (9.80665 m/s2), is automatically inserted into the calculation and does not appear in the list of variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given da = 12 cm db = 20 cm fa = .039 fb = .019 La = 20 m Lb = 30 m Qt = .15 m3/s
Solution hfa = 2.16008 m hfb = 2.16008 m Qa = .028874 m3/s Qb = .121126 m3/s va = 2.55302 m/s vb = 3.85556 m/s
21.5.7 Venturi Meter

21.5.7.1 Incompressible Flow
The following equations are used to compute flow rates of an incompressible liquid through a venturi meter, or a constricting orifice. The first equation computes the conservation of energy for fluid flow between an inlet, having cross-sectional area, A1 (m2), a mean flow velocity, v1 (m/s), an inlet pressure, p1 (Pa), a nozzle (constriction) area, A2 (m2), nozzle flow velocity, v2 (m/s), and a nozzle pressure, p2 (Pa) and head loss, hf (m). The conservation of energy equation assumes no head loss occurs due to friction. Equation 2 computes the velocity in the constriction zone, v2 (m/s), from the approach velocity, Fva, and the pressure difference of the inlet and nozzle (p1-p2). The third equation computes the volume flow rate, Qv (m3/s), from the flow coefficient fc, the area of the nozzle, A2, and the pressure drop, p1-p2. The fourth equation computes the approach velocity, Fva, from the area ratio of the inlet, A1, nozzle, A2, and the contraction coefficient, cc. Equation 5 computes the discharge coefficient, dc, from the contraction coefficient, cc, and the coefficient of velocity, vc. Table 21.5 lists values of the discharge coefficient for different Reynolds values. The coefficient of velocity, vc, accounts for viscous forces at low Reynolds numbers (typically close to 0.98 for Reynolds values greater than 105 and decreases at lower Reynolds values). The contraction coefficient, cc, in the nozzle is computed in the sixth equation as the ratio of the minimum flow area, Ac (m2), to A2, the area of the orifice or nozzle in the venturi meter. The contracted flow area, Ac, is generally smaller than the contracted flow area, A2, for orifices, but usually unity for venturi meters. Equation 7 calculates the flow coefficient, fc, from the approach velocity, Fva, and the discharge coefficient, dc. Equation 8 computes the Reynolds number, Nre, from the velocity at the inlet, v1, and the inlet diameter, d1 (m). Equation 9 calculates the initial flow velocity in the inlet, v1, from the inlet area, A1, and the volume flow rate, Qv. Equation 10 and 11 compute the static pressure head inside the inlet, hp1 (Pa) and the nozzle, hp2 (Pa). Equation 12 and 13 compute the total head, ht1 (Pa) and ht2 (Pa). Equation 14 computes the head difference, h, of the fluid between the inlet and nozzle from the density of the fluid, (kg/m3). Equation 15 computes the head difference measured by a manometer when the fluid inside the manometer (density=m) has a different density than the flowing fluid (m ). Table 21.5: Discharge Coefficient (dc) values for Venturi Meters (2<A1/A2<3) dc .94 .95 .96 .97 .98 .99 Nre 6,000 10,000 20,000 50,000 200,000 2,000,000
p1 v12 p2 v2 2 + = + + hf grav 2 grav grav 2 grav
Eq. 1
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v 2 = Fva
2 p1 p2
6 6
Eq. 2
Qv = fc A2
2 p1 p2 1
Eq. 3
Fva =
A2 1 cc A1
2
Eq. 4
dc = vc cc cc = Ac A2
Eq. 5 Eq. 6
fc = Fva dc Nre = v1 = v1 d 1 k
Eq. 7
Eq. 8
Qv A1 p1 grav p2 grav v12 2 grav v22 2 grav
Eq. 9
hp1 =
Eq. 10
hp2 =
Eq. 11
ht1 = hp1 +
Eq. 12
ht 2 = hp2 +
Eq. 13
when = m, the following equation applies
h =
p1 p2 grav
Eq. 14
when m, the following equation applies
325
Qv fc A2 h = 2 grav 1 m 6
2
Eq. 15
Variable h m k Ac A1 A2 cc d1 dc fc Fva grav hp1 hp2 ht1 ht2 Nre p1 p2 Qv v1 v2 vc
Description Head difference Density Density of fluid in manometer Kinematic viscosity Contracted flow area Area of 1 (inlet) Area of 2 (nozzle/orifice) Flow area contraction coefficient Diameter of inlet Discharge coefficient (see Table 21.5) Flow coefficient Approach velocity Gravitational acceleration Pressure head at 1 (inlet) Pressure head at 2 (nozzle/orifice) Total head at 1 (inlet) Total head at 2 (nozzle/orifice) Reynolds number Pressure at 1 (inlet) Pressure at 2 (nozzle/orifice) Rate of volume discharge Velocity at 1-initial Velocity at 2-final Velocity coefficient
Units m kg/m3 kg/m3 m2/s m2 m2 m2 m2 m unitless unitless unitless 9.80665 m/s2 m m m m unitless Pa Pa 3 m /s m/s m/s m/s
Example 21.5.7.1: Water (=1000 kg/m3, k = 1x 10-6 m2/s) flows through a circular venturi meter having a circular inlet diameter of 6 cm and a nozzle diameter of 2.5 cm. A tube containing air (3.2 kg/m 3) is connected to the venturi meter and displays a fluid height difference of 110 cm. Compute the volume flow rate. Assume a value of cc = 1 and verify that dc = 0.97 is an appropriate value of the discharge coefficient using a calculated value of the Reynolds number and Table 21.5.
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Solution Select equations 4, 7, 8, 9 and 15 to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . The height difference is negative (h=-110 cm). The formula for to display the variables. Enter the converting diameter, d (m) to area, A (m2), is A=d2/4. Press values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above.
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Given h = -110 cm = 1000 kg/m3 m = 3.2 kg/m3 k= 1 E 6 m2/s A1 = 28.2743 cm 2 (62/4) cm2 A2 = 4.90874 cm 2 (2.52/4) cm2 cc = 1 d1 = 6 cm dc = .97
Solution fc = .984957 Fva = 1.01542 Nre = 47579.7 Q = 2242.14 cm 3/s v1 = .792996 m/s
21.5.7.2 Compressible Flow

The following equations compute the flow properties of a compressible fluid, of molar mass MWT (kg/mol), in a venturi meter having an inlet cross-section area, A1 (m2), and a nozzle diameter, A2 (m2). The expansion/compression of the fluid is adiabatic. The first equation computes the conservation of energy for a compressible fluid having a specific heat ratio, k. The velocity of the fluid at the inlet is v1 (m/s) and v2 (m/s) at the nozzle. The conservation of energy equation assumes no head loss occurs due to friction. Equations 2 and 3 compute the velocities, v1 (m/s), and v2 (m/s), the fluid densities, f1 (kg/m3) and f2 (kg/m3), and the areas, A1 and A2, at the inlet and nozzle. The fourth equation relates the adiabatic change in density of a compressible fluid due to the change in pressure inside the venturi meter, p1 to p2. Equation 5 computes the mass flow rate, Qm (kg/s), from the velocity, v2, density, f2, and area at the venturi thoat (nozzle). The discharge coefficient, dc is assumed to be unity, dc=1, for high Reynolds numbers, which are characteristic for compressible flow. Equations 6 and 7 compute the fluid densities f1 and f2, at the inlet and nozzle for a compressible fluid having ideal gas behavior. The temperature, T1 (K) and T2 (K), are the temperatures at the inlet and nozzle of the venturi meter. Equation 8 and 9 compute the inlet and nozzle static pressure heads, hp1 (Pa) and hp2 (Pa). Equations 10 and 11 compute the total head at the inlet and nozzle. Equation 12 computes the head difference, h (m), of the fluid between the inlet and nozzle from the density of the fluid in the manometer, m (kg/m3). Equation 13 computes the Reynolds number, Nre, from the velocity at the inlet, v1 and the inlet diameter, d1 (m). Equations 14 and 15 compute the mass flow rate, Qm, through a square orifice, having a cross-section area, Ao (m2).
v12 k Rm T1 v 2 2 k Rm T 2 + = + 2 k 1 2 k 1 v1 =
Eq. 1
f 2 A2 v 2 f 1 A1
1/ 2
Eq. 2
2 k p1 p2 k 1 f 1 f 2 v2 = 1 f 2 A2 f 1 A1
2
Eq. 3
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p1 f 1 = p2 f 2

Eq. 4
Qm = dc f 2 A2 v 2
Eq. 5
f 1 =
p1 Rm T1 MWT p2 Rm T2 MWT p1 f 1 grav p2 f 2 grav v12 2 grav
Eq. 6
f 2 =
Eq. 7
hp1 =
Eq. 8
hp2 =
Eq. 9
ht1 = hp1 +
Eq. 10
v22 ht 2 = hp2 + 2 grav h = p1 p2 m grav v1 d 1 k
Eq. 11
Eq. 12
Nre =
Eq. 13
The following equations are valid for compressible fluid flow through SQUARE orifices
6 1 p2 Ao Yc = 1 1 .41+.35 A1 k p1
Qm = Yc Ao fc 2 f 1 p1 p2
2
Eq. 14
Eq. 15
Variable h f1 f2
Description Head difference Density at 1 Density at 2
Units m kg/m3 kg/m3
328
Variable m A1 A2 Ao dc fc grav hp1 hp2 ht1 ht2 k MWT p1 p2 Qm Rm T1 T2 v1 v2 Yc
Description Density of fluid in Manometer Area of 1 (inlet) Area of 2 (nozzle/orifice) Square orifice area Discharge Coefficient (see Table 21.5) Flow Coefficient Gravitational Acceleration Pressure head at 1 (inlet) Pressure head at 2 (nozzle/orifice) Total head at 1 (inlet) Total head at 2 (nozzle/orifice) Specific Heat ratio Molar Mass Pressure at 1 (inlet) Pressure at 2 (nozzle/orifice) Mass flow rate Ideal Gas constant Temperature at 1 Temperature at 2 Velocity at 1-initial Velocity at 2-final Compressibility factor
Units kg/m3 m2 m2 m2 unitless unitless 9.80665 m/s2 m m m m unitless kg/mol Pa Pa kg/s 8.31451 J/(kgK) K K m/s m/s unitless
Caution: Because the equations represent a set where several subtopics are covered, the user has to select each equation to be included in the multiple equation solver. Pressing will not select all the equations and start the solver. Example 21.5.7.2: A venturi meter, having a circular throat diameter of 1 cm, is connected to a 3 cm diameter pipe carrying air. The static pressure in the pipe is 150 kPa and the pressure at the throat is 100, kPa. The static temperature of the air in the pipe is 27oC. The specific heat ratio and the molar mass of air are 1.4 (see mwa in Reference/Engineering Constants) and 0.02897 kg/mol. Compute the mass flow rate.
Upper Display
Solution Select equations 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Use a value of dc=1 for the discharge coefficient. The formula for converting diameter, d (m) to area, A (m2), is A=d2/4. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given A1 = 7.06858 cm 2 (32/4) cm2 A2 = .785398 cm2 (12/4) cm2
Solution f1 = 1.74126 kg/m3 f2 = 1.30342 kg/m3
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Given dc = 1 k = 1.4 MWT = .02897 kg/mol p1 = 150000 Pa p2 = 100000 Pa T1 = 27 oC
Solution Qm = .026383 kg/s T2 = -5.83301 oC v2 = 257.725 m/s
21.6 Impulse/Momentum
21.6.1 Jet Propulsion
The following equations compute the conservation of momentum properties for fluid flow in a propulsion system. The first equation computes the mass flow rate of air through the inlet, Qm1 (kg/s), from the volumetric flow rate, VF1 (m3/s) and the air density, 1 (kg/m3). Equation 2 calculates the fuel flow rate, Qmf (kg/s). Equation 3 computes the mass flow of air/fuel mixture leaving the propulsion system through the nozzle, Qm2 (kg/s). Equations 4 and 5, calculate the thrust in the horizontal, Fx (N), and vertical, Fy (N), directions from the x, y, components of the incoming air, v1x (m/s) and v1y (m/s), and the outflow of the air/fuel mixture, v2x (m/s) and v2y (m/s).
Qm1 = 1VF1 Qmf = f Vf Qm2 = Qm1 + Qmf Fx = Qm2 v 2 x Qm1 v1x Fy = Qm2 v 2 y Qm1 v1y
Variable 1 f Fx Fy Qm1 Qm2 Qmf Vf VF1 v1x v1y v2x v2y Description Air density Fuel density Force due to flow x Force due to flow y Mass flow rate inlet Mass flow rate outlet Mass flow rate fuel Volume flow rate fuel Volume flow rate: Inlet Inlet velocity x Inlet velocity y Outlet velocity x Outlet velocity y
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 3 Eq. 4 Eq. 5
Units kg/m3 kg/m3 N N kg/s kg/s kg/s m3/s m3/s m/s m/s m/s m/s
330
Example 21.6.1: A turbo jet is required to exert a thrust of 2000 lbf. If the rate of air flow into the jet is 72 lb/s, the fuel flow rate is 2 lbs and the air velocity is 200 m/s, what is the velocity of the gas leaving the nozzle? Assume all flow occurs along the same coordinate.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select the third and fourth equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given Fx = 2000 lbf Qm1 = 72 lb/s Qmf = 2 lb/s v1x = 200 m/s
The following sets of equations compute the force exerted by an open jet on a flat plate.
21.6.2.1 Vertical Plate

The first equation computes the horizontal force, Fx (N), exerted by a jet on a vertical plate parallel to the gravitational field. The jet discharges a mass flow rate of Qm (kg/s), with a fluid velocity, vx (m/s) perpendicular to the plate. The second equation relates the mass flow rate, Qm (kg/s), to the volumetric flow rate, Vf1 (m3/s). Equation 3 computes the volumetric flow rate, Vfl (m3/s), from the initial velocity of the stream, vx, and the cross sectional area of the jet, A (m2). The last equation computes the cross sectional area of the jet, A, from the circular jet diameter d (m).
Fx = Qm vx Qm = Vfl Vfl = vx A A=
d 2 4
Solution Qm2 = 74 lb/s v2x = 459.639 m/s
21.6.2 Open Jet
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 3
Eq. 4
331
Variable A d Fx Qm Vfl vx
Description Density Area Diameter Force due to flow x Mass flow rate Volume flow rate Velocity x
Units kg/m3 m2 m N kg/s m3/s m
Example 21.6.2.1: An open horizontal jet discharges water onto a wall at a rate of 20 gallons per minute. The wall experiences a force of 22 N. What is the horizontal velocity of the water before it reaches the wall? The density of water is 1000 kg/m3.
Computed results Entered Values Solution Select the first two equations to solve this problem. Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given = 1000 kg/m3 Fx = 22 N Vfl = 20 gal/min
Solution Qm = 1.2618 kg/s vx = 17.4354 m/s
21.6.2.2 Horizontal Plate

These equations compute the force exerted by vertical jet on a horizontal plate at a height, h (m), above the jet. The fluid leaves the jet at velocity, vo (m/s). The first equation computes the vertical velocity of the fluid at the height of the plate, vy (m/s), from the initial velocity, vo, and the change in kinetic energy due to gravitation acceleration, grav (9.80665 m/s). Equation 2 computes the vertical force, Fy (N), exerted by the jet, from the mass flow rate, Qm (kg/s). The third equation relates the mass flow rate, Qm, to the volumetric flow rate, Vf1 (m3/s). Equation 4 computes the volumetric flow rate, Vfl, from the initial velocity of the stream, vy, and the cross sectional area of the jet, A (m2). The last equation computes the cross sectional area of the jet, A, from the circular jet diameter, d (m).
vy = vo 2 2 grav h Fy = Qm vy Qm = Vf 1
332
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 3
Vfl = vo A A=
Eq. 4
d 2 4
Description Density Area Diameter Force due to flow y Gravitational Acceleration Height Mass flow rate Volume flow rate Initial velocity Velocity - y
Eq. 5
Variable A d Fy grav h Qm Vfl vo vy
Units kg/m3 m2 m N 9.80665 m/s2 m kg/s m3/s m/s m
Example 21.6.2.2: An open vertical jet discharges water at a rate of 20 gallons per minute. A horizontal plate, 2 m above the nozzle experiences a force of 16 N. What is the vertical velocity of the water at the nozzle and the height of the wall? Assume the density of water is 1000 kg/m3.
Entered Values: 2nd Solution
Computed results: 2nd Solution
Solution Select the first three equations to solve this problem. Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The gravitational constant, grav (9.80665 m/s2), is automatically inserted into the calculation and does not appear in the list of variables. Select the second solution. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given = 1000 kg/m3 Fy = 16 N h=2m Vfl = 20 gal/min Solution Qm = 1.2618 kg/s vo = 14.1427 m/s vy = 12.6803 m/s
21.6.2.3 Stationary Blade

