GPS GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

Introduction

Using the Global Positioning System (GPS, a process used to establish a position at any point on the globe) the following two values can be determined anywhere on Earth: 1. Ones exact location (longitude, latitude and height co-ordinates) accurate to within a range of 20 m to approx. 1 mm. 2. The precise time (Universal Time Coordinated, UTC) accurate to within a range of 60ns to approx. 5ns. Speed and direction of travel (course) can be derived from these co-ordinates as well as the time. The coordinates and time values are determined by 28 satellites orbiting the Earth. GPS receivers are used for positioning, locating, navigating, surveying and determining the time and are employed both by private individuals (e.g. for leisure activities, such as trekking, balloon flights and cross-country skiing etc.) and companies (surveying, determining the time, navigation, vehicle monitoring etc.). GPS (the full description is: NAVigation System with Timing And Ranging Global Positioning System, NAVSTAR GPS) was developed by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) and can be used both by civilians and military personnel. The civil signal SPS (Standard Positioning Service) can be used freely by the public, whilst the military signal PPS (Precise Positioning Service) can only be used by authorized government agencies. The first satellite was placed in orbit on 22 February 1978, and there are currently 28 operational satellites orbiting the Earth at a height of 20,180 km on 6 different orbital planes. Their orbits are inclined at 55 to the equator, ensuring that a least 4 satellites are in radio communication with any point on the planet. Each satellite orbits the Earth in approximately 12 hours and has four atomic clocks on board. During the development of the GPS system, particular emphasis was placed on the following three aspects: 1. 2. 3. It had to provide users with the capability of determining position, speed and time, whether in motion or at rest. It had to have a continuous, global, 3-dimensional positioning capability with a high degree of accuracy, irrespective of the weather. It had to offer potential for civilian use.

Generating GPS signal transit time

28 satellites inclined at 55 to the equator orbit the Earth every 11 hours and 58 minutes at a height of 20,180 km on 6 different orbital planes (Figure 1). Each one of these satellites has up to four atomic clocks on board. Atomic clocks are currently the most precise instruments known, losing a maximum of one second every 30,000 to 1,000,000 years. In order to make them even more accurate, they are regularly adjusted or synchronized from various control points on Earth. Each satellite transmits its exact position and its precise on board clock time to Earth at a frequency of 1575.42 MHz. These signals are transmitted at the speed of light (300,000 km/s) and therefore require approx. 67.3 ms to reach a position on the Earths surface located directly below the satellite. The signals require a further 3.33 us for each excess kilometer of travel. If you wish to establish your position on land (or at sea or in the air), all you require is an accurate clock. By comparing the arrival time of the satellite signal with the on board clock time the moment the signal was emitted, it is possible to determine the transit time of that signal (Figure 2).

Figure 1: GPS satellites orbit the Earth on 6 orbital planes

Figure 2: Determining the transit time.

The distance S to the satellite can be determined by using the known transit time :

distance = transit time * speed of the light S= *c

Measuring signal transit time and knowing the distance to a satellite is still not enough to calculate ones own position in 3-D space. To achieve this, four independent transit time measurements are required. It is for this reason that signal communication with four different satellites is needed to calculate ones exact position. Why this should be so, can best be explained by initially determining ones position on a plane.

3
3.1

Determining a position

Determining a position on a plane

Imagine that you are wandering across a vast plateau and would like to know where you are. Two satellites are orbiting far above you transmitting their own on board clock times and positions. By using the signal transit time to both satellites, you can draw two circles with the radii S1 and S2 around the satellites. Each radius corresponds to the distance calculated to the satellite. All possible distances to the satellite are located on the circumference of the circle. If the position above the satellites is excluded, the location of the receiver is at the exact point where the two circles intersect beneath the satellites (Figure 3). Two satellites are sufficient to determine a position on the X/Y plane.

Figure 3: The position of the receiver at the intersection between two circles.

In reality, a position has to be determined in three-dimensional space, rather than on a plane. As the difference between a plane and three-dimensional space consists of an extra dimension (height_ Z), an additional third satellite must be available to determine the true position. If the distance to the three satellites is known, all possible positions are located on the surface of three spheres whose radii correspond to the distance calculated. The position sought is at the point where all three surfaces of the spheres intersect (Figure 4).

