Great Revolutions in Religion and Thought

Answer these Questions on another sheet of paper 1. Great Faiths and Philosophies 1. What are the three main schools of thought that Upshur describes? How do they differ? 2. What is the difference between religions and philosophies? 3. Why did people of the time embrace the great belief systems? 2. Judaism 1. What is the primary literary work of Judaism? What purpose does it serve? 3. Mahayana Buddhism 1. What were the three main developments in Buddhist thought and practice between the third century B.C.E. and the first century C.E.? 4. Popular Hinduism 1. How did Hindu beliefs change from their earlier forms during this era? 2. What became the four principal aims of life in India? 5. In Search of Political Order 1. What three human qualities did Confucius value most? 2. Why has Confucianism been successful throughout Chinese history? ____________________________________________________________________________________ 6. Women and Religion 1. How did the Law Book of Manu and the practice of sati encourage male domination? 2. In what way was the role of women different for Buddhists? 3. How can Pan Chao be viewed as unusual? 4. What does she suggest a woman should do to demonstrate humility? 5. According to Pan Chao, what are the essential roles of spouses? 6. How does she draw a parallel between gender roles and Yin and Yang? 7. Describe the four essential womanly qualifications. ____________________________________________________________________________________ 7. Greek Thought: Creativity in Greek and Hellenistic Culture 1. Why did early Greek religion become essentially limited for both the peasants and the educated? 2. What were the four principles of Greek culture? List the intellectual achievements of each Greek. a) Ptolemy b) Archimedes c) Sophocles d) Aristophanes e) Homer f) Thucydides ____________________________________________________________________________________ 8. Summary and Comparisons 1. Where were early monotheistic religions experienced? Who founded the first true monotheistic faith? 2. What technologies and advancements did the Phoenicians make? 3. In what areas of intellectual development did the Ancient Greeks show prowess? 4. What were three changes in the belief system in India during the Late Vedic Age? Which religious groups formed breakaway movements? 5. Why was Mahayana Buddhism successful? 6. What are the basic tenets of Jainism, Taoism, and Confucianism? 7. How did Legalism differ from other Chinese philosophies?

Great Faiths and Philosophies by Jiu-Hw Upshur

1. And the angel of the Lord called Unto Abraham. . . and said, By myself have I sworn, says the Lord, for because you have done this thing, and have not withheld your son, your only son [Isaac]: That in blessing I will bless you, and in multiplying I will multiply your seed as the stars of the heaven, and as the sand which is upon the sea shore; and your seed shall possess the gate of his enemies; And in your seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed; because you have obeyed my voice." (King James Version of the Holy Bible, Genesis, chapter 22, with slight changes) 2. Homer and Hesiod have ascribed to the gods everything shameful and reprehensible among mankind: theft, adultery, and mutual deceptions. (Xenophanes) 3. Regarding the gods, I can't tell if they exist or not, nor what they look like, for many things preclude such knowledge: the obscurity of the subject, and the brevity of our lives. (Protagoras) 4. We don't know yet how to serve men, how can we know about serving spirits?... Devote yourself to the proper demands of the people, respect the ghosts and spirits but keep them at a distance-this may be called wisdom. (Confucius) Although all peoples across the globe have believed in some supernatural power over the universe, their conceptions of that power have varied. The passages quoted here show some of these differing attitudes. Thus, in Judaism an all-powerful, monotheistic deity makes a promise to Abraham as the representative of the Hebrew people. In Greek religion, by contrast, polytheistic deities were often depicted as exhibiting the same vices and virtues as mere humans. This led certain Greek philosophers to be skeptical about the existence, or at any rate our conception, of such humanlike gods. On the other hand, though the Chinese philosopher Confucius did not question the existence of the gods, he recommended keeping a safe distance from them. By the fifth century B.C.E., and even earlier in Palestine, a number of great religious and philosophical systems had evolved. Jews, Greeks, Indians, and Chinese learned from such remarkable thinkers as the Hebrew prophets, Socrates, Gautama Buddha, and Confucius. What made these beliefs so appealing and durable? The primary function of religions and philosophies is to explain the meaning of human life and death and to find order in the universe. Religion and philosophy follow different paths and answer somewhat different needs. Religions demand faith and offer supernatural explanations for the human condition in this life and beyond. Philosophies, on the other hand, are concerned with existing life and society and seek explanations through rational inquiry. Many religions and philosophies competed for allegiance, and in the crucible of time only the most useful and appealing survived. For example, in China the era between 600 and 300 B.CE. is called the "Hundred Schools" out of this competition Confucianism eventual1y emerged triumphant. Most early humans were awed by inexplicable occurrences in life and nature. They could not account for such rhythms of nature as the rising and setting of the sun and the cycle of the seasons; for meteorological events or for the mystery of birth, aging and death. Unable to explain these events people attributed them to supernatural powers. The belief that there was a power or powers beyond human control caused fear and anxiety and aroused the desire to ensure right relations with that power. The belief systems described here tried to assuage or lessen the anxieties that earlier faiths had failed to dispel. The great religions provided a sense of harmony and spiritual well-being by spelling out the terms for a right relationship with the divine. They taught their adherents to visualize the divine power as a person-for example, Buddha, Vishnu, and Yahweh-amenable to the supplications of human beings. The faithful believed they could communicate with the deity by prayer and ritual to ensure harmony and good fortune. The Jews, for example, codified their relationship with Yahweh through a covenant or pact. In return for obedience to him, Yahweh promised his worshipers prosperity and protection. Greek philosophy and Confucian teaching, on the other hand, stressed universal patterns that could be grasped by human reason and understanding. Early Greek philosopher-scientists sought to explain the mystery of the universe and its workings by observation and rational analysis rather than through supernatural explanations. A knowledge of these patterns would allow people to order their lives in accord with them. The major religions and philosophies survived because they offered codes of conduct and provided workable ethical bases for society. Their teachings were eventual1y codified in authoritative scriptures or canons. The Hebrew Scriptures, the Buddhist canons, the Confucian Classics, the Taoist Tao-te Ching, and the Hindu Upanishads are among such guidebooks for right living. Although no Greek philosophical text attained the status of a sacred book, Greek philosophers were also concerned with questions of ethical conduct, in part because they found that traditional Greek religion lacked moral consistency. The lasting Greek contribution was thus not a code of religious beliefs, but rather a conviction that human reason, exercised in careful observation and logical argumentation might discover the laws that both govern the order of nature (physics) and provide the key for right living (ethics). In summary, these religious and philosophical systems gave the men and women who embraced them a strong sense of security and purpose, and they provided effective guidance for a meaningful existence. Further, each system contained a distinctive mixture of precepts and ethical principles that exerted an especially powerful psychological attraction on its adherents. We may ask why so many great belief systems arose across two continents in the same general time span. There is no definitive answer to this question. During this period, however, India, China, Greece and Palestine all experienced profound social, economic, and political changes. These changes and the insecurities they generated stimulated philosophers and

religious leaders to revise old, no-longer-sufficient philosophical and religious systems or to develop new ones. The resulting combinations of beliefs, practices and perspectives obviously met very basic psychological and spiritual needs. Along with two later religions, Christianity and Islam, which shared many of the same characteristics as those discussed here, these belief systems continue to be profoundly influential down to the present day.