These equations compute the vertical (y) and horizontal (x) force components of an open jet on a stationary blade having an incline angle, (rad). The jet has a mass flow rate of Qm (kg/s). Equation 1 calculates the change in the horizontal component of velocity, vx (m/s), from the initial velocity of the stream before it reaches the plane, v1 (m/s), and the velocity of the stream following deflection by the blade, v2 (m/s). Equation 2 calculates the change in the vertical component of the stream velocity
333
F3: Equations/B: Fluid Mechanics due to blade deflection, vy (m/s). Equations 3 and 4 compute the horizontal force, Fx (N), and the vertical force, Fy (N), exerted by the blade on the stream. Equation 5 relates the mass flow rate, Qm, to the volume flow rate, Vfl (m3/s). Equation 6 computes the volumetric flow rate, Vfl, from the initial velocity of the stream, v1, and the area of the jet, A (m2). Equation 7 computes the cross sectional area of the jet, A, from the jet diameter d (m). The last equation relates the initial velocity, v1, and final velocity, v2, when the flow on the blade is frictionless.
16 vy = v 2 sin1 6
Fx = Qm vx Fy = Qm vy Qm = Vf 1 Vfl = v1 A A=
vx = v 2 cos v1
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 3 Eq. 4 Eq. 5 Eq. 6
d 2 4
Eq. 7
v1 = v 2
Variable vx vy A d Fx Fy Qm v1 v2 Vfl Description Change in velocity - x Change in velocity - y Density Deflection angle Area Diameter Force due to flow - x Force due to flow - y Mass flow rate Velocity 1 (Initial) Velocity 2 (Final) Volume flow rate
Eq. 8
Units m/s m/s kg/m3 rad m2 m N N kg/s m/s m/s m3/s
Example 21.6.2.3: A stationary frictionless vane having an angle of 60 o deflects a water jet, having a volumetric flow rate of 1 cubic foot per second and a diameter of 1 in. Compute the horizontal force exerted by the vane. The density of water is 1000 kg/m3.
334
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Solution Select the Equations 1, 3, 5, 6, 7 and 8 to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given = 1000 kg/m3 = 60 deg d = 1 in Vfl = 1 ft3/s
21.6.2.4 Moving Blade

These equations compute the vertical (y) and horizontal (x) force components of an open jet, with a mass flow rate of Qm (kg/s) incident on a moving blade. The blade is inclined at an angle, (rad), and moving with a velocity, vbl (m/s), in the direction parallel to fluid flow. Equation 1 calculates the change in the horizontal component of velocity, vx (m/s), from the initial velocity of the stream before it reaches the blade, v1 (m/s) and the velocity of the stream following deflection by the blade, v (m/s). Equation 2 calculates the change in the vertical component of the stream velocity due to blade deflection, vy (m/s). Equation 3 computes the horizontal force exerted by the blade in deflecting the stream, Fx (N). Equation 4 calculates the vertical force exerted by the blade in deflecting the stream, Fy (N). Equation 5 relates the mass flow rate, Qm, to the volume flow rate VF (m3/s). Equation 6 computes the volumetric flow rate, Vfl, from the initial velocity of the stream, v1, and the cross sectional area of the jet, A (m2). Equation 7 computes the cross sectional area of a circular jet, A, having a diameter, d (m). The last equation relates the initial and final velocities, v1 and v, when the flow on the blade is frictionless.
1 62 1 6 7 vy = 1v vb16 sin1 6
vx = v vb1 cos 1 Fx = Qm vx Fy = Qm vy Qm = Vf 1 Vfl = v1 A
Solution vx = -27.942 m/s A = .785398 in 2 Fx = -791.229 N Qm = 28.3168 kg/s v1 = 55.884 m/s v2 = 55.884 m/s
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 3 Eq. 4 Eq. 5 Eq. 6
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A=
d 2 4
Eq. 7
v = v1 vbl
Variable vx vy A d Fx Fy Qm v v1 vbl Vfl Description Change in velocity - x Change in velocity - y Density Deflection angle Area Diameter Force due to flow - x Force due to flow - y Mass flow rate Velocity (following deflection) Velocity 1 (Initial) Velocity of the blade (in direction of flow) Volume flow rate
Eq. 8 Units m/s m/s kg/m3 rad m2 m N N kg/s m/s m/s m/s m3/s
Example 21.6.2.4: A moving frictionless blade, having a deflection angle of 120 deg, channels a water jet, having a volumetric flow rate of 1 ft3/s and a diameter of 3 in. The vane has a constant velocity of 3 m/s in the direction of the jet flow. Compute the horizontal force of the jet exerted by the vane. Assume the density of water is 1000 kg/m3.
Upper Display
Lower Display
Solution Select Equations 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8 to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given = 1000 kg/m3 = 120 deg d = 3 in vbl = 3 m/s Vfl = 1 ft3/s
References:
1. John A. Roberson and Clayton T. Crowe, Engineering Fluid Mechanics, 5th Edition, Houghton-Mifflin Company, Boston, MA 1993
Solution vx = -.314002 m/s A = 7.06858 in 2 Fx = -8.89154 N Qm = 28.3168 kg/s v = 3.20933 m/s v1 = 6.20933 m/s
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2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Ranald V. Giles, Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics, 2nd Edition, Schaum's outline series, McGraw-Hill Publishing company, New York, NY 1962 William F. Hughes and John A. Brigham, Fluid Dynamics, Schaum's Outline series, McGraw-Hill Publishing company, New York, NY 19991 Michael R. Lindeburg, Mechanical Engineering Reference Manual, 8th Edition, Professional Publications Inc., Belmont, CA, 1990 Eugene A. Avallone & Theodore Baumeister III, Mark's Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY 1984 Sanford I. Heisler, The Wiley Engineer's Desk referencee, John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY 1984 Robert W. Fox and Alan T. McDonald, Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1978 Robert H. Nunn, Intermediate Fluid Mechanics, Hemisphere Publishing Company, New York, 1989
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F3: Equations/ C: Dynamics and Statics
Chapter 22 Dynamics and Statics

This section contains general equations related to the topic of dynamics and statics. The gravitational acceleration constant, grav (g = 9.80665m/s2), and the universal gravitation constant, G (Gc = 6.67259 x 10-11 Nm2/kg2), are predefined in MEPro and are automatically inserted into calculations. They do not appear in the list of variables for entry screen. Laws of Motion Angular Motion Collisions Friction Constant Acceleration Projectile Motion Gravitational Effects Statics
22.1 Laws of Motion

The basic laws of force, velocity, acceleration, energy, and momentum are introduced in this topic. The first equation represents Newtons second law: an acceleration, a (m/s2), will result from a force, F (N), acting on a mass, m (kg). The second equation calculates momentum, p (Pa), of mass, m, from the velocity, v (m/s). The third equation computes kinetic energy, KE (J), for a mass with a velocity, v. The fourth equation calculates the potential energy, PE (J), stored or released due to a change in height, h (m), in the earths gravitational field. The total energy, TE (J), is the sum of KE and PE and is computed in the fifth equation. The instantaneous power, Pwr (W), of the system is given in the last equation.
F = m a p = mv KE = 1 m v2 2
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 3
PE = m grav h TE = PE + KE Pwr = F v
Variable h a F grav KE m p PE Pwr TE v Description Change in height Acceleration Force Acceleration due to gravitation Kinetic energy Mass Linear momentum Potential energy Power Total energy Velocity
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Eq. 4 Eq. 5 Eq. 6 Units m m/s2 N 9.80665 m/s2 J kg kgm/s J W J m/s
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92Plus Chapter 22 - Equations Dynamics and Statics
Example 22.1: Part 1 A ball weighing 250 g is thrown ver tically from a height of 1 m at 10 m/s. What is the balls initial momentum and kinetic, potential and total energy?
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Solution Select the second, third, fourth, and fifth equations. Enter the known values and solve for the unknown variables. Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given h=1 m m=250 g v=10 m/s
Example 22.1: Part 2 Suppose that the total energy calculated in the preceding problem is converted to potential energy when the ball ceases to travel upwards. What height above the ground will the ball reach?
Entered Values
Solution - Calculate results for the above problem. Deselect the second and third equations and press to solve. Highlight the calculated value of TE and press :Opts, : Know. This changes the value to a known parameter used in computation. Enter zero for KE and delete the values for h and PE. Given KE= 0 J M = 250 g TE = 14.9517 J Solution h = 6.0986 m PE = 14.9517 J
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Solution KE = 12.5 J TE = 14.9517 J p = 2.5 kg m/s PE = 2.45166 J
Computed results
22.2 Constant Acceleration

22.2.1 Linear Motion
The five equations in this section describe the position and velocity of a moving object, subject to acceleration. The first equation computes a change in velocity, v-vo (m/s), due to constant acceleration, a (m/s2), over time, t (s). The equations 2 and 3 calculate the final position, s (m), of the object from its initial position, so (m), from the initial velocity, vo (m/s), final velocity, v (m/s), time traversed, t, and average acceleration, a. Equation 4 describes a method of computing the distance traveled given the initial and final velocity and time spent traveling. The final equation computes the velocity, v, from the acceleration, a, and traversed distance, s-so (m).
v = vo + a t 1 s = so + vo t + a t 2 2 v 2 = vo 2 + 2 a s so s = so + v + vo t 2
Eq. 1 Eq. 2
Eq. 3 Eq. 4
1 s = so + v t a t 2 2
Variable a s so t v vo Description Acceleration Final position Initial position Time Velocity Initial velocity
Eq. 5
Units m/s2 m m s m/s m/s
Example 22.2.1: Spotting a police car, Jodi Ulsoor needs to reduce her velocity from 120 km/h to 35 mph and accomplish this in a span of 140 m. Compute the time needed for this task and the deceleration.
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Solution - Select the third and fifth equations. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given s = 140 m so = 0 m v = 35 mph vo = 120 km/h Solution t = 5.71665 s a = -3.09383 m/s2
22.2.2 Free Fall

The following equations calculate the vertical velocity, v (m/s), at position, y (m), of a free falling object in the earths gravitational field after time, t (s), has elapsed since an initial vertical velocity, vo (m), and initial vertical position, yo (m). Friction effect is ignored.
1 y yo = vo t grav t 2 2 v 2 = vo 2 2 grav y yo y yo = 1 vo + v t 2
Eq. 1
Eq. 2 Eq. 3
1 y yo = v t + grav t 2 2 v = vo grav t
Variable grav t v vo y yo Description Acceleration due to gravitation Time Velocity Initial velocity Displacement Initial vertical position
Eq. 4
Eq. 5 Units 9.80665 m/s2 s m/s m/s m m
Example 22.2.2: A construction worker, working on the top floor of a ten-story building, drops her hammer. How far will the hammer travel in 1.5 seconds and what will its velocity be?
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Solution Use the workers vertical position as a zero reference height. Choose the first and second equations. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . This problem requires the first two equations. Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. There are two possible solutions, depending on whether velocity scale is pointing in the upward or downward directions. In this case (1 st solution), a positive velocity is assumed to be pointing in the positive direction of height. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given t = 1.5 s vo = 0 m/s yo = 0 m Solution v = -14.71 m/s y = -11.0325 m
22.2.3 Circular Motion

These 5 equations describe change in angular position, (rad), and angular velocity, (rad/s), from an initial angle position, o (rad), and initial angular velocity, o (rad/s), due to time, t (s), and angular acceleration, (rad/s2).
= o + t
1 o = o t + t 2 2
2 = o 2 + 2 o o =
1 + o t 2
1 o = t t 2 2
Variable o o t Description Angular acceleration Displacement angle Initial displacement angle Angular velocity Initial angular velocity Time
Example 22.2.3: A turntable at rest, is able to accelerate to an angular velocity of 33 1/3 rpm in 4.2 seconds. What is the average angular acceleration and what is the angle of displacement from the records initial position?
342
Eq. 1 Eq. 2
Eq. 3 Eq. 4
Eq. 5
Units rad/s2 rad rad rad/s rad/s s
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Solution - Since two unknowns are being calculated, two equations are needed which, as a set, contain all of the variables. A number of possible equation choices exist. Equations 1 and 2 were selected for the example above. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given o=0 rad =33.3333 rpm o=0 rad/s t=4.2 s Solution =7.3308 rad =.8311091 rad/s2
22.3 Angular Motion

22.3.1 Rolling/Rotation
These equations describe the location and rotational properties of a circular object, rolling at a constant speed. The first equation describes the circumferential arc length, sa (m), between an initial angle, o (rad), and displaced angle, (rad), for a round object having a radius, rw (m). The translation velocity of the center of mass, vcm (m/s), of the rotating object is described in the second equation. The third equation calculates, KE (J), the rotational kinetic energy of a rolling object having a total moment of inertia, Ip (kgm2), and an angular velocity, (rad/s). The angular momentum, Lm (kgm2/s), is computed in the fourth equation. The fifth equation accounts for the adjustment of a rotational moment inertia, Ip, for the special case of a mass, m (kg), attached at distance, rm (m), from the center of rotating object with moment of inertia, Icm (kgm2). The next equation calculates the tangential velocity of the top edge of the rolling object, vtop (m/s). The seventh equation computes the sum of the rotational and linear kinetic energies of the rolling object, KEr (J). The second-to-last equation computes the total mass of the rolling object, mr (kg). The last equation computes the power, Pwr (W), exerted by a torque, (Nm), to achieve an angular velocity, .
sa = rw o vcm = rw KE = 1 Ip 2 2
Lm = Ip Ip = Icm + m rm2
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Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 3
Eq. 4 Eq. 5
vtop = 2 vcm 1 KEr = KE + mr vcm2 2 mr = mcm + m Pwr =

Variable o Icm Ip KE KEr Lm m mr mcm Pwr rm rw sa vcm vtop Description Displacement angle Initial displacement angle Torque Angular velocity Moment of inertia - c/m Moment of inertia Kinetic energy Kinetic energy of rolling object Angular momentum Mass Mass of rolling object Mass of Icm Power Radius of m to center of mass Radius Arc length Linear velocity of c/m Linear velocity of top of rolling object
Eq. 6 Eq. 7
Eq. 8 Eq. 9 Units rad rad Nm rad/s kgm2 kgm2 J J kgm2/s kg kg kg W m m m m/s m/s
Example 22.3.1: A reflector weighing 2 oz is attached 10 from the center of a rolling bicycle wheel weighing 8 lb, having a radius of 13, and a rotational moment of inertia of 0.4 kg/m 2. If the wheel is rolling with a linear velocity of 5 m/s, find the angular velocity, angular momentum and the total kinetic energy.
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Lower Display
Solution - The second, third, fourth, fifth, seventh and eighth equations are needed to solve the problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above.
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Given Icm= 0.4 kg m2 m=2 oz mcm=8 lb Rm=10 in rw=13 in vcm=5 m/s
Solution =15.1423 rad/s Ip=.403658 kg m2 KE=46.2775 J KEr=92.3454 J Lm=6.11233 kg m2/s mr=3.68544 kg
22.3.2 Forces in Angular Motion

These four equations describe Newtons first law of motion in angular and linear forms. These equations are useful for converting force, Ft (N), to torque, (rad), and linear acceleration, a (m/s2), to angular acceleration, (m/s2). I (kgm2) is the rotational moment of inertia of a rotating body and m (kg), is the mass of the rotating object acting as a torque at a distance, r (m), from the center of the rotating body.
Ft = m at
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 3 Eq. 4 Eq. 5 Description Angular acceleration Torque Angular velocity Tangential acceleration Tangential force Moment of inertia Mass Power Radius Units rad/s2 Nm rad/s m/s2 N kgm2 kg W m
= Ft r = m r 2 = I
Pwr =
Variable at Ft I m Pwr r
Example 22.3.2: John McClaine (mass of 80 kg) jumps off the top of Nakatomi plaza with a fire hose wrapped around his waist. The fire hose is attached to the edge of a rotating spool, which is 8 ft in diameter. Assuming the force acting on the spool is solely due to Mr. McClaines total weight in the gravitational field (9.81 m/s), what is the initial torque on the fire hose spool?
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345
Solution - Select the first and second equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given at=9.81 m/s2 m=80 kg r=4 ft
22.3.3 Gyroscope Motion

These two equations describe the precession rate, (rad/s), and angular momentum, Lm (kgm2/s), of a gyroscope with a mass, m (kg), moment of inertia, I (kgm2), angular velocity, (rad/s), and a radius from the fixed point, r (m), on an axis perpendicular to the earths gravitational field.
m grav r I s
Lm = I s
Variable grav s I Lm m r Description Acceleration due to gravitation Precession rate Angular velocity Moment of inertia Angular momentum Mass Radius
Example 22.3.3: A gyroscope precesses with its rotational axis 45 degrees from the direction of the gravitational field. The gyroscopes rotational speed is 20 revolutions per second. Calculate the moment of inertia and angular momentum of a gyroscope having a precession rate of one revolution every three seconds, a mass of 140 g, and a longitudinal axle, of negligible mass, 10 cm in length.
Entered Values
Solution =956.828 Nm Ft=784.8 N
Eq. 1
Eq. 2 Units 9.80665 m/s2 rad/s rad/s kgm2 kgm2/s kg m
Computed results
346
Solution - Both equations are needed to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Check the MODE settings of your calculator to determine whether trigonometric functions accept radian or degree entries. Enter the values for the known parameters. The distance from the fixed point to the gyroscope center is half the length of the longitudinal axle. For the radius, r, enter 5*cos (/4) cm if the MODE is set for radian entries, or, 5*cos to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen (45o). Press displays above. To convert the result to different units, press : Opts, : Conv, and select the desired units from the toolbar. Given = 0.33333 Hz s = 20 Hz m = 140 g r = 5*cos(/4 or 45o)cm = 3.53553 cm Solution I = 0.018443 kg m2 Lm = 2.31764 kg m2/s
22.4 Projectile Motion