Figure 4: The position is determined at the point where all three spheres intersect.

3.2

The effect and correction of time error

We have been assuming up until now that it has been possible to measure signal transit time precisely. However, this is not the case. For the receiver to measure time precisely a highly accurate, synchronized clock is needed. If the transit time is out by just 1 s this produces a positional error of 300m. As the clocks on board all three satellites are synchronized, the transit time in the case of all three measurements is inaccurate by the same amount. Mathematics is the only thing that can help us now. We are reminded when producing calculations that if N variables are unknown, we need N independent equations. If the time measurement is accompanied by a constant unknown error, we will have four unknown variables in 3-Dspace: Longitude (X) Latitude (Y) Height (Z) Time error (delta t)

It therefore follows that in three-dimensional space four satellites are needed to determine a position.

3.3

Determining a position in 3-D space

In order to determine these four unknown variables, four independent equations are needed. The four transit times required are supplied by the four different satellites (sat. 1 to sat. 4). The 28 GPS satellites are distributed around the globe in such a way that at least 4 of them are always visible from any point on Earth (Figure 5). Despite receiver time errors, a position on a plane can be calculated to within approx. 5 10 m.

Figure 5: Four satellites are required to determine a position in 3-D space.

Basic design of a GPS module

GPS modules have to evaluate weak antenna signals from at least four satellites, in order to determine a correct three-dimensional position. A time signal is also often emitted in addition to longitude, latitude and height. This time signal is synchronized with UTC (Universal Time Coordinated). From the position determined and the exact time, additional physical variables, such as speed and acceleration can also be calculated. The GPS module issues information on the constellation, satellite health, and the number of visible satellites etc. Figure 6 shows a typical block diagram of a GPS module. The signals received (1575.42 MHz) are pre-amplified and transformed to a lower intermediate frequency. The reference oscillator provides the necessary carrier wave for frequency conversion, along with the necessary clock frequency for the processor and correlator. The analogue intermediate frequency is converted into a digital signal by means of a 2-bit ADC. Signal transit time from the satellites to the GPS receiver is ascertained by correlating PRN pulse sequences. The satellite PRN sequence must be used to determine this time, otherwise there is no correlation maximum. Data is recovered by mixing it with the correct PRN sequence. At the same time, the useful signal is amplified above the interference level. Up to 16 satellite signals are processed simultaneously. The control and generation of PRN sequences and the recovery of data is carried out by a signal processor. Calculating and saving the position, including the variables derived from this, is carried out by a processor with a memory facility.

Figure 6: Typical block diagram of a GPS module.

Differential GPS (DGPS)

A horizontal accuracy of approx. 20 m is probably not sufficient for every situation. In order to determine the movement of concrete dams down to the nearest millimeters, for example, a greater degree of accuracy is required. In principle, a reference receiver is always used in addition to the user receiver. This is located at an accurately measured reference point (i.e. the co-ordinates are known). By continually comparing the user receiver with the reference receiver, many errors (even SA ones, if it is switched on) can be eliminated. This is because a difference in measurement arises, which is known as Differential GPS (DGPS). The process involves two different principles: DGPS based on the measurement of signal transit time (achievable accuracy approx. 1 m) DGPS based on the phase measurement of the carrier signal (achievable accuracy approx. 1 cm)

In the case of differential processes in use today, a general distinction is drawn between the following: Local area differential GPS Regional area differential GPS Wide area differential GPS

5.1

DGPS based on the measurement of signal transit time

In theory, the achievable level of accuracy based on the processes currently described is approx. 15-20 m. For surveying operations requiring an accuracy of approx. 1 cm and for demanding feats of navigation, accuracy has to be increased. Industry has discovered a straightforward and reliable solution to this problem: differential GPS (DGPS). The principle of DGPS is very simple. A GPS reference station is set up at a known, accurately surveyed point. The GPS reference station determines a persons position by means of four satellites. As the exact position of the reference station is known, it is possible to calculate any deviation from the actual position measured. This deviation (differential position) also holds good for any GPS receivers within a 200 km radius of the reference station. The differential position can therefore be used to correct positions measured by other GPS receivers. Either any deviation in position can be relayed directly by radio, or corrections can subsequently be made after the measurements have been made. Based on this principle, accuracy to within a few millimeters can be achieved. The effects of the ionosphere are directly responsible for inaccurate data. In DGPS, a

technology is now available that can compensate for most of the errors. Compensation takes place in three phases: 1. Determining the correction values at the reference station 2. Relaying the correction values from the reference station to the GPS user 3. Correcting the pseudo-range measured by the GPS user