Judaism by Jiu-Hw Upshur

The religious history of ancient Israel is important out of all proportion to its political history. The various conquerors of Israel and Judah inflicted massacres, destroyed cities and sanctuaries, and sent many into the misery of exile. Whatever their condition, however, the Jews gradually managed to formulate and cling to a monotheistic religious tradition that differed notably from the polytheisms of Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China. For this monotheism we have the evidence of a truly remarkable body of literature, the Tanakh (the Holy Scriptures, the first five books of which are called the Torah), known to Christians as the Old Testament. These writings comprise two-thirds of the Bible (Greek biblos) that has codified Judeo-Christian tradition through out Western civilization. Tanakh is both a religious text and a rich work of literature. It is unique among west Asian documents in giving such a thorough description of its composers' early history and in relating that history to a particular system of religious beliefs. The most distinctive aspect of those beliefs is monotheism. Hebrew monotheism was characterized by an elaborate code of moral behavior. Unlike the gods of the west Asian and later Greco-Roman polytheism, the Hebrew God presented men and women with a consistent code of morality and dictated a covenant under which humans would be rewarded for abiding by that code. The Ten Commandments of the Book of Exodus (20: 1-17) are only its essence: Orthodox Judaism contains 613 commandments in the Law. By contrast, the gods of Egypt and Mesopotamia set out no coherently formulated standards of behavior. Whatever ethical imperatives these deities stood for were vague and subject to suspension or cancellation. Thus mortals, even a hero like Gilgamesh, suffered from a deep-seated insecurity, often finding themselves in the double bind of being punished by one god for obeying another. Sometimes, like the polytheistic deities, the Lord God could be vengeful and jealous as well as paternally nurturing. His ways could be hard to fathom, as in the story of the wealthy and virtuous hero of Tanakh's Book of Job, who is overwhelmed by terrible misfortunes that he seems not to deserve. Nevertheless, Judaism normally furnished its followers with a comprehensive code of ethics by which to live their lives. It offered the assurance that the supreme creator looked on human beings as intrinsically valuable, not as mere playthings of the deities. Neither the Greeks nor the Romans, despite their emphasis on the potentials and achievements of humankind, were to formulate a theology that so emphasized the worth of every individual in the eyes of God. Despite their code, the Jews, both individually and as a nation, broke the Law and disobeyed their God over and over in scriptural accounts. Moreover, in evolving their monotheistic religion, the Israelites were not insulated from the religious influences of their West Asian neighbors. Elijah, for example, had to prove to his people the superiority of their God to the Canaanite god Baal. Other prophets, like Amos, chastised the Jews for their shortcomings and, like Jeremiah, foresaw the coming of divine punishment in the guise of Babylonian conquest. During the exile in Babylon (586-539 B.C.E.), the "second Isaiah" and Ezekiel sang the praises of the one God and of his chosen people, urging repentance and holding out hope for a return to the promised land and a restoration of the temple at Jerusalem. The canonical (official) books of Tanakh were assembled between 400 and about 150 B.C.E. and constitute one of the most influential legacies of ancient West Asia. In religious thought, the Hebrews far outstripped their materially more fortunate neighbors. Judaism was to survive as a tremendously influential world religion, both in and of itself and as a major element in the evolution of Christianity and Islam. by Jerry Bentley From its earliest days Buddhism attracted merchants, artisans, and others of low rank in the traditional Indian social order. Its appeal was due both to its disregard for social classes and to its concern for ethical behavior instead of complicated ceremonies that seemed increasingly irrelevant to the lives and experiences of most people. Yet even though it vastly simplified religious observances, early Buddhism made heavy demands on individuals seeking to escape from the cycle of incarnation. A truly righteous existence involved considerable sacrifice: giving up personal property, forsaking the search for social standing, and resolutely detaching oneself from the charms of family and the world. The earliest Buddhists thought that numerous physical incarnations, stretching over thousands of years, might be necessary before an individual soul would become pure enough to achieve salvation and pass into nirvana. While perhaps more attractive than the religion of the Brahmins, Buddhism did not promise to make life easy for its adherents. Between the third century B.C.E. and the first century C.E., however, three new developments in Buddhist thought and practice reduced obligations of believers, opened new avenues to salvation, and brought explosive popularity to the faith. In the first place, whereas the Buddha had not considered himself divine, some of his later followers began to worship him as a god.

Mahayana Buddhism

Thus Buddhism acquired a devotional focus that helped converts channel their spiritual energies and identify more closely with their faith. In the second place, theologians articulated the notion of the Boddhisatva ("an enlightened being"). Boddhisatvas were individuals who had reached spiritual perfection and merited the reward of nirvana, but who intentionally delayed their entry into nirvana in order to help others who were still struggling. Some theologians taught that Boddhisatvas could even perform good deeds on behalf of their less spiritually inclined brethren. Like Christian saints, Boddhisatvas served as examples of spiritual excellence, and they provided a source of inspiration. Finally, Buddhist monasteries began to accept gifts from wealthy individuals and to regard the bequests as acts of generosity that merited salvation. Thus wealthy individuals could enjoy the comforts of the world, avoid the sacrifices demanded by early Buddhist teachings, and still ensure their salvation. Since these innovations opened the road to salvation for large numbers of people, their proponents called their faith the Mahayana ("the greater vehicle," which could carry more people to salvation), as opposed to the Hinayana ("the lesser vehicle"), a pejorative term for the earlier and stricter doctrine known also as Theravada Buddhism. During the early centuries C.E., Mahayana Buddhism spread rapidly throughout India and attracted many converts from lay and wealthy classes. In later centuries Mahayana Buddhism became established also in central Asia, China, Japan, and Korea. The stricter Theravada faith did not disappear: it remained the dominant school of Buddhism in Ceylon, and in later centuries it spread also to Burma, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia. Since the first century C.E., however, most of the world's Buddhists have sought to ride the greater vehicle to salvation. Mahayana Buddhism flourished partly because of educational institutions that efficiently promoted the faith. During the Vedic era Indian education was mostly an informal affair involving a sage and his students. When Jainists and Buddhists organized monasteries, however, they began to offer regular instruction and established educational institutions. Most monasteries provided basic education, and larger communities offered advanced instruction as well. Best known of all was the Buddhist monastery at Nalanda, founded during the Gupta dynasty in the Ganges River valley near Pataliputra. At Nalanda it was possible to study not only Buddhism but also the Vedas, Hindu philosophy, logic, and medicine. Nalanda soon became so famous as an educational center that pilgrims and students from foreign lands traveled there to study with the most renowned masters of Buddhist doctrine. By the end of the Gupta dynasty, several thousand students may have been in residence there.