The following set of equations describes the horizontal, x, and vertical, y, components of position, velocity and acceleration of a launched projectile in the earths gravitational field. Friction is ignored.
vxt = vxo + ax t 1 sxt = sxo + vxo t + ax t 2 2 vxt 2 = vxo 2 + 2 ax sxt sxo 1 vyt = vyo grav t 2 1 syt = syo + vyo t grav t 2 2 vyt 2 = vyo 2 2 grav syt syo
$ vyo = vo sino$ vxt = vt cost $ vyt = vt sint $

vxo = vo cos o vo = vxo 2 + vyo 2
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; B
? ? a
Eq. 1 Eq. 2
Eq. 3 Eq. 4
Eq. 5
Eq. 6 Eq. 7 Eq. 8 Eq. 9 Eq. 10 Eq. 11
vt = vxt 2 + vyt 2
Variable o t ax grav sxo sxt syo syt t vo vt vxo vxt vyo vyt Description Initial displacement angle Projectile angle at time=t Acceleration along x axis Acceleration due to gravitation x position at t=0 x position at time t y position at t=0 y position at time t Time Initial velocity Velocity at time=t Initial velocity along x axis at t=0 Velocity at time=t along x axis Initial velocity along y axis at t=0 Velocity at time=t along y axis
Eq. 12
Units rad rad m/s2 9.80665 m/s2 m m m m s m/s m/s m/s m/s m/s m/s
Example 22.4: An arrow is launched from a bow towards a target at the same height, 100m away. The velocity of the arrow is 60 m/s. What angle above the center of the target must the archer aim? How long does it take the arrow to reach the target?
First Solution: Upper Display
First Solution: Lower Display
Solution - The second, fifth, seventh, and eighth equations are needed to solve this problem. Select these equations using the highlight bar and pressing , press to display the unknowns. Enter the values using appropriate units, and press to solve for the unknown variables. The gravitational constant, grav (9.80665 m/s2), is automatically inserted into the calculation and does not appear in the list of variables. Two parabolic trajectories are possible. Given ax=0 m/s2 sxo = 0 m sxt = 100 m syo=0 m syt = 0 m vo = 60 m/s Solution =7.90377 deg (82.0962 deg) t = 1.68265 s (12.1204 s) vxo = 59.43 m/s (8.25059 m/s) vyo = 8.25059 m/s (59.43 m/s)
? a ?
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22.5 Collisions
22.5.1 Elastic Collisions

22.5.1.1 1D Collision
Elastic collisions are characterized by conservation of energy and momentum. The first equation states the law of the conservation of momentum and the second equation states the conservation of energy. Equations 3 and 4 are combinations of the first two equations. We use the convention that velocity is positive when the mass moves to the right.
m1 v1i + m2 v 2i = m1 v1 f + m2 v 2 f m1 v1i 2 + m2 v 2i 2 = m1 v1 f 2 + m2 v 2 f 2 v1 f = v2 f = m1 m2 2 m2 v1i + v 2i m1 + m2 m1 + m2 2 m1 m2 m1 v1i + v 2i m1 + m2 m1 + m2

Description Mass 1 Mass 2 Final velocity of 1 Initial velocity of 1 Final velocity of 2 Initial velocity of 2
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 3
Eq. 4
Variable m1 m2 v1f v1i v2f v2i
Units kg kg m/s m/s m/s m/s
Example 22.5.1.1: Tia and Ryan throw two rubber balls toward each other. The balls have masses of 70 g and 30 g and are each traveling at 4 m/s. Assuming a perfectly elastic collision occurs on the axis of flight, what are the velocities and directions of each ball immediately after they collide?
349
Entered Values
Computed results:
Solution - Use the third and fourth equations to determine the solution, since both include the conservation of energy and momentum along a single axis. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above.
22.5.1.2 2D Collisions
These equations describe an elastic collision between two objects in a twodimensional coordinate system. One mass, m2 (kg), is initially at rest and the other, m1 (kg), has an initial velocity, v1i (m/s). Following an elastic collision, the objects have final velocities of, v1f (m/s) and v2f (m/s). The deflection angles 1 (rad) and 2 (rad) are relative to the velocity axis for m1 before the collision.
Example 22.5.1.2: A ping-pong ball is (2 g) is fired at a tennis ball (30 g). Before colliding, the ping -pong ball has a velocity of 25 m/s and rebounds 30 degrees relative to its original axis in the opposite direction. What are the velocities of the ping-pong ball and tennis ball? What is the angle of tennis balls trajectory relative to the ping-pong balls original flight path?
? a ?
Given m1=70 g m2=30 g v1i= 4 m/s v2i=-4 m/s
Solution vlf= -0.8 m/s (ball rebounds) v2f= 7.2 m/s (ball rebounds)
m1 v1i = m1 v1 f cos 1 + m2 v 2 f cos 2 m1 v1 f sin 1 = m2 v 2 f sin 2 m1 1i 2 = m1 1 f 2 + m2 2 f 2 v v v

Variable 1 2 m1 m2 v1f v1i v2f Description Collision angle 1 Collision angle 2 Mass 1 Mass 2 Final velocity of 1 Initial velocity of 1 Final velocity of 2
$
$
$
$
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 3
Units rad rad kg kg m/s m/s m/s
Entered Values
Computed results
350
Solution - Select all three equations to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. Enter zero when the dialogue box appears to calculate the principal angle solution for 2. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given 1=30 deg m1= 2g m2= 30 g v1i=25 m/s Solution 2=-14.0449 deg v1f=-22.0713 m/s v2f=3.03158 m/s
22.5.2.1 1D Collisions
Most collisions are not purely elastic, and some of the kinetic energy is converted to heat or used in deformation of the colliding objects (such as two cars in a head-on collision). The first equation represents the law of conservation of momentum; the second equation is Newtons collision rule for inelastic collisions. The coefficient of restitution, cr, in the second equation is a factor to account for loss of kinetic energy in an inelastic collision. In a perfectly elastic collision, cr is equal to 1 (cr=1, kinetic energy is completely conserved) and cr is equal to 0 in a purely inelastic collision (cr=0, all kinetic energy is converted to heat or deformation). The third and fourth equations are combinations of the first two equations.
m1 v1i + m2 v 2i = m1 v1 f + m2 v 2 f v1 f v 2 f = cr v1i v 2i v1 f = v2 f =
Variable cr m1 m2 v1f v1i v2f v2i Example 22.5.2.1:
A baseball, weighing 150 g and traveling at 62 mph, is bunted with a bat, weighing 1.875 lb, moving towards the ball at a velocity of 1.5 m/s. The ball rebounds in the in the opposite direction at 30 mph.
? a?
1 1 6
22.5.2 Inelastic Collisions
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 3
1m1 cr m26 v1i + m2 11 + cr 6 v2i

m1 + m2 m1 1 + cr v1i + m2 cr m1 v 2i m1 + m2
Description Coefficient of restitution Mass 1 Mass 2 Final velocity of 1 Initial velocity of 1 Final velocity of 2 Initial velocity of 2
Eq. 4
Units unitless kg kg m/s m/s m/s m/s
351
What is the coefficient of restitution for the bat, ball collision? If the bat is released the moment it collides with the ball, what would be the bats velocity towards the person who was holding it?
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution Select third and fourth equations. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given m1=150 g m2= 1.875 lb vli=62 mph v1f=-30 mph v2i= -1.5 m/s Solution cr=0.655961 v2f=12.8706 mph
22.5.2.2 Oblique Collisions

The following equations describe an inelastic collision between two objects in two dimensions. The trajectory angles of the two objects before colliding, 1i & 2i (rad), and after collision, 1f & 2f (rad), are relative to an axis which passes through the center of mass of the two colliding objects and their point of contact. The first eight equations convert velocities from polar to rectangular coordinates. The ninth and tenth equations compute the conservation of tangential velocities (component of velocity perpendicular to the axis of contact) for the two objects. The last two equations combine the conservation of momentum principle and Newtons collision rule to determine the velocity components parallel to the axis of contact. The velocity values v1i, v1f, v2i, and v2f (m/s) are vector values (i.e. positive when pointing away from the axis, negative when they are pointing towards the axis).
1 6 v1iy = v1i sin1 1i 6 v 2ix = v 2i cos1 2i 6 v 2iy = v 2i sin1 2i 6 v1fx = v1f cos1 1 f 6 v1 fy = v1f sin1 1f 6 v 2fx = v 2f cos1 2f 6
v1ix = v1i cos 1i
MEPro for TI-89, TI-92Plus Chapter 22 - Equations Dynamics and Statics 352
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 3 Eq. 4 Eq. 5 Eq. 6 Eq. 7
? a
v 2 fy = v 2 f sin 2 f
1 6 v 2i sin( 2i) = v 2f sin1 2f 6 1m1 cr m26 cos11i 6 v1i + m2 11 + cr 6 v2i cos1 2i6 v1 f cos11 f 6 =
v1i sin( 1i) = v1f sin 1f m1 + m2 v 2 f cos 2 f =
Variable 1i 2i 1f 2f cr m1 m2 v1f v1fx v1fy v1i v1ix v1iy v2f v2fx v2fy v2i v2ix v2iy
1 6
Eq. 8 Eq. 9 Eq. 10 Eq. 11
1 6
m1 v1i cos 1i 1 + cr + v 2i cos 2i m2 cr m1 m1 + m2

Description Initial collision angle 1 Initial collision angle 2 Final collision angle 1 Final collision angle 2 Coefficient of restitution Mass 1 Mass 2 Final velocity of 1 Final velocity of 1 along x-axis Final velocity of 1 along y-axis Initial velocity of 1 Initial velocity of 1 along x-axis Initial velocity of 1 along y-axis Final velocity of 2 Final velocity of 2 along x-axis Final velocity of 2 along y-axis Initial velocity of 2 Initial velocity of 2 along x-axis Initial velocity of 2 along y-axis
1 61
1 61
Eq. 12
Units rad rad rad rad unitless kg kg m/s m/s m/s m/s m/s m/s m/s m/s m/s m/s m/s m/s
Example 22.5.2.2: A pool player hits a cue ball (0.75 lb) towards an eight ball of the same mass at 3 m/s. The player wants to determine a collision angle for the first ball relative to an axis that runs through the center of the two balls at contact so that the cue ball leaves the point of collision at 2 m/s. If the coefficient of restitution for the two balls is 0.95, what is the velocity of the eight ball, what angle does the cue ball leave the collision? (Assume that the balls are sliding before and after the collision instead of rolling).
Upper Display
Lower Display
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Solution Solving angular values from trigonometric expressions often requires the user to choose or convert a solution from many possible answers. Drawing a diagram, similar to the figure in this section, and with vectors for each object before and after collision often helps. In this case, mass 1 is selected as the cue ball and mass 2, the eight ball. Select the last four equations , enter the values as stated below, press , enter the known values and press to solve the unknown variables. The initial and final angles of the eight ball are known to be zero since momentum is only transferred along the axis of collision. In this case, the solution displays the cue ball (1) coming from the upper right of the eight ball (2) (a mirror image of the diagram). Given 2f=0 deg 2i=0 deg cr=0.95 m1=0.75 lb m2=0.75 lb v1f= 2m/s vli=3 m/s v2i=0 m/s
22.6 Gravitational Effects

22.6.1 Law of Gravitation
The following equations compute the orbital properties an object with mass, m2 (kg), in a circular orbit around a stationary mass, m1 (kg). Equation 1 computes the force, F (N), between the orbiting mass, m2, and central mass, m1, due to gravity. Equation 2 calculates the gravitational acceleration, ag (m/s2), at distance rd (m), from the center of mass of m1. Equation 3 calculates the escape velocity, vesc (m/s), required for a launched object to overcome the gravitational field of m1. The centripetal acceleration, ag, of an object orbiting at distance, rd, can be calculated from the tangential velocity, v (m/s), in equation 4, or angular velocity, (rad/s), in the equation 8. The force, F (N), acting on m2 due to centripetal acceleration ag, can be calculated in equation 5. The period of rotation, Tp (s), for an object in circular orbit at distance, rd, from a central body, m1, is computed in equation 6. The tangential velocity, v, of an object in orbit at distance rd with angular velocity is calculated in equation 7. Equation 9 calculates the orbital angular momentum, Lm (kgm2/s), of m2. Equations 10 through 12 calculate the potential PE (J), kinetic, KE (J), and total, TE (J), energies of m2 orbiting at distance rd from m1.
F= ag =
G m1 m2 rd 2 G m1 rd 2 2 G m1 rd
vesc = v2 ag = rd
Solution 1i=221.79 deg 1f= -91.6022 deg v2f=-2.18085 m/s
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
Eq. 3
Eq. 4
354
F = m2 ag Tp 2 = 4 2 rd 3 G m1
Eq. 5 Eq. 6
v = rd ag = 2 rd Lm = m2 rd 2 PE = KE = G m1 m2 rd G m1 m2 2 rd
Eq. 7 Eq. 8 Eq. 9 Eq. 10
Eq. 11
TE = KE + PE
Variable ag F G KE Lm m1 m2 PE rd TE Tp v vesc Description Angular Acceleration Gravitational acceleration Force Gravitational constant Kinetic energy Angular momentum Mass 1 Mass 2 Potential Energy Radius between c/m Total energy Period of one cycle Velocity Escape velocity
Eq. 12 Units rad/s m/s2 N 6.67x10-11 Nm2/kg2 J kgm2/s kg kg J m J s m/s m/s
Example 22.6.1: Part 1 Calculate a rough estimate of the mass of the sun given the earth orbits the sun once every 365.25 days and the mean distance from the earth to the sun is approximately 150 million kilometers.
Entered Values
Computed results
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Solution - Select the sixth equation to solve this problem. Select this by highlighting the equation and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given Rd=1.5E8 km Tp=365.25 days Solution m1 = 2.00508 E 30 kg (actual value is 1.99 E 30 kg)
Example 22.6.1: Part 2 An astronaut on the surface of the moon wants to know the minimum velocity needed to send a golf ball beyond the moons gravitational field. In this case, neglect the added speed of the moons rotation. The mass and mean radius of the moon are 7.36 x 10 22 kg and 1.74 x 10 6 m respectively.
Solution - Select the third equation to solve this problem. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. The value of G the gravitational constant (6.67-11 N m 2/kg) is automatically retrieved from the TI operating system and is not displayed as a variable. Given m1=7.36 E22 kg rd=1.74E6 m Solution vesc=2375.89 m/s
22.6.2 Kepler's Laws

Johannes Kepler from Tycho Brahes recorded observations of planetary orbits , we use these principles to derive the following equations were developed by. Keplers statements are as follows: 1) Planetary orbits are elliptical in shape. 2) The elliptical area traversed by an orbiting planet over time is constant. 3) The third observation, which is summarized in the first two equations, is that the square of orbital period, Tp (s), is proportional to the cube of the minimum distance between the two objects per (perigee). The first two equations compute the elliptical area of the orbit, Area (m2), from the minimum, per, and maximum, apo (m), distances between the two bodies. The third equation calculates the distance, rd (m), between the central mass, m (kg), and the orbiting object at angular position, (rad), from the perigee location of the orbit. The fourth equation computes the period of rotation for the satellite, Tp (s). Equation 5 defines the constant, hs (m2/s), which represents Keplers second principle, and is used in the second and fifth equations. The sixth equation calculates the orbital tangential velocity v (m/s) at orbital distance, rd (m), from the central mass, m (kg). The seventh equation relates apo (m), and, per (m), between the sun (mass m) and the planet given a planets tangential velocity, vp (m/s), at the perigee. The eighth and ninth equations relate the apogee, apo, and perigee, per, distances to the major and minor elliptical axis. The last equation calculates the eccentricity, , of the elliptical orbit.
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Entered Values
Computed results
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Area = Area =
per + apo apo per 2

hs Tp 2
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
1 1 Gm G m cos + = 1 2 rd per per vp per 2 vp 2 Tp =

1 6
Eq. 3
apo + per apo per hs
Eq. 4
hs = vp per v= hs rd per 2 G m 1 per vp 2
Eq. 5 Eq. 6
apo =
Eq. 7
ra = rb =
per + apo 2 per apo
Eq. 8
Eq. 9
1 Gm hs 2 = 1 per per vp 2 G m

Eq. 10
Variable apo Area G hs m per ra rb rd Tp v vp
Description Eccentricity Displacement angle Apogee distance maximum distance to center of mass Area Gravitational constant Constant Mass perigee distance minimum distance to center of mass Radius: semi-major ellipse axis Radius: minor ellipse axis Radius between center of masses m1 and m2 Period of one cycle Tangential velocity Tangential velocity at perigee
Units unitless rad m m2 6.67x10-11 Nm2/kg2 m2/s kg m m m m s m/s m/s
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Example 22.6.2: Halleys comet orbits the sun once every 76 years. Verify this information given that the perihelion distance (nearest distance to the sun is 87.8 million kilometers) and the semi-major axis radius is 2.7 billion km. The suns mass is 1.99 E30 kg. In addition to the orbital period, find the apogee distance, minor axis length and maximum velocity.
Upper Display
Lower Display
Solution - Choose the fourth, fifth, seventh, eighth, ninth and tenth equations. The maximum velocity always occurs at the perigee of the orbit. Given m=1.99 E30 kg per=8.78 E7 km ra= 2.7 E9 km Solution apo = 5.3122 E 9 km hs = 1.72417 E 13 km 2/hr rb = 6.82943 E8 km Tp = 27998.7 day (~76.6 years) vp = 196374 kph
22.6.3 Satellite Orbit