5.2

Determining the correction values

A reference station whose co-ordinates are precisely known measures signal transit time to all visible GPS satellites and determines the pseudo-range from this variable (actual value). Because the position of the reference station is known precisely, it is possible to calculate the true distance (target value) to each GPS satellite. The difference between the true value and the pseudo-range can be ascertained by simple subtraction and will give the correction value (difference between the actual and target value). The correction value is different for every GPS satellite and will hold good for every GPS user within a radius of a few hundred kilometers.

5.3

Relaying the correction values

As the correction values can be used within a wide area to correct measured pseudorange, they are relayed immediately via a suitable medium (transmitter, telephone, radio, etc.) to other GPS users.

5.4

Correcting measured pseudo-range

After receiving the correction values, a GPS user can determine the true distance using the pseudo-range he has measured the exact user position can now be calculated from the true distance. All causes of error can therefore be eliminated with the exception of those emanating from receiver noise and multipath.

5.5

DGPS based on carrier phase measurement

When measuring pseudo-range an achievable accuracy of 1 meter is still not adequate for solving problems during surveying operations. In order to be able to carry out measurements to within a few millimeters, the satellite signal carrier phase must be evaluated. The carrier wavelength is approx. 19 cm. The range to a satellite can be determined using the following method (Figure 8).

Figure 8: The principle of phase measurement

Phase measurement is an uncertain process, because N is unknown. By observing several satellites at different times and by continually comparing the user receiver with the reference receiver (during or after the measurement) a position can be determined to within a few millimeters after having solved numerous sets of equations.

Data formats and hardware interfaces

GPS receivers require different signals in order to function (Figure 9). These variables are broadcast after position and time have been successfully calculated and determined. To ensure that the different types of appliances are portable there are either international standards for data exchange (NMEA and RTCM), or the manufacturer provides defined (proprietary) formats and protocols.

Figure 9: Block diagram of a GPS receiver with interfaces

6.1

The NMEA-0183 data interface

In order to relay computed GPS variables such as position, velocity, course etc. to a peripheral (e.g. computer, screen, transceiver), GPS modules have a serial interface (TTL or RS-232 level). The most important elements of receiver information are broadcast via this interface in a special data format. This format is standardized by the National Marine Electronics Association (NMEA) to ensure that data exchange takes place without any problems. Nowadays, data is relayed according to the NMEA-183 specification. NMEA has specified data sets for various applications e.g. GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System), GPS, Loran, Omega, Transit and also for various manufacturers. The following seven data sets are widely used with GPS modules to relay GPS information: 1. GGA (GPS Fix Data, fixed data for the Global Positioning System) 2. GLL (Geographic Position Latitude/Longitude) 3. GSA (GNSS DOP and Active Satellites, degradation of accuracy and the number of active satellites in the Global Satellite Navigation System) 4. GSV (GNSS Satellites in View, satellites in view in the Global Satellite Navigation System) 5. RMC (Recommended Minimum Specific GNSS Data) 6. VTG (Course over Ground and Ground Speed, horizontal course and horizontal velocity) 7. ZDA (Time & Date)

6.2

Structure of the NMEA protocol

In the case of NMEA, the rate at which data is transmitted is 4800 Baud using printable 8-bit ASCII characters. Transmission begins with a start bit (logical zero), followed by eight data bits and a stop bit (logical one) added at the end. No parity bits are used.

Figure 10: NMEA format (TTL and RS-232 level)

The different levels must be taken into consideration depending on whether the GPS receiver used has a TTL or RS-232 interface (Figure 10): In the case of a TTL level interface, a logical zero corresponds to approx. 0V and a logical one roughly to the operating voltage of the system (+3.3V ... +5V) In the case of an RS-232 interface, a logical zero corresponds to a positive voltage (+3V ... +15V) and a logical one a negative voltage (-3V ... 15V). If a GPS module with a TTL level interface is connected to an appliance with an RS-232 interface, a level conversion must be effected. A few GPS modules allow the baud rate to be increased (up to 38400 bits per second). Each GPS data set is formed in the same way and has the following structure: $GPDTS, Inf_1,Inf_2,Inf_3,Inf_4,Inf_5,Inf_6,Inf_n*CS<CR><LF> The function of the individual characters or character sets is explained in Table 1.