The Emergence of Popular Hinduism

As Buddhism generated new ideas and increased its popularity, Hinduism underwent a similar evolution that transformed it into a popular religion of salvation. While drawing inspiration from the Vedas and Upanishads, popular Hinduism increasingly departed from the older traditions of the Brahmins. As in the case of Mahayana Buddhism, changes in doctrine and observances resulted in a faith that addressed the interests and met the needs of ordinary people. Hindu ethics thus differed considerably from those of earlier Indian moralists. The Upanishads had taught that only through renunciation and detachment from the world could individuals escape the cycle of incarnation. As represented in the Bhagavad Gita, however, Hindu ethical teachings made life much easier for the lay masses by holding out the promise of salvation precisely to those who participated actively in the world and met their caste responsibilities. To be sure, Krishna taught that individuals should meet their responsibilities in detached fashion: they should not become personally or emotionally involved in their actions, and they especially should not strive for material reward or recognition. Rather, they should perform their duties faithfully, concentrating on their actions alone, with no thought as to their consequences. In other works early Hindu moralists acknowledged even more openly than did the Bhagavad Gita that individuals could lead honorable lives in the world. Indeed, Hindu ethics commonly recognized four principal aims of human life: obedience to religious and moral laws (dharma) the pursuit of economic well-being and honest prosperity (artha) the enjoyment of social, physical, and sexual pleasure (kama), and the salvation of the soul (moksha). According to Hindu moral precepts, a proper balance of dharma, artha, and kama would help an individual to attain moksha. As devotional Hinduism evolved and became increasingly distinct from the teachings of the Upanishads and the older traditions of the Brahmins, it also enhanced its appeal to all segments of Indian society. Hinduism offered salvation to masses of people who, as a matter of practical necessity, had to lead active lives in the world and thus could not even hope to achieve the detachment envisioned in the Upanishads. Hinduism gradually displaced Buddhism as the most popular religion in India. Buddhism remained strong through much of the first millennium C.E., and until about the eighth century pilgrims traveled to India from as far away as China to visit the holy sites of Buddhism and learn about the faith in its original homeland. Within India itself, however, Buddhism grew remote from the popular masses. Later Buddhist monks did not seek to communicate their message to the larger society in the zealous way of their predecessors, but increasingly confined themselves to the comforts of monasteries richly endowed by wealthy patrons. Meanwhile, devotional Hinduism also attracted political support and patronage, most notably from the Gupta emperors. The Gupta and their successors bestowed grants of land on Hindu Brahmins and supported an educational system that promoted Hindu values. Just as Ashoka Maurya had advanced the cause of Buddhism, the Gupta and their successors later helped Hinduism become the dominant religious and cultural tradition in India. By about 1000 C.E., Buddhism had entered a noticeable decline in India while Hinduism grew in popularity. Within a few centuries devotional Hinduism and the more recently introduced faith of Islam almost completely eclipsed Buddhism in its homeland.

In Search of Political and Social Order by Jerry Bentley Confucianism

The late centuries of the Zhou dynasty brought political confusion to China and led eventually to the chaos associated with the Period of the Warring States (403-221 B.C.E.). During those same centuries, however, there also took place a remarkable cultural flowering that left a permanent mark on Chinese history. In a way political turmoil helps to explain the cultural creativity of the late Zhou dynasty and the Period of the Warring States because it forced thoughtful people to reflect on the nature of society and the proper roles of human beings in society. Some sought to identify principles that would restore political and social order. Others concerned themselves with a search for individual tranquility apart from society. Three schools of thought that emerged during those centuries of confusion and chaos were Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism. These exercised a particularly deep influence on Chinese political and cultural traditions. Confucius's thought was fundamentally moral, ethical, and political in character. It was also thoroughly practical: Confucius did not address abstruse philosophical questions, because he thought they would not help to solve the political and social problems of his day. Nor did he deal with religious questions, because he thought they went beyond the capacity of mortal human intelligence. He did not even concern himself much with the structure of the state; because he thought political and social harmony arose from the proper ordering of human relationships rather than the establishment of state offices. In an age when bureaucratic institutions were not yet well developed, Confucius believed that the best way to promote good government was to fill official positions with individuals who were both well educated and extraordinarily conscientious. Thus Confucius concentrated on the formation of what he called junzi ("superior individuals") who took a broad view of public affairs and did not allow personal interests to influence their judgments. For Confucius, though, an advanced education represented only a part of the preparation needed by the ideal government official. More important than formal learning was the possession of a strong sense of moral integrity and a capacity to deliver wise and fair judgments. Thus Confucius encouraged his students to cultivate high ethical standards and to hone their faculties of analysis and judgment. Confucius emphasized several qualities in particular. One of them he called ren, by which he meant an attitude of kindness and benevolence or a sense of humanity. Confucius explained that individuals possessing ren were courteous, respectful, diligent, and loyal, and he considered ren a characteristic desperately needed in government officials. Another quality of central importance was li, a sense of propriety, which called for individuals to behave in conventionally appropriate fashion: they should treat all other human beings with courtesy, while showing special respect and deference to elders or superiors. Yet another quality that Confucius emphasized was xiao, filial piety, which reflected the high significance of the family in Chinese society. The demands of filial piety obliged children to respect their parents and other family elders, look after their welfare, support them in old age, and remember them along with other ancestors after their deaths. Confucius emphasized personal qualities like ren, li, and xiao because he believed that individuals who possessed these traits would gain influence in the larger society. Those who disciplined themselves and properly molded their own characters would not only possess personal self-control but also have the power of leading others by example. Only through enlightened leadership by morally strong individuals, Confucius believed, was there any hope for the restoration of political and social order in China. Thus his goal was not simply the cultivation of personal morality for its own sake, but rather the creation of junzi who could bring order and stability to China. Because Confucius expressed his thought in general terms, later disciples could adapt it to the particular problems of their times. Indeed, the flexibility of Confucian thought helps to account for its remarkable longevity and influence in China. Two later disciples of Confucius-Mencius and Xunzi -illustrate especially well the ways in which Confucian thought lent itself to elaboration and adaptation. Like Confucius and Mencius, however, Xunzi also believed that it was possible to improve human beings and restore order to society. This fundamental optimism was a basic characteristic of Confucian thought. It explains the high value that Confucian thinkers placed on education and public behavior, and it accounts also for their activist approach to public affairs. Confucians involved themselves in society: they sought government positions and made conscientious efforts to solve political and social problems and to promote harmony in public life. By no means, however, did the Confucians win universal praise for their efforts: to some of their contemporaries, Confucian activism represented little more than misspent energy.