These equations describe gravitation, launch and elliptical satellite orbit around the earth. Mea (kg), the mass of the earth (5.98 E24 kg) is a constant defined in MEPro that can be viewed in Reference under Engineering constants. The first equation calculates the polar coordinates of a satellite trajectory, r (m), and, (rad), around the earth given initial velocity, vo (m/s), and initial release height of the orbiting satellite from the earths center of gravity, ro (m). The next three equations are used to calculate the eccentricity of a conic section of the trajectory. The eccentricity of the conic section will determine whether the free-flight trajectory is a circle (=0), parabola (=1), ellipse (<1), or hyperbola (>1). The fifth equation calculates the minimum escape (launch) velocity, vesc (m/s), for a satellite to flee the earths gravitational field. The sixth equation calculates vc (m/s), the critical (minimum) velocity required to launch a satellite into a circular orbit at initial height, ro (m). The next five equations calculate the relationships between apo (m), the apogee (maximum distance of a satellite to the center of orbit), per (m), the perigee (the minimum distance from the center of orbit), ra (m) the minimum distance of a satellite to the center of the earth, rb (m), the maximum distance of an orbiting satellite to the center of the earth and Tp (s), the time period for a single orbit. The final equation computes the tangential velocity of the orbiting satellite, v (m/s), at radius, r (m), given the product of the tangential velocity vo and the perigee (initial) distance, per.
1 1 G Mea G Mea = 1 cos + 2 2 r ro ro vo ro vo 2

1 6
Eq. 1
Cs hs 2 G Mea
Eq. 2
hs = vo ro
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Eq. 3
Cs =
1 G Mea 1 ro ro vo 2
2 G Mea ro

Eq. 4
vesc =
Eq. 5
vc =
G Mea ro
Eq. 6
per = ro apo = ro 2 G Mea 1 ro vo 2
Eq. 7 Eq. 8
Tp = ra = rb = v=
apo + per apo per hs

per + apo 2 per apo
Eq. 9
Eq. 10
Eq. 11 Eq. 12
hs rd
Description Eccentricity Displacement angle Apogee-maximum distance to center of mass Constant Gravitational constant Constant Perigee min. distance to center of mass Power Radius Radius or semi-major axis of ellipse Radius or minor axis of ellipse Initial height/distance from planet center Period of one cycle Tangential velocity Critical velocity Escape velocity Initial tangential velocity at ro/per
Variable apo Cs G hs per Pwr r ra rb ro Tp v vc vesc vo
Units unitless rad m 1/m 6.67x10-11 Nm2/kg2 m2/s m W m m m m s m/s m/s m/s m/s
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Example 22.6.3: A satellite is launched 600 km above the earths surface and has an initial velocity of 8000 m/s. Calculate the features of the satellite trajectory including its minimum maximum distance from the earths center, period of orbit, and the shape of the trajectory.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution - The value for the mean radius of the earth rea=6.37E6 m is located in the Engineering Constants section of Reference. Use equations 2, 3, 4, 7, 8 and 9 to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given ro=6 E5 m (surface to satellite) + 6.37 E6 m(surface to earth center)=6.97E6 m. vo=8000 m/s
22.7.1 Frictional Force

These equations compute static friction for a mass on an inclined plane. p (rad), is the minimum angle of incline required for gravity to overcome the frictional forces, which maintain the object from sliding. Fn (N), is the component of the object weight, W (N), normal to the plane of the inclined surface, is the coefficient of static friction for the mass/plane system and, F (N), is the force exerted by friction in the static system.
F = Fn Fn = W cos(p)
1 6 = tan1p6
W = m grav
W cos p = W sin p
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1 6
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Solution = .118685 (ellipse) apo =8.84727 E6 m Cs=1.52214 E-8 1/m hs=5.576E10 km2/hr per=6.97E6 m T=116.635 min
22.7 Friction
Eq. 1 Eq. 2 Eq. 3 Eq. 4 Eq. 5
Variable p Fn grav m W
Description Angle Coefficient of friction Normal force Acceleration due to gravitation Mass Weight
Units rad unitless N 9.80665 m/s2 kg N
Example 22.7.1: A calculator, weighing 7.1 oz, rests on an inclined textbook. The angle of incline required for the calculator to slide is 20 degrees. What is the coefficient of friction? If the textbook is laid flat, what force, parallel to the surface, must be exerted on the calculator to achieve the same effect?
Entered Values: Step 1 Given (Step 1) p = 20 deg
Computed results: Step 1 Solution (Step 1) = 0.36397
Solution (Step 1) This problem can be solved in two steps. First, select the fourth equation. Select this by highlighting the equation and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables.
Entered Values: Step 2 Given (Step 2) p = 20 deg = 0.36397 m = 5 oz
Solution (Step 2) Next, select the first, second and last equations. Enter the computed value of , the mass of the calculator, and a zero angle of incline. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above.
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Computed results: Step 2 Solution (Step 2) F = .475431 N Fn = 1.30624 N W = 1.39007 N
22.7.2 Wedge
The following equations calculate forces on a wedge lodged between two blocks. There are five forces, which act on the wedge shown in the diagram. These forces add to zero when these forces are in equilibrium. W (N), is the weight of the upper block, 1 is the friction coefficient between the upper block and wedge, 2, is the coefficient of friction on the inclined surface of the wedge and the lower block and (rad) is the angle of incline of the wedge. Fa (N), is the force required to overcome the forces of friction, which maintain the wedge-block system in equilibrium. The coefficient of friction between the upper block and the vertical surface to its right is assumed to be negligible.
1 67 cos1 6 2 sin1 6 2 + tan1 6 Fa = W 1 + 1 2 tan1 6

Fa = 1 W + W 2 cos + sin
16
Eq. 1
Eq. 2
W = m grav
Variable 1 2 Fa grav m W Description Displacement angle Coefficient of friction Coefficient of friction Horizontal force Acceleration due to gravitation Mass Weight
Eq. 3 Units rad unitless unitless N 9.80665 m/s2 kg N
Example 22.7.2: What force must be exerted on the wedge with a 10-degree incline to lift a 4-ton load. The friction coefficients for 2 and 1 in the above diagram, are 0.1 and 0.4, respectively.
Entered Values
Computed results
Solution The first and third, or second and third equations are needed to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above.
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Given = 10 deg 1 = 0.1 2 = 0.4 m=4 ton
Solution Fa=25623.9 N W=35585.8 N
22.7.3 Rotating Cylinder

The following equations describe a rotating cylinder having an annulus-shaped contact with a stationary surface. The inner radius of the contact area is rin (m), and an outer radius of contact is rout (m). The first equation calculates the Area (m2) of the annulus-shaped contact between the cylinder and the surface. The second equation estimates the pressure, (Pa), over the area of the annulus-shaped contact surface, Area. The third equation computes the torque, (Nm), required to overcome the static forces of friction between the surface and the cylinder.
Area = rout 2 rin 2
7 7
Description Stress Torque Coefficient of static friction Cross-sectional area Normal force Acceleration due to gravitation Inner radius Outer radius
Eq. 1 Eq. 2
Fn rout 2 rin 2
7 7
2 Fn rout 3 rin 3 3 rout 2 rin 2
Eq. 3
Variable Area Fn grav rin rout Example 22.7.3:
Units Pa Nm unitless m2 N 9.80665 m/s2 m m
A rotating cylinder, at rest, exerts a force of 2500 N on a surface. The cylinder has inner and outer contact radii of 0.5 m and 2 m, respectively. The coefficient of static friction is 0.25. What is the torque required to initiate rotation of the cylinder?
Entered Values
Computed results
363
Solution Select the last equation. Highlight the equation and press . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given = 0.25 Fn = 2500 N rin = 0.5 m rout = 2 m Solution = 875 N m
22.8 Statics
22.8.1 Parabolic cable
A cable between two fixed anchor points (a, b) assumes the shape of a parabola when there is a constant load per horizontal distance, 1 (N/m), between the two stationary ends. In such a case, the weight of the cable is typically insignificant in reference to the load. The first equation calculates y (m), the vertical distance from the lowest point of the cable at distance, x (m), from To (N), the tension of the cable at the lowest point. The second equation calculates the total distance, L (m), between the two anchors from horizontal distances to the lowest point, La (m) and Lb (m), from the location of To. The third and fourth equations compute To from the vertical, ha (m) and hb (m), and horizontal distances, La, and Lb, of the anchors to To. The fifth and sixth equations estimate the tension at the two fixed points, Ta (N) and Tb (N).
y=
1 x 2 2 To
L = La + Lb To =
1 La 2 2 ha
1 Lb 2 To = 2 hb
La 2 Ta = 1 La 1 + 4 ha 2 Lb 2 Tb = 1 Lb 1 + 4 hb 2
Variable l ha hb L Description Load per horizontal unit length Height from low point to left support Height from low point to right support Total length
364
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Eq. 1
Eq. 2 Eq. 3
Eq. 4
Eq. 5
Eq. 6
Units N/m m m m
Variable La Lb Ta Tb To x y Example 22.8.1:
Description Distance from low point to left support Distance from low point to right support Tension at left anchor Tension at right anchor Tension at lowest point Distance from origin along x axis Displacement
Units m m N N N m m
A parabolic cable supports a uniform horizontal load of 12-lb/ft distances across a river gorge 800 ft wide. If an anchor on one side is able to support a load of 30kN at a height of 150 ft above the river, what is the minimum height and tension of the anchor on the opposite side of the gorge? What is the minimum distance of one side to the sag point (location of To)? What is the tension at the lowest point of the cable?
Upper Display
Lower Display
Solution The second through sixth equations are needed to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Given l = 12 lbf/ft ha=150 ft L = 800 ft Ta=30 kN Solution hb = 224.362 ft La = 359.873 ft Lb = 440.127 ft Tb = 32908 N To = 23043.3 N
22.8.2 Catenary cable

A catenary cable supports a uniform load per length of cable, o (N/m). The cable forms a hyperbolic curve when the load is solely due to the weight of the cable. The first equation calculates the vertical displacement, y (m), at position, x (m), from the point of sag, above a plane located at a distance, hc (m), below the sag point. Equation 2 computes the total horizontal distance between the two anchors, L (m), as the sum of the horizontal distances, La and Lb, to the sag point from each end. The variable, hc, in the third equation, is defined as the height of the cable where, x=0. The fourth equation computes the arc length of the cable, sarc (m), at a distance, x (m), from the low point. The fifth and sixth equations calculate the heights, ha (m) and hb (m), of the fixed ends above the sag point (location of To). Equation 7 calculates the tension of the cable, Tx (N), at distance, x, from the sag point. In the diagram above, the variable, x, is positive to the right of the cable and negative to the left. The eighth and ninth equations estimate the tension at the two fixed points, Ta (N) and Tb (N). The last equation computes the length of the cable, cl (m), given cable parameters, hc, La and Lb.
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y = hc cosh
x hc
Eq. 1
L = La + Lb hc = To o
Eq. 2 Eq. 3
x hc La ha = hc cosh 1 hc Lb hb = hc cosh 1 hc x Tx = o hc cosh hc La Ta = o hc cosh hc Lb Tb = o hc cosh hc La Lb cl = hc sinh + sinh hc hc

sarc = hc sinh
Variable o cl ha hb hc L La Lb sarc Ta Tb Tx To x y Description Load per cable length Length of cable Height from low point to left support Height from low point to right support Characteristic length Distance between a and b Dist. from low point to left support Dist. from low point to right support Length of cable from lowest point Tension at left support Tension at right support Tension at a location x Tension at lowest point Distance from origin along x axis Displacement
Eq. 4
Eq. 5
Eq. 6
Eq. 7
Eq. 8
Eq. 9
Eq. 10
Units N/m m m m m m m m m N N N N m m
366
Example 22.8.2: A cable weighing 1 lb per foot length is strung between two towers 200 ft apart. The sag is 20 ft below each tower. Calculate the tension at each tower and the length of cable required.
Upper Display
Lower Display
Solution - The third, fifth, sixth, eighth, ninth, and tenth equations are needed to solve this problem. Select these by highlighting the equations and pressing . Press to display the variables. Enter the values for the known parameters and press to solve for the unknown variables. The entries and results are shown in the screen displays above. Since the towers are equal of equal height, the sag point should be halfway in between the two towers (100 ft). Enter the known values and press to solve for the unknown variables. This problem takes about 5 minutes to solve. Given o = 1 lbf/ft ha = 20 ft hb = 20 ft La = 100 ft Lb = 100 ft Solution cl = 205.237 ft hc = 253.265 ft Ta = 273.265 lbf Tb = 273.265 lbf To = 253.265 lbf
References:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Engineering Mechanics, Vol. 1, Statics, Edition 2, J. L. Meriam and L. G. Kraige, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1986 Engineering Mechanics, Vol. 2, Dynamics, Edition 2, J. L. Meriam and L. G. Kraige, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1986 Engineering Mechanics, 7th Edition, R. C. Hibbeler, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1995 Fundamentals of Physics, D. Halliday, R. Resnick and J. Walker, 4th Edition, John Wiley and sons, Inc. New York, 1993 Michael R. Lindeburg, Mechanical Engineering Reference Manual, Professional Publications, Belmont, CA 1990 Murray R. Spiegel, Theoretical Mechanics, Schaum's Outline Series, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY, 1967 Lane K. Bronson, Engineering Mechanics, Statics and Dynamics, Simon and Schuster technical outlines series, Simon and Schuster, New York, NY 1970
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Part III: Reference
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F4: Reference
Chapter 23: Introduction to Reference

This chapter guides the user through the Reference Section of MEPro. The information in the Reference Section of the software is organized in a fashion similar to that in Analysis and Equations, except that it is generally non-interactive.
23.1 Introduction
The Reference Part is organized in twelve sections that include the following topics: Engineering Constants; Fourier and Laplace Transforms; Valves/Fitting Loss; Friction Coefficients; Roughness of Pipes; Water Physical Properties; Gases and Vapors; Thermal Properties; Fuels and Combustion; Refrigerants; SI prefixes; and, the Greek Alphabet.
Pull down menu on TI - 89 and TI - 92 Plus Unlike Analysis and Equations, the screen formats for the topics in the Reference section can differ significantly, depending on the information presented.
23.2 Finding Reference

Starting MEPro you can access the Reference Part. 1. Start MEPro: TI-89 and TI-92 Plus: Press key to display the pull down menu. Press or press to view flash applications. Use key to move the highlight bar to MEPro and press . Pressing accesses the menu for the Reference section listing the topics. MEPro is structured with a hierarchy of screens for choosing a specific topic. Select a topic of Reference by moving the highlight bar to the desired section using the key and pressing . Alternatively, type in the number corresponding to the section desired. For example, press to access the Transforms section or press to access Water-Physical Properties.
2.
Transforms Menu
Water-Physical Properties Screen
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F4: Reference
23.3 Reference Screens

The Water-Physical Properties section has been chosen to illustrate how to navigate within a topic of the Reference section. When accessing the Water-Physical Properties section the properties of H2O should be displayed.
Main Water-Physical Properties Screen
Other Temperatures of H2O
Highlight bar at 25C (H2O)
Properties of H2O at 25C
23.4 Using Reference Tables

The Transform section is used as an example of viewing reference tables. Transforms allows the user to inspect Fourier and Laplace Transforms. Each of these topics is divided into three sub-topics: Definitions, Properties and Transform Pairs. For example, navigate from Transforms Fourier Transforms Transform Pairs. A screen display below lists the equations displaying the fundamental properties of Fourier transform pairs. Note that the name of the selected transform equation appears in the status line (at the bottom of the screen). For example, if the highlight bar is moved to the sixth equation, the status line displays "Rectangular Pulse" as the description of the property.
Normal View
Inverse View (press
To view an equation in Pretty Print format, press . The contents on the right side of the colon (:) are displayed in Pretty Print, while the contents to the left of the colon are displayed in regular type above the status line. To reverse this display (display the inverse of the property), press to exit Pretty Print mode; press to display the inverse form of the transform property; and, to view the inverse
370
Note that H2O Temp has an arrow to its right indicating that there are other temperatures of to view H20 whose properties are also listed. Move the highlight bar to H20 Temp., press the other temperatures of H20. The list of other temperatures include 0 C to 100 C in five degree increments. To display the properties of H2O at 25 C, use the key to move the high . Alternatively, type in when the pull down menu light bar to 25C (H2O) and press appears. The data displayed automatically updates to list the properties of water at 25 C as shown above.
."
$[
"
F4: Reference
transform in Pretty Print. This function is only available in the Transforms Section of the ME-Pro Reference.
Normal View of Rectangular Pulse
Inverse View of Rectangular Pulse
371
F4: Reference/1: Engineering Const.
Chapter 24: Engineering Constants

This Constants Reference Table section lists the values and units for 46 commonly used universal constants. These constants are embedded in equations in the Equations section of MEPro and are automatically inserted during computations, when required.
24.1 Using Constants