Field $ GP DTS Inf_1 Inf_n , * CS <CR><LF>

Description Start of the data set Information originating from a GPS appliance Data set identifier Information with number 1 n Comma used as a separator for different items of information Asterisk used as a separator for the checksum Checksum (control word) for checking the entire data set End of the data set: carriage return <CR> and line feed <LF>
Table 1: Description of the individual NMEA DATA SET blocks

The maximum number of characters used must not exceed 79. For the purposes of determining this number, the start sign $ and end signs <CR><LF> are not counted.

6.2.1 GGA data set

The GGA data set (GPS Fix Data) contains information on time, longitude and latitude, the quality of the system, the number of satellites used and the height. An example of a GGA data set: $GPGGA,130305.0,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,1,08,0.94,00499,M,047,M,,0000*58<CR ><LF> The function of the individual characters or character sets is explained in Table 2.

Field $ GP GGA 130305.0 4717.115 N 00833.912 E 1 08 0.94 00499 M 047 M ,, 0000 * 58 <CR><LF>

Description Start of the data set Information originating from the GPS appliance Data set identifier UTC position time 13h 03min 05.0 sec Latitude: 47 17.115 Northerly latitude (N =north, S=south) Longitude: 8 33.912 Easterly longitude (E=east, W=west) GPS quality details (0=no GPS, 1=GPS, 2=DGPS) Number of satellites used in the calculation Horizontal dilution of precision (HDOP) Antenna height data Unit of height (M=meter) Height differential between an ellipsoid and geoid Unit of differential height (M=meter) Age of the DGPS data (in this case no DGPS is used) Identification of the DGPS reference station Separator for the checksum Checksum for viewing the entire data set End of the data set

Table 2: Description of the individual GGA data set blocks

6.2.2 GLL data set

The GLL data set (geographic position latitude/longitude) contains information on latitude and longitude, time and health. Example of a GLL data set: $GPGLL,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,130305.0,A*32<CR><LF> The function of the individual characters or character sets is explained in Table 3. Field $ GP GLL 4717.115 N 00833.912 E 1 130305.0 A * 32 <CR><LF> Description Start of the data set Information originating from the GPS appliance Data set identifier Latitude: 47 17.115 Northerly latitude (N =north, S=south) Longitude: 8 33.912 Easterly longitude (E=east, W=west) GPS quality details (0=no GPS, 1=GPS, 2=DGPS) UTC position time 13h 03min 05.0 sec Data set quality (A=valid, V=invalid) Separator for the checksum Checksum for viewing the entire data set End of the data set

Table 3: Description of the individual GGL data set blocks

6.2.3 GSA data set

The GSA data set (GNSS DOP and Active Satellites) contains information on the measuring mode (2D or 3D), the number of satellites used to determine the position and the accuracy of the measurements (DOP: Dilution of Precision). An example of a GSA data set: $GPGSA,A,3,13,20,11,29,01,25,07,04,,,,,1.63,0.94,1.33*04<CR><LF> The function of the individual characters or sets of characters are described in Table 4. Field $ GP GSA A 3 13 20 11 29 01 25 07 04 ,,,,, 1.63 0.94 1.33 * 04 <CR><LF> Description Start of the data set Information originating from the GPS appliance Data set identifier Calculating mode (A=automatic selection between 2D/3D mode, M=manual selection between 2D/3D mode) Calculating mode (1=none, 2=2D, 3=3D) ID number of the satellites used to calculate position ID number of the satellites used to calculate position ID number of the satellites used to calculate position ID number of the satellites used to calculate position ID number of the satellites used to calculate position ID number of the satellites used to calculate position ID number of the satellites used to calculate position ID number of the satellites used to calculate position Dummy for additional ID numbers (currently not used) PDOP (Position Dilution of Precision) HDOP (Horizontal Dilution of Precision) VDOP (Vertical Dilution of Precision) Separator for the checksum Checksum for viewing the entire data set End of the data set