Daoism
The Daoists were the most prominent critics of Confucian activism. Like Confucianism, Daoist thought developed in response to the turbulence of the late Zhou dynasty and the Period of the Warring States. But unlike the Confucians, the Daoists considered it pointless to waste time and energy on problems that defied solution. Instead of Confucian social activism, the Daoists devoted their energies to reflection and introspection, in hopes that they could understand the natural principles that governed the world and could learn how to live in harmony with them. The Daoists believed that over a long term, this approach would bring harmony to society as a whole, as people ceased to meddle in affairs that they could not understand or control.

Women and Religion The Development of Patriarchal Society

Men dominated Aryan society already at the time of the migrations into India. All warriors, priests, and tribal chiefs

were men; and the Aryans recognized descent through the male line. Women influenced affairs within their own families but enjoyed no public authority. As the Aryans settled in agricultural communities throughout India, they maintained a thoroughly patriarchal society. Only males could inherit property, unless a family had no male heirs, and only men could preside over family rituals that honored departed ancestors. Since they had no priestly responsibilities, women rarely learned the Vedas, and formal education in Sanskrit remained almost exclusively a male preserve. The patriarchal spokesmen of Vedic society sought to place women explicitly under the authority of men. During the first century B.C.E. or perhaps somewhat later, an anonymous sage prepared a work and attributed it to Manu, founder of the human race according to Indian mythology. Much of the work, known as the Lawbook of Manu, dealt with proper moral behavior and. social relationships, including sex and gender relationships. Although composed after the Vedic age, the Lawbook of Manu reflected the society constructed earlier under Aryan influence. The author advised men to treat women with honor and respect, but he insisted that women remain subject to the guidance of the principal men in their lives-first their fathers, then their husbands, and finally, if they survived their husbands, their sons. The Lawbook also specified that the most important duties of women were to bear children and maintain wholesome homes for their families. Thus, like Mesopotamian, Egypt and other early agricultural societies, Vedic India constructed and maintained a deeply patriarchal social order. One Indian custom demonstrated in especially dramatic fashion the dependence of women on their men, the practice of sati (sometimes spelled suttee), by which a widow voluntarily threw herself on the funeral pyre of her deceased husband to join him in death. Although widows occasionally entered the fires during the Vedic age and in later centuries, sati never became a popular or widely practiced custom in India. Nevertheless, moralists often recommended sati for widows of socially prominent men, since their example would effectively illustrate the devotion of women to their husbands and reinforce the value that Indian society p1aced on the subordination of women.

The Buddhist Challenge by Peter Stearns

Many philosopher-ascetics criticized the religious beliefs and caste system that the Brahmans had established. But none was as successful at winning converts as the Buddha and the many monastic orders committed to his teachings. The monks and monastic organizations provided a viable alternative to the Brahman priesthood as centers of scholarship, education, and religious ritual, and often directly opposed the beliefs that the Brahmans championed. Although the Buddha retained the ideas of karma and reincarnation, he rejected the Vedas as divinely inspired teachings that ought to be accepted as the ultimate authority on all issues. He ridiculed the powers the Brahmans claimed for their sacrifices and the gods for whom they were intended. He favored introspection and selfmastery over ritual. In so doing, he struck at the very heart of the Brahmans' social and religious dominance. The Buddha rejected the lifestyles of both the Brahmans who had become addicted to worldly power and the Brahman ascetics who practiced extreme forms of bodily mortification. He tried to do away with the caste system, an aim that gave his teachings great appeal among the untouchables and other groups. The Buddha also accepted women as his followers and taught that they were capable of attaining nirvana. These opportunities were institutionalized in Buddhist monastic organizations, which normally included provisions for communities of nuns. The evidence we have suggests that monastic life became a fulfilling career for women in many parts of India. This outlet proved doubly meaningful in an era when educational and other occupational opportunities for women were declining, and upper-caste women in particular were increasingly confined to the home. Thus, in virtually all spheres of life, from religious worship to social organization, Buddhism offered revolutionary challenges to the longestablished Brahmanic order.

Women in Classical China by Pan Chao

From Nancy Lee Swann, Pan Chao. "Lessons for Women," In Pan Chao: Foremost Woman Scho1ar of China (NewYork: The Century Co.. 1932), pp, 82-87, Reprint permission granted by the American Historical Association. Pan Chao (ca. 45-120 C.E.), China's foremost woman scholar," served unofficially as imperial historian to Emperor Ho (89-105 C.E.) while acting as an instructor in history, classical writing astronomy, and mathematics to the Empress Teng and her ladies-in-waiting. Summoned to complete the historical books (Han Shu) of her deceased brother, Ku, the scholarly and talented widow is the only woman in China to have served in that capacity. Her success in overcoming contemporary restraints on women was due to an exceptional education, which she attributed to her scholarly parents. As a historian, moralist, and royal servant, Pan Chao wrote numerous literary works, including narrative poems, commemorative verses, eulogies and her famous Lessons for Women. This brief educational treatise, written expressly for women, and the first of its kind in world history, offers interesting insights into the Chinese perceptions of the ideal woman as well as first-century Chinese customs. It contains advice in matters of customs and manners for girls in her family so that they might not humiliate both your ancestors and your clan." Pan Chao's manual was the most successful and durable advice book for women In Chinese history, helping to support a firmly patriarchal gender system. The book was reprinted and widely used through the nineteenth century. Introduction I, the unworthy writer, am unsophisticated, unenlightened, and by nature unintelligent, but I am fortunate both to have received not a little favor from my scholarly father, and to have had a (cultured) mother and instructresses upon whom to rely for a literary education as well as for training in good manners. More than forty rears have passed since at the age of fourteen I took up the dustpan and the broom in the Tsao family. During this time with trembling heart I feared constantly that I might disgrace my parents, and that I might multiply difficulties for both the women and the men (of my husband's family). Day and night I was distressed in heart, (but) I labored without confessing weariness. Now and hereafter, however, I know how to escape (from such fears). Being careless, and by nature stupid, I taught and trained (my children) without system. Consequently I fear that my son Ku may bring disgrace upon the Imperial Dynasty by whose Holy Grace he has unprecedentedly received the extraordinary privilege of wearing the Gold and the Purple, a privilege for the attainment of which (by my son, I) a humble subject never even hoped. Nevertheless, now that he is a man and able to plan his own life, I need not again have concern for him. But I do grieve that you, my daughters, just now at the age for marriage, have not at this time had gradual training and advice; that you still have' not learned the proper customs for married women. I fear that by failure in good manners in other families you will humiliate both your ancestors and your clan. I am now seriously ill, life is uncertain. As I have thought of you all in so untrained a state, I have been uneasy many a time for you. At hours of leisure I have composed in seven chapters these instructions under the title, "Lessons for Women." In order that you may have something wherewith to benefit your persons, I wish every one of you, my daughters, each to write out a copy for yourself. From this time on every one of you strive to practice these (lessons). Chapter I: Humility On the third day after the birth of a girl the ancients observed three customs: (first) to place the baby below the bed; (second) to give her a potsherd with which to play; and (third) to announce her birth to her ancestors by an offering. Now to lay the baby below the bed plainly indicated that she is lowly and weak, and should regard it as her primary duty to humble herself before others. To give her potsherds with which to play indubitably signified that she should practice labor and consider it her primary duty to be industrious. To announce her birth before her ancestors clearly meant that she ought to esteem as her primary duty the continuation of the observance of worship in the home. These three ancient customs epitomize a woman's ordinary way of life and the teachings of the traditional ceremonial rites and regulations. Let a woman modestly yield to others; let her respect others; let her put others first, herself last. Should she do something good, let her not mention it; should she do something bad, let her not deny it. Let her bear disgrace; let her even endure when others speak or do evil to her. Always let her seem to