The Constants section in Reference is designed to give a quick glance for commonly used constants. It lists values of accuracy available by the standards of measurement established by appropriate international agencies. This section does not include any information about the uncertainty in measurement, if any.
Table 24.1 Constants Reference Table Display e c 0 F G grav h hb k 0 q em me mn mp m pe re q Description Circle ratio Napier constant Euler constant Golden ratio Fine structure Speed of light in vacuum Permittivity of a vacuum Faraday constant Newtonian constant of gravitation Acceleration of gravity Planck constant Dirac constant Boltzmann constant Permeability of vacuum e- charge e- charge / mass e- rest mass n rest mass p+ rest mass muon rest mass Mass p+ / mass eClassical e- radius Mass / mass eDisplay 0 B e N p a0 R brc1 brc2 Brc3 c n p SP ST Vm mwa NA Rm Mea rea Description Magnetic flux quantum Bohr magneton e- magnetic moment Nuclear magneton p+ magnetic moment magnetic moment Bohr radius Rydberg constant 1st radiation constant 2nd radiation constant Wien displacement Stefan-Boltzmann constant e- Compton wavelength n Compton wavelength p+ Compton wavelength Standard pressure Standard temperature Molar volume at STP Molecular mass of dry air Avogadro constant Molar gas constant Mass of the earth Mean radius of earth
These constants were arranged in the following order: universal mathematical constants lead the list, followed by universal physical constants; atomic and quantum mechanical constants; radiation constants; standard temperature and pressure; universal gas constant; and, molar constants. To view a constant, use the arrow key key to move the highlight bar to the value and press the View key . The status line at the bottom of the screen gives a verbal description of the constant.
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F4: Reference/1: Engineering Const.
Example 24.1: Look up the classical radius of an electron. 1. 2. 3. Re value is located about half way down the list. Make sure it is selected by the highlight bar using the arrow keys. Access the View function by pressing key . Press any key to return to the constants screen.
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F4: Reference/ 2:Transforms
Chapter 25: Transforms

This section accesses a series of tables containing transforms of common interest to mechanical engineers. The transforms are listed are Fourier Transforms, and Laplace Transforms. Each topic contains information categorized under three subtopics; Definitions, Properties and Transform Pairs. All formulae can be viewed in Pretty Print equation-display format. These sub-topics are not interactive; i.e., one cannot specify an arbitrary expression and expect to compute a transformed result.
25.1 Using Transforms

When the Transform section is selected, a dialog box is appears. To choose a topic, move the highlight bar using or keys and press ; alternatively, press the number associated with the topic. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Select Fourier, or Laplace Transforms. Select Definitions, Properties or Transform Pairs Use the or keys to move to the transform line desired. The forward transforms are displayed by default. Pressing toggles between the forward and inverse formats. Press to view the transform property in Pretty Print. Information is presented on either side of the colon as shown below. The term on the left side of the colon, F(), represents the function in the frequency domain. The right side of the colon represents the exact definition for F( ) in terms of the time domain function, f(t), integrated over all time modulated by e -it.
F ( ) : F (t ):
( f (t ) e
+
i t
)dt
1 2
(F ( ) e )d
i t
Forward and Inverse Formats The information can be displayed in the inverse (as opposed to forward) form. This means that the information on either side of the colon changes positions when the Inverse key is pressed. A symbol appears in the tool bar to indicate the inverse form of the transform function is being displayed.
Status Line Message The status line gives a description of the equation highlighted. The descriptions use standard terminology such as Modulation, Convolution, Frequency Integration, etc.
Example 25.1: What is the definition of the Inverse Fourier transform? Normally, Fourier Transform is a representation of a periodic time domain function f(t) in terms of an integral involving the frequency domain function F(). An inverse Fourier Transform refers to a representation F() in terms of f(t).
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Forward Fourier Transform
Inverse Fourier Transform
F4: Reference/ 2:Transforms
4.
Fourier Definitions
Example 25.2: View the Laplace transform of the time function f(t)=t, in terms of a universal frequency variable Laplace s. 1. 2. 3. In the initial Transforms screen, move the highlight bar to Laplace Transforms and press Move the highlight bar to Transform Pairs and press . Scroll down to t: 1/s^2 and press to view the equation in Pretty Print format.
Laplace Transform Pairs
Pretty Print of t
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"
"
" !
1. 2. 3.
In the main Transforms screen, move the highlight bar to Fourier Transforms and press . Press a second time to access Definitions. Move the highlight bar to the second definition and press to display the equation in Pretty Print format. Press or to scroll. Press any key to return to the previous screen, if the Pretty Print display is larger than the screen.
Pretty Print of Fourier (Inverse Fourier Transform)
F4: Reference/3: Valves and Fitting Loss
Chapter 26: Valves and Fitting Loss

This Section covers the head loss of 11 different valves and fittings.
26.1 Valves and Fitting Loss Screens

When accessing the Valves and Fitting Loss section, the next screen will show the properties of the Std radius 90 Elbow. The Valve/Fitting Loss for each type of fitting is listed for a 1in., 2in., 4in., 6in., and 8in. radius.
Properties Std radius 90 Elbow
Materials available in Fitting type
Properties of Open Globe Valve
Note that Fitting: has an arrow to its right indicating that there are additional cases of materials whose properties are also listed as shown above. Move the highlight bar to Std radius 90; press to view the other materials. The list of other materials includes Long radius 90 elbow, Regular 45 elbow, Tee-flow thru line, Tee-flow thru stem, 180 return bend, Open globe valve, Open gate valve, Open angle valve, Swing check valve, Coupling or union. To display the properties of Open Globe Valve, use the key to move the high light bar to Open Globe Valve and press . Alternatively, type in when the pull down menu appears. The data displayed automatically updates to list the properties of Open Globe Valve as shown above.
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F4: Reference/4: Friction Coeff.
Chapter 27: Friction Coefficients

This Section covers the friction coefficients of 34 materials. Four types of friction coefficient values are displayed when known. Static or dynamic friction coefficients under dry or greasy conditions are displayed. The friction coefficients are unitless quantities, when the display shows - character it implies there is no reliable data available.
Table 27.1 Friction Coefficients Reference Display Static Static Status Line Static Dry Static Greasy Display Dynamic Dynamic Status Line Dynamic Dry Dynamic Greasy
27.1 Friction Coefficients Screens

When accessing the Friction Coefficients section, the next screen will show the properties of the Hardsteel/hardsteel.
Properties Friction Coefficients
Materials available in Material type
Properties of Open Mildsteel/Cd-Ag
Note that Hardsteel/hardsteel has an arrow to its right indicating that there are other materials whose properties are also listed. Move the highlight bar to Hardsteel/hardsteel, press to view the other materials. The list of other materials includes Mildsteel/mildsteel, Hardsteel/graphite, Hardsteel/Babbit#1, Hardsteel/Babbit#8, Hardsteel/Babbit#10, Mildsteel/CdAg, Mildsteel/P Bronze, Mildsteel/Cu Pb, Mildsteel/cast Iron, Mildsteel/Pb, Ni/Mildsteel, Al/mildsteel, Mg/mildsteel, Teflon/steel, Wcarbide/Wcarbide, Wcarbide/steel, Wcarbide/Copper, Wcarbide/Iron, Bonded Carbide/Cu, Bonded carbide/Iron, Cd/Mildsteel, Cu/Mildsteel, Brass/Mildsteel, Brass/cast Iron, Zinc/cast Iron, Cu/cast iron, Tin/castIron, Lead/cast Iron, Aluminum/Aluminum, Glass/glass, Glass/Nickel, Copper/glass, Cast Iron/Cast Iron. To display the properties of Mildsteel/Cd-Ag, use the key to move the high light bar to Mildsteel/Cd-Ag and press . Alternatively, type in when the pull down menu appears. The data displayed automatically updates to list the properties of Mildsteel/Cd-Ag as shown above. To return to display listing material types, press . To return to screen with Reference sections, press .
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F4: Reference/5: Roughness of Pipes
Chapter 28: Relative Roughness of Pipes

This Section covers 23 different pipe materials and their relative roughness.
Table 28.1 Relative Roughness Reference Display Com. Range Design Status Line Comment Roughness range Roughness design Display HW HW HW Status Line HW const range HW const clean HW const - design
28.1 Relative Roughness Screens

When accessing the Roughness of Pipes section, the next screen will show the properties of Steel.
Properties Steel
Materials available in Material type
Properties of Concrete
Note that Steel has an arrow to its right indicating that there are other materi als whose properties are also listed. Move the highlight bar to Steel, press to view the other materials. The list of other materials includes Steel-rivets, Steel-girth, Steel-horiz. rivets, Spiral rivets, vitrified, Concrete, Cement-asbestos, vitrified Clay, Brick sewer, Cast Iron, Cast Iron coated, Cast Iron lined, Cast Iron Bituminous, Cast Iron spun, Cast Iron galvanized, Wrought Iron, Fiber, Copper and Brass, Wood stave, Transite, lead, tin, glass, and Plastic. To display the properties of Concrete, use the key to move the high light bar to Concrete and press . Alternatively, type in when the pull down menu appears. The data displayed automatically updates to list the properties of Concrete as shown above. You may return to Pipe material type screen by highlighting Mat: Concrete and press .
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F4: Reference/6: Water-phys. Prop.
Chapter 29: Water-Physical Properties

This section covers the properties of water from 0 C 100 C. Properties tabulated are; density, dynamic, and kinematic viscosity.
Table 29.1 Properties of Water Display v Water-Physical Properties Status Line Density Dynamic Viscosity Kinematic Viscosity
29.1 Water-Physical Properties Screens

When accessing the Water-Physical Properties section the properties of H2O should be displayed.
Main Water-Physical Properties Screen
Other Temperatures of H2O
Highlight bar at 25C (H2O)
Properties of H2O at 25 C Note that H2O Temp has an arrow to its right indicating that there are other temperatures of H2O whose properties are also listed. Move the highlight bar to H20 Temp., press to view the other temperatures of H2O. The list of other temperatures include 0 C to 100 C in five degree increments. To display the properties of H2O at 25 C, use the key to move the high light bar to 25C (H2O) and press . Alternatively, type in when the pull down menu appears. The data displayed automatically updates to list the properties of water at 25 C as shown above.
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F4: Reference/7: Gases and Vapors
Chapter 30: Gases and Vapors

This section covers the refere nce data for six topics relating to the behavior of gases and vapors. Air Enthalpy and Psi Function 200K 780K 800K 1480K 1500K 2200K Gases, general Gases, organic Viscosity () at One Atmosphere Saturation Temperature Saturated Gas Properties <1 bar 1 bar Ammonia Carbon Dioxide Ethane (R170) Hydrogen (n) Methane Refrigerant 11
Critical Data for Various Gases
Air Physical Properties
Table 30.1 Gases and Vapors Reference Table Display h Psi Gas Temp Temp Temp Press. Vol. P vf Status Line Specific enthalpy Psi function Gas type Boiling temperature Critical temperature Temperature at K Critical pressure Critical Volume Vapor Pressure Specific volume, liquid Display vg hf hg sf sg cpf v Status Line Specific volume, gas Specific enthalpy, liquid Specific enthalpy, gas Specific entropy, liquid Specific entropy, gas Specific heat at constant pressure Density Dynamic viscosity Kinematic viscosity
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F4: Reference/7: Gases and Vapors
30.1 Gases and Vapors Screens

When accessing the Gases and Vapors section, a dialog box appears listing the available topics. Use key to move the highlight bar to Air physical properties and press . This will display the properties of air at -50C.
Sections in Gases and Vapors
Properties of air at -50C
Materials available in Air Physical Properties
Note that -50C has an arrow to its right indicating that there are other Air Temperatures whose properties are also listed. Move the highlight bar to -50C, press to view the other materials. The list of other materials includes -40C (Air), -30C (Air), -20C (Air), -10C (Air), 0C (Air), 10C (Air), 20C (Air), 30C (Air), 40C (Air), 50C (Air), 60C (Air), 70C (Air), 80C (Air), 90C (Air), 100C (Air), 150C (Air), 200C (Air), 250C (Air), and 300C (Air). To display the properties of -30C (Air), use the key to move the high light bar to 30C (Air) and press . Alternatively, type in when the pull down menu appears. The data displayed automatically updates to list the properties of Air at -30C.
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F4: Reference/8: Thermal Properties
Chapter 31: Thermal Properties

This section covers the Thermal Conductivity of metals, liquids, gases and other specified materials; and the Specific Heat of liquids and gases. Thermal Conditions Metals Specific Heat Heat of Fusion (Various elements) Mean Specific Heat (Solids) Elemental Alloys Cp of Liquids and gases Cp/Cv of liquids and gases at 1atm
Table 31.1 Thermal Properties Reference Table Display Temp Temp kto k a Status Line Temperature range Temperature Thermal Conductivity Thermal Conductivity Empirical constant Density Display cp Melt temp Max temp Density Status Line Specific heat at constant pressure Viscosity at Bulk Temperature Melting Temperature Maximum temperature Bulk Density
31.1 Thermal Properties Screens

When accessing the Thermal Properties section, a dialog box appears listing the available topics. Use key to move the highlight bar to Heat of Fusion and press . This will display the heat of fusion properties for 35 different materials.
Sections in Thermal Properties
Heat of fusion Properties for 34 different materials
To select any of the materials on the list use the fusion values for the materials listed.
or
keys. Now you can view the heat of
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F4: Reference/9: Fuels and Combust
Chapter 32: Fuels and Combustion

This section covers mechanical engineering reference data for the below mentioned seven topics:
Table 32.1 Fuels and Combustion Reference Table Display Req. Rec. Cost SO2 Inv. v.p. Butane Pentane Res. Oil Corr Sulfur H2O Lo Hi Petrol Tar Syn. Status Line Compare SO2 Control Systems Requirements Recoverable material Extra cost power gen% SO2 efficiency % Extra plant investment % Liquid Petro Gas Specs Max v.p. at 100F Max % butane v. residue Max % pentane v. residue Residue from evap, max Oil stain observation Corrosion, Cu strip, max Sulfur, max Free H20 content Flammable Limits in Air Low limit in air vol% High limit in air vol% Comparative Fuel Specs Conventional petroleum Tar sand bitumen Synthetic crude oil Display Sym. Qv Qv Qp Qp Formula Mol. Wt. Vol CO2 H2O N2 Wt CO2 H2O N2 Gas 80% 90% 100% 120% 140% Status Line Heats of Combustion Chemical symbol Qv (per lb) Qv (per ft3) Qp (per lb) Qp (per ft3) Products of Combustion Chemical formula Molecular weight Specific Weight at STP Volume ration air to fuel CO2 from 1ft3 Fuel H2O from 1ft 3 Fuel N2 from 1ft3 Fuel Weight ratio air to fuel CO2 from 1lb fuel H2O from 1lb fuel N2 from 1lb fuel Flame Temperature Gas Type 80% Theoretical air 90% Theoretical air 100% Theoretical air 120% Theoretical air 140% Theoretical air
32.1 Fuels and Combustion Screens

When accessing the Fuels and Combustion section, a dialog box appears listing the available topics. Use key to move the highlight bar to Flamm..Limits in Air, and press . This will display the properties of Methane.
Sections in Fuels and Combustion
Properties of Methane
Note that Methane has an arrow to its right indicating that there are other materials whose properties are also listed. Move the highlight bar to Methane, press to view the other
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MEPro for Ti-89,TI-92 Plus Chapter 32 - Reference Fuels and Combustion
Materials available in Fuels
F4: Reference/9: Fuels and Combust
materials. The list of other materials include: Ethane; Propane; Butane; Isobutane; Pentane; Isopentane; Hexane; Ethylene; Propylene; Butylene; Acetylene; Hydrogen; Carbon monoxide; Ammonia; Hydrogen sulfide; Natural; Producer; Blast-furnace; Water; Carbureted-water; Coal; Coke-oven; and, High-Btu oil. To display the properties of Propane, use the key to move the high light bar to Propane and press . Alternatively, type in when the pull down menu appears. The data displayed automatically updates to list the properties of Propane.
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F4: Reference/A: Refrigerants
Chapter 33: Refrigerants

This section covers selected refrigerants and gases in low -temperature applications, transition temperatures and common cryogenic properties Selected Materials Transition Temperatures I Type I superconductor II Type II superconductors Common Cryogenic Prop.
Table 33.1 Refrigerants Reference Table Display No. Mol. B.P. Temp. Press. To Ho Hc2 T(K) Pt. Status Line Refrigerant number Molecular weight Boiling point Critical point temperature Critical point pressure Transition temperature Critical magnetic fields Upper critical fields Temp of upper critical fields Triple pt. temperature Display Pt. Temp. Press. Inv. Heat Heat Liq. Vap. Gas Status Line Triple pt. pressure Critical temperature Critical pressure Upper inversion temperature Heat of vapor (wt) Heat of vapor (vol) Liquid density Vapor density Gas density
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F4: Reference/A: Refrigerants
33.1 Refrigerants Screens

When accessing the Refrigerants section, a dialog box appears listing the available topics. Use key to move the highlight bar to Cryogenic Properties and press . This will display the properties He3 .
Sections in Refrigerants
Properties of He3
Materials available in Cryogenic property
Note that He3 has an arrow to its right indicating that there are other materials whose properties are also listed. Move the highlight bar to He3; press to view the other materials. The list of other materials includes He4, H2 (equilib), D2 (normal), Ne, N2, Air, Argon, F2, O2, and CH4. To display the properties of H2 (equilib), use the key to move the high light bar to H2 (equilib) and press . Alternatively, type in when the pull down menu appears. The data displayed automatically updates to list the properties of H2.
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F4: Reference/B: SI Prefixes
Chapter 34: SI Prefixes

The SI Prefixes section displays the prefixes adapted by the Systeme International [dUnit[eacute]s] (SI).
34.1 Using SI Prefixes

The prefixes are listed in the order shown in Table 34-1. The key is used to move the highlight bar to select a SI prefix multiplier. The name of the prefix is displayed in the status line. The prefix and multiplier can be viewed by pressing the key. Table 34-1 SI Prefix Table Prefix Multiplier Prefix Multiplier Y: (Yotta) 1E24 d: (deci) 1E-1 Z: (Zetta) 1E21 c: (Centi) 1E-2 E: (Exa) 1E18 m: (Milli) 1E-3 P: (Peta) 1E15 1E-6 : (Micro) T: (Tera) 1E12 1E-9 n: (Nano) G: (Giga) 1E9 1E-12 p: (Pico) M: (Mega) 1E6 1E-15 f: (Femto) k: (Kilo) 1E3 1E-18 a: (Atto) h: (Hecto) 1E2 1E-21 z: (Zepto) da: (Deka) 1E1 1E-24 y: (Yocto)
SI Prefix Screen Display
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F4: Reference/C: Greek Alphabet
Chapter 35: Greek Alphabet

This section displays the Greek Alphabet and their names. There are several Greek letters supported by the TI-89. To enter the Greek letters, the sequential keystrokes are listed in the TI-89 manual. They are repeated here for convenience of the user. Alternatively, (or ) followed by will access an internal menu listing several Greek characters. Table 35-1
Key stroke Sequence
Greek Letter
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J C J C J C
BJC MJC
JC JC JC JC JC JC JC JC ZJC YJC MJC JC EJC BJC CJC JC
Key stroke Sequence
Greek Letter
Part IV: Appendix and Index
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Appendix A Frequently Asked Questions

A.1 Questions and Answers
A list of commonly asked questions about the MEPro is listed here. Review this list of questions prior to contacting the Technical support either at Texas Instruments or at da Vinci. You might save yourself a phone call! These questions are classified under four general headings. Equations Questions General Questions Reference Questions Analysis Questions
A.2 General Questions

The following is a list of questions about the general features of ME Pro: Q. Where can I find additional inf ormation about a variable? A. A brief description of a highlighted variable appears in the status line at the bottom of the screen. More information, including its allowable entry parameters (i.e.: whether complex, symbolic or negative values can be entered, etc.) can be accessed by pressing /Opts and 2:Type. Q. How do I convert the results of a calculation in analysis and equations into different units? A. Highlight the value which you want to convert; Press /Opts, 4:Conv. A unit menu for the variable is displayed. Select the desired unit by pressing the function key corresponding to the appropriate units.
Q. What does the underscore _ next to a variable mean? A. This designates a variable, which allows entry of complex values. Q. I am in the middle of a computation and it seems to stay busy for longer than I would like. How can I halt this process? A. Some computations can take a long time, particular if many equations and unknowns are being solved or a complex analysis function has been entered. Notice if the message in the status line at the bottom-right of the screen reads BUSY. This indicates that the TI math engine is attempting to solve the problem. Pressing the key usually halts a computation and allows the user to regain control of the software. If, for some reason, the calculator locks up and does not allow user intervention, a cold start will have to be performed to reset the calculator. This can be done by holding down the keys; , , and , and pressing for the TI-89 , and ). (for the TI-92 Plus, press WARNING: This will delete folders containing any defined variables or stored programs. Use it as a last resort. A "cold start" will not delete ME Pro from your calculator.
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To display a result in different units, highlight the variable (P) and press :Opts, move the cursor to 4:Conv
The unit menu for the variable appears in the top bar. Press the function key corresponding to the desired units. ( in this case).
The computed value for Real Power, P, is now displayed in kilowatts (kW).
Q. What do three dots (...) mean at the end of an item on the screen? A. The three dots (an ellipsis) indicate the item is too wide to fit on the available screen area. To view an item in its entirety, select it by moving the highlight bar and press (or , in some cases) to view the item in Pretty Print. Press or to scroll the item back and forth across the screen to view the entire object. Q. How can I recall, or view values of a previously computed problem? A. MEPro automatically stores its variables in the current folder specified by the user in or the HOME screens. The current folder name is displayed in the lower left corner of the screen (default is Main). To create a new folder to store values for a particular session of MEPro, press :/TOOLS, :/NEW and type the name of the new folder (see Chapter 5 of the TI-89 Guidebook for the complete details of creating and managing folders). There are several ways to display or recall a value: The contents of variables in any folder can be displayed using the , moving the cursor to the variable name and pressing to display the contents of a particular variable. Variables in a current folder can be recalled in the HOME screen by typing the variable name. Finally, values and units can be copied and recalled using the /Tools 5:COPY and 6:PASTE feature. The COPY/PASTE function will copy the highlighted value and units in Analysis and Equations but will only copy the value (no units) in the Reference section. All inputs and calculated results from Analysis and Equations section are saved as variable names. Previously calculated, or entered values for variables in a folder are replaced when equations are solved using new values for inputs. Q. I am not able to calculate a value for a particular variable. Why? A. Check the status-line message to insure that a complete or partial solution was found. Some variables have range restrictions; for example, only positive values are allowed for kinetic energy or satellite distance from the earth. Make sure that the inputs are meaningful in context of the allowable result(s). Sometimes, variable conflicts can occur from other applications. It is recommended that MEPro be used in a separate folder. Press : Tools, : New to create a new folder. As a last resort, open a new folder or clear the variables in the current folder using and repeat the calculation.
Q. Can I copy and paste entries from one variable to another? A. You can copy and paste a highlighted value using /Tools 5:COPY and 6:PASTE feature. The COPY/PASTE function will copy the highlighted value and units in Analysis, Equations and reference sections. Q. Is there a help section in the software? A. There is a short series (slides) of general hints which can be accessed from the main screen of ME Pro under /Info. A different message appears each time is pressed. Weve attempted to keep most of the explanation of certain topics to the manual in an effort to keep the software compact. Consult the chapter corresponding to the appropriate section of the software. A compiled list of the received questions and answers will be posted periodically on the da Vinci website at http://www.dvtg.com/faq/mepro
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Q. An item, which is supposed to be displayed in a menu, doesnt appear. A. Some menus have more than eight items. If an arrow appears next to the digit 8, use the arrow key scroll the menu and view the remaining topics or press jump to the bottom of the menu.
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A.3 Analysis Questions

These are some commonly asked questions about the Analysis section of MEPro. Q. The screen display of computed results does not look identical to the example in the manual. A. The setting, which controls the number of floating point digits displayed in a value and whether an answer appears in exact or approximate form, may have been set differently on the calculator used to make the screen displays for the example problem. Press the key to view or change the mode settings. The first page will display the number of floating-point digits, whether the display is in NORMAL, SCIENTIFIC, OR ENGINEERING exponential formats. Pressing will display whether computed answers are displayed in APPROXIMATE or EXACT formats. The default mode setting for MEPro is Float 6, Radian and Approximate calculations. Q. The calculated angle isnt correct. A. If the result is greater than 2 or less than -2 (result 360o), the TI solve (...) function may be generating a non-principal solution. A principal solution is defined as a value between 0 and 2 (or between 0 and 360o). A non-principal solution can be converted to a principal solution by adding or subtracting integer multiples of 2 (or 360o) until the remainder is within the range of 0 and 2 (or 0 and 360o). The remainder is the principal solution. Example: When solving the equation sin( x ) = 0.5 , non-principle solutions include: 30, 390, -330, 750, etc., but the principal solution is 30. Q. I am not able to calculate a value for a particular variable. Why? A. If a computed result displays no value, try clearing the variables in the current folder or opening a new folder to remove any possible variable conflicts and repeat the calculation. To delete variables in the current folder, press , : All, : Select All, : Manage, : Delete, : Yes. To open a new folder in MEPro, press : Tools, : New. Type the name of the new folder and press . Q. What is the multiple graph feature in Capital Budgeting and how do I get it to plot sev eral projects simultaneously? A. Activating the multiple graph features allows successive graphs to be overlaid on the same. To do this, the graphing execution must be repeated each time a new project is plotted.
A.4 Equations Questions

These are some common questions about the Equations section of MEPro. Q. What do the icons next the variables and equations mean? A. The explanation for these icons , , and can be displayed by pressing - This appears when an equation or feature has been selected. - This appears when a value has been accepted by the system. - Designates a value as having been calculated.
:Opts,
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1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Make sure the cash flows for all the named projects have been entered. Enable the Multiple Graphs feature by highlighting and pressing the key. Select the name of a project you wish to graph and press . To overlay a second project on the first, select a different project name and press to graph. Repeat step 4 each time a new project is to be graphed on top of previously plotted functions.
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Icons.
To view icon descriptions, press :Icons
Q. There are already values stored in some of my variables. How do I clear or use those values? A. These values remain from previous solving operations. It is okay to ignore the values. As long as they arent selected , they will be overwritten by new solutions. If you want to reset the values, clear one or all of the variables. A value can be re-used in a computation by highlighting the displayed value and pressing twice. The values can be accessed via VAR-LINK menu. To delete variables in VAR-LINK, use the file management tool provided (use key to access file management tools), check the variables you want deleted and delete the variables. Q. Why do the values of the entered or calculated results change when the Units feature is deactivated in the options menu? A. When the Units feature is on, values can be entered and saved in any unit. When units are off, values can be entered in any unit, but the values will automatically be displayed on the screen in the default SI units. This is necessary so that when a series of equations are solved, all the values are consistent.
Q.: Why does this screen appear when I solve for a value? What do I enter?
A. This happens when angles or radian frequencies are involved in the equa tion(s) you are solving. The TI 89 may have found a non-principal solution to your equation, or may have displayed the angle in radians. If a non-principal solution is found, it may then be used to solve other equations, leading to strange results. Example: Imagine solving the equation x + y = 90 . If x is 30, then y should be 60. But if a non-principal solution for x was found, such as 750, then the value of y will be -660, which although technically correct, is also not a principal solution. Select an arbitrary integer of 0 to compute the principal solution (the principal solution, P, in a periodic trigonometric function, trig(), is P=trig( + n) and n is the arbitrary integer). Q. When solving a set of equations Too many unknowns to finish solving. is displayed. Why? A. Sometimes the solver doesnt have enough information to solve for all the remaining, unknown variables. In some cases, a Partial Solution set will be displayed. If the unknown value(s) is not calculated, more known values (or selected equations) will need to be selected to compute the solution. Q. Why cant I select multiple equations under different when headings? A. Conditions for each when () statement is usually exclusive to each other. In Beams and Columns, equations for the slope of beam deflection are different depending on whether the deflection at distance x along the beam is calculated to the left side of the load (x<a) or right side of the load (x>a). Since these conditions cannot simultaneously exist, MEPro restricts selection to equations under a single when () heading. However, in at least one known case (Beams and Columns/Simple Beams/Point load), conditions in more than one when () statement can occur simultaneously. A work around is to solve the equation set in
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:Opts,
Icon descriptions
two steps, using equations under a single when () heading at a time and designating the results from one calculation as the input into the second (to designate a calculated or previously entered value as a known variable for a calculation, move the cursor to the value, press :Opts, :Know). A marker should appear next to the variable. Q. If I view the value of a variable in Pretty Print, I notice that the units contain an extra character (such as ). A. In a few cases MEPro and the TI-89 and TI-92 operating systems use slightly different conventions for displaying units. The unit system in MEPro is designed to conform to the convention established by SI, however, in order to CUT and PASTE a value and units from MEPro to another area of the TI operating system, MEPro must insert extra characters in the units to match TIs syntax. This causes extra characters to appear or symbols to appear differently in Pretty Print. Q. The solution to my problem is clearly wrong! An angle might be negative or unreasonably large. Why? A. This is most likely to happen when angles are involved in the equa tion(s) you are solving. The TI 89 may have found a non-principal solution to your equation, or may have displayed the angle in radians. If a nonprincipal solution is found, it may then be used to solve other equations, leading to strange results. Example: Imagine solving the equation x + y = 90 . If x is 30, then y should be 60. But if a non-principal solution for x was found, such as 750, then the value of y will be -660, which although technically correct, is also not a principal solution. Q. There is not enough room on the screen to display the units for a variable. How can I see the entire unit string? A. There are two methods to view the units. First, highlight the variable using the cursor bar and press Opts. Press :Type. This will display the information for the variable including the displayed units.
An alternative method that displays the units for the variable in TI syntax is to highlight the variable and press the right arrow key, . This will display the value with the name of the variable containing the unit string (usually begins with an underscore _). Press . Scroll down the list of variables and highlight the name of variable containing the unit string. Press : Contents. This displays the units in TI syntax.
To display the units of a variable in TI syntax, press to view the value and unit string.
The unit string usually begins with an underscore _.
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Q. Why does an arrow appear on one of the function keys when the unit menu for a variable is being displayed? A. There are a few unit menus, which are too large to fit on the available space for the unit toolbar. The arrow indicates that there is an additional unit entry, which cannot be shown in th e allotted width. Pressing the function key will display the units.
An arrow attached to one of the function keys indicates an additional unit for the variable.
Pressing the function key appends the units to the entered value.
Q. I am solving for a variable inside the erf or erfc functions, a notice appears that the calculation may take a long time? A. User-defined functions, which are external to the equation set, including the error functions (erf and erfc), use the nsolve function -an iterative solving process. The nsolve function will not generate multiple solutions and the solution which nsolve converges upon may not be unique. It may be possible to find a solution starting from a different initial guess. To specify an initial guess, enter a value for the unknown and then use F5:Opts/7:Want to designate it as the variable to solve for. Q. Why cant I select all of the equations automatically by pressing ? A. You can however have some equation sets do not form a consistent set, which can be solved together. An example occurs in Equations/Fluid Mechanics/Fluid Dynamics/Equivalent Diameter (see Chapter 24.3.3), where each equation represents fluid flow through a different-shaped cross-section. In such a case, the equations must be selected explicitly by moving the cursor to each equation and pressing . Special restrictions for a particular equation or group of equations should appear in status line while an equation is being highlighted. In some cases a when clause preceding the equation(s) state which condition must be fulfilled.
A.5 Graphing
Q. How do I switch between MEPro and a graph in split screen mode? A. Press shift from one screen to the other. Q. If I have created a graph in full screen mode, how do I return to MEPro? A. Press Q. How do I clear the split screen after I am finished with graphing? A. You will need to change the display settings in the MODE screen of the calculator. To do this: 1. Press 2. Press :Page 2, move the cursor to Split Screen.
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Press
and scroll to the unit variable name
Press
to view the contents.
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A.6 Reference
Q. Can I do any computations in the Reference Section? A. By the nature of the design of the product, the Reference Section was intended to be non-computing, and table look up only. Q. Can I convert units in the reference section? A. The feature of unit conversion has not been implemented in the Reference section. Q. How can I view an equation or value, which does not fit the width of the screen? A. Highlight the object and press the right arrow key to view the object in Pretty Print.
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3. 4. 5.
Press the right arrow key Select FULL. Press twice.
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to display a pop-up menu.
Appendix B Support
Warranty, Technical
B.1 da Vinci License Agreement

By downloading/installing the software and/or documentation you agree to abide by the following provisions. 1. License: da Vinci Technologies Group, Inc. (da Vinci) grants you a license to use the software program(s) and documentation (Licensed Materials). Making a copy of the software and documentation on the hard drive of your PC is permitted. Restrictions: You may not reverse-assemble or reverse-compile the software program portion of the Licensed Materials that are provided in object code format. You may not sell, rent or lease copies that you make. Support: Limited technical support is provided through Texas Instruments Incorporated and da Vinci Technologies Group, Inc. Copyright: The Licensed Materials are copyrighted. Do not delete the copyright notice, trademarks or protective notice from any copy you make. Warranty: da Vinci does not warrant that the program or Licensed Materials will be free from errors or will meet your specific requirements. The Licensed Materials are made available AS IS to you or any subsequent user. Although no warranty is given for the License Material, the media (if any) will be replaced if found to be defective during the first three (3) months of use. For specific instructions, contact the TI webstore via www.ti.com. THIS PARAGRAPH EXPRESSES da Vincis MAXIMUM LIABILITY AND YOUR SOLE AND EXCLUSIVE REMEDY. 6. Limitations: da Vinci makes no warranty or condition, either express or implied, including but not limited to any implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose, regarding the Licensed Materials. Restricted Rights: The Licensed Materials are provided with Restricted Rights. Use, duplication or disclosure by the United States Government is subject to restrictions as set forth in subparagraph [c](1)(ii) of the Rights in Technical Data and Computer Software clause at DFARS 252.227-7013 or in subparagraph [c](1) and (2) of the Commercial Computer Software Restricted Rights at 48 CFR 52.227-19, as applicable. In no event shall da Vinci, its suppliers, licensers, or sub licensees be liable for any indirect, incidental or consequential damages, lost of profits, loss of use or data, or interruption of business, whether the alleged damages are labeled in tort, contract or indemnity. Some states do not allow the exclusion or limitation of incidental or consequential damages, so the above limitation may not apply.
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ME Pro for TI - 89, TI-92 Plus Appendix B Warranty and Technical Support
397
B.2 How to Contact Customer Support

Customers in the U.S., Canada, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands For questions that are specific to the purchase, download and installation of MEPro, or questions regarding the operation of your TI calculator, contact Texas Instruments Customer Support:
1.800.TI.CARES (1-800-842-2737) . . . [email protected]
For questions specific to the use and features of MEPro, contact da Vinci Technologies Group, Inc.
1-541-757-8416, 9 AM-3 PM, P.S.T. (Pacific Standard Time), Monday thru Friday (except normal holidays observed in the US). [email protected]
Customers outside the U.S., Canada, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands For questions that are specific to the purchase, download and installation of MEPro, or questions regarding the operation of your TI calculator, contact Texas Instruments Customer Support:
[email protected] www.ti.com/calc
For questions specific to the use and features of MEPro, contact da Vinci Technologies Group, Inc. e-mail: [email protected] www.dvtg.com
ME Pro for TI - 89, TI-92 Plus Appendix B Warranty and Technical Support
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Appendix C: TI-89 & TI-92 Plus- Keystroke and Display Differences

C.1 Display Property Differences between the TI-89 and TI-92 Plus
The complete display specifications for both the TI-89 and TI-92 Plus calculators are displayed below.
Table C-1 TI-89 and TI-92 Plus display specifications.

Property Display size Pixel Aspect ratio Full Screen Horizontal Split Screen TI-89 160 x 100 1.60 26 characters/line 10 lines 156 x 39 pixels 25 characters 4 lines 77 x 80 pixels 12 characters 10 lines Not supported Not supported Not supported Not supported 16 pixel rows TI-92 Plus 240 x 128 1.88 40 characters/line 13 Lines 236 x 51 pixels 39 characters, 6 lines 117 x 104 pixels 19 characters, 13 lines 236 x 33 pixels 39 characters, 4 lines 236 x 69 pixels 39 characters, 8 lines 77 x 104 pixels 12 characters, 13 lines 157 x 104 pixels 26 characters, 13 lines 20 pixel row
Vertical Split Screen
Vertical Split Screen (1/3rd) Vertical Split screen (2/3rd) Horizontal Split Screen (1/3rd) Horizontal Split Screen (2/3rd) Key legends
ME Pro for TI - 89, TI-92 Plus 399 Appendix C - TI-89 &TI 92 Plus: Display and Keystrokes Differences
C.2 Keyboard Differences Between TI-89 and TI-92 Plus

The keystrokes in the manual for MEPro are written for the TI-89. The equivalent keystrokes for the TI92 Plus are listed in the following tables.
Table C-2 Keyboard Differences, Representation in Manual

Function Specific Key TI-89 Key strokes TI-92 Plus key strokes Representation in the manual
Function Keys
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8
Trig Functions
Sin Cos Tan Sin-1 Cos-1 Tan-1
[SIN-1] [COS-1] [TAN-1] A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T
Alphabet keys
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T
8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 h h h h g g g g f f f f e e e e d d d d c c c c b b b b a a a a
8 7 6 8 7 6 h g f e d c b a
J J J J [J YJ ZJ YJ =J OJ NJ MJ LJ J DJ AJ CJ BJ J c b a e d c b a
Function
Specific Key
Log, EXP
LN ex Negation i
Special Characters
I J
Graphing Functions
Y= Window Graph
E R
Editing Functions
Cut Copy Paste Delete Quit Insert Recall Store Backspace
Parenthesis, Brackets
( ) { } [ ]
Math Operations
Addition Subtraction Multiplication Division Raise to power Enter
+
4 S X
> : E P \ H G <
; C C C C B B B B
9 D O [ D A C B C B
9 W W
. . d c b : :
TI-89 Key strokes
TI-92 Plus key strokes
Representation in the manual
U V W X Y Z Space
J J J
U V W X Y Z

D A C B C B
> : E P \
Function
Specific Key
TI-89 Key strokes
Math Operations cont.
Less than Greater than Absolute value Angle Square root Approximate TblSet Table 2nd Diamond Shift Alphabet Alphabet lock Math Mem Var-Link Units Char Ans Entry Single Quote Double Quote Back slash Underscore Colon Semicolon
Tables
T Y
Modifier Keys
Special Areas
Special Characters
Number keys
One Two Three Four Five Six Seven Eight Nine
n ) x J p
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
= q

N M L Z Y X [ Z Y O M L
O N M [ Z Y O Y [\ Z JJ f e
P >
N M
Exponent for power of 10 Equal Integrate Differentiate
Zero Comma Decimal point Main Functions

Function
Home
Specific Key
Main Functions cont.
Cursor Movement
Top Right Left Bottom
$ ! " # / .
Mode Catalog Clear Custom Enter ON OFF ESCAPE Application
$ ! " # / .
TI-89 Key strokes
# ! " . , A
Q
0 , .
Appendix D
General Error Messages Equations Error Messages
Error Messages
Analysis Error Messages Reference Error Messages
1.
NOTE: Make sure the settings in the screen do not have the following configuration. Angle: DEGREE Complex Format: POLAR MEPro works best in the default mode settings of your calculator (ie. Complex Format: REAL, or Angle: RADIAN). If one set of error messages appears which includes An error has occurred while converting...., Data Error, Domain Error, and/or Internal Error, check to see if the above settings in the screen exists. If it does, change or reset your calculator to the default mode settings ( ). Syntax Error -- occurs if the entered information does not meet the syntax requirements of the expected entry. Check to make sure extra parenthesis are removed and the entered value meets the legal rules for number entry. Invalid Entry: This occurs when the entered value or units do not match the specified format of the variable. Check to make sure the entry can be reduced to a numeric value, which is within the range of the allowed values for the variable (i.e.: greater than zero, between zero and one, real, etc.). If a value with units is being copied from one section and pasted in another, using the : Tools, :Copy (or :Cut) :Paste feature, this can only work if the unit feature is deactivated. To turn off the unit feature, press :Opts. / :Units. "Insufficient Table Space" or "Insufficient Memory" can occur when the system is low on available memory resources. Consult your TI-89 manual on methods of viewing memory status and procedures for deleting variables and folders to make more memory available. The message "Unable to save MEPro data" will be displayed if MEPro is unable to save information of its last location in the program before exiting due to low memory availability. Consult your TI-89 manual under the index heading: Memory-manage. "The variable prodata1 was not created by MEPro..." MEPro uses a variable called prodata1 to recall its last location in the program when it is re-accessed. If this variable list is changed to a format, which is non-recognizable to MEPro, it displays this message before overwriting.
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7. "Data length exceeds buffer size. The variable name will be displayed instead. The variable's value may be viewed with VAR-LINK using or recalled to the status line of the HOME screen." 8. "An error has occurred while converting this variable's data for display . (The name of the variable is in the title of this dialog box.) There may be something stored in the variable that MEPro can't make sense of. You may be able to correct the problem by deleting the variable."
ME Pro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Appendix D - Error Messages
404
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D.1 General Error Messages
b
f[ Y
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Storage error... This message is set to occur if the user attempts to enter a value into a variable, which is locked or archived, or a memory error has occurred. Check the current status of the variable by pressing and scrolling to the variable name, or check the memory parameters by pressing .
10. Invalid variable reference. Conflict with system variable or reserved name. This can occur if a variable name is entered which is reserved by the TI operating system. A list of reserved variable names is included in Appendix F.
D.2 Analysis Error Messages

EE for MEs 1. No impedances/admittances defined This message is displayed if an entry for impedance ZZ_ or YY_ admittance is not a real, complex number or a defined variable in the Voltage Divider and Current Divider sections of AC Circuits. Capital Budgeting 1. When changing the name of a project, the error "Duplicate project variable name." will occur if the entered name is already in use by an existing project. 2. The "Too few cash flows" message will be displayed if an attempt is made to solve a project which contains too few or no cash flow entries. 3. The message "Data Error. Reinitializing project." will occur if the project data has been altered or is inconsistent with current state. MEPro will restart.
D.3 Equation Messages

If a value is entered that is inconsistent with the expected data type, an error dialog will appear which lists the entry name, the description, and the expected data type(s), and the expected units. If an error occurs during a computation that involves temperature, "temp conversion err" or "deg/watt conversion err" will be displayed. When solving equation sets, several messages can be displayed. These messages include: One or more equations has no unknowns..... This message occurs if one or more of the selected equations in a solution set have all of its variables defined by the user. This can be remedied by pressing , deselecting the equation(s) where all of the variables are defined and resolving the solution set by pressing twice. To determine which equation has all of its variables defined, press to view the equations, select an equation in question by highlighting the equation and pressing , and pressing to view the list of variables. A next to a variable indicates a value has been specified for that variable by the user. If all of the variables in an equation are marked with a , no unknown variables exist for that equation. This equation should not be included in the solution set. Press to view the list of equations. Select the equations to be solved, excluding the equation with no unknowns, and press twice to resolve the set of equations. "Unable to find a solution in the time allowed. Examine variables meinput and meprob to see the exact statement of the problem. MEPro sets Exact/Approx mode to AUTO during solve. No equations have been selected. Please select either a single equation to solve by itself, or several equations to solve simultaneously. This can occur when the set contains equations, which are mutually exclusive (i.e.: cannot be solved altogether) and must be explicitly selected. In such a case, the equations must be selected explicitly by moving the cursor to each equation and pressing . Special restrictions for a particular equation or group of equations should appear in status line while an equation is being highlighted. In some cases a when clause preceding the equation(s) states which condition must be fulfilled before using an equation.
405
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"Too many unknowns to finish solving"-generally occurs if the number of equations is less than the number of unknowns "It may take a long time to find a complete solution, if one can be found at all. You may abort the calculation at any time by pressing the ON key." -this occurs if there are many unknowns or multiple solutions. No input values provided.... occurs if none of the variables have values designated when solving an equation set. "The nsolve command will be used. The existing value for the unknown, if any, will be used as an initial guess." The nsolve function is used when a single unknown exists in the equation and the unknown variable is an input in a user-defined function. The nsolve function will not generate multiple solutions and the solution which nsolve converges upon may not be unique. It may be possible to find a solution starting from a different initial guess. To specify an initial guess, enter a value for the unknown and then use :Opts/ : Want to designate it as the variable to solve for. More information on the differences between solve, nsolve and csolve functions is listed in the TI-89 manual. "One complete useable solution found." All of the unknown variables can be solved in the selected equations. "One partial useable solution found." Only some of the variables in the selected equations could be solved. Multiple complete useable solns found." One or more variables in the selected equations have two possible values "Multiple partial useable solns found." One or more variables in the selected equations have two possible values, however not all of the unknown variables could be solved. "No Apparent solution found." A solution could not be computed with the available inputs. Make sure the known variables compute accepted ranges of the target value (e.g. a negative electrical resistance is not being computed). Press :Opts./ :Type to view the acceptable ranges of a particular variable. If a large number of equations are being used in a solving routine, you might try reducing the number of equations being solved at one time. Example, instead of solving 10 equations for 10 unknown variables, solve the first five equations and use the computed results and known variables as inputs to compute the second five variables in the remaining five equations.
The following messages can appear when attempting to graph equation set functions: "Independent and dependent variables are the same." "Unable to define Pro (x)"-cannot resolve the dependent and independent variables. This may occur when graphing a complex equation or an equation, which contains user-defined functions such as erf () and erfc (). "Undefined variable too many dependent variables or dependent variable unable to be defined in terms of the independent variable. "Error while graphing."
D.4 Reference Error Messages

No error messages specific to this section have been documented.
406
M f
Appendix E: System Variables and Reserved Names

The TI-89 and TI-92 Plus has a number of variable names that are reserved for the Operating System. The table below lists all the reserved names that are not allowed for use as variables or algebraic names. Graph y1(x)-y99(x)* xt(t)-xt99(t)* ui1-ui99* tc xfact xmax ymax x zsc1 ncontour tmin tplot Estep nmax Zxmin Zymin Zxres Ztmin Ztmaxde Zmax zeye zpltstep x2 y2 medStat medyl minY regCoef Sx tblStart C1-c99 Main Eqn* y1(t)-y99(t)* yt(1)-y99(t)* xc rc yfact xsc1 ysc1 y eye0 min tmax ncurves fldpic plotStrt Zxmax Zymax zmin ztmax ztstepde zzsc1 znmin Yi1-yi99* z1(x,y)-z99(x,y) yc c zfact xrid ygrid zmin eye max tstep difto1 fldres plotStep Zxscl Zyscl zmax ztstep ztplotde zeye znmax x y maxX medx2 medy3 q1 seedl R2 tblInput r1()-r99()* u1(n)-u99(n)* zc nc xmin ymin xres zmax eye step t0 dtime nmin sysMath Zxgrid Zygrid zstep zt0de zzmin zeye zpltstrt x y maxY medx3 minX q3 seed2
Graph Zoom
Table Data/Matr ix Miscellan eous Solver
tbl SysData Ok Exp*
ME Pro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Appendix E System Variables and Reserved Names
Statistics
xy corr medx1 medy2 nStat regEq(x)* Sy
Errornum
407
Index
# ......................................................391 Basic Transfer Mechanisms.......................... 118 Beams and Columns....................................... 64 Bearing Life................................................. 197 Bearings....................................................... 197 Bending ....................................................... 208 Bernoulli Equation ....................................... 297 BHN .............................................................. 52 blackbody .................................................... 121 Blackbody Radiation.................................... 146 Both Ends Fixed........................................... 251 Both Ends Free ............................................ 254 Brinells method ............................................ 52 Buckling ........................................................ 75 buffer size.................................................... 404 C C Section ....................................................... 47 Cantilever Beams........................................... 70 Capilllary Rise ............................................. 289 Capital Budgeting .......................................... 28 Cash .............................................................. 21 Catenary cable ............................................. 365 center of mass ................................................ 42 Centrifugal Compressor................................ 228 Centrifugal Pumps ....................................... 225 centripetal acceleration................................. 354 CFt ................................................................ 28 Charless Law ................................................ 99 choosing equations......................................... 62 Cipolletti........................................................ 40 Circle............................................................. 43 circuit performance ........................................ 33 Circular Cross Section.................................. 220 Circular Flat Plate ........................................ 255 Circular Motion ........................................... 342 Circular Ring ................................................. 44 Circular Shafts ............................................. 284 Circular Straight Bar .................................... 215 Clear.............................................................. 21 Clutches....................................................... 204 Clutches and Brakes..................................... 204 coefficient of performance............................ 261 coefficient of resitution ................................ 351 Coiled Springs ............................................. 212 cold start ...................................................... 390 Collisions..................................................... 349 Columns ........................................................ 75 Compressible Flow ...................................... 327 Compressible Fluid ...................................... 292 Compression Cycle ...................................... 264
1 2 A B
1 Induction Motor ....................................... 96 1 Fixed End / 1 Free End...............................252 1 Section - Even ............................................ 46 1 Section - Uneven......................................... 45 1D Collision .................................................349 1D Collisions................................................351 1D Heat Transfer ..........................................122 1st radiation constant .....................................372
2D Collision .................................................350 2nd radiation constant ....................................372
About ............................................................ 21 AC Circuits circuit performance .................................... 33 impedance calculations .............................. 32 AC Motors .................................................... 92 Add ............................................................... 21 advanced user ................................................ 63 Affinity Law-Constant Speed........................226 Affinity Law-Variable Speed ........................225 AGMA Stresses ............................................201 Air Properties ................................................ 23 Analysis finding....................................................... 18 Analysis Error Messages...............................405 Analysis Screens............................................ 18 Angular Harmonic Oscillation.......................232 Angular Motion ............................................343 apogee ..........................................................356 Apparent Power ............................................. 34 area of cross-section....................................... 42 armature resistance ........................................ 86 ASME Weirs ................................................. 39 axial .............................................................274 Axial Load ...................................................270 Axial Loaded................................................217
back emf........................................................ 88 bars in torsion ...............................................285 Basic Definitions ..........................................222 Basic Electricity............................................. 83
ME Pro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Index
408
compression ratio..........................................263 Compute Hardness Number ........................... 52 conditional constraints ................................... 58 Conduction ...........................................118, 122 Conical Circular Section ...............................217 Conical Vessel............................................... 37 conservation of energy..................................349 conservation of momentum ...........................330 Constant Acceleration...................................340 Constant Liquid Level.................................... 36 Constant Pressure .......................................... 99 Constant Surface-Heat Flux ..........................143 Constant Temperature...................................103 Constant Volume ..........................................101 Conv ............................................................. 21 Convection ...................................................120 convective coefficient ...................................123 Convective Source ........................................123 Convolution..................................................374 Copy ............................................................. 21 Copy/Paste .................................................... 59 Coupling or union.........................................376 Crane Hook ..................................................192 Critical Damping (=1).................................239 Critical magnetic fields .................................385 critical pressure.....................................109, 112 critical temperature ...............................108, 109 csolve ............................................................ 61 Cylinder with Insulation Wrap ......................137 Cylinder-Critical radius.................................139 Cylinders......................................................188 Cylindrical Helical-Circular wire ..................212 Cylindrical-Helical .......................................219 D da Vinci website ...........................................391 Damped Forced Vibration .............................245 damping ratio ...............................................238 Darcy-Weisbach equation .............................313 DC Generators............................................... 90 DC Motors .................................................... 86 DC Series Generator ...................................... 90 DC Series Motor ............................................ 86 DC Shunt Generator....................................... 91 DC Shunt Motor ............................................ 88 Definitions....................................................374 deflection angle ............................................247 Delete............................................................ 21 design in the number of revolutions...............197 design life.....................................................197 design load ...................................................197 Differences of 89 & 92Plus ............................ 13 Dirac constant...............................................372 discharge coefficient ...................................... 36 discharge rate................................................225 Discount Rate ................................................ 30
ME Pro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Index 409
Dynamic Load ............................................. 272 Dynamic Viscosity....................................... 379 Dynamics and Statics ................................... 338 E eccentricity .................................................. 356 eccentricity ratio ............................................ 77 Eccentricity, Axial Load................................. 76 EE for MEs, Analysis..................................... 32 EE for MEs, Equations................................... 83 Efflux ...................................................... 36, 61 Elastic Collisions ......................................... 349 Elasticity...................................................... 288 Electrical Analogy........................................ 128 ellipsis ......................................................... 391 emissivity .................................................... 125 Engineering Constants.................................. 372 Equation Messages....................................... 405 Equations Questions..................................... 392 Equivalent Diameter..................................... 300 Error Messages ............................................ 404 Euler constant .............................................. 372 examples capital budgeting........................................ 29 Constants reference table.......................... 373 external periodic force.................................. 244 external resistance.......................................... 91 F Faraday constant .......................................... 372 field coil resistance......................................... 91 field constant ................................................. 86 Field current................................................... 88 finding Analysis ..................................................... 18 Reference................................................. 369 first kind, radiative transfer........................... 148 Flame Temperature ...................................... 383 Flammable Limits in Air .............................. 383 FlashApps...................................................... 13 Flat Plates .................................................... 255 Floating Bodies ............................................ 294 Flow in Conduits.......................................... 311 Flow pipe Inlet............................................. 319 Flow Pipe Inlet............................................. 321 Fluid Dynamics............................................ 297 Fluid Mass Acceleration............................... 302 Fluid Mechanics........................................... 288 Fluid Properties............................................ 288 Fluid Statics................................................. 291 Fluid vapor pressure..................................... 222 flux................................................................ 86 Forced Vibrations......................................... 244 Forces in Angular Motion............................. 345 Fourier Transforms .............................. 374, 375 Free Fall ...................................................... 341
Free Vibration ..............................................236 Frequently asked Questions...........................390 Friction.........................................................360 Friction Coefficients .....................................377 Friction Coefficients Screens ........................377 Frictional Force ............................................360 Frictions Coefficients Reference ...................377 Fuels and Combustion...................................383 Fuels and Combustion Screens......................383 function ......................................................... 14 G Gas Laws....................................................... 98 Gases and Vapors .........................................380 Gases and Vapors Screens.............................381 Gay-Lussacs Law ........................................101 General Cycle ...............................................261 General Questions.........................................390 Graph ............................................................ 21 Graphing a Funtion ........................................ 59 Gravitational Effects .....................................354 Greek Alphabet.............................................388 guessed value ................................................ 61 Gyroscope Motion ........................................346 H Hardness Number .......................................... 52 harmonic motion...........................................233 Heat of Fusion ..............................................382 heat pump.....................................................261 Heat Transfer................................................118 heat transfer coefficient.................................259 Heating Load................................................259 help ..............................................................390 Hertzian Stresses ..........................................193 Hollow Circle ................................................ 45 Hollow Cylinder ...........................................135 Hollow Polygon............................................. 50 Hollow Rectangle .......................................... 43 Hollow Sphere..............................................136 homologous pump ........................................226 Hooks law ...................................................278 Horizontal Cylinder ....................................... 38 Horizontal Plate............................................332 How to Contact Customer Support................398 How to use this Manual ................................. 14 I Icons ............................................................. 21 ideal blackbody.............................................146 Ideal Gas Laws .............................................. 98 impedance calculations .................................. 32 impeller diameter..........................................226 Imperfections in Columns .............................. 79 Impulse/Momentum......................................330 inclined plane ...............................................309
Inclined Plane/Surface.................................. 296 Incompressible............................................. 324 incompressible fluid..................................... 311 Inelastic Buckling .......................................... 81 Insufficient Table Space ............................... 404 Insulated pipe............................................... 137 Interfacial temperature ................................. 138 Internal Enegry/Ethalpy................................ 104 internal rate of return................................ 17, 28 International Conventions............................... 23 Introduction to Analysis ................................. 17 Introduction to Equations ............................... 55 Introduction to Reference ............................. 369 Introductions to MEPro................................ 12 Invalid Entry................................................ 404 Inverse Fourier transform ............................. 374 isentropic ..................................................... 113 J Jet Propulsion .............................................. 330 K Keplers Laws.............................................. 356 Keplers second principle ............................. 356 Key Features.................................................. 12 Keystroke and Display Differences............... 399 Kinematic Viscosity..................................... 379 Kinetic Gas Theory ...................................... 106 L Laminar Flow Smooth Pipe............................................. 311 Laminar Flow Flat Plate ............................ 304 Laminar Flow on an Inclined Plane .............. 309 Laplace Transforms.............................. 374, 375 Large Rectangular Orifice .............................. 38 Law of Gravitation ....................................... 354 Laws of Motion............................................ 338 Lewis Formula ............................................. 200 License Agreement ...................................... 397 Linear Acceleration...................................... 302 Linear Harmonic Oscillation ........................ 231 Linear Motion .............................................. 340 Liquid Petro Gas Spees ................................ 383 Load Admittance............................................ 33 Load Problems ............................................. 270 Loss Coefficients ......................................... 319 M Machine Design ........................................... 188 Machine Elements........................................ 188 magnetic flux ................................................. 86 Manual Disclaimer......................................... 14 Maximum Power............................................ 34 Maximum Shear Stress................................. 277 Maxwell distribution .................................... 106
mean roughness ............................................316 Mean Specific Heat.......................................382 mean velocity ...............................................313 mechanical angular speed............................... 92 Mechanical power.......................................... 93 Memory Requirements................................... 13 minor elliptical axis ......................................356 Modulation ...................................................374 Mohrs circle radius......................................280 Mohrs Circle Stress .....................................280 molar volume ................................................ 98 Moment Load ...........................................68, 73 Moving Blade...............................................335 Multiple Graphs............................................. 30 N Napier constant.............................................372 Natural and Forced Vibrations ......................236 Natural Frequencies ......................................247 Natural Vibrations ........................................236 net present value.......................................17, 28 New .............................................................. 21 No apparent solution found ...........................406 Non-Blackbody radiation ..............................148 normal force .................................................274 Normal Stress and Strain...............................267 nsolve............................................................ 61 O Oblique Collisions ........................................352 Ohm .............................................................128 Ohms Law and Power................................... 84 One partial useable solution found ................406 Open ............................................................. 21 Open angle valve ..........................................376 Open gate valve ............................................376 Open globe valve ..........................................376 Open Jet .......................................................331 Ordering a Manual......................................... 13 Overdamped Case (>1) ...............................238 P Parabolic cable .............................................364 Parallel .......................................................... 32 Parallel Pipe System .....................................322 Parallel Series...............................................132 Partial Solutions ............................................ 59 paste.............................................................. 21 payback period .........................................17, 28 Pendulums....................................................233 perfectly plastic impact .................................272 perigee .........................................................356 perimeter ......................................................259 Periodic solutions .......................................... 58 period of oscillation ......................................232 Petroffs law .................................................198
Phase voltage ................................................. 93 Physical Pendulum....................................... 235 Pict ................................................................ 21 Planck constant ............................................ 372 Plane Stress.................................................. 278 Plane Wall ................................................... 122 Plate and Two Fluids.................................... 127 PocketProfessional ......................................... 12 Point Load ............................................... 66, 71 Poissons ratio.............................................. 193 polar area moment.......................................... 42 Polygon ......................................................... 49 polytropic .................................................... 115 Polytropic Porcess........................................ 115 Power Factor.................................................. 34 Power in rotor ................................................ 93 Pressure and Shrink Fits ............................... 190 Pressure Fed Bearings .................................. 199 Pressure Variation................................ 291, 292 principal axis stress ...................................... 280 principal shear stress .................................... 280 principal solution ......................................... 392 Principal Stresses ......................................... 276 Printed manual............................................... 13 Pro (x)......................................................... 406 Pro software................................................... 12 profitability index..................................... 17, 28 Project ........................................................... 30 Projectile Motion ......................................... 347 Properties..................................................... 374 Psi Function................................................. 380 pump performance ....................................... 225 Pump Power................................................. 223 pump seed.................................................... 225 Pump Similarity ........................................... 227 Pumps and Hydraulics.................................. 222 Purchasing, Downloading............................... 13 Pure Shear ........................................... 275, 283 Pure Torsion ................................................ 281 Q questions and answers .................................. 390 R Radial Systems............................................. 135 Radiation ............................................. 121, 146 Radiative Source .......................................... 125 radiative transfer .......................................... 121 radius of gyration ..................................... 42, 77 rated life ...................................................... 197 rated number of revolutions.......................... 197 rating load.................................................... 197 Reactive Power .............................................. 33 Real Gas Laws ............................................. 108 Real Power .................................................... 33 Rectangle....................................................... 42
Rectangular Cross Section ............................219 Rectangular Flat Plate...................................257 Rectangular Notch ......................................... 39 Rectangular Plate..........................................208 Rectangular Spiral ........................................213 Rectangular Straight Bar ...............................216 Redlich-Kwong Molar........................................................112 Sp. Vol .....................................................110 Redlich-Kwong coefficients..........................110 Reference .....................................................396 finding......................................................369 using reference tables................................370 Reference Screens.........................................370 Refrigerants..................................................385 Refrigerants Screens .....................................386 Refrigeration ................................................261 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning ...............259 refrigeration cycle.........................................261 Relative Roughness of Pipes .........................378 Relative Roughness Screens..........................378 Reserved Variables ........................................ 22 Resistance Formulas ...................................... 83 restoring torque.............................................232 Restrictions...................................................397 Restricted Rights ..........................................397 Reverse Adiabatic.........................................113 Reverse Brayton ...........................................263 Reverse Carnot .............................................262 reversible adiabatic process...........................113 Reynolds Number .........................................299 RMS velocity ...............................................107 Rolling/Rotation ...........................................343 Rotating Cylinder .........................................363 rotating magnetic field ................................... 92 Rotating Rings..............................................189 Rotational Acceleration.................................303 rotational moment of inertia ..........................232 rotor .............................................................. 92 Rotor current ................................................. 93 Rydberg constant ..........................................372 S Satellite Orbit ...............................................358 Saturated Steam Properties............................. 23 screens Analysis..................................................... 18 Secant Formula.............................................. 77 second kind, heat transfer..............................148 Section Properties.......................................... 42 Semi Elliptical ..............................................210 Semi-Infinite Solid .......................................142 Series ............................................................ 32 Series Pipe System........................................321 Session Folders.............................................. 22 Shafts ...........................................................203
Shape factors ............................................... 119 shear force ................................................... 274 Shear Stress and Modulus............................. 269 shear stress coefficient.................................. 306 SI Prefixes ................................................... 387 Simple Beams ................................................ 64 Simple Harmonic Motion ............................. 231 Simple Pendulum ......................................... 233 Simply Supported......................................... 250 slenderness ratio............................................. 77 solve .............................................................. 61 Solve ............................................................. 21 Solving Equations Sets................................... 55 Sommerfeld ................................................. 198 Source Admittance......................................... 33 Specific Speed ............................................. 229 Sphere-Critical radius................................... 141 Split Screen.................................................. 395 Spring Design .............................................. 208 Spring stiffness ............................................ 231 Starting MEPro............................................ 13 static elongation ........................................... 272 Statics.......................................................... 364 Stationary Blade........................................... 333 stator.............................................................. 92 Statosphere .................................................. 293 status line..................................................... 390 steady state oscillation.................................. 244 Steam Tables ................................................. 23 Stefan-Boltzmann constant........................... 372 Stefan-Boltzmann law.................................. 146 Storing and recalling variable ......................... 61 Strength Materials........................................ 267 Stress Analysis............................................. 274 Stress and Strain Basics................................ 267 Stress on an inclined Section ........................ 274 Stretched String ........................................... 247 Summary ....................................................... 15 Superheated Steam Properties......................... 23 Suppressed Weir ............................................ 40 Surface Convection ...................................... 145 Surface Resistance ....................................... 304 Surface Temperature .................................... 142 Swing check valve ....................................... 376 Syntax Error................................................. 404 System Variables and Reserved Names ........ 407 T T Section ....................................................... 48 Technical Support ........................................ 397 Temperature Effect ................................ 85, 271 terminal voltage ............................................. 88 thermal conductivity..................................... 118 thermal expansion coefficient ....................... 271 Thermal Properties....................................... 382 Thermal Radiation Shield............................. 149
412
thermal resistance ......................... 122, 128, 259 Thermocouples .............................................. 26 Three Induction Motor I.............................. 92 Three Induction Motor II............................. 94 Torsion.........................................................281 Torsional Member ........................................285 Torsional Pendulum......................................236 Torsional Spring ...........................................215 Transfoms ....................................................374 Transform Pairs ............................................374 Transitions temperature.................................385 Trapezoid ...................................................... 48 Triangular Plate ............................................209 Triangular Weir ............................................. 39 Triple pt. pressure .........................................385 Troposhpere .................................................292 troubleshooting.............................................390 Turbulent Flow Rough Pipe...............................................316 Smooth Pipe .............................................313 Turbulent Flow Flat Plate...........................306 Two Conductors in Parallel ...........................131 Two Conductors in Series .............................129 Two Cylinders..............................................195 Two Spheres.................................................193 U undamped oscillating ....................................236 Undefined variable .....................................406 Underdamped Case (<1)..............................241 Underdamped Forced Vibration ....................244 underscore ....................................................390 Uniform Beams ............................................249 Uniform Fluid...............................................291 Uniform Load...........................................64, 70 Uniform Pressure - Cone Break.....................207 uniform thermal strain...................................271 Uniform Wear - Cone Brake .........................206 Units ............................................................. 21 Universal Gas Constant.................................288 Upper inversion temperature .........................385 User-defined functions................................... 61 Using Constants............................................372
Using SI Prefixes ......................................... 387 Using Transforms......................................... 374 V Validity Range............................................... 25 Valves and Fitting Loss ................................ 376 Valves and Fitting Loss Screens ................... 376 van der Waals Molar form............................................... 109 Specific Volume....................................... 108 Variable Overwriting................................................ 22 Variable Names ............................................. 22 Varying Liquid Level ..................................... 36 Venturi Meter .............................................. 324 Vertical Plate ............................................... 331 VHN.............................................................. 52 Vibration Isolation ....................................... 248 vibration mode ............................................. 250 Vickers method.............................................. 52 View.............................................................. 21 Viewing in Pretty Print .................................. 56 Viewing Multiple Solutions............................ 57 Viewing Results in different units................... 56 Volume Dilation .......................................... 268 volumetric flow rate ..................................... 332 W Want.............................................................. 21 Warranty...................................................... 397 Water Physical Properties............................. 379 Water-Physical Properties Screens................ 379 Waves and Oscillation.................................. 231 Web Store...................................................... 13 Wedge ......................................................... 362 when ()..................................................... 393 Wien displacement....................................... 372 Wye Conversion .................................... 34 Wye Imedances.............................................. 34 Y Youngs modulus......................................... 250
413
1600 S.W. Western Blvd Suite 250 Corvallis, OR 97333 Phone: (541) 754-2860 Fax: (541) 753-7821 email: [email protected] website: www.dvtg.com
2000 da Vinci Technologies Group, Inc. All rights reserved. PocketProfessional and MEPro are registered trademarks of da Vinci Technologies Group, Inc.
Printed in U.S
ME Pro for TI-89, 92 Plus Index
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MEPro

Version 1.0 by da Vinci Technologies Group Inc

August 2000 da Vinci Technologies Group, Inc. Rev. 1.0

MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Table of Contents

MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Table of Contents

MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Table of Contents

MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Table of Contents

MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction to MEPro

Topics in this chapter include:

1.1 Key Features of MEPro

1.2 Purchasing, Downloading and Installing MEPro

1.3 Ordering a Manual

1.4 Memory Requirements

1.5 Differences between TI-89 and TI-92 plus

MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 1 - Introduction to ME-Pro

1.6 Starting MEPro

Pull down Menu for (FlashApps...option is at the top of the list)

1.7 How to use this Manual

1.8 Manual Disclaimer

MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 1 - Introduction to ME-Pro

Pull down Menu on for FlashApps... (MEPro will be in the list)

MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 1 - Introduction to ME-Pro

MEPro for TI-89, TI-92 Plus Analysis -

Chapter 2: Introduction to Analysis

MEPro for TI -89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 2- Introduction to Analysis

2.2 Features of Analysis

2.3 Finding Analysis

Press for topics in Steam Tables

or, press Efflux.

2.4 Solving a Problem in Analysis

Steps 1 and 2 can be combined by pressing

MEPro for TI -89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 2- Introduction to Analysis

11. Results: Upper Half

12. Results: Lower Half

MEPro for TI -89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 2- Introduction to Analysis

7. Variable descriptions beginning with Enter require numeric entries.

2. Move the cursor to EE for MEs and press (or press ).

3. Select Circuit Performance from the submenu in EE for Mes.

2.5 Tips for Analysis

2.6 Function keys

MEPro for TI -89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 2- Introduction to Analysis

Table 2-1 Description of Analysis Function keys

MEPro for TI -89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 2- Introduction to Analysis

2.7 Session Folders, Variable Names

2.8 Overwriting of variable values in graphing

2.9 Reserved Variables

MEPro for TI -89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 2- Introduction to Analysis

F2: Analysis/1: Steam Tables

Chapter 3: Steam Tables

3.1 Saturated Steam Properties

3.2 Superheated Steam Properties

3.3 Air Properties

MEPro for TI -89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 3 - Analysis Steam Tables

F2: Analysis/1: Steam Tables

3.4 Using Steam Tables

MEPro for TI -89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 3 - Analysis Steam Tables

F2: Analysis/1: Steam Tables

3.5 Validity Range for Temperature and Pressure

MEPro for TI -89, TI-92 Plus Chapter 3 - Analysis Steam Tables