Table 4: Description of the individual GSA data set blocks

6.2.4 GSV data set

The GSV data set (GNSS Satellites in View) contains information on the number of satellites in view, their identification, their elevation and azimuth, and the signal-to-noise ratio. An example of a GSV data set: $GPGSV,2,2,8,01,52,187,43,25,25,074,39,07,37,286,40,04,09,306,33*44<CR><LF> The function of the individual characters or character sets is explained in Table 5. Field $ GP GSV 2 2 8 01 52 187 43 25 25 074 39 07 37 286 40 04 09 306 33 * 44 <CR><LF> Description Start of the data set Information originating from the GPS appliance Data set identifier Total number of GVS data sets transmitted (up to 1 9) Current number of this data set (1 9) Total number of satellites in view Identification number of the first satellite Elevation (0 90) Azimuth (0 360) Signal-to-noise ratio in db-Hz (1 99) 0 = not tracking Identification number of the second satellite Elevation (0 90) Azimuth (0 360) Signal-to-noise ratio in db-Hz (1 99) 0 = not tracking Identification number of the third satellite Elevation (0 90) Azimuth (0 360) Signal-to-noise ratio in db-Hz (1 99) 0 = not tracking Identification number of the fourth satellite Elevation (0 90) Azimuth (0 360) Signal-to-noise ratio in db-Hz (1 99) 0 = not tracking Separator for the checksum Checksum for viewing the entire data set End of the data set
Table 5: Description of the individual GSV data set blocks

6.2.5 RMC data set

The RMC data set (Recommended Minimum Specific GNSS) contains information on time, latitude, longitude and height, system status, speed, course and date. This data set is relayed by all GPS receivers. An example of an RMC data set: $GPRMC,130304.0,A,4717.115,N,00833.912,E,000.04,205.5,200601,01.3,W*7C <CR><LF> The function of the individual characters or character sets is explained in Table 6. Field $ GP RMC 130304.0 A 4717.115 N 00833.912 E 000.04 205.5 200601 01.3 W * 7C <CR><LF> Description Start of the data set Information originating from the GPS appliance Data set identifier Time of reception (world time UTC): 13h 03min 04.0 sec Data set quality (A=valid, V=invalid) Latitude: 47 17.115 Northerly latitude (N=north, S=south) Longitude: 8 33.912 Easterly longitude (E=east, W=west) Speed: 0.04 knots Course: 205.5 Date: 20th June 2001 Adjusted declination: 1.3 Westerly direction of declination (E=east) Separator for the checksum Checksum for viewing the entire data set End of the data set
Table 6: Description of the individual RMC data set blocks

6.2.6 VTG data set

The VTG data set (Course over Ground and Ground Speed) contains information on course and speed. An example of a VTG data set: $GPVTG,014.2,T,015.4,M,000.03,N,000.05,K*4F<CR><LF> The function of the individual characters or character sets is explained in Table 7.

Field $ GP VTG 014.2 T 015.4 M 000.03 N 000.05 K * 4F <CR><LF>

Description Start of the data set Information originating from the GPS appliance Data set identifier Course 14.2 (T) with regard to the horizontal plane Angular course data relative to the map Course 15.4 (M) with regard to the horizontal plane Angular course data relative to magnetic north Horizontal speed: 0.03 knots Speed in knots Horizontal speed: 0.05 km/h Speed in km/h Separator for the checksum Checksum for viewing the entire data set End of the data set
Table 7: Description of the individual VTG data set blocks

6.2.7 ZDA data set

The ZDA data set (time and date) contains information on UTC time, the date and local time. An example of a ZDA data set: $GPZDA,130305.2,20,06,2001,,*57<CR><LF> The function of the individual characters or character sets is explained in Table 8.