tremble and to fear. (When a woman follows such maxims as these,) then she may be said to humble herself before others. Let a woman retire late to bed, but rise early to duties; let her not dread tasks by day or by night. Let her not refuse to perform domestic duties whether easy or difficult. That which must be done, let her finish completely, tidily, and systematically. (When a woman follows such rules as these,) then she may be said to be industrious. Let a woman be correct in manner and upright in character in order to serve her husband. Let her live in purity and quietness (of spirit), and attend to her own affairs. Let her love not gossip and silly laughter. Let her cleanse and purify and arrange in order the wine and the food for the offerings to the ancestors. (When a woman observes such principles as these,) then she may be said to continue ancestral worship. No woman who observes these three (fundamentals of life) has ever had a bad reputation or has fallen into disgrace. If a woman fails to observe them, how can her name be honored; how can she but bring disgrace upon herself? Chapter II: Husband and Wife The Way of husband and wife is intimately connected with Yin and Yang, and relates the individual to gods and ancestors. Truly it is the great principle of Heaven and Earth, and the great basis of human relationships. Therefore the "Rites" honor union of man and woman; and in the "Book of Poetry" the "First Ode" manifests the principle of marriage. For these reasons the relationship cannot but be an important one. If a husband be unworthy then he possesses nothing by which to control his wife. If a wife be unworthy, then she possesses nothing with which to serve her husband. If a husband does not control his wife, then the rules of conduct manifesting his authority are abandoned and broken. If a wife does not serve her husband, then the proper relationship (between men and women) and the natural order of things are neglected and destroyed. As a matter of fact the purpose of these two (the controlling of women by men, and the serving of men by women) is the same. Now examine the gentlemen of the present age. They only know that wives must be controlled, and that the husband's rules of conduct manifesting his authority must be established. They therefore teach their boys to read books and (study) histories. But they do not in the least understand that husbands and masters must (also) be served, and that the proper relationship and the rites should be maintained. Yet only to teach men and not to teach women,--is that not ignoring the essential relation between them? According to the "Rites," it is the rule to begin to teach children to read at the age of eight years, and by the age of fifteen years they ought then to be ready for cultural training. Only why should it not be (that girls' education as well as boys' be) according to this principle? Chapter III: Respect and Caution As Yin and Yang are not of the same nature, so man and woman have different characteristics. The distinctive quality of the Yang is rigidity; the function of the yin is yielding. Man is honored for strength; a woman is beautiful on account of her gentleness. Hence there arose the common saying: "A man though born like a wolf may, it is feared, become a weak monstrosity; a woman though born like a mouse may, it is feared, become a tiger." Now for self-cu1ture nothing equals respect for others. To counteract firmness nothing equals compliance. Consequently it can be said that the way of respect and acquiescence is woman's most important principle of conduct. So respect may be defined as nothing other than holding on to that which is permanent; and acquiescence nothing other than being liberal and generous. Those who are steadfast in devotion know that they should stay in their proper places; those who are liberal and generous esteem others, and honor and serve (them). If husband and wife have the habit of staying together, never leaving one another, and following each other around within the limited space of their own rooms, then they will lust after and take liberties with one another. From such action improper language will arise between the two. This kind of discussion may lead to licentiousness. Out of licentiousness will be born a heart of disrespect to the husband. Such a result comes from not knowing that one should stay in one's proper place. Furthermore, affairs may be either crooked or straight; words may be either right or wrong. Straightforwardness cannot but lead to quarreling; crookedness cannot but lead to accusation. If there are really accusations and quarrels, then undoubtedly there will be angry affairs. Such a result comes from not esteeming others, and not honoring and serving (them). (If wives) suppress not contempt for husbands, then it follows (that such wives) rebuke and scold (their husbands). (If husbands) stop not short of anger, then they are certain to beat (their wives). The correct relationship

between husband and wife is based upon harmony and intimacy, and (conjugal) love is grounded in proper union. Should actual blows be dealt, how could matrimonial relationship be preserved? Should sharp words be spoken, how could (conjugal) love exist? If love and proper relationship both be destroyed, then husband and wife are divided. Chapter IV: Womanly Qualifications A woman (ought to) have four qualifications: (1) womanly virtue; (2) womanly words; (3) womanly bearing; and (4) womanly work. Now what is called womanly virtue need not be brilliant ability, exceptionally different from others. Womanly words need be neither clever in debate nor keen in conversation. Womanly appearance requires neither a pretty nor a perfect face and form. Womanly work need not be work done more skillfully than that of others. To guard carefully her chastity; to control circumspectly her behavior, in every motion to exhibit modesty; and to model each act on the best usage, this is womanly virtue. To choose her words with care; to avoid vu1gar language; to speak at appropriate times; and not to weary others (with much conversation), may be called the characteristics of womanly words. To wash and scrub filth away; to keep clothes and ornaments fresh and clean; to wash the head and bathe the body regularly, and to keep the person free from disgraceful filth, may be called the characteristics of womanly bearing. With whole-hearted devotion to sew and to weave; to love not gossip and silly laughter; in cleanliness and order (to prepare) the wine and food for serving guests, may be called the characteristics of womanly work. These four qualifications characterize the greatest virtue of a woman. No woman can afford to be without them. In fact they are very easy to possess if a woman only treasure them in her, heart. The ancients had a saying: ""Is Love afar off? If I desire love, then love is at hand!" So can it be said of these qualifications. Chapter V: Whole-Hearted Devotion Now in the "Rites" is written the principle that a husband may marry again, but there is no canon that authorizes a woman to be married the second time. Therefore it is said of husbands as of Heaven, that as certainly as people cannot run away from Heaven, so surely a wife cannot leave (a husband's home). If people in action or character disobey the spirits of Heaven and of Earth, then Heaven punishes them. Likewise if a woman errs in the rites and in the proper mode of conduct, then her husband esteems her lightly. The ancient book, "A Pattern for Women," . . . says: "To obtain the love of one man is the crown of a woman's life; to lose the love of one man is to miss the aim in woman's life. For these reasons a woman cannot but seek to win her husband's heart. Nevertheless, the beseeching wife need not use flattery, coaxing words, and cheap methods to gain intimacy. Decidedly nothing is better (to gain the heart of a husband) than wholehearted devotion and correct manners. In accordance with the rites and the proper mode of conduct, (let a woman) live a pure life. Let her have ears that hear not licentiousness; and eyes that see not depravity. When she goes outside her own home, let her not be conspicuous in dress and manners. When at home let her not neglect her dress. Women should not assemble in groups, nor gather together (for gossip and silly laughter). They should not stand watching in the gateways. (If a woman follows) these rules, she may be said to have whole-hearted devotion and correct manners, If, in all her actions, she is frivolous, she sees and hears (only) that which pleases herself. At home her hair is disheveled and her dress is slovenly. Outside the home she emphasizes her femininity to attract attention; she says what ought not to be said; and she looks at what ought not to be seen. (If a woman does such as) these, (she may be) said to be without whole-hearted devotion and correct manners.

Greek Thought: Creativity in Greek and Hellenistic Culture by Peter Stearns

:: The genius of Greek civilization lay more obviously in various facets of culture than in politics. It was Greek culture that made the most lasting contributions of this civilization to the Mediterranean world, particularly in art and philosophy, and that served as the key linkage in the larger Hellenistic orbit of Alexander. Religion, Philosophy, and Science The Greeks did not create a major religion, and in this they differed from India and China. Greek ideas ultimately influenced great religions, particularly Christianity and to some degree Islam, but this came later. The characteristic Greek religion was derived from belief in the spirits of nature, elevated into a complex set of gods and goddesses who were seen as interfering in human life. The Greeks had a creator or father god, Zeus, who presided over an unruly assemblage of divinities whose functions ranged from regulating the daily passage of the sun (Apollo) or the oceans (Poseidon) to inspiring war or human love and beauty. Specific gods patronized other human activities such as metalworking, hunting, literature, and history. Regular ceremonies to the gods had real political importance, and many people sought the gods' aid in foretelling the future or ensuring a good harvest or good health. Stories of the gods' activities provided rich entertainment and could drive home lessons about appropriate moral behavior, including courage and humility. Homeric poets portrayed the Trojan War as guided by gods and goddesses in conflict, overseeing the struggle of mere mortals: "Thus the happy gods greatly augmented the clash of battle and made bitter strife break out everywhere." This religion, passed down from earlier Indo-European experience, served many human needs and cemented community loyalties. However, it was nor intensely spiritual. Interestingly, the basic Indo-European pantheon of gods was the same as that brought to India, which in both cases assumed human form. However, the Greek religion differed considerably from the more other-worldly Indian one. Greek religion tended toward a human-centered, worldly approach. Stories of the gods allowed illustration of human qualities, rather like large-scale soap operas; the gods could be jealous, sneaky, lustful, and powerful. Greek religion, like the Indian religion, helped engender an important literary tradition. In both religions, the gods provided good stories or served as vehicles for deeper inquiry into human passions and weaknesses. Greek gods were considered mainly in terms of what they could do for humankind and what they could reveal about human nature, rather than as representations of higher planes of spirituality or a divine experience. Greek religion also had social limitations. Its lack of spiritual passion failed to satisfy many ordinary workers and peasants, particularly when times were hard because of political chaos or economic distress. Popular "mystery" religions, which had more exciting rituals and promised greater spiritual insight, often swept through Greece with their secret ceremonies, a strong sense of fellowship, and greater focus on divine powers. The importance of mystery religions to some extent paralleled the role of Daoism in providing a contrast to more politically directed religion or philosophy, although none of the mystery religions won the currency or durability of Daoism in China. The limitations of Greek religion also left many literate and educated people dissatisfied. The religion provided stories about how the world came to be but little basis for systematic inquiry into nature or human society. Although the dominant religion promoted political loyalty, it did not provide an elaborate basis for ethical thought. Hence, from at least the 6th century onward, many Greek thinkers attempted to generate philosophical systems that were separate from a primarily religious base. Their work also reflected the challenge of new contacts with Persian and other Middle Eastern cultural systems. The resultant attempt to understand humankind, society, and nature by rational observation and deduction became one of the hallmarks of Greek and Hellenistic culture. The approach was similar to that of Confucianism in China, but it had different specifics and a different and wider-ranging scope. Many thinkers sought to generate ethical systems on the basis of rational definitions of right and wrong and some sense of the purpose of life on earth. Socrates (born in 465 B.C.E. and the tutor of Plato, who in turn would teach the philosopher Aristotle) urged people to consider the bases of right action in terms of rational reflection on goals and consequences. In contrast to earlier Middle Eastern traditions, he thus formulated secular criteria rather than devising rewards and punishments from an otherworldly system. Aristotle, perhaps the most important Greek philosopher, maintained this ethical system by stressing the importance of moderation in human behavior against the instability of political life in Athens and the excesses of the gods. During the Hellenistic period, other ethical systems were devised. A group called the Stoics emphasized an inner moral independence, to be cultivated by strict discipline of the body and personal bravery. These ethical systems were major contributions in their own right, attracting many disciples and generating much literary debate; they were later blended with Christian religious thought. Greek philosophy devoted much attention to defining appropriate political structures-not surprisingly, given the various Greek constitutional systems. The Athenian philosopher Plato, in the 5th century, devised an ideal government structure in which philosophers would rule. Most Greek political theory stressed the importance of balance between aristocratic principles and some popular contribution. Again, religious justifications for political behavior were played down in favor of utility or more general definitions of justice. It was in this vein that philosophers such as Aristotle discussed social topics such as slavery and the conditions of women, providing vigorous defenses for the inevitability and usefulness of slavery and for family Structures that

assumed women's inferiority. A philosophy separate from official religion, though not necessarily hostile to it, also placed considerable emphasis on the powers of human thought. In Athens, Socrates encouraged his pupils to question received wisdom on the ground that the chief human duty was "the improvement of the soul." Socrates himself ran afoul of the Athenian government in the aftermath of the Peloponnesian War, for he seemed to be undermining political loyalty with his constant questions. But the Socratic principle of thinking things through by means of skeptical questioning, rather than assuming on the basis of authority or faith, became a recurrent strand in classical Greek thinking. Socrates' great pupil, Plato, suggested that human reason could approach an understanding of the perfect forms-the absolutely True, Good" and Beautiful-that he believed underlie nature. Greek interest in rationality carried over to the underlying order of physical nature. The Greeks were not great scientists compared with the classical Chinese. Few new scientific findings came from Athens, although philosophers such as Aristotle collected large amounts of biological data. The Greek interest lay in speculation about nature's order, and many non-Westerners believe that this tradition continues to inform what they see as an excessive Western passion for seeking order in the universe. Greek belief in rational theorizing produced widespread philosophical commitment to a scientific method that combined some observations with general concepts. In practice, the Greek concern translated into theories about the motions of the planers and the organization of the elemental principles of earth, fire, air, and water, and into a great interest in mathematics as a means of understanding natures patterns. Greek and later Hellenistic work in geometry was impressive, featuring the basic theorems of Pythagoras and Euclid's geometry. Scientists in the Hellenistic period made some important contributions, especially in studies of anatomy; medical writings by Galen were not improved upon in the Western world for many centuries. The Hellenistic astronomer Ptolemy formalized an elaborate theory of the sun's motion around a stationary earth; this new Hellenistic theory contradicted much earlier Middle Eastern astronomy, which had recognized the earth's rotation. The idea of an earth-centered universe seemed to explain many observed phenomena, including eclipses, and this fact along with the reputation of Greek science ensured that Ptolemy's theory was long taken as fixed wisdom in Western thought. Other Hellenistic scientists added more constructively to the observations about planetary motion. Archimedes (c. 287-212 B.G.E.) wrote about mathematics and the measurement of water power. He devised pulley systems to pump out flooded ships and fields and invented novel kinds of fortifications. Other Hellenistic scientists, dissecting the corpses of criminals, made important discoveries about digestion and the vascular system. Literature and the Visual Arts Despite the importance of the rationalist tradition, science and mathematics were far less important than art and literature in conveying key cultural values in Greek and Hellenistic culture. The official religion inspired artistic expression and justified the creation of temples, statues, and plays devoted to the glories of the gods. But the human-centered qualities of the Greeks also showed .througi1, as artists emphasized realistic portrayals of the human form and poets and playwrights used the gods as vehicles for pondering the human condition. All the arts received attention. Music and dance performances were vital parts of religious festivals, but .their styles have not been preserved. Far more durable was the Greek interest in drama, for plays took a central role in this culture. Greek dramatists worked on both comedy and tragedy, making a formal division between the two that is stil1 part of the Western tradition. (The Document box illustrates the two approaches.) On the whole, the Greeks placed greatest emphasis on tragedy. Their belief in human reason and balance also involved a sense that these virtues were precarious, so that a person could easily be ensnared in situations of powerful emotion and uncontrollable consequences. The Athenian dramatist Sophocles, for example, so insightfully portrayed the psychological flaws of his hero Oedipus that modern psychology long used the term Oedipus complex for potentially tragic attachments between a man and his mother. Another Athenian playwright, Aristophanes, used similar beliefs in the limitations of human experience to produce a sense of comedy, poking fun at human nature. Greek literature contained a strong epic tradition as well, starting with the beautifully crafted tales of the Illiad and the Odyssey. By the: 5th century B.C.E., interest in human affairs led to a new kind of formal historical writing: Herodotus tried to sort out fact from myth in dealing with various Mediterranean cultures, and Thucydides composed a vivid account, of the Peloponnesian War. In the visual arts, the emphasis of classical Mediterranean civilization lay in sculpture, architecture, and ceramics. In Athens's brilliant 5th century B.C.E.-the age of Pericles, Socrates, Sophocles, Aristophanes, and many other intensely creative figures-sculptors such as Phidias developed unprecedented skill in realistic portrayals of the human form, from lovely goddesses to muscled warriors and athletes. Greek architecture, from the 8th century B.C.E. onward, emphasized monumental construction, square or rectangular in shape, with columned porticoes. As the figure shows the Greeks devised three distinct styles for their massive buildings, each more ornate than the last: the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. They invented what Westerners and others in the world today still regard as classical architecture, although the Greeks themselves were influenced by Egyptian and Cretan models. Greece provided abundant stone for ambitious temples, markets, and other public buildings. Many of

these structures were filled with products of the sculptors' workshops. They were also brightly painted, although over the centuries the paint faded so that later imitators came to think of the classical as involving plain stone. Classical Mediterranean art and architecture were intimately linked with the society that produced them. Because of the formal role of classical styles in later societies, it is tempting to attribute a stiffness to Greek art that was not present in the original. Greek structures were built to be used. Temples and marketplaces were part of daily urban life. Classical art was also flexible, according to need. Classical dramas were not merely examples of high art performed in front of a cultural elite. Indeed, Athens lives in the memory of many intellectuals not only because of the creativity of its writers and philosophers but also because of the large audiences for plays by authors such as Sophocles. Thousands of people gathered in the big hillside theaters of Athens and other cities for the new plays and the music and poetry competitions that entertained while honoring the gods. The Principles of Greek Culture Overall, Greek and Hellenistic cultural achievement rested on four major principles. First, the interest in formal political theory, with a strong emphasis on debating the merits of different constitutional structures and assuming that government forms could be planned, obviously reflected the distinctive political atmosphere of Greece. Although Greek politics faced frequent crises, it had a long life and wide influence on later civilizations. Second, art and sculpture glorified human achievement, starting with a celebration of the beauties of the ideal human form, which was used also to represent the gods. Third, drama, philosophy, and art stressed the importance of human striving. Although ethical philosophers stressed moderation, Greeks' fascination with human energy and striving was different from the more consistent restraint urged in secular Chinese thought. Fourth, the philosophical and scientific tradition emphasized the use of logic in understanding the natural world. Greek culture also harbored a tension between the educated elite and the common masses. Plays and other art forms were widely shared. Some great thinkers stemmed from ordinary ranks, such as Socrates, a stonemason by trade. But Greek philosophy was closed to most ordinary people and, unlike in China, there was no particular effort to persuade ordinary people to participate in the values of the elite. Hellenistic Culture During and After Alexander Greek intellectual and artistic life was not a constant. Literature changed considerably between the epic style of Homer and the more controlled dramatic forms of the great Athenian playwrights of the 5th century B.C.E. Similarly, history writing moved away from epic storytelling toward more analytical inquiries into the characteristics of different cultures or (with Thucydides) the causes of major developments such as the Peloponnesian War. In architecture, change was more limited, but there was a tendency to move toward more elaborate decorative motifs over time. Inevitably, the decline of the Greek city-states and the emergence of the larger Hellenistic zone, from the 4th to the 3rd centuries B.C.E., produced still more innovation in the Greek cultural tradition. Literature changed in important ways. Alexandria in Egypt became a dominant center of literary studies, based on a vast Greek library. Older stories and plays were preserved and analyzed. There were also many disputes, some profound and some petty, about the principles of literary excellence. But little new drama was produced. Greek art and sculpture continued to dominate Hellenistic output, and the commercial wealth of the early Hellenistic kingdoms encouraged a vast amount of new building and decoration. Although no new styles emerged, there was some movement toward more sentimental, emotional statuary. Hellenistic intellectuals concentrated on developing new knowledge in science and mathematics. Alexander and the Hellenistic dynasty in Egypt encouraged this work, and the expansion of cultural exchange in the Mediterranean in the Middle East also favored new research. Hellenistic thinkers thus preserved Greek scientific achievements and added significant new elements. Their work provided most of the scientific learning available to the Western world for almost 2000 years, and it also set a durable basis for scientific research in the Middle East and northern Africa. Astronomical charts and maps improved greatly, despite Ptolemy's confusion about the earth as the center of the universe. Geography also improved, and one scientist was able to calculate the circumference of the earth within 200 miles. At the same time, interest in astrology and magic increased.

Summary and Comparison by Jiu-Hw Upshur

This chapter has examined several major cultures that flowered in the first millennium B.C.E. and shared a concern with religion and morals. Soon, new developments in religion and philosophy created revolutions in thought that led to the abandonment or modification of previous traditions in favor of new systems of belief. There had been experiments in the direction of monotheism in Egypt under Akhenaton and Persia in the time of Zoroaster, but these movements had failed to prevail against the established polytheistic religions of the time. In Greece, India, and China, intellectual speculation did not evolve in the direction of monotheism. The Hebrews, therefore, were the originators of the first true monotheistic faith, which proved to be one of the most durable and influential in history. The Hebrew Scriptures are a treasured legacy, whether they are regarded as literature, history, or religious revelation. They assert a covenant with God that both comforts human beings and imposes moral responsibilities. Although the political and military triumphs of the ancient Hebrew state were short-lived and had little impact outside Palestine, the Hebrew people nevertheless made a momentous contribution to the future of the human spirit through their religion. Judaism furnished its followers with an elaborately formulated and self-consistent ethical code. The achievements of the Phoenicians were pragmatic. Their sophisticated ports and expert sailors linked West Asia With distant parts of the Mediterranean. Their sailors and merchants also carried an artifact on which no price could be put--the alphabet. The simplicity of the alphabet compared to the writing systems devised by earlier cultures from Babylon to China made literacy potentially available to more than a tiny minority of scribes and priests. In the archaic period the Greek world rebounded materially and culturally from the Dark Age. Male citizens increasingly participated in the affairs of their city-states. At the beginning of the fifth century, Greeks repelled the threat of absorption into the Persian Empire by standing together in common defense of their city-states. Athens emerged as the preeminent naval power and the leader of a large confederacy of Greek city-states. Pericles broadened the bases of democracy and made Athens a focus of economic and artistic activity. The growth of Athenian power, however, led to the Peloponnesian War and ultimately to the dismantling of the Athenian Empire and the hegemony of Sparta and its allies. Greece was the center of philosophical investigation into the nature of the universe. Greek commitment to the highest intellectual ideals laid the groundwork for subsequent philosophical inquiry. This inclination to rationalistic inquiry also extended to the investigation and recording of past deeds, in short, to the writing of the first histories. Greek literature and art explored the physical and intellectual potential of human beings. Within a century of their invention, both tragedy and comedy reached the highest levels of artistry, thanks to the city-states' commitment of time, energy, and money to cultural activities. In architecture and the figural arts, also, the Greeks delighted in balance and symmetry of structure and put human beings and society at the center of focus. In India during the Late Vedic Age (c. 1000-500 B.C.E.), Aryan culture spread eastward to the Ganges valley and southward to the Deccan Plateau and peninsular India, adapting to contacts with native peoples and experiencing economic transformations. The changes of the Late Vedic Age led many to feel pessimistic about human destiny and to reject the ancient gods, Brahman dominance, and Vedic ritual. One result of these changes was the philosophical writings called the Upanishads, which explained the human experience and the relationship with the ultimate: the changes also led to the formulation of two breakaway religions, Buddhism and Jainism. Each played an important role in the future of India, and Buddhism spread to become a key religion in many parts of Asia. As every new system arises to some degree out of its predecessor, both Buddhism and Jainism were outgrowths of ancient Vedism. Despite some differences, the basic views of Jainism, Buddhism, and orthodox Vedism (and Hinduism, a later outgrowth of Vedism) did not disagree: life was governed by

universal law or dharma, and karma or deeds determined reincarnation with its painful results; as their final goal, all aimed at release, resulting in nirvana. Both of the new faiths, however, denied the validity of the Vedas, the authority of the Brahmans, and the caste system. Similarly, in Greece, Pythagorean teaching about transmigration of souls abandoned traditional religious thinking and offered new, alternative beliefs about the next life Gautama Buddha taught the middle way in his Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path. Many Indians were ready to receive his new teachings. The greater gains of Buddhism compared with Jainism were due to Buddhism's moderation and more attainable lifestyles and especially to the popular doctrine of Mahayana Buddhism. Mahavira, founder of the extremely demanding Jainism, taught a rigorous ethical system that put special emphasis on the ascetic way of life and self-denial. So too, in classical Greece, Socrates sought true knowledge in part by reducing or overriding the physical demands of his body. Just as political and social ferment in India and Greece around 500 B.C.E. had led to important intellectual and religious developments, similarly, in China, the increasing political chaos of the Eastern Chou (771- 256) initiated a period of intellectual turmoil known as the Hundred Schools of philosophy. Most Chinese philosophers dealt with human relationships in this world, as had the Greek Sophists. The only exception was the school known as Taoism, which advocated pacifism, renunciation of civilization, and return to an innocent primitive past. In its advocacy of simplicity and asceticism, Taoism may be likened to Buddhism. This similarity later contributed to the ready acceptance of Buddhism by many Chinese. Like the itinerant Greek Sophists, who sought pupils in different city-states, many Chinese philosophers traveled from state to state and attempted to persuade rulers to accept their point of view. Confucius and his disciples were foremost among these dedicated men; they believed that the practice of morality, family responsibility, and virtuous government would bring about a return to the golden age. Confucians were ridiculed by Taoists who maintained that activism was counterproductive and that the way to achieve peace with oneself was by rising above worldly concerns. Although Confucianism and Taoism later became the twin mainstreams of Chinese thought, Legalism had an immediate impact on the time. Legalism was devoid of morality and ethical content; in fact, the men who devised it had contempt for such values. Legalists were cynics about human nature and the nature of power and were interested only in efficiency and result. Their final goal was an all-powerful state ruled by harsh and impersonal laws. So too was the perfectly just state in Plato's Republic marked by an authoritarianism that rigidly determined all the social, political, military, and educational aspects of life. With Legalism as its guiding ideology, the Ch'in triumphed over the other Warring States and unified China in 221 B.C.E. Between 221 and 206, the Ch'in ruled China ruthlessly and by terror, obliterating many old institutions. As a system of ruling, however, Legalism was intolerable as the speedy collapse of the Ch'in Empire proved. Legalism was never attempted as a state ideology again. All of the major Eurasian civilizations examined in this chapter took great strides in developing important new religious and philosophical systems. All fostered remarkable innovations in religious and ethical thought that had a profound influence on many aspects of life both at the time and in later centuries.