Field $ GP ZDA 130305.2 20 06 2001 * 57 <CR><LF>

Description Start of the data set Information originating from the GPS appliance Data set identifier UTC time: 13h 03min 05.2 sec Day (1 31) Month (1 12) Year Reserved for data on local time (h), not specified here Reserved for data on local time (min), not specified here Separator for the checksum Checksum for viewing the entire data set End of the data set
Table 8: Description of the individual ZDA data set blocks

Proprietary data interfaces

Most manufacturers define their own control commands and data sets. For example, specific information, such as position, speed, height, and status, etc. can all be communicated, each manufacturer having developed their own format. The proprietary binary protocol developed by SiRF, which serves as a model for other protocols, is explained in detail, and a few other protocols briefly introduced.

7.1

SiRF Binary protocol

GPS receivers fitted with integrated circuits supplied by SiRF in California relay GPS information in two different protocols: The standardized NMEA protocol The proprietary SiRF binary protocol. (SiRF is familiar with more than 15 different proprietary data sets)

The various SiRF data sets are described in Table 9.

SiRF Data Set No 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 15 18 19 255

Name Measured Navigation Data Measured Tracking Data Raw Track Data SW version Clock status 50 BPS Subframe Data Throughput Command Acknowledgement Command NAcknowledgement Visible List Almanac Data Ephemeris Data OkToSend Navigation Parameters Development Data

Description Position, speed and time Signal-to-noise ratio, elevation and azimuth Raw distance measurement data Receiver software Time measurement status Receiver information (ICD format) CPU throughput Reception confirmation Failed inquiry Number of visible satellites Almanac data Ephemeris data CPU On/Off status (trickle power) Reply to the POLL command Various internal items of information

Table 9: SiRF output data sets

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8.1

RESOURCES ON THE WWW

General overviews and further links:

Global Positioning System Overview by Peter H. Dana, University of Colorado http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/gps/gpsf.html Global Positioning System (GPS) Resources by Sam Wormley, Iowa State University http://www.cnde.iastate.edu/staff/swormley/gps/gps.html Global Positioning System Data & Information: United States Naval Observatory http://192.5.41.239/gps_datafiles.html NMEA 0183 and GPS Information by Peter Bennett, http://vancouver-webpages.com/peter/ Joe Mehaffey and Jack Yeazel's GPS Information http://joe.mehaffey.com/ The Global Positioning Systems (GPS) Resource Library http://www.gpsy.com/gpsinfo/ ABOUT GPS: Satellite Navigation & Positioning (SNAP), University of New South Wales http://www.gmat.unsw.edu.au/snap/gps/about_gps.htm GPS SPS Signal Specification, 2nd Edition (June 2, 1995), USCG Navigation Center http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pubs/gps/sigspec/default.htm

8.2

Differential GPS:

Differential GPS (DGPS) by Sam Wormley, Iowa State University http://www.cnde.iastate.edu/staff/swormley/gps/dgps.html DGPS corrections over the Internet http://www.wsrcc.com/wolfgang/gps/dgps-ip.html Wide Area Differential GPS (WADGPS), Stanford University http://waas.stanford.edu/

8.3

GPS institutes:

Institut fr Angewandte Geodsie: GPS-Informations- und Beobachtungssystem http://gibs.leipzig.ifag.de/cgi-bin/Info_hom.cgi?de GPS PRIMER: Aerospace Corporation http://www.aero.org/publications/GPSPRIMER/index.html U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) Navigation Center http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/ U.S. Naval Observatory http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/gps.html Royal Institute of Navigation, London http://www.rin.org.uk/ The Institute of Navigation http://www.ion.org/ University NAVSTAR Consortium (UNAVCO) http://www.unavco.ucar.edu/

8.4

GPS antennae:

WISI, WILHELM SIHN JR. KG http://www.wisi.de Matsushita Electric Works (Europe) AG http://www.mac-europe.com/ Kyocera Industrial Ceramic Corporation http://www.kyocera.com/kicc/industrial/products/dielectric.htm M/A-COM http://www.macom.com/ EMTAC Technology Corp. http://www.emtac.com.tw/ Allis Communications Company, Ltd. http://www.alliscom.com.tw/

8.5

GPS newsgroups and specialist journals:

Newsgroup: sci.geo.satellite-nav http://groups.google.com/groups?oi=djq&as_ugroup=sci.geo.satellite-nav Specialist journal: GPS World (appears monthly) http://www.gpsworld.com

8.6

GPS distributors:

Garmin International Inc. http://www.garmin.com Conan s r.o., Zilina, Slovakia http://www.conan.